THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
1871
THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
A STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD
glanual for
POLITICIANS AND MERCHANTS
FOE THE YEAR
I87I
BY FEEDEEICK MAETIN
EIGHTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
REVISED AFTEE OFFICIAL U,FTTJE-3STS
loitboit ^ . 0
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1871
The right of Translation and Reproduction is reser-ved
si
$7
{97/
Man sagt oft: Zahlen regieren die Welt.
Das aber ist gewiss, Zahlen zeigen wie sie regiert wird.
Goethe.
LONDON : PBINTED BY
SPOTIISWOODE AND CO., NEW-8TKEET SQUABB
AND PAELIAMENT STBEET
CONTENTS.
Introduction.
CHRONICLE OF THE 'STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK.'
December, 1869— December, 1870
PAGE
xiii
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
Rank of European States, accord-
ing to Area and to Population xxvii
The Great Centres of Population
in Europe and America . xxviii
Density of Population of the
Principal States and Terri-
torial Divisions of the
World .... xxix
The Import Markets of the
United Kingdom — Rank in
1869 and in 1870 .
The Export Markets of the
United Kingdom — Eank in
1869 and 1870
The Mercantile Navies of the
World
Part the First.
THE STATES OF EUROPE.
AUSTRIA:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .
3
Constitution and Govern-
ment of the Empire
6
— — of German Austria .
7
— — of Hungary .
Church and Education
9
11
Revenue and Expenditure
of the Empire
of German Austria
13
14
of Hungary .
16
Army
Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Railways .
Weights and Measures
17
19
21
23
. 25
. 26
Books of Reference .
. 26
BELGIUM :—
Reigning Sovereign anc
Family .
28
Constitution and Govern-
ment
29
Church and Education
32
Revenue and Expenditure
33
Army
35
Area and Population .
36
Trade and Industry .
37
Railways .
39
Weights and Measures
40
Books of Reference .
41
DENMARK:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 42
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 44
CONTENTS.
Denmark : —
Church and Education
Kevenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
Population
Trade and Industry .
Colonies .
Weights and Measures
Books of Eeference .
FRANCE : -
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
Public Debt
Army
Navy
Ironclads .
Area and Population
Trade and Industry
Commercial Marine
Railways .
Colonies .
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
GERMANY:—
Reigning Emperor
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Revenue and Expenditure
Army
Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
States of Germany : —
1. Prussia: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
Army
Area and Population .
Trail' and Industry .
Railways .
45
46
49
51
52
53
53
54
55
56
60
64
65
69
70
75
80
85
86
88
89
90
93
94
97
99
100
104
186
189
190
107
110
114
117
121
123
127
130
2. Bavaria: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . •
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Army and Population
3. Wiirtemberg: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Army and Population
131
133
134
135
136
139
140
141
142
144
4. Saxony : —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . •
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Population
5. Baden : —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Revenue
Army and Population
6. Mecklenburg-Schwerin :—
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Revenue, and
Popidation .
7. Hesse : —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population
8. Oldenburg: —
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population
9. Brunswick: —
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population
10. Saxe-Weimar: —
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population
145
146
147
147
149
150
150
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
101
CONTENTS.
11. Meeklenburg-Strelitz .
12. Saxe-Meiningen
13. Anhalt
14. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .
15. Saxe-Altenburg .
16. Waldeck .
17- Lippe-Detmold .
1 8. Sclrwarzburg-Rudolstadt
19. Selrwarzburg - Sondershau
sen
20. Eeuss-Schleiz .
21. Schaumburg-Lippe
22. Reuss-Greiz
23. Hamburg .
24. Liibeck
25. Bremen
Trade and Commerce : —
The Zollverein .
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference concern
ing Germany .
PAGE
164
165
166
168
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
182
183
186
189
190
GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-
LAND :—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .192
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 195
Church and Education . 209
Revenue and Expendi-
ture . . . .215
Taxation . . . .220
National Debt . . .222
Army . . . .225
Navy . . . .232
Iron-clad Navy . . .236
Population —
England and Wales . 241
Scotland . . . 246
Ireland .... 248
Emigration . . . 254
Commerce and Industry —
Imports and Exports . 256
Shipping . . .262
Textile Industry . . 267
Minerals and Metals . 269
Railways .... 272
Colonial Possessions . . 273
Great Britain : —
Books of Reference —
Official Publications .
Non -official Publications .
GREECE :—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
280
282
283
ment ....
284
Church and Education
285
Revenue and Expenditure .
286
Army and Navy*
289
Population
290
Trade and Industry .
292
Weights and Measures
293
Books of Reference .
293
ITALY :-
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
295
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
297
Church of Rome
298
Sovereign Pontiff
299
Cardinals ....
302
Church and Education
305
Revenue and Expenditure .
308
Public Debt.
311
Army and Navy
312
Area and Population .
315
Trade and Industry .
320
Shipping ....
322
Weights and Measures
323
Books of Reference .
323
NETHERLANDS :—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
326
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
328
Church and Education
329
Revenue and Expenditure .
330
Public Debt
333
Army and Navy
334
Area and Population .
337
Trade and Industry .
338
Shipping ....
339
Colonies ....
340
Weights and Measures
341
Books of Reference .
341
Vlll
CONTENTS.
PORTUGAL :—
Eeigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .343
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 345
Church and Education . 346
Eevenue and Expenditure . 348
Army and Navy . . 350
Area and Population . .351
Trade and Industry . . 351
Colonies .... 353
Weights and Measures . 353
Books of Preference . . 354
EUSSIA :—
Eeigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .355
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 357
Church and Education . 362
Eevenue and Expenditure . 365
National Debt . . .368
Army .... 372
Navy 377
Area and Population . .379
Trade and Industry . . 385
Shipping . . . .387
Eailways .... 388
Manufactures . . . 389
Weights and Measures . 390
Books of Eeference . . 390
SPAIN :—
Eeigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .393
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 394
Church and Education . 396
Eevenue and Expenditure . 399
National Debt . '. . 401
Army and Navy . . 403
Area and Population . .405
Trade and Industry . . 409
Minerals . . . .410
Eailways . . . .410
Colonies . . . .412
Weights and Measures . 415
Books of Eeference . . 415
SWEDEN and NOEWAY:—
Eeigning Sovereign and
Family .... 417
Dynastic Union . .418
Sweden : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 419
Eevenue and Expenditure . 421
Army and Navy . . 423
Area and Population . . 425
Trade and Industry . . 426
Eailways . . . .427
Colonial Possession . . 435
Weights and Measures . 435
Books of Eeference . .436
Norway : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 429
Eevenue and Expenditure . 431
Army and Navy . .431
Area and Population . .433
Trade and Industry . . 434
Weights and Measures . 435
Books of Eeference . . 436
SWITZEELAND :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 438
Church and Education . 440
Eevenue and Expenditure . 441
Army .... 444
Area and Population . . 446
Trade and Industry . . 448
Eailways .... 449
Weights and Measures . 449
Books of Eeference . . 450
TUEKEY and TEIBUTAEY
STATES :—
Eeigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .451
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 452
Eeligion and Education . 454
Eevenue and Expenditure . 457
Public Debt . . .458
CONT
ENTS.
IX
PAGE
PAGE
Turkey : —
Roumania : —
Army and Navy
. 461
Revenue and Population
. 472
Area and Population
. 465
Trade and Commerce
. 474
Trade and Commerce
. 469
Manufactures .
. 470
3. Servia: —
Government
. 474
Tributary States —
Revenue and Population
. 475
1. Egypt: — See Part II.
Africa.
Trade
476
2. Roumania: —
Weights and Measures .
. 476
Constitution
. 471
Books of Reference
. 477
Part the Second.
THE STATES OF AMERICA, AFRICA, ASIA,
AND AUSTRALASIA.
I. AMERICA.
ARGENTINE CONFEDERA-
TION :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .480
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .... 481
Trade and Industry . . 484
Railways .... 484
Weights and Measures . 485
Books of Reference . . 485
BOLIVIA :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 487
Revenue and Population . 488
Trade and Industry . . 489
Weights and Measures . 489
Books of Reference . . 490
BRAZIL:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 491
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 492
Church and Education . 494
Revenue and Expenditure . 495
Army and Navy . .498
Population . . . 500
Trade and Commerce . . 502
Weights and Measures . 505
Books of Reference . . 506
CANADA and BRITISH
NORTH AMERICA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
508
Church and Education
510
Revenue and Expenditure .
511
Army and Navy
512
Population
514
Trade and Industry .
517
Shipping .
519
Weights and Measures
519
Books of Reference .
520
CHILI :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
521
Revenue and Population .
521
Trade and Industry .
523
Railways ....
524
Weights and Measures
524
Books of Reference .
525
COLOMBIA :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
526
Revenue and Population .
527
Trade and Industry .
528
Weights and Measures
529
Books of Reference .
530
CONTENTS.
COSTA RICA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 531
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .531
Weights and Measures . 533
Books of Reference . . 534
ECUADOR:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 535
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .535
Weights and Measures . 536
Books of Reference . . 537
MEXICO:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 538
Revenue and Expenditure . 539
Public Debt . . .540
Area and Population . .541
Trade and Industry . . 542
Weights and Measures . 544
Books of Reference . . 544
PARAGUAY :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 546
Revenue and Army . . 546
Population and Trade • 547
Weights and Measures . 548
Books of Reference . . 549
PERU :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 550
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .... 550
Peru : —
Trade and Industry . . 552
Guano exports . . . 553
Weights and Measures . 554
Books of Reference . . 555
UNITED STATES:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 556
Lists of Presidents . . 557
Congress .... 559
Revenue and Expenditure . 563
National Debt . . .565
Army . . . .568
Navy .... 571
Iron-clad Navy . . . 572
Area and Population . . 575
Census of 1870 . . .. 576
Immigration . . .580
Trade and Industry . .584
Mines and Minerals . . 589
Railways . . . .589
Commercial Marine . . 590
Weights and Measures . 591
Books of Reference . . 592
URUGUAY :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 594
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .... 594
Trade and Industry . . 595
Weights and Measures . 596
Books of Reference . . 597
VENEZUELA :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .598
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .599
Weights and Measures . 600
Books of Reference . . 600
2. AFRICA.
ALGERIA :—
Government, Revenue, and
Army .... 601
Area and Population . . 602
Trade and Industry . . 603
Weights and Measures . 605
Books of Reference . . 605
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE:—
Constitution and Govern
ment
Revenue and Expendiftire
Area and Population
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
606
607
608
610
611
612
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
PAGE
EGYPT:—
LlBEKIA :
Government, Revenue, and
Weights and Measures
621
Army .
613
Books of Reference .
621
Population and Trade
615
Suez Canal
617
NATAL :—
Weights and Measures
618
Constitution and Govern-
Books of Reference .
618
ment ....
622
Revenue and Expenditure .
622
LIBERIA:—
Population
623
Constitution
619
Trade and Commerce
624
Population and Trade
620
Books of Reference .
625
3. ASIA.
CEYLON :—
India : —
Constitution and Govern-
Railways ....
668
ment
626
Weights and Measures
671
Revenue and Expenditure
626
Books of Reference .
672
Population
627
JAPAN : —
Trade and Commerce
628
Weights and Measures
629
Constitution and Govern-
Books of Reference .
629
ment ....
674
Army and Population
675
CHINA :—
Constitution and Govern
Trade and Commerce
677
Weights and Measures
679
ment
630
Books of Reference .
679
Revenue and Population
. 631
JAVA :—
Trade and Commerce
. 634
Constitution and Govern-
Treaty Ports
635
ment ....
681
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
638
. 639
Revenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
682
684
HONG KONG :—
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce
685
686
Constitution and Govern
Weights and Measures
687
ment
641
Books of Reference .
688
Revenue and Expenditure
. 641
Area and Population .
. 642
PERSIA:—
Trade and Commerce
. 643
Reigning Sovereign and
Weights and Measures
. 645
Family ....
689
Books of Reference .
. 645
Government, Religion, and
Education
689
INDIA:—
Revenue and Army .
691
Constitution and Govern
-
Area, Population, and Trade
693
ment
. 646
Weights and Measures
695
Revenue and Expenditure
. 648
Books of Reference .
696
Land Tax .
. 651
Public Debt
. 655
SIAM:—
Army
. 656
Government. Revenue, and
Population
. 658
Army ....
697
Caste and Religion .
. 661
Population and Trade
69S
Trade and Commerce
. 663
Weights and Measures
700
Shipping .
. 666
Books of Reference .
700
Xll
CONTENTS.
4. AUSTRALASIA.
NEW SOUTH WALES:—
Constitution and Govern
ment
Kevenue and Expenditure
Public Debt . _ .
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Mineral Productions .
Railways .
NEW ZEALAND :—
Constitution and Govern
ment
Kevenue and Expenditure
Public Debt . _ .
Area and Population .
Immigration
Trade and Industry .
Mineral Productions .
QUEENSLAND :—
Constitution and Govern
ment
Eevenue and Expenditure
Public Debt
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Mineral Productions .
SOUTH AUSTRALIA:—
Constitution and Govern
ment
Eevenue and Expenditure
Public Debt
Area and Population .
701
702
702
702
704
706
707
708
709
710
711
713
713
715
716
716
717
717
718
719
South Australia: —
Trade and Industry . . 724
Mines and Mineral Produc-
tions .... 726
TASMANIA :—
Constitution and Govern-
720
721
721
722
ment . . . .
728
Eevenue and Expenditure .
728
Public Debt
729
Area and Population .
729
Census of 1870 .
730
Trade and Industry .
731
VICTORIA :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment
732
Revenue and Expenditure
733
Public Debt . _ .
. 735
Area and Population .
. 735
Origin of Population .
. 736
Immigration
. 738
Trade and Commerce
. 739
Exports and Imports .
. 74C
Mining Industry
. 742
Eailways .
. 743
WESTERN AUSTRALIA:—
Constitution and Govern
ment
. 74.
Revenue and Expenditure
. 74
Population and Trade
. 74
Mining Industry
. 74
Books of Reference coi
i-
cerning Australasia
. 74
INDEX .
749
CHRONICLE
OF THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK,
DECEMBER, 1869— DECEMBER, 1870.
1869.
December.
6. Occupation of Samana Bay, San Domingo, by troops of the United
States.
8. Submission of the Khedive of Egypt to the demands for right of
suzerainty preferred by the Sultan.
11. New Ministry for the Kingdom of Italy appointed by the King.
12. Rejection of the Reciprocity Treaty with Canada by the Congress of
the United States, by 128 against 42 rotes.
13. Opening of the Austrian Reichsrath by the Emperor.
18. Capture of Port-au-Prince, Hayti, by the forces of General Saget,
rival president.
19. Release of eighteen Spanish gunboats retained at New York by the
United States Government.
21. Resignation of part of the ministry of Portugal.
23. End of the Dalmatian insurrection by submission of the leaders.
27. Resignation of the Erench ministry, and letter of the Emperor
Napoleon to M. Emile Ollivier, calling upon him ' to aid in the task
I have undertaken to bring into regular working a constitutional
system.'
28.
Prorogation of the French Legislative Body.
29. Death of M. V. Ruffy, newly-elected President of the Swiss Confede-
ration.
XIV CHEONICLE.
1870.
January.
1. Reception of the Legislative Body at the Tuileries by the Emperor
Napoleon, who states that the aim he has in view ' is, after insuring
order, to see prosperity securely guaranteed, and liberty definitely
established.'
2. Opening of the Portuguese Chambers by the King.
3. Nomination by the Emperor Napoleon of a new ministry, under the
presidency of M. Emile Ollivier.
8. Changes in the Greek Cabinet.
9. Ministerial crisis in Spain, caused by the choice of a candidate for the
throne.
10. Resumption of the sittings of the Erench Legislative Body, M.
Ollivier, head of the new ministry, declaring that he will inaugurate
' a national government, adapting itself to the march of progress.'
10. Victor Noir, journalist, shot by Prince Pierre Bonaparte at Auteuil,
Paris.
14. Opening of the Diet of Prussia by the King.
14. Rout of Government troops by an insurgent force at San Luis Potosi,
Mexico.
15. Execution of General Salnave, President of Hayti, and installation of
General Nissage Saget as his successor.
17- Opening of the Bavarian Diet by the King.
19. Opening of the Swedish Diet by the King.
20. Dissolution of the newly-elected Portuguese Chamber of Deputies.
20. Prorogation of the Italian Parliament, to enable the ministry 'to
elaborate measures for the restoration of the finances of the
kingdom.'
22. Departure of the last detachment of British troops stationed in New
Zealand from Wellington, the day being ' the thirteenth anniversary
of the foundation of the colony.'
23. Bill for the re-admission of Virginia to representation in Congress
.passed by the Senate of the United States.
24. Motion for the exclusion of the Duke of Montpensier from the can-
didacy of the throne of Spain rejected by the Cortes.
28. Vote of want of confidence in the ministry passed by the Bavarian
Diet.
28. Death of Ferdinando IV., ex-Grand Duke of Tuscany.
31. Meeting of the Federal Council of Switzerland in extraordinary session,
to elect a President of the Confederation.
CHRONICLE. XV
February.
1. Spread of the insurrection in Mexico, five states declaring against
President Juarez.
2. Eesolution passed in the Lower House of Congress of the United
States declaring that the insurgents of Cuba ' have established and
maintained a de facto government.'
7. Political riots at Paris, and arrest of upwards of six hundred persons.
8. Opening of the second session of the 20th Parliament of Queen
Victoria by Eoyal commission.
12. Prorogation of the Prussian Diet.
14. Opening of the North German Parliament by the King of Prussia.
15. First reading of the Irish Land Bill in the House of Commons.
15. Opening of the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada.
17. First reading of the Education Bill in the House of Commons.
17. Bill for the re-admission of Mississippi to representation in Congress
passed by the Senate of the United States.
19. General vote of the inhabitants of San Domingo in favour of annexa-
tion to the United States.
22. Expulsion of Don Carlos, pretender to the crown of Spain, from
France.
24. Closing of the Diet of Saxony by the King.
March.
1. Defeat and death of Lopez, President of Paraguay, in the battle of
Aquidaban. ' Lopez fell sword in hand, refusing to surrender.'
3. Eenewed political riots in Paris.
7. Order of the Italian government for the dismissal of 10,000 soldiers
on unlimited furlough.
9. Bill for the re-admission of Georgia to representation in Congress
passed by the Senate of the United States.
12. Second reading of the Irish Land Bill agreed to in the House of
Commons by 442 against 11 votes.
12. Duel near Madrid between Don Enrique de Bourbon and the Duke de
Montpensier, pretenders to the crown of Spain. ' Don Enrique
was killed by the Duke's third shot.'
15. Attempt at insurrection in Cadiz and other parts of Spain.
18. Bill for the modification of the Electoral law passed by the Belgian
Senate.
22. Letter of the Emperor of the French to M. Ollivier declaring his
Majesty's intention to ' restore to the nation a portion of the con-
stituent power it has delegated to me.'
24. Declaration by General Lebceuf, Minister of War, in the French
Legislative Body, that ' the foreign policy of the new Cabinet is
entirely pacific'
XVI . CHRONICLE.
March.
24. Resignation of the Minister of the Interior of Cis-Leithan Austria.
25. Insurrectionary movements at Pavia, Piacenza, and other Italian
towns.
27. Acquittal by the Imperial High Court at Tours of Prince Pierre
Bonaparte for killing Victor Noir.
28. Proclamation of the Governor-General of Cuba, offering amnesty to
the insurgents.
29. Changes in the Spanish Cabinet.
30. Bill for the re-admission of Texas to representation in Congress passed
by the Senate of the United States.
31. Opening of the Portuguese Cortes by the King, who declares that the
' best attention of the Ministry will be given to the grave state of
the national finances.'
31. "Withdrawal of the Deputies of Galicia and Buckowina from the
Lower House of the Austrian Reichsrath.
pril.
2. Outbreak of a revolution in Venezuela.
4. Resignation of the entire Ministry of Cis-Leithan Austria on the
refusal of the Emperor to dissolve those Provincial Diets the
deputies from which left the Reichsrath.
7. Closing of the Diet of Baden, the Grand Duke thanking the deputies
for their efforts ' to attain the object of all wishes, the national
unity of Germany.'
8. Prorogation of both Houses of the Austrian Reichsrath.
9. Republican rising at Barcelona and Gracia, quelled by the troops after
a struggle of four hours.
10. Resignation of the French Ministers of Foreign Affairs and of Public
Instruction, upon notice that the Emperor is resolved to convoke
the nation for another ' plebiscite.'
1 3. Prorogation of the Legislative Body of France.
15. Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act voted by the Parliament of the
Dominion of Canada.
19. Resignation of the Minister of War of Denmark.
20. Adoption by the French Senate of a ' Senatus Consultum,' modifying
the Constitution of the Empire.
21. Murder, by Greek brigands, of the British and Italian Secretaries of
Legation.
2 1 . Opening of the Zollverein Parliament at Berlin.
23. Decree of the Emperor Napoleon, convoking the French nation for
the 8th of May in their comitia to acccept or reject the following
plebiscite :—'The people approves the liberal reforms effected in
the Constitution since 1860 by the Emperor, with the co-operation
of the great bodies of the State, and ratifies the Senatus Consultum
of the 20th of April, 1870.'
CHROMCLE. XV11
April.
24. Changes in the Greek Ministry.
25. Protest of the Turkish Government against a new loan contracted by
the Khedive of Egypt.
29. Discovery by the French police of a plot against the life of the
Emperor.
May.
3. Adjournment of the Congress of the United States for two months.
5. Opening of the Brazilian Chambers by the Emperor.
7. Close of the session of the German Zollverein Parliament by the King
of Prussia.
8. National vote throughout France on the plebiscite submitted by the
Emperor, resulting in 7,138,367 votes given in its favour, and
1,518,385 against it.
8. Republican rising at Catanzaro, Italy, suppressed by the troops.
9. Riots in Paris, and erection of numerous barricades.
12. Prorogation of the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada.
14. Political disturbances at Naples, and close of the University by order
of the Government.
1 5. Opening of the Congress of the Argentine Confederation.
16. Reconstruction of the French Cabinet, in the appointment of new
Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction.
17. Refusal of Marshal Espartero to accept the Crown of Spain.
19. Military revolt at Lisbon, led by Marshal Saldanha, who, having in-
vaded the royal palace, dismisses the Ministry, and forms a new
Cabinet.
19. Resignation of the entire Danish Ministry after an adverse vote in
the Folkething.
21. Declaration of the Emperor Napoleon to a deputation from the Legis-
lative Body expressing ' thanks to the nation which, for the fourth
time during twenty-two years, has given me a striking proof of its
confidence.'
25. Fenian raid into Canada, repulsed without loss by volunteer troops.
26. Closing of the North German Parliament by the King of Prussia, who
declares that ' the North German Confederation, in developing its
internal institutions and its national treaty alliances with South
Germany, is perfecting the strength of the German people, not to
the greater danger, but to the more powerful support of universal
peace.'
31. Rejection by the Spanish Cortes of a proposal for the election of a
king by universal suffrage.
a
XV111 CHRONICLE.
June.
1. Meeting of the Congress of Chili, summoned for drawing up a new
constitution,
3. Adoption of a resolution by the Spanish Cortes providing that the
king to be elected must have the votes of an absolute majority of
all the deputies.
6. Dissolution of the Mexican Congress, on refusing to provide for the
financial exigencies of the Government.
10. Seizure of a war steamer of the Netherlands by the President of
Venezuela.
15. Appointment by the President of the United States of a new Attorney-
General.
18. Resignation of the whole Belgian ministry.
21. Popular outbreak at Tien-tsin, China, and murder of the French
consul and all French residents.
25. Abdication of ex-Queen Isabel II. of Spain signed at Paris.
27. Death of the Earl of Clarendon, British Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs.
30. Rejection by the Senate of the United States of a Treaty concluded by
the President for the annexation of San Domingo.
30. Declaration of the President of the Council of Ministers in the French
Legislative Body that ' at no epoch was the peace of Europe more
assured : irritating questions nowhere exist, and all the European
cabinets understand that treaties should be maintained.'
July.
2. Petition of the Orleans Princes for permission to return to France
rejected by the Legislative Body by 174 against 31 votes.
3. Announcement by the President of the Spanish Council of Ministers
that Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen has accepted,
pending election by the Cortes, the offer of the crown of Spain.
S. Declaration of the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Legislative
Body that France 'cannot suffer a foreign power to place
a prince upon the throne of Charles V., and that, should such
event happen, the government will know how to do its duty
without hesitation or weakness.'
11. Withdrawal of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from the
candidacy to the throne of Spain.
12. Declaration by the President of the Council of Ministers of France
that ' peace is now assured.'
15. Declaration that war against Prussia has been resolved upon made by
the President of the Council of Ministers in the French Legislative
Body. Demand for the production of documents justifying the
decision of the Government rejected by 16-1 against 83 votes.
CHRONICLE. XIX
July.
16. Bills for calling out the whole of the National Garde Mobile, and for
granting supplementary provisional estimates of 515 millions of
francs to the Government for war purposes passed by the French
Legislative Body.
17. Decree for the mobilisation, of the army of the North German
Confederation issued by the King of Prussia.
18. Notification of the Governments of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and
Hesse that, war having been declared by France, their forces will
join those of Prussia and the North German Confederation.
18. Vote of the dogma of Infallibility of the Pope passed by the
Oecumenical Council at Rome.
19. Official declaration made by the French charge d'affaires at Berlin to
the Prussian Government, that France, ' for the defence of its
honour and its injured interests,' has taken to arms, and ' considers
itself from this moment in a state of war against Prussia.'
19. Opening of the North German Parliament by the King of Prussia,
who declares that ' the candidacy of a German prince for the
Spanish throne has afforded the Emperor of the Freuch a pre-
text for a casus belli,, put forward in a manner long since unknown
in the annals of diplomatic intercourse, and adhered to after the
removal of the very pretest itself, with that disregard for the
people's right to the blessings of peace of which the history
of a former ruler of France offers so many analogous examples.'
19. Proclamation of neutrality issued by the British Government.
21. Prorogation of the North German Reichstag.
22. Close of the session of the Senate and Legislative Body of France.
23. Decree of the Emperor Napoleon appointing the Empress Eugenie
Regent of France during his absence with the army.
21. Visit of the Empress Eugenie to the fleet at Cherbourg, ready to sail
for the Baltic.
25. Publication in the Times of a ' Projet de Traite' between the
Emperor of the French and the King of Prussia, enabling the
former ' a faire entrer ses troupes en Belgique ou a la couquerir.'
27. Departure of French troops from Rome.
28. Arrival of the Emperor Napoleon at the headquarters of the French
army at Metz, and issue of a proclamation to the troops, con-
cluding, 'le Dieu des armees sera avec nous.'
30. Notification of the Chancellor of the Austrian Empire that, ' in con-
sequence of the definition of the dogma of Infallibility, the Govern-
ment has resolved no longer to maintain the Concordat with
Rome.'
31. Proclamation of the King of Prussia on his departure from Berlin for
the army. ' My people know with me that the rupture of, and
provocation to war, did not come from our side. But, being chal-
lenged, we are resolved, like our forefathers, placing full trust in
God, to accept the battle for the defence of our Ironies and our
country.'
a2
XX CHRONICLE.
August.
1. Grant of two millions sterling by the House of Commons to the
British Government 'towards defraying the expenses which may
be incurred in maintaining the naval and military services of the
kingdom during the war in Europe.'
2. Commencement of the war of France against Germany by an attack
upon the town of Saarbriick, under the eyes of the Emperor
Napoleon, accompanied by his son. Telegram of the Emperor to
the Empress, 'Louis a requ son bapteme de feu.'
3. Arrival of the French fleet of war in the Baltic.
4. Storming of the fortified lines of Weissenburg by three divisions of
the Third German Army under the Crown Prince of Prussia.
Death of General Abel Douay, commander of the French troops.
5. Occupation of Lauterburg, Alsace, by troops of Baden.
6. Defeat of the right wing of the French Army of the Rhine at Worth
by the Third German Army, under the command of the Crown
Prince of Prussia; capture of 6 mitrailleuses, 30 pieces of cannon,
and 8,000 prisoners.
6. Defeat of part of the left wing of the French Army of the Rhine,
under General Frossard, by the vanguard of the First German
Army, at For bach, Saarbriick.
7- Paris proclaimed in a state of siege ; telegram of the Emperor Napoleon
to the Empress-Regent, ' tout peut se retablir.'
8. Departure of the French army of occupation from Rome.
9. Meeting of the French chambers ; resignation of the ministry pre-
sided over by M. Emile Ollivier.
9. Treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of Belgium signed in London by
the representatives of Great Britain and the North German Con-
federation.
10. Prorogation of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by Royal
Commission.
10. Appointment of a new French ministry under the presidency of Count
Palikao.
11. Grant of 1,000 millions of francs, or 40,000,000?., for war purposes,
and forced currency for bank notes, voted by the French
Chambers.
12. Surrender of Nancy to a cavalry detachment of the vanguard of the
Third German Army.
12. Appointment of Marshal Bazaine to the command-in chief of the
French Army of the Rhine.
13. Treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of Belgium signed at London by
the Ambassador of France.
11. Battle of Courcelles and defeat of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th corps d'armet
of France, which are driven within the fortifications of Metz.
14. Departure of the Emperor Napoleon from Metz for Verdun.
16. Battle of Vionville, ending in the retreat of the main body of the
French Army of the Rhine, attempting to retreat upon Verdun,
into Metz.
CHRONICLE. XXI
August.
18. Battle of Gravelotte, and decisive victory of the united German
armies, under the King of Prussia, over the army of Marshal
Bazaine, which is imprisoned at Metz.
19. Bombardment of Strasburg commenced by troops of Baden.
20. Retreat of the army of Marshal MacMahon from the camp of Chalons.
21. Decree of the French Government ordering a national loan of
750,000,000f., or 30,000,000/.
22. Occupation of the cities of Chartres and of Chalons by the vanguard
of the Third German Army.
23. Proclamation of General Trochu, Governor of Paris, ordering the
expulsion from the capital of all foreigners, beggars, and ' bouches
inutiles.'
25. Capitulation of the fortress of Vitry-le-Francais.
26. Repulse of a sortie of Marshal Bazaine from Metz.
28. Arrival of the army of Marshal MacMahon, accompanied by the
Emperor Napoleon, at Carignan, in the Ardennes.
29. Defeat of the right wing of Marshal MacMahon's army, under
General de Failly, near Montmedy, with Joss of 4,000 prisoners.
30. Defeat of Marshal MacMahon at Beaumont, and retreat of the French
army towards Mouzon, with loss of 25 pieces of cannon and 10,000
prisoners.
31. Defeat of Marshal MacMahon at Douzy and Bazeilles, and retreat o.f
the French army into the fortress of Sedan.
September.
1. Battle of Sedan, and final defeat, with loss of 30,000 prisoners, of the
army of Marshal MacMahon, by the united German armies under
the King of Prussia.
2. Interview between the Emperor Napoleon and the King of Prussia,
resulting in the capitulation of the whole of the French army im-
prisoned at Sedan. The Emperor, Marshal MacMahon, thirty-
nine generals and 100,000 soldiers of all grades, fall prisoners to
the German troops.
3. Proposal to establish a Provisional Government made in the French
Legislative Body.
4. Insurrection at Paris, culminating in the overthrow of the Imperial
Government, the proclamation of a republic, and the instalment of
a • Provisional Government of National Defence,' composed of nine
members, under the presidency of General Trochu. Flight of the
Empress-Regent from the Tuileries.
5. Decree of the French Provisional Government of National Defence
dissolving the Legislative Body, and abolishing the Senate and the
Council of State.
5. Entry of the King of Prussia, at the head of the German armies,
into Rheims.
XX11 CHRONICLE.
September.
6. Decree of the Provisional Government of France ordering a ' levee en
masse ' of the population.
7. Foundering of the iron-clad turret-ship ' Captain,' of the British navy,
in a gale, off Cape Finisterre, Bay of Biscay.
8. Decree of the Provisional Government of France convoking the elec-
toral colleges for the 16th October, to eh?ct a National and Con-
stituent Assembly of 750 members.
9. Surrender of the town and citadel of Laon, fire being set to the
powder magazine after the entry of the German troops.
10. Bombardment of Metz commenced by the investing army.
12. Entry of the King of Prussia into Chateau-Thierry.
13. Occupation of Meaux, near Paris, by German cavalry.
15. Opening of the Lower House of the Austrian Keiehsrath by the
Emperor.
17. Invasion of the Papal states by an Italian army under General
Cadorna.
18. Occupation of Versailles by German troops.
19. Defeat of General Vinov, commanding an army of 25,000 French
Mobile Guards, at Villejuif, near Paris.
19. Opening of the States-General of the Netherlands by the King.
20. Complete investment of Paris by the German armies under the King
of Prussia.
20. Occupation of Rome by Italian troops, after a capitulation stipulating
that there shall remain under the sovereignty of the Pontiff ' that
portion of Rome which is bounded on the southern part by the
walls of Santo Spirito, and comprehends Mount Vatican and the
Castel Saint Angelo, forming the so-called Leonine city.'
22. Negotiation for an armistice between Count von Bismarck-Sehonhausen
and M. Jules Favre, Vice-President of the French Provisional
Government, at Ferrieres, near Paris.
23. Departure of the fleet of war of France from the Baltic.
24. Surrender of the fortress of Toul after a bombardment of six hours,
and capture of 80 pieces of cannon and 2,500 French troops.
24. Proclamation of the Provisional Government in Paris stating that
France cannot accept the terms of an armistice and peace proposed
by the Chancellor of the North German Confederation, and will
prefer ' war to the last extremity.'
26. Defeat of French troops of the Garde Mobile at Melun.
27. Occupation of the city of Orleans by German cavalry.
28. Capitulation of Strasburg, under which 451 officers and 17,000 non-
commissioned officers and rank and file lay down their arms.
30. Entry of the German besieging force, under General Von Werder, into
Strasburg, it being stated that 'King Louis the Fourteenth of France
entered the city on the same day, 189 years before, having captured
it by surprise, in a time of general peace.'
CHRONICLE.
October.
1. Decree of the Provisional Government at Paris, ordering the adjourn-
ment of the elections for a National and Constituent Assembly, 'until
they can be carried out throughout the whole of the republic'
2. Plebiscite in the Papal States to decide for or against annexation to
the kingdom of Italy : number of voters on the lists, 167,548; number
•who voted, 135,291; number who voted ' Yes,' 133,681; number
who voted ' No,' 1,507 ; votes annulled, 103.
5. Defeat of a force of 12,000 troops of the French Garde Mobile at St.
Quentin.
6. Instalment of the head-quarters of the German armies, under the King
of Prussia, at Versailles.
7. Flight from Paris, in a balloon, of M. Leon Gambetta, Minister of the
Interior in the Provisional Government of National Defence.
7. Attempt of Marshal Bazaine to break out of Metz, and repulse by the
investing forces, after a general battle of ten hours.
9. Decree of King Yittorio Emanuele declaring that Rome and the Papal
States shall ' constitute henceforth an integral part of the Kingdom
of Italy.'
10. Battle of Artenay, and defeat of the French Army of the Loire by the
Bavarian division of the German armies, under General Von der
Tann.
11. Instalment of a delegate Government of National Defence at Tours,
under M. Leon Gambetta as minister of war.
12. Appointment of General Garibaldi to the command-in-ehief of the
irregular forces of Eastern France.
12. Capture of Epinal by German troops.
1 3 . Destruction of the Palace of St. Cloud by the guns of the forts of Paris.
15. Opening of the Portuguese Cortes by the King.
16. Surrender of the fortress of Soissons, after a bombardment of four
days ; 120 guns taken, with 4,800 prisoners.
18. Capture of the town of Vesoul by German troops.
21. Occupation of Chartres and of St. Quentin by German forces.
22. Proposal to conclude an armistice, in order to convoke a French Repre-
sentative Assembly, addressed by the British Government to the
French and German belligerents.
24. Capitulation of the fortress of Schlestadt, with 108 guns, and 2,500
prisoners.
27. Capitulation of the fortress of Metz to the investing forces under
Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia. Three marshals of France, fifty
generals, and 173,000 rank and file of the Army of the Khine,
including the Imperial Guard, are made prisoners by the Germans,
who also capture 400 pieces of cannon, 105 mitrailleuses, and vast
ammunitions of war.
28. General Moltke, chief of the staff of the German armies, raised to the
rank of Count by the King of Prussia.
XXIV CHRONICLE.
October.
29. Occupation of the town of Dijon by German troops.
31. Riots at Paris, and arrest for some hours of the members of the Pro-
visional Government by the insurgents.
November.
1. Interview of M. Thiers and Count Bismarek-Sehonhausen, Chancellor
of the North German Confederation, at Versailles, to treat for an
armistice, proposed by the British Government.
2. Plebiscite of the inhabitants of Paris, declaring, by 557,976 ayes
against 62,638 noes, confidence in the Provisional Government.
4. Bill for the election of Prince Amedeo of Italy as King of Spain laid
before the Cortes.
6. Rupture of armistice negotiations carried on at Versailles.
8. Capitulation of the fortress of Verdun, the Germans capturing 108
guns and 5,000 prisoners, including two generals.
9. Presentation of a despatch of Prince Gortschakoff, Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Russia, to Earl Granville, declaring that ' Sa Majeste
Imperiale ne saurait se cousiderer plus longtemps comme liee aux
obligations du Traite du 18-30 Mars, 1856, en tant qu'elles
restreignent ses droits de souverainete dans la Mer Noire.'
10. Repty of Earl Granville to the despatch of the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Russia, stating that ' it is impossible for her Majesty's
Government to give any sanction, on their part, to the course
announced by Prince Gortschakoff.'
10. Evacuation of the city of Orleans by the German troops, under
General Von der Tann.
11. Capitulation of the fortress of Neu-Breisach, with capture by the
Germans of 105 guns and 5,100 prisoners.
14. Defeat of the French Army of the Loire at Toury by German forces
under the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
16. Election of Prince Amedeo of Italy as King of Spain by the Cortes
Constituyentes.
16. Treaty for the entrance of the Kingdom of Bavaria into the German
Confederation signed at Versailles.
17. Defeat of the French Army of the Loire at Dreux.
18. Proposal of Prussia to assemble a conference in London for deciding
upon the claims of Russia to cancel parts of the Treaty of 1856,
referring to the sovereignty over the Black Sea, accepted by the
Governments of Russia, Austria, and Italy.
22. Occupation of the city of Rouen by German troops.
23. Capitulation of the fortress of Thionville, the Germans taking 180
guns and 4,000 prisoners.
24. Opening of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation by royal
... i-mission.
CHRONICLE. XXV
November.
25. Treaty for the entrance of the Kingdom of Wiirtemberg into the
German Confederation signed at Versailles.
27. Capitulation of the fortress of La Fere to the German investing force,
after two days' bombardment.
27. Defeat of the French Army of the North, near Amiens, by a German
division under General von Manteuffel.
28. Reply of Earl Granville to a new despatch of Prince Gortschakoff,
stating that 'her Majesty's Government have no objection to accept
the invitation which has been made by Prussia to a Conference,
upon the understanding that it is assembled without any foregone
conclusion as to its results.'
28. Occupation of the city of Amiens by German troops.
29. Defeat of the French Army of the Loire at Nonneville.
30. Attack of 150,000 men of the garrison of Paris, under General
Ducrot, on the German besieging forces, and occupation of the
villages of Champigny and Brie on the Marne ; proclamation of the
General that he will return to Paris ' either dead or victorious.'
December.
1. Storming of Champigny and Brie by a detachment of Prussian guards ;
return of General Ducrot to Paris.
3. Battle of Orleans, and defeat of the French army under General
d'Aurelle de Paladine by Prussian and Bavarian troops, under
Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia.
4. Re-occupation of the city of Orleans by the Germans.
5. Acceptance of the crown of Spain by Prince Amedeo of Italy.
5. Opening of the third session of the Forty-first Congress of the United
States.
6. Circular letter of King Ludwig of Bavaria to the sovereign princes of
Germany, proposing that they should ' urge upon his Majesty the
King of Prussia to assume the title of " Kaiser von Deutschland,"
and stand forth as head of the German races, who for centuries
have been united in language, manners, science, and art, and who
now celebrate a brotherhood of arms.'
7. Occupation of the seaport of Dieppe by German cavalry.
9. Decree of M. Leon Gambetta, transferring the seat of the delegate
Government of National Defence from Tours to Bordeaux.
10. First, second, and third reading, in the Reichstag at Berlin, of a bill
for the union of all German states in the form of an Empire ; the
third reading passed by 188 against 6 votes. Election of a depu-
tation uf thirty members to present the Imperial crown to the
King of Prussia, and closing of the Reichstag.
12. Capitulation of the fortress of Pfalsburg, with 63 pieces of cannon,
52 officers, and 1,839 rank and file.
XXVi CHRONICLE.
December.
14. Capitulation of the fortress of Montmedy, with 65 guns and 3,000
officers and soldiers.
14. Opening of the Diet of Prussia by royal commission.
16. Decree of the delegate Provisional Government, of France, ordering a
blockade of the French ports of Dieppe, Fecamp, and Havre.
18. Presentation of the Imperial crown of Germany to the King of Prussia,
at Versailles, by a deputation of the Reichstag.
19. Storming of the fortified lines of Nuits by Prussian troops, under
General von Werder.
21. Occupation of the City of Tours by German troops.
21. Sortie of the Paris garrison towards Stains and Le Bourget, and repulse
by the investing army.
23. Battle of Pout Noyelles, near Amiens, and retreat of the French Army
of the North, commanded by General Faidherbe, before three divi-
sions of the First German Army, under General von Manteuffel.
23. Bill for the transfer of the seat of Government of the kingdom from
Florence to Rome adopted by the Italian Chamber of Deputies,
by 192 against 18 votes.
25. Proclamation of General Trochu, Governor of Paris, exhorting the
inhabitants and troops to renewed resistance against the enemy.
27. Bombardment of the Fort of Mont Avron, Paris, by German batteries
established at Chelles.
28. Attempted assassination of Marshal Don Juan Prim, President of the
Council of Ministers of Spain, at Madrid.
29. Occupation of Fort Mont Avron, Paris, by German troops.
30. Arrival of Amedeo I., King-elect of Spain, at Cartagena.
30. Death of Marshal Don Juan Prim, President of the Council of
Ministers of Spain.
31. Resolution passed by the Cortes Constituyentes of Spain declaring
that Marshal Prim 'has deserved well of his country.'
31. Arrival of King Vittorio Emanuele, King of Italy, at Rome.
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
XXV11
RANK OF EUEOPEAN STATES.
According
to Area
According to Population
States
Area,
English
square miles
Per
cent.
States
Population
at
last census
Per
cent.
1. Russia in
1. Russia in
Europe
1,762,791
53-9
Europe
68,196,901
23-5
2. Sweden and
2. German Em-
Norway .
291,903
7-6
pire .
38,514,046
13-2
3. Austrian
3. France
38,067:094
131
Empire
227,234
64
4. Austrian
4. France
207,4-80
5o
Empire
35,943,592
122
5. Turkey in
5. Gt. Britain
Europe
207,438
55
and Ireland
29,321,288
105
6. German Em-
6. Italy .
26,470,000
8-9
pire .
206,511
5-4
7. Prussia
24,106,847
7-3
7. Spain .
182,758
5-1
8. England and
8. Sweden
168.042
4-6
Wales
20,066,224
6-8
j 9. Prussia
137,066
37
9. Austria, Cis-
10. Norway
11. Gt. Britain
120,729
3-3
leithan
10. Spain .
20,020,041
16,301,850
6-8
5-6
and Ireland
119,924
3-2
11. Hungary
15,523,551
5-2
12. Austria, Cis-
12. Turkey in
Lt-ithan .
119,324
3-2
Europe
15,500,000
52
13. Italy .
107,961
3-0
13. Sweden and
14. Hungary
107,910
30
Norway .
5,897,046
2-0
15. England and
14. Ireland
5,798,967
1-9
Wales
58,320
1-6
15. Belgium
4,961,644
17
16. Eoumania .
45,642
1-1
16. Bavaria
4,824,421
17
17. Portugal .
36,510
0-9
17. Sweden
4,195,681
1-6
18. Ireland
31,874
0-8
18. Portugal .
3,987,867
1-4
19. Scotland .
30,685
0-8
19. Eoumania .
3,864,848
1-3
20. Bavaria
29,347
0-8
20. Netherlands
3,735,682
1-3
21. Greece
19,941
0-5
21. Scotland .
3,062,294
11
22. Switzerland
15,233
0-4
22. Switzerland
2,510,594
09
! 23. Denmark
14,553
04
23. Saxony
2,423,586
0-9
24. Netherlands
13,464
0-4
24. Denmark .
1,783,565
06
25. Servia
12,600
0-3
25. Wiirtemberg
1.778,479
06
26. Belgium
11,267
0-3
26. Norway
1,712,628
0-6
27. Wiirtemberg
7,675
0-2
27. Greece
1,332,508
0-5
28. Saxony
6,777
0-2
28. Servia
1,098,281
0-4
XXV111
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
THE
GREAT CENTRES OF POPULATION
OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.
Number
Year of
Number
Year of
Towns
of
enumer-
Towns
of
enumer-
Inhabitants
ation
Inhabitants
ation
1. London .
3,214,707
1P70
35. Turin .
204,715
1864
2. Paris
1,825,274
1866
36. Pesth .
201,911
1869
3. Constantinople
1,075,000
1864
H7. Milan .
196,109
1864
4. New York
926,341
1870
38. Palermo .
194,463
1864
5. Vienna .
825,165
1869
39. Bordeaux
192,241
1866
6. Berlin .
702,437
1867
40. Barcelona
189,948
1860
7. St. Petersburg .
667,026
1869
41. Copenhagen .
180,866
1870
8. Philadelphia .
657,159
1870
42. Edinburgh
178,970
1870
9. Glasgow.
568,189
1870
43. Buenos Ayres .
177,787
1869
10. Liverpool
517,567
1S70
44. Brussels .
174,678
1869
11. Manchester
496,573
1870
45. Breslau .
174,426
1867
12. Naples .
447,065
1864
46. Bristol .
171,382
1870
13. Rio de Janeiro
420,000
1867
47. Munich .
170,688
1867
14. Brooklyn
396,661
1870
48. Prague .
157.275
1860
15. Birmingham .
369,604
1870
49. Dresden .
156,024
1857
16. Moscow .
368,103
1866
50. Lille
154.749
1866
17. Chicago .
348,709
1870
51. San Francisco.
150.361
1870
18. Lyon
323,954
1866
52. Bradford
143,197
1870
19. Dublin .
321,540
1870
53. Bucharest
142,735
1868
20. Madrid .
317,217
1869
54. Lima
136,500
1868
21. St. Louis
313,013
1870
55. Stockholm
134,650
1869
22. Marseille
300,131
1866
56. Newcastle
133,367
1870
23. Baltimore
276,599
1870
57. Hull
130,869
1870
24. Amsterdam
274,931
1869
58. Genoa .
127,986
1864
25. Leeds
259,527
1870
59. Toulouse
126,936
1866
26. Warsaw .
254,561
1809
60. Cologne .
125,172
1867
27. Boston .
250,701
1870
61. Antwerp
123,334
1868
28. Sheffield.
247,378
1870
, 62. Portsmouth .
122,084
1870
1869
29. Hamburg
224,974
1867
63. Rotterdam
121,027
30. Lisbon .
224,063
1863
64. Belfast .
120.777
1861
31. Rome
220, 532
1869
<;."). Ghent .
119,848
1868
32. New Orleans .
219,125
1870
66. Odessa .
119,376
1865
33. Cincinnati
218,900
1870
67. Venice .
115,718
1864
34. Mexico .
210,327
1862
68. Florence
114,363
1864
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
XXIX
DENSITY OF POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES
AND TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD.
States and Territorial
Divisions
Census
Year
Population
Area,
English
sq. miles
Population per
square mile
Belgium
1866
4,839,094
11,267
430
England and Wales
1861
20,066,224
58,320
347
Saxony
1867
2,423,586
6,777
346
Netherlands
1865
3,735,682
13,464
285
China ....
1812
367,632,907
1,297,999
283
Gt. Britain and Ireland
1861
29,321,288
119,924
253
Wiirtemberg
1867
1,778,479
7,675
234
Italy ....
1862
24,273,776
107,961
225
Germany
1867
38,514,046
206,511
186
Ireland
1861
5,798,967
31,874
181
France
1866
38,067,094
207,480
177
Prussia
1867
24,106,847
137,066
176
British India
1865-6
155,348,090
910,853
170
Bavaria
1867
4,824,421
29,347
166
Switzerland ,
1860
2,510,494
15,233
165
Austria
1869
35,943,592
227,234
158
Denmark
1870
1,783,565
14,553
110
Scotland
1861
3,062,294
30,685
101
Portugal
1865
3,987,867
36,510
99
Spain ....
1860
16,301,850
182,758
90
Greece
1861
1,332,508
19,941
66
Turkey
Estimate
35,350,000
1,812,048
20
Sweden and Norway .
1865-7
5,897,046
291,903
19
United States
1870
38,272,112
2,819,811
14
Russia
1858
73,920,000
7,210,374
10
Mexico
1857
7,995,426
1,030,442
7
Persia
Estimate
4,400,000
648,000
6
Brazil
Estimate
11,780,000
4,891,394
2
XXX
COMPAKATIVE TABLES.
THE IMPORT MARKETS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Nine months ended 30th Sept.
Kank
Bank
Imports into the United Kingdom
in
1869
in
1870
1869
1870
From
£
£
United States of America
30,129,742
37,537,103
1
1
France .....
24,472,871
26,269,967
2
2
British India
21,217,695
16,402,343-
3
3
Australasia
10,154,153
12,596,233.
6
4
Russia .
9,219,937
12,466,376
7
5
Germany
12,948,585
11,612,088
4
6
Egypt .
11,368,318
10,527,376
5
7
Netherlands
8,869,699
9,714,248-
8
8
Belgium .
6,434,769
6,842,362
9
9
China
5,821,492
6,309,558
10
10
British North America .
3,801,697
5,170,898
14
11
Sweden and Norway
3,928,445
5,140,906'
13
12
Brazil
5,480,689
4,858,219-
11
13
Cuba and Porto Rico
3,772,627
4,679,799
15
14
British West Indies
4,234,913
3,885,862
12
15
Peru
1,970,434
3,430,974
20
16
Turkey in Europe .
3,414,891
3,257,463
16
17
Chili
2,377,350
2,683,591
19
18
Italy .
2,894,700
2,556,308
16
19
Ceylon .
2,493,588
2,494,614
18
20
Den mark
1,372,992
2,112,954
24
21
Cape of Good Hope
1,606,944
1,625,262
22
22
Singapore
1,480,612
1,377,594
23
23
British Guiana
990,702
1,252,338
26
24
Argentine Confederation
773,395
949,317
28
25
Philippine Islands .
1,058,499
836,428
25
26
Mauritius
462,441
815,524
31
27
Austria .
1,829,091
771.117
21
28
Uruguay
562,362
633,909
29
29
Greece .
536.724
621,552
30
30
Colombia
823,183
596,148
27
31
Channel Islands
355,745
368,60 1
32
32
Natal .
266,801
264.649
33
33
Java
164,437
258,368
34
34
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
XXXI
THE EXPORT MARKETS OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM
Nine months ended 30th Sept.
Rank
Rank
Exports of British and Irish produce
in
in
1869
1870
1869
1870
To
&
&
United States of America
19,400,290
20,814,696
1
1
British India ....
13,105,357
14,824,596
3
2
Germany
17,845,180
13,949,320
2
3
France .
8,650,955
9,158,680
5
4
Netherlands .
8,140,345
8,320,810
6
5
Australasia
9,470,336
7,045,017
4
6
Egypt .
5,641,965
6,391,283
7
7
British North America
4,731,997
6,001,433
11
8
Russia .
4,977,706
5,769,653
9
9
China
4,919,547
4,461,096
10
10
Brazil
5,090,447
3,936,947
8
11
Turkey in Europe .
3,479,769
3,873,202
13
12
Italy
4,641,928
3,849,202
12
13
Belgium .
2,982,672
3,007,522
14
14
Hong Kong .
1,439,680
2,458,728
18
15
Chili .
1,359,866
2,130,308
19
16
Spain
1,594,381
1,961,515
16
17
Cuba and Porto Rico
696,880
1,959.129
29
18
Singapore
1,193,519
1,819,153
22
19
British West Indies
1,222,329
1,782,253
21
20
Argentine Confederation
1,573,728
1,722,114
17
21
Colombia
1,621,218
1,571,128
15
22
Denmark
1,172,039
1,545.068
23
23
Portugal
1,238,858
1,483,969
20
24
Austria .
1,054,554
1,393,294
26
25
Sweden and Norway
1,134,990
1,391,029
24
26
Peru
1,053,384
1,265,752
27
27
J Japan
1,060,018
1,740,490
25
28
Cape of Good Hope
1,023,675
1,113,660
28
29
Malta .
379,372
832,073
33
30
! Greece . . .
672,258
695.084
30
31
Ceylon .
565,155
655,0-">7
31
32
British Guiana
478,833
633, Si IS
32
33
' Java
370,416
601,733
34
34
XXX11
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
THE MERCANTILE NAVIES OF THE WORLD.
States
Year
Steamers
Sailing vessels
Total
tsumbr
2,972
Tonnage
dumber
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Groat Britain and Ireland
1869
948,367
24,187
4,765,304
27,159
5,713,671
United States of America
1868
3,619
973,850
24,499
3,344,459
28,118
4,318,309
German Empire
1868
153
90,402
5,057
1,316,374
5,210
1,406,776
France ....
1867
407
129,777
15,230
913,034
15,637
1,042,811
Norway ....
1868
79
31,345
6,830
917,447
6,909
948,792
Italy ....
1868
98
23,091
17,690
792,430
17,788
815,521
Dominion of Canada
1868
335
45,766
5,487
730,577
5,822
776,343'
Prussia ....
1870
60
9,690
3,212
633,115
3,272
642,805
Spain ....
1868
101
20,754
4,739
347,036
4,840
367,790
Austria ....
1868
74
34,263
7,756
290,152
7,830
324,415
Greeee ....
1868
—
—
—
—
4,721
290,000
Netherlands . . .
1868
43
8,136
2,074
259,460
2,117
267,596
Hamburg
1869
36
39,386
437
215,456
473
254,842
Bremen ....
1869
26
41.105
279
195,125
305
236,230
Sweden ....
1869
114
22,103
1,233
198,201
1,347
220,304
Turkey ....
1865
—
—
—
—
2,200
182,000
Russia ....
1865
90
20,751
2,042
160,241
2,132
180,992
Denmark
1868
75
10,453
2,871
165,101
3,132
175,554
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .
1869
1
200
439
89,146
440
89,585
Portugal
1869
—
—
—
—
817
88,392
: Oldenburg . .
1869
3
651
562
63,613
565
64,264
Chili ....
1866
11
6,090
248
51,021
259
57,111
Belgium . .
1868
7
4,686
91
33,293
98
37,925
Liibeck ....
L869
13
5,432
32
6,210
45
11,642
PAET I.
THE STATES OF EUROPE,
AUSTRIA.
(Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie.)
Reigning Emperor and Family.
Franz Joseph L, Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary, bora
August 18, 1830, the son of Archduke Franz Karl and of Arch-
duchess Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Educated under the care of
his mother, by Count Henri Bombelles, the descendant of an ancient
family of French emigrants. Appointed Governor of Bohemia,
April 5, 1848; took part in the battle of Santa-Lucia, near Verona,
May 6, 1848; declared of age, December 1, 1848. Proclaimed
Emperor of Austria in consequence of the abdication of his uncle,
Ferdinand I., and the renunciation of the crown by his father,
December 2, 1848 ; crowned King of Hungary, and took the oath
on the Hungarian Constitution, June 8, 1867. Married April 24,
1854, to
Elisabeth, Empress of Austria, and Queen of Hungary, born
December 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria.
Offspring of the union are three children: 1. Archduchess Gisela,
born July 12, 1856; 2. Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent, born
August 21, 1858 ; 3. Archduchess Maria, born April 22, 1868.
Brothers of the Emperor. — 1. Archduke Karl Iwdwig, field-
marshal-lieutenant in the Imperial army, born July 30, 1833;
married, Oct, 21, 1862, to Princess Annunciata, born March 24,
1843, daughter of the late King Ferdinando II. of Naples. Offspring
of the union are three sons and one daughter, Franz, born Decem-
ber 18, 1863 ; Otto, born April 21, 1865; Ferdinand, born December
27, 1688; and Sophie, born May 13, 1870. 2. Archditske Ludwig,
major-general in the Imperial army, born May 15, 1842.
Parents of the Emperor. — Archduke Franz Karl, born Dee. 7,
1802, son of the late Emperor Franz I., from his second marriage
with a daughter of King Ferdinando I. of Naples. Renounced
the throne in favour of his eldest son, Dec. 2, 1848 ; married Nov. 4,
1824, to Princess Sophie, born Jan. 27, 1805, daughter of the late
King Maxim ilian I. of Bavaria.
Uncle and Aunt of the Emperor. — 1. Emperor Ferdinand I.,
born April 19, 1793, eldest son of the late Emperor Franz I.;
b 2
4 AUSTRIA.
succeeded his father March 2, 1835 ; crowned King of Hungary
and Bohemia, Sept. 7, 1836 ; abdicated the throne in favour of his
nephew, after previous renunciation of his brother, Dec. 2, 1848;
married Feb. 27, 1831, to Empress Anna, born Sept. 19, 1803.
2. Princess Marin Clementina, born March 1, 1798, daughter of
the late King Vittorio Emanuele I. of Sardinia; married, July 28,
1816, to Leopoldo, Prince of Salerno, royal Prince of Naples; widow
March 10, 1851.
Step-grandmother of the Emperor. — Empress Caroline, born
Feb. 8, 1792, daughter of the late King Maximilian of Bavaria,
married, in fourth nuptials, to the Lite Emperor Franz I., Nov. 10,
1816 ; crowned Queen of Hungary, Sept. 25, 1825 ; widow March 2,
1835.
Other Relations of the Emperor. — 1. Archduke Albrecht, born
Aug. 3, 1817, son of the late Archduke Karl, the celebrated general;
field -marshal and commander-in-chief of the army of the Em-
pire, 1868-69; married, May 1, 1844, to Princess Hildegarde
of Bavaria, who died April 2, 1864. Offspring of the union is one
daughter, Maria Theresa, born July 15, 1845 ; married, Jan. 18,
1865, to Prince Philipp of "VYurtemberg. 2. Archduke Karl
Ferdinand, commander-in-chief of the 4th corps d'armee, and com-
manding general in Moravia and Silesia, born July 29, 1818,
brother of the preceding Archduke Albrecht; married, April 18,
1854, to Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria, born Jan. 17, 1831.
Offspring of the union are three sons, Friedrich, born June 4,
1856, Karl, born Sept. 5, 1860, Eugen Ferdinand, born May
21, 1863, and one daughter, Marie Christina, born July 21,
1858. 3. Archduke Wilhelvi, inspector-general of the artillery,
born April 21, 1827, brother of the two preceding archdukes.
4. Archduke Leopold, inspector-general of the Imperial corps of
engineers, born June 6, 1823, the son of Archduke Eainer, fifth
brother of the Emperor Franz I. 5. Archduke Ernst, commander
of the 3rd corps d'armee, born Aug. 8, 1824, the brother of the
preceding Archduke Leopold. 6. Archduke Sigismund, commander
of the 45th regiment of Imperial infantry, born Jan. 7, 1826, the
brother of the two preceding archdid^es. 7. Archduke Rainer,
administrator of the Imperial academy of sciences, born Jan. 11,
1827, brother of the three preceding archdukes; married, February
21, ]iS52, to Archduchess Marie Caroline, daughter of the late
Archduke Karl of Austria. 8. Archduke llenirich, major-general
in the Imperial army, born May 9, 1828, brother of the four
preceding archdukes; married, February 4, 1868, to Leopokline
Hoffmann, elevated Countess Waideck.
Besides the above, there are eighteen other Archdukes and Arch-
duchesses of Austria, members of the formerly reigning branches of
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 5
Tuscany and of Modena. Head of the first branch is Archduke
Ferdinand, born June 10, 1835, nominal Grand Duke of Tuscany
from Julv 21, 1859, to March 22, 1860, now resident at Salz-
burg; head of the second branch is Archduke Francis, born June
1, 1819, Duke of Modena from 1846 to 1860, now resident at Vienna.
The Imperial family of Austria descend from Rudolf of Habs-
burg, a German Count, born 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the
Holy Roman empire in 1273. The male line died out in 1740 with
Emperor Karl VI., whose only daughter, Maria Theresa, gave her
hand to Duke Franz I. of Tuscany, of the House of Lorraine,
who thereby became the founder of the new line of Habsburg-
Lorraine. Maria Theresa was succeeded, in 1780, by her son
Joseph II., who, dying in 1790, left the Crown to his brother
Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his son Franz I. ascended the
throne, who reigned till 1835, and having been married, four times,
left a large family, the members of which and their descendants
form the present Imperial House. Franz was the first sovereign who
assumed the title of Emperor, or 'Kaiser,' of Austria, after having been
compelled by Napoleon to renounce the Imperial Crown of Germany,
for more than five centuries in the Habsburg family. The assump-
tion of the title of Kaiser of Austria took place on August 11,
1804. Franz I. was succeeded by his son, the still living Emperor
Ferdinand, on whose abdication, Dec. 2,_ 1848, the Crown fell to
his nephew Franz Joseph I., the fifth Emperor of Austria of the
house of Habsburg-Lorraine.
The following is a list of the sovereigns of Austria, descendants of
Rudolf of Habsburg, with the date of their accession : —
House of Habshurg.
Matthias . . . .1611
Ferdinand II 1619
Ferdinand III. . . . 10:37
Leopold I. . . . 16. 5 7
Joseph I. .... 170-5
Karl II 1711
Maria Theresa . . . 1740
House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Joseph II 1780
Leopold II 1790
Rudolf 1 127 S
Albert 1 1291
Friedrieh ' the Handsome ' . 1308
Albert II 1313
Rudolf II 1358
Albert III 136-3
Albert IV 1395
Albert V 1401
Friedrieh II 1439
Maximilian 1 1493
Karl I. ; t he Fifth ' of Germany 1519
Ferdinand 1 1556 Franz I. . .... 1792
Maximilian II. 1564 Ferdinand IV. . . . 1835
Rudolf II 1576 J Franz Joseph I. . . . 1848
The average reign of the above twenty-six emperors of the House
of Habsburg, who ruled over Austria for nearly six centuries, filling,
in most instances, likewise the throne of Germany (see page 94),
comprises a term of twenty -two years.
0 AUSTRIA.
Constitution and Government.
Austria has become moulded, since the year 1867, into a bipartite
state, consisting of a German, or ' Cisleithan,' monarchy, and a
Magyar, or ' Transleithan,' kingdom, the former commonly known
as Austria Proper, and the latter as Hungary. Each of the two
countries has its own parliament, ministers, and government, while
the connecting ties between them consists in the person of the
hereditary sovereign, in a common army and navy, and in a govei'n-
ing body known as the Delegations. The Delegations form a parlia-
ment oi' 120 members, one-half of whom are chosen by and represent
the legislature of German Austria, and the other half that oi
Hungary, the Upper House of each returning 20, and the Lower
House 40 deputies. In all matters affecting the common affairs
(Gemeinsame Angelegenheiten), the Delegations have a decisive
vote, and their resolutions require neither the confirmation nor
approbation of the representative assemblies in which they have
their source. The ordinary mode of procedure for the Delegations
is to sit and vote in two chambers, the 60 deputies of Austria Proper
forming the one, and the 60 of Hungary the other. But it is pro-
A-ided that if no agreement can be arrived at in this manner, the two
bodies must meet together, and, without further debate, give their
final vote, which is binding for the whole Empire. Specially within
the jurisdiction of the Delegations are all matters affecting Foreign
Affairs, War, and Finance. Each of these has its own executive
department, viz. : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the Whole Empire. — Count
Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, born at Dresden, January 13, 1809;
educated for the diplomatic career; secretary of Legation for Saxony
in England, 1836-38; in France, 1838-41; in Bavaria, 1848;
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Saxony, February
1849 till September 18G6 ; appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs
of Austria, October 30, 1866 ; President of the Austrian Council of
Ministers, Feb. 24 to Dec. 29, 1867; nominated Chancellor of the
Empire, June 23, 1867 ; Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Whole
Empire, Dec. 29, 1867.
2. The Ministry of War for the Whole Empire.— Field Marshal
Baron Franz Kulin von Kuhnenfeld ; nominated Minister of War
for the Whole Empire, Dec. 29, 1867.
3. The Ministry of Finance for the Whole Empire. — Melchior
Lonyay, Minister of Finance of Hungary from February 1867 to
June 187<»; appointed Minister of Finance for the Whole Empire,
June 10, 1870.
The above ministers are solely responsible for the discharge of their
official functions to the Delegations.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT GERMAN AUSTRIA.
German Austria.
The first constitution of German Austria, or ' Cisleithania,' was
granted under date of March 4f 1849, but this was repealed by an
Imperial decree of Dec. 31, 1851, which substituted a more absolute
1'orm of government ; and, during the following years, new edicts
altered the public charter. Finally, by an Imperial diploma, dated
Oct. 20, I860, followed by a decree, or ' Patent,' of February 26,
1861, the present Constitution, temporarily suspended from 1865 till
1867, was established. Its main features are a double Legislature,
consisting, first, of the Provincial Diets, representing the various states
of the monarchy, and secondly, a Central Diet, called the Reichsrath
or Council of the Empire. There are fourteen Provincial Diets —
namely, for Bohemia, Dalmatia, Galicia, Upper Austria, Lower
Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Bukowina, Moravia,
Silesia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, and the coastland, or Istria and
Trieste. The Diets of all these provinces are formed in nearly the
same manner, only differing in the number of deputies. Each con-
sists of only one assembly, composed, 1st, of the archbishop and
bishops of the Roman Catholic and Oriental Greek churches and the
chancellors of universities : 2nd, of the representatives of great
estates, elected by all landowners paying not less than 100 florins,
or 10^., taxes ; 3rd, of the representatives of towns, elected by
those citizens who possess municipal rights ; 4th, of the representa-
tives of boards of commerce and trade-guilds, chosen by the respect-
ive members ; and 5th, of the representatives of rural communes,
elected by such inhabitants as pay a small amount of direct taxation.
The Provincial Diets are competent to make laws concerning local
administration, particularly those affecting county taxation, the
cultivation of the soil, educational, church, and charitable institu-
tions, and public works executed at the public expense.
The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Empire,
consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House
(Herren-haus) is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family
who are of age, twelve in number in 1870 ; 2nd, of a number of
nobles — fifty-three in the present Reichsrath — possessing large landed
property, in whose families the dignity is hereditary ; 3rd, of
the archbishops, nine in number, and bishops, seven in number,
who are of princely title, inherent to their episcopal seat; and
4th, of any other life-members nominated by the emperor, on
account of being distinguished in art or science, or who have
rendered signal services to Church or State — ninety-four in the
present Reichsrath. The Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) is com-
posed of 203 members, elected by the fourteen Provincial Diets of
8 AUSTRIA.
the empire in the following proportions : Bohemia, 54 ; Dalmatia, 5 ;
Galicia, 38; Upper Austria, 10; Lower Austria, 18; Salzburg, 3;
Styria, 13; Carinthia, 5 ; Carniola, 6 ; Bukowina, 5 ; Moravia, 22 ;
Silesia, 6 ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 12 ; and Istria and Trieste, 6. The
election for the Lower House of the Reichsrath is made in the assembled
Provincial Diets, and the elected deputies must be members of such
Diets. The emperor has the right, however, to order the elections to
take place directly by the various constituencies of the provincial repre-
sentatives, should the Diets refuse or neglect to send members to the
Reichsrath. The emperor nominatesthe presidents and vice-presidents
of both Chambers of the Reichsrath, the remaining functionaries being
chosen by the members of the two Houses. It is incumbent upon
the head of the State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The
rights which, in consequence of the diploma of Oct. 20, 1860, and
the ' Patent' of Feb. 26, 1861, are conferred upon the Reichsrath,
are as follows: — 1st, Consent to all laws relating to military duty ;
2nd, Co-operation in the legislature on trade and commerce, customs,
banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters ; 3rd, Examination
of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; of the
bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds ; and
general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills passed by
the Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as
the sanction of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper
and the Lower House have the right to propose new laws on subjects
within the competence of the Reichsrath ; but in all other matters
the initiative belongs solely to the Government.
The executive of Austria Proper consists of the following nine
departments : —
1. The Presidency of the Council. — Count Alfred Potocti, born
in Galicia, 1825 ; Member of the Upper House of the Reichsrath,
1861-65. Minister of Agriculture 1867-70.
2. The Ministry of the Interior and National Defence (Landesver-
theidigung). — Count Eduard von Taaffe, born ?.t Prague, 1833,
the grandson of Rudolf, 7th Viscount Taaffe in the peerage ot
Ireland; educated as companion of the Emperor Franz Joseph I. ;
Governor of the Province of Salzburg, 1863-67; Minister of the
Interior of the Cisleithan monarchy, January to December, 1867 ;
President of the Cisleithan Council of Ministers, 1869-70; appointed
Minister of the Interior National Defence, Dec. 30, 1867.
3. The Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Carl von Stremai/er, appointed July 1870.
4. The Ministry of Finance.— Baron Ludwig von Holzgethan,
appointed Sept. 1870.
5. The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. — Baron A. von
Petrino, appointed June 1870.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT HUNGARY. g
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Chevalier A. von Tschubuschnigc/,
appointed July 1870.
The responsibility of ministers for acts committed in the discharge
of their official functions was established by a bill which passed the
Eeichsrath in July 1867. and received the sanction of the emperor
on the 21st of December 1870.
Hungary.
The constitution of the eastern part of the empire, or the kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia, Slavonia, and Tran-
sylvania, is of very ancient date, and based mainly upon unwritten
laws that grew up in the course of centuries. There exists nit
charter, or constitutional code, but in place of it are fundamental
statutes, published at long intervals of time. The principal of them,
the ' Aurea Bulla' of King Andrew II., was granted in 1222, and
changed the form of government, which had until then been
completely autocratic, into an aristocratic monarchy. Almost all
subsequent rulers endeavoured, though with little or no success, to
extend the royal prerogatives, the struggle lasting, with more or less
interruption, till the year 1867, when the present king, having failed
in his attempt to weld Hungary to the rest of his dominions, acknow-
ledged and took oath upon the ancient constitution, modified, in
the meanwhile, by laws and decrees issued after the revolution of
1849, which had brought about the temporary establishment of a
republic.
The legislative power rests conjointly in the King and the
Diet, or Reichstag. The latter consists of an upper and a lower
house, the first known as the House of Magnates, and the second
as the House of Representatives. The House of Magnates was
composed, in the session of 1870, of 410 members, namely 3 Princes
of the reigning houses; 31 Archbishops and Bishops of the Koman
Catholic and Greek churches; 68 Peers of Hungary (Barones et
comites regni) ; 3 Princes ; 219 Counts; 81 Barons; and 5 deputies
of Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania. It is permitted by ancient
custom that magnates who cannot appear in person may send deputies,
as may also the widows of magnates.
The lower house, or House of Eepresentatives of Hungary, is com-
posed of representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all
citizens, of full age, who pay direct taxes to the amount of eight
gulden, or 16s., per annum. No distinction is made, either as regards
electors or representatives, on account of race or religion. New
elections must take place every three years. By the electoral law
in force in the session of 1870, the House of Eepresentatives con-
sisted of 438 members, of which number 88 were deputies of
Hungarian towns and cities, 289 of Hungarian county districts, and
10 AUSTRIA.
61 delegates of Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania. The right to
summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Diet rests with the king, but
in the case of a dissolution new elections must take place within
three months. The Diet has to meet in annual session.
The executive of the Transleithan kingdom is exercised, in the
name of the king, by a responsible ministry, consisting of a president
and nine departments, namely : —
The Presidency of the Council. — Count Gyula Andrdssy, of Csih-
Szent-Kirdtji and Kraszna-Horka, born March 8, 1823; representa-
tive of Zemplin in the Hungarian Diet, 1847-49; ambassador ot
the ' Republic of Hungary ' to the Sultan of Turkey, 1849 ; exiled
1849-60; re-elected representative of the district of Zemplin in
the Hungarian Diet, 1861. Appointed president of the council
of ministers by royal rescript, approved by the Diet, February 17r
1867.
1. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung). —
Count Gyula Andrdssy, President of the Council, appointed pro
tempore.
2. The Ministry near the King's person {ad latus). — Count
George Festetics, appointed Minister ad latus, or Representative of
the Hungarian Government near the person of the King, February
24, 1867.
3. The Ministry of Finance.— Baron Kerkapolyi, appointed June
1870.
4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Paul von Sajner, appointed
October 24, 1869.
5. The Ministry of Education and of Public "Worship. — Baron
Joseph Eotvos, born at Buda, September 3, 1813 ; studied juris-
prudence, but devoted himself after a time exclusively to literature,
publishing a great number of dramas, romances, and political works;
Hungarian minister of education, 1848-49 ; exiled 1849-52 ;
elected representative of Buda in the Hungarian Diet, 1861.
Appointed minister of education and of public worship, February
24, 1867.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Balthasar Horvdth, appointed Feb-
ruary 24, 1867.
7. The Ministry of Public Works. — Stephan Gorover Minister
of Agriculture and Commerce 1867-70 ; appointed Minister of
Public Works, July 1870.
8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. — Baron
J. Szldvy, appointed July 1870.
9. The Ministry for Croatia and Slavonia. — Count Bedelcovich,
appointed Dec. 8, 1868.
The sovereign of Hungary, though acknowledged as Emperor of
Austria, is styled ' king' in all public acts.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION.
II
Church and Education.
The State religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, but there is
complete toleration lor all dissenters from it, of -whatever form of
belief. According to the returns of the last census, rather more
than 66 per cent, of the inhabitants of the Empire are Roman
Catholics, while of the remainder 11 per cent, are Greek Catholics;
10 per cent. Evangelical Protestants, and 9 per cent. Byzantine
Greeks. The following table shows the numbers, in thousands, of
the various religious denominations, and the relative per-centage of
each, in Cisleithan and Transleithan Austria, as well as in the whole
Empire.
Roman Catholics. .
Greek Catholics . .
Evangl. Protestants .
Byzantine Greeks
Unitarians ....
Catholic Armenians .
Other Sects . . .
Total . . .
Cisleithan Austria
Transleithan
Austria
Whole Empire
Numbers ' _„,.„(.
in COO Percent-
Numbers
in 000
per cent.
Numbers
in 000
percent.
15,766
2,303
351
490
683
4
6
80.4
11.7
1.7
2-5
3-5
0-2
7,120
1,498
3,088
2,630
428
54
9
2
48-0
10-1
20-8
17-7
2.9
0.3
0.1
23.265
3,861
3,495
3,166
1,121
55
13
8
66-4
11-0
10-0
9-0
32
0-2
o-i
o-i
19,603
100
14,830
100
34,984
100
The ecclesiastical hierarchy of Austria comprises 11 Roman
Catholic archbishops — of Vienna, Salzburg, Gbrz, Prag, Olmutz,
Lemberg, Zara, Gran, Erlau, Kalocsa, and Agram ; 2 Greek
Catholic archbishops — at Lemberg and Blasendorf ; 1 Greek Byzan-
tine archbishop, and 1 Catholic Armenian archbishop. The Roman
Catholic Church has further 57 bishops, with chapters and consistories,
and 48 abbots of ancient endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria,
Illyria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Hungary has 22 abbots with endow-
ments, 124 titular abbots, 41 endowed, 29 titular prebendaries,
and 3 college foundations. Transylvania has 3 titular abbots,
and upwards of 150 monasteries and convents; and Galicia 70
monasteries. The Greek United Church has 1 archbishop and
1 bishop in Galicia, and 5 bishops in Hungary. The Armenian
Catholic Church has an archbishop at Lemberg. The Archbishop of
Carlowitz is head of the Greek Church, with 10 bishops and 60
12 AUSTRIA.
protopapas, or deans. Very extensive powers, secured by a special
Concordate with the Pontifical government, were formerly possessed
by the Roman Catholic clergy in Cisleithan Austria, but the whole oi
these were swept away in 1867 and 1868, by a series of laws enacted
by the Reichsrath, the last and most important of which — passed in
April 1868 — established civil marriage, and the perfect equality of
all religious creeds. In Hungary and Transylvania, the various
Christian sects have long enjoyed equal rights with the Roman
Catholics.
The extent of landed property in Austria belonging to the Roman
Catholic Church is very considerable. Though reduced in number
within the last half century, there are still nearly 300 abbeys, and
above 500 convents in the empire. The Protestants have no churches
endowed by the state out of Hungary and Transylvania, the clergy
being chosen and supported by their congregations.
Education until very recently was in a greatly backward state in
Austria, the bulk of the agricultural population, constituting two-
thirds of the inhabitants of the Empire, being almost entirely illite-
rate. During the last twenty years, however, vigorous efforts have
been made to bring about an improvement, by founding schools,
and appointing teachers, partly at the expense of communes, and
partly, but less, at that of the state. It was enacted by a series
of decrees issued in the years 1848 and 1849, that education should
be general and compulsory, and the principle, though not adhered
to in Transleithan Austria, nor in those parts of Cisleithan Austria
inhabited by people belonging to the Slavonian race, was fully
carried out among the Germanic population of the empire. In the
major part of German Austria, the law enforces the compulsory
attendance in the ' Volks-schulen,' or National Schools, of all
children between the ages of six and twelve, and parents are liable
to punishment for neglect. It is very rare, however, that cases
occur in which penalties for non-attendance at school have to be
enforced. The cost of public education mainly falls on the
communes, but of late years the state has come forward to assist.
In the year 1868, the sum provided for public education in the
budget of Cisleithan Austria was only 74,636 florins, or 7,463/. ;
but the amount was increased in the budget of 1869 to 5,810,326
florins, or 581,032/. The budget of Transleithan Austria for
1869 set aside the sum of 1,346,400 florins, or 134,640^., towards
public instruction, giving a total of 7,156,726 florins, or 715,672/.,
for the whole Empire, 'flic sums voted were destined, in the first
instance, to assist in the establishment of schools for primary
education.
There are 8 universities in the empire, at Vienna, Prague, Pesth,
Gratz, Cracow, Innspruck, Lemberg, and Linz. The number of
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
i-3
students attending these universities amounted, in 1868, to above
9,000, about one-fourth of which number were at Vienna. Next in
rank to the universities stand the theological seminaries, 125 in
number, with 4,500 pupils; and the Polytechnic schools, 11 in
number, with 3,000 pupils. The German-speaking population of
the empire is most advanced in general education ; and least the
people of the provinces of Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. — (Report
of the Imperial-royal Government to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Revenue and Expenditure.
In accordance with the political constitution of the Austrian
empire, which recognises three distinct parliaments, there are also
three distinct budgets : the first, that of the Delegations, for the
whole empire ; the second, that of the Reichsrath, for German or
Cisleithan Austria ; and the third, that of the Hungarian diet, for
the Transleithan kingdom, or Hungary. By an agreement, or
so-called ' compromise,' entered into, in February 1868, between the
governments and legislatures of German Austria and Hungary, the
former has to pay seventy and the latter thirty per cent, towards the
' common expenditure of the empire,,' not including the interest of
the national debt, which formed the subject of a special treaty. (See
p. 16.)
Budget for the Whole Empire.
The estimates of expenditure, ordinary and extraordinary, for the
1 common affairs of the Empire,' for the year 1869, laid before, and
approved by the Delegations, were as follows : —
Ordinary Expenditure : —
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War \ Arm^' 69>?77,692 >
Ministry ot Uar j ^^ 7,461,132 }
Ministry of Finance ....
Total .
Extraordinary Expenditure : —
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
nr • 4- t «r S Army, 4,739,681 "1
Ministry of War i -*-. " r«w»n«oo 5
J I .Navy, 1,289,028 J
Ministry of Finance ....
Total .
Total estimated expenditure for 1869
Florins
£
4,081,959
77,238,824
1,788,215
408,195
7,723,882
178,821
83,108,998
101,481
6,028,709
13,830
8,310,899
10,148
602,870
1,383
6,144,020
614,402
89,253,018
8,925,301
H
AUSTRIA.
The only source of revenue directly apportioned to meet the
expenditure for the common affairs of the Empire is that derived
from the customs, calculated to produce 7,927,000 florins in the
year 1869. Thus the budget estimates of the year summed up : —
Estimated Kevenue
„ Expenditure ....
Deficit .
Florins
£
7,927,000
89,253,018
792,700
8,925,301
81,326,018
8,132,601
The actual receipts of the year 1869 were reported to the Delega-
tions, in the session of 1870, as having been below, and the expen-
diture above the estimates.
The budget estimates for 1870 fixed the expenditure for the com-
mon affairs of the Empire at 83,249,695 florins, or 8,324,969/., of
which amount 24,974,908 florins, or 2,497,490/. was allotted to
Hungary. The estimated revenue from customs for the year 1870
was 10,056,000 florins, or 1,005,600/.
Budget for Cisleithan Austria.
The financial estimates for 1869, approved by the Reichsrath, were
calculated upon a total revenue of 296,284, 176 florins, or 29,628,417/.,
for the year, and a total expenditure of 299,326,671 florins, or
29,932,667/., leaving a deficit of 3,042,495 florins, or 304,249/.
The details of the estimated gross revenue for the year 1869 were
as follows: —
Direct taxes
Florins
£
75,884,001
7,588,400
43,184,076
4,318,407
Customs' duties .....
12.500,000
1,250,000
Salt monopoly .....
19,562.327
1,956,232
Tobacco monopoly .....
43,158,066
4,315,806
11,747,230
1,174,723
Judicial fees ......
19,397.075
1,939,707
State lottery ......
14,117,681
1,411,768
Tolls
2,603,688
260,368
State domains
5,467,701
546,770
Mines and mint .....
9,395,918
939,591
Post and telegraphs ....
12,212,500
1,221,250
Sale of State property ....
3,000,000
300,000
Funds of the Government ' Central Bank '
4,200,000
420,000
Funds of the public debt commission
5,700,000
570,000
Miscellaneous receipts ....
4,153.913
415,391
Surplus of former loans ....
Total estimated revenue of 1869 .
10,000,000
1,000,000
296,284,176
29,628,417 1
REYENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
15
The details of the estimated gross expenditure for 1869 were as
follows: —
Imperial household
Florins
£
3,450,000
345,000
Imperial Cabinet Chancery
60,514
6,051
490,838
49,083
Council of Ministers ....
€8,919
6,891
Ministry of the Interior ....
13,120,209
1,312,020
„ National Defence .
4,016,837
401,683
„ Public Education .
5,810,326
581,032
„ Agriculture ....
2,176,300
217,630
„ Finance ....
85,320,371
8,532,037
,, Justice ....
13,892,987
1,389,298
„ Commerce and Public Works
13,630,700
1,363.070
Board of Control .....
195,000
19,500
Interest on public debt ....
90,222,457
9,022,245
Administration of Public Debt
1,680,000
168,000
Cisleithan portion of the Common Expen-
diture of the Empire, including War
and Foreign Affairs ....
Total estimated expenditure of 1869 .
65,191,213
6,519,121
299,326,671
29,932,667
The largest branch of expenditure, as will fee seen from the above
statement, is the interest on the public debt, the burthen of which falls
mainly on the Cisleithan part of the monarchy. This debt has grown
up gradually since the middle of the last century. At the end of the
Seven Years' War, in 1763, Austria had a debt of 150,000,000
florins, or 15,000,000/., which grew to 283,000,000 florins, or
28,300,000/., in 1781, and at the commencement of the French Ee-
volution, in 1789, had risen to 349,000,000 florins, or 34,900,000/.
From this period the debt grew in extraordinary proportions ; rising
to 825,000,000 florins, or 82,500,000^., in 1815 ; to 987,000,000
florins, or 98,700,000/., in 1820; to 1,084,000,000 florins, or
108,000,000/., in 1830; to 1,250,000,000 florins, or 125,000,000/.,
in 1848; and to 3,009,804,134 florins, or 300,980,413/., in 1868.
The war against Prussia and Italy, in the summer of 1866,
increased the public debt by about 300,000,000 florins; but, on
the other hand, freed Austria from the Lombardo-Venetian Debt,
which, by the terms of the Peace of Prague, of August 23, 1866,
was transferred to the kingdom of Italy. From 1789 until the
present time, there was not a year in Avhich the revenue of the State
came up to the expenditure.
i6
AUSTRIA.
The following was the amount of the public debt of the Austrian
Empire on the 1st of June 1868 :—
Consolidated debt — old .
„ ,, new .
Floating debt .
Total .
Florins
£
9,701,621
2,574,889,070
425,213,443
970,162
257,488,907
42,521,344
3,009,804,134
300,980,413
The total annual interest on this debt amounted, on the 1st of
June, 1868, to 126,982,961 florins, or 12,698,296/. To this sum,
the kingdom of Hungary had to contribute 32,126,900 florins, or
3,212,690/., according to the terms of an agreement come to in
May 1868 by the Delegations and the governments of the Cisleithan
and Transleithan parts of the monarchy, by which the latter
has to pay thirty per cent, towards the charges of the national debt
of Austria, as then in existence. It was stipulated at the same time
that loans after that date must be contracted separately by either
part of the Empire.
Budget for Transleithan Austria.
The Hungarian budget for the year 1869, laid before and approved
by the Diet, estimated the revenue of the kingdom at 148,708,600
florins, or 14,870,860/., and the ordinary and extraordinary ex-
penditure at 154,038,599 florins, or 15,403,859/., leaving a deficit
of 5,329,999 florins, or 532,999/. The gross details of the esti-
mated revenue of the year were as follows : —
Florins.
£
Ordinary Expenditure : —
Iioyal Household .....
3,250,000
325,000
Royal Cabinet Chancery
.
60,500
6,050
Presidency of the Council
117,100
11,710
Ministry ' ad latus'
78,000
7,800
„ of Finance
49,516.200
4,951,620
,, „ the Interior
.
9,141,800
914,180
„ „ Education .
.
1,346,400
134,640
,, „ Justice
2,965,300
296,530
„ Public Works
2,773,600
277,360
„ „ Agriculture and Commerce .
5,310,200
531,020
Share of the Debt of the Empire
32,126,900
3,212,690
Transleithan Portion of the Common Ex-
penditure of the Empire
Total Ordinary Expenditure .
22,554,599
2,255,459
129,240,599
12,924,059
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
17
Extraordinary Expenditure : —
Ministry of Finance ....
„ „ the Interior
,, ,, Justice ....
„ Public Works .
,, „ Agriculture and Commerce .
Expenditure on Railways and Canals .
Florins
£
1,200,000
600,000
10,000
600,000
159,000
22,229,000
120,000
60,000
1,000
60,000
15,900
2,222,900
Total extraordinary expenditure .
24,798,000
2,479,800
Total estimated expenditure for 1869 .
15-1,038,599
15,403,859
The Kingdom, besides its share of the national debt of the
Austrian empire, has a debt of its own, amounting at the end of
1870, to 84,000,000 florins, or 8,400,000/. The debt consists of
two foreign loans, the first, for the amount of 60,000,000 florins, or
6,000,000/., contracted, in June 1868, at Paris and Amsterdam ;
and the second, for the amount of 24,000,000 florins, or 2,400,000/.,
issued, in April 1870, at Vienna and Frankfort. Both loans bear
interest at five per cent., and are repayable, by means of sinking
funds, in fifty years.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
According to official returns, Austria possessed, at the commence-
ment of 1869, a standing army numbering 278,470 men, on the
peace-footing, and 838,700 on the war-footing, organised as
follows : —
Number
Description of Troops of Standing Army
Peace
War
footing
footing I
Infantry : —
80 regiments of the line, each composed of 3 field
battalions, 2 reserve battalions, and 1 depot
battalion .......
121,840
485,440
14 Military frontier regiments, 6 of 3, and 8 of 4
battalions .....
12,307
53,823
1 regiment of ' Kaiser-jager,' of Tyrol, and 33 bat-
talions of 'Feld-jager' .....
20,251
54,463
12 companies of ambulance and hospital service .
Total of infantry .
Cavalry : —
1,180
3,876
155,578
597,602
14 regiments of dragoons, 12 heavy, and 2 light;
14 regiments of hussars ; and 2 regiments of
kncers Total of cavalry .
35,793
58,794
AUSTRIA.
Number
Description of Troops of Standing Army — continued
Peace-
War-
footing
footing
Artillery : —
12 regiments of field-artillery, each of 14 batteries
17,880
43,836
12 battalions of fortress, anil 2 battalions of rnoun-
I
Total of artillery .
7,778
18,938 j
25,658
~62,774 j
Engineers and Train : —
2 regiments of ' Genie,' each of 4 battalions .
4.662
13,240
1 regiment of pioneers, of 5 battalions .
2,803
7,747
54 squadrons of ' Fuhrwesen,' or train .
Total of engineers and train .
Miscellaneous Establishments : —
2,401
24,147
45,134
9.866
Military instruction ......
2,234
2,234
Topographical survey ......
128
128
Commissariat and clothing departments .
3,705
7,200
Sanitary department ......
1,291
6,200
Arsenals, military stores, and buildings .
3,000
4,500
Army studs ........
5,800
5,800
Military police and gensdarmes ....
Total of miscellaneous establishments
Total, inclusive troops of reserve .
7,700
7,700
23,858
33,762
278,470
838,700
The general staff of the army on active service, in April, 1869,
comprised 3 field-marshals, 18 generals of infantry (Feldzeug-
meister), and generals of cavalry; 72 generals of division, and 111
generals of brigade. There were besides non-active, 28 generals of
infantry, and generals of cavalry, 150 generals of division, and 193
generals of brigade.
By the terms of the ' Compromise ' come to between Austria and
Hungary, on which was based a new army organisation, coming
into operation in 1869, the military forces of the whole empire are
divided into the Standing army, the Landwehr, or militia, and
the Landsturm. The regiments of the Standing army are under
the control of the Minister of War of the Empire, and the Landwehr
under the control of the Austrian and Hungarian Ministers of Landes-
vertheidigung. All orders relating to great concentrating movements
of troops must emanate from the King-Emperor, the supreme chief
of the whole of the military and naval forces of the Empire.
The Standing army is formed by conscription, to which every
man is liable who has reached his 20th year. The term of service
is ten years, three of which the soldier must spend in active service,
after which he is enrolled for the remaining seven years in the army
ARMY AND NAVY.
19
of reserve. Quite distinct from the Standing army is the Landwehr,
the term of service in which is twelve years, but with military
duties limited to the respective divisions of the Empire from which
it is drawn. The entry into the Landstm-rn, or general levy, is
compulsory only in Tyrol and the Military Frontier, and made up
of volunteers in the rest of the Empire.
Austria has 2-i fortresses of the first and second rank, namely,
Comorn, Carlsburg, Temesvar, Peterwardein, Eszek, Brod, Carl-
stadt, Canove, Arrat, Munkacs, Cracow, Gradisca, Olmiitz,
Leopoldstadt, Prague, Brixen, Theresienstadt, Kufstein, Linz,
Salzburg, Buda, Bagusa, Zara, and Pola. The last-named is the
chief naval fortress of the empire.
2. Navy.
The naval forces of Austria consisted, in April, 1869, according
to official returns, of 45 steamers and 10 sailing vessels. The
following table gives the names of all the men-of-war, with their
horse-power, guns, and tonnage : —
Steamers
Iron-clad Line of Battle Ships : —
Lissa
Iron- clad Frigates :-
Ferdinand Max
Habsburg .
Juan d' Austria
Kaiser Max
Prince Eugen
Salamander
Screw Frigates : —
Schwarzenberg
Screw Corvettes : —
Erzherzog Friedri
First-class Gunboatt
ch .
Horse-
power
Guns
Tonnage
1,000
12
5,711
800
10
5,427
800
16
4,757
800
16
4,757
650
12
3,330
650
12
3,330
650
12
3,330
500
10
2,824
500
10
2,824
500
45
2,497
400
46
2,514
300
29
2,198
300
29
2,198
230
22
1,594
230
22
1,474
400
6
1,635
230
4
869
230
4
869
230
4
869
230
4
852
230
4
852 |
c 2
20
AUSTRIA.
Steamers — continued.
Horse-
power
Guri3
Tonnage
First-class Gunboats, — continued : —
Reka
230
4
852
Wall .
.
230
4
852
Second-class Gunboats: —
Sansego
90
3
333
Gemse
90
3
333
Grille .
90
3
333
Screw Sloops ; —
90
2
501
Narenta .......
90
2
501
45
2
348 '
Paddle Steamers: —
Elisabeth . . .
350
6
1.472
Greif .
300
2
1.260
I Lucia .
300
2
1,353
Triest .
220
2
1,102
Andreas Hofer
160
4
770
Curtatone .
160
4
751
Fantasie
120
4
427
Fiume
120
2
410
Vulcan
120
4
403
Taurus
100
5
657
Gargnans
270
2
377
Hentzi
1 45
4
139
Alnock
40
4
110
Turn und Taxis
40
2
118
Messagere .
20
2
51
Gorzkowsky
16
2
42 i
Sailing Ships
Guns
Tonnage
Frigates : —
Bellona
35
1.542
Vesuv (school-skip) .....
—
1,490
Corvettes : —
Carolina ......
18
S60
Minerva .......
12
556
Brigs and Schooners : —
Montecuccoli .....
16
586
Arethusa .......
10
154
Arthemisia .......
8
167
6
269
Transports : —
Camaeleon .......
— .
143
Pylades .
4
—
ARMY AND NAVY. 2 1
Not included in the above list of men-of-war are various steamers
and sailing ships, 12 in number, laid up in harbour, mostly at Pola,
for special purposes, such as artillery practice, and the training of
boys for the Imperial navy — both objects markedly attended to in
recent years by the Government.
The navy of Austria was commanded in April 1869, on the peace-
footing, by 2 vice-admirals, -4 rear-admirals-,. 14 captains of ships-of-
the-line, 13 captains of frigates, 14 captains of corvettes, 106 lieu-
tenants, and 343 ensigns and cadets, and manned by 3,803 sailors.
The marines, at the same date, comprised 1 colonel, 1 lieut.-colonel,
1 major, 7 captains, 23 lieutenants, and 842 non-commissioned officers
and privates. On the war-footing, the sailors are to number 8,743
men, and the marines 1,410. The navy is-recruited, like the army,
by conscription, from among the seafaring population of the empire.
A large proportion, however, is obtained by voluntary enlistment,
particularly in the province of Dalmatia, which enjoys special privi-
leges in return for the number of sailors Avhich it furnishes to the
imperial navy. The term of service in the navy is eight years, after
which the men are liable to remain two years longer in the navy of
reserve. — (Report of the Imperial-royal Government to the States-
man's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The Austrian empire extends over an area of 10,780 Austrian, or
226,406 English square miles, on which lived, at the date of the last
census, taken December 31, 1869, a population of 35,943,592, or
159 per English square mile. The number of the civil popula-
tion of the empire, distinguished as such in the census returns, was
35,672,073, leaving 241,519 persons enumerated as belonging to the
military class.
The following table gives the area, number of civil inhabitants,
and total number of inhabitants, civil and military, of the various
provinces of the empire, distinguishing its two great political divi-
sions, the German monarchy, or Cisleithan Austria, and the Hun-
garian kingdom, or Trans! eithan Austria, together with the so-called
Military frontier, placed under the administration of the Ministry
of War for the Whole Empire. The table represents only the
provisional returns of the. census of December 31, 1869, giving the
number of inhabitants of all the provinces after the revised lists of
the enumeration commissioners, except that for Dalmatia, obtained,
in default of official statistics, from estimates.
22
AUSTRIA.
Provinces of the Empire
Area
in Austrian
square miles
Civil
population
Total
population
German Monarchy : —
! Lower Austria (Unter der Ens)
344-49
1,954,251
1,990,708
l Upper Austria (Ober der Ens)
208-47
731,541
736,519
Salzburg ....
124-52
151,410
153,159
Styria (Steiermark) .
39019
1,131,309
1,137,748
Carinthia (Karnten)
180-26
336,400
337,694
Carniola (Krain)
173-57
463,273
446,334
Coast, land (Kiistenland) .
138-82
583,535
601,981
Tyrol and Vo*arlberg
509-62
878,524
885,406
Bohemia (Bohmen) .
90285
5,105,682
5,140,156
Moravia (Mahren) .
386-29
2,011,406
2,030,783
Silesia (Sehlesien) .
89-45
511,581
513,352
Galicia (Galizie-n) .
1,364-06
5,417,343
5,444,016
Bukowina ....
181-61
511,964
513,404
Dalmatia (Dalmatien)
Total .
222-30
•5,216-50
454,616
468,781
20,242,835
20,420,041
Kingdom of Hungary : —
Hungary. ....
3,679-82
11,109,192
11,180,048
Croatia and Slavonia
327-39
1,015,906
1,023,858
Transylvania (Siebenbiirgen) .
Total .
Military frontier
Grand total .
973-36
2,109,107
2,122,458
4,980-56
14,234,205
14,326,364
583-00
1,195,033
1.197,187
10,780-06
35,672,073
35,943,592
At the census of 1857, the last preceding that of Dec. 81, 1869,
the population of the empire amounted to 87,339,913 souls, living
on an area of 11,606 Austrian, or 243,727 English square miles.
By the cession of its Italian provinces, in 1859 and 1866, the
empire lost 4,766,910 inhabitants, and an area of 790 Austrian,
or 16,493 English square miles, being a territory larger in extent
and population than the kingdom of the Netherlands. Comparing
the extent of the empire as constituted at the date of the census of
1869 with similar limits at the census of 1857, the population at
the latter date was 32,580,002, showing an increase of 3,413,590 in
the course of twelve years, or rather more than 1 per cent, per annum.
More than two-thirds of the population of the empire are
engaged in husbandry. In Bohemia, however, and in Lower Austria
and Moravia, where the chief efforts for fostering a manufacturing
interest are made, about one-half of the population is withdrawn
from the cultivation of the soil.
The population is divided with respect to race and language into
the following nationalities, according to an official estimate: —
AREA AND TOPULATION.
23
Germans .
9,000,000
Servians ....
1,470,000
Bohemians, Moravians anc1
Bulgarians
25,000
Slovacks
6,600,000
Magyars ....
5,450,000
Poles . .
2,200,000
Italians (inclusive of Latins
Ruthenians
2,800,000
and Friauls) .
1,050,000
Slovenians
1,210,000
Eastern-Romans
2,700,000
Croats
1,360,000
Members of other races
1,430,000
At the last census, the Germans constituted 38 per cent, of the
inhabitants in the Cisleithan part of the empire, 18 per cent, in the
Transleithan part, and nearly 5 per cent, in the district of the
Military Frontier. The people of the Slavonian races formed 49
per cent, of the population in the Cisleithan, and 16 per cent, in the
Transleithan division. The race third in numbers, the Magyars,
constituted 38 per cent, of the population of the kingdom of
Hungary, -^ per cent, of the district of the Military Frontier, and
per cent, of the Cisleithan part of the empire.
Trade and Industry.
The total commerce of Austria, comprising imports and exports,
as well as transit, for the whole of the empire, except the province
of Dalmatia — not within the Imperial line of customs — was of the
average value of 816,000,000 florins, or 81,600,000/. in the three
years 1866-68. The imports averaged 294,000,000 florins, or
29,400,000/. ; the exports 407,000,000 florins, or 40,700,000/., and
the transit 115,000,000 florins, or 11,500,000/. These values only
represented merchandise, and did not include bullion and coin im-
ported annually to the value of 26,000,000 florins, or 2,600,000/.,
and exported to the amount of 39,000,000 florins, or 3,900,000/.
The principal article of import into the Austrian empire is raw
cotton, the declared value of it amounting to 33,046,866 florins, or
3,304,686/. in 1867, and to 35,835,796 florins, or 3,583,579/. in
1868. Of articles of export the chief are corn and flour, together of
the declared value of 79,854,680 florins, or 7,985,468/. in 1867, and
of 103,014,494 florins, or 10,301,449/. in 1868. The subjoined
statement gives the value of the imports and exports during each of
the years 1867 and 1868 : —
1867
1868
Imports ....
Exports ....
Florins
303,649,481
424,324,041
Florins
396,935.079
439,820,769
Total .
727,973,522
836,755,848
Nearly two-thirds of the whole commerce of the Austrian empire,
both as regards imports and exports, is carried on with Germany.
n
AUSTRIA.
The next important market for Austria is Turkey, the importations*
of which into the empire average 8,000,000/. in value, and the
exports to which are above 5,000,000/. sterling. Turkey is followed
in the commercial rank list, but at a long distance, by Italy and Russia.
The commercial intercourse of Austria with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small ; and it appears in the official returns even
smaller than it is in reality, owing to the geographical position of the
empire, which necessitates the transit of many Austrian goods des-
tined for the British market, and vice versa, through other countries,
as the exports or imports of which they come to figure. In the
Board of Trade returns, therefore, only the direct exports and
imports to and from Great Britain and Ireland, by way of the
Austrian seaboard, Trieste, Illyria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, are given.
The declared real value of these direct exports and imports in the
ten years 1860 to 1869 is shown in the following table : —
Years
Exports from Austria to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Austria
&
&
1860
986,364
993.669
1861
718,100
816,202
1862
795,280
706.687
1863
454,048
864,736
1864
369,225
792,119
1865
677,521
724,648
1866
1,369,831
912,058
1867
1,203,660
963.952
1868
2,029,310
1,077,159
1869
2,276,806
1,341,102
The first year, 1860, in the above table is inclusive of the
trade of Venice, accounting for the decline of exports and imports
in the next following years.
The staple article exported to the United Kingdom from Austria
is corn and flour, the total value of which, in the year 1869,
amounted to 1,896,250/. This comprised maize, or Indian corn,
valued 962,900/. ; wheat, valued 513,517/. ; wheat flour, valued
172,551/.; barley, valued 159,907/.; and oats, valued 87,375/.
The remaining exports are made up chiefly of hemp, tallow, glass
beads, olive oil, quicksilver, currants, wood, and wool.
The principal imports of British and Irish produce into Austria
are cotton manufactures and iron, the former of the value of
469,976/., and the latter of 458,378/. Next in importance to cotton
are woollen manufactures, of an average value of 51,000/. per annum.
The mineral riches of Austria are very great, but explored as yet
only to a small extent. The following table gives the quantities of
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
25
the principal metals and minerals produced in Austria in the years
1864- and 18G7, and their value at the place of production in 1867 : —
Value at the
Quantities
Average Price, at
Metals and Minerals
Place of Production
1864 J
1867
1867
Florins
Gold . . . Pfund
3,598
3,562
2,406,041
Silver „
81,926
81,378
3,655,643
Quicksilver . . Centner
5,384
5,944
723,958
Tin
462
591
33,812
Zinc . . . „
26,917
40,296
495,956
Copper . . . „
50,839
47,930
2,377,840 1
Lead and litharge . ,,
133,552
136,668
1,770,884
Iron, raw and cast . ,,
5,696,934
5,705,761
16,709,039
Graphite . . „
114,825
279.355
271,123
Mineral coal . . „
45,310,803
108,488,390
17,332,283
The total length of railways in the empire open for traffic at the
end of January 1869, with the length of lines under construction,
and that for which concessions had been given at the same date, was
tbl lows : —
Cisleithan Austria .
Transleithan Austria
Whole empire .
Open for Traffic.
Austrian Miles
In Construction.
Austrian Miles
Concessions.
Austrian Miles
6198
331-5
951-3
English Miles
4,517
2117
146-5
358-2
English Miles
1,696
238-7
124-0
362-7
English Miles
1,719
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the com-
mercial marine of Austria. It gives the number, tonnage, and
crews of all the vessels belonging to Austrian subjects on the 31st
of December 1868 : —
Sailing Vessels : —
International traders .
Coasters ....
Fishing smacks
Steamers (14,359 h.-power)
Total .
Number of
Vessels
Tonnage
Crews
523
2,678
4,555
74
226,335
49,978
13,839
34,263
5,689
8.277
11,940
2,073
7,830
324,415
27,979
Of great importance for the commerce of the empire is the
' Gesellschaft des Oesterreichischen Lloyd,' a trading society esta-
blished at Trieste in 1833, and which commenced in 1836 to run
26 AUSTRIA.
regular lines of steamers to the chief ports of Turkey. Egypt, and
Greece. The company owned in 1869 a fleet of 70 steamers, of
12,500 horse-power.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Austria, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Florin, or Gulden, of 100 Neu-Kreuzer, = 2s.
The legal standard precious metal in the Empire is silver, and the Florin,
divided into 100 'New' Kreuzer, the unit of money. By virtue of a treaty
■with the Zollverein. signed Jan. 24, 1857, the currency is based upon the so-
I'alled ' Forty-five Florin standard,' that is a Pfund, or pound, of fine silver, is
coined into 4,5 florins. Practically the chief medium of exchange is a paper
currency consisting of banknotes of all denominations, from 1,000 florins-
down to 1 florin. The paper money, fluctuating in value from day to day,
can only be converted at a large discount into gold and silver.
Weights and Measlhes.
The Centner = 100 Pfund . = 123^ lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Mark (Gold and Silver) . = 9ozs. troy.
,, Elmer .... = 14'94 wine gallons.
„ Jock . . . . = 1'43 acre.
„ Metze .... =1*7 imperial bushel.
„ Klafter .... =67 cubic feet.
„ Me'ile = 24,000 Austr. feet = 8,297 yards, or about 4| British
statute miles.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Austria.
1. Official Publications.
Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8. Wien. 1870.
Tafeln zur Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchic zusammcngestellt von
tier Direction der administrativen Statistik. Folio, Wien, 1870.
Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der Statistik, herausgegeben von der
Direction der administrativen Statistik. 8. Wien, 1870.
Ausweise iiber den auswartigen Handel Oesterreichs im Sonnen-Jahre 18(58.
zusammengestellt und herausgegeben von der k.k. Statistischen Central-Com-
mission. XXIV. Jahrgang. Folio. Wien, 1870.
Amtliche Statistische Mittheilungen des Ungarischen Handelsministeriums.
1869. Fol. Pesth, 1870.
Report by Mr. P. Sidney Post, U.S. Consul at Vienna, dated Sept. 30,
1867, on the general condition of the Austrian Empire; in 'Commercial
Relations of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Report by Mr. A. G. G. Bonar, British Secretary of Embassy, on the General
Resources and the Commerce of Austria, dated Vienna. July 13, 1866 ; in ' Re-
ports of Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. A. G. G. Bonar, Secretary of Embassy, on the Imports
and Exports of Austria, date! March 5. 1868 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. Londou, 1868.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 2 J
Report by Mr. A. G. G. Bonar, on the Commerce and Industry of Austria,
dated Vienna, July 10, 1868; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation. Nos. V. & VI., 1868. London, 1868.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL London, 1868.
Trade Accounts. Foreign Countries. Austria: years 1868-69. Fol.
London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Annuario Marittimo per l'Anno 1870, compilato dal Lloyd^ austriaco coll' ap-
provazione dell' eccelso i. r. governo centrale marittimo. XVIII. Annata. 8.
Trieste, 1870. .
Austria. Archiv fiir Consularwesen, Volkswirthschaft und Statistik.
4. 22 Jahrgang. Wien, 1870.
Blumenbach (W. C.W.) Gemaide der Oesterreichischen Monarchic, 3 vols. 8.
Wien, 1865.
Brachelli (H. F.) Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchic. 8. Wien, 1865.
Brachelli (H. F.) Statistisehe Skizze des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8.
Leipzig, 1867. . , . ,
Czoerniq (K. Freiherr von) Statistisches Handbuchlein der Oesterreichischen
Monarchie. 8. Wien, 1865.
Czocrnig (K. Freiherr von) Vergleich des Oesterreichischen Budgets mit,
denen der vorziiglicheren andern Europaischen Staaten. 8. Wien, 1866.^
Femes (E.) Magyarorszag ismertetese statistikai, fdldirati s tortenelmi
szempontbol. I. kotet. Dunantuli keriilet. Masodik szakasz : Sopron-,
Tolna-, Vas-, Veszprem- es Zalavarmegyekkel. Szerzo sajatja. 2 vols. 8.
Pesth, 1867.
Ficker (A.), Die Volkerstamme der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie.
8. Wien, 1869.
Friese (F.) Uebersicht der Oesterreichischen Bergwerksproduction. 4.
Wien, 1869.
Jarosch (J. A.) Topographisches Universal-Lexicon des Oesterreichischen
Kaiserstaats. 8. 3 vols. Olmiitz, 1857-62.
Kohn (Ignaz) Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Mo-
narchic 8. Wien, 1870.
Meynert (H.) Handbuch der Geographie und Staatskunde von Oesterreich.
8. Wien, 1863.
Patterson (Arthur J.), The Magyars ; their country and its institutions. 2
vols. 8. London, 1870.
Petrossi (Ferd.) Das Heerwesen des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaats. 2 vols.
8. Wien, 1866.
Prasch (V.) Handbuch der Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaats. 8.
Brunii, 1860.
Rajyporto sulla situazione sfavorevole dell' Austria nel commercio mondiale o
sui mezzi per porvi rimedio fatto dal comitate istituito a sovrano rescritto del
9. Febbr 1864. 8. Trieste, 1866.
Schmidl (A.) Das Kaiserthum Oesterreich : geographisch-statistisch-topo-
graphisch dargestellt. 8. Wien, 1861.
Schmitt (F.) Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaats. 4th edition. 8.
Wien, 1870.
28
BELGIUM.
(ROYAUME DE BeLGIQUE.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Leopold II., King of the Belgians, born April 9, 1835, the son of
King Leopold I., former Duke of Saxe-Coburg, and of Princess
Louise, daughter of King Louis Philippe of the French ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, Dec. 10, 1865 ; married Aug.
22, 1853, to
Marie Henriette, Queen of the Belgians, born Aug. 23, 1836, the
daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria. Offspring of the
union are two daughters : — 1. Princess Louise, born Feb. 18, 1858 ;
2. Princess Stephanie, born May 21, 1864.
Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Philippe, Count of Flanders,
born March 24, 1837 ; lieutenant-general in the service of Belgium ;
married April 26, 1867, to Princess Marie of Hohenzollem-
Si'Tinaringen, born November 17, 1845. Offspring of the union is u
son, Baudoin, born June 3, 1869. 2. Princess Charlotte, born June 7,
1840; married July 27, 1857, to Archduke Maximilian of Austri;i,
elected Emperor of Mexico July 10, 1863 ; widow June 19, 1867.
King Leopold II. has a civil list of 3,300,000 francs, or
132,000/.
The kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent state
in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands. The
secession was decreed on the 4th of October, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, established in consequence of a revolution which broke
out at Brussels on the 25th of August, 1830. A National Congress
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king of the Belgians on the
4th of June, 1831 ; the prince accepted the dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. The Crown had previously been
offered to, but was refused by, the Duke de Nemours, second son of
King Louis Philippe of the French. It was not until after the signing
of the treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which established peaceful
relations between King Leopold I. and the sovereign of the Nether-
lands, that all the States of Europe recognised the kingdom of
Belgium.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 2Q
Constitution and Government.
According to the charter of 1831, Belgium is ' a constitutional,
representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legislative power
is vested in the King, the Chamber of Representatives, and the
Senate. The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order
of primogeniture. The king's person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government. No
act of the king can have effect unless countersigned by one of his
ministers, who thus becomes responsible for it. The king convokes,
prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers, and makes rules and orders
necessary for the execution of the laws ; but he has no power
to suspend, or dispense with the execution of the laws themselves.
He nominates to civil and military offices, and commands the sea
and land forces. He declares war, and concludes treaties of peace,
of alliance, and of commerce, communicating the same to the
Chambers as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of
the State. Those treaties which may be injurious to the State, or to
the individual interests of the people, can only have effect after
obtaining the sanction of the Chambers. No surrender, exchange,
or addition of territory can be made except when authorised by a
law passed by the Chambers. In no case can the secret articles of a
treaty be destructive or contrary to the public clauses. The king-
sanctions and promulgates the laws. He has the power of remitting
or reducing the punishment pronounced by the judges, except in the
case of his ministers, to whom he can extend pardon only at the
request of one of the Chambers. He has the power of coining
money according to law, and also of conferring titles of nobilitv,
but without the power of attaching to them anv privileges. In
default of male heirs, the king may nominate his successor with
the consent of the Chambers. On the death of the king, the
Chambers assemble without convocation, at latest on the tenth day
after his decease. From the date of the king's death to the ad-
ministration of the oath to his successor, or to the regent, the consti-
tutional powers of the king are exercised in the name of the people,
by the ministers assembled in council, and on their own responsibi-
lity. The regency can only be conferred upon one person, and no
change in the constitution can be made during the regency. The
successor to the throne or the regent can only enter upon his duties
after having taken an oath in presence of the assembled Chambers
to observe the laws and the constitution, to maintain the independence
of the nations and the integrity of its territory. If the successor
be under eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of
majority, the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nomi-
30 BELGIUM.
mating a regent during the minority. In the case of a vacancy oi'
the throne, the two Chambers, deliberating together, nominate pro-
visionally to the regency. They are then dissolved, and within two
months the new Chambers must assemble, which provide definitively
for the succession.
The power of making laws is vested in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, the members of both houses being chosen
by the people. The sittings are public, and by the decision of the
majority either Chamber may form itself into a private comirfittee.
Mo person can at the same time be a member of both Chambers, and
no member can retain his seat after obtaining a salaried office under
the Government, except on being re-elected. No member can be
called to account for any votes or opinions he may have given in
the performance of his duties. No member can be prosecuted or
arrested during the session without the consent of the Chamber of
which he is a member, except in the case of being taken in flagranti
crimine. Each Chamber determines the manner of exercising its
own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-pre-
sident, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented per-
sonally, and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority,
except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the
members are required for its acceptance ; in the case of an equality
of votes the proposition is thrown out. The Chambers meet annually
in the month of November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but
the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occa-
sions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately.
in the latter case a new election must take place within forty days,
and a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjourn-
ment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers.
The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen
directly by all citizens paying a small amount of direct taxes. The
number of deputies is fixed according to the population, and cannot
exceed one member for every 40,000 inhabitants. In the year
1869 they amounted to 116, elected in 41 electoral districts. The
members represent the nation generally, and not merely the pro-
vince or division by which they are nominated. To be eligible as
a member, it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth, or to have re-
ceived the ' grande naturalisation ; ' to be in possession of the civil
and political rights of the kingdom ; to have attained the age of
twenty-five years, and to be resident in Belgium. The members
not residing in the town where the Chamber sits receive, during
the session, an indemnity of 430 francs, or 17/. 5s., each per month.
The members are elected for four years, one-half going out every
two years, except in the case of a dissolution, when a general election
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. ?I
takes place. The Chamber has the parliamentary initiative and the
preliminary vote in all cases relating to the receipts and expenses
of the State and the contingent of the army.
The Senate is composed of exactly one-half the number of mem-
bers comprising the Chamber of Representatives, and the senators
are elected by the same citizens who appoint the deputies. The
senators are chosen for eight years ; they retire in one moiety
every four years ; but in case of dissolution the election must
comprise the whole number of which the Senate is composed.
The qualifications necessary for a senator are, that he must be a
Belgian by birth or naturalisation; in full possession of all political
and civil rights ; resident within the kingdom ; at least forty years;
of age ; and paying in direct taxes not less than 84/. sterling.
In those provinces where the list of citizens who possess this last-
mentioned qualification does not reach to the proportion of one in
6,000 of the population, that list is enlarged by the admission into
it of those citizens who pay the greatest amount of direct taxes, so
that the list shall always contain at least one person who is eligible
to the Senate for every 6,000 inhabitants of the province. The
senators do not receive any pay. The presumptive heir to the throne
is of right a senator at the age of eighteen, but he has no voice
in the proceedings until twenty-five years of age. All the proceed-
ings of the Senate during the time the Chamber of Representatives
is not sitting are without force.
The Executive Government consists of six departments, as fol-
lows : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Baron J. d'A?iethan, ap-
pointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, and President of the Council
of Ministers, July 2, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Victor Jacobs, appointed Aug. 3
1870.
3. The Ministry of Justice. — Pierre Comesse, appointed July 2
1870.
4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Armand Wassiege, appointed
Sept. 12, 1870.
5. The Ministry of War. — Major-General Guillaume, appointed
July 2, 1870.
6. The Ministry of the Interior. — Baron Kervyn cle Lettenhove,
appointed July 2, 1870.
Besides the above responsible heads of departments there are
a number of so-called ministers of State without portfolio, who
form a privy council called together on special occasions by the
sovereign.
32 BELGIUM.
Church and Education.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants do not amount to 13,000,
while the .lews number less than 1,500. Full religious liberty is
granted by the constitution, and part of the income of the ministers
of all denominations is paid from the national treasury. The amount
thus granted in the budget of 1870 was 4,508,200 francs to Roman
Catholics; 69,336 francs to Protestants, and 11,220 francs to Jews,
being at the rate of 1 franc per head for the Catholics, of 5 francs per
head for the Protestants, and of 7-^ francs for the Jews.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses,
namely, the Archbishopric of Malines and the Bishoprics of Bruges,
Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Tournay. The archbishopric has three
vicars-general and a chapter of twelve canons, and each of the
bishoprics two vicars-general and a chapter of eight canons. In
each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees and
voluntary gifts. The salaries paid by the state are comparatively
small, being 21,000 francs, or 840/. to the archbishop ; 16,000 francs,
or 640/. to each of the five bishops ; 2,000 francs, or 80/. to canons,
and from 600 to 800 francs, or 24/. to 32/. to the inferior parish
clergy. At the last census, there were 993 convents in Belgium, of
which number 145 were for men and 848 for women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the greater
number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is under a synod com-
posed of the clergymen of the body, and a representative from each
of the congregations. It sits in Brussels once a year, when each
member is required to be present, or to delegate his powers to
another member. The English Episcopal Church has eight minis-
ters, and as many chapels, in Belgium — three in Brussels, and one
in each of the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Spa, and Ghent.
The Jews have a central synagogue in Brussels ; three branch
synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent and Liege, and two
of the second class at Arlon and Namur.
Education is not yet generally diffused among the people, but
much progress towards it has been made within the last thirty or
forty years. In 1830, the number of children attending school was
293,000 ; in 1845, it was 439,000 ; and in 1865, the number had
risen to 564,000. The schools are supported by the communes,
the provinces, and the State combined. In 1830, when Belgium
was separated from Holland, the communes relaxed in their efforts
in building schools, and the State had to assist, when it was
arranged that the Government should pay one-sixth of the cost, the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
33
province one-sixth, and the commune four-sixths of the expen-
diture. There is no compulsory law of education in Belgium.
It appears from official returns, based upon a recent examination of
the National Guards, or Civic Militia of the kingdom, that about 30
per cent, of the grown-up population are unable to read and write. The
following is the proportion in the nine provinces : — Antwerp, 4,260
National Guards, of whom 1,085 illiterate ; Brabant, 7,329 — 2,190;
Western Flanders, 5,787 — 1,904; Eastern Flanders, 7,343 — 2,870;
Hainault, 7,817 — 3,057; Liege, 5,105 — 1,207; Limbourg, 1,941 —
539; Luxembourg, 2,089 — 133; Namur, 2,752 — 415; — showing
13,400 illiterate to 44,423 educated men. In 18G8 the sum paid
by the state for public education amounted to 6,800,000 francs, or
272,000/. — (Report of the Royal government to the Statesman's
Year-book).
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public income and expenditure of Belgium has averaged for
the last few years the sum of 150 millions of francs, or 6 millions
sterling. In the thirty years 1831 to 1860, the total expenditure
of the state amounted to 3,769,601,475 francs, or 150.784,059/. ;
making an average expenditure of 128,875,264 francs, or 5,155,010/.,
per annum. The lowest expenditure was in 1835, when it amounted
to only 87,104,005 francs, or 3,484,160/.
The gross revenue and expenditure of Belgium, for each of the
ten years 1861 to 1870 — actual tor the first eight, and estimated for
the last two periods — is shown in the subjoined table : — •
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1861
5,945,167
5,671,059
1862
6,128,579
5,807,055
1863
6,237,871
6,004,813
1864
6,313,512
6,099,321
1865
6,360,513
6,175,011
1866
6,561,731
6,343,170
1867
6,641,852
6,670,961
1868
6,776,131
6,876,466
1869
6,975,040
7,061,000
1870
7,006,943
7,059,127
The following table gives the details of the budget estimates of
revenue and expenditure for each of the years 1869 and 1870 : —
D
34
BELGIUM.
Sources of Bevenue
18G9
1870
Francs
Francs
Land taxes ....
19,010,000
19.145,000
Assessed taxes
11,700,000
11,800,000
Trades and occupations .
4,653,000
4,400,000
Mines .....
600,000
600,000
Customs .....
13,415,000
13,515,000
Spirit licenses ....
1,525,000
1,500,000
Tobacco „ . . . .
245,000
245.000
Excise on salt
5,750,000
5,850,000
,, foreign wines& spirits
2,300,000
2,300,000
,, native spirits
8,500,000
8,500,000
„ beer and vinegar
8,950,000
8,950,000
,, sugar
4,320,000
3,770,000
Eegistration duties and fines .
38,015,000
39,175,000
Domains ....
1,812,000
1,810,000
Post
4,030,000
4,130,000
State Kaihvays
40,150,000
40,000,000
Packet-boats between Dover and
Ostend ....
460,000
460,000
Miscellaneous receipts
Total revenue . j „
8,931,000
10,375,000
174,376,000
6,975,040
176,525,000
7,061,000
Branches of Expenditure
1869
1S70
Interest on public debt .
Civil list and dotations .
Ministry of Justice
„ Foreign Affairs
„ Interior
„ Public Works
War .
,, Finance
Miscellaneous expenditure
Total expenditure < „
Francs
48,702,759
4,390,897
15,519,648
3,422,312
12,647,354
39,778,138
36.825,000
13.100,280
787,200
Francs
40,807,489
4,390,897
15,586,198
3,415,112
13,443,599
39,979,310
36,883,500
13,174,380
797,700
175,173,588
7,006,943
176,478,185
7,059,127
It will be seen that the greater part of the revenue of the kingdom
is derived from indirect taxation, and that about one-half of the
expenditure is devoted to administrative purposes, while the other
half falls to the charges ibr army and public debt.
The following table, compiled from documents furnished by the
Belgian government to the Statesman's Year-book, shows the total
amount of the public liabilities of the kingdom on the 1st of June,
18G9 :—
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
35
Descriptions of Debt
Nominal Capital
Annual interest
Original
Paid-off
Remaining on
1st June, 18G9
2i% Old Debt . .
3% of 1838 & 1846.
U% 1st series, 1844
~ 2nd „ 1844
„ 3rd „ 1853
„ 4th „ 1857
and 1860 . . .
„ 5th „ 1865
„ 6th „ 1867
Total . .
£
Francs
389,417,631
58,474,800
95,442.832
84,656,000
157,615,300
69,382,000
59,325,000
58,540,000
Francs
169,312,000
42,133,800
39,978.649
17.147,500
16,158,400
3,486,600
612,600
Francs
220,105,631
16.341,000
55.464,182
67.508,500
141,456,900
65,895,400
58,712,400
58,540,000
Francs
5,502.640
490,230
y>0, 140,983
J
972,853,563
38,914,142
288,829,549 684,024,013 : 26,133,853
11,553,182 27,360,960 1 1,041,354
The 'l\% old debt, and the 2nd series of the A\% debt, repre-
sent the share which Belgium had to take in the national liabilities
of the Netherlands, after separating from that kingdom. Almost the
entire remainder of the debt of Belgium was raised for, and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of state rail-
ways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of the
debt, with the exception of the 2-|% old debt, the capital of which was
reduced, in 1844, to the amount of 169,312,000 francs, from the pro-
ceeds of the 1st series of the 4-|% loan. The whole of the 3% debt
will become extinguished at the end of 1876. By a law passed on
the 12th of June, 1869, the government was authorised to reduce the
fixed annual payments out of the sinking fund for the whole of the
41% debt, to a sum representing one-half per cent, of the nominal
capital of this debt, in circulation on the 1st of May, 1869. It is
calculated that the amount spent on productive public works, rail-
ways, roads, and canals, exceeds the sum total of the public debt of
Belgium.
Army.
The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every able
man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution
is permitted. The legal period of service is eight years, of which,
however, two-thirds are allowed, as a rule, on furlough. According
to a law passed on the 5th of April, 1868, the strength of the army
is to be of 100,000 men on the war-fouting, and of 40,000 in times
of peace. The war- footing is prescribed to be as follows, rank and
file:—
36
BELGIUM.
Infantry
Cavalry.
Artillery
Engineers and train
Total, without officers
Men
Horses
Guns
74,000
7,903
14,513
2,::.">i
6,572
4,050
152
98,770
10,622
152
The actual number of soldiers under arms, on the let of June,
1869, amounted to 37,391 rank and file, comprising 24,409 infantry,
5,114 cavalry, 6,331 artillery, 667 engineers, and 570 train.
Besides the standing army, there is a Civic Militia — Garde
Nationale — organised, under laws dated May 1848, and July 13,
1853, to maintain liberty and order in times of peace, and to defend
the independence of the country in time of war. The Civic Militia,
numbering 125,000 men without, and 400,000 men with the reserve,
is composed of all citizens between 21 and 40, able to bear arms;
but is in active service only in towns having more than 10,000 inhabi-
tants, and in fortresses. The men elect their own officers, up to the
rank of colonel. In time of peace, the Civic Militia is under the
direction of the ministry of the interior ; but in time of war under
that of the ministry of war, and subject to military discipline. — (Re-
port of the Royal government to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
Belgium has an area of 536^ geographical square miles, or 11,267
English square miles. The kingdom is divided into nine provinces,
the area and population of which were as follows in the two official
enumerations, of Dec. 31, 1856, and Dec. 31, 1866 : —
Provinces
Area
Population
1856
1866
Geo. Sq. Miles
Antwerp
51-582
434,485
474,145
Brabant
59-800
748,840
820,179
™ , fWest
Flanders | ^
58923
624,912
639,709
54-645
776,960
801,872
Hainault
67-794
769,065
847,775
Liege .
52-714
503,662
556,666
Limburg
43-943
191,708
199,856
Luxemburg .
80-469
193,753
196,173
Namur
66-673
286,175
302,719
r
536543
1
Total . <
Eng. Sq. Mile
11,267
[ 4,529,560
4,839,094
It will be seen that Belgium had, at the end of 1866, a population
AREA AND POPULATION. 37
of 4,839,094, on an area of 11,267 English square miles, or 430 per
square mile, showing the kingdom to be the densest inhabited country
in Europe. About fifty-eight per cent, of the inhabitants are Flemish,
the rest Walloon and French, with 30,000 Germans in Luxemburg.
The population of Belgium has increased very steadily since the
establishment of the kingdom in 1830, when it amounted to barely
four millions. The density of population at that period was that of
118 inhabitants per square kilometre ; and from. 1830 forward it
rose almost exactly at the rate of one per annum — 119 in 1831 ;
120 in 1832, and so forth, reaching the figure 169 in 1866. Accord-
ing to the last census returns, one-fourth of the population of Belgium
is engaged in agricultural pursuits, another fourth in trade and manu-
factures, chiefly the great staple industries, the iron and coal trades ;
and the remaining two-fourths belong to ' the unproductive classes.'
The tendency, visible in most European countries, of an agglome-
ration of the people in the larger towns, is also apparent in Belgium.
Of this Brussels is the most striking example. There were, in 1800,
only 66,297 inhabitants in the town, and 10,129 in the suburbs of
Brussels, while the number at the end of 1866 amounted to 287,241.
Besides Brussels, there were, on the 31st December, 1866, eight
towns in Belgium with a population of above 30,000 inhabitants,
namely, Antwerp, 123,571 ; Ghent, 116,607 ; Liege, 101,699 ;
Bruges, 47,205 ; Malines, 35,529 ; Louvain, 32,976 ; Verviers,
32,375 ; and Tournay, 31,525 inhabitants.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of Belgium, the same as that of France, is offi-
cially divided into ' general commerce,' including the sum total of
all international mercantile intercourse, and ' special commerce,'
comprising such imports as are consumed within and such exports
as have been produced in the country. During the three years
1867-69, the general commerce of Belgium averaged 2,500,000,000
francs, or 1,000, 000, 000Z. in value, rather more than one-half of
which sum was represented by imports. The special com-
merce, during the same period, averaged 1,400,000,000 francs, or
56,000,000/. in value ; rather more than one-half again was repre-
sented by imports. France heads the list of importing countries in
the special commerce of Belgium, followed, in order of importance,
by Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Russia, and the United
States. In the export market of Belgian produce France likewise
takes the first place, followed, at a distance, by Great Britain, the
Netherlands, and Germany. The commercial transactions between
Belgium and France are altogether of nearly twice the amount in
value of those between Belgium and the United Kingdom.
38
BELGIUM.
The commercial intercourse of Belgium with Great Britain is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement, giving the total exports
from Belgium to the United Kingdom, and the total imports into
Belgium of the produce and manufactures of Great Britain and
Ireland, in the ten years 18G0-69 : —
Exports from Belgium
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Belgium
£
&
1860
4,079,245
1,610,144
1861
3,817,800
1,925,852
1863
4,876,212
1,828,622
1864
5,174,221
2,107,332
1865
7,379,893
2,921,300
1866
7,906,849
2,861,386
1867
7,555,202
2,816,481
1868
8,255,043
3,150,105
1869
9,391,403
4,003,535
The staple article of exports from Belgium to the United King-
dom consists in silk manufactures, to the value of 2,431,588/. w Next
in importance stands woollen and worsted yarn for weaving, ex-
ported to the value of 1,138,865/. in 1869. The minor articles of
export to Great Britain comprise chiefly agriculture produce. The
imports of British home produce into Belgium consist in the main
of woollen and cotton manufactures, the former of the value of
771,661/., and the latter of 500,798/. in the year 1869. It will be
noticed that while the imports of British produce increased considerably
in the ten years 1860 to 1869, they are still less than one-half of the
value of the exports to the United Kingdom.
The international commerce of the kingdom is almost entirely
carried on by foreigners, chiefly under the Dutch and British flags.
One of the most important natural productions of Belgium, and
chief basis of its industry, is coal, which is raised in ever increasing
quantities. It is found in three out of the nine provinces of the
kingdom, Hainault, Liege, and Namur. The distribution of the mines,
and amount of production, in the year 1866, was as follows : —
Province
Number of
coal
mines
Number of
shafts
in work
Amount of coal
obtained in 1866
Value
Hainault
Liege .
Namur .
Total of Kingdom .
130
116
40
2()4
96
35
Tons
9,851,424
2,564,551
358,687
Francs
120,507,630
27,682,765
2,841,179
286
335
12.774,662
151,031,574
£6,041,263
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
39
The quantity of coal exported from Belgium in the year 1868
■was 3,971,772 tons, as compared with 3,564,364 tons in 1867, with
3,971,772 tons in 1866, and 3,567,687 tons in 1865. Nearly the
whole of the Belgian coal exports is sent to France, which took
3,818,712 tons in 1868 ; 3,442,226 tons in 1867 ; 3,818,782 tons in
1866 ; and 3,350,782 tons in 1865. The internal consumption of
coal amounted in the same period to an average of nearly 8 million
tons.
In Belgium the State is a great railway proprietor, and the State
Railway is one of the largest sources of national revenue. It was the first
irork of the kind ever undertaken by a Government, or on so great
a scale by any proprietary. The act by which it was decreed passed
in 1834, and in 1835 the line was opened from Brussels to Malines.
In 1844, the entire length — 560 kilometres — was completed. It
produced to the State a gross revenue in 1866 of 31,750,000 francs,
or 1,270,000/., and a net revenue of 16,000,000 francs, or 640,000*.
Other lines have been leased by the State ; and there are altogether
open 1,906 kilometres, equal to 1,191 English miles, of which 748
kilometres, or 467 English miles, are in the hands of the State, and
the residue worked by companies. The subjoined tabular statement
shows the length of railways open in Belgium in 1869 : —
Lines built and worked by the State
„ purchased, Mons-Manage
Lines belonging to Companies, but leased
by the State : —
Tournai-Jurbise ....
Dendre et Waes ....
Kilometres
Kilometres
558-9
32-7
47-5
109-6
{591-6
■f 157-1
Total of State Eeseau
Lines worked by Companies
i Kil.
• 1 Miles
jKil.
" 1 Miles
748-7
467
1,345-2
Total lines open
2,093-9
1,301
The cost of the permanent way and buildings of the State Bail-
way amounted to 18,280Z. per mile. The net revenue of the State
Railway has doubled within the last 10 years, and has now risen to
sum equal to 1,508Z. per mile. Nearly all the lines conceded by
the Government were constructed between 1840 and 1850 by
English companies. They are for the most part branch lines,
and although costing less than the State Railway, which includes
the principal trunk lines of the country, they produce a much
smaller net revenue. The law obliges the State Railway to redeem
itself with its own capital, or, in other words, to purchase itself
40 BELGIUM.
with its own surplus revenue. The year 1861 was the first year
which showed an actual profit on the whole operations from the
commencement, irrespectively of the charge for the redemption of
the debt. It is expected that the State Railway will have bought
itself up in the year 1884, by which time it is calculated the net
revenue will amount to 24,000,000 francs, or 960,000/. per annum,
or enough to pay the then reduced — through the sinking fund
— interest of the national debt. As each conceded railway lapses
gratuitously to the State in 90 years from the period of its construc-
tion, the entire system will in time become national property.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Belgium, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Franc Average rate of exchange, 25 to £1 sterling.
Weights axd Measures.
The Kilogramme, or Livre . . = 2-20 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonneau . . . . = 2,200 „
., Hectare — 2-47 English acres
tt . j-f f Dry measure . = 2-75 imperial bushels.
" hectolitre <j^ Liquid measure = 22 imperial gallons.
„ Metre = 3-28 feet.
„ Metre Cube . . . — 3o-31 cubic feet.
„ Kilometre = 1,093 yards.
Belgium was one of the four Continental States — comprising,
besides, France, Italy, and Switzerland — which formed a Monetary
League in 1865. The four States, considering the mutual advantages
accruing to neighbouring nations from the adoption of a uniform
standard of coins, weights, and measures, entered into a Convention
by which they agreed upon the French decimal system, establishing
perfect reciprocity in the currency of the four countries, and giving
the franc, livre, or lira, the monetary unit of each of them, as well
as its multiples or fractions in gold or silver, the same course and
value throughout the extent of their respective territories. Among
the conditions of the Monetary League, it was stipulated that for
the larger silver currency, namely, the five-franc pieces, the standard
should be fixed at 900 parts of pure silver per 1,000 ; but it was
agreed, as a matter of common convenience, that for the minor coin,
called ' divisionaire,' or fractionary, namely, the pieces of two francs,
one franc, and hall-franc, the intrinsic value should be only of 835 per
1,000, instead of 900, so that a sum of 1,000 francs in five-franc
pieces would contain a quantity of pure silver greater by 65 francs
than the same sum in the smaller, or ' fractionary,' coin. It Avas,
however, determined that the issue of this minor coin should be
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 4 I
limited in each of the contracting States to the proportion of six
francs for every inhabitant, and that each of the four States could
demand of any of the other States the withdrawal of its smaller coin,
insisting upon repayment in money of the higher standard.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Belgium.
1. Official Publications.
Almanach Royal Officiel de Belgique, contenant les attributions et le per-
sonnel de tous les services publics duroyaume. Annee 1870. Bruxelles, 1870.
Almanach du commerce et de l'industrie de Belgique, publie avec le concours
du gouvernement, par H. Tarlier, sur les documents fournis par les adminis-
trations communales. 1870. 8. Bruxelles, 1870.
Annales des travaux publics de Belgique. Vol. 26. 8. Bruxelles, 1869.
Documents Statistiqixes, publics par le depart, de l'lnterieur, avec le concours
de la commission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1870.
Statistique generale de la Belgique, publie par le depart, de l'lnterieur. 6 vols.
Bruxelles, 1865-70.
Report by Mr. Hugh "Wyndham, British Secretary of Legation, on the Trade
and Commerce of Belgium, dated Brussels, August 18, 1868 ; in ' Reports of
Il.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. V. and VI., 1868. 8.
London 1868.
Report by Mr. T. Pakenham, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
State of Belgium, dated Brussels, May 20, 1869; in 'Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries and Legation.' No. IV., 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. E. H. Egerton, British Secretary of Legation, on the pro-
duction of coal in Belgium, dated Nov. 28, 1868; in 'Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. 1.1870. 8. London, 1870.
Trade Accounts. Foreign Countries. Belgium: Years 1868-69. Fol.
London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publicath his.
Annuaire de l'industrie, du Commerce et de la Banque en Belgique, redige
d'apres des documents officiels. 12. Bruxelles, 1870.
Annuaire financier de la Belgique. 8. Briixelles, 1870.
Janssens (Eug.) Annuaire de la mortality, ou tableau statistique des causes de
deces et du mouvement de la population. 8. Bruxelles, 1870.
Jourdain (Aug.) Dictionnaire encyclopedique de geographie historique du
royaume de Belgique. 8. Bruxelles, 1869.
Laveleye (Emile de) Essai sur l'Economie Rurale de la Belgique. 2nd ed. 8.
Paris, 1865.
Malou (J.) Notice historique sur les finances de la Belgique. Fol. Paris, 1868.
Meidemans (Aug.) La Belgique, ses ressources agricoles, industrielles et
commerciales. 8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Scheler (Dr. Aug.) Annuaire Statistique et Historique Beige. Dix-septieme
annee. 12. Bruxelles, 1870.
Van Bruyssel (Ernest) Histoire du Commerce et de la Marine en Belgique.
2 vols. 8. Bruxelles, 1864.
Van Brvyssel (Ernest) L'industrie et le commerce en Belgique, leur etat
actual et leur avenir. 8. Bruxelles, 1868.
42
DENMARK.
(KONGERIGET DaNMARK.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Christian IX., King of Denmark, born April 8, 1818, the fourth
son of the late Duke Willi elm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliickaburg, and of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to
the succession of the Crown of Denmark by the treaty of London,
of May 8, 1852, and by the Danish law of succession of July 81,
1853. Succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederik VII.,
November 15, 1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to
Louise, Queen of Denmark, born Sept. 7, 1817, the daughter of
Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel. Issue of the union are: — 1.
Prince Frederik, heir- apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married Jnly
28, 1869, to Princess Lowisa, only daughter of the King of Sweden
and Norway. 2. Princess A lexandra, born Dec. 1, 1844; married,
March 10, 1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 3. Prince
Wilhelm, born Dec. 24, 1845; admiral in the Danish navy ; elected
King of the Hellenes, under the title of Georgios I., by the Greek
National Assembly, March 31, 1863 ; married Oct. 27, LS67, to
Olga Constantinowna, Grand -Duchess of Russia. 4. Princess
Maria Dagmar, born Nov. 26, 1847 ; married, Nov. 9, 1866, to
Grand-duke Alexander, heir-apparent of Russia. 5. Princess Thyra,
born Sept. 29, 1853. 6. Prince Waldemar, born Oct. 27, 1858.
Brothers and Sisters of the King. — 1. Duke Karl, born Sept.
30, 1813 ; married, May 19, 1838, to Princess Wilhelmina, born
Jan. 18, 1808, daughter of the late King Frederik VI. of Den-
mark. 2. Princess Frederica, born Oct. 9, 1811 ; married, Oct.
30, 1834, to Duke Alexander of Anhait Bernburg; widow Aug.
19, 1863. 3. Prince Friedrich, born Oct. 23, 1814; married, Oct.
16, 1841, to Princess Adelaide of Schaumburg-Lippe, of which
union there are issue two sons and three daughters, namely,
Augusta, born Feb. 27, 1844 ; Friedrich, born Oct. 12, 1855 ;
Louise, born Jan. 6, 1858 ; Marie, born Aug. 31, 1859 ; and
Albert, born March 15, 1863. 4. Prince Wilhelm, born April
10, 1816; field-marshal-lieutenant in the service of Austria.
KEIGNING SOVEREIGN AND FAMILY. 43
5. Princess Louise, bom Nov. 18, 1820; nominated abbess of the
convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, Aug. 3, 1860. 6. Prince Julius, born
Oct. 14, 1824 ; general in the Danish army. 7. Prince Hans,
bom Dec. 5, 1825, general in the Danish army.
The Crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In
1448, after the death of the last male scion of the princely House
of Svend Estridsen, the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I.,
Count of Oldenburg, in whose family the royal dignity remained for
more than four centuries, although the crown was not rendered here-
ditary by right till the year 1GG0. The direct male line of the House
of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king, Frederik VII.,
on November 15, 1863. In view of the death of the king without
direct heirs, the great powers of Europe, ' taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish monarchy, as
connected Avith the general interests of the balance of power in
Europe, is of high importance to the preservation of peace,' signed a
treaty at London on May 8, 1852, by the terms of which the suc-
cession to the Crown of Denmark was made over to Prince Christian
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, and to the direct
male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of Hesse-
Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark. In accordance
with this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown
was adopted by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31,
1853.
King Christian IX. has a civil list of 500,000 rigsdalers, or 55,555^.,
settled upon him by vote of the Rigsraad, approved Dec. 17, 1863.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, in addition, an allowance of
60,000 rigsdalers, or 6,G66L, settled by law of March 20, 1868.
Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —
House of Oldenburg.
A.D.
A.D.
Christian I. .
. 14-18
Christian V.
• 1670
Hans
. 1481
Frederik IV.
. 1699
Christian II. .
. 1-513
Christian VI.
. 1730
Frederik I.
. 1523
Frederik V. .
. 1746
Christian III.
. 1533
Christian VII.
. 1766
Frederik II. .
. 1559
Frederik VI.
. 1808
Christian IV.
. 1588
Christian VIII.
. 1839
Frederik III. .
. 1648
Frederik VII.
. 1848
House of Schlcsivig-Holstein-Sonderburg- Glueksburg.
Christian IX., 1863.
The sixteen members of the House of Oldenburg, who filled the
throne of Denmark for 415 years, had an average reign of 26
years.
44 DENMARK.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the charter
of June 5, 1849, which was modified in some important respects
in 1855 and 1863, but again restored, with various alterations, by
a statute which obtained the royal sanction on July 28, 186(5.
According to this charter, the executive power is in the king and
his responsible ministers, and the right of making and amending
laws in the Eigsdag, or Diet, acting in conjunction with the sove-
reign. The king must be a member of the evangelical Lutheran
Church, which is declared to be the religion of the State. The
Eigsdag comprises the Landsthing and the Folkething, the former
being a Senate or Upper House, and the latter a House of Com-
mons. The Landsthing consists of 66 members. Of these, 12
are nominated for life by the Crown, from among actual or former
members of the Folkething, and the rest are elected indirectly by the
people, for the term of eight years. The choice of the latter 54 mem-
bers of the Upper House is given to electoral bodies composed partly
of the largest taxpayers in the country districts, partly of depiities of
the largest taxpayers in the cities, and partly of deputies from the
totality of citizens possessing the franchise. Eligible to the Lands-
thing is every citizen who has passed his thirtieth year, and is of
unspotted reputation. The Folkething, or Lower House of Parlia-
ment, consists of 101 members, returned in direct election, by
universal suffrage, for the term of three years. The franchise belongs
to every male citizen who has reached his twenty-fifth year, who is
not in the actual receipt of public charity, or who, if he has at any
former time been in receipt of it, has repaid the sums so received,
who is not in private service without having his own household, and
who has resided at least one year in the electoral circle on the lists
of which his name is inscribed. Eligible for the Folkething are all
men of good reputation, past the age of thirty. Both the members
of the Landsthing and of the Folkething receive payment for their
services, at the same rate.
The Eigsdag must meet every year on the first Monday of Octo-
ber. To the Folkething all money bills must in the first instance
be submitted by the Government. The Landsthing, besides its legis-
lative functions, has the duty of electing from its midst every four
years the assistant judges, four in number, of the Hoiesteret, or
Supreme Court, who, together with the four judges, form the highest
tribunal of the kingdom, and can alone try parliamentary impeach-
ments. The ministers have free access to both of the legislative
assemblies, but can only vote in that Chamber of which they are
members.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 45
The executive, acting under the king as president, and called
the .Royal Privy Council, consists of the following seven depart-
ments:—
1. The Presidency of the Council. — Count Holstein-Holsteinborg,
appointed President of the Council of Ministers, May 28, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Baron Otto Bosenom-Lehn,
appointed May 28, 1870.
3. The Ministry of the Interior. — Christen Andreas Fonnesbech,
appointed May 28, 1870.
4. The Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Carl Christian Hall, appointed May 28, 1870.
5. The Ministry of Justice. — Andreas Fredrik Krieger, appointed
May 28, 1870.
6. The Ministry of Finance. — Carl Emil Fe?iger, appointed May
28, 1870.
7. The Ministry of War and Marine. — Colonel Wolfgang
Haffner, appointed April 20, 1870.
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for
their acts, and in case of impeachment, and being found guilty,
cannot be pardoned by the king -without the consent of the Folke-
thing.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland.
is divided, for administrative purposes, into four Amts or districts ;
these are again divided into syssels or sheriffdoms — a sysselman being
a magistrate and receiver of the king's taxes in each of them. The
governor-general is called stiftamtmand, and resides at Eeikjavik.
Besides him there are three amtmands for the western, the northern,
and eastern districts. The aiiairs of the island are regulated by the
althing, a council composed of 26 members, of which five are nomi-
nated by the crown, and the rest elected by the people — one for the
town of Eeikjavik, and one for each of the 20 syssels.
Church and Education.
The established religion in Denmark is the Lutheran, which was
introduced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that
time seized and retained by the Crown. The affairs of the national
Church are under the superintendence of the seven bishops of
Sjalland, Lolland, Fyen, Eibe, Aarhuus, Viborg, and Aalborg.
At present the nomination of the bishops is vested in the king.
The bishops have no political character ; they inspect the conduct
of the subordinate clergy, confer holy orders, and enjoy nearly all
46 DENMARK.
the privileges of episcopal dignitaries in Great Britain, except that of
voting 'in the legislature. Complete religious toleration is extended to
every sect. It is enacted, by Art. 76 of the Constitution, that ' all
citizens may worship God according to their own fashion, provided
they do not offend morality or public order.' By Art. 77, no man
is bound to contribute to the support of a form of worship of which
he is not a member ; and by Art. 79 no man can be deprived of his
civil and political rights on the score of religion, nor be exempted
on this account from the performance of his duties as a citizen.
According to the census of 18G0, there were only 12,907 persons,
or less than one per cent, of the population, not belonging to the
Lutheran church. Of this number nearly one-third, or 4,214, were
Jews; the remainder comprised 1,240 Roman Catholics; 1,761
members of the Reformed church, or Calvinists; 2,657 Mormons;
2,270 Anabaptists; 114 members of the Anglican church ; and 202
individuals forming part of the sect called ' Frimenighed,' or the
free community.
Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attend-
ance at school being obligatory from the age of seven to fourteen.
In conformity with Art. 85 of the Constitution, education is
afforded gratuitously in the public schools to children whose parents
cannot afford to pay for their teaching. The system of mutual in-
struction, introduced in 1820, was generally adopted in 1840.
Besides the university of Copenhagen, there are 13 public gymnasia,
or colleges, in the principal towns of the kingdom, which afford a
' classical ' education, and under them are a large number of Middle
Schools, for the children of the trading, and higher working classes.
Instruction at the public expense is given in the Parochial Schools,
spi-ead all over the country, to the number, in August 1869, of
2,940, namely 28 in Copenhagen ; 132 in the towns of Denmark,
and 2,780 in the rural districts. — (Report of the Royal government
to the Statesman 's Year-booh.)
Revenue and Expenditure.
The Danish financial year runs from the 1st of April to the
31st of March. The budget is presented to the Folkething towards
the end of the calendar year. In the course of the winter it is
discussed, and its details are settled by the middle or end of
March.
The actual revenue and expenditure of the State were as follows in
the five financial years 1864 to 1868 : —
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
47
Years,
ending March 31
Revenue
Expenditure
Rigsdaler
£
Rissdaler
£
1864 . .
34.843.450
3.871,494
39,748,838
4,416,537
1865 . .
37,785.904
4.198.434
35,424,670
3.936.074
1866 . .
21.961.761
2,440,196
24,003.235
2,667,026
1867 . .
26,314.214
2.923,801
25,342,234
2.815,804
1868 . .
24.358,176
2,706,464
24,388,629
2.7n9,847
The revenue and expenditure for the years ending March 31, 1864
and 1865 included, the first wholly, and the second partly, the finan-
cial accounts of Schleswig-Holstein, separated from the crown of
Denmark by the treaty of Vienna, signed Oct. 30, 1864.
The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure in the financial
year ending March 31, 1868, were as follows :- — -
Sources of Revenue
Rigsdaler Skilling
Direct taxes .
. 4.142,194
77
Customs and Excise
. 7,739,940
25
Crown lands and Regalian du
es . . 710.018
44
Indirect taxes
. 1,812,504
93
Post Office and Telegraphs
29,631
71
Lottery ....
142.011
30
Interest on Reserve Fund
. 2,123,346
42
Contributions from ditto
. 1.135.288
0
Revenue of Iceland, "West In
dies, &c. . 1,253,826
80
Loans for railroads
. 3,749.011
0
Miscellaneous receipts .
864.712
0
Exchequer Bills
655,687
84
Total .
. 24,358,176
66 or
Branches of Expenditu
re Rigsdaler
Skilling
Civil List of the King and 1
ioyal family 672,924
0
Interest of National Debt
. 7,582,246
24
Pensions
2,081,367
64
Army ....
. 3,783,978
27
Navy . .
. 1,676,681
47
Civil Service
. 3,050,982
33
Legislature .
193,058
50
Railroads
. 3,848,511
28
Extraordinary expenses
1,498,880
16
Total
. 24,388,629
22 or
The total revenue for the year ending March 31, 1869, amomited
to 26,333,349 rigsdaler 83 skilling, or 2,925,928/., and the expendi-
ture to 26,692,932 rigsdaler 77 skilling, or 2,965,881/. The estimates
for the financial year ending March 31, 1870, were as follows : —
48
DENMARK.
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes ....
Income tax .
Customs and Excise
Crown lands . . . .
Indirect taxes . . . .
Post Office and Telegraphs .
Lottery .
Interest on Eeserve Fund
Contribution from capital of ditto
Miscellaneous receipts .
Riesdaler
3,957.304
1,000,000
7,852,614
657,909
1.781,500
158,849
165,174
2,312,819
4,746,169
314,456
Skilling
0
0
46
58
0
28
0
35
11
57
Total ....
22,987,136
43
Branches of Expenditure
Rigsdaler
Skillin
Civil List of the King and Koyal family
. 707,924
0
Interest of National Debt .
7.355,707
45
Pensions ......
1,958,543
35
Army .......
4,194,291
82
Nary
1,880,652
44
Civil Service .....
2,883,348
64
Legislature ......
100,000
0
Railroads ... ...
2,825,000
0
Extraordinary expenses
897,200
31
Total
22,802,668 13 or £2,533,630 ]
According to these estimates, there will be a surplus, in the
financial year 1869-70, of 184,468 rixdollars, or 20,496Z.
An important feature in the administration of the finances of the
kingdom is the maintenance of a Reserve Fund of a very large
amount. On the 31st of March, 1869, the Fund stood at 6,500,000/.,
or considei-ably more than the national revenue for two years. It is
contemplated gradually to reduce the Reserve Fund, in the years
1869-77, to 16,000,000 rigsdaler, or 1,780,000/.
The public debt of Denmark, incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary
government, and in part by railway undertakings, amounted to
119,141,086 rigsdaler, or 13,239,872/., on March 31, 1869. It has
been in course of reduction since 1866, as shown in the following
table, which gives the national liabilities at five different periods : —
Years,
ending March 31
Capital of Debt
1861
1863
1866
1867
1869
Rigsdaler
98,261,793
95,734,757
132,110,802
130,609,721
119,141,086
£
11,054,451
10,770,159
14,862,465
14,512,191
13,239,872
1
ARMY AND NAVY.
49
The annual charge of the national debt is gradually diminishing.
It amounted to —
Years
Kigsdaler
£
1S66-67 .
1868-69 .
1869-70 .
12.033,473
11.876,806
7,355,707
1,337,500
1,311.800
817,300
The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The former
consists chiefly of 4 per cents, and on the 31st of March, 1869, the
total amount of this internal funded debt was 77,077,600 rigsdaler.
Army and Navy.
The army of Denmark consists, according to a law of re-organi-
sation, passed by the Rigsdag on July 6, 1867, of all the able-
bodied young men of the kingdom who have reached the age of 21
years. They are liable to service for eight years in the regular army,
and for eight years subsequent in the army of reserve. The drilling
is divided into two periods : the first lasts six months for the
infantry, five months for the field artillery, and the engineers ; nine
months and two Aveeks for the cavalry ; and four months for the
siege artillery and the technic corps. The second period of drill,
which is for only a portion of the recruits of each branch of arms,
notably those who have profited the least by the first course, lasts
nine months for the infantry, eleven months tor the cavalry, and one
year for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to
drill each year during from thirty to forty-five days. By the terms
of the law of 1867, the kingdom is divided into five territorial
brigades, and every brigade into four territorial battalions, in such
a way that no district and no town, the capital excepted, will belong
to more than one territorial battalion. Every territorial brigade fur-
nishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and one regiment of
cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished one-half by the two
first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three other ones.
The contingent of the engineers is furnished by the whole brigades.
The forces of the kingdom, under the new organisation, comprise
20 battalions of infantry of the line, with 10 depot battalions, and
10 of reserve; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 2 squadrons active
and 2 depot; and two regiments of artillery, in 12 batteries. The
total strength of the army, exclusive of the reserve, is 36,782 rank
and file, with 1,068 officers, on the peace-footing, and 47,925 rank
and file, with 1,328 officers, on the war-footing.
The navy of Denmark comprised, at the commencement of Sep-
tember, 1869. the following vessels, all steamers : —
E
50
DENMARK.
Name
Built
Horse-
Power
Guns
1 . Screw Steamers — Ironclads : —
Peder Skram ......
1864
600
18
Danmark .......
1864
500
24
Dannebrog .......
1863
400
16
Rolf Krake
1863
235
3
Lindormen (Turret)
1868
360
2
Number 54 (Turret)
1869
360
o
Unarmoured vessels : —
Skjold ....
1858
300
42
.Tylland
1860
400
26
Sjalland
1858
300
26
Niels Juel .
1855
300
26
Tordenskjold
1862
200
22
Dagmar
1861
300
14
Heimdal
1856
260
14
Thor .
1851
260
10
Fylla .
1862
150
3
Diana .
1863
150
3
Absalon
1862
100
3
Esbern Snare
1862
100
3
Gunboats : —
6 first-class, iron hull
—
480
12
1 second-class, ditto
—
1
2. Paddle Steamers : —
Holger Danske
1849
260
7
Slesvig
1845
240
12
Hekla .
1842
200
7
(reiser .
1844
160
8
Skirner
1847
120
2
Aegir .
1841
80
2
Total: 31 steamers.
312
The iron-<dads of the Danish navy are converted ships, on the
French model, with the exception of the Rolf Krake and the Lin-
dormen. The Rolf Krake, built by Napier, of Glasgow, is plated
with 4i-inch iron, and has two turrets, which carry three 60-
pounders; it is of 1,200 tons burthen, and draws 16 feet of water.
The Lindormen is plated from stem to stern with 5-inch iron, over
10 inches wood-backing, and carries a Coles's cupola, with folding-
down bulwarks. The Lindormen is armed with two 12^ tons rifled
Armstrong cannon ; is 210 feet long, and 38 feet 3 inches broad,
with a draught of 12 feet fore and aft, and has twin screws. The
turret ship, marked as Number 54, similar to the Lindormen in con-
struction, but with seven-inch armour, and carrying 18 tons rifled
Armstrong cannon, was not quite finished in September, 1869.
AREA AND POPULATION.
5*
The Danish navy was manned, in September 1869, by 901 men,
and officered by 15 commanders, 34 captains, and 67 lieutenants.
(Report of the Royal government to the Statesman 's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The area and population of Denmark, according to the last census,
taken February 1, 1870, are as follows: —
Provinces
Area
Geogr. sq. m. English sq. m.
Population
1870
Seeland and Moen
Bornholm ....
Fiinen and Langeland
Lolland-Falster
Jutland .....
Total .
133.3
10-6
619
30-1
458-0
2,793
221
1,302
640
9,597
636,506
31,846
236,269
91,017
787,927
693-9
14,553
1,783,565
Denmark is a purely agricultural country, the greater number
of the people being occupied in the cultivation of the land, and in
the simple employments necessary to meet the more immediate wants
of the agricultural districts. There being no coal, and but little
water-power in. the country, the manufactories of any description
are but few in number, and of small extent.
The proportionate increase in the population of Denmark for thn.
last fifteen years has been larger in the towns than in the country
districts. In Copenhagen it has been 8*05. per cent., in the other
commercial towns together H>29 per cent., Avhilst in the country
districts it has only been 5-99 per cent. The following was the
population of the four chief towns at the enumerations of 1855,
1860, and 1870 :—
Population
1855.
1860
1870
Copenhagen (Kjobenhara)
Odense ......
Aarhuus ......
Aalborg .......
143,591
12,932.
8,891
9,102
155,143
14,255
11,009
10,069
180,866
16,721
13,020
11,953
The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the
state of the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into
larger estates, but encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out
of landed property. In consequence, the number of small pro-
b2
52
DENMARK.
prietors is increasing from year to year, and the number of great
landowners decreasing in proportion. Of the latter class, there
were 7,959 in 1834, and only 5,790 in 1860, while of the former
the numbers were— 87,867 in 1834, and 135,933 in 1860.
The occupations of the people are stated as follows in the last cen-
sus. Out of an average of 1,000 people, 395 live exclusively by
agriculture: 228 by manufactures and trades; 187 are day labourers;
53 are commercial men ; 29 mariners; 20 paupers; 16 ministers and
schoolmasters, or connected with education ; 15 pensioners, or people
living on ' aftsegt' (an allowance to those who cede their farms from
old age, &c.) : 13 servants ; between 11 and 12 hold appointments in
the civil offices ; 9 are commissioned and non-commissioned officers
in the army and navy ; 9 capitalists ; 7 follow scientific and literary
pursuits (including students at -the Universities) ; and about 5 are
returned as having no fixed means of living.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Denmark is carried on mainly with Germany
and Great Britain, the imports from the former amounting to about
2,000,000/., and from the latter to 1,500,000/., and the exports to
the former to 3,500,000/., and to the latter to rather more than
2,300,000/., on the average of the five years 1864-68. After Ger-
many and Great Britain, Denmark has the greatest trade with
Sweden and Russia. The precise amount of the commercial trans-
actions with these countries is not known, as the Danish official
returns do not give the declared or real value of the imports or
exports, but only the weight of the same.
The commercial intercourse between Denmark and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, exhibiting
the "value of the total exports from Denmark to Great Britain and
Ireland, aside with the imports of British and Irish produce and
manufactures into Denmark, in the ten years 1860 to 1869 : —
Exports from Denmark to
Imports of British Home Produce
Years
Great Britain
into Denmark
£
£
1S60
2,575,958
731,162
1861
1.371.933
766,210
1862
1.431,171
830,706
1863
1.625,294
880,687
1864
2,242,300
1,190.609
1865
2.284,287
1,263.953
1866
2,291,909
1,202,811
1867
2,588,921
1,282,358
1868
2.170,398
1,450,359
1869
2,236,9.V2
1,574,562
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 53
The exports of Denmark to the United Kingdom consist entirely
of agricultural produce, mainly corn. The total exports of the
latter article amounted to the value of 1,087,571/. in the year 1869,
including 471), 475/. for barley; 277,175/. for wheat; and 187,840/.
for oats. The exports of horned cattle, formerly very considerable,
decreased greatly in recent years, the value of the same not
amounting to more than 91,930/. in 1869; Of British imports into
Denmark, the principal are coals and iron, the first of the value of
242,876/., and the latter of the value of 251,644/. in the year 1869.
On March 31, 1868, the commercial fleet of Denmark consisted of
3,132 ships, with a tonnage of 175,554 tons. The port of Copen-
hagen possessed, at the same date, 381 ships, of 49,087 tons. The
slapping of the kingdom included 80 steamers, of 4,566 horse-power.
From its insular position, the coasting trade of Denmark is very con-
siderable, and there being no commercial and fixed restrictions, it is
largely participated in by foreigners. In the year ending March 31,
1868, there took part in it 15,972 foreign vessels, of which number
40 per cent, belonged to Sweden, 24 per cent, to Norway, 23 per
cent, to Germany, and 4 per cent, to Great Britain. — (Report of the
Royal government to the Statesman s Year-book.)
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of the islands of
Faroe, Iceland,, and Greenland in Europe; the first-named — 17 in
number — having a population in 1860 of 8,922 ; Iceland of 66,987 ;
and Greenland of 9,880 souls. The West India possessions, St. Croix,
St. Thomas, and St. John, with a number of smaller islands, have a
population of 37,137, according to the census of 1860. The estab-
lishments on the coast of Guinea, forts Christianborg, Fredensborg,
and various other places, were ceded to Great Britain, by purchase,
in 1850. The. town of Tranquebar with the surrounding district,
on the Coromandel coast, ceded to Denmark by the rajah of
Tanjore, in 1620, and the small territory of Serampore — Danish
Frederiksnagor — in Bengal, femnded by the Danish East India
Company in 1755, were transferred to Great Britain in 1846. The
Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, were taken possession of by
the Danish Government in 1756, and for some time were in a flourish-
ing state, the population amounting to above 6,000 in the year 1840.
Eight years later, however, in 1848, they were abandoned as useless,
nominally on account of their insalubrity.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Denmark, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
54 DENMARK.
Money.
The Bigsdaler = 96 shillings . . Average rate of exchange. 2*. 3d.
Weights and Measures.
The Lod ......= 227 grains troy, or about %\ dwts.
„ Pound ......= 1'102 avoirdupois, or about lOOlbs.
to the cwt.
„ Ship Last . . . . . = 2 tons.
,, Tonde, or Barrel of Grain and Salt = 3'8 Imperial bushels.
Coal . . = 47
„ Foot ....... = 1-03 English feet.
„ Viertel . . . . . . = 1'7 Imperial gallon.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Official Publications.
Kongelig Dansk Hof og Statsealender. Kjobenhavn, 1869.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Tredie Raekke. Niende Bind. Indeholdende
Tabeller over Kongeriget Danmarks Vare - Indfyfrsel og Udfersel samt
Skibsfart m. m. i Finantsaaret 1866-67. Udgivet af det statistiske Bureau.
4. Gyldendal. 1868.
■ Tredie Raekke, tiende Bind, indeholdende Tabeller
over Kreaturholdet i Kongeriget Danmark den 16de Juli 1866. Udgivet af
det statistiske Bureau. 4. Ibid. 186S.
Tredie Raekke, ellevte Bind, indeholdende Tabeller
over Stgfrrelsen af det besaaede Areal og Udsaeden i Kongeriget Danmark den
16de Juli 1866. Udgivet af det statistiske Bureau. 4. Ibid. 1869.
Report by Mr. G. Straehey, British Charge d' Affaires at Copenhagen, on the
Finance, Commerce, and Navigation of Denmark, dated January 25, 186S ; in
'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1868.
London, 1868.
Report by Mr. G. Straehey, British Secretary of Legation, on the Finances,
Trade, and Agriculture of Denmark, dated Copenhagen, Jan. 25, 1869 ; in
'Report's of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869.
8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Petre, British Secretary of Legation, on Danish Exports to
Great Britain, dated Feb. 20, 1866; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. XIII. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul Crowe, on the Trade, Navigation, and General Sta-
tistics of the Kingdom of Denmark, dated Copenhagen, July 23, 1869; in
' Commercial Reports' received at the Foreign Office. No. III. 1870, 8.
London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baggesen (A.) Den Danske Stat i Aaret 1860. Fremstillet geographisk og
statistisk, tillige fra et militairt Standpunkt. 2 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1860-63.
Bergsb (A. F.) Den Danske Stats Statistik. 3 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1853-58.
Erxhv (E.) Den Danske Stat. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1859-60.
Petersen (C. P. N.) Love og andre offrntlige Kundgjorelser, &c, vedkoni-
mende Landvaesenet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1865.
Tisserand (Eugene) Etudes economiques sur le Danemark. 4. Paris, 1865.
Trap (J. P.) Statistisk-topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark.
4 toIs. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1857-63.
55
PRANCE.
(La France.)
Constitution and Government.
There existed no settled form of Government in France at the
end of 1870, the Imperial constitution of January 14, 1852, decreed
' in virtue of the powers delegated by the French people to Prince
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte by the vote of the 21st and 22nd
December, 1851,' and ratified by plebiscites of November 21-22,
1852, and May 8, 1870, having been overthrown by a revolutionary
movement in Paris, September 4, 1870, resulting in the instalment
of a self-appointed ' Provisional Government of National Defence.'
In the eighty years from 1791 till the end of 1870, there existed
the following forms of government in France : —
Monarchy, 1791-92.
Louis XVI. : abdication decreed, August 10, 1792 ; beheaded, Jan. 21, 1793.
Republic, 1792-99.
Eepublic proclaimed, September 21, 1792 ; government of the ' Convention,'
1792-95 ; government of the ' Directoire,' 1795-99.
Consulate, 1799-1804.
Napoleon Bonaparte : First Consul, 1799-1802 ; Sole Consul for life, 1802-4.
Empire, 1804-14.
Napoleon I. : crowned Emperor, December 2, 1804; abdicated, April 11, 1814.
Monarchy, 1814-15.
Louis XVIII. : entered France, April, 1814 ; fled the country, March, 1815.
Empire, 1815.
Napoleon I.: re-entered France, March 1, 1815 ; abdicated, June 22, 1815.
Monarchy, 1815-30.
Louis XVIII. : re-installed, July, 1815 ; died, September, 1824.
Charles X.: succeeded, September, 1824; expelled from France, July, 1830.
Limited Monarchy, 1830-48.
Louis Philippe: proclaimed King, August, 1830; expelled, February, 1848.
Eepublic, 1848-51.
Republic proclaimed, February 24, 1848 ; Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected
President for four years, by 5,562,834 votes, December 10, 1848 ; the National
Assembly dissolved by a ' coup d'etat,' Dec. 2, 1851 ; Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
elected President for ten years, by 7,439,216 votes, December 21-22, 1851.
Empire, 1852-70.
Napoleon III. ; elected hereditary Emperor of the French, by 7,864,189 votes,
November 21-22, 1852; taken prisoner at Sedan, September 2, 1870.
56
FRANCE.
It will be seen that the two governments of longest duration
during the period from 1791 to 1870 were the Limited Monarchy
of Louis Philippe, and the Empire of Napoleon III., each of which
lasted eighteen years.
Church and Education.
The population of France, by the census of May 15, 1866, consisted
of 36,420,664 Roman Catholics, 1,591,250 Protestants, 158,994
Jews, and 21,000 members of other sects and forms of belief.
In Algeria there were, besides, 2,778,281 Mahometans. In regard
to Protestants, this official statement is greatly at variance with
that of the Synods and Consistories, the heads of which estimate
the members of the Reformed Church at 630,000, and those of
the Lutheran Church at 305,000, giving a total of less than a
million of Protestants.
The religion of the civil population of Paris, numbering 1,799,980,
was ascertained to be as follows at the census of May, 1866 : — ■
Religion
Number
Per cent, of
Population
Roman Catholics .....
Protestants ......
Other religions ......
Persons declaring to belong to no religion .
Total ....
1,732.529
41,244
20,615
652
4,940
96
100
1,799,980
All religions are recognised by the State, but only the Roman
Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, are noticed in the budget ; the
latter only since 1831. In the last budget the allowances to the
Roman Catholic clergy amount to 49,819,936 francs, or very nearly
2,000,000/. sterling; and those to the Protestant Church, 1,493,436
francs, or 59,737/. The whole income of the Roman Catholic clergy,
from public and private sources, is computed to amount to above
100,000,000 francs, or 4,000,000/. sterling ; and that of the Protest-
ant ministers to about 150,000/. There are eighty-six prelates of
the Roman Catholic Church — namely, seventeen archbishops and
sixty-nine bishops. The Archbishop of Paris has a salary of 50,000
francs, or 2,000/., and each of the other archbishops of 20,000 francs,
or 800/. ; while the sixty-nine bishops have an income of 15,000
francs, or 600/. each. An extra allowance of 10,000 francs, or -100/.,
is made to six of these prelates, on account of their being cardinals,
and, as all cardinals are ex-qfficio senators, the farther sum of
3,000 francs, or 1,200/., is paid to them in this capacity. The other
CHUHCH AND EDUCATION. 57
Eoman Catholic clergy comprise 192 vicars-general, with salaries of
from 1,500 to 2,500 francs, or GO/, to 100/. ; 723 canons, with allow-
ances varying from 1,600 to 2,400 francs, or 64/. to 96/.; 3,531
cures, or incumbents with incomes ranging from 1,200 to 1,600
francs, or 48/. to 64/. ; and 31,569 desservants, or curates, with
stipends of from 900 to 1,200 francs, or 36/. to 48/. The Protest-
ants of the xVugsburg Confession, or Lutherans, are, in their reli-
gious affairs, governed by a General Consistory, established at Stras-
bourg; while the members of the Reformed Church, also called
Calvinists, are under a council of administration, the seat of which
is at Paris. The Jewish priesthood consists of ten high rabbis,
with salaries of from 3,500 to 7,000 francs, or 140/. to 240/. ;
sixty-six rabbis, with incomes ranging from 800 to 1,500 francs, or
32/. to 60/. ; and sixty-four precentors, with allowances from 500
to 2,000 francs, or 20/. to 80/.
The Lutherans have a seminary and a faculty of theology at
Strasbourg, with fifty-three churches ; and the Calvinists have con-
sistorial churches in fifty-nine departments : they meet occasionally
in synod, and have a faculty of theology at Montauban. When
Calvin founded the Reformed Church in France, he confided the
government of each parish to a Presbyteral Council, or Consistory,
taken from among the general assembly of the members. This was
strictly adhered to till the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The
Edict of 1787 restored to the Protestants the civil rights they had
been deprived of a century before, but it made no regulations as to
their religious organisation, Avhich was only determined at the same
time as that of the Catholic Church in its relations to the State, by
the law of 18 Germinal, year X., known as the ' Organic Articles
of the Protestant Worship.' By that law the administration of each
of the Reformed parishes was intrusted to a Consistory, composed of
the pastor or pastors serving the church, and of elders chosen from
the principal laymen in each district. The members of the Council
thus established Avere at first named by the Government : half of
them Avere subject to re-election every two years, and the elections
Avere held by the elders actually in office, Avho named for that pur-
pose an equal number of citizens Avho Avere heads of families. This
organisation was again changed on the 26th of March, 1852, by a Dic-
tatorial Decree of Prince Louis Napoleon, President of the Republic,
on the ground, ' that the laAvs which regulated the Reformed
Churches had always been deemed insufficient, and that it AAras of
the utmost importance to complete them in the interests of re-
ligion, and of administrative and political order.' The decree of the
26th of March charges with the government of each parish a Pres-
byteral Council, consisting of pastors and of laics, one-half of whom
are subject to re-election every three years. The election is by
universal suffrage ; and all the members of the Protestant faith
58 TRANCE.
inscribed on the parish register are electors. The Presbyteral Council
is placed under the authority of the Consistory, which is composed
of the Presbyteral Council of the chief town of the Consistorial
district, augmented by all the pastors of the district, and 10 lay
delegates from each of the other Presbyteral Coimcils.
Public education has made great progress in France within the
last generation, according to a voluminous report issued by the
Minister of Public Instruction in March 1865. The report gives a
comparative statement of the numbers who attended primary schools
in 1832, 1847, and 18G3 respectively; from which it appears that in
1832 there were 59 pupils per 1,000 of the population, 99'8 in 1847,
and 116 in 1863. As regards the number of children who are not
known to go to any school, the report states that between 1847 and
1863, 8,566 public schools were opened with a gain of 806,233
pupils, averaging 59,000 per annum. There are still 818 communes
without schools, but in most of these places the children are sent to
schools in the vicinity. There appears to be a deficit of 884,887
children between seven and thirteen who ought to be at the primary
schools, but some receive instruction at home or in the elementary
classes of secondary establishments. The duration of school life is
regulated by the religion of the scholar. Catholics rarely visit school
after eleven or twelve, the age at which they receive their first com-
munion ; Protestants commonly remaining until about sixteen. As
far as can be ascertained, the number of children over eight and
under eleven who have never been to school does not exceed 200,000.
Of the children who left school in 1863, 60 per cent, could read,
write, and cast accounts fairly ; the remaining 40 per cent, had
either passed through school uselessly or left it with such imperfect
knowledge as not to be able to pass an examination.
According to official returns, there were, in October 1863, in
France 82,135 establishments of primary instruction, or 16,136
more than in 1848 ; and the scholastic population, which at this last
period was only 3,771,597, had risen in 1862 to 4,731,946, giving
an augmentation of nearly a million, or a quarter of the whole. The
36,499 communes provided, in October 1863, with means of instruc-
tion, comprised 41,426 public and free schools, special for youths or
mixed as to the sexes, of which 37,895, numbering 2,145,420 pupils,
were directed by laics, and 3,531, numbering 482,008 pupils, had
'congregationist' masters. Of the 2,627,428 children in these
schools, 922,820, or more than one-third, were admitted gratuitously.
The number of schools for girls, in October 1863, amounted to
26,592; of which 13,491 were directed by laics provided with
diplomas of capacity, and 13,101 by religious sisters, of whom 12,335
had only the ' letter of obedience.' These schools received 1,609,213
pupils, of whom rather more than a third, or 604,247, were in the
lay schools, and 1,059,966 in the congregationist establishments.
CnURCH AND EDUCATION. 59
One quarter of those pupils were admitted gratuitously — viz.
130,210 in the lay, and 490,094 in the congregationist schools;
total 620,304. The emoluments of the female public teachers
amounted to 9,169,030 francs, giving an average annual salary of
655 francs, or 26/. per head.
The amount of general education of the French people may be
judged to some extent from the military statistics. According
to a report of the Minister of War, published in 1866, the number
of conscripts unable to read amounts to 30 out of every hundred,
for the whole of France. But the degree of education varies greatly
in different parts of the empire, instruction being far more general
in the eastern and northern than in the southern districts. Among
the 89 departments, there are 14 in which out of every hundred
conscripts, from 90 to 96 can read. The departments so distinguished
are the Doubs, Haute-Marne, Meuse, Bas-Rhin, Meurthe, Jura,
Moselle, Vosges, Aube, Seine, Haut-Rhin, Haute-Saone, Cote d'Or,
and Iiautes-Alpes. The next are the Marne, Ardennes, Seine-et-
Oise, Rhone, Seine-et-Marne, Manche, Oise, Calvados, Haute-Savoie,
Yonne, Eure-et-Loir, Isere, Orne, Hautes-Pyrenees, or 14 depart-
ments in which from 80 to 90 out of 100 conscripts can read.
Those which show from 70 to 79 per cent, who can read are the Ain,
Somme, Aisne, Savoy, Eure, Herault, Gard, Drome, Basses- Alpes,
Charente-Inferieure, Bouches-du- Rhone, Deux-Sevres, Loiret,
Aveyron, Pas-de- Calais, and Gironde. The departments with from
60 to 69 per cent who can read, are Cantal, Seine-Inferieure,
Vaucluse, Lozere, Gers, Saone-et-Loire, Aude, Basses-Pyrenees,
Lot-et-Garonne, Nord, Haute-Garonne, Var, Charente, Maine-et-
Loire, Corsica, Loir-et-Cher, Mayenne, Sarthe, and Creuse. Twelve
depai-tments — namely, the Lot, Loire-Inferieure, Ardeche, Indre-et-
Loire, llle-et-Vilaine, Puy-de-D6me, Tarn-et-Garonne, Alpes-
Maritimes, Vendee, Tarn, Pyrenees-Orientales, and Vienne show
from 50 to 58 per cent, of conscripts not quite illiterate. The list
closes with the Nievre, Haute-Loire, Landes, Ariege, Dordogne,
Cher, Morbihan, Indre, Cotes- du -Nord, Correze, Finisterre, Haute-
Vienne, and Allier, where the proportion of the conscripts who can
read varies from 34 to 49 per cent. It is calculated that another
generation will be required to extend the benefits of education to
the whole population of France.
The state of education of the civil population of Paris, numbering
1,799,980, was ascertained to be as follows at the census of May 15,
1866 : —
Children under 5 years .... 111,729
Persons unable to read or write . . 218. 381
Persons able to read .... 38,771
Persons able to read and write . . 1,421.871
1,679,023
Not ascertained 6,228
1,799,980
6o
FRANCE.
The following table exhibits the moral condition of the people as
regards marriage, giving, according to official returns, the number
of living births, legitimate and illegitimate, in parts and the whole of
France, in the year 1865 : —
Legitimate
Illegi imate
Proportion of
legitimate to
one illegitimate
Department of the Seine
Town population .
Country population
Total
46,062
230,224
653,694
15,984
29,6'69
30,247
2-88
7-76
21-61
929,980
75,900
12-21
The proportion of legitimate births to illegitimate was almost
precisely the same in the five preceding years, being at the rate of
21-| to one for the country population, of 7f to one for the towns,
and of not quite 3 to one for the department of the Seine, that is,
the capital of France. It is probable that the facts exhibited in
these statistics have some influence in producing an excessive rate of
infant mortality in many parts of France. According to a report of
the British Secretary of Embassy, dated July 1, 186(J, the following
was the per-centage of deaths among children, from one day old to
twelve months, in several departments, including that of the capital,
on the average of the last years —
Loire Inferieure ........ 90 per cent.
Seine S7 ,,
Eure 78 „
Calvados 78 „
Aube 69 „
' It seems,' adds the report, ' that infanticide and abortion are very
much on the increase, and that the local authorities, instead of
bringing these crirnes to light, seek rather to conceal them, in order
that they should not appear on the criminal statistics. It is thought
that since the abolition of the box in the doors of the Foundling
Hospitals, which secured the secret admission of children, very
many more are made away with. There are other causes, apper-
taining to the peculiar constitution of French society, which it is
asserted have a decided and marked effect upon the increase of the
population.'
Revenue and Expenditure.
The Senatus-Consultum of December 31, 18G1, inaugurated the
system by which the budgets of the French Government until
IS?!) wen: drawn up. Under this system, the Minister of Finance
distinguished between three classes of income, namely, ordinary,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
61
extraordinary, and special revenue, the latter including loans; and he
also recognised three sorts of expenditure, viz. ordinary, extraordinary,
and supplementary. It was the practice to lay before the Legislative
Body in the first instance the budget of ordinary income and ex-
penditure ; when this had been voted, the extraordinary budget was
submitted to the Chamber, and, finally, the special budget. There
were other classifications as regards time, the financial estimates in
their first form of presentation being called ' projet de budget,' in
their second, ' budget rectifie,' and in their third, ' budget definitif. '
Great discrepancies frequently existed between the statements and
figures thus offered in successive stages, leaving much uncertainty
as to the actual revenue and expenditure of the state.
The following table gives the details of the official budget estimates
for each of the years 1869 and 1870 — the last voted by the Legis-
lative Body under the Empire : —
Estimated Revenue
1869
1870
Ordinary Revt n/ue : —
Francs
Francs
Direct taxes .....
329.516,660
332,821,800
Departmental and ccmrmunal taxes
228,245,843
233,789,470
Registration duties and stamps .
433,946,000
456,474,000
Domains and Forests ....
34,240,776
55,401,573
Customs and salt duties
103,623,000
106,954,000
Sugar duties
110,892,000
111,800,000
Wine and spirit duties
234,716,000
243,433,000
Divers indirect taxes .
39,048,000
41,585,000
Tobacco monopoly
247,658,000
246,809.000
Gunpowder ,,
12,732,000
13,214,000
Post office .
86,409,000
89.344,000
Schools and universities
3,664,621
3,749,598
Revenue of Algeria
17,600,200
16,500,000
Produce of various establishments
14,645,600
15,479,007
Miscellaneous state receipts .
32,256,440
55,401,573
Miscellaneous communal receipts .
Total of Ordinary Revenue .
44,713,920
1,973,908,000
46,509,440
2,018,766,303
Extraordinary and Special Revenue : —
Produce of loans .....
133,317,150
15,360,000
War indemnity due by Cochin-China .
1,080,000
1,080,000
Profits of re- coinage of 20 and 50 cen-
time pieces .....
1,000,000
250,000
Payment due from the ' Algerian Com-
pany' ......
16,666,666
16,666,666
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Totalof Extraordinary and Special Revenue
Total Rpyenue .
2,750,000
3,900,000
154,813,816
124,841,311
2,128,721,816
2,143,607,614
£85,148,8*72
£85,744,305
62
FRANCE.
Estimated expenditure
1869
1870
Ordinary Expenditure: —
Francs
Francs
Civil List and dotations
26,500,000
26,500,000
Senate and Legislative Body
11.433,500
11,682,020
Legion of Honour ....
11,068,780
11,273,780
Interest on Funded debt
349,276,936
363,924,834
„ „ Floating debt .
34,968,832
32,968,832
Annuities ......
90,544,476
93,568,631
Ministry of State ....
3,042,400
3,042,400
„ ,, Justice and Public Worship
82,153,156
82,357,606
„ „ Foreign Affairs .
13,164,200
13,161,200
„ ,, Interior ....
215,247,935
218,568.345
„ „ Finance ....
119,447,827
123,669,400
„ War
370,860,778
373,001,182
„ „ Marine and Colonies .
161,338,422
162,845,022
„ „ Public Instruction
34,574,321
35,129,321
„ „ Agriculture, Commerce, and
Public Works
95,448,903
102.170,553
„ „ Imperial House .
12,151,600
12,151,600
Government of Algeria
14,808,700
14,809,220
Collection of revenue ....
234,275,113
237,941,712
Repayments and premiums .
12,233,150
12,216,000
Departmental and communal expenses .
Total of Ordinary Expenditure
Extraordinary and Supplementary Ex-
133,300,000
159,154,000
1,931,181,658
2,025,839,029
penditure :—
Ministry of Justice ....
5,300,000
5,700,000
,, ,, Interior ....
14,833,000
18,633,000
„ ,, Finance ....
5,325,000
4,825,000
„ War . . . .
2,975,000
2,975,000
,, „ Marine and Colonies .
10,500,000
10,500,000
,, „ Public Instruction
1,820,000
1,946,195
„ „ Agriculture & Public Works
30,791,850
53,951,850
,, „ Imperial House
700,000
4,960,000
Government of Algeria
Total of Extraordinary and Sup- )
plemental Expenditure . J
Total Expenditure .
23,956,766
24,915,766
102,501,616
123,406,811
2,128.340,645
2,054,588,469
£85,133,626
£82,187,539
According to these estimates, representing the ' projet de budget,'
there was to be a surplus of 15,246Z. in the year 1869, and of
3,556,766/. in 1870. But the ' budget rectifie ' for both annual
periods altered the accounts very considerably, exhibiting large
deficits. The ' budget rectifie ' is published generally one year,
and the 'budget d/'finitif' from two to three years later than the
' projet de budget.'
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 6?
The following is a summary, in pounds sterling, of the financial
accounts for the year 1867 — the last exhibited as absolutely closed
— according to the report of the minister of finance.
Revenue .
Expenditure
Revenue .
Expenditure
Revenue .
Expenditure
Projet de budget.
Budget rectifie.
Budget dl'finitif.
£
76,098,461
76,084,455
86,180,770
86,179,313
69,215,840
76,218,320
In the subjoined two tables a survey is given of the revenue and
expenditure of the late Imperial Government for twelve years,
showing the budget estimates, the additions and the final accounts',
in millions of francs.
Loans and
Years mates of
Additions
Actual ordi-
other ex-
Revenue
nary Receipts
traoruinary
resources
Mill ion francs
Million francs
Million francs
Million francs
1852 .
1,450
37
1,487
151
1853 .
1,454
70
1,524
133
1854 .
1,782
20
1,802
384
1855 .
2,712
81
2,793
1,257
1856 .
1,778
136
1,914
276
1857 .
1,743
56
1,799
116
1858 .
1,782
89
1,871
124
1859 .
2,144
35
2,179
451
1860 .
1,917
45
1,962
240
1861 .
1,864
142
2.006
1,863
1862 .
1,995
1S2
2,177
1,991
1863 ....
2,091
173
2,264
2,083
Budget
a
Budget
a
estimates
■3
Actual Ex-
Years
estimates
Actual Ex-
of Expendi-
ture
■a
<
penditure
of Expendi-
ture
■3
•0
penditure
Mill, frimcs
Mil. frs.
Mill, francs
Mill, francs
Mil. frs.
1852
1,505
8
1,513
1858
1,761
97
1,858
1853
1,488
60
1,548
1859
1,776
432
2,208
1854
1,429
459
1,988
1860
1,831
253
2,084
1855
1,573
826
2,399
1861
1,863
307
2,170
1856
1,620
576
2,196
1862
1,991
221
2,212
1857
1,752
140
1,892
1863
2,082
204
2,287
It will be seen that, while the ordinary revenue in the twelve
years from the establishment of the Empire till the end of 1863
increased from 1,487 to 2,264 millions, the expenditure augmented in
64
FRANCE.
the same twelve years from 1,513 to 2,287 millions of francs. With
the exception of 1855, when the revenue was raised high above the
average by special means, there was not a year without a large deficit.
To cover the ever recurring financial deficits, the Imperial Govern-
ment, between the years 1854 and 1868, procured a series of loans,
six in number, in sums, as to nominal capital, varying between 250
and 750 millions of francs, or 10,000,000/. and 30,000,000/. sterling.
These loans were raised on a new principle, which proved highly
successful, that of borrowing, not from a few large banking houses
acting as agents, but directly from the people, or the mass of small
capitalists, both in France and other countries. The following state-
ment gives the nominal capital, rate of issue, capital subscribed for,
and number of subscribers of the six loans : —
Date of loans
First loan, March 14, 1854 .
Second loan. Jan. 3, 1855 .
Third loan, July 18, 1855 .
Fourth loan, May 7, 1859 .
Fifth loan, Jan. 12, 1864 .
Nominal
capital
P3"
Francs
250,000,000
500,000.000
750,000,000!65 25 92
500,000,000160 50 90
f.
65 25 92 50
65 25 92 0
0
0
Capital sub-
scribed for
300,000,00066 30 —
Sixth loan, Aug. 2, 1868 . 450,000,000 69 25 — 15,151,890,210
Francs
468,315,400
2,198.356,170
3,652,724,125
2,509,639,193
4,847,000,000
Number \
of sub-
scribers
99,224,
180,480'
316,976
690,230!
542,061:
781,292
The funded debt of France increased in the following proportions
during the sixteen years from 1853 to the end of 1869 : —
Year,
Dec. 31
Capital of debt
Capital of debt
Francs
£
1852
5,516,194,600
220,647,784
1853
5,577,504.587
223,100,183
1854
5,669,655,012
226,786,201
1855
6,082,877,852
243,315,114
1856
7,558,040,822
302,321,633
1857
8,031,992,466
321,279,698
1858
8,422,096,777
336,883,871
1859
8,593,288,155
343,731,526
1860
9,334,012,006
373,360,481
1861
9,719,176,913
388,767,076
1862
9,924,874,218
396,994,968
1863
12,080,235,183
483,209,404
1S64
12,315,946,794
492.637,872
1865
12,818,376,504
512,735.060
1866
13,157,923,671
526,317,347
1867
13,520,132,639
540,805,305
1868
13,831,723,110
553,268,928
1869
14,263,479,355
570,539,174
ARMY AND NAVY.
65
In the course of the year 1870, there was added to the national
debt, first, a loan of 750,000,000 francs, or 30,000,000/., voted by
the Legislative Body July 16, 1870, to defray the cost of the war
against Germany, and, secondly, a loan of 250,000,000 francs, or
10,000,000/., decreed by the ' Provisional Government of National
Defence,' under date of October 25, 1870, for the same purpose.
The latter loan was partly raised in Great Britain.
The following table shows the amount of interest paid on the
various descriptions of the public debt of France, and sums charged
to its account, in each of the years 1866 and 1800 : —
Description of Debt
Funded Debt: —
4^ per cent. Kente
3
Total
Sinking Fund and other Charges : —
Sinking fund
Loans ....
Interest on Floating debt .
Interest on Guarantee money
Sound dues
Scheldt dues
Payment to Spain
Pensions and Annuities
Total
f Francs
L £
1866
Francs
37,7.53,635
446,096
303,072,160
341,271,891
127,681,576
15,695.185
23,500,000
8,500,000
248,832
340,504
20,000
80,873,574
598,131,562
23,925,262
Francs
39,453,096
446,097
322,002,742
361,901,936
136,500,000
17.231,000
26,000,000
8,700,000
248,832
20,000
90,574,476
641,146,244
25,645,849
The loan of August 2, 1868, added a charge of 19,516,245 francs,
in 3 per cent. Rente, to the annual interest of the Funded Debt.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The military forces of France consist at present of three divisions,
called in the ' Army Eeorganisation Act ' of 1868, which established
them, the ' active army,' the ' army of reserve,' and the ' National
Guard Mobile.' The law of 1868 fixes the duration of service in
the active army at five years, at the expiration of which time the
soldier has to enter the reserve for four years longer. The period of
service of the young men who have not been comprised in the active
66 FRANCE.
army is four years in the reserve, arid five in the National Guard
Mobile. An annual law on the subject divides each class called
to draw in the conscription into two portions, one of which is in-
corporated in the active army, and the other forms part of the reserve.
The duration of service in the active army, as well as in the reserve,
counts from the 1st July of the year in which the young men have
been inscribed on the rolls of the corps. In time of peace, the
soldiers who have completed their period of service receive their libe-
ration from the 30th June of each year. They only receive it, in time
of war, after the arrival of the corps of the contingent destined to
replace them. The young men drawn for the active army are
permitted to get substitutes, but the privilege is withheld form the
men of the reserve. However, they may permute with those of the
National Guard, or furnish as substitute a man under 32 years of
age, fulfilling the conditions required for military service, and libe-
rated from all other obligations. Soldiers under arms are not
admitted to exoneration, but they may get themselves replaced by
soldiers of the same arm who have entered their fifth year of service.
By the terms of the Act of 1868, the number of men to be
draughted every year is fixed at 160,000, but more may be voted
by the Legislative Assembly. The number to be called out in each
department of France is settled by ministerial decree, and the con-
tingent for each canton by the Prefect. As a rule, every Frenchman,
aged 21, is obliged to serve in the army or in the Mobile National
Guard. As described in the law of 1868, ' the National Guard
Mobile is destined as an auxiliary to the active army in the defence
of the fortresses, coasts, and frontiers of the country, and in the main-
tenance of order in the interior. It can only be called out for active
service by a spee-ial law, or in the interval of the session by a decree
which must be presented within a delay of 20 days to the Legislative
Body.' In the active army there are two subdivisions, one em-
bodied immediately, the other maintained at home—' une portion
maintenue dans ses foyers.' The following classes are exempted
from service : those below the standard ; those whose infirmities unfit
them for soldiering; the eldest of a family of orphans; the only son
or eldest son, or, in default of son or stepson, the only or eldest
grandson of a widow, or of a blind father, or a father aged 70 ; the
eldest of two brothers drawn for service, if the younger is fit to
serve ; those who have a brother actually serving, not as a substitute;
those who have had a brother killed or disabled in the service.
Every man drawn for the active army has the right to buy a sub-
stitute. Such substitutes were procured formerly through private
agencies; but an Imperial decree of April 26, 1855, organised a
new system, making the right to furnish substitutes a Government
monopoly. According to this system, the re-enlistment of old
ARMY.
67
soldiers is greatly encouraged, so as to give the army a standing
nucleus of experienced troops, who have made the military service
their life-profession. The Government annually fixes the price to be
paid for substitutes. It was fixed, in 1855, at 2,800 francs, or
112/., was lowered, in 1857, to 1,800 francs, or 72/., and was sub-
sequently raised again to 2,800 francs, or 112/. In 18G8, the
pay for a substitute was settled by the Minister of War at 2,500
francs, or 100/. This sum, increased by various other items,
is thrown into an army-fund, out of which the substitutes are paid
a certain amount at the time of enlistment, besides receiving an
increase of pay at the end of seven years, another increase at the
end of fourteen, and a pension of one franc, or tenpence, a day,
after a service of forty-five years. Soldiers are allowed to re-enlist
as long as they are fit for service.
The details of the organisation of the regular army, on the peace-
footing, were as follows at the commencement of 1870 : —
Infantry.
3 regiments of Grenadier Guards .
6,600
4 ,
,
Voltigeurs
8,800
100
Infantry of the Line
198.871
7
Chasseurs
16,103
4
Zouaves
9,746
1
,
African Light Infantry .
1,659
1
,
Foreign Legion
2,577
3
,
Tirailleiirs of Algeria .
6,000
1
nts of
Veterans, and other troops
Infantry, with .
2,296
124 regime
252,652 men
Cavalky.
1 squadron
of Cent-Gardes .
221
2 regiments
of Carabiniers .
1,764
12
Cuirassiers .
10,915
13
Dragoons
11,631
9
Lancers
8,103
13
Mounted Chasseurs
11,876
1
Imperial Guides .
1,047
8
Hussars
7,546
3
Chasseurs d'Afrique
3,381
3
Spahis ....
3,489
2
Remonte and Cavalry school
2,825
Total 66 regts. and one squadron of Cavalry, with 62,798 men, 48,143 horses.
f2
FRANCE.
Artillery.
6 regiments of Foot Artillery ")
16 „ Horse Artillery /
2 „ Artificers
3 „ Train Artillery .
2 „ Armourers and Gunmakers
32,850
1.639
3,709
1.684
Total 29 regiments of Artillery, 16,646 horses, with 39,882 men, 1,362 guns.
The regular army was completed by several regiments of engi-
neers, by the gendarmerie, and the troops of the administration. The
latter consisted of 1,174 staff-officers; 819 chaplains, surgeons, and
apothecaries ; 370 veterinary surgeons ; five companies of mechanics
and engineers; 2,575 officers and privates of the Invalides; 2,480
officers and pupils of the military schools; 2,894 men of the Garde
de Paris; 1,298 Pompiers, and various other troops, amounting
altogether to 15,066 men, with 5,442 horses, on the peace-footing,
and 33,365 men, with 12,000 horses, on the war-footing.
Summary of the French Army
Pefice-footing
War-footing
Men
Horses
Men
Horses
Staff ....
1,773
160
1,841
200
Infantry ....
252,652
324
515,937
450
Cavalry ....
62,798
48,143
100,221
65,000
Artillery ....
39,882
16,646
66,132
49,838
Engineers • .
7,4S6
884
15,443
1,400
Gendarmes
24.535
14,769
25,688
15,000
Troops of the Administration
Total
15,066
5,442
33,365
12,000
404,192
86,368
757.727
143,238
The effective force of the regular army, at the commencement
of 1870, amounted, according to a report of the Minister of War,
to 334,280 men, with 85,700 horses. Not counting as effective
were 114,431 men on furlough, including whom the standing army
Avas represented by 378,852 combatants stationed at home, 5,328
in Italy, and 64,531 in Algeria. The Army of Reserve numbered
198,546, and the National Guard Mobile 381,723 at the commence-
ment of 1870.
The staff of the French army was composed of 9 field-marshals ;
170 generals of division, of whom 80 in the reserve ; 340 generals
of brigade, of whom 180 in the reserve; 1,251 staff majors, of
whom 352 in the reserve, and 75 military interpreters. By a mili-
tary law, strictly enforced, all general officers must retire from
active service at the age of sixty-six, the only exception made
being in favour of generals who ' have commanded in face of an
enemy.'
NAVY.
69
The whole of France is divided into six 'Arrondissementsmilitaires,'
or corps d'armee, each commanded by a field-marshal. These again
are separated in military divisions and sub-divisions, the latter of
the same circumference as the departments.
2. Navy.
The war navy of France was composed, at the end of 18G9, of
02 iron-clads, 264 unarmoured screw steamers, G2 paddle- steamers,
and 113 sailing vessels. The following statement gives the number
of vessels of each class, their horse-power, and armament, after
official returns : —
Classes of Vessels
Number
Horse-power
Guns
1. Ironclads {Bailments cuirassees) .
—
Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)
2
1,800
62
Frigates (Fregates)
18
16,000
311
Corvettes (Corvettes) .
9
4,100
106
Coast-guard ships (Garde-cotes)
7
3,850
25
Floating batteries (Batteries flotta
ntes). 1 5
2,040
146
Sep. Flot. Batt. (Batt, hot. demont
Total, Ironclads
ables) 1 1
360
22
62
28,150
672
2. Screw Steamers {Batiments a helu
*).—
Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)
29
16,680
386
Frigates (Fregates)
24
10,100
574
Corvettes (Corvettes) .
21
7,940
156
Avisos (Avisos)
63
8,975
172
Gunboats (Canonnieres
78
1.871
95
Transports (Transports)
47
10,222
160
Special boats (Batim. speciaux)
Total, Screw Steamers
2
24
4
264
55,812
1,547
3. Paddle Steamers {Batiments a roi
es) : —
Frigates (Fregates)
11
3,450
32
Corvettes (Corvettes) .
7
1,870
18
Avisos (Avisos)
Total, Paddle Steamers
44
3,345
104
62
8,660
154
4. Sailing Vessels {Batiments a voil
»)•-
Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)
2
—
440
Frigates (Fregates)
11
—
57
Corvettes (Corvettes) .
■ • 7
—
25
Brigs (Bricks)
7
—
26
Transports (Transports)
26
—
42
Smaller vessels (Batiments de flo
Total, Sailing Vessels
Total War Navy
tille) . 60
—
82
113
—
672
401
92,627
3,045
7o
FRANCE.
The following is a list of the 62 ironclads of the French navy,
with nominal horse-power, number of guns, and, when given,
strength of crew, at the end of 1869. The nominal horse-power
of each vessel is calculated, after a rule which came into effect
the 1st of January, 1867, on the basis of a fourth of the utmost
power attainable by the engine, or, as officially described ' le
quart du nombre de chevaux de 75 kilogrammetres que la machine
est susceptible de developper, a toute puissance, sur les pistons
moteurs.' Each vessel of the French navy is supposed to belong
to one of the five great ' divisions maritimes ' of the Empire,
namely, 1. Cherbourg; 2. Brest; 3. Lorient ; 4. Rochefort ; and
5. Toulon ; and in the following list the initial letter preceding
the name of each ironclad denotes the division on the register of
which it stands : —
Division
Maritime
Classes
Nominal
Horse-
power
Number
of Guns
Crew
Vaisseaux cuirassees : —
c.
Magenta .....
900
10
684
L.
Solferino .....
Frigates cuirassees : —
900
52
765
L.
Friedland (4 turrets)
950
12
—
T.
Marengo (4 turrets)
950
12
—
B.
Ocean (4 turrets) .
950
12
—
C.
Suffren (4 turrets) .
950
12
—
C.
Blandre .
900
13
594
B.
Gauloise
900
17
594
B.
Guyenne
900
17
594
T.
Heroine
900
17
594
B.
Magnanime
. 1 900
14
594
T.
Provence
I 900
16
594
T.
Revanche
900
17
594
T.
Savoie .
900
17
594
L.
Sveillurante
900
16
594
B.
Valeureuse
900
17
594
L.
Couronne
800
10
600
T.
Gloire .
800
32
570
T.
Invincible
800
32
570
C.
Normandie
800
28
570
Corvettes cuirassees : —
L.
Alma ......
450
12
310
E.
Armide .....
450
12
310
C.
Atalanta (2 turrets)
450
12
310
T.
Belliqueuse ....
450
10
300
C.
Jeanne d'Arc ....
450
12
310
B.
Lagalissonniere (2 turrets)
500
12
310
R.
Montcalm (2 turrets)
450
12
310
L.
Beine Blanche (2 turrets)
450
12
310
T.
Thetis .
450
12
310
NAVY.
71
Division
Maritime
Classes
Nominal
Horse-
Number
of Guns
Crew
power
Garde-cotes cuirassees : —
c.
Belier ......
530
2
—
L.
Boule Dogue .
530
2
—
B.
Cerbere .
530
2
—
B.
Onondaga
250
2
75
C.
Bochambeau .
1,000
14
590
C.
Taureau (cupola) .
480
1
120
K.
Tigre .
530
2
—
Batteries flottantes :—
L.
Arrogante
120
6
200
T.
Devastation .
150
18
282
C.
Emlrascade .
120
4
200
c.
Foudroyante .
150
18
282
L.
Implacable .
120
6
200
L.
Impregnable .
120
4
200
T.
Lave
150
18
282
L.
Opiniatre
120
6
200
K.
Paixhans
150
10
212
K.
Palestro
150
10
212
K.
Peiho .
150
10
212
C.
Protectrice
120
4
200
L.
Befuge .
120
4
200
K.
Saigon .
150
10
212
T.
Tonnante
150
18
282
Batteries flottantes cUmontables : —
T.
Numero I. .
24
2
—
T.
II. •
24
2
—
T.
„ III. .
24
2
—
T.
„ IV. .
24
2
—
T.
V. .
24
2
—
T.
>. vi. .
40
2
—
T.
„ VII. .
40
2
—
T.
„ VIII. .
40
2
—
T.
„ IX. .
40
2
—
T.
X. .
40
2
—
T.
„ XI. .
40
2
—
To
tal
28,150
672
—
The most remarkable among the above iron-clads are the Magenta,
Solferino, Couronne, Normandie, Invincible, and the cupola ship
Taureau. The Magenta and Solferino are twin ships, having been
built on the same lines at Lorient, where they were launched in 1861 .
They both have wooden hulls, with plates varying from 11 to 12
centimetres (4 to 4^ inches)in thickness . Their length is 8Q metres ;
breadth, 17 m. 30 c, and their armament consists of rifled breech-
loading guns of the calibre 30 (corresponding to the Armstrong
J 2 FRANCE.
100-pounder), furnished with 155 rounds each. They are two-
deckers, carrying two tiers of batteries. Both vessels are not
completely protected. They are iron-cased at the waterline and
over the whole of the spar deck ; but beyond this no parts but their
guns are protected. Their distinguishing feature is that they have
a ram or spur, which, like a hatchet, projects under water from the
line of armour plates of which it forms part. The ram is made
of steel, and its weight is 12,000 kilogrammes: it projects about
six metres, or nearly 20 feet in the form of a hollow cone, with two
long pieces like the neck pieces of a helmet, which fit the bows. No
part of this spur-like prow is less than 12 centimetres, or 4^ inches,
thick.
The Couronne is a 40-gun frigate of a peculiar model. Her form
and dimensions differ from those of the preceding iron-clads, being
more rounded at both ends, and more shapely to the eye. Her
length is 80 metres; breath 16 m. 70 c. ; her average draught, 7 m.
(30 c. ; displacement, 6,076 tons; height of her tier of guns, 1 m.
98 c. ; her engines, 900 horse-poAver. She carries 650 tons of coal,
which maybe increased to 1,000. What distinguishes the Couronne
is that her hull is of iron, constructed of plates 2 c. thick. The
armour plating is fastened on the side by ribs and angle plates, the
spaces between being filled with teak of 28 c, upon which rests
a covering of iron of 3 c, separated by a teak backing of 10 c.
from the armour plates, which have a thickness of 10 c. at the
water-line, and 8 upon the top sides. The defensive armour thus
consists of a double thickness of wood of 38 c, and a triple thick-
ness of iron at the water-line of 13-^ c, including the skin of the
ship. The system of protection was tried at Vincennes in 1857, and
gave satisfiictory results as to its solidity.
The Normandie is similar in construction to the Couronne. She
is the first iron-clad that ever crossed the Atlantic, having been to
Mexico in 1862. The dimensions of the Normandie are — length at
the load line, 253 feet 6 inches ; breadth, 55 feet 3 inches; draught,
22 feet 9 inches; height of battery, 5 feet 8 inches; displacement,
5,600 tons. The length of the ship is therefore less than five times the
breadth. The Normandie is armoured round and round on the wood
plank and frame of the ships with 4^-inch plates. The Normandie
carries an armament of 36 cast-iron rifled 32-pounders, or 4 guns
less than the Couronne.
The Invincible is an exact reproduction of the Normandie. She
is, like the former, a 36-gun frigate, her guns being of the calibre 30j
which corresponds to the 100-pounder of Sir William Armstrong.
Her engines are 900 horse-power nominal. Her length at the water-
line is 78 metres ; breadth, 17 ; she draws 7 m. 75 c, the height of
her lower tier being 1 m. 82 c. ; and she is provided with 155
NAVY.
73
rounds in place of 110, the number allotted to the old vessels.
Her rig, with the sails and masts, is rather heavier than that of
the Normandie.
The Taureau, launched at Toulon on the 10th of June, 18G5, is one
of the most remarkable among the French iron-clads. The Taureau
is a steam-ram, of peculiar construction, drawing but little water,
and rising but a few feet above the waves. Her prow terminates in
a point, and this point is armed with a kind of massive bronze cone
which serves as her spur. It is with this spur that the Taureau,
driven at a speed of 12 to 14 knots an hour by machinery of 500-
horse power, can strike and split a ship. The Taureau is, moreover,
supplied with two screws, which enable her to turn in a very small
space and with the greatest facility. She carries but a single gun,
which weighs twenty tons, and has but one deck, which is plated
with iron from one end to the other. The sides of the hull are like-
wise plated with iron the full length, from 3 feet under the water-
line to the deck. The deck and the sides form, as it were, an iron
box, safe from any shot that may be fired at it. It is in this iron box
that the machinery is placed, and the entire crew during an action,
except those in the tower. The deck of the Taureau is covered over
its entire length with a cylindrical ball-proof dome. The surface of
the dome is so inclined that it is not practicable to walk on it, and
it is held to be impossible to capture the vessel by boarding.
The largest iron-clad in the navy of France is the Rochambeau,
formerly called ' Dunderberg,' a ram built for the United States, in
1865, and purchased by the French government in the summer of
1867, for the sum of 400,000?. The ram of the Rochambeau is
part of the ship, and is not bolted or fastened on as is usually the
case, but is an extension of the bow, which for 50ft. is a firm and
solid mass of timber. This is covered over with heavy wrought-
iron armour, and forms a beak, which, driven at a high rate of speed,
it is said will pierce through the strongest ships. On the side of
the vessel below the casemate the armour is 3^ inches thick, and
placed on vertically in screw bolted slabs, from 12 feet to 15 feet
long and 3 feet wide. The propeller and two rudders are protected
by a shelf, which runs out aft and is braced to the stern and sides.
Of the two rudders, the first is the one common to all ships, the
other is placed above and forward of the propeller. The Rochambeau
carries 14 guns, and has a total burthen of 5,090 tons.
The smaller of the French iron-clads are mainly destined for the
attack and defence of coasts, roadsteads, or harbours. They com-
prise, besides the ordinary floating batteries built chiefly for the
Russian and Italian wars, vessels, eleven in number, called ' Batteries
flottantes demontables,' all of which can be taken to pieces, and
carried any distance over land. At the end of 1869, these iron-
74
FRANCE.
clads were ' en magasin,' that is, packed up and stored away at the
arsenal of Toulon.
The greater number of the large unarmoured screw steamers of
the French navy are not in active service, being either stripped of
their guns, or on the reserve list. Only two out of the twenty-
nine Ships of the Line of this class, the ' Louis XIV.,' 480 horse-
power, with 11G guns, and the ' Jean-Bart,' 400 horse-power, with
06 guns, were afloat in 1869, and in all other cases the service was
carried on by smaller screw and paddle steamers. A considerable
proportion of the 113 sailing vessels are employed as ' Garde peches,'
on the fishing grounds near the coasts of France.
The French navy is manned by conscription, like the army. The
marine conscription, however, is of much older date than that of the
land forces, having been introduced as early as the year 1683. On
the navy lists are inscribed the names of all male individuals of the
' maritime population ; ' that is, men and youths devoted to a sea-
faring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age. The number of
men thus inscribed fluctuates from 150,000 to 180,000. Though all
are liable to conscription the government, as a rule, dispenses from
taking men over forty and under twenty, as well as pilots, captains,
the fathers of large families, and able seamen who have signed for
long voyages. The time of service in the navy is the same as that
in the army, with similar conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs,
and leave of absence for lengthened periods. For administrative
purposes, the five great ' divisions maritimes ' are subdivided into
twelve ' arrondissements maritimes,' as follows :• —
Divisions Arrondissements
1. Cherbourg Dunkerque — Le Havre.
2. Brest Brest — Saint Serran.
3. Lorient Lorient — Nantes.
4. Kochefort Boehefort — Bordeaux — Bayonne.
5. Toulon Marseilles — Toulon — Ajaecio.
At the head of the administrative government of each maritime
division is a Vice-admiral bearing the title of ' Prefet maritime.'
According to the budget of the Minister of Marine and the Colonies
for the year 1869, the French navy is officered by 2 admirals;
16 vice-admirals in active service, and 10 on the reserve list ; 30
rear-admirals in active service, and 19 on the reserve list; 130
captains of first-class men of war ; 286 captains of frigates ; 825
lieutenants; 600 ensigns; and 300 midshipmen, or 'aspirants;' —
altogether 2,218 officers. The sailors, afloat and on shore, num-
bered 39,346 in 1869, which, together with engineers, dockyard
labourers, navy-surgeons, chaplains, and other ' personnel,' brought
the grand total of men engaged in the service of the Imperial fleet
up to 74,403. On the war-footing, the strength of the navy can be
raised to 170,000 men, this being the number entered on the lists
of the maritime conscription.
AREA AND POPULATION.
75
From the foregoing statement are excluded the marines, as well as
the colonial troops, amounting, according to the budget for 18G9, to
28,623 men, including 17,085 infantry soldiers, divided into 4
regiments; 4,132 artillery soldiers, in 1 regiment; and 1,001
artillery workmen, in 6 companies. The marine and colonial
troops are commanded by 13 generals, of whom 6 are in active
service, and 7 on the reserved list.
The progress of the French navy in the course of nearly a century
is represented in the following figures : — In 1780 the fleet of war
consisted of 60 first-class ships, 24 second-class, and 182 smaller
vessels, or altogether 266 ships, with 13,300 guns, and 78,000 sailors.
In 1790, the number had decreased to 246 ships, with 51,000 sailors,
and less than 10,000 guns; while at the battle of Trafalgar, 1805,
in which the greater part of the Imperial naval force was engaged,
there were only 18 French men-of-war, with 1,352 guns. In 1844,
the navy amounted to 226 sailing vessels, and 47 steamers, Avith
8,639 guns, and 24,513 sailors; and this strength was not increased
till the year 1855, when the Government ordered the entire re-
organisation of the navy, including a substitution of ironclads and
steamers for wooden and sailing vessels, the result of which was the
construction of the actual fleet of war.
Area and Population.
France has an area of 543,051 square kilometres, or 207,480
Engl, square miles, and is divided into 89 departments — 86 previous
to the annexation of Savoy and Nice — with 373 arrondissements, 2,941
cantons, and 37,548 communes. A census of the population is taken
every five years, and the last, of May 15, 1866, showed the total to
amount to 38,067,094, being an increase of 680,933 over the preceding
enumeration of 1861. Not included in the returns of 1866 were
the troops of the army and navy stationed out of France on the
15th of May, estimated to number 125,000. The following table
gives the result of the census of 1866, according to the official
returns : —
Departments
Number of
arrondisse-
ments
Number of
cantons
Number of
communes
Population
Ain .....
Aisne ....
Allier ....
Alpes (Basses-) .
Alpes (Hautes-)
Alpes-Maritimes
5
5
4
5
3
3
35
37
28
30
24
25
450
837
317
251
189
146
371,643
565,025
376,164
143,000
122,117
198,818
■b
FRANCE.
Departments
Number of
arrondisse-
ments
Number of
cantons
Number of
communes
Population
Ardeche ....
3
31
339
387,174
Ardonnes .
5
31
478
326,864
Ariege
3
20
335
250.436
Aube
5
26
446
261,951
Aude
4
31
435
288,626
Aveyron .
5
42
285
400,070
Bouches-du-Ehone .
3
27
107
547,903
Calvados .
6
37
765
474,909
Cantal
4
23
260
237,994
Charente .
5
29
427
378,218
Charente-Inferieure
6
40
479
479,559
Cher .
3
29
291
336,613
Correze
3
29
286
310,843
Corse
5
62
362
259,861
Cote-d'Or .
4
36
717
382,762
C6tes-du-Nord .
5
48
384
641,210
Creuse
4
25
261
274,057
Dordogne .
5
47
582
502,673
Doubs
4
27
639
298,072
Drome
4
29
367
324,231
Eure
5
36
700
394,467
Eure-et-Loire .
4
24
426
290,753
Finistere .
5
43
284
662,485
Gard
4
39
345
429,747
Garonne (Hrate-)
4
39
578
493,777
Gers .
5
29
466
295,692
Gironde
6
48
549
701,855
Herault
4
36
332
427,245
Ille-et-Vilaine .
6
43
350
592,609
Indre
4
23
245
277,860
Indre-et-Loire .
3
24
281
325,193
Isere
4
45
552
581,386
Jura .
4
32
583
298,477
Landes
3
28
330
306,693
Loir-et-Cher
3
24
297
275,757
Loire
3
30
323
537,108
Loire (Haute-) .
3
28
262
312,661
Loire-Inferieure
5
45
213
598,598
Loiret
4
31
349
357,110
Lot .
3
29
318
288,919
Lot-et-Garonne .
4
35
316
327,962
Lozere
3
24
193
137,263
Maine-et-Loire .
5
34
380
532.3'2f,
Manehe
6
48
644
573,899
Marne
5
32
665
390,809
Marne (Haute-)
3
28
550
259,096
Cayenne .
3
27
274
367,855
1 Meurthe .
5
29
714
128,387
Meuse
4
28
587
301,653
Morbihan .
4
37
243
501,084
AREA AND TOri'LATION.
11
Departments
Number of
arrondisse-
ments
Number of
cantons
Number of
communes
Population
Moselle ....
4
27
629
452,157
Nievre
4
25
312
342,773
Nord
7
60
660
1,392,041
Oise ....
4
35
700
401,274
Orne
4
36
510
414,618
Pas-de-Calais .
6
43
• 903
749,777
Puy-de-D6me
5
50
444
571,690
Pyrenees (Basses-) .
5
40
559
435,486
Pyrenees (Hautes-)
3
26
480
240,252
Py re n ees- Orientales
3
17
231
189,490
Khin (Bas-)
4
33
541
588,970
Khin (Haut-) .
3
30
490
530,285
Rhone
2
28
259
678,648
Saone (Haute-) .
3
28
583
317,706
Saone-et-Loire .
5
48
585
600,006
Sarthe
4
33
386
463,619
Savoie
4
29
326
271,663
Savoie (Haute-)
4
28
310
273,768
Seine
3
28
71
2,150,916
Seine-Inferieure
5
51
756
792,768
Seme-et-Marne .
5
29
528
354,400
Seiue-et-Oise
6
36
684
533,727
Sevres (Deux-) .
4
31
356
333,155
Somme
5
41
833
572,640
Tarn
4
35
316
355,513
Tarn-et-Garonne
3
24
194
228,969
Var .
3
27
144
308,550
Vaucluse .
4
22
149
266,091
Vendee
3
30
298
404,473
Vienne
5
31
296
324,527
Vienne (Haute-)
4
27
200
326,037
Vosges
5
30
548
418,998
Yonne
Total .
5
37
483
372,589
373
2,941
37,548
38,067,094
The increase of population in France within the last century
and a half has been comparatively less than in any other State
of Western Europe, as exhibited in the following table. It must
be remarked, however, that the numbers given under the first
four periods are not the result of actual enumerations, but of official
calculations, more or less uncertain. The population of 1700,
when Corsica and the provinces of Lorraine, and Venaissin, or
Avignon, did not belong to France, was made up after returns
of the royal comptroller of finances, and is, probably, the least
trustworthy ; the counting of 1762 was undertaken with more
accuracy, and is believed to be tolerably correct, as well as that
78
FRANCE.
of 1772 ; but the numerical calculation of 1784, made by order
of Necker, was again nothing but a rough estimate. The subse-
quent numbers were obtained from regular census returns : —
Year
Population
Increase during
the period
Annual average
of increase
1700
19,669,320
1762
21,769,163
2,099,843
55,259
1772
22:672,000
902,837
90,283
1784
24,800,000
2,128,000
177,333
1801
27,349,003
2,549,003
149,941
1806
29,107,425
1.758.422
351,685
1821
30,461,875
1,334.450
90,295
1826
31,858,937
1,397,062
279,412
1831
32,569,223
710,286
142,057
1836
33,540,910
971,687
194,337
1841
34,230,178
676,809
135,362
1846
35,400,486
1,170,308
254,062
1851
35,783,170
382,684
75,537
1856
36,039,364
256,194
51,238
1861
37,386,161 |
764,309
736,113*
152,862
1866
38,067,094
680,933
136,186
It is calculated that the loss of population to France in the first
five months after the declaration of war against Germany, middle of
July to middle of December, 1870, was upwards of 500,000. The
drain upon the population caused by former wars, undertaken during
the reio-n of Napoleon III., and the cost of the same, are stated as
follows, in a report of the British Secretary of Legation in France,
dated July, 1869 :—
Wars
Cost
Loss of Men
Crimea .....
Italy .....
China and Mexico .
Total.
£
340,000,000
60,000,000
40,000,000
80,000
60,000
65,000
440,000,000
205,000
1 If to this drain be added the increase in the standing army,'
says the report, ' it can scarcely be wondered at that the population
should be in a stationary condition, and that such a state should
have seriously affected, for some time, the national prosperity.'
There are 9 million families in France, 1 million of which are in
easy circumstances. Of the 8 millions belonging to the industrial
and working classes, 3 millions are inhabitants of towns. Whereas
* Increase through annexation.
AREA AND POPULATION.
79
the town population of England is computed at four-fifths of the
whole, in France it is about two-fifths of the whole.
Land is very equally distributed among the bulk of the population,
and the same is the case with personal property. The funded debt
of France, 540,000,000/. sterling, in round numbers, was held, on
January 1, 1867, by 1,095,083 persons, giving a share of about
500/. to each. On the other hand, the national debt of Great
Britain, 770,000,000/. sterling, was held in 1865 by only 126,331
persons, giving a share of more than 6,000/. to each on the average.
There are fully 6 million houses in France, the greater number
of them freeholds, with plots of land belonging to their occupiers.
Official documents recently published show that from 1836 to
1861 the rural population underwent a diminution of 1*18 per cent.,
while that of the towns constantly increased, but in very different
proportions. In the towns of from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, the
augmentation was little, while it was more than 60 per cent, in the
towns of more than 20,000 souls. The following was the progressive
increase in the popidation of the four principal towns of France, from
1820 to 1866, date of the last census: —
Town
Population in 1820
Population in 1861 Population in 1866
Paris ....
Lyon ....
Marseille
Bordeaux
713,766
115,841
101,217
92,375
1,696,141
318,803
260,916
162,750
1,825,274
323,954
300,131
194,241
The subjoined table gives the result of marriage in France as
compared with other countries : —
Countries
Period of
Births to each
observation
marriage
France
1851-60
3.07
Switzerland
1856-60
3.90
Norway
1851-60
3.92
England
1862-64
3.94
Austria
1861-63
3.95
Belgium
1857-64
3.97
Bavaria
1858-62
4.02
Saxony
1860-62
4.10
Netherlands
1860-62
4.23
Russia
1858
4.46
Spain
1858-61
4.47
Prussia
1859-61
4.48
Greece
1861
4.49
Italy
1863-67
4.95
8o
FRANCE.
The increase of the population of Paris from 1831 till I860 was
as follows : —
Census
years
Total population
Averaee
annual
increase
per cent.
Within city walls
Within fortifi-
cations
Total city
population
1831
1836
1841
1846
1851
1856
1861
1866
785,862
899,313
935,261
1,053,897
1,053,262
1,174,346
75,574
103,320
124,564
173,083
223,802
364,267
861,436
1,002,633
1,059,825
1,226,980
1,277,064
1,538,613
1,696,141
1,825,274
3.28
1.14
3.15
0.82
4.10
2.05
1.52
In comparing the increase of population, it has to be noticed that
while the old city of Paris extended over 3,438 hectares, the present
city occupies 7,802 hectares.
The total population of Paris enumerated at the census of I860
comprised a garrison of 25,294, leaving the number of civil
inhabitants 1,799,980. This civil population was constituted in
regard to origin and religion as follows : —
Origin
Parisians
Native French, born in the dej
Naturalized citizens .
Strangers
Not ascertained
irtments
Numbers
592,763
1,098,815
2,512
104,114
1,773
Total 1,799,980
In 1846 the population of France was distributed as follows: —
Rural, 75-58 per cent.; urban, 24'42 per cent. In 1861 the pro-
portion was — Rural, 7P14 per cent ; urban, 28\86 per cent. The
decrease of the rural, and increase of town population, has con-
tinued since 1861, at an augmented rate.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of France is officially divided into ' general
commerce,' including the sum-total of all commercial transactions,
and ' special commerce,' descriptive of such imports as are consumed
in France, and such exports as have been produced within the
country. The sum total of the general commerce of France in the
years 1867-69 averaged 7,500 millions of francs, of which 3,500
millions represented the imports and 4,000 millions the exports.
The value of the special commerce in each of the three years 1867-69
is shown in the following table : —
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
Years
Imports entered for home
consumption
Exports of domestic pro-
duce and manufactures
1866
1867
1868
Francs
2,793,484,000
3,026,514,000
3,398,572,000
Francs
3,180,609,000
2,825,910,000
2,906,790,000
The principal articles imported into France for home consumption
in the three years 1866-68 were raw cotton, silk, wool, wheat, and
coals. The value of the imports of cotton in each of the three
years was : —
Cotton imports
1866
1867
1868
Francs
Francs
Francs
From United Kingdom .
147,108,866
52,570,070
47,994,788
„ Turkey
26,092,045
17,555,439
22,537,231
„ Egypt.
35,626,439
19,418,871
24,713,887
,, British India
23,926,526
26,522,534
51,831.802
,, United States
153.453,191
98,805,208
122,398,853
,, Brazil
r
Total . . 4
16,542,393
7,460,996
10,248,750
426,069,065
236,952,281
295,440,823
£17,042,762
9,478,091
11,817,633
The value of the imports of raw silk in each of the three years
was : —
Silk imports
18G6
1867
1868
Francs
Francs
Francs
From United Kingdom .
72,121,590
76,305,463
91,227,225
,, British posses- "|
sions in the >
11,270,543
11,449,628
2,743,425
Mediterranean J
„ Italy .
12,831,683
15,745,925
13,970,775
„ Turkey
26,285,648
21,028,586
21,540,225
,, British E. Indies
3,147,525
9,705,717
8,463,900
„ China.
Total . . |
5,306,242
20,459,876
32,607,375
149,206,590
175,026,844
217,004,250
£5,968,264
7,001,074
8,680,170
82 % FRANCE.
The value of the imports of wool in each of the three years was:-
Wool imports
1866
1867
1868
From United Kingdom
„ Turkey
„ Rio de la Plata
„ Uruguay
„ Belgium
„ Zollverein .
„ Algeria
Francs
71,999.368
32,952,099
35,552,251
17,489,444
14,327,435
14,063,510
18,450,376
Francs
74,441,779
19,444.832
49,J89,416
21,384,917
13,005.585
7,183,711
15,318,703
Francs
78,870,480
18.517,680
58,867,920
23,316,960
19.901,280
10,394,160
15,533,520
Total .
{
245,843,633
£9,833,345
223,691,661
8.947,266
265,318,560
10,612,742
The value of the imports of wheat in each of the three years was : —
Wheat imports
1866
1867
1868
Francs
Francs
Francs
From United Kingdom .
2,094.487
12,266.388
7,412,400
,, Belgium
1,717,895
16,197,336
9,396,000
,, Russia
1,704,014
37,274,940
46,148,400
,, Zollverein .
5.5 IG, 783
87,320,624
39,236,400
„ Italy .
292,703
21,575,304
17,726,400
„ Turkey
Total . . |
598,650
26,223,228
117,867,600
16.539,981
182,532,996
282,394,800
£661,599
7,301,319
11,295,752
The value of the imports of coal in each of the three years was: —
Coal imports
1866
1867
1868
From United Ki
., Belgium
„ Zollverein
ToWl .
ngdom .
• {
Francs
•32,813,181
74,917,076
21,112,822
Francs
36.876,301
70,703,900
23,006,569
Francs
33,537,998
73,721,354
23,754,803
128,855,126
£5,11 1,205
130,595,268
5,223,811
131.031,557
5.2 11,262
The three principal articles of home produce exported from
France are silk fabrics, woollen fabrics, and wines. The value
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
83
of silk exports in the three years 1866-68 averaged 300,000,000/.
francs, or 12,000,000/., nearly one-half of which went to the
United Kingdom, while of woollen fabrics the average amount
exported in the same period was of the value of 75,000,000
francs, or 3,000,000/., rather more than one-fourth going to the
United Kingdom. Of wine, the exports rose from 234,000,000
francs, or 9,360,000/. in 1866, to 245,000,000 francs, or 9,800,000
in 1868 ; the value of the quantities shipped to the United King-
dom amounting, in 1866, to 1,456,060/., in 1867 to 1,497,917/.
and in 1868 to 1,875,881/.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the real, or declared value,
in pounds sterling, of the total exports sent from France to Great
Britain and Ireland, and of the total imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into France, in each of the ten years,
beginning 1860 and ending 1869: —
Exports from France
Imports of British Horn*
to Great Britain
Produce into France
£
£
1860
17,774,037
5,249,980
1861
17,826,646
8,895,588
1862
21,675,516
9,209 367
1863
24,025,717
8,673,309
1864
25,640,751
8,187,361
1865
31,625,231
9,062,095
1866
37,016,754
11,700,140
1867
33,734,806
12,121,010
1868
33,896,327
10,652,734
1869
33,527,377
11,438,330
The following table gives the real, or declared value, in pounds
sterling, of the principal articles of merchandize, and agricultural
and other produce, which were exported from France to the United
Kingdom during each of the two years 1868 and 1869 : —
Exports from France to United Kingdom
1868
1869
Animals :
£
£
Oxen, bulls, cows, and calves .
95,337
430,478
Sheep and lambs .....
481
15.661
Brass and bronze manufactures
63,501
66,808
Butter
2,150,824
2,231,450
China and porcelain ware ....
80,453
92,936
G 2
84
FKANOE.
Exports from Prance to United Kingdom
1868
1869
Clocks and watches, viz. :
£
£
Clocks .......
215,310
224,624
Watches
183,677
183,057
Cotton, raw .
00,590
187,227
Cotton manufactures
718,991
569,814
Cream of tartar .
62,393
78,142
Eggs .
900,635
974,895
Flax, undressed .
38,9-12
33,275
Flowers, artificial
.
336,789
358,376
Fruit, raw .
194,659
168,612
Garancine .
275,263
119,332
Glass, plate .
133,355
131,044
Hats of straw
1,083,509
—
Hides, tanned
265,429
226,901
Hops .
149,776
69,383
Leather manufactures,
riz. :
Gloves .
1,119,898
1,022,766
Boots and shoes
70,578
53,535
Boot fronts
4,579
7,862
Madder and madder root ....
236,539
70,068
Musical instruments of all sorts .
201,607
177,541
Oil, rape .......
151,283
150,414
Oil-seed cakes ......
417,610
416.955
O'l or spirit of turpentine ....
51,539
18,228
Platting of straw, chip, or other materials .
39,305
39,326
Potatoes .......
308,873
190,977
Resin ........
64,253
63,521
Seeds, clover ......
303,339
185,989
Silk, raw .......
2,504,466
1,448,513
„ waste, knubs and husks
247,310
179,110
,, thrown ......
839,077
569,653
Silk manufactures of Europe
8,396,079
8,994,314
Spirits, viz. brandy .....
1,294,873
1,233,711
Sugar, refined and unrefined
1,158,059
1,304,364
Wine
1,875,881
1,585,858
Wool, sheep and lambs' ....
73,620
142,044
Woollen manufactures .....
1,483,558
1.590,096
All other articles except corn
Total, exclusive of corn and flour
5,570,594
5,752,333
32,345,385
31,359,253
Corn, flour, and other breadstuff .
1,550,942
2,168,124
Grand total
33,896,327
33,527,377
The following table exhibits the real or declared value of the
principal articles of British and Irish produce and manufactures
imported from the United Kingdom into France during each of the
two years 1868 and 1869 : —
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
85
Imports of British produce from United Kingdom
1868
1869
into France
£
£
Alkali, soda ........
62,585
62,731
Apparel and haberdashery
89,401
123,079
Beer and ale .
24,704
29,312
Caoutchouc, manufactures of
116,065
135,665
Cement
60,570
74,916
Coals, cinders, and culm
872,568
869,137
Corn, wheat ....
78,893
25,418
,. wheatflour .
2,908
15
Cotton yarn .
256,366
242,018
,, piece goods
928,517
987,277
,, hosiery small wares
176,799
207,800
Drugs and chemical products
96,063
120,197
Earthenware and porcelain
35,473
33,615
Hardwares and cutlery .
208,368
228.879
Horses .....
74,174
35,929
Linen yarns .
236,579
230,505
,, piece goods .
178,259
191,323
Machinery, steam engines
30,883
15,821
,, other sorts .
349,929
301,303
Metals, copper, wrought and unwrought
350,623
331,226
„ iron, „ ,,
504,053
704,440
„ lead and shot ....
62,716
57,972
„ tin, unwrought .
104,048
187,951
,, tin plates .
40,261
43,038
„ zinc, wrought and unwrouj;
dit .
33,195
78,316
Naphtha, paraffin e oil, &c. .
30,595
70,690
Oil, seed ....
175,100
184,617
Painters' colours .
38,968
42.532
Silk, yarn ....
93,551
72,498
,, thrown.
342,936
346.442
,, manufactures
92,408
113,630
Spirits, British
1,833
1,847
Telegraph wire and apparatus
467
534,432
Wool, sheep and lambs'
349,064
380,292
Woollen yarn
893,561
705,573
Woollen manufactures, cloths, coatings, &c.
356,501
551,371
,, ., worsted stuffs .
1,187,425
1.337,576
M „ flannels and carpets
159,631
156,819
,, „ of other sorts
204.751
137,898
All other articles .....
1,751,943
1,484,230
Total
•
10,652,734
11,438,330
It will be seen from the preceding tables that the imports of
British produce and manufactures into France during recent years
have not kept pace with the immense increase of exports from
France to the United Kingdom.
The strength of the French mercantile navy, exclusive of small
86
FRANCE.
fishing vessels — ' bateaux de la peche cotiere' — is shown in the fol-
lowing table, which gives the number and tonnage of the vessels,
classed according to tonnage, on January 1, 1866 and 1867 : —
1S66
1867
rds .
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Of 800 tons and npwa
58
69,524
66
83,403
„ 700 to 800 tons .
37
27,338
39
28,971
„ 600 to 700 „
53
34,178
63
40,350
„ 500 to 600 „
116
63,572
122
66,315
,, 400 to 500 „
253
113,404
250
112,019
„ 300 to 400 „
292
103,435
301
106,526
„ 200 to 300 „
636
154.999
640
155,886
„ 100 to 200 „
1,274
179,389
1,342
187,217
60 to 100 „
1,437
109,630
1,482
113,577
„ 30 to 60 „
1,457
62,930
1,567
66,627
Under 30 .
Total
9,646
89,685
9,765
81,940
15,259
1,008,084
15,637
1,042,811
The above statement comprises both sailing vessels and steamers.
Of steamers, France possessed, on January 1, 1867, 96 of 200
horse-power, and above; 87 of between 100 and 200 horse-power;
the same number of between 60 and 100 ; 76 of between 30 and
60, and 61 of less than 30 horse-power. The total number of
steamers on January 1, 1867, was 407, of 129,777 tons, and
55,160 horse-power. There were 207 steamers belonging to the
ports of the Mediterranean, and 200 to those on the Atlantic. Of
the total mercantile navy, enumerated in the preceding table, under
date of 1867, there belonged 3,698 vessels, of 251,166 tons, to ports
on the Mediterranean; and 11,939 vessels, of 791,645 tons, to ports
on the Atlantic.
The growth of the railway system of France dates from the year
1840, previous to which there were but few lines in France. For
a time, the idea was entertained of making all the railways which
were to be built State property ; but in the end it was determined,
and settled by the law of June 11, 1842 — modified in 1858, 1859,
and 1863 — that the work should be left to private companies, super-
intended, however, and, if necessary, assisted in their operations, by
the State. Under thie arrangement, the whole of the railways,
already made, and about to be. constructed, were classed under
two divisions, called ' aneien reseau,' or Old net-work, and
' nouveau reseau,' or New net- work ; the former, as implied by
the name, representing the first-built main arteries of traffic, and
the latter the by-roads, laid down, in most instances, with a view
to public utility rather than to profit. On this account, the hues
coming under the designation of New net-work received the grant
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 87
of a state guarantee of 4 francs per cent, interest, with 65 centimes
additional for a sinking fund, on the capital expended for their
construction.
The French railways at present are almost entirely— the exception
being to the amount of less than 200 miles — in the hands of six
great companies. The length of lines held by each of these com-
panies on January 1, 1869, was as follows: — Paris, Lyons, and
Mediterranean, 3,921 kilometres ; Eastern of France, 2,656; Orleans,
3,361 ; Western of France, 2,104; Northern of France, 1,474; and
Southern of France, 1,708 kilometres. The six systems combined
had thus, in 1869, an aggregate of 15,224 kilometres, or 9,515 English
miles in operation. The produce per kilometre of the lines of
the six great companies was in 1868 as follows in the order of
their earnings : — Old network, Lyons, 82,034f ; Northern, 77,489 ;
Western, 65,980f. ; Eastern, 62,882f. ; Southern, 45,419f. ; and
Orleans, 41,6231*. There was an increase of earnings, in 1868
over the year 1867, on the Southern of l,040f. per kilometre ;
but the Western showed a diminution of 4,505f. ; Orleans, ot
3,460f. ; Northern, of 3,416f. ; Lyons, of l,508f.; and the Eastern,
of 715f. per kilometre. The order in which the lines of the New
network stood in the amount of their produce per kilometre in
1868 was as follows :— Eastern, 62,798f; Lyons, 26,737f. ; North-
ern, 22,749f. ; Western, 8,659f. ; Orleans, 16,459f. ; PJione to Mont
Cenis, l,974f. ; Southern, 12,013f. Those which showed an im-
provement in 1868 over 1867 were the Southern, 2,065f. ; Western,
5 9 Of. ; Eastern, 38 If. On the others there was a falling off — the
Northern, 775f. ; Lyons, 745f. ; and Orleans, 568f. per kilometre.
The receipts on the various small companies ranged from 46,444f,
on the line from Somain to Auzin and the Belgian frontier, down to
4,669f. only on that from Vitre to Fougeres, Brittany..
At the end of 1868 there were 36,800 kilometres of lines of
telegraphs in France. The number of telegraphic despatches sent
during the year 1868 was, in round numbers, 4,000,000, of which
one-fourth were international messages, and three-fourths for the
interior. The total receipts amounted to 9,000,000 francs, or
360,000/., the average produce being 1 franc, or lQd.,. for every
home, and 3 francs, or 2s. 6c/., for every international message.
The number of letters forwarded by the French post-office in
the year 1868 was 360,000,000, and they produced a revenue of"
72,567,000 francs, or 2,922,680/. The post-office besides forwarded
printed matter and parcels to the number of 325,000,1)00 at a
revenue of 8,263,000 francs, or 330,520/., and issued money orders
to the number of 5,320,000, and the value of 157,000,000 francs,
or 6,280,000/. for France, and to the number of 139,400,000, and
the value of 6,600,000 francs, or 264,000/. for foreign countries.
FEANCE.
Colonies.
The Colonial Possessions of France, dispersed over Asia, Africa,
America, and Polynesia, embrace, inclusive of the so-called ' Pays
proteges,' or Countries under Protection, a total area of 1,205,950
square kilometres, or 463,827 English square miles. Not comprised
in the list is Algeria, which has a government and laws distinct from
the other Colonial Possessions, being looked upon, partly from its
proximity to France, and partly from serving as camp and practice-
field of a large portion of the standing army, as a more immediate
annex of the mother country. The estimated area and population
of the various Colonies and Countries under Protection, together
with the date of their first settlement, or capture, is shown in the
subjoined table, compiled from the latest official returns.
I. Colonies.
Asia : —
Possessions in India .
Cochin-China, old provinces
„ new provinces
Total of Asia
Africa : —
(Senegal settlements .
Gold coast and Gaboon
Island of Reunion, or Bourbon .
„ „ St. Marie .
Islands of Mayotte and Nossi-Be
Total of Africa .
America : —
Guiana, or Cayenne .
Guadeloupe and Dependencies .
Martinique ....
St. Pierre and Miguelon .
Total of America .
'Polynesia : —
New Caledonia ....
Loyalty islands.
Marquesas islands
Total of Polynesia.
Total, colonies
Date of
Acquisi-
tion
Area.
Square
kilometres
Population
1679
1861
1867
509
22,380
33,864
227,063
502,116
477,000
1637
1843
1649
1635
1 S ! ;■!
1604
1634
1635
1635
1854
1864
1841
56,753
1,206,179
250,000
20,000
2,511
910
520
607,398
186,133
207,886
6,110
20,717
273,941
1,028,244
90,854
1,645
988
210
24,432
151.594
139,109
3,799
93,697
318,934
17,400
2,147
1,244
29,000
15,000
10,000
20,791
54,000
1,114,782
2,607,357
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUKES.
II. Protected Countries.
89
Asia : — ■
Kingdom of Cambodge
Polynesia : — ■
Tahiti and Dependencies .
Touamotou islands .
Gambier ,,
Touboua'i and Vavitou
Total, protected countries .
Total, colonies and protectorates
Date of
Acquisi-
tion
Area.
Square
kilometres
Population
1862
1841
1844
1844
1845
83,861
1,175
6,600
30
103
1,020,000
13,847
8,000
1,500
550
91,769
1,043,897
1,205,951
3,631,354
The commercial intercourse of the Colonial Possessions of France
is almost entirely with the mother country, being restricted by
special legislation to this channel. But the only colonies possessing
commercial importance are the islands of Reunion, or Bourbon,
on the coast of Africa, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in America.
The value of the imports of Reunion averages 1,300,000/. per
annum, and of the exports 950,000/., while Martinique receives
imports of the annual value of 1,000,000/., and sends away exports
to the amount of 900,000/. and Guadeloupe with its dependencies
has imports averaging 800,000/., and exports of the value of
700,000/. The remaining colonies have very little trade except
that derived from being military and naval stations. It is calcu-
lated that the total number of natives of France, not in the army
and navy, settled throughout the whole of the Colonial Possessions,
is under 2,000. A large penal settlement was formed in the colony
of Guiana during the years 1852-60, but the greater number of
persons, chiefly political prisoners, that were transported, perished
under the unhealthy climate.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the Colonial Pos-
sessions of France by a decree of the Provisional Government of
February 24, 1848.
For an account of the government, revenue, population, and com-
merce of Algeria, see the part Africa of the Statesman's Year-book.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of France, and the British
equivalents, are —
The Franc, of 100 centimes
Money.
. Approximate value \0d., or 25 Francs to
£1 sterling.
90 FRANCE.
Weights and Measures.
The Gramme
Kilogramme
Quint <il Metrique
Tonniau ,, .
Litre, Liquid Measure
Hectolitre / Li(luid Measure
\ Dry Measure
Metre ....
Kilometre
= 15-434 grains troy.
= 2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 220
= 2200
= 176 Imperial pints.
= 22 „ gallons.
= 2'75 Imperial bushels.
= 3-28 feet or 39-37 inches.
= 1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs, or
| mile.
„ Metre Cube^ = 35.31 cubic feet.
„ btere j
„ Hectare = 2-47 acres.
„ Kilometre Carre = 247 acres, or 2| K.C. to 1 square
mile.
The Gramme, that is the weight, in vacuo, of a Cubic Centimetre of dis-
tilled water at a temperature of 392 degrees Fahrenheit, or 4 degrees Centi-
grade, is the unit of weight. It is equal to 15'432349 grains Troy. The
Gramme has for its subdivisions the Decigramme, or 10th of a Gramme ; the
Centigramme, or 100th of a Gramme; and the Milligramme, or 1000th of a
Gramme. In trade and commerce, the weights most frequently used are the
Kilogramme, of 1,000 Grammes; the Metrical Quintal, of 100 Kilogrammes;
and the Tonneau Metrique, of 1,000 Kilogrammes. To facilitate the transac-
tions of the shop and the market the use of the non-decimal Half-Litre and
Double-Litre, and the Half -Decilitre and Double-Decilitre, are sanctioned by
law, and these, with the Litre, are the chief measures in daily use. The
English value of the Litre may be roughly stated at If Imperial pints.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
France.
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire du Ministere de l'Agriculture, du Commerce et des Travaux
Publics, pour l'Annee 1870. Paris, 1870.
Annuaire Militaire de l'Empire Francais, pour l'Annee 1870, publie par le
Ministers de la Guerre. 8. Paris, 1870.
Bulletin des Lois. Imprim. Imperiale. Paris, 1870.
Bulletin Administratif de l'lnstruction Publique. Paris, 1870.
Bulletin officiel du Ministere de l'lnterieur. Paris, 1870.
Circulaires et Instructions officielles relatives a l'lnstruction Publique. 8.
Paris, 1870.
Compte General de 1' Administration de la Justice criminelle en France, pre-
sents a Sa Majeste l'Empereur par le Garde des t?ceaux, ministre de la justice.
4. Paris, 1870.
Commerce de la France. Documents statistiques reunis par 1' Administration
des Douanes. 4. Paris, 1870.
Minis! ere des Finances : Comptes Gencraux de l'Administration des Finances.
Paris, 1870.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 9 1
Ministere de 1' Agriculture, du Commerce et des Travaux Publics : Archives
statistiques. Paris, 1870.
Situation Economique et Commerciale de la France. Expose comparatif pour
les quinze annees de la periode 1851-1868. Paris, 1S70.
Tableau du Commerce General de la France, avec ses Colonies et les Puis-
sances Etrangeres, pendant l'Annee 1868. 4. Imp. Imperiale. Paris, 1870.
Report by Mr. Julian Fane, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Finances
of the French Empire, dated February 1 868 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1868. 8. London, 1868.
Report by Mr. Fane, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Commerce be-
tween Great Britain and France, dated Nov. 27, 1866 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. I. 1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, Secretary of Embassy, ' on the Com-
merce, Shipping, and General Statistics of France,' dated Paris, Jan. 1, 1869;
in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1869. 8.
London, 1869.
Report by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, ' on the Finances and Public Credit of
France,' dated Paris, Jan. 10, 1869; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, ' on the Commerce and General Statis-
tics of France,' dated Paris, July 1, 1869 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No IV. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, on the Tenure of Land in France,
dated Paris, Nov. 19, 1869 ; in ' Reports from H. M.'s Representatives respect-
ing the Tenure of Land in the several Countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol. pp.
540. London, 1870.
Trade Accounts. Foreign Countries. France : Years 1867-69. Fol. Lon-
don, 1870.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Annuaire de 1' Administration Francaise, par Maurice Block. 13eme annee,
1870. 12. Paris, 1870.
Annuaire de l'Economie Politique et de la Statistique pour 1870. 27eme annee
de la collection. 16. Paris, 1870.
Annuaire de lTnstruction Publique pour l'Annee 1870. 12. Paris, 1870.
Annuaire Militaire de l'Empire Francais pour l'Annee 1870, publie sur les
documents communiques par le Ministere de la Guerre. 12. Strasbourg, 1870.
Audiffrct (Marquis d'). Systeme financier de la France. 3rd edit. 5 vols.
8. Paris, 1867.
Aumale (Due d1). The Military Institutions of France. Translated by
Captain Ashe. 8. London, 1869.
Boiteau (Paul). Fortune publique et Finances de la France, 2 vols. 8.
Pp. 1,200. Paris, 1865.
Boudon (Rasul). La Verite sur la Situation economique et financiere de
l'Empire. 8. Pp. 520. Paris, 1867.
Clamageran (J. J.) Histoire de l'lmpot en France. 8. Paris, 1869.
Buvergier de Hauranne (Prosper) Histoire du Gouvernement Parlementaire
en France. 9 vols. 8. Paris, 1857-69.
Horn (J. E.). Le Bilan de l'Empire. 8. Pp.30. Paris, 1868.
Laboulaye (Edouard). L'Etat et ses Limites, suivi d'essais politiques sur
l'instruction publique, les finances, le droit de petition, etc. Paris, 1865.
Laurent (A.). Annuaire de la Marine Marchande pour 1869, publie avec
l'autorisation du Ministre de la Marine et des Colonies. 8. Paris, 1869.
92 FRANCE.
Laverqne (Leon de). L'Economie ruralo de la France. 3rd edit. 18. Pp.475.
Paris, 1867.
Lcgoyt (A.) Du rnorcellement de la Propriete en France. 8. Pp. 162.
Marseille, 1866.
Legoyt (A.). La France et l'Etranger, etudes de statistique comparee. 2e
Edition. 8. Strasbourg, 1866.
Leon (M.). De 1'Accroissement de la population en France et de la Doctrine
de Malthus. 8. Paris, 1866.
Mares (Leon). Les Forces defensives de la France. 8. Paris, 1868.
Meineckc (Prem. -Lieut.) Frankreichs Militar Bildungsanstalten. MitBenut-
zung officieller Quellen. 8. Berlin, 1868.
Nervo (Be). Les Finances Franchises sous l'ancienne Monarchie, la Eepu-
blique. le Consulat et l'Empire. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1864.
Notices sur les colonies franchises, accompagn^e d'un atlas de 14 cartes.
8. Pp. 768. Paris, 1866.
Parieu (Esquirou de). Traite des Impots, consideres sous le rapport histo-
rique, economique et politique en France eta l'Etranger. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1867.
Perier (Casimir). Les Finances et la Politique. De l'influence des institu-
tions politiques et de la legislation financiere sur la fortune publique. Paris,
1864.
Prat (Th. de). Annuaire Protestant : Statistique generale des diverses
branches du Protestantisme francais. 1868-70. 8. Paris, 1870.
Rambosson (J.). Les Colonies franchises : histoire, production, administra-
tion et commerce. 8. Paris. 1868.
Raymond (Xavier). Les Marines de la France et de l'Angleterre (1815-
1863). 8. Paris, 1864.
Robert (Ch.). De l'lgnorance des Populations ouvrieres et rurales de la
France, et des Causes qui tendent a la perpetuer. 8. Montbeliard, 1865.
Saint-Fargcau (A. Girault de). Dictionnaire, etc., de toutes les Communes
de la France. Paris, 1864. h
Schnitzler (Jean Henri). Statistique Generale de la France. Paris, 1870.
93
GERMANY.
(DlCUTSCHES REICH.)
Reigning Emperor.
Wilhelm I., Emperor of Germany, and King of Prussia, born
March. 22, 1797, the second son of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of
Prussia, and of Princess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; educated
for the military career, and took part in the campaigns of 1813 and
1815 against France; Governor of the province of Pomerania,
1840 ; Military Governor of the Rhine provinces, 1849 ; appointed
Regent of Prussia during the illness of his brother, Oct. 9, 1858 ;
ascended the throne of Prussia at the death of his brother, Jan. 2,
1861 ; elected Emperor of Germany, December, 1870. Married
June 11, 1829, to
Augusta, Empress of Germany, and Queen of Prussia, born
Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter of the late Grand-Duke Karl Fried-
rich of Saxe -Weimar.
Heir Presumptive — Friedrich Wilhelm, born October 18, 1831,
eldest son of the Emperor-King ; field-marshal in the army of
Prussia (see Prussia, p. 104).
The Imperial throne of Germany 'has always been filled by
election, though with a tendency towards the hereditary principle of
succession. Originally, the Emperor was chosen by the vote of all
the Princes and Peers of the Reich, but the mode came to be
changed in the fourteenth century when a limited number of Princes,
fixed at seven for a time, and afterwards enlarged to nine, assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being ac-
knowledged, were called Electors. With the overthrow of the old
Germanic Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Electoral
dignity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was retained
sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, the last of them
dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. The election of the present Emperor
was by vote of the Reichstag of the Confederation, on the initiative
of all the reigning Princes of Germany.
Since the creation of the Imperial dignity by Charlemagne,
crowned ' Kaiser ' at Rome, on Christmas-day in the year 800, there
have been the following Emperors of Germany : —
94
GERMANY.
House of Charlemagne.
Karl, ' Der Grosse ' . . 800-814
Ludwig, ' Der Fromme ' . 814-840
Lot bar I. 840-855
Ludwig I. . . . 855-876
Karl, ' Der Kahle ' . . 876-877
Ludwig II. . . . 877-881
Karl, 'Der Dicke' . . 881-887
Amulf .... 887-899
Ludwig III., ' Das Kind ' 899-91 1
House of Franc onia.
Konradl. . . . 912-918
House of Saxony.
Heinrieh, 'Der Vogelsteller' 919-936
Otto, ' Der Grosse ' . . 936-973
Otto II. ... 973-983
Otto III. . . . 983-1002
Heinrieh II. . . . 1002-1024
House of Franconia.
Konrad II. . 1024-1039
Heinrieh III. . . . 1039-1056
Heinrieh IV. . . . 1056-1106
Heinrieh V. . . . 1106-1125
House of Saxony.
Lotharll. . . . 1125-1137
House of Hohenstavfen.
Konrad III. . . . 1138-1152
Friedrich L, 'Barbarossa' 1152-1190
Heinrieh VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philipp . . . 1198-1208
Otto IV. ... 1208-1218
Friedrich II. . . . 1218-1250
Konrad IV. . . . 1250-1254
House of Habsburg.
Rudolf I. . . . 1273-1291
Adolf .... 1292-1298
Albert I. 1298-1308
House of Luxemburg.
Heinrieh VII. . . . 1308-1313
Ludwig IV. . . . 1314-1347
Karl IV. . . . 1347-1378
Wenceslaus . . . 1378-1400
Robert .... 1400-1410
Jodoeus .... 1410-1411
Sigismund . . . 1411-1437
House of Habsburg.
Albert II. . . . 1438-1439
Friedrich III. . . . 1440-1493
Maximilian I. . .1493-1519
Karl V. . . . 1519-1556
Ferdinand I. . . . 1556-1564
Maximilian II. . .1564-1576
Rudolf II. . . .1576-1612
Matthias , . . 1612-1619
Ferdinand II. . . . 1619-1637
Ferdinand III. . . 1637-1657
Leopold I. 1657-1705
Joseph I. . . . 1705-1711
Karl VI. . . .1711-1740
Karl VII. . . . 1742-1745
House of Habsburg -Lorraine.
Franz 1 1745-1765
Joseph II.
Leopold II
Franz II.
Wilhelm I
. 1765-1790
. 1790-1792
. 1792-1806
House of Hohenzollern.
. 1870
The average duration of reign of the fifty-four Emperors of
Germany enumerated in the preceding list was upwards of sixteen
years.
Constitution and Government.
The Germanic Empire, reconstructed in 1870, as a result of the
union created in successfully repelling French invasion, grew out of
the North German Confederation, established alter the war of I860
between Austria and Prussia, which ended in the expulsion of the
former from the Confederation, leaving the latter as the ruling
power in Germany. Pending their union under one government,
the states of the Empire were ranged, provisionally, under two
groups, as North Germany, and South Germany. North Germany,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
95
consisting of twenty-one states, was placed under the absolute and
undivided leadership of Prussia, while South Germany, numbering
four states, formed an unconnected cluster of semi-independent sove-
reignties. The two divisions were bound together, to some extent
by treaties of alliance between Prussia and the three principal states
of South Germany, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden. By the treaty
between Prussia and Bavaria, dated August 22, 1866, the two con-
tracting powers mutually guaranteed the integrity of their respective
territories, with all the military forces at their disposal, it being
further stipulated that, in case of war, the King of Prussia was to
have the supreme command of the Bavarian army. The treaties
between Prussia and Wiirtemberg, and Prussia and Baden, dated
August 26 and August 18, 1866, were similar to that with Bavaria,
both providing a strict military alliance, and union of armies in time
of war.
By the terms of the Charter of 1867, the legislative power of the
North-German Confederation was vested in two representative bodies,
the first delegated by the various governments, called the ' Bundes-
rath ' or Federal Council, and the second, elected by the populations,
styled the ' Reichstag ' or Diet of the realm. To the Council each
of the governments of the Confederation sent a deputy, with one or
more votes, according to the extent and population of the state re-
presented. The Diet, elected by universal suffrage at the rate of
one member per 100,000 souls, for the term of three years, and
meeting in annual session, was independent of the Council, but the
members of the latter had the right to be present at the sittings
' in order to make known the views of their respective governments.'
To the Diet belonged the right of initiative in federal legislation.
By treaties concluded at Versailles in November 1870 between
the King of Prussia and the governments of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg,
Baden, and Hesse, and which were ratified by the Diet of North
Germany on the 10th of December, 1870, the four southern states
were admitted into the North German Confederation, which trans-
formed itself from a ' Staatenbund,' or league of states, into a ' Bun-
desstaat,' or united confederacy, under a common Emperor and a
central Parliament. According to the constitution of Dec. 10, 1870,
the jurisdiction of the Empire extends to the following subjects: — .
1. The privilege of residing, exercising political rights, carrying on trade,
and possessing real property in every part of Germany ; as also all that relates
to passports and the supervision of travellers, with the whole legislation on
trade, commerce, emigration, and colonisation, inclusive of the provisions
affecting insurance companies.
2. The tariff and the Federal excise and taxes.
3. Coinage, weights and measures, together with the fundamental provisions
for the issue of paper money.
4. Banking.
g 6 GERMANY.
5. Patents of invention.
6. The protection of books and all kinds of intellectual productions from
spurious imitations.
7. The protection of German navigation and the appointment of Federal
Consuls.
8. Railways and other means of communication.
9. Inland navigation and water tolls.
10. Post and telegraph.
11. The carrying out of judicial decisions and requisitions in every State
alike.
12. The legalisation of public documents.
13. The legislation on criminal law, commercial law, as likewise the law on
bills of exchange and obligations, aud common rules of judicial procedure in
matters civil and criminal.
14. Army and Navy.
15. The action of the sanitary and veterinary police departments.
16. The Press laws, and the right of forming associations.
The legislative power of the Empire is vested, as it was in the
former North German Confederation, in a Federal Council, and a
Diet of the realm, the latter numbering 382 members, elected by
universal suffrage and ballot. In the Federal Council, representing
the twenty-five states of the Empire, Prussia has seventeen votes,
Bavaria six, Wiirtemberg four, Saxony four, Baden three, Hesse
three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin two, Brunswick two, and the rest of
the states one vote each, the total number of votes being fifty-eight.
The executive is entrusted to the Emperor, and a ministry
selected by him, presided over by the Chancellor of the Empire.
The ministers are not responsible for their actions either to the
Federal Council or the Diet of the realm, but only to the Emperor.
Chancellor of the Empire. — Count Otto von Bismarck- Schon-
hausen, born April 1, 1814 ; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and
Gottingen ; member of the Constituent Assembly of Prussia, 1848;
Minister Plenipotentiary of Prussia at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ;
Ambassador to the Court of St. Petersburg, 1859-62 ; Ambassador
of Prussia to the Emperor of the French, 1862; Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and chief of the Council 'of Ministers of Prussia, September
23, 1862 ; Chancellor of the North German Confederation, lb67-70 ;
Chancellor of the Empire, December, 1870.
The Emperor is the representative of the nation ; he has the
right to conclude treaties, and to accredit as well as receive envoys.
He also declares war in the name of the Confederacy, but unless the
national territory is attacked he requires the consent of the Federal
Council for the exercise of this latter right. In addition to its
legislative functions, the Federal Council represents also a supreme
administrative and consultative Board. It prepares Bills, and issues
such supplementary provisions as may be required to insure the
enforcement of the Federal laws. The better to superintend the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 97
administrative business of the Empire, the Council divides itself into
eight standing committees, respectively for army and naval matters ;
tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways, posts, and
telegraphs; civrl and criminal law; and financial accounts and
foreign affairs. "Each committee consists of representatives of four
states and the Emperor ; [but the foreign affairs' committee includes
only the representatives of the three kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony,
and Wiirtemberg.
The executive power pf the Confederation is, according to the
fourth chapter of the constitution of 1867, declared to be annexed
to the Prussian Crown. The King of Prussia, styled Lord Presi-
dent, acts on behalf of the Eederation in its intercourse with foreign
states ; he declares war or concludes peace, and he appoints the
ambassadors. The Federal Council is presided over by a Chancellor
of the Federation, or B-undeskanzler, appointed by the King of
Prussia. The Lord President'enforces the observance of the Federal
laws, and has the right to compel disobedient or neglectful members
to fulfil their federal duties. He has also the unrestricted command
of the army and navy of the Federation, the oiganisation of the naval
service, and the appointments of all officers and civil functionaries. To
the cost of the general administration, the states composing the Con-
federation of North Germany have to contribute at the rate of their
population.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The Federal budget of the North German Confederation for the
year 1871 — passed by the Diet previous to the union of all the states
of Germany — was based upon estimates of expenditure of 77,446,287
thaler, or 11,616,943/., to be covered to the amount of 51,697,754
thaler, or 7,754,663/. by receipts of the Confederation, and the re-
mainder by contributions of the individual states, assessed pro rata
of population. In the budget, the sum of 72,721,861 thaler was
placed under the head of ordinary, and that of 4,724,426 thaler of
extraordinary disbursements. The total ordinary, or ' continual '
(fortdauernde) expenditure for the year 1871 was distributed as
follows : —
Thaler
Federal Chancellery, Federal Council, and Parlia-
ment ....
. .
295,013
Department of Foreign Affairs
885,530
Federal Consulates
.
354,350
Federal Army
.
66,856,638
Federal Navy
.
3,596,730
Federal Debt
#
612,000
Federal Audit (Rechnungshof )
63,000
Federal Conrt of Justice
58,600
Total ordinary
H
expenc
Liture
. 72,721,861
98
GERMANY.
The extraordinary, or ' for once ' (einmalige) expenditure for the
year 1870 was distributed as follows : —
Thaler
General Post Administration .... 12,220
Telegraphs 59,822
Federal Army 248,224
Federal Navy 4,403,460
Total extraordinary expenditure . . 4,724,426
Total expenditure . . . 77,446,287
£11,616,493
The estimated revenue for the year 1871 was made up from the
following Confederate receipts : —
Thaler
Customs and Excise duties 48,574,500
Stamp Duties
Surplus of the General Post
„ „ Telegraphs
Miscellaneous Receipts .
Total revenue
896,000
12,220
59,822
2,155,212
51,697,754
£7,754,663
The deficit of the year 1871, amounting to 25,748,533 thaler, or
3,861,830/., was to be discharged by Confederate contributions, the
assessment of Prussia amounting to 19,249,584 thaler, of Saxony to
1,954,203, of Mecklenburg- Sch werin to 462,079, of Brunswick to
225,400, of Oldenburg to 201,102, and of Saxe- Weimar to 140,892
thaler, and the remainder falling to the share of the minor states.
At the end of 1870 the Confederation had contracted a public debt
of 110,000,000 thaler, or 16,500,000/., incurred for extraordinary
expenditure on account of the army and navy, not provided for in the
budgets. The debt was made up of two loans, the first, amounting
to 10,000,000 thaler, or 1,500,000/., issued under decree of
November 9, 1867, and the second, amounting to 100,000,000
thaler, or 15,000.000/., issued under decree of July 20, 1870. The
loan of 1867, at 3^ per cent., was subscribed in Germany, and that
of 1870, at 5 per cent. — contracted at the rate of 88 — partly in
Germany, and partly in Great Britain.
Under the new law of federation, uniting all the states of Germany,
the sources of revenue, as well as branches of expenditure, of the
North German Confederation, are spread over the Empire, with cer-
tain exceptions. The railways, posts, and telpgraphs of Bavaria do
not. come under ' the Federal jurisdiction except so far as regards
military purposes; nor are the stamp duties of the Confederacy
uniformly raised in that State. Baden, Wlirtemburg, and Bavaria
are all exempt from the Federal excise on beer and spirits, and, con-
sequently, do not participate in the distribution of the sums flowing
ARMY AND NAVY. 99
into the Federal Exchequer from this source ; and Wiirtemburg, like
Bavaria, has the supervision of her posts and telegraphs, though in
a more restricted way.
Army and Navy. "
1. Army.
By the Charter of 1867, the Prussian obligation to serve in the
army was extended to the whole Northern Federation : ' every North-
German is liable to service, and no substitution is allowed.' The
strength of the Federal Army on the peace footing is settled upon
the basis of 1 per cent, of the population, and the Prussian military
legislation is applied to all the states of the Federation. The
annual budget of the Federal army is established upon the basis of
225 thaler or 33/. 15s. per soldier on active service, which amount is
to be paid out of the customs' receipts, and should those receipts not
be sufficient, the deficiency must be provided for by means of a tax
in proportion to the population of each state.
The treaties of November 1870, sanctioned by the Diet of the
realm December 10, 1870, introduced several important changes in
the command and administration of the armies of the Empire.
Under these treaties Baden and Hesse handed over their armies
entirely to Prussia, conforming in everything to the Federal military
organization, and were placed under Federal command in time of
peace as. of war. Wiirtemberg consented to accept the Federal
organisation and military laws, as also a Federal commander-in-chief,
but retains the command of her troops in time of peace. Bavaria
only introduced the Federal organisation, but retained her own mili-
tary laws, and, moreover, stipulated for the special distinction that
the King remains commander of his army during the continuance of
peace. The troops of all the states have to swear .fidelity to their
own sovereign as well as to the Emperor, the Bavarian oath con-
fining, however, fidelity to the latter in time of war. In the north,
as well as in Baden and Hesse, the commanders of the troops of
every state, as also the commanders of all fortresses, are appointed
by the Emperor; all other officers are appointed by the local
sovereigns, but generals and officers acting as generals must be con-
firmed by the Emperor. No decision as to the special organisation,
strength, and mode of formation of the armed forces of the former
South German States had been come to at the end of 1870.
The army of the former North German Confederation comprised,
in June 1870, 118 regiments of infantry, 76 regiments of cavalry,
26 regiments of artillery, 13 battalions of engineers, and as many of
train, contributed as follows by the different states : —
h 2
100
GERMANY.
States
Begiments
of Infantry
Regiments
of Cavalry
Regiments
of Artillery
Battalions
of Engineers
and Train
Prussia .
Saxony .
Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Oldenburg
Brunswick
Saxe- Weimar . .
Anhalt .
Saxe-Meiningen and Co
burg-Gotha .
Saxe-Altenburg, Sehwarz
burp:-Rudolstadt,Reuss
Sclileiz, and Reuss-Grei;
Contingent of Hesse
97
9
2
1
i
i
l
i
i
4
64
6
2
1
1
2
22
2
1
1
24
2
Total . .
118
76
26
26
The armed forces of the states not included in this list, namely,
Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Waldeck, Lippe-Detmold, Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen, Schaumburg-Lippe, Hamburg, LiAheck, and Bremen,
are, by special treaties, incorporated with the Prussian army.
The total strength of the army of the North-German Con-
federation amounted, in June 1870, to 319,358 men on the peace-
footing, and to 977,262 men on the war-footing, as follows: —
Field troops, privates and non-commissioned
Depots, ditto ......
Garrison troops, ditto .....
Officers, staff, and military schools
Total .....
Peace-footing
War-footing
287,481
13,046
18,831
511,826
180,672
265,082
19,682
319,358
977,262
The army of the Confederation was commanded by 1 field-
marshal, 1 field-zeugmeister, 41 generals, 70 lieutenant-generals,
92 major-generals, and 232 colonels. For further details regarding
the army, see the next article, ' Prussia,' pp. 121-23.
2. Navij.
The formation of a German navy, due to the initiative of Prussia,
dates from 1848, and rapid progress has been made in it for the last
few years. According to documents laid before the Reichstag in
the session of 1870, the fleet of war of the Empire consisted, in
June 1870, of the following steamers and sailing vessels : —
NAVY.
101
Tonnage
Horse power
Guns
Screw Steamers.
Ironclads: — ■
Konig Wilhclm . .
5,938
1,150
23
Prinz Friedrich Karl .
4,044
950
16
Kron prinz
3,404
800
16
Arminius .
1,230
300
4
Prinz Adalbert .
1,230
300
3
Frigates and Corvettes : —
Hertha .....
1,829
400
28
Gazelle
1,715
400
28
Arcona
1,715
400
28
Vineta
1,829
400
28
Elizabeth .
2,016
400
26
Victoria .
1,543
400
14
Augusta .
1,543
400
14
Nymphe .
956
200
17
Medusa .
956
200
17
Gunboats : —
8 first-class, of 80 horse power
and 3 guns each .
5,858
640
24
14 second-class, of 60 horsepower
and 2 guns each .
5,858
840
28
Yacht:—
Grille
445
160
2
Paddle Steamers.
Corvettes : —
Barbarossa (guard ship) .
900
300
9
Preussischer Adler .
Total, 38 Steamers
850
300
4
36,552
8,466
320
Sailing Vessels.
Frigates : —
Gefion .....
1,360
—
48
Thetis
1,524
—
38
Niobe
1,052
—
28
Brigs : —
Mosquito
551
—
16
Rover . . . .
551
—
16
Undine .....
551
—
8
Hela
274
—
6
Total, 7 Sailing
Vess
3ls
5,863
—
160
102 GERMANY.
There was added to the German navy, in July 1870, the steamer
1 Renown,' 54 guns, purchased from the British Government. At
the same date there were in course of construction seven men-of-
war, namely, at the dockyard of Wilhelmshaven the iron-clad
turret-ship, ' Grosser Kurfiirst,' and the steamer ' Loreley ' ; at the
dockyard of Kiel-Ellerbeck the iron-clad turret-ship, ' Friedrich
der Grosse,' and at the dockyard of Danzig the iron-clad corvette
' Hansa,' the corvette. ' Ariadne,' and the avisos ' Albatross ' and
'Nautilus.' all screw steamers.
The three largest ships of the German navy are the iron-clads
'Konig Wilhelm,' 'Prinz Friedrich Karlt' and ' Kronprinz.' The
' Kbnig Wilhelm,' built at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall, and
launched on the 25th of April 1868, was designed by the chief con-
structor of the British navy, is of 5,938 tons burthen, with engines ot
1,150 horse-power, and carries 23 rifled 96-pounders,macle of Krupp's
hammered steel, and capable of being fired with 75 lb. charges as often
as twice in a minute. The length of ' Konig Wilhelm ' is 365 ft., or
15 ft. shorter than the British ironclad ' Warrior '; but her breadth
is 2 ft. greater, being 60 ft. against the ' Warrior's' 58 ft. The armour
is 8 in. thick amidships, tapering gradually downwards to a thickness
of 7 in. at 7 ft. below the water line. Just aft of the bowsprit and
just forward of the stern are two immense bulkheads, each of 6 in.
armour and 18 in. of teak, which continue from the lower deck up
through the main deck, and rise to the height of 7 ft. above the spar
deck. Here the massy protections are curved into the form of
semicircular shields, each pierced with portholes for cannon and
loopholes for musketry. Within these shields are four 300-pounders,
which can be used to fire straight fore and aft, or as broadside guns.
The ' Kbnig Wilhelm ' has a crew of 700 men, and cost 3,250,000
thalers, or 487,500/. The second largest vessel of the Prussian
navy, the ' Prinz Friedrich Karl,' was built at La Seyne, near
Toulon, after the model of the French ships the ' Couronne,' and
the ' Normandie.' The ' Friedrich Karl ' is of 4,044 tons burthen,
has sixteen guns, 950 horse-power, and a crew of 500 men. The
third in the list of Prussian ironclads, the ' Kronprinz,' was
built at Poplar, by Messrs. Samuda .Brothers, and launched
on the 6th of May 1867. The 'Kronprinz' is constructed
with armour-plating 5 inches thick, so arranged as to protect
the rudder and steering apparatus, as well as the whole of
the lower deck. The armament consists of 14 steel breech-loading
guns of 7 tons, and two pivot guns. The fourth ironclad afloat,
the ' Arminius,' was also constructed in England, and is of 1,230
tons burthen, with 300 horse-power, carrying 4 guns; while the
next, the 'Prinz Adalbert,' was built at Bordeaux, of 681 tons
burthen, 300 horse-power, and 3 guns. As regards the ironclads in
NAVY.
103
course of being built, the one nearest completion, in the summer ot
1870, was the ironclad ' Hansa,' on the stocks in the newly-
founded royal dockyard of Danzig. The 'Hansa,' first ironclad
constructed in Germany, was designed to carry 8 heavy rifled guns,
and will have 450 horse-power.
The German navy was manned, in the summer of 1870, according
to the report of the Minister of War and Marine, by 3,283 seamen
and boys, and officered by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 1 rear-admiral,
27 captains, and 217 lieutenants. There were, besides, five companies
of marines, four of infantry, and three of artillery, numbering 2,760
men. The sailors of the fleet and marines are raised by conscrip-
tion from among the seafaring population, which is exempt on this
account from service in the army. Great inducements are held out
for able seamen to volunteer in the navy, and the number of these
in recent years has been very large. The total seafaring population
of North Germany is estimated at 80,000, of whom 48,000 are serv-
ing in the merchant navy at home, and about 6,000 in foreign navies.
The expenditure for the navy Avas settled as follows for the year
1870 :—
Ordinary Expenditure : —
Ministry of Marine
Administration of the Navy
Pay of seamen and marines
Eepairs of ships
Marine hospitals
War material .
Miscellaneous disbursements
Total ordinary expenditure
Extraordinary expenditure
Total expenditure .
Thaler
81,250
65,557
1,086,990
890,000
71,820
1,221,317
179,796
3,596,730
4,403,460
8,000,190
£1,201,028
The extraordinary expenditure for the year 1870 was devoted
entirely to the building of new ships, and the construction of docks.
Germany has four ports of war, at Kiel, Danzig, and Stralsund on
the Baltic, and Wilhelmshaven in the Bay of Jade, on the North Sea.
The last-named, most important of harbours for the newly-founded
German navy, was opened by the King of Prussia on the 17th June,
1869. The port of Wilhelmshaven is a vast artificial construction
of granite, and comprises five separate harbours, with canals, sluices
to regulate the tide, and an array of dry docks for ordinary and iron-
clad vessels. The first harbour is an artificial basin, flanked by
granite moles, respectively 4,000 and 9,600 feet long. This basin,
called ' the entrance,' is 700 feet long and 350 wide, and leads to
the first sluice, 132 feet long and GG wide. The next basin, or outer
104
GERMANY.
harbour, is 600 feet long and 400 wide; the second sluice, imme-'
diately behind, as long and as wide as the first. Then follows a canal
3,600 feet long, varying in width from 260 to 108 feet, and having
about halfway another harbour for dredging-steamers and similar
craft. This leads to the port proper, consisting of a basin 1,200 feet •
long and 750 wide, with a smaller basin for boats. At the back of
the principal harbour there are two shipyards for the construction
of iron-cased frigates of the largest size, and all the other parts of a ■
naval establishment. The total cost of construction of Willi elmshaven
was 1,500,000/. (Communication of the Royal Prussian Govern-
ment to the Statesman's Year-book.}
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of the various
States of Germany, according to the census of December 3, 1867 : —
States
Area,
English sq. miles
Population
1. Prussia .....
137,066
24,043,902
2. Bavaria
29,347
4,824,421
3. Wiirtemberg
7,675
1,778,479
4. Saxony . .
6,777
2,423,586
5. Baden .
5,851
1,434,970
6. Mecklenburg-Schwerin
4,834
560,618
7. Hesse .
2,866
823,138
8. Oldenburg .
2,417
315,622
9. Brunswick
1,526
302,792
10. Saxe-Weimar
1,421
283,044
11. Mecklenburg-Strelitz
997
98,770
12. Saxe-Meiningen .
933
180,335
13. Anhalt .
869
197,041
14. Saxe-Cobnrg-Gotha
816
168,735
15. Saxe-Altenburg " .
509
141,426
16. Waldeek
466
56,809
17. Lippe.-Detmold
445
111,352
18. Sclrwarzburg-Rudolstadt
340
75,074
19. Sch warzbnrg-SondiTshausen
318
67,454
20. Reuss-Schleiz
297
88,097
21. Sehaumburg-Lippe
212
31,186
22. Reuss-Greiz .
148
43,889
23. Hamburg
148
305,196
24. Liibeck
127
48,538
25. Bremen
106
109,572
Total
206,511
38,514,046
The population of Germany was 23,103,211 in 1816, at the end
of the great wars against France, and thirty years after, in 1837, it
had risen to 30,010,711, representing an average annual increase of
AREA AND POPULATION.
105
nearly 1^- per cent. At the general census of 1858, the population
of Germany was found to be 35,334,538, showing an average annual
increase of little more than f per cent. The decline was caused, not
by a lessening of natural increase, but the setting-in and gradual rise
of a stream of emigration, chiefly towards the United States of
America.
The following two tables exhibit the census results of the years
1816, 1837, and 1858, together with the. density of population, and
the average annual rate of increase in the principal and secondary
States of Germany : —
Inhabitants
Inhabitants
Population
to the square
geographical
Population
to the square
geographical
States of Germany
mile
mile
1816
1837
Prussia . .
10,425,091
2,043
14,160,063
2,774
Bavaria .
3,560,000
2,566
4,315,469
3,110
Saxony-
1,200,000
4,413
1,652,114
6,076
Hanover .
1,305,351
1,868
1,688,288
2,416
"Wurtemberg
1,395,462
3,939
1,611,317
4,548
Baden
1,000,000
3,592
1,264,482
4,542
Kest of Germany
Total
4,217,307
—
5,298,978
—
23,103,211
2,413
30,010,711
3,134
States of Germany
Population
Inhabitants Annual in. Ann>,al in_
to tne square 'crease jn theicrease in the
ge°Snlue1C period 1816-37|Period 1837-58
1858
Per cent. Per cent.
Prussia
Bavaria
Saxony
Hanover
Wurtemberg
Baden
Minor States
17,739.913
4,615,748
2,122,148
1,844,651
1,690,898
1,335 952
5,985,228
3,476
3,327
7,805
2,640
4,773
4,799
1-70
101
1-79
1-40
0.74
1-26
1-22
1-21
0-33
1-36
0-41
0-24
0-27
061
Total .
•
35,334,538
3,690
1-42
085
It will be seen that the increase of population during both the
periods 1816-37 and 1837-58 was greatest in Saxony, and, next to
it, in Prussia, while it was least in Wurtemberg. The general decline
of increase which took place in the period from 1837 to 1858 was
less also in Saxony and Prussia than in all the other States of
Germany.
io6
GERMANY.
Claimed by Germany, as having formed part of its old possessions,
are the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In consequence
of the declaration of war by France, July 1870, the two provinces
were occupied by German troops, and, pending a formal treaty to
that effect, provisionally annexed to the Empire. The following
table gives the area, and population, at the census of 1866, of the
annexed provinces, as divided into two German ' Regierungs Bezirke'
or government districts : —
Arpa,
Square kilometres
Population
Government District of Alsace : —
Department of Bas Rhin .
,, Haut Rhin
Arrondissement of Thionville .
„ Metz
,, Sarreguemines
„ Chateau-Salins
,, Sarrebourg
Total of Government District of Alsace .
Government District of Lorraine : —
Department of the Meuse .
„ „ Vosges
Arrondissement of Briey
„ Nancy
Toul
„ Luneville
Total of Government District of Lorraine
4,553-45
4,107-71
1,082-21
1,578-76
1,520-51
1,111-06
1,127-97
588,970
530,385
90,591
165,179
131,876
60,626
71,019
15,081-67
6,227-87
6,079-95
1,187-41
•^ 3,851-01
1,638,546
301,653
418,998
64,511
151,382
84,393
60,967
17,346-24
1,081,904
Total
32,427-91
2,720,450
Adding the above annexed provinces, the inhabitants of the Empire
number 41,234,496, forming the second state of Europe as regards
population.
Trade and Commerce of Germany.
See pp. 186-88.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
See p. 189.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Germany.
See pp. 190-91.
loy
STATES OF GERMANY.
I. PRUSSIA.
(KONIGREICH PliEUSSEN.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, born March 22, 1797, the second
son of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. and of Princess Louise of Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz ; educated for the military career, and took part in
the campaigns of 1813 and 1815 against France ; appointed Governor
of the province of Pomerania, 1840; elected member of the Consti-
tuent Assembly for Wirsitz, Posen, May 15, 1848 ; and took seat in
the Assembly, June 8, 1848; Commander-in-chief of the Prussian
troops against the revolutionary army of Baden, June 1849 ; appointed
Military Governor of the Ehine provinces, Oct. 1, 1849 ; appointed
Regent of the kingdom during the mental illness of his brother,
Oct. 9, 1858 ; ascended the throne at the death of his brother,
Jan. 2, 1861. Married June 11, 1829, to
Augusta, Queen of Prussia, born Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter ot
the late Grand-Duke Karl Friedrich of Saxe-Weimar. Offspring
of the union are a son and a daughter: — 1. Prince Friedrich
Wilhelm, heir-apparent, born Oct. 18, 1831; Field-marshal in
the Prussian armv ; married Jan. 25, 1858, to Victoria, Princess
Royal of Great Britain, of which marriage there are issue six
children, namelv, Friedrich Wilhelm, born Jan. 27, 1859 ; Charlotte,
born Jvdy 24, 18G0; Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862 ; Victoria, born
April 12, 1866 ; Waldeniar, born Feb. 10, 1868 ; and Alice, born
June 14, 1870. 2. Princess Louise, born Dec. 3, 1838, married
Sept. 20, 1856, to Grand-Duke Friedrich of Baden.
Brothers and Sisters of the King. — 1. Prince Karl, born June 29,
1801 ; Feldzeugmeister, Commander-in-chief of the Prussian
artillery ; married, May 26, 1827, to Princess Marie of Saxe-
Weimar, of which union there are three children, namely,
Prince Friedrich Karl, born March 20, 1828; Field-marshal in
the Prussian army ; married, Nov. 29, 1854, to Princess Maria
108 GERMANY PRUSSIA.
of Anhalt, by whom he has one son and three daughters ; Princess
Louise, born March 1, 1829, and married, June 27, 1854, to the
Landgrave Alexis of Hesse-Philippsthal, from whom she was di-
vorced March 6, 1861; and Princess Anna, born May 17, 1836,
who married, May 26, 1853, Prince Friedrich of Hesse-Cassel.
2. Princess Alexandrine, born Feb. 23, 1803 ; married, May 25,
1822, to Grand-Duke Paul Friedrich of Mecklenburg- Schwerin ;
widow, March 7, 1842. 3. Prince Albrecht, born Oct. 4, 1809 ;
general of cavalry ; married, Sept. 14, 1830, to Princess Marianne
of the Netherlands ; divorced, March 28, 1849 ; re-married June 13,
1853, to Rosalie von Hohenau, born Aug. 29, 1820. Offspring of
the first union are two children, Albrecht, born May 8, 1837, and
Alexandrine, born Feb. 1, 1842, married Dec. 9, 1865, to Prince
Wilhelm of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Queen Dowager. — Queen Elisabeth, born November 13, 1801, the
daughter of the late king Maximilian I. of Bavaria ; married to
Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, then heir-apparent of Prussia, November
29, 1823; widow, January 2, 1861.
Cousins of the King. — 1. Prince Alexander, born June 21,
1820, the son of the late Prince Friedrich of Prussia. 2. Prince
Georg, brother of the preceding, born February 12, 1826 ; author
of ' Phaedra,' a tragedy, Berlin, 1868. 3. Prince Adalbert, born
October 29, 1811, the son of the late Prince Wilhelm of
Prussia ; admiral, and commander-in-chief of the German navy ;
married, April 20, 1850, to Theresa Elssler, elevated Baroness von
Barnim, born at Vienna, in 1806. 4. Princess Elisabeth, sister of
the preceding, born June 18, 1815; married, October 22, 1836,
to Prince Karl of Hesse. 5. Princess Marie, sister of the preceding,
born October 15, 1825 ; married, October 12, 1842, to the Heir-
apparent, afterwards King Maximilian II. of Bavaria ; widow,
March 10, 1864.
The kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor, Count
Friedrich I., built the family-castle of Hohenzollern, near the
Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern,
Friedrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of the Holy
Roman Empire, in 1273, and received the Burgraviate of Nurem-
berg in fief; and his great grandson, Friedrich VI., was invested by
Kaiser Sigismund, in 1415, with the province of Brandenburg, and
obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A century after, in 1511, the
Teutonic knights, owners of the large province of Prussia, on the
Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht, a younger son of the family of
Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-Master, and he, after a while,
declared himself hereditary prince. The early extinction of Albrecht's
Hue brought the province of Prussia to the Electors of Brandenburg,
REIGNING SOVEREIGN AND FAMILY. IO9
whose own territories meanwhile had been greatly enlarged by the
valour and wisdom of Friedrich Wilhelm ' the Great Elector,'
under whose fostering care arose the first standing army in central
Europe. The Great Elector, dying in 1688, left a country of one
and a half millions, a vast treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops,
to his son, Friedrich I., who put the kingly crown on his head at
Konigsberg, on the 18th of January, 1701'. The first king of Prussia
made few efforts to increase the territory left him by the Great
Elector; but. his successor, Eriedrich Wilhelm I., acquired a treasure
of nine millions of dialers-, or nearly a million and a half sterling,
bought family domain's to 'the amount of five millions thalers, and
raised the anhuaf income of the country to six millions, three-fourths
of which sum, however, had to be spent on the army. After adding
part of Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son
and successor, Friedrich II., called ' the Great,' a state of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half millions inhabitants. Friedrich II.
added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a quarter
million of souls » and this, and the large territory gained in the
first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square miles,
with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants. Under the
reign of Friedrich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm II., the State was
enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of Anspach and
Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in another partition
of Poland, which raised its area to the extent of nearly 100,000
square miles, with about nine millions of souls. Under Friedrich
Wilhelm III., nearly one half of this state and population was taken
by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna not only restored the
loss, but added part of the kingdom of Saxony, the Rhinelands, and
Swedish Pomerania, moulding Prussia into two separate pieces of
territory, of a total area of 107,300 square miles. This was shaped
into a compact state of 137,066 square miles, with a population of
22,769,436, by the war of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the kings of Prussia enjoyed the
whole income of their domains, amounting to about a million
sterling per annum. Since the establishment of the new constitution,
however, this arrangement has been changed, and the domains
have become partly public property, in so far as a certain amount of
the income is paid into the public exchequer. Nevertheless, the
civil list of the sovereign does only partly figure in the budget, a sum
of 2,573,000 thalers, or 384,640/., being deducted directly from the
produce of the domains, under the name of ' Krondotation,' or Crown
allowance. From recent explanations of the ministers, it appears
that the total amount of the ' Krondotation,' at present, reaches the
sum of 3,073,099 thalers, or 460,964/., exclusive of the cost of build-
ing and repairs of royal palaces, and similar items of expenditure.
1 1 0 GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
Dating from Elector Friedrich III. of Brandenburg, who, on
January 18, 1701, placed the royal crown upon his head, calling
himself King Friedrich I. of Prussia, there have been the following
independent
Sovereigns of the House of Hohenzolleen.
Friedrich I ... 1701
Friedrich Wilhelm 1 1713
Friedrich II., called ' the Great' ..... 1740
Friedrich Wilhelm II 1786
Friedrich Wilhelm III 1797
Friedrich Wilhelm IV 1840
Wilhelm I. 1861
The average reign of the seven kings of the House of Hohen-
zollern, including the present monarch, amounted to 23 years.
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution of Prussia was drawn up by the govern-
ment of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-operation of
a Constituent Assembly, sitting August-December, 1849, and
was proclaimed January 31, 1850; but subsequently modified
by royal decrees of April 30, 1851; May 21 and June 5, 1852;
May 7 and May 24, 1853; June 10, 1854; May 30, 1855;
and May 15, 1857. These fundamental laws vest the executive
and part of the legislative authority in a king of the House
of Hohenzollern, who attains his majority upon accomplishing
his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in the male line
only, according to the rights of primogeniture. In the exercise of
the government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers,
appointed and dismissed by royal decree. The legislative authority
the king shares with a representative assembly, composed of two
Chambers, the first called the ' Herrenhaus,' or House of Lords, and
the second the 'Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies. The
assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite lor all laws.
Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted to the
second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected ' en bloc ' by
the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in the
king and in both Chambers. Projects of law rejected by either
Chamber or by the king cannot be reproduced during the same
session. The first Chamber, according to the original draft of con-
stitution, was to consist of princes of the royal family of age, and
of the heads of Prussian houses deriving directly from the former
empire, as well as of the heads of those families who, by royal
ordinance, would be appointed to seats and votes in the Chamber,
according to the rights of primogeniture and lineal descent. Besides
these hereditary members, there were to be ninety deputies directly
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Ill
elected by electoral districts, consisting of a number of electors who
pay the highest taxes to the State ; and, in addition, other thirty
members elected by the members of the municipal councils of larce
towns. This original composition of the ' House of Lords ' wa3
greatly modified by the royal decree of October 12, 1854, which
brought into life the Upper Chamber in its present form. It is
composed of, first, the princes of the royal family who are of age,
including the scions of the formerly sovereign families of Hohen-
zollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; secondly, the
chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress
of Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads
of the territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some
fifty members ; fourthly, a number of life peers, chosen by the king
among the class of rich landowners, great manufacturers, and 'national
celebrities ; ' fifthly, eight titled noblemen elected in the eight pro-
vinces of Prussia by the resident landowners of all degrees ; sixthly,
the representatives of the universities, the heads of ' chapters,' and
the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand inhabitants ;
and, seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by the
king for life, or for a more or less restricted period.
The second Chamber consists of 432 members — 352 for the old
kingdom, and the rest added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed
provinces. Every Prussian who has attained his twenty-fifth year,
and is qualified to vote for the municipal elections of his place of
domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect elector. Persons who are
entitled to vote for municipal elections in several parishes, can only
exercise the right of indirect elector, or ' Urwabler,' in one. One
direct elector, or ' Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete number
of 250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes,
according to the respective amount of direct taxes paid by each ;
arranged in such manner, that each categoiy pays one-third of the
whole amount of direct taxes levied on the whole. The first category
consist of all electors who pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-
third of the whole. The second, of those who pay the next highest
amount down to the limits of the second third. The third of all the
lowest taxed, who, together, complete the last class. Each class may
be divided into several electoral circles, none of which must, however,
exceed 500 ' Urwahler.' Direct electors may be nominated in each
division of the circle from the number of persons entitled to vote
indirectly, without regard to special divisions. The representatives
are chosen by the direct electors. The legislative period of the second
Chamber is limited to three years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a
member of the second Chamber who has accomplished his thirtieth
year, who has not forfeited the enjoyment of full civic rights through
judicial sentence, and who has paid taxes during three years to the
112 GERMANY PRUSSIA.
State. The Chamber must be re-elected within six months ot the
expiration of their legislative period, or after being dissolved. In
either case former members are re-eligible. The Chambers are to
be regularly convoked by the king during the month of November ;
and in extraordinary session, as often as circumstances may require.
The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by the
king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers
are to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously.
Each Chamber has to prove the qualification of its members, and
to decide thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of
business and discipline, and elect their own presidents, vice-pre-
sidents, and secretaries. Functionaries do not require leave of
absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member accepts paid func-
tions, or a higher office connected with increased salary, he vacates
his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the same by a
new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The sit-
tings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the propo-
sition of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret
deliberation. Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the
legal majority of its members is not present. Each Chamber has a
right to present addresses to the king. No one can deliver a peti-
tion or address to the Chambers, or to either of them in person.
Each Chamber can refer documents addressed to it to the ministers,
and demand explanations relative to complaints contained therein.
Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions of investigation
of facts for their own information. The members of both Chambers
are held to be representatives of the whole population. They vote
according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescrip-
tions or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for
their votes, or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No
member of the Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to
examination or arrest for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless
seized in the act, or within twenty-four hours of the same. Similar
proceedings are necessary in case of arrest for debt. All criminal
proceedings against members of the Chambers, and all examination
or civil arrest, must be suspended during the session, should the
Chamber whom it may concern so demand. Members of the second
Chamber receive travelling expenses and diet money from the State,
according to a scale fixed by law amounting to three dollars, or nine
shillings, per day. Kefusal of the same is not allowed.
The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium,
or Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the
Kintr, and hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsministerium is
divided into eight departments, which are : —
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. I 1 3
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Count Otto von Bismarck-
Schonhausen, born April 1, 1814; studied jurisprudence at Berlin
and Gottingen ; elected member of the Constituent Assembly, 1848;
Minister Plenipotentiary at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ;
Ambassador to the Court of St. Petersburg,. 1859-G2 ; Ambassador
to the Emperor of the French, May 1862. Appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs, and chief of the Sraatsniinisterium, September 23,
1862. Appointed Chancellor of the North German Confederation,
July 14, 1867 ; and Chancellor of the Germanic Empire, Decem-
ber, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Finance.— Otto Camphausen, born Oct. 21,
1812 ; studied jurisprudence, and entered the state service in 1834 ;
Councillor of Finance, 1845; member of the second chamber of the
Prussian Diet, 1850-52 ; President of the Seehandlung Company,
1849-69; appointed Minister of Finance, Oct. 26, 1869.
3. The Ministry of War and Marine. — General Freiherr von Roon,
bom April 30, 1803; entered the army, 1821; professor at the
Military Academy, Berlin, 1829-32 ; chief of the staff in the cam-
paign against the Baden insurgents, 1849; appointed Minister of
War, December 5, 1859; and Minister of Marine, April 16, 1861.
4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Count Friedrich zu Eulenbiug,
born Jan. 29, 1815 ; Chief of the Prussian Expedition to China and
Japan, and Ambassador at the Court of Pekin, 1860-62 ; appointed
Minister of the Interior, December 9, 1862.
5. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Gerhard Leonhardtr appointed
Minister of Justice, Dec. 6, 1867.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — .
Dr. von JJiiltler, appointed Minister of Public Instruction and
Ecclesiastical Affairs, March 17, 1862.
7. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Herr von Selchoic, appointed
Minister of Agriculture, December 8, 1862.
8. The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works.; — Count Heinrich
von Itzenplitz, Minister of Agriculture, March 17, 1862 ; appointed
Minister of Commerce and Public Works, December 8, 1862.
Each of the provinces of the kiugdom is placed under the
superintendence of an ' Oberprasident,' or governor, •who has a
salary of 7,000 thalers, or 1,050/. Each province has also a military
commandant, a superior court of justice, a director of taxes, and a
consistory, all appointed by the king. The last is divided into three
sections — one having the superintendence of schools, another of eccle-
siastical affairs, and another of the public health. The provinces are
subdivided into Regierungsbezirke, or counties, and these again into
' Kreise,' or circles, and the latter into ' Gemeinden,' or parishes. Each
county has a president and an administrative board or council; and the
further subdivisions have also their local authorities. The municipal
1
114 GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
organisation of the towns is more complicated than that of the com-
munes. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the elections
must be confirmed by the king or the authorities. The system of
law principally in force in the eastern states of the Prussian monarchy
is embodied in a well-digested code entitled ' Landrecht fur die
Preussischen Staaten,' which received the royal sanction in 1791, and
became law in 1794; but it is occasionally modified by custom, and
Polish, Swedish, and German laws are still in force in certain parts
of the monarchy. The provinces on the left bank of the Rhine
follow, with some exceptions, the rules laid down in the ' Code
Napoleon.' Primary proceedings in judicial matters take place
before local courts established in the circles and towns ; thence they
may be carried before the provincial courts, or ' Oberlandes
gerichte ; ' and in the last resort before the supreme tribunals at
Berlin. All judges are independent of the Government. Juries
exist in the Rhine provinces since the time of the French occu-
pation, and in the other parts of the monarchy since the year 1849.
Church, and Education.
The royal family belongs to the Reformed or Calvinist faith ;
but all denominations of Christians enjoy the same privileges, and are
equally eligible to places of trust or emolument. The Protestant
religion in its two branches of Lutheran and Calvinist prepon-
derates, and is professed by 64'64 per cent, of the Prussian people.
To the Roman Catholic Church belong 32-71 per cent, and to all
other creeds 2*65 per cent, of the population. In the provinces of
Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, the great majority
are Protestants ; while in Posen, Silesia, Westphalia, and Khenish
Prussia, the Roman Catholics predominate. In the new provinces,
annexed to the kingdom in 18GG, the Protestants form the mass of
the population. There are a few members of the Greek Church,
mostly immigrants from Russia. Jews are to be found in all the
provinces, but principally in Posen. At the census of Dec. 8,
18G4, there were in the kingdom, as then constituted, 11,736,734
Protestants, being 6023 per cent, of the total population, and
7,201,911 Roman Catholics, equal to 36-81 per cent., besides 262,001
Jews, and about 52,000 adherents of other creeds. The annexation
of the new provinces, after the war of 1866, altered the proportion
in favour of the Protestant ascendancy, the former kingdom of
Hanover adding 1,6K2,777 Protestants, and only 226,009 Roman
Catholics ; Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg 990,085 Protes-
tants and 1,953 Roman Catholics; and Electoral Hesse, Nassau,
Ilomburg, and Frankfort, 905,605 Protestants and 336,075 Roman
Catholics. Protestantism is otherwise gradually spreading among
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. II5
the population, and Roman Catholicism decreasing. When Silesia
was acquired by Prussia, in 1763, the mass of the population
were Catholics; but at present the Protestants form the majority
in the two most important provinces, the regencies of Breslau and
Liegnitz.
The Protestant Church is governed by ' consistories,' or boards
appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, but no general synod has yet
been held. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the
various provinces. In the Rhenish provinces it is fixed by the con-
cordat entered into between the Government and Pope Pius VII.
But in every other part of the monarchy, the Crown has reserved to
itself a control over the election of bishops and priests. There were,
at the census of 1864, more Roman Catholic priests than Protestant
ministers, the number of the former amounting to 6,706, and of
the latter to 6,531. The Protestants at the same date had 8,401
churches, and 1,113 other religious meeting-places, while the
Roman Catholics had 5,548 churches, and 2,567 chapels, besides
243 convents and monasteries. The higher Catholic clergy are paid
by the State, the archbishop of Breslau receiving 1,700/. a -year, and
the other bishops about 1,135/. The incomes of the parochial
clergy, of both sects, mostly arise from endowments. In general,
Government does not guarantee the stipend either of Protestant or
Catholic clergymen ; but in some parishes the clergy enjoy a public
provision from the State. This is the case in the Rhenish provinces,
in virtue of a concordat with Rome.
Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every town, or
community in town or country, must maintain a school supported
by the taxes, and administered by the Jocal authorities, who are
elected by the citizens, and called Aldermen or Town Councillors.
All parents are compelled to send their children to one of these ele-
mentary schools, whether they can pay the school fees or not. The
fees are one grosschen, or rather more than a penny a week in
villages, and ten grosschen, or a shilling per month in towns. The
money thus raised goes towards maintaining the schools, and any
deficiency is made up from the local taxes. No compulsion exists
in reference to a higher educational institution than elementary
schools, but parents who send more than one child to any school sup-
ported by the community have a reduction made in the charge, and a
limited number of pupils whose parents cannot afford to pay the full
rate enjoy either this reduction or are admitted entirely free, at the
discretion of the authorities. Thus the higher schools, as the com-
mercial or colleges, are not established merely for the rich, but are
likewise open to the poorest, the fee being 15s. a quarter, while re-
ductions are made to large families or poor persons who cannot afford
to pay the full sum.
1 2
1 16 GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
The Prussian schools are divided into eleven classes, namely,
first, elementary, embracing village or town schools; second, ' Biir-
ger-schulen,' or citizen schools ; third, real schools, or schools in
which languages, arts, and sciences are taught ; fourth, seminaries,
or schools for training elementary schoolmasters; fifth, colleges;
sixth, industrial schools; seventh, schools of architecture ; eighth,
schools of mines ; ninth, schools of agriculture ; tenth, veterinary
schools ; and eleventh, the Universities.
The difference between the elementary schools of the villages and
those of towns consists in the greater variety of studied subjects.
In the former, reading and writing in German characters are taught,
with geography and history of Germany, and the four first rules
of arithmetic ; in the latter, writing in Eoman characters, general
geography, history of the world, fractions, rule of three, and the
chain-rule, are added. The citizen schools, adapted for the wants of
tradespeople, teach likewise mathematics, Latin, and French to a
certain extent. The real school is divided, like the colleges, into
six or seven classes, and every pupil must pass an examination
before rising to another class. No pupil can belong to one class in
one subject, and to another in a higher one, but must in all sub-
jects be in one and the same class. The proficiency is decided by
the number of errors made, and not by value of points as in
England. The studies at the University last about four years, at
an expense of 15/. a year for the lectures. No student lives in
the University, which is used solely for lectures. The Universities
are maintained and administered by the Government, while all the
other scholastic institutions are supported by the community, under
control of Government.
The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia are under
the control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, but there is a local supervision for every province. The
administration of each of these is vested in a President, who is
the head both of the Civil ' rovernment — Eegierung — and of the
Consistorium, which has to manage the ecclesiastical and educa-
tional affairs of the province. Each Consistorium is subdivided
again into two sections, one for purely ecclesiastical, the other for
educational affairs. The latter section, which bears the name of
Provincial Schul-Collogium, forms the highest court of appeal in
all matters referring to schools. As a general rule, the adminis-
tration of school funds provided by the State is under the control
of the Civil Government, which likewise takes upon itself nearly
the whole management of the lower and elementary schools, while
the Schul-Collegium is responsible for the higher schools, for the
general system of instruction and discipline, the proper selection of
school books, the examination and appointment of masters, and the
examination of those who leave school for the Universities.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
117
According to the constitution of 1850, all persons are at liberty to
teach, or to form establishments for instruction, provided they can
prove to the authorities their moral, scientific, and technical qualifi-
cations. But every private as well as public establishment for
education is placed under the superintendence of the Minister of
Public Instruction, while all public teachers are considered servants
of the State.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The total estimates of revenue and expenditure of Prussia,
according to the budget accounts, were as follows, in thaler and
pounds sterling, during each of the five years 1866 to 1870 : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Thaler
£
Thaler
£
1866
173,934,739
26,090,210
169,243,365
25,386,504
1867
168,929,873
25,339,480
168,929,873
25,339,480
1868
159,757,064
23,963,559
159,757,064
23,963,559
1869
167,536,494
25,130,474
167,536,494
25,130,474
1870
168,251,372
25,237,705
168,101,372
25,215,205
The estimates for the years 1866 and 1867 did not include the revenue
and expenditure of the annexed provinces, which were entered for the
first time in the budget for 1868. Nevertheless the accounts of
the latter year, as well as of 1869 and 1870, show a diminu-
tion of both receipts and disbursements, owing to the transference
of many sources of income, such as customs duties, and profits
of Post Office and Telegraphs, and of some branches of expenditure,
such as for army and navy, to the budget of the North German
Confederation.
In the estimates for 1870, the sources of revenue are classed
Tinder eight ministerial departments, as follows : —
Revenue fob the Year 1870.
1. Ministry of Finance: —
Income from crown lands
Sale of lands
Direct taxes : —
Land tax (Grundsteuer)
House tax ....
Income tax ....
Class tax (Klassensteuer)
Trade tax (Gewerbesteuer) .
Railway dues
Miscellaneous
Total
13,094,400
4,581,000
5,180,000
13,070,000
5,237,000
1,653,000
73,600
42,889,000,
n8
GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
Revenue — continued.
Indirect taxes : —
Share of Zollverein customs .
Meal tax (Mahlsteuer) ....
Slaughter tax (Schlachtsteuer)
Stamps .......
Turnpikes ......
Bridge, harbour, river, or canal dues
Miscellaneous .....
Total ....
State lottery ......
Naval commercial institution (Seehandlung) .
State Bank (Preussische Bank)
The Mint
State printing office .....
Miscellaneous ......
Total receipts of Ministry of Finance
2. Ministry of Commerce and Public Works : —
Porcelain manufactory in Berlin ....
Mines, produce of ......
Forges, produce of ..... .
Salines, produce of .....
Miscellaneous .......
State railways .......
Total receipts of Ministry of Commerce and
Public Works .....
3. Ministry of Justice ......
4. Ministry of the Interior .....
0. Ministry of Agriculture .....
6. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical
Affairs ........
7. Ministry of State
Receipts from the Hohenzollern territory
Total estimated revenue .
Thaler
4,541,660
1,644,910
2,265,240
7,777,720
1,582,470
487,500
805,450
18,205,040
1,339,500
700,000
1,400,000
321,097
293,000
7,474,800
94,295,558
150,000
15,093,249
4,547.778
1,383,820
1,947,774
35,372,614
58,495,235
13,226,200
910,025
983,252
120,471
58,117
162,514
16S.251.372
£25,237,705
The expenditure in the financial estimates of Prussia is divided
into ordinary (fortdauernde) and extraordinary (einmalige und aus-
serordentliche) disbursements. The ordinary is subdivided into
current expenditure (Betriebs Ausgaben), administrative expendi-
KEYENTJE AND EXPENDITURE.
119
ture (Staatsverwaltungs Ausgaben), and charges on the consolidated
fund (Dotationen). In the estimates for 1870, the branches of
expenditure were as follows : —
Expenditure for the Year 1870.
Current Expenditure: — Thaler
Ministry of Finance 18,007,012
„ „ Commerce and Public Works .... 40,224,556
„ State 75,509
Total current expenditure
ks
lesia:
tical
Affairs
Administrative Expenditure : —
Ministry of Finance
,, „ Commerce and Public Wor
„ „ Justice
,, ,, The Interior
,, „ Agriculture
„ „ Public Instruction and Ecc
,, ,, State
,, ,, Foreign Affairs
Charges for the Hohenzollern territory
Total administrative expenditure
Charges on Consolidated Fund : —
Addition to ■ Krondotation ' of the King
Interest on public debt, including railway debt
Sinking fund of debt „ „ „
Annuities .......
Chamber of Lords .....
Chamber of Deputies .....
Total charges on Consolidated Fund
Total ordinary expenditure
Extraordinary expenditure ....
Total expenditure
58,307,077
31,196,634
9,382,630
17,188,335
8,456,319
2,387,322
6,253,894
384,214
47,500
216,415
75,513,263
1,500,000
17,434,133
8,666,141
430,410
40,910
243,000
28,432,510
162,252,850
5,848,522
168,101,372
£25,215,205
The public debt of the kingdom, exclusive of the provinces
annexed in 1806, was, according to an official report laid before the
House of Deputies in the session of 1869, as follows on January
1, 1870:—
1. National debt bearing interest: —
Consolidated debt of May 2, 1842 (Staatsscl
Voluntary loan of the year 1848
Loan of 1850
„ of 1852
„ of 1853
., of 1854
Preference loan of 1855
Railway ,, of 1855
Loan of 1856
of 1857
Thaler
uldscheine) 64,192,800
2,194,400
12,445,200
11,455,900
3,795,900
11, 75«,900
11,300.000
6,275,500
14,672,300
6,934,100
120
GERMANY— PRUSSIA.
National debt bearing interest — continued
First loan of 1859, at 5 per eent.
Second loan of 18-59 „
Loan of 1862
„ of 1864
First loan of 1867
Second loan of 1867 .
Third loan of 1S67
Fourth loan of 1867 .
First loan of 1868
Second loan of 1868
Total national debt bearing interest
2. National debt not bearing interest : —
Bank notes called ' Kaesen-Anweisungen '
Floating debt, called ' Schatz-An.weisungen '
Total national debt not bearing interest ..
Thaler
518,050
,611,800
565,200
627,900
343,600
934,400
718,375
000.000
,706,600
,396,100
3. Provincial and railway debt: —
Provincial loans .
Loans for State railways
Total of provincial and railway debt
Total debt of the kingdom in 1870
:326,447,025
£48,967,053
Thaler
18,250,000
12,835,000
31,085,000
£4,662,750
Thaler
2,553,902
17,839,900
20,393,802
£3,059,070
377,925,827
£56,688,874
The charges for interest and management of the national debt
amounted to 15,096,363 thaler, or 3,764,4542., in the year 1870.
There was set aside in the same period as sinking fund the *um of
6,918,187 thaler, or 1<037,728Z.
On the enlargement of Prussia over its former limits, in 1866,
it was arranged that the annexed slates should, provisionally,
only bear the burthen of the liabilities that had been incurred
in their behalf, and that the incorporation of these debts with
that of the kingdom at large should take plaee at some future
period. This had not been done at the commencement of 1869,
when the debts of the annexed provinces amounted to —
Thaler
Former kingdom of Kanover .... 21,096,291
Electorate of Hesse-Cassel
Duchy of Nassau
,, of Schleswig Hoi stein
Landgraviato of Hesse-Hombnrg
Free City of Frankfort-on-the-Maiine
Total debt of annexed provinces
15,249,950
.20,158,755
354,948
99,429
7,754,171
64,713,544
£9,707,031
ARMY. 121
Adding the liabilities of the annexed provinces, the total debt of
Prussia in 1870 amounted to 442,639,371 thaler, or 66,395,905*.
Out of this total, the sum of 184,471,491 thaler, or 27,670,723/.,
was devoted exclusively to the construction of railways, and interest
thereon is paid out of the profits of the state lines, the yearly-
increasing dividends of which likewise create a sinking fund for
the gradual extinction of the debt. Exclusive of the railway loans,
the total debt of Prussia, both old and new provinces, amounted in
1870 to 258,167,883 thaler, or 38,725,182/., equal to 10^ thaler,
or 1/. 12s. per head of population of the kingdom. — (Report of the
Royal government to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Army.
The military organisation of the kingdom, dating from the year
1814, is based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing
arms, shall receive military instruction and enter the army for a
certain number of years. There are, practically, some excep-
tions from military service, though no substitution whatever is
allowed. Every Prussian subject is enrolled as a soldier as soon as
he has completed his twentieth year. He has to be in service during
seven years, of which three years — from 20 to 23 — must be spent in
the regular army, and the remaining four years — from 23 to 27 — in
the army of reserve. At the end of this term, the soldier enters the
' Landwehr,' or militia, for nine years, with liability to be called upon
for annual practice, and to be incorporated in the regular army in time
of war. Leaving the 'Landwehr,' the soldier is finally enrolled,
till the age of fifty, in the ' Landsturm,' which body is only called
upon for service, within the frontiers of the country, in case of
invasion. There are various exemptions from this law of military
service, in favour of the nobility, clergy, and some other classes of
the population. A certain amount of education and fortune consti-
tutes also a partial exemption, inasmuch as young men of twenty,
who pay for their own equipment and can pass a light examination,
have to serve only one year in the regular army, instead of three.
But in this case, the liability to service in the army of reserve — the
' Landwehr ' and the ' Landsturm ' — remains the same. Altogether,
setting aside a few exceptions, the whole male population of Prussia
may be said to be trained for arms — ready for offensive warfare,
either in the army or the ' Landwehr,' from the age of 20 to that of
36 ; and for defensive warfare, within the country, till the age
of 50 years completed.
The mass of soldiers tlms raised is divided into companies, bat-
talions, regiments, and corps d'armee. The strength of a Prussian
battalion in peace is 518 men, raised in war to 1,002 by calling in
122
GERMANY — l'KUSSIA.
part of the reserves : it is divided into four companies, each of which
in war consists of 250 men. During peace each regiment of infantry
consists of three battalions ; each brigade of two regiments ; each
infantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of
the divisional general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of
artillery, each of six guns, and either a battalion of riflemen, or a
battalion of pioneers are attached. The corps d'armee is con-
sidered a unit which is independent in itself, and includes not only
troops of all three arms, but a portion of all the stores and appli-
ances which are required by a whole army. Each corps d'armee
consists of two divisions of infantry, a cavalry division of four regi-
ments, with two horse artillery batteries attached, besides the two
cavalry regiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve
of artillery of four field batteries and two mounted batteries. There
is, moreover, attached to each corps d'armee one battalion of pioneers
and one of train, in addition to which the corps bearing the number
eleven, drawn from the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the annexed duchy
of Nassau, has a battalion of sappers and miners for special service.
The corps d'armee are locally distributed through the monarchy,
with the exception of the first corps, that of the guards. Previous to
the war of 1866, Prussia had, besides the guards, eight corps d'armee,
distributed through and called after the eight provinces of the king-
dom, as follows: — 1, Prussia; 2, Pomerania; 3, Brandenburg;
4, Saxony ; 5, Posen ; 6, Silesia ; 7, Westphalia ; 8, Rhine-lands.
By the annexation of the new territories three more corps d'armee
were formed, namely 9, Schleswig Holstein ; 10, Hanover; and 11,
Hesse-Nassau.
The strength of the army was as follows, according to official
returns, at the end of April 1870 : —
Infantrv of the Line ....
Officers
Rank and File
Horses
6,697
188,943
3,255
Riflemen, or ' Jager'
352
8,480
112
Infantry of the 'Landwehr'
431
3,512
3
Cavalry ......
1,898
52,786
55,810
Artillery ......
1,672
31,854
10,037
Engineers ......
234
6,489
91
Military Train .....
156
2,925
1,599
Administrative and other troops
Total .
1,484
4,715
2,400
12,924
299,704
73,307
The strength here enumerated is that of the peace-footing. On
the war-footing the numbers can be raised to 700,000 men. The
war strength, effected by the calling in for service, or the 'mobilisa-
ARMY. 123
tion ' of the reserve troops, may b<? consummated in about two
weeks' time. When entering upon the campaign of 1866, it
required less than fourteen days to bring the whole regular army,
together with the first levy of the ' Landwehr,' into the field. In
peace, the army lies distributed over 309 garrison towns, and
29 fortresses, of which latter five are fortified places of the first
rank, namely, Cassel, Konigsberg, Mayence, and Ehrenbreitstein
with Coblenz.
The army of Prussia was commanded, at the end of April 1870,
by one field-marshal, one field-zeugmeister, 46 generals, 57 lieu-
tenant-generals, 109 major-generals, 155 colonels of infantry, 52
colonels of cavalry, 38 colonels of infantry, and 20 colonels of
engineers and train. During the war against France the number of
officers was largely increased, and two members of the royal family,
the heir-apparent and Prince Friedrich Karl, obtained the rank of
field-marshals. Attached to the staff, in 1870, were 1,289 sur-
geons, 573 veterinary-surgeons, 507 paymasters, and 454 master-
gunsmiths.
Though Prussia has a large Roman Catholic population, the Pro-
testant element preponderates in the army. The religious statistics
of the year 1862 show that there are 11,298,276 Protestants, of
whom 184,767 are in the army; 6,907,000 Roman Catholics, of
whom 82,345 are in the army ; 1,202 members of the Greek Church,
of whom 6 are soldiers; 13,716 Anabaptists, of whom 8 are soldiers ;
16,233 Dissenters, of whom 63 are soldiers; and 254,785 Jews, of
whom 1,328 are in the army. This great preponderance of Pro-
testants among the military is partly owing to the fact that out of
nearly 8,000 officers in the active army, there are only a few hundred
Catholics. In the military schools — six in number, at Potsdam,
Erfurt, Neisse, Engers, Cassel, and Hanover — out of 1,300 pupils,
there are only from sixty to seventy Roman Catholics.
Area and Population.
The area of Prussia extends over 6,315 geographical, or 137,066
English square miles, on which lived, at the last census, 24,106,847
inhabitants. The kingdom is administratively divided into eleven
provinces, which again are subdivided into thirty-seven districts.
(Regierungs bezirke), with three annexes. The following table
gives the population, civil and military, of these provinces
and districts, according to the last census, taken December 3,
1867: —
124
GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
<
Provinces and Districts
Civil
Military
Total
I. Province of Prussia : —
1. Konigsberg
2. Gmnbinnen
3. Danzig
4. Marienwerder .
Total
II. Posen — 5. Posen
6. Broraberg .
Total
IIL Pomerania — 7. Stettin
8. Koslin
9. Stralsund
Total
IV. Silesia— 10. Breslau .
11. Oppeln .
12. Liegnitz .
Total .
V. Brandenburg — 13. Berlin
14. Potsdam
15. Frankfm
•t
1,054.096
743,006
507,351
763,067
10,320
2,730
8,226
6,146
1,064.416
745,736
515.577
769,213
3,067.520
979,777
546,836
27,422
13,592
4.555
3,094,942
993,369
551,391
1,526,613
665,266
552,949
215,353
18,147
11,756
4,415
2,749
1,544,760
677,022
557,364
218,102
1,433,468
1,353,162
1,231,680
971,162
18.920
14,317
13,539
10,187
1,452,488
1,367,479
1,245,219
981,349
3,556,004
678,070
973.423
1,012,312
38,043
21,735
21,828
10,538
3,594,047
699,805
995,251
1,022,850
Total
VI. Saxony — 16. Magdeburg .
17. Merseburg
18. Erfurt .
Total
VII. Westphalia— 19. Miinster
20. Minden.
21. Arnsberg
Total
VIII. Rhine province —
22. Koln
23. Diisseldorf
24. Coblenz
25. Trier
26. Aachen
Total
IX. Hesse-Nassau— 27. Casael .
28. Wiesbaden
2,663,805
820.272
854,522
372,140
54,101
12,753
11.354
6,531
2,717,906
833,025
865,876
378,671
2,046,934
436,346
472.476
791,396
30,638
3.967
5.798
1,966
2,077,572
440.313
478,274
793,362
1,700,218
587.767
1,236,610
549.648
572.682
479,276
11,731
9.550
9.007
8,965
8,517
3,041
1,711,949
597.317
1,245.617
558,613
581.199
4S2.317
3,425,983
763.115
605,913
39,080
9,284
6,640
3,465,063
772,399
612,583
Total .
1,369,058
15.921
1,384,298
AREA AND POPULATION.
Population — continued.
125
Provinces and Districts
Civil
Military
Total
X. Hanover — 29. Hanover
377,714
8,360
386,074
30. Hildesheim .
373,024
3,890
376,914
31. Liineburg
377,7H
3,873
881.587
32. Stade .
301,491
1,817
803,308
33. Osnabriick ,
263,928
1.470
265,398
34. Auricb .
194,043
1,758
195,801
35. Clausthal
Total. :
33,958
23
33,981
1,921,872
21,191
1,943,063
XI. Schleswig-Holstein—
36. Kiel ,
570,040
8,723
578,763
37. Sehleswig .
Total.
398,535
7,478
406,013
968,575
16,201
984,776
Duchy of Lauenburg.
50,002
—
50,002
Principality of Hohenzollern .
65,057
204
65,261
Jahde territory
1,583
118
1,701
Prussian troops in Confederate
states .....
Total population of the \
kingdom . . J
—
18,335
18,335
23,746,790
310,055
24,106,847
The subjoined table gives the area of the eleven provinces,
with their annexes, in German and English square miles: —
Provinces and Districts
Area in German
sq. miles
Area in Eng.
sq. miles
Province of Prussia — Konigsberg .
Gumbinnen
Danzig .
Marienwerder
Total .
Posen — Posen ....
Bromberg ....
Total .
Pomerania — Stettin
Cb'slin
Stralsund .
Total .
Silesia — Breslau ....
Oppeln ....
Liegnitz ....
Total .
408-13
298-21
15228
319-41
24,880
11,330
12,130
15,666
1178-3
321-68
214-83
536-51
236-88
258-43
79-02
574-33
248-14
243-06
250-54
741-74
126
GERMANY PRUSSIA.
Provinces and Districts
Area in Gorman
sq. miles
Area in Eng.
sq. miles
Brandenburg — Potsdam and Berlin .
Frankfurt
Total .
Saxony — Magdeburg
Merseburg . .
Erfurt ....
Total .
Westphalia — Minister
Minden
Arnsberg .
Total .
Rhine province — Koln . . .
Diisseldorf .
Coblenz
Trier .
Aachen
Total .
Hesse-Nassau — Cassel
Wiesbaden
Total .
Hanover — Hanover
Hildesheim
Liineburg
Stade ....
Osnabriick
Aurich and Clausthal
Total .
Schleswig-Holstein — Kiel
Schleswig
Total .
Duchy of Lauenburg
Principality of HohenzoDem .
Jahde territory ....
Total area of the Kingdom .
38251
351-63
15,505
9,729
7,771
10,289
734-14
210-13
188-76
61-74
460-63
132-17
95-68
140-11
36796
72-40
98-32
109-64
131-13
75-65
487-14
184-18
99-03
283
106
93
211
119
113
54
21
67
59
10
15
73
48
5,943
69872
151-20
161-10
14,846
312-30
21-29
2115
0-25
6,959
455
453
5
6,311-88
137,066
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
I27
The census of 1867 gives the average density of the population
at 176 per English square mile. The variation, however, is con-
siderable— the density being highest in the manufacturing district
of DiAsseldorf, in the Ehine province, where it is nearly four times
the average, and smallest in the district of Koslin, Pomerania, where
it amounts but to three-fifths of the average. There is a great number
of towns, most of them of very limited population, spread all over
the kingdom. The ten largest of them, at the census of 1867,
were Berlin, with 702,437; Breslau, with 171,926; Cologne, or
Kbln, with 125,172; Kbnigsberg, with 106,296; Danzig, with
89,311; Magdeburg, with 78,552; Frankfort-on-the-Main, with
78,277; Hanover, with 73,979; Stettin, with 73,714; and Aix-
la-Chapelle, or Aachen, with 68,178 inhabitants. About one-half,
or twelve millions of the population of the kingdom, are engaged in
agriculture, as sole or chief occupation, while nearly five millions
possess landed property. Large estates, as a rule, are only to be
found in the eastern and least populated provinces of the monarchy,
while in the central and western portions land is often extremely
subdivided. A cadastral survey taken in 1858, showed the exist-
ence of 1,099,000 land owners possessing each less than five morgen,
or 34^ acres.
Trade and Industry.
The direct trade of Prussia with foreign countries is carried on
mainly through the ports on the Baltic, and the amount of exports
and imports shipped through harbours on the North Sea is com-
paratively unimportant. However, a large portion of exports from,
and imports into the kingdom pass in transit through Hamburg
and Bremen, on which account the returns of them appear much
smaller than they are in reality.
The direct commercial intercourse of Prussia, exclusive of Schles-
wig-Holstein and the former kingdom of Hanover, with the United
Kingdom is exhibited in the subjoined tabular statement, showing
the value of the exports from Prussia to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce into Prussia in the
five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Years
Exports from Prussia
to Great Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into Prussia
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
&
6,126,205
6,866,751
7,383,619
7,320,410
6,117,352
&
2,102,714
1,800,412
2,879,380
3,069.237
3,239,839
128
GERMANY PRUSSIA.
The exports from Prussia to the United Kingdom consist almost
entirely of agricultural produce. The chief articles are wheat, ex-
ported to the amount of 2,643,848/. in 1869 ; other kinds of corn
to the value of 1,151,359/.; and wood and timber to the amount
of 847,389/. in 1869. The chief items of British imports into
Prussia are iron, wrought and unwrought, to the value of 673,048/. ;
herrings in barrels, to the value of 273,716/. ; and cotton yarn,
to the value of 603,581/. in the year 1869.
The principal Prussian ports are Memel, Pillau, Kbnigsberg,
Danzig. Colberg, Swinemiinde, Stettin, Wolgast, Stralsund, Kiel and
Flensburg on the Baltic, and Altona, Harburg, Geestemunde, Leer
and Em den on the North Sea, The merchant navy of Prussia on
Jan. 1, 1870, numbered 3,272 vessels, of a total burthen of 642,805
tons. Included in the number were 60 steamers, of an aggregate
burthen of 9,690 tons. As regards the chief ports, Danzig had 144
ships; Stettin 188; Memel 106 ; Barth 242 ; Greifswald 57 ; Wol-
gast 62 ; Ueckermiinde 41 ; and Konigsberg 15. The former Hano-
verian ports had 932 ships, of 125,372 tons burthen ; and Schleswig-
Holstein, besides a large number of small craft, 713 large ships, of
a burthen of 107,384 tons, in 1870. The tonnage of the mercantile
navy of the kingdom of Prussia, in 1864, was larger than that of
Russia, but only two-thirds that of the Netherlands. In 1870 it
surpassed that of the navies of commerce of both Russia and the
Netherlands.
The mineral riches of Prussia are very considerable. An account
of the chief industries based thereon is given in the following tables,
which show the number of mines, smelting works, and foundries in
operation, the quantities and value of their produce in 1869, and
the number of persons, with their families, employed by them at the
end of the same year : —
Mines
Number of
Mines and
Works in
operation
Quantities
of produce
Value
of
produce
Number of
persons
employed
Coal ....
Peat (Braunkohle)
Iron ore
Zinc ore
Lead ore
Copper ore .
Total of principal and 1
other mines . j
426
554
1,167
68
187
45
Centner
475,221,881
120,293,754
57,911,389
8,010,706
1.902.033
4.290.142
Thaler
44,795,325
5,525,270
4,418,273
2.826,546
5,098,295
1.677.755
111.325
15,058
25,190
10,709
19,261
6,691
2,616
667,629,905
67,220,335
191,252
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
129
Smelting works and
of Works
Quantities
Value
of
produce
Number of
foundries
in
operation
of produce
employed
Centner
Thaler
Iron, pig
119
13,862,750
18,005,711
23,049
„ scale (Rohstahleisen)
6
941,700
1,541,004
569
,, raw, iu castings
31
633,602
1,761,687
6,399
,, cast wares
254
3,115,033
11,220,819
25,288
„ wrought, bar .
258
8,085,894
26,693,444
49,863
„ ,, plates .
30
1,416,275
6,143,655
7,435
„ „ plates, tinned
1
93.118
924,352
786
., ,, wire
82
661,735
2,816,221
5,670
Steel, raw
40
597,280
2,863,622
5,499
„ cast .
11
1,279,095
12,520,165
10,995
,, refined
107
74,231
675,315
922
Zinc, raw
42
1,129,660
6,925,363
10,776
,, plates .
7
352,873
2,624,118
1,011
Lead, pig
9
552,157
3,220,710
2,361
Copper, refined
11
59,633
1,823,534
2,131
„ coarse wares
27
47,566
1,820,221
1,604
Brass ....
Total .
32
36,905
1,289,371
871
1,096
33,141,446
105,641,248
157,499
The trade and industry of Prussia is much fostered by its wealth
in coal, which is sufficient not only to supply its own wants but
serves as an important article of export into all parts of southern
Germany, to France and Switzerland. The following table, compiled
from an official report, communicated by the Royal Government to
the Statesman's Year-book, gives the quantities and the value, at the
pit's mouth, of the coal raised within the kingdom in the year
1869: —
Coal Districts
Quantities
Value
Centner
Thaler
Ruhr and Diisseldorf .
236,020,798
20,551,495
Oppeln and Upper Silesia
111,106,662
8,751,373
Saar and Trier .
70,079,851
9,180,558
Breslau and Lower Silesia
28,222,800
2,897,217
Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)
17,734,316
1,924,301
Osnabriick and Hanover
6,617,923
776,023
Miinster .
2,492,816
279,754
Schaumburg
1,492,558
228,253
Wettin and Merseburg
1,364,568
181,132
Minden
152,571
25,219
I 30 GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
The produce of coal during the year 1869 was retained to the
amount of 79 per cent, for consumption within the kingdom, while
21 per cent, were exported.
The production of coal in Prussia has enormously increased within
recent years, as will be seen from the following statement, given after
official returns. There were raised: —
Tons
In the four years, 1838-41 2,901,713
In the five years, 1842-46
1847-51
1852-56 .
1857-61 .
In the year 1862
In „ 1863
In „ 1864
In „ I860
In „ 1869
3,817,190
5,027,690
8.571,070
13.037,015
16,903,520
18,330,779
21,197,266
25,615,968
29,775,781
fhe coal pits in the Ruhr-Diisssldorf district extend over more
than ten miles in length, and are calculated to be able to continue
their present supply for 5,000 years. The coal pits of the river
Saar, situated in the extreme south-western angle of the Rhenish
Provinces, and which extend their strata into Bavarian and French
territory, furnish about the sixth part of the coal produce of Prussia.
Prussia has a very large and complete system of railways.
Of these railways, twelve main lines, of a total length of 454
German miles, are State property ; and three others, of a total
length of 255 German miles, are under government control, having
been partly constructed by state loans or subventions. The re-
maining railways of the kingdom, of a total length of 803 German
miles, representing 24 different lines, are the property and under the
management of private companies. The guarantees undertaken by
the Prussian Government to facilitate the construction of private rail-
ways in the kingdom are to the total amount of 106,780,000 thaler,
or about 15,000,000/. For the construction of railways in general,
a debt had been incurred, in 1869, to the amount of 183,312,12s
thaler, or 27,496,864/., of which total the sum of 131,703,812
thaler was on behalf of the old provinces of the monarchy ;
16,868,730 thaler, on behalf of the former kingdom, now province of
Hanover; 15,207,600 thaler, on behalf of the former electorate
of Hesse, now district of Cassel ; and 16,532,286 thaler, on
behalf of the former duchy of Nassau, now district of Wiesbaden.
All the lines of the former territories of Hanover, Hesse, and
Nassau are owned by the state, and at a period not far removed the
whole of the railways of Prussia will be national property.
GERMANY BAVARIA. i o i
II. BAVARIA.
(KoNIGREICH BAVERN.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family
Ludwig II., King of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine,
bora August 25, 1845, the son of King Maximilian II. and his
consort, Queen Marie, daughter of the late Prince Wilhelm
of Prussia ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
March 10r 1864.
Brother of the King. — Prince Otto, born April 27, 1848.
Mother of the King. — Marie, Queen of Bavaria, bora October 15,
1825, second daughter of the late Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, uncle
of King Wilhelm I. ; married to Prince Maximilian, heir-apparent
of Bavaria, Oct. 12, 1842 ; widow, March 10, 1864.
Uncles and Aunts of the King. — 1. Prince Luitpold, born March
12, 1821, General in the Bavarian army ; married April 15, 1844, to
Archduchess Augusta of Austria, who died April 26, 1864. Offspring
of the union are three sons and one daughter, namely, Ludwig, born
January 7, 1845, and married February 20, 1868, to Archduchess
Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, of the branch of Modena, born July
5, 1849 ; Leopold, bora February 9, 1846;. Theresa, born November
12, 1850 ; and Arnulph, born July 6, 1852. 2. Princess Adelgunda,
born March 19, 1823; married March 30, 1842, to the Archduke
of Austria-Este, late reigning Duke of Modena, Francisco V. 3.
Princess Alexandra, bora August 26,. 1826. 4. Prince Adelbert,
born July 19, 1828, Major-General in the Bavarian aj-my ; married
August 25, 1856, to Princess Amalia, Infanta of Spain,. born October
12, 1834. Issue of the marriage are two sons and two daughters,
namely, Ludwig Ferdinand, born October 22, 1859 ; Alfonso, bora
January 24, 1862; Isabella, born August 31, 1863; and Elvira,
born November 22, 1868.
Great-Uncles and Great-Aunts of the King. — 1. Empress Char-
lotte, bora February 8, 1792; widow, since March 2, 1835, of the
late Emperor Franz I. of Austria. 2. Prince Karl, born July 7,
1795, field-marshal in the Bavarian service; married, in 1808, to
Mdlle. Bolley, who died in 1838 ; married, in second nuptials, May
11, 1859, to Mdlle. Henrietta von Frankenburg, who died April 20,
1866. 3. Queen Elisabeth, born November 13, 1801 ; widow, since
Jan. 2, 1861, of the late King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia. The
k2
I32 GERMANY — BAVARIA.
Queen is twin-sister of 4. Queen Antah'e, born November 13, 1801 ;
married November 21, 1822, to King Johann of Saxony. 5. Princess
Sophie, born January 27, 1805; married November 4, 1824, to
Archduke Franz Karl of Austria. The princess is twin -sister of
6. Queen Marie, born January 27, 1805, widow of the late King
Friedrich August of Saxony. 7. Princess Ludovica, born August
30, 1808 ; married, September 9, 1828, to Duke Maximilian in
Bavaria.
United with the Royal Family of Bavaria is the branch line
of the Dukes in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Zweibriicken-
Birkenfeld. The head of this house is
Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, born December 4, 1808, General
of Cavalry in the Bavarian service; married September 9, 1828, to
Princess Ludovica of Bavaria. Issue of the marriage are three sons
and five daughters, namely, 1. Prince Ludwig, born June 21, 1831 ;
married, in ' morganatic ' union, May 28, 1857, to Henrietta von
Wallersee. 2. Princess Helena, born April 4, 1834, married August
24, 1858, to Prince Maximilian of Thurn-und-Taxis. 3. Princess
Elisabeth, born December 24, 1837, married April 24, 1854, to Franz
Joseph I., Emperor of Austria. 4. Prince Karl Theodor, born August
9, 1839 ; married Feb. 11, 1865, to Princess Sophie of Saxony, who
died March 9, 1867, of which union there is offspring a daughter,
Amalie, born Dec. 24, 1865. 5. Princess Marie, born October 4,
1841, married February 3, 1859. to the heir-apparent of the Two
Sicilies, Francisco of Bourbon. 6. Princess Mathilde, born Septem-
ber 30, 1843, married June 5, 1861, to Louis of Bourbon, Count
di Trani. 7. Princess Sophie, born February 22, 1847; married
September 28, 1868, to Prince Ferdinand of Orleans, second son of
Due de Nemours. 8. Prince Maximilian, born December 7, 1849.
The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants, in
the female line, of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach, who flourished
in the twelfth century. Duke Maximilian I. of Bavaria was elevated
to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, in the Thirty-
Years' War, in recompense for his opposition to Protestantism ; and
Elector Maximilian Josejm was raised to the rank of king by
Napoleon I. in 1805. The latter title was acknowledged by all the
European Powers in 1815, at the Congress of Vienna.
The huge income of the sovereigns of Bavaria, from private domains,
and other sources, has been extensively curtailed of late, under the
constitutional government. The civil list of the king, and allowances
to other members of the royal family, stands fixed at present at
2,985,799 florins, or 248,817/., but it is stated that the actual
revenue of the reigning house is of nearly twice the amount.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 1 33
Constitution and Government'
The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 25, 1818 ;
but various modifications were introduced in 1848-9. The Crown
is hereditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole
executive power ; but his ministers are responsible for all his acts.
The legislative functions are exercised jointly by the king and Par-
liament, the latter consisting of an Upper and a Lower House. The
Upper House — Chamber of ' Reichsriithe,' or councillors of the realm
— is formed of the princes of the royal family, the crown dignitaries,
the archbishops, and the heads of certain old noble families, all these
being hereditary members ; to which are added a Roman Catholic
bishop and a Protestant clergyman nominated by the king, and an
unlimited number of other members appointed by the Crown. The
Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies of
towns and universities, and various religious corporations. To be a
deputy, it is necessary to be past thirty, and to be in possession of an
assured income, from funds, a trade, or profession ; to be on the
electoral lists, it is required to be twenty-five years of age, and to
be rated at a minimum of ten florins, or 16s. Sd. per annum. The
representation of the country is calculated at the rate of one
deputy to 7,000 families, or about 35,000 souls, of the whole popu-
lation.
The executive is carried on, in the name of the king, by a
' Staatsrath,' or Council of State, consisting of seven members, besides
three princes of the blood-royal ; and the Ministry of State, divided
into seven departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs. —
Count Otto von Bray-Steinburg, appointed Minister of the Royal
House and of Foreign Affairs, March 8, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. von Liitz, formerly private secre-
tary to the king, appointed September 15, 1867.
o. The Ministry of the Interior. — Peter von Brawn, appointed
December 20, 1870.
4. The Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr. von
Liitz, appointed ad interim December 20, 1869.
5. The Ministry of Finance. — Adolf von Pfretzscher, appointed
July 1, 1866.
6. The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works. — Dr. Gustaf
von Senior, appointed August 1, 1866.
7. The War Department. — General Baron Sigmund von Prankh,
appointed August 1, 1866.
*34
GERMANY BATARIA.
Church and Education.
Rather more than seven-tenths of the population of Bavaria are
Roman Catholics. The population varied very little, as regards the
proportion between Roman Catholics and Protestants, during the
last quarter of a century or more; but the number of Jews
diminished considerably, and there was a slight decrease in the
proportion of Anabaptists, and members of the Greek Church.
The religious division of the population in the eight provinces of the
kingdom was as follows at the last census, taken December 3, 1867 : —
Provinces
Roman
Catholics
Protestants
Other Sects
Jews
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria
Palatinate (Eheinpfalz)
Upper Palatinate .
Upper Franconia .
Middle Franconia
Lower Franconia .
Suabia ....
Total .
79S,874
591,205
273,982
451,350
226,742
127,474
470,081
501,321
26,185
3.137
336,119
38,723
304,158
441,290
100.090
79,011
456
133
2,923
177
31
402
401
316
2,154
36
13,042
1.045
4,129
10,522
14,400
4,512
3,441,029
1,328,713
4,839
49,840
According to a table annexed to the official Returns of the Census
of Dec. 3, 1867, there were in 1840, to every 1,000 inhabitants,
Eoman Catholics ....... 710-79
Protestants 274-52
Jews 13-58
Anabaptists, and members of the Greek Church . . I'll
while in 1867 the numbers were —
Eoman Catholics 712-94
Protestants 275-73
Jews 10-33
Anabaptists, and members of the Greek Church . . 1
As regards ecclesiastical administration, the kingdom is divided into
2 Roman Catholic archbishoprics, those of Munich and Bamberg ;
6 bishoprics; 171 deaneries; and 2,756 parishes. The Protestant
Church is under a General Consistory — ' Ober-Consistorium ' — and
four provincial consistories. Of the three universities of the kingdom,
two, at Munich and Wiirzburg, are Roman Catholic, and one, at
Erlangen, Protestant. Among the Roman Catholics there is one clergy-
man to 464 souls ; among the Protestants, one to 1,013. The Roman
Catholic Church is richly endowed, possessing, according to semi-
official statements, property amounting to above 100 millions of
florins, or 8,500,000/. A large proportion of this wealth consists of
landed estates, which are annually increasing in value. The State,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
J35
besides, pays 1,562,000 florins, or 130,000/., annually to the clergy.
The Archbishop of Munich has a Government salary of'20,000 florins,
or 1,667/., and the Archbishop of Wiirzburg, 15,000 florins, or 1,250/.
Three of the bishops have an allowance of 10,000 florins, and the
other three of 8,000, exclusive of episcopal residences. The Constitu-
tion guarantees complete religious liberty to all inhabitants of the
State, and Protestants as well as other dissenters enjoy unrestricted
freedom of worship, and are eligible to all civil offices and military
appointments.
In the year 1861 there were in the kingdom 7,126 schools, with
8,205 teachers. Elementary schools — ' Volksschulen ' — exist in all
parishes, and attendance on them is compulsory for all children till
the age of fourteen.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The actual public revenue and expenditure of Bavaria for the
financial year ending September 30, 1866, were as follows: —
Revenue Florins
£
Direet taxes ......
Indirect taxes .....
State monopolies and establishments
State domains .....
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Total net revenue ....
Proceeds of part of a government loan
voted by the Chambers, June 24, 1866
Total revenue
9,975,513
22,690,604
10,755,004
10,283,243
390,722
831,293
1,890,884
896,250
856,937
32,566
54,095,156
16,448,102
4,507,930
1,370,675
70,543,258
5,878,605
Expenditure
Florins
■ &
Interest on the public debt
13.828,657
1,152,388
Civil list
2,985,799
248,817
Council of state and legislature
79,786
6,649
Ministerial departments ....
7,345,732
612.144
Government establishments
9,261,814
771,818
40,894,759
3,407,896
Contributions to provincial funds
626,928
52.244
Public buildings .....
1,018,393
84,866
Pensions of civil servants
761,689
63,474
Miscellaneous expenses ....
957,729
79,811
Extraordinary expenditure for various
purposes ......
Total expenditure ....
512,099
42,675
78,273,385
6,522,782
136
GERMANY — BAYAMA.
It will be seen that there was in the financial year 1865-66 a deficit
of 7,218,028 florins, or 601,502/., which was to be provided for from
the proceeds of the. loan of June 24, 1866.
The financial estimates for 1866-67 and 1867-68 provided for a
revenue of 72,000,000 florins, or about 6 millions sterling, while
the estimates for 1868-69 — drawn up on a different plan, so as to
give the net, instead of the gross receipts and disbursements — set
down the revenue as 58,508,588 florins, or 4,875,715/. In the
budget of 1868-69, as in that of preceding years, the estimates of
expenditure were made out to be covered exactly by the receipts.
Bavaria has a considerable debt, created in part by the deficits of
former years, and in part by the construction of public works, espe-
cially railways.
The subjoined table gives the total amount of the debt of the
kingdom, distinguishing the Ordinary and the Railway Debt, the
accounts of which are kept separate, from 1853 to 1867, on the 1st
of January of each year : —
Years
Ordinary Debt
Railway Debt
Total
Florins
Florins
Florins
£
1853
131,418,158
53,743,000
185,161,558
15,430,130
1854
129,386,602
66,703,700
196,090,302
16,340.858
1855
134.045,964
72,369,700
206,415,664
17,201,305
1858
122,839,495
88,643,834
211,483,529
17,623,629
1859
123,280,680
90,913,134
316,493,364
26,374,447
1862
136,293,375
104,735,559
342,903,514
28,575,292
1867
209,874,601
146,156,600
356,031,201
29,669,267
The greater number of the railways in Bavaria, constructed at a
cost of 146 million florins, are the property of the State. The
net revenue derived from them in the year 1866 amounted to
5,909,501 florins, or 492,458/.
Army and Population.
The armed force of the kingdom comprised, previous to the
treaties of November 1870, which brought them, subject to certain
stipulations (see p. 99), under the general military organisation of
the Empire, the permanent army, the army of reserve, and the
Landwehr, or militia. All men, from the age of 21, are liable to
serve, but the sons of the nobility and of superior employes in the
service of the State have the privilege of entering the military school
of cadets. The period of service, according to the law of' army-
reorganisation passed Jan. 30, 1868, is eleven years, of which three
have to be spent in the permanent army, three in the army of
reserve, and five in the Landwehr.
ARMY AND POPULATION.
137
The composition of the permanent army was as follows at the
end of 1869 :—
Men
16 regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions . . 28,304
10 battalions of Jager infantry 5,870
10 regiments of cavalry, each of 5 squadrons . . 7,290
52 batteries of artillery, with train .... 6,361
10 companies of engineers, with train. . . . 1,212
4 companies of sanitary troops ..... 624
6 detachments of victualling troops .... 288
Total strength of permanent army .
49.949
The army of reserve, in course of re-organisation in 1SG8-9,
numbered about 30,000 men. Though nominally in existence
throughout the kingdom, the third division of the armed forces, the
Landwehr, is practically to be found only in a few of the larger
towns of the kingdom. By the treaties of November 1870, the
command of the army of Bavaria is left in time of peace to the
King.
The kingdom embraces an area of 29,347 English square miles,
with a popidation, in 1867, of 4,824,421. By a treaty dated
August 22, 1866, two strips of territory in Upper and Lower Fran-
conia, embracing an area of 291 square miles, with 32,976 inhabi-
tants, had to be ceded to Prussia. Bavaria is divided, for adminis-
trative purposes, into eight Kreise, or circles, of the following extent
and population, according to the two last triennial census returns,
taken in accordance with the regulations of the Zollverein, of Decem-
ber, 1864, and of December, 1867 : —
Circles
Area in
English
square miles
Population
in 1864
Population
in 1867
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria .
Palatinate (Rheinpfalz)
Upper Palatinate
Upper Franconia
Middle Franconia
Lower Franconia
Suabia ....
6,614
4,113
2,206
4,198
2.226
2,798
3,334
3,858
818,485
583,959
625,157
490,292
527,647
562,826
617,819
581,255
827,669
594,511
626,066
491.295
535,060
579.688
584,972
585,160
Total .
29,347
4,807,440
4,824,421
The increase of popidation in the kingdom has been comparatively
small within the last half-century, as shown in the subjoined table,
which gives the result of each census taken in Bavaria since the
introduction of the triennial system : —
i38
GERMANY— BAYARIA.
Year of Census
Population
Triennial Increase or Decrease
1834
4,246,779
1837
4,315,468
Increase 68,689
1840
4,370,974
55,506
1843
4,440,327
„ 69,353
1846
4,504,874
64,547
1849
4,520,751
15,877
1852
4,559,452
38,701
1855
4,541,556
Decrease 17,896
1858
4,615,748
Increase 74,192
1861
4,689,837
74,089
1864
4,807,440
117,603
1867
4,824,421
16,981
The great fluctuations in the rate of increase, extremely low on
the whole, are referred to emigration. According to an official state-
ment, the total number of emigrants who left Bavaria with the
knowledge and sanction of the government, during the thirty-three
years from 1834 to 1867, was 273,000; but this figure is supposed
to represent barely one-half of the number of persons who actually
quitted the country during that period, it being known that every
year masses of individuals emigrate secretly, that is, without obtain-
ing the permission of the authorities, as required by law.
The soil of the kingdom is divided among 947,010 proprietors.
The division is greatest in the Rhenish Palatinate, namely, 228,976,
and smallest in Upper Bavaria, viz. 109,195.
The population of the principal towns of the kingdom was as
follows at the census of Dec. 3, 1864, and of Dec. 3, 1867 : —
Towns
Capital of the Circle of
Population
1864
18G7
Munich (Miinchen)
Nurnberg
Augsburg
Wiirzburg
Ratisbon (Regensburg) .
Bayreuth
Upper Bavaria . .
Middle Franconia .
Lower Franconia .
Upper Palatinate .
Upper Franconia .
167,054
70,492
49,333
41,082
29,893
19,208
170,688
77,895
50,067
42,185
30,357
19,464
It will be seen that in none of the larger towns of Bavaria did
any great increase of population take place between the years 1864
and 1867. The most considerable was that shown by Nurnberg,
the principal manufacturing city in the kingdom.
GERMANY WURTEMBERG. 1 39
III. WURTEMEERG.
(KONIGREICH WURTEMBERG.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Karl T., King of Wurtemberg, born March 6, 1823 ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, King Wilhelm I., June 25,
1864. Married, July 13, 1846, to Grand-duchess Olga of Russia,
daughter of Czar Nicholas I.
Sisters of the King. — 1. Princess Catharine, born Aug. 24, 1821 ;
married Nov. 20, 1845, to her cousin, Prince Friedrich of Wiirtem-
berg. 2. Princess Augusta, born Oct. 4, 1826, married June 17,
1851, to Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar, major-general in the
service of Wurtemberg.
Half-Sisters of the King — Offspring of the second marriage of
KingWilhelmLwith Grand-duchess Catharine of Russia. 1. Princess
Marie, born Oct. 30, 1816 ; married March 19, 1840, to Count
Alfred von Neipperg, eldest son of Count Adam Neipperg, and of
Archduchess Maria Louise of Austria, former consort of the Emperor
Napoleon I.; widow Nov. 16, 1865. 2. Princess Sophie, born
June 17, 1818 ; married June 18, 1839, to King Willem III. of
the Netherlands.
Cousins of the King. — 1. Prince Friedrich, born Feb. 21, 1808,
the son of Duke Paul of Wurtemberg, uncle of the king, and of
Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg ; married Nov. 20, 1845, to
his cousin, Princess Catharine, daughter of King Wilhelm I. Issue
of the union is a son, Prince Wilhelm, born Feb. 25, 1848. 2.
Prince August, brother of the preceding, born Jan. 24, 1813,
general of cavalry in the service of Prussia. 3. Princess Charlotte,
sister of the preceding, born Jan. 9, 1807 ; married, Feb. 20, 1824,
to Grand-duke Michael of Russia ; widow, Sept. 9, 1849.
Other Relatives of the King. — 1. Prince Alexander, born Sept.
9, 1804, the son of Duke Ludwig of Wurtemberg, uncle of the
king; married May 2, 1835, to Claudine, daughter of Count
Rheday of Transylvania, created at the marriage Countess von
Hohenstein; widower, Oct. 1, 1841. Issue of the union are one
son and two daughters, namely, Franz, born Aug. 27, 1837, created
Prince von Teck Dec. 1, 1863, and married to Princess Mary of
Cambridge June 12, 1866; Claudine, born Feb. 11, 1836; and
Amelia, born Nov. 12, 1838 ; married Oct. 24, 1863, to Baron von
Hiigel, captain in the Austrian cavalry. 2. Princess Marie, born
140 GERMANY — WURTEMBERG.
March 25, 1818, daughter of Duke Eu<rene of Wiirtemberg, nephew
of the king; married Oct. 9, 1845, to Landgrave Karl of Hesse-
Philippsthal. 3. Prince Eugen, brother of the preceding, born
Dec. 25, 1820; married, July 15, 1843, to Princess Mathilde of
Schaumburg-Lippe. 4. Prince Wilhelm, brother of the preceding,
born July 20, 1828; colonel of infantry in the service of Austria.
5. Princess Alexandrine, sister of the preceding, born Dec. 16, 1829.
6. Prince Nicolaus, brother of the preceding, born March 1, 1833;
married May 8, 1868, to his cousin, Princess Wilhelmine of Wtir-
temberg, born July 11, 1844, the daughter of Prince Eugen.
7. Princess Louise, sister of the preceding, born Oct. 13, 1835 ;
married Feb. 6. 1858, to Prince Heinrich XIV. of Reuss-Schleiz.
The former duchy of Wiirtemberg was erected into a kingdom by
the Emperor Napoleon, by decree of Jan. 1, 1806, having been
enlarged previously by the annexation of the territories of a number
of small princes and ecclesiastical dignitaries. The congress ol
Vienna acknowledged the change, in consideration of the timely
transference of the troops of King Friedrich I. to the army of the
Allies. Wilhelm I., the second king, soon after his accession gained
the goodwill of his subjects by the grant of a constitution, as well as
the satisfactory settlement of the question of right in the royal
domains, or property of the crown. The civil list of the king was
fixed at a sum of 882,400 florins, or 73,566^., with an additional
amount for the other members of the royal family.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of "Wiirtemberg bears date Sept. 25, 1819. It
vests the legislative power in a Diet, or Landtag, consisting of
two Houses, called together every three years, or oftener if ne-
cessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is composed
of the members of the royal family, the heads of the principal noble
families of the country, the representatives of certain territories
and estates possessing formerly a vote in the German Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king for life, which number,
however, must not exceed one-third of that of the whole House. The
second Chamber, or House of Deputies — Abgeordneten — consists ot
13 members of the nobility, elected by the Ritterschaft, or landowners
of the kingdom ; 6 superintendents of the Protestant Church ; one
Roman Catholic bishop; two other representatives of Roman Catholic
bodies ; the chancellor of the university of Tubingen ; and 71 deputies
of towns and rural districts. All the members of the second Chamber
are chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age; pro-
perty qualification is not necessary. To be a member ol' the first
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 141
Chamber it is sufficient to be of age. The president of both Houses
is appointed by the king ; for the Upper House without restriction
of person, and for the lower, from among three members elected by
the deputies. The debates of the second Chamber are public,
and have to be printed and distributed among the various consti-
tuencies. Whenever Parliament is not sitting, it is represented by a
committee of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both
Chambers, two members of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House.
A special court of justice, called the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed
guardian of the constitution and rights and privileges of the
Houses of Parliament. It is composed of a president and twelve
members, six of which, together with the president, are nominated
by the king, while the other six are elected by the combined
Chambers.
The executive of the kingdom consists of five ministerial depart-
ments, presided over by the king, or a member of the royal family
nominated by his majesty. The departments are : —
1. The Ministry of Justice. — Herr von Mittnacht, appointed
Sept. 27, 1868.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Herr von Scheurlen, appointed
March 24, 1870.
3. The Ministry of Education and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr.
von Gessler, appointed May 3, 1870.
4. The Ministry of Finance. — Herr von Benner, appointed Oct. 6,
1864.
5. The Ministry of War. — Lieutenant- General von Suckow,
appointed March 24, 1870.
At the side of the Ministry stands a Privy Council, which the
sovereign has the right to consult on all occasions.
Church and Education.
The last census of Wiirtemberg, of Dec. 3, 1867, states the reli-
gious creed of the inhabitants as follows : — Evangelical Protestants,
1.220,199 ; Roman Catholics, 543,601 ; Dissenters of various
denominations, 3,017 ; and Jews, 11,662. It will be seen that the
Protestants form 68 per cent, of the population, and the Roman
Catholics 30 per cent. The ' Evangelical Protestant ' Church
of Wiirtemberg was formed in 1823, by a union of the Lutherans
and the Calvinists, or Reformers. The administration of the
Protestant Church is in the hands of six general superinten-
dents, at Ulm, Ludwigsburg, Reutlingen, Hall, Heilbronn, and
Tubingen. In the king is vested, according to the constitution, the
supreme direction as well as the guardianship — obersthoheitliche
142
GERMANY — WURTEMBERG.
Schutz unci Aufsichtsrecht — of the Evangelical Protestant Church,
which is considered, though not formally declared, the religion of the
State. The Roman Catholics are under a bishop, who has his seat at
Rottenburg, but who, in all important matters, has to act in conjunc-
tion with a Catholic church-council — Kirchenrath — appointed by
the government. The Jews likewise are under a special board,
nominated by the minister of ecclesiastical affairs. Most independent
of the State are the small number of Christian Dissenters, including
a singular sect called the Kornthaler.
Education is compulsory in Wiirtemberg; every child between
the age of 6 and 14 must attend school ; and there must be a public
school in every community of 30 families. It was ascertained,
according to recent official returns, that there is not an individual
in the kingdom, above the age of ten, unable to read and write.
There are about 2,500 elementary schools, attended by 350,000
pupils; besides numerous seminaries for imparting a classical edu-
cation ; four Protestant and two Roman Catholic training establish-
ments for ministers, and seven colleges, at Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm,
Ellwangen, Ludwigsburg, Hall, and Rottweil. The whole educa-
tional system is centred in the university of Tubingen, founded in
1477, which is attended, on the average, by nearly a thousand
students.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The Chambers grant the budget for the term of three years, com-
mencing on the first of July. The last budget embraces the period
beginning July 1, 1867, and ending June 30, 1870. For this
financial period of three years, the income was calculated at
64,445,459 florins, or 5,370,454Z., and the expenditure to the same
sum. The revenue for the two triennial periods 1861-64 and
1864-67 was as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
1861-64
1864-67
State domains ....
Direct taxes ....
Indirect taxes ....
Other sources ....
Total for the 3 years |Flor,n|
Florins
20,414,404
10,995,000
13,515,105
2,258,134
Florins
24,344,103
11,190,000
14,692,682
47,182,643
3,931,887
51,226,785
1,268,899
The annual expenditure during the two triennial periods ending
June 1864, and June 1867, was as follows : —
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
H3
Years
Total Amount
Tears
Total Amount
1862 ....
1863 ....
1864 ....
Total for the 3 f Florins
years £
Florins
15,223,722
15,719,233
16,239,688
1865 .
1866 .
1867 .
Florins
16,467.307
16,984,232
17,741,169
47,182,643
3,931,887
51,192,708
4,266,059
The average expenditure for the two financial periods amounted,
exclusive of the construction of railways, canals, roads, and other
public works, to 15,223,786 florins, or 1,268,649/. per annum.
The details of the expenditure were : —
Civil list of the king
Allowances to other members of the royal family
Public debt
Salaries and pensions
Department of foreign affairs ....
„ of justice .....
„ of the interior ....
„ of education and ecclesiastical affairs
„ of war .....
,, of finance .....
Parliamentary representation ....
Miscellaneous ....
Total
Florins
882,400
244,792
3,527,665
940,130
213,866
1,068,685
1,752,958
1.947.019
3,586,249
811,270
178,687
70.065
15,223,786
£1,268,649
The public debt of Wiirtemberg has more than doubled within the
last tAventy years, owing chiefly to the establishment of the railway
lines of the kingdom, the whole of Avhich, without exception, are
State property. The capital of the funded debt, at five annual
periods, was as follows : —
Florins
,-e
1862 December 31
70,343,442
5,861,953
1864 „ .
76,578.542
6,381,545
1866 „ . .
84,406,940
7,033,911
1867 May 11
98.343,670
8,195,306
1868 „ ...
126,860,470
10,571,706
The whole capital of the funded debt was borrowed at from 3^- to
A\ per cent., and the net income of the railways, all expenses
deducted, and making allowance for wear and tear, amounting to
between six and seven per cent., the investment so made has con-
tributed, and is contributing, largely towards lightening the burthens
of the taxpayers.
144-
GERMANY — WURTEMBERG.
Army and Population.
The army, previous to its incorporation with that of the Empire,
was formed by conscription, and substitution was not allowed. The
number of recruits to be raised was determined every three years by
a special law passed by the Chambers. The period of service was
seven years, four of which had to be spent in the regular army, and
the rest in the army of reserve. According to official documents,
the army of Wlirtemberg consisted, at the commencement of July
1870, before the breaking out of the war against France, of the
following troops: —
8 regiments of infantry .
4 ,, of cavalry .
6 companies of artillery
Quartermaster's staff and train
Total
9,587 men
2,210 „
1,650 „
703 „
14,150 men
This was the ' peace-footing,' and represented, as nearly as possible,
the actual number of troops under arms. On the ' war-footing ' the
number was raised to 34,405 men.
The kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, of the following
area and population, according to the census of December 3, 1864,
and December 3, 1867 : —
Circles
AreainEng.
sq. miles
Population
1864
1867
Neckar .....
Black Forest ....
Danube .....
Jaxt .....
Total
1,306
1,861
2,384
2,124
512,107
435,045
420,310
380,866
523,994
444,967
427.280
382,238
7,675
1,748,328
1,778,479
The population, following generally agricultural pursuits, includ-
ing extensive cultivation of the vine, is dispersed over a great
many villages and small boroughs, and there are but two towns
in the kingdom, with above 20,000 inhabitants; the first, Stuttgart,
counting 75,781 ; and the next, Ulm, 24,739, at the census of
1867. Emigration, chiefly directed to the United States of America,
is drawing off vast numbers of the people.
H5
IV. SAXONY.
(K6NIGREICH SACHSEN.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Johann I., King of Saxony, born Dec. 12, 1801, second son of
Duke Maximilian of Saxony and of Princess Caroline of Parma.
Studied jurisprudence, and, in 1822, entered the Ministry of
Finance, of which he was nominated president in 1830. Com-
mander-in-Chief of the national guards of the kingdom, 1831-1846.
Succeeded to the throne, at the death of his brother, King Friedrich
August II., Aug. 9, 1854. Married Nov. 21, 1822, to
Amalie, Queen of Saxony, born Nov. 13, 1801, the daughter of
the late King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. Offspring of the union
are three children, namely: — 1. Albert, Duke of Saxony and
heir-apparent, born April 23, 1828; married June 18, 1853,
to Princess Caroline, born Aug. 5, 1833, daughter of Prince
Gustav of Vasa. 2. Elisabeth, born Feb. 4, 1830 ; married,
in 1850, to Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia, and widow since 1855.
3. Georg, Duke of Saxony, born August 8, 1832; married
May 11, 1859, to Infanta Maria, born July 21, 1843, daughter
of King Ferdinand of Portugal, of which union there are issue
two sons and two daughters, namely, Mathilda, born March 19,
1863; Friedrich August, born May 25, 1865 ; Marie, born May 31,
1867 ; and Johann Georg, born July 11, 1869.
The royal house of Saxony counts among the oldest reigning
families in Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early as
the beginning of the tenth century; but the house subsequently
spread into numerous branches, the elder of which, called the
Ernestine line, is represented at this moment by the ducal families
of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-
Weimar, while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers
of the kingdom of Saxony.
King Johann I. has a civil list of 863,575 thalers, or 128,000Z.
per annum ; which includes a grant to the queen of 30,000 thaler,
and the dotations of the princes and princesses, amounting to 235,000
thalers, or 35,250/. The formerly royal domains, consisting chiefly
in extensive forests, valued at above 25,000,000 thalers, became,
in 1830, the property of the State.
L
I46 GERMANY — SAXONY.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Saxony dates from Sept. 4, 1831 ; but
has undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of March 31,
1849 ; May 5, 1851 ; November 27, 1860 ; and October 19, 1861.
According to the terms of the Constitution, the crown is hereditary
in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in the
female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth
year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes
the regency. In the hands of the King is the sole executive power,
which he exercises through responsible ministers. The legislature
is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two
chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the blood
royal ; the proprietors of eight baronial domains ; twelve deputies
elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates; ten noble proprietors
nominated by the King for life; the burgomasters of eight toAvns;
and the superintendents and deputies of live collegiate institutions,
of the university of Leipzig, and of the Roman Catholic chapter of
St. Peter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of twenty
deputies of landed proprietors; twenty -five of towns and city cor-
porations; twenty-five of peasants and communes; and five repre-
sentatives of commerce and manufacturing industry. The qualifica-
tion for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election to
the same, is the possession of a landed estate, worth at least 1,000
thalers a year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the
ex officio deputies of chapters and universities. To be a member of
the Lower House, no fixed income is required ; and electors are all
men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes, or contribute in
any way to the public burdens. A salary is attached to the per-
formance of the legislative functions ; the members of the Upper
House being allowed seven thaler, or about a guinea a day, during
the sittings of Parliament, and the deputies to the second chamber
three thaler, or 9s. Both houses have the right to make proposi-
tions for new laws, the bills for which, however, must come from
the ministry. No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the
sanction of both Chambers.
The executive is in the King and a Council of Ministers, con-
sisting of five members, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Hermann von Nostitz- Wallivitz,
appointed Oct. 20, 18GG.
2. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Robert Schneider, appointed
November 1866.
3. The Ministry of War. — General Alfred von Fabrice, appointed
October, 1866.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 1 47
. 4. The Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr.
Johann Paul von Falkenstein, appointed March 1855.
5. The Ministry of Finance. — Freiherr Richard von Friesen,
appointed November 1858.
Church and Education.
Although the royal family profess the Roman Catholic religion,
the vast majority of the inhabitants are Protestants. At the census
of December 3, 1867, the population of Saxony was composed of
2,361,861 Lutherans; 5,5C6 Calvinists; 458 members of the English
Episcopal Church; 51,478 Roman Catholics; 1,649 DeutscK-
Katholiken, or German Catholics; 413 members of the Greek Church;
and 2,103 Jews. There are very nearly 1,400 Protestant churches
in the kingdom. The clergy are chiefly paid out of local rates and
from endowments, the budget contribution of the State to the de-
partment of ecclesiastical affairs amounting to but 85,593 thaler, or
about 12,830/., chiefly spent in administrative salaries. ThegovernT
ment of the Protestant Church is entrusted tc the Landes-Consis-
torium, or National Consistory, presided over by the Minister of
Ecclesiastical Affairs ; while the Roman Catholic congregations are
under the supervision of a Papal delegate. Public education has
reached the highest point in Saxony, every child, without exception^
partaking of its benefits. By the law of June 6, 1835, attendance at
school, or under properly qualified teachers, is made compulsory,
for Roman Catholics as well as Protestants. On the average, 95 of
every 100 children capable of instruction are in attendance at school;
Revenue and Expenditure.
The budget of Saxony was formerly voted for triennial periods,
but more recently, annually. The actual expenditure — the income
was larger — amounted, during the period
1849 to 1851 to 7,600.669 thaler, or £1.140.100 annually.
1852 „ 1854 „ 8,281,728 „ or 1.242.254
1855 „ 1857 „ 9,040,902 „ or 1,356,140 ,
1858 „ 1860 „ 9,365.243 „ or 1,404,786 , '
1861 „ 1863 „ 12.356,352 „ or 1,853,452
1864 „ 1866 „ 13,658,984 „ or 2,148,848
Rather more than one-half of the public revenue is derived
from taxes chiefly indirect, and the rest from state railways,
canals, and telegraphs, together with the income of the formerly
royal domains.
L 2
I48 GERMANY SAXONY.
The details of the annual expenditure of the period 1864—66
were : —
Civil list of the King and Queen, dotation of the Thaler
princes, and repair of royal residences . . 863,845
Interest on public debt ...... 2,834,000
Ministry of Justice 384,703
,, of Interior 850,495
„ of Finances ...... 474,395
of War 2,175,096
„ of Public Instruction and Ecclesiast. Affairs 390,833
,, of Foreign Affairs ..... 94,445
Contribution to the expenses of the German Diet . 35,000
Pensions 590,336
Public works 3,339,461
Fund of reserve 323,743
Total annual expenditure . .12,356,352 or £1,853,452.
The budget for the financial year 1868-69 was based on esti-
mates of revenue of 13,371,057 thaler, or 2,005,659/., and of
expenditure to the same amount. Included in the latter was the
sum of lr545,490 thaler, or 231,824/., forming the contribution
of Saxony to the expenditure of the North German Confederation.
For the last few years there has been a gradually increasing
surplus of income over expenditure, which is collected in a 'fund
of reserve,' and made use of for the reduction of the public debt.
A great part of this surplus was derived from the railway lines of
the country, nearly all of which are State property, yielding a
revenue of from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000 thaler per annum.
The public debt amounted, at the end of 1869, to 95,264,062
thaler, or 14,289,609/., the liabilities being made up as follows : —
Old debt ....
3% 'Obligations,' created in 1830
4% 'Kassen-Scheine' of 1847.
4% ditto of 1852-66
3% ditto of 1855 .
Shares of the Saxon-Silesian Railway . . . 3,335,000
5% 'Obligations,' created in 1867 . . . .12,000,000
4% • Kassenscheine,' created in 1869 . . .20,000.000"
Thaler
2,281
5,204,075
7,789,000
42,648,400
4,285,300
Total . . . 95,264,062
£14,289,609
The debt was incurred almost entirely for the establishment
and purchase of a network of railways and telegraphs, and the
promotion of other works of public utility.
POPULATION.
H9
Population.
The kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, of the follow-
ing area and population, according to the Zollverein enumerations
of December 3, 1864, and of December 3, 1867 : —
Circles
Area
in sq. m.
Population
1864
1867
Dresden .....
Leipzig .....
Zwickau .....
Bautzen . ...
Total .
1,674
1,342
1,790
971
615,169
532,689
316,886
879,250
638,916
553,583
322,562
908.525
6,777
2,343,994
2.423,586
■
The increase of population during the three years 1865-67 was
at the rate of four per cent in the towns, but of only one per cent,
in the rural districts of the kingdom. The population of 1867 com-
prised 1,186,889 men, and 1,236,637 women, being at the rate of
1,012 women to 1,000 men. In the midst of the purely Germanic
population there lived, at the last census, 51,895 Slavonic Wends,
mainly in the circle of Bautzen.
The population of the chief towas, according to the census of
December 1867, was as follows • —
Dresden 156,024
Leipzig 90,824
Chemnitz 58,573
Zwickau 24,509
The population of Leipzig is vastly increased during the period of
the great annual fairs, notably that of Easter, which bring together
merchants from all parts of the civilised world. According to
official returns the value of the commercial transactions at these
fairs, established for nearly six centuries, has in recent years
averaged 60 millions of thaler, or about 9 millions sterling.
Leipzig is also the centre of the German, and to some extent
European, trade in productions of the printing press.
150 GERMANY — BADEN.
V. BADEN.
(Grosshekzogthusi Baden.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Friedrich I., Grand-duke of Baden, born September 9, 1826 ;
second son of Grand-duke Leopold I., and of Princess Sophie of
Sweden. Ascended the throne of Baden at the death of his father,
April 24,1852, under the title of ' Regent' — his elder brother,
liudwig, suffering under mental disease, having the nominal honours
and title of Grand-duke allowed to him. Assumed the title of
'Grand-duke of Baden,' September 5, 185G. Married, September
20, 1856, to Grand-duchess Louise, bom December 3, 1838, the
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Prussia. Offspring of the union are
1. Friedrich Wilhelm, heir-apparent, born July 9, 1857. 2. Victoria,
born August 7, 1862. 3. Ludwig, born June 12, 1865.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess A lexandrine,
born December 6, 1820 ; married, May 3, 1842, to Duke Ernst of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 2. Prince Wilhelm, born December 18, 1829;
married, February 11, 18G3, to Princess Maria Romanovska, born
October 1 6, 1841 , daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchten-
berg, offspring of which union are two children, namely, Marie, bora
July 26, 1865", and Maximilian, born July 10, 1867. 3. Prince Karl,
born March 9, 1832. 4. Princess Marie, born November 20, 1834;
married, September 11, 1858, to Prince Emst of Leiningen. 5.
Princess Cecilia, born September 20, 1839 ; married, August 28r
1857, to Grand-duke Michael of Russia, and, on becoming a convert
to the Greek faith, adopted the name of Olga Feodorowna.
The title of Grand-duke was giren by Napoleon I. to Margrave
Karl Friedrich of Baden in 1806, on the occasion of the alliance
of the heir-apparent of Baden with Stephanie Beauharnais.
The verv extensive landed property formerly belonging to the
reigning family, and valued at about 50 million florins, or 4, 166,000/.,-
lias been made over to the State, and the grand-duke is in the
receipt of a civil list of 752,490 florins, or 62,700/.T which includes
the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
Constitution and Revenue.
The constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the
Grand-duke, and the legislative authority in a House of Parliament
CONSTITUTION AND REVENUE.
I>I
composed of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning line who are of age ; the heads of ten noble
families; the proprietors of hereditary landed estates worth MOD, 000
florins, or 25,000/.; the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Freiburg;
the superintendent of the Protestant Church ; two deputies oi
Universities; and eight members nominated by the grand-duke,
without regard to rank or birth. The second Chamber is composed
of 63 representatives of the people, 22 of which are elected by
burgesses of towns, and 41 by the inhabitants of rural districts.
Every citizen not convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has
a vote in the elections. To be a deputy, it is necessary to possess
tax-piying property to the amount of 10,000 florins, or 833Z. ; or
to hold a public office with a salary of not less than 1,500 florins;
or 125/. The elections are indirect ; the citizens nominating the
Wahlmanner, or deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives.
The members of the second Chamber are elected for eight years.
The Chambers have to be called together at least once every two
years.
The executive is composed of six departments, headed by the
' Private Cabinet of the Grand-duke,' which office is filled by the
chief of the cabinet. The departments are, the Ministry of the
Grand-ducal House and of Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of the
Interior; the Ministry of Justice; the Ministry of Finances and of
Commerce ; and the Ministry of War. The ministers are indi-
vidually and collectively responsible for their actions, both to the
legislature and to every individual citizen who may choose to lodge
complaints against them before the ' Oberhofgericht,' or Superior
Tribunal of the country.
The budgets are granted for the term of two years by the Cham-
bers. For the term 1868 and 18G9 the estimates were —
Gross revenue
Cost of Collection
Net revenue .
1868
1869
1868-69
Florins
19,327,343
4,888.242
14,439,101
Florins
19,328,263
4,868.366
14,459,897
Florins
38.655.606
9,750,608
28,898,998
Expenditure, ordinary and extraordinary
33,884,933
£ 2.823,744
Deficit
.
4,985,935
£ 415,494
The actual revenue for the years 1866-G7 amounted to 18,G80,327
florins, or 1,556,694/., per annum, and the actual expenditure to
152
GERMANY BADEN.
20,364,416 florins, or 1,697,035/. The actual revenue for the year
ending Dec. 31, 1868, was 22,824,371 florins, or 1,902,031/., and
the actual expenditure 22,834,371 florins, or 1,902,864/. Nearly
one-half of the revenue is derived from direct taxation, a fourth from
the produce of crown lands, forests, and mines, and the rest from
customs and miscellaneous sources. Bather more than one-third of
the expenditure is set down under the head of ' General cost of
administration,' and one-fifth is assigned to the department of the
minister of Avar.
All the railways of Baden are the property of the State, giving
a dividend, on the capital expended, of above 6 per cent. The
accounts of the income and expenditure of the State railways, as
well as of the Post-office and steam navigation on the Lake of
Constance, are not entered in the general budget, but form a special
fund. The receipts and expenditure of this fund, in each of the
years 1866 and 1867, were as follows : —
Receipts
Post-office ......
Railway ......
Baden share in receipts of Main-Neckar
Railway and Telegraph
Steam navigation on Lake of Constance .
Total
1866
Florins
1.785,006
13,696,029
115,147
141,487
15,747,669
1867
Florins
1,785,006
14,790,224
122,381
141,487
16,839,098
Expenditure
1866
1867
Post-office ......
Railway, ordinary .....
,, extraordinary ....
Steam navigation .....
Total expenses
Florins
1,520.543
10.193,703
185.936
131,805
Florins
1,544,099
10,910,730 ;
185,936
131,805 '
|
12,031,987
12,772,570 j
The public debt is, like the budget, divided into two parts, the
first called the General debt, and the second the Railway debt.
The General debt amounted, at the commencement of 1868, to
32,285,000 florins, or 2,690,416/.
The chargefor interest on the railway debt amounted to 2,975,3.65
florins, or 247,947/., in the year 1867.
ARMY AND POPULATION. 1 53
Army and Population.
The army of Baden, previous to its incorporation with that of the
Empire, was formed by conscription. Substitution, however, was
allowed, the Government undertaking the charge of the same at
a fixed cost. The time of service was six years in the active army,
and two years further inscription among the troops of the reserve.
But, as a rule, about three-fourths of the time is allowed to be
passed on furlough.
The nominal strength of the army was as follows in June 1870 : —
5 regiments of infantry . . . 10.907 men
2 „ of dragoons . . . 1,870 „
1 „ of artillery . . . 2,077 „ with 38 guns
Staff, &c 65 „
Total . . . 14,919 men, with 38 guns
The actual number of men under arms, ' on the peace -footing,'
seldom amounted to more than between 7,000 and 8,000. After
the declaration of war by France against Germany, in July 1870,
when the army was placed on the war footing, it took the field
27,500 men strong.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 5,851 English square miles,
with 1,434,970 inhabitants at the census of December 3, 1867.
The population has not greatly increased since the year 1816,
when it amounted to 1,005,899. The numbers augmented at
a rate of rather less than 10,000 souls annually, till the year 1846,
when there was a period of decrease, extending till 1855. From
1846 till 1849, the decrease amounted to 4,712 ; from 1849 to 1852,
to 8,282 ; and from 1852 to 1855, to the large number of 42,105,
or 14,035 per annum. Since 1855, there has been again a gradual
increase.
The decline of population has been chiefly owing to emigration.
From 1840 to 1849, the number of emigrants was 23,966, and from
1850 to 1855, it rose to 62,444. In the year 1852, no less than
14,366 people left the country ; in 1853, the numbers were 12,932,
and in 1854 they rose to 21,561. Most of the emigrants were families
possessed of some property. It was ascertained that the emigrants of
1853 carried with them property amounting to 1,923,903 florins, or
rather more than 100 florins — 8/. 7s. — per head. The great
majority of the emigrants went to North America ; but about two
per cent, were induced, previous to 1856, to go to the French settle-
ments in Algeria. The result of this Algerian emigration proved so
disastrous that it has been discontinued.
1 54 GERMANY — MECKLENBUKG-SCIliVEIUN.
VI. MECKLENBTJRG-SCHWERIN.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg- Schwerin.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Friedrich Franz II., Grand-duke of Mecklenburg- Schwerin,
born February 28, 1823, the son of Grand-duke Paul Friedrich and
Princess Alexandrine of Prussia. Studied philosophy and theology
at the University of Bonn, 1840-42; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, March 7, 1842. Married, November 3, 1849, to
Princess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz, who died March 3, 18G2.
Married, in second nuptials, May 12, 1864, to Princess Anna,
daughter of the late Grand-duke Ludwig II. of Hesse-Darmstadt,
who died April 15, 1865. Married, in third nuptials, July 4, 1868,
to Princess Marie, born January 29, 1850, cousin of the reigning
Prince Albert of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. Issue of the .first mar-
riage are : — 1. Prince Friedrich Franz, heir-apparent, born March
19, 1851. 2. Prince Paul Friedrich, born September 19, 1852.
3. Princess Marie, born May 14, 1854. 4. Prince Johann, born
December 8, 1857. Issue of the second marriage is a daughter,
Anna, born April 7, 1865 ; and issue of third marriage a daughter,
Mathilda, born August 10, 1869.
Brother of the Grand-duke. — Prince Wilhelrn, born March 5,
1827 ; colonel in the service of Prussia ; married, Dec. 9, 1865, to
Alexandrina, born Feb. 1, 1842, daughter of Prince Albert of Prus-
sia. Issue a daughter, Charlotte, born November 7, 1868.
Mother of the Grand-duke. — Grand-duchess Alexandrine, born
February 23, 1803, daughter of the late King Friedrich Wilhelrn
III. of Prussia; married, May 25, 1822, to Grand-duke Paul
Friedrich; widow, March 7, 1842.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning
family in Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest
sovereign house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-
dukes style themselves Princes of the Vandals; and they trace their
descent to Genseric, King of the Vandals, who conquered Spain in
the fifth century, and, going over to Africa, took Carthage in 439.
The Grand-duke has no civil list, or any other allowance from the
country. His income consists of a large part of the revenues of the
State domains, and is estimated at above 120,000/. per annum. The
Grand-duke is also sole proprietor of aline of railway, 55 miles long,
from Glistrow to Neu-Brandenburg, which in great part runs through
his own property. The crown estates, valued at 80,000,000 thaler,
or nearly 12,000,000/., are looked upon, in all respects, as the private
property of the Grand-duke.
CONSTITUTION, REVENUE, AND TOPULATION. 1 55
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the ' Union ' of
1 523, the ' Reversales' of 1572 and 1622, and the charters of 1755 and
Nov. 28, 1817. Nearly the whole legislative pcwer and part of the
executive is in the hands of the proprietors of Pittergiiter, or knight's
estates, numbering 624. Seldom more than one-fourth of these, how-
ever, exert their privileges and take their seats in the Diet. To these
representatives of their own property are joined thirty-nine mem-
bers, nearly all burgomasters, delegated by the municipalities and
corporate bodies of a like number of towns. The great bulk of the
population is without political rights. The Diet is permanent, being
represented, if not in actual session, by a committee of twelve mem-
bers, presided over by three marshals of the nobility, whose office
is hereditary in their families. It is part of the prerogative of the
committee to examine the working of the administration, as also to
nominate a number of judges at the chief courts of justice. The
Diet meets in annual session, alternately at the towns of Sternberg
and Malchin, and every two years forms a joint assembly with the
states of a part of Mecklenburg- StreHtz, in common legislation.
The executive is represented in a ministry appointed by and
responsible alone to the Grand-duke. There are four departments,
called, respectively, the Ministry of the Grand-ducal House and of
Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of the Interior ; the Ministry of
Justice, of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; and the Ministry
of Finances. There exists no general budget for the Grand-duchy.
Semi-official reports state the total revenue for the year 1869 to
have amounted to 354,950 thaler, or 53,242/., and the expenditure
to the same. At the commencement of 1870 the total public debt
was 7,009,132 thaler, or 1,051,368/., one-half of which sum had
been raised in loans for the construction of railways.
The population of the Grand-duchy amounted to 560,618 at the
census of Dec. 3, 1867, living on an area of 4,834 English square
miles. With the exception of 850 Roman Catholics, and 3,110
Jews, the whole of the subjects of the Grand-duke, in 1867, were
Lutherans. Although the country is but thinly populated, emi-
gration is carrying off large numbers of the inhabitants, and the
population at several periods has been decreasing. The ownership
of the land is divided between the sovereign, who possesses about
two-tenths, the titled and untitled nobility, who hold seven-tenths,
and various corporations and institutions for Protestant noble ladies,,
who possess the remaining tenth of the Grand-duchy.
I56 GERMANY — HESSE.
VII. HESSE.
(Grossherzogthum Hessen.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Ludwig III., Grand-duke of Hesse, born June 9, 1806, the
son of Grand-duke Ludwig II. and of Princess Wilhelmine of
Baden. Appointed co-Regent of Hesse, in consequence of an attempt
at insurrection, March 5, 1848 ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, June 16, 1848. Married, Dec. 26, 1833, to
Princess Mathilde, daughter of King Ludwig of Bavaria ; widower,
May 25, 1862.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Prince Karl, born
April 23, 1809 ; married, Oct. 22, 1836, to Princess Elisabeth of
Prussia, born June 18, 1815. Offspring of the union are — (1) Prince
Ludwig, born Sept. 12, 1837 ; married, July 1, 1862, to Princess
Alice of Great Britain ; issue, three daughters and two sons,
Victoria, born April 5, 1863, Elizabeth, born Nov. 1, 1864, Irene,
born July 11, 1866, Ludwig, born Nov. 25, 1868, and Karl, born
Oct. 7, 1870. (2) Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838. (3) Prince
Wilhehn, born Nov. 16, 1845. — 2. Prince Alexander, born July 15,
1823 ; field-marshal lieutenant in the service of Austria; married,
Oct. 16, 1851, to Countess Julia von Hanke, born Nov. 12, 1825, on
whom the title of Princess of Battenberg has been conferred. Off-
spring of the union are four sons and one daughter, called Princes and
Princess of Battenberg. 3. Princess Maria, born Aug. 8, 1824 ;
married, April 28, 1841, to Grand-duke Alexander of Russia, now
Czar Alexander II.
The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke
given them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable
increase of territory. At the congress of Vienna this grant was
confirmed, after some negotiations. The reigning family are not
possessed of much private property, and dependent almost entirely
upon the grant of the civil list. The late grand-duke, Ludwig II.,
found his allowance of 581,000 florins, or 48,417/., quite insufficient
for his wants, and for many years there was a struggle between the
Government and the representatives of the country about the pay-
ment of the grand-ducal debts. These were ultimately discharged
out of the public funds ; but, in 1855, the civil list was found to be
in debt again to the amount of 1,100.000 florins, or 91,666/. The
Chambers refused to pay this new debt ; but after long debates it
was agreed on ultimately to discharge the amount provisionally,
deducting it gradually from the grants of the civil list. The latter
was raised, at the same time, to 625,000 florins, or 52,083/., besides
allowances to the princes and the grand-ducal court, amounting
altogether to 751,800 florins, or 62,650/.
CONSTITUTION, REVENUE, AND POPULATION.
157
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The constitution bears date, Dec. 17, 1820 ; but was somewhat
modified in 1848, and again in 1856. The legislative power is
vested, in part, in two Chambers, called the Upper and the Lower
House of Representatives. The former is composed of the princes
of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble houses, the
Roman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University of Giessen, and a number of life-
members, not exceeding ten, nominated by the Grand-duke. The
Lower House consists of 0 deputies of noble landowners ; 10 deputies
of towns ; and 34 representatives of villages and rural districts. The
members of the Lower House are chosen by an indirect mode of
election — the original voters, or ' Urwahler,' first polling the electors,
or ' Wahlmiinner,' and these, in their turn, the representatives. The
Chambers have to meet at least once every three years. On certain
occasions, both Houses vote together, as when a proposition of the
Government has been accepted by one House and refused by the
other, and a final decision is to be arrived at.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four de-
partments, namely, the Ministry of the Grand-ducal House, and of
Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of the Interior ; the Ministry of
Justice ; and the Ministry of Finance.
The budget is granted for the term of three years by the chambers,
and the estimates seldom differ much from the actual revenue and
expenditure. For the three financial periods from 1860 to 1868
they were as follows : —
Financial Periods
Annual Revenue
Annual Expenditure
1860-62
1863-65
1866-68
Florins
9,096,664
9,292,963
9,497,008
£
758,055
774,413
791,417
Florins
9,066,796
9,031,835
9,372,962
£
755,566
752,653
781,080
The public debt amounted, at the commencement of 1867, to
15,245,000 florins, or 1,270,000/., the greater part of which was
incurred for the establishment of a network of State railways.
Although a state of South Germany, the troops of the Grand-
duchy are included in the army of the North-German Confederation,
forming the third division of the eleventh corps d'armee.
The country is divided into three provinces, — Upper Hesse,
Starkenberg, and Rhenish Hesse, the first of which, embracing an
area of 1,365 English square miles, with a population, in 1867, of
257,479, forms part of the North- German Confederation, and, being
garrisoned by Prussian troops, is only nominally subject to the
government of the Grand-duke. Inclusive of Upper Hesse, the area
I58 GERMANY— OLDENBURG.
of the Grand-duchy is 2,806 English square miles, with 823,138
inhabitants, according to the enumeration of Dec. 3, 1867. The
population was divided, as to religion, at the census date, in
558,597 Protestants, chiefly Lutherans, 228,005 Roman Catholics,
10,357 Christians of other denominations, and 26,089 Jews. Three
Protestant superintendents and a Roman Catholic bishop direct the
ecclesiastical affairs of the population.
VIII. OLDENBURG.
(Grossherzogthum Oldenburg.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1827, the son
of Grand-duke August, and of Princess Ida of Anhalt-Bernburg ;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, Feb. 27, 1853 ;
married, Feb. 10, 1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826,
daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg. Issue of the union
are: — 1. Prince August, heir-apparent, born Nov. 16, 1852. 2.
Prince Georg, born June 27, 1855.
Brother and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess Amalie, born
Dec. 21, 1818; married, Nov. 22, 1836, to Prince Otto of Bavaria;
King of Greece 1832-62 ; widow July 26, 1867. 2. Princess
Friederike, born June 8, 1820, married, Aug. 15, 1855, to Freiherr
Max von Washington. 3. Prince Elimar, born Jan. 23, 1844.
lieutenant in the service of Russia.
Cousin of the Grand-duke. — Prince Peter, born Aug. 26, 1812,
the son of Prince Georg, brother of the late Grand-duke August
of Oldenburg, and of Princess Catharine, daughter of the late Czar
Paul of Russia; general of infantry in the service of Russia, and
President of the department of Ecclesiastical Affairs iu the Imperial
Senate; married, April 23, 1837, to Princess Therese of Nassau,
born April 17, 1815. Issue of the union are : — 1. Princess Alex-
andra, born June 2, 1838; married, Feb. 6, 1856, to Grand-duke
Nicholas, brother of Czar Alexander II. of Russia. 2. Prince
Nicolaus, born May 9, 1840, colonel in the service of Russia ; mar-
ried Sept. 5, J 863, to Mai'ievon Osternburg, born July 8, 1845. 3.
Prince Alexander, born June 2, 1844; married Jan. 19, 1868, to
Princess Eugenie, born April 1, 1845, daughter of the late Duke
Maximilian of Leuchtenberg. 4. Prince Georg, bonixVpril 17, 1848.
5. Prince Constantine, born May 9, 1850. 6. Princess Therese, born
March 30, 1852.
The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to
.Denmark, Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from
CONSTITUTION, KEVENUE, AND POPULATION. 1 59
Wittekind, the celebrated leader of the heathen Saxons against
Charlemagne. In the fifteenth century, a scion of the House of Olden-
burg, Count Christian VIII. , was elected King of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway. The main line became extinguished with Count Giinther,
in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to the King of
Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paul of Russia, in exchange
for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-duke
then gave Oldenburg to his cousin, Prince Friedrich August of
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December
1810, when Napoleon incorporated it with the kingdom of West-
phalia. But the Congress of Vienna not only gave the country
back to its former sovereign, but, at the urgent demand of Czar
Alexander L, added to it a territory of nearly 400 square miles,
with 50,000 inhabitants, bestowing at the same time upon the prince
the title of Grand-duke. Part of the new territory consisted of the
principality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine, close to
the French frontier, and some three hundred miles distant from
Oldenburg. In 1854, Grand-duke Peter sold a district of 5,000
Morgen, or 3,154 acres, on the North Sea, with the harbour of Jahde,
destined for a naval port, to Prussia, for the sum of 500,000 thalers,
or 74,800/. The Grand-duke has a civil list of 85,000 thalers,
or 12,750/., besides an allowance of 85,000 thaler from the public
domains, making his total income 25,500/. He draws, moreover, a
revenue of nearly 6,000/. from private estates of the family in
Holstein.
Constitution, Eevenue, and Population.
A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy Feb. 18, 1849,
which, revised by a decree of Nov. 22, 1852, grants liberty of the
press, trial by jury, and equality of all citizens in political and social
matters. The legislative power is exercised by a Landtag, or Diet,
elected for three years, by the vote of all citizens paying taxes, and not
condemned for felony by a court of justice. The mode of election is
indirect. Every 300 electors choose a delegate, and the delegates of
twenty districts, representing 6,000 electors, appoint one deputy.
No property qualification is required to become a member of the
Diet. The executive is vested, under the Grand-duke, in a respon-
sible ministry of three departments, called, respectively, the Ministry
of the Grand-ducal House, and of Foreign Affairs; the Ministry
of the Interior ; and the Ministry of Finances.
The budget, according to the terms of the Constitution, must be
granted by the Diet from year to year. For the year 1*65, the
public revenue amounted to 2,387,231 thaler, or 358,084/., and
the expenditure to 2,386,110 thaler, or 357,916/., leaving a surplus
1 60 GERMANY BRUNSWICK.
of 1,121 thaler. The budget estimates for 1869, on the other
hand, based on about the same amount of revenue and expenditure,
exhibited a deficit of 1(57,000 thaler. The chief item of revenue
is from customs, and next to it, from the produce of State property ;
while in expenditure the army, the civil list, and the interest of the
public debt cost the largest sums. The debt amounted, at the
beginning of 1869, to 7,969,000 thaler, or 1,195,350/.
The area of Oldenburg embraces 2,417 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of Dec. 3, 1867, of 315,622
inhabitants. Of these, 241,381 were Protestants, 72,077 Roman
Catholics, and 1,527 Jews. Emigration carries off annually large
numbers of the inhabitants of the Grand-duchy.
IX. BRUNSWICK.
(Herzogthuji Braunschweig.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Wilhelm I., Duke of Brunswick, born April 25, 1806, the second
son of Duke Friedrich "Wilhelm of Brunswick, and of Princess
Marie of Baden. Undertook provisionally the Government of
Brunswick in consequence of the insurrection of September 7, 1830,
and subsequent flight of his brother, the reigning Duke, October 12,
1830; ascended the throne, April 25, 1831.
Brother of the Duke. — Duke Karl, born October 30, 1804, the
eldest son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Brunswick; succeeded his
father, under the guardianship of the Prince-Regent, afterwards
King George IV. of Great Britain, June 16, 1815; ascended the
throne October 30, 1823. Fled the duchy on the breaking out of
a riot at the city of Brunswick, September 8, 1830 ; was declared
' regierungsunf ahig,' or ' unfit to govern,' by a resolution of the
German Diet, December 2, 1830.
The ducal house of Brunswick, now on the point of becoming
extinct, the two only representatives of the family being unmarried
and sexagenarians, was long one of the most ancient and illustrious
of the Germanic Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion,
possessed, in the twelfth century, the united duchies of Bavaria and
Saxony, with other territories in the north of Germany ; but
having refused to aid the Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa in his
wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived of
the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial
domains, the principalities of Brunswick and Luneburg. Their pos-
sessions were, on the death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between
GERMANY — BRUNSWICK. 1 6 1
the two sons of the latter, who became the founders of the lines of
Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel and Brunswick-Liineburg, the former of
which is represented at present in the ducal house of Brunswick,
while the latter is merged in the royal family of Great Britain.
The Duke of Brunswick is one of the wealthiest of German sove-
reigns, being in possession of immense private estates, including the
principality of Oels, in Silesia, and large domains in the district of
Glatz, in Prussia. It is believed that the Duke has bequeathed the
whole of these estates to the Emperor of Austria. The Duke's
civil list, amounting to 220,722 thaler, or 33,108/., is not set down
in the budget, being paid out of a special fund, the ' Kammercasse,'
the revenues of which are derived from the State domains.
The ex-duke, Charles, residing chieily at Paris, has also a large
private income, amounting, it is stated, to above 200,000/. per
annum.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1832, but was
modified by the fundamental law of November 22, 1851. The legis-
lative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting of forty-three
members. Of these, nine are elected by the highest-taxed landed
proprietors; ten by the magistrates of the chief towns ; three by the
Protestant clergy ; ten by the inhabitants of towns, and eleven by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and
the deputies hold their mandate for two sessions. The executive is
represented by a responsible Ministry, consisting of two departments,
namely, the Ministry of State and of Foreign Affairs ; and the
Ministry of the Interior.
The budget was formerly voted for the period of three years, but
since 1867, in conformity with the constitution of the North-German
Confederation. For the year 1869 the estimates of revenue were
2,480,000 thaler, or 372,000/., with an expenditure of the same
amount. The public debt of the duchy, at the commencement of
1869, was 15,368,750 thaler, or 2,305,313/., four-fifths of which
sum was contracted for the establishment of railways.
The duchy has an area of 1,526 scpiare miles, with a population
of 302,792 inhabitants, according to the Zollverein census of 1867.
Nearly the whole of the inhabitants in 1867 were members of the
Lutheran Church, the exception being 1,676 Calvinists; 3,775
Roman Catholics ; 216 members of other Christian sects, and 1,107
Jews. The latter enjoy civil and religious equality.
1 6 2 GERMANY — SAXE-TVEIM AB.
X. SAXE- WEIMAR.
(Grossherzogthum Sachsen- Weimar.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Karl Alexander, Grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, bom June 24,
1818, the son of Grand-duke Karl Friedrich and of Grand-duchess
Marie, daughter of the late Czar Paul I. of Eussia. Succeeded his
father, July 8, 1853 ; married, October 8, 1842, to Sophie, born
April 8, 1824, daughter of the late King Willem II. of the Nether-
lands. Issue of the union are: — 1. Prince Karl August, heir-
apparent, born July 31, 1844. 2. Princess Marie, born January
20, 1849. 3. Princess Elisabeth, born February 28, 1854.
Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess Marie, born February 3,
1808; married, May 26, 1827, to Prince Karl of Prussia. 2.
Princess Augusta, born September 30, 1811; married, June 11,
1829, to Prince Wilhelm, now King Wilhelm I. of Prussia.
Cousins of the Grand-duke. — 1. Prince Eduard, born October 11,
1823, the son of the late Duke Berahard of Saxe-Weimar, brother
of Grand-duke Karl Friedrich ; entered the British army as
ensign, June 1, 1841; captain, May 19, 1846; major, June 20, 1854;
lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards and aide-de-camp to the
Queen, May 18, 1855; married, November 27, 1851, to Lady
Augusta Catherine, born January 14, 1827, daughter of the late
Charles Gordon-Lennox, fifth Duke of Richmond. 2. Prince Her-
mann, bora August 4, 1825, brother of the preceding; married, June
17, 1851, to Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826, youngest
daughter of Kino; Wilhelm I. of Wurtemberg. Issue of the union are
two daughters andfour sons. 3. Prince Gustav, born June 28, 1827,
brother of the preceding ; major-general in the Austrian army.
4. Princess Amalia, born May 20, 1830: married, May 19, 1853,
to Prince Hendrik of Orange-Nassau, brother of King Willem III.
of the Netherlands.
The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine
or elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-
Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, while the
younger, or Albertine line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony.
Saxe-Weimar was formed into an independent duchy towards the
end of the sixteenth century, when Elector Johann Wilhelm of
Saxony divided his territory between his two sons, Friedrich Wilhelm
and Johann, giving the former Saxe-Altenburg and the latter Saxe-
Weimar. At the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of
territory, together with the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to
CONSTITUTION, REVENUE, AND POPULATION. 1 63
Duke Karl August, patron of German literature, and friend of Gbthe
and Schiller.
The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of which he
obtained in dowry with his consort, Princess Sophie of the Nether-
lands. He has also a civil list of 280,000 thalers, or 42,000/.,
amounting to about one-sixth of the revenues of Saxe-Weimar.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population,
The constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816 ;
but slightly altered by the law of October 15, 18-49. According to
this charter the legislative power is vested in a House of Parliament
represented by one Chamber. It is composed of 31 members, of
whom ten are chosen by the proprietors of nobiliar estates ; ten by
the towns ; ten others by the inhabitants of rural districts, and one
by the Senate of the University of Jena. At the general election,
which takes place every seventh year, not only the representatives
themselves are chosen, but likewise a substitute for every member,
who has to take his place in case of illness, death, or prolonged absence.
The ten members for the nobility are elected directly by all psoprietors
of Ritterguter, or noble estates; even ladies being allowed to. vote.
In the representation of towns and rural districts the mode of election
is indirect. The whole body of voters choose a certain number of
delegates, in the proportion of one to every fifty houses, and these
deputies elect the member for the place. The Chamber meets
every three years, and a standing committee of nine members continues
to sit during the adjournment.
The executive, acting under the orders of the Grand-duke, but
responsible to the representatives of the country, is divided into three
departments, which are, the Ministry of the Grand-ducal House, of
the Interior, and of Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of Finance ; and
the Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs..
The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period of three years.
That from 1863 to 1865 comprised an annual; income of 1,658^668
thaler, or 248,808/., and an annual expenditure of 1,654,558 thaler,
or 248,189/., leaving a surplus of 4,110 thaler, or 619/., for the
year. Estimates for the period 1866-68 were based' upon annnal
receipts of 1,730,131 thaler, and annual disbursements of 1,700,088
thaler, leaving a yearly surplus of 30,043 thaler. The public
debt amounted to 4,560,000 thaler, or 648,000/., on Jaauary 1,
1869.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,421 English square miles,
with a population of 283,044 at the census of December 3, 1867.
M 2
164 GERMANY — MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
There was, at that date, the following religious division of the
inhabitants : — Protestants, 269,007 ; Roman Catholics, 9,927 ;
Greek Catholics, 48 ; Mennonites, 2 ; other Christian sects, 43 ;
Jews, 1,129.
XI. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg- Strelitz.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Friedrich Wilhelm I., Grand-duke of Mecklenburg- Strelitz,
born Oct. 17, 1819, the son of Grand-duke Georg and of Princess
Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Sept. 6, 1860; married, June 24, 1843, to Augusta, born
July 19, 1822, the daughter of the late Duke Adolphus of Cam-
bridge. Offspring of the union is Prince Adolf Friedrich, heir-
apparent, born July 22, 1848.
The reigning house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was founded, in
1701, by Duke Adolf Friedrich, youngest son of Duke Adolf
Friedrich II. of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. There being no Jaw
of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was unable to prevent the
division of the country, which was protested against by subsequent
Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Congress of Vienna per-
mitted Duke Karl Friedrich of Mecklenburg-Strelitz to adopt
the title of Grand-duke, notwithstanding the exceedingly limited
extent of his territory. He is, however, one of the wealthiest of
German sovereigns, more than one-half of the country being his own
private property. A territory of seven square miles, with 10,000
souls, which was added to the newly created Grand-duchy in 1815,
was sold by the late Grand-duke Georg to Prussia, on May 21,
1819, for the sum of 1,000,000 thaler, or ' 100 thaler per soul.'
It is calculated that the income of the Grand-ducal family amounts
at present to at least 230,000^. a year.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of
which, Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners, while the
second, Ratzeburg, has no representative institutions whatever. The
Stargard Diet periodically joins the legislative assembly of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin. Only the possession of a Rittergut, or knight's
estate, gives right to a seat in the Diet, to which neither the towns
GERMANT — SAXE-MEININGEN. 1 65
nor rural populations send any deputies. There are sixty-two such
proprietors in the province of Stargard, only a small number of
whom, however, choose to take their seats.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is
exercised by him through one ' Minister of State,' which appointment,
however, has at times been vacant for several years. Accounts of
public income and expenditure are never made known, and the
whole state revenue forms the civil-list of the Grand-dnke.
The population, which, according to the census of 1867, numbered
98,770, is decreasing steadily, a strong tide of emigration having
carried off nearly 8,000 inhabitants in a course of eight years.
The area of the country is 997 English square miles, the owner-
ship of which territory is divided between the sovereign, the feudal
proprietors, and the corporations of certain towns, in the following
manner : — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke; 353 to the
titled and untitled nobles, and 117 to the town corporations.
Nearly one-fourth of the Grand-ducal property consists of forest
lands.
XII. SAXE-MEININGEN.
(HERZOGTHUM SACHSEN-MEININGE^T.,)
Reigning Sovereign.
Georg II., Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, born April 2, 1826, the son
of Duke Bernhard I. Succeeded, on the abdication of his father,
September 20, 1866. Married, May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte
of Prussia, who died March 30, 1855. Offspring of this union are
a son and a daughter: — Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ; and Marie
Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853. Married, in second nuptials,
October 23, 1858, to Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg,
born July 7, 1839. Offspring of this second marriage are two
sons, Ernst, born September 27, 1859, and Friedrich, born Oct.
12, 1861.
The line of Saxe-Meiningen was founded by Duke Bernhard, third
son of Ernst I. of Saxony, surnamed the Pious, the friend and com-
panion in arms of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The duchy
was only one-third its present size up to the year 1826, Avhen, by
the extinction of the ancient family of Saxe-Gotha, the territories of
Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the present duke. He has a
civil list of 225,000 florins, or 18,750/., paid out of the produce ot
the State domains.
1 66 GERMANY — ANHALT.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The charter of the duchy bears date August 23, 1829. It provides
for a legislative organisation, consisting of one Chamber of twenty-
four representatives. Eight of these are elected by the proprietors
of nobiliar estates ; eight by the inhabitants of towns, and eight by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and
new elections take place every six. A small property qualification
is requisite to become a member.
The ministry, which is responsible to the Chamber, consists of
four departments, namely, the Ministry of the Ducal House and of
Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of the Interior ; the Ministry of
Finances ; and the Ministry of Justice, of Education, and of
Ecclesiastical Affairs.
The budget estimates for the year 1869 stated the revenue at
1,998,750 florins, or 166,553/., and the expenditure at 1,987,312
florins, or 105,610/. The actual income for 1867 amounted to
2,137,895 florins, or 178,158/, and the actual expenditure to
2,032,152 florins, or 169,346/. Nearly one half of the public
revenue is drawn from State domains, formerly belonging to the
ducal family. The chief items of expenditure are the interest
of the public debt, and the civil list of the duke, which latter,
however, is not entered in the budget estimates, but paid out of the
revenue of the domains as a first charge thereon. The debt, at the
end of 1868, amounted to 4,253,620 florins, or 354,468/., exclusive
of a state guarantee on four millions of thaler employed in the
construction of a line of railway through the duchy.
The area of the duchy extends over 933 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of 1867, of 180,335
inhabitants. The whole of them at the date were Protestants, with
exception of 1,102 Eoman Catholics, 44 Mennonites, and 1,629 Jews.
XIII. ANHALT.
(Herzogthum Anhalt.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Leopold, Duke of Anhalt, born Oct. 1, 1794, the son of
Prince Friedrich of Anhalt- Dessau, and of Princess Amalia of
Hesse-Homburg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his
grandfather, Duke Leopold Friedrich, Aug. 9, 1817 ; married,
April 18, 1818, to Princess Friederike of Prussia, who died Jan, 1,
1850. Issue of the union are : — 1. Princess Agnes, born June 24,
CONSTITUTION, REVENUE, AND TOPULATION. 1 67
1824 ; married, April 28, 1853, to Duke Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg.
2. Prince Friedrich, heir-apparent, born April 29, 1831 ; married,
April 22, 1854, to Princess Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg. Offspring
of the marriage are four sons and two daughters. 3. Princess
Marie, born Sept. 14, 1837 ; married, Nov. 29, 1854, to Prince
Friedrich Karl of Prussia.
The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernhard, son of the
celebrated Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg, who died in
1211. The family, in the course of time, split into numerous
branches, now reduced to the present line. At the establishment of
the Germanic Confederation, in 1815, there were three reigning Dukes
of Anhalt, namely of Anhalt- Cothen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-
Dessau. The first of these lines became extinct in 1847 ; and the
second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former house of Anhalt-
Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806, the Princes
of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt has a civil list of 198,250 thaler,
or 29,737/., including the allowances to the younger members of
the house. The family has, besides, very large private estates
in Saxony, Eastern Prussia, and the Crimea, embracing an area
of more than 200 square miles.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
On Oct. 29, 1848, a charter was given to the duchy, which
■was repealed by decree of the sovereign of Nov. 4, 1851. A
new constitution, proclaimed Sept. 17, 1859, and modified again by
a decree of Sept. 17, 1863, allows merely a nominal representation
of the people, leaving nearly the whole legislative, as well as the
executive, power in the hands of the duke.
The Government consists of three departments, namely, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Justice ; the Ministry of Finance ;
and the Ministry of the Interior.
The financial accounts of the years 1866-69 exhibited an
average, public income of 1,889,492 thaler, or 284,902/., and
an expenditure of 1,851,183 thaler, or 277,676/. per annum.
More than a third of the revenue is derived from State property, and
the rest chiefly from indirect taxes. The largest item in the expen-
diture is the civil list of the ducal house. The public debt amounted,
on Jan. 1, 1869, to 3,658,125 thaler, or 548,718/.
The duchy comprises an area of 869 English square miles, with a
population of 197,041, according to the census of 1867. Nearly the
whole of the inhabitants belong to the reformed Protestant Church.
1 68 GERMANY — SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA.
XIV. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA.
(Herzogthum Sacrsen-Coburg-Gotha.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Ernst II., Duke of Saxe-Cotmrg-Gotha, born June 21, 1818,
the son of Duke Ernst I. of Saxe- Saalfeld-Coburg and of Princess
Louise of Saxe-Altenburg. Studied philosophy and political
economy at the University of Bonn, 1834-36 ; entered into the
military service of Saxony, 183G; travelled in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and Northern Africa, 1838-40. Succeeded to the throne, at
the death of his father, Jan. 29, 1844. Married, May 3, 1842,
to Princess Alexandrine, born Dec. 6, 1820, the daughter of the late
Grand-duke Leopold of Baden.
The Duke being childless, heir-apparent is his nephew, Prince
Alfred, born Aug. 6, 1844, the son of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, and of Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain.
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, formerly called Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, and previously Saxe-
Coburg, was Prince Albrecht, second son of Duke Ernst, surnamed
the Pious, who died in 1G99. A dispute about his heritage lasted
through three generations, and was only settled, towards the end of
the eighteenth century, by a re-distribution of the territories of the
Saxon princes. A new division took place in 1826; on the extinction of
the line of Saxe-Gotha, and it was then that the house of Saxe- Saalfeld-
Coburg exchanged its name for that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The
family is in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly
by Duke Ernst I. of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, whom the Congress of
Vienna made a present of the principality of Lichtenberg, in return for
his services as commander of the fifth corps d\trme'e in the year 1813.
This principality he sold, Sept. 22, 1834, to the King of Prussia, for
a sum of two million thaler, and other advantages. Besides a
vast private income, Duke Ernst II. has a comparatively large civil
list. It is paid out of the revenue of the domains, and amounts to
100,000 thaler, or 15,000/., at a minimum, and more in case these
estates produce above 134,079 thaler, or 20,112/. a year. The
proprietorship of these domains, Avhich, according to the decision
of the highest legal authorities in Germany, belong to the State
and not to the reigning family, gave rise for a time to ani-
mated disputes between the Government and the legislature of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. A compromise was finally arrived at, by the
terms of which the reigning Duke has a civil list of 100,000 thaler
out of the income of the domains, and the surplus of 34,079 thaler
CONSTITUTION, REVENUE, AND POPULATION. 1 69
is paid into the public exchequer, -while the rest ia divided between
the Duke and the State.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law of the duchy, pro-
claimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in two separate
assemblies, one for the province of Coburg and the other for the
province of Gotha. The Coburg Chamber consists of eleven, and
that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as many electoral
divisions, by the direct vote of all the inhabitants. Every man above
the age of twenty-five, who pays taxes, has a vote, and any citizen
above thirty may be elected a deputy. New elections take place
every four years. The two assemblies meet separately every year ;
and every second year they unite into one Chamber, to which the
Coburg Diet deputes seven, and that of Gotha fourteen members.
The ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the town of
Coburg and at Gotha, and has to decide all legislative measures
bearing upon questions affecting the whole duchy, while the
provincial assemblies occupy themselves with affairs of a more local
nature.
The budget is voted for the term of four years, and in the financial
accounts a distinction is made between Crown-revenue, derived from
the domains, and State-revenue. The annual income of the former,
during the years 1861-65, was 559,500 thaler, or 83,925/., and the
expenditure 385,669 thaler, or 57,851/., leaving an animal surplus
of 173,831 thaler, or 26,074/., which was distributed between the
Duke and the public exchequer, in the proportion of His Highness
obtaining 120,121 thaler, or 18,022/., and the country 53,680 thaler,
or 8,052/. The State-revenue for the period 1861-65 was 606,500
thaler, or 90,975/. annually, and the public expenditure the same.
In the budget estimates for 1865-69, the Crown-revenue was set
down as 569,180 thaler, and the expenditure pertaining to it as
383,870 thaler, leaving a surplus of 205,310 thaler, while the
State revenue and expenditure was fixed at 624,890 thaler.
The public debt, in 1869, amounted to 1,988,645 thaler, or
308.296/.
The area of the duchy is 816 English square miles, of which
230 belong to the province of Coburg, and 586 to Gotha. At
the census of December 3, 1867, the inhabitants of the former
division numbered 49,490, and of the latter 119,245, giving a
total of 168,735. The whole of the population are Protestant,
with the exception of some 900 Roman Catholics and 1,600 Jews.
I70 GERMANY — SAXE-ALTENBURG.
XV. SAXE-ALTENBURG.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Altenburg.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Ernst I., Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, born September 16, 1826,
the son of Duke Georg of Saxe-Altenburg and Princess Marie of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his father, August 3, 1853; married, April 28, 1853, to Princess
Agnes, born June 24, 1824, the daughter of Duke Leopold of
Anhalt-Dessau. Issue of the union is a daughter, Princess Marie,
born August 2, 1854. Heir-apparent is the only brother of the
Duke, Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829, and married, October
15, 1862, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has
issue three daughters.
The reigning family of Saxe-Altenburg, formerly called Saxe-
Plildburghausen, dates its origin from the year 1482, when the
separation took place between the Ernestine and Albertine lines of
Saxony. Up to the year 1826, Saxe-Altenburg formed part of
Saxe-Gotha, and was then, by a general exchange of territories
among the Saxon princes, made over to the Hildburghausen family.
The Duke has a civil list of 143,000 thaler, or 21,450Z.. amounting
to above one-sixth of the revenue of the whole country. On
December 20, 1862, the Chamber raised the ducal income to this
sum— from 128,000 thaler, or 19,200/., which it had been previously
on condition that the whole of the domains, formerly belonging to
the reigning family, should be made over definitely to the State.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831, but was altered at
subsequent periods. It vests the legislative authority in a Chamber
composed of twenty-four representatives, of which eight are chosen
by the Ritterschaft, or land-holding nobility, eight by the inhabi-
tants of towns, and eight by those of rural districts. The Chamber
meets every three years, and the deputies are elected for two sessions.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely, — the
Ministry of the Ducal House, of Education, and Ecclesiastical
Affairs ; the Ministry of the Interior and of Justice ; and the
Ministry of Finance. The budget is voted for three years, the last
period of 1865-6S exhibiting an annual revenue of 878,904
thaler, or 131,885?., and an expenditure of 878,888 thaler,
or 131,832J. The annual receipts during the term 1862-64
GERMANY WALDECK. I 7 I
were 823,326 thaler, or 123,498/., and the annual expenditure
800,343 thaler, or 120,051/., leaving a surplus of 22,983 thaler, or
3,447/. a year. Very nearly one-half of the revenue is contributed
by the State domains, and about one-third by indirect taxes. The
public debt at the commencement of 18G9 amounted to 1,047,352
thaler, or 157,103/., a moiety of which consisted in notes, not bearing
interest.
Saxe-Altenburg has an area of 509 English square miles, with a
population, according to the census of Dec. 3, 1867, of 141,426
inhabitants. With the exception of about two hundred Roman
Catholics, they are all Protestant. There are no settled Jews. The
inhabitants of the duchy are of Slavonic origin, and the customs and
dress of the nationality are still prevailing in the rural districts,
although the Slavonic dialect has disappeared since the middle of the
sixteenth century. The peasants are reputed to be more wealthy
than in any other part of Germany, and the rule prevails among
them of the youngest son becoming the heir to the landed property
of the father. Estates are kept for generations in the same family,
and seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has been
declining in numbers for the last twenty years.
XVI. WALDECK.
(FtJRSTENTHUM WALDECK.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Georg Victor, Prince of Waldeck, born Jan. 14, 1831, the son
of Prince Georg Friedrich and Princess Emma of Anhalt-Bern-
burg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, under the
guardianship of his mother, May 14, 1845; married, Sept. 26,
1853, to Princess Helena, born Aug. 12, 1831, daughter of the
late Duke Wilhelm of Nassau. Offspring of the union are four
daughters and one son, namely : — 1. Princess Pauline, born Oct.
19, 1855. 2. Princess Marie, born May 23, 1857. 3. Princess
Emma, born Aug. 2, 1858. 4. Princess Helen a, born Feb. 17, 1861.
5. Prince Friedrich, heir-apparent, born Jan. 20, 1865.
The family of Waldeck was enrolled by the Congress of Vienna
among the sovereign houses of Europe on account of the distin-
guished services rendered by field-marshal Prince Georg of Wal-
deck in the wars against France. The present sovereign has a
civil list of 245,000 thaler, or 36,735/., being considerably more
than one half of the revenue of the principality.
After the war betwen Austria and Prussia, at the end of 1866,
I72 GERMANY LIPPE-DETMOLD.
Prince Georg Victor made an offer to abdicate the throne in
favour of the King of Prussia, but the proposal was not accepted
by the latter. Consequent upon further negotiations, a ' Treaty
of Accession ' (Accessionsvertrag) was signed by the Prince on
July 10, 1867, by which he surrendered his chief sovereign
rights to King Wilhehn L, retaining; merely nominal power.
Constitution and Population.
The charter of the principality was granted Aug. 17, 1852. It
provides for a legislative assembly of forty-one members, of which
number eighteen are chosen by the nobility, thirteen by the in-
habitants of towns, and ten by the people of the rural districts.
On October 22, 1867, the assembly approved the ' Treaty of
Accession ' concluded between the reigning Prince and King
Wilhehn I., which made the administration of the country over
to Prussia, restricting the authority of the representatives to
purely local affairs.
The principality embraces an area of 466 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of 1867, of 56,809.
All adhere to the reformed Protestant faith, with the exception
of 1,164 Roman Catholics, 873 Jews, and a few Christian dissenters.
XVII. LIPPE-DETMOLD.
(FuilSTENTHUM LIPPE-DETMOLD.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Leopold II., Prince of Lippe-Detmold, born Sept. 1, 1821, the
son of Prince Leopold, and of Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Son-
dershausen ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
Jan. 1, 1851; married, April 17, 1852, to Princess Elizabeth, born
Oct. 1, 1833, daughter of Prince Albert of Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt.
Heir-apparent is the Prince's brother, Prince Waldemar, born April
18, 1824 ; married, Nov. 9, 1858, to Princess Sophia of Baden.
The house of Lippe-Detmold is a younger branch of the family
of Lippe, the ancestor of the line being Count Simon VII., who
flourished in the latter part of the sixteenth century. A third
line, Lippe-Brake, became extinct in 1709, and its territorial
possessions, after a long struggle of arms, and a suit before the
Imperial Aulic Council extending over a century, were divided
between the two remaining houses, the greater share falling to
Detmold. The Prince of Lippe-Detmold has a civil list amounting
to about 10,000/., which is stated to be insufficient for the ex-
penses of the court. Owing to financial distress, the late Prince,
GERMANY — SCHWARZBCKG-RUDOLSTADT. I 73
on May 17, 1850, sold a part of his territory, the Lippstadt, to
Prussia, for a life-rent of 9,000 thaler, or about 1,300/.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
A charter was granted to Lippe-Detmold by decree of July 6,
1836. It includes a representative organisation ; but nearly the whole
legislative as well as executive power remains in the hands of the
Prince. The Chamber of Deputies consists of fourteen members, one-
half of which are elected by the territorial nobility, and the other
half by the inhabitants of towns and rural districts. The discussions
are kept secret. To the Chamber belongs the right of voting, in
part, the supplies ; otherwise its functions are consultative. The
Prince governs through one irresponsible minister.
The public revenue for the year 1866 amounted to 299,271 thaler,
or 44,890/., and the expenditure to 277,818 thaler, or 41,673/.,
leaving a surplus of 21,453 thaler, or 3,217/. The public debt, on
December 31, 1866, was 347,755 thaler, or 52,063/.
The population, by the census of 1867, amounted to 111,352
souls, living on an area of 445 English square miles. The surface
is partly covered by the Teutoburger-Wald, where Hermann, or
Arminius, exterminated the Romans under Varus.
XVIII. SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.
(FiJRSTENTHUM SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Albert, Prince of Schwarzburg-Eudoktadt, born April 30, 1798;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother, Prince Giinther,
June 28, 1867 ; married July 26, 1827, to Princess Augusta of
Solms-Braunfels, who died Oct, 8, 1865. Offspring of the union
are : 1. Princess Elisabeth, born Oct. 1, 1833; married, April 17,
1852, to Prince Leopold II. of Lippe-Detmold. 2. Prince Georg,
heir-apparent, born Nov. 23, 1838, captain in the service of Prussia.
The Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt line is a younger branch of the
house of Schwarzburg, being descended from Johann Giinther, who
died in the middle of the seventeenth century. The present
sovereign has a civil list of 145,300 florins, or 12,108/., exclusive of
the revenue of the State domains, property of the reigning family.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The fundamental law of the principality is the constitution of
1 74 GERMANY SCifWARZBURG-SONDERSrrATTPT.N'.
April 21, 1821, which underwent several alterations in 1848, and
again in 1854. For all legislative measures the Prince has to obtain
the consent of a Qhamber of representatives of fifteen members, five
of which are elected by the nobility, five by the inhabitants of
towns, and five by the rural population. The deputies meet every
three years, and their mandate expires at the end of two sessions.
There are triennial budgets. For the period 1864-66, the public
income was settled at 2,582,322 florins, or 215,200/., and the expendi-
ture for the three years was fixed by the Chamber at exactly the
same sum. Former financial periods showed small deficits. There
is a public debt of 1,848,000 florins, or 154,000/.
The popiilation numbered 75,074 in the year 1867, living on an
area of 340 English square miles. The whole of the inhabitants of
the principality are Lutherans, with the exception of 93 Eoman
Catholics and 113 Jews.
XIX. SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN.
(FlJRSTENTHUM SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Gunther II., Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, born Sept.
24, 1801 ; succeeded to the throne, in consequence of the abdication
of his father, Prince Gunther I., Aug. 19, 1835 ; married, in first
nuptials, in 1827, to Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
who died in 1833; and, secondly, in 1835, to Princess Mathilda of
Hohenlohe - Oehringen, from whom he was divorced in 1852.
Issue of the first marriage are: — 1. Princess Elisabeth, born
March 22, 1829. 2. Prince Karl, born Aug. 7, 1830; major in
the service of Prussia. 3. Prince Leopold, born July 2, 1832.
The princes of the House of Schwarzburg belong to a very ancient
and wealthy family, which gave an emperor to Germany in the four-
teenth century. It was partly on account of this lineage that the
small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the Congress of
"Vienna, instead of being 'mediatised,' like that of a number of other
formerly sovereign princes. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarz-
burg-Sondershausen amounts to 150,000 thaler, or 22,340/., being
nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the country. The Prince is,
moreover, in possession of very hu-ge income from private estates in
Bohemia and Mecklenburg, purchased mostly by the late sovereign
Gunther I., who exercised the sole trade of brewer in his dominions.
GERMANY — REUSS-SCHLEIZ. I 75
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The government is absolute, a charter, granted in 1849, having
been, alter many changes, finally abolished in 1857. The Prince
exercises his authority through an executive divided into three
departments. Accounts issued by the department of finance re-
port a revenue, uniform for several years, of 644,678 thaler,
or 96,701/., and an expenditure of 616,733 thaler, or 92,511/.,
leaving a surplus of 4,190/. There is a considerable public debt,
the amount of which is not accurately known.
The area of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen embraces 311 English
square miles, containing a population, in 1867, of 67,454 souls.
The census returns stated the population to be all members of the
Protestant faith, except 101 Roman Catholics, and 174 Jews.
XX. EEUSS-SCHLEIZ.
(Ft'RSTENTHUM REUSS-SCHLEIZ).
Reigning Sovereign.
Heinrich XIV., Prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born May 28, 1832, the
son of Prince Heinrich LXVIL, and of Princess Adelaide; suc-
ceeded to the throne at the death of his father, July 10, 1867 ;
married, Feb. 6, 1858, to Princess Louise of Wurtemberg. Off-
spring of the marriage are two children, Heinrich, born Nov. 10,
1858 ; and Elisabeth, born Oct. 27, 1859.
The reigning house of Reuss-Schleiz forms a younger branch of
the princely Reuss family. By the extinction of several other
closely related lines, the house of Schleiz obtained a large increase
of territory at the end of the latter and the commencement of the
present century. The civil list of the Prince amounts to about
20,000/. per annum. As in Reuss-Greiz (see p. 156), the greater
part of the territory of the principality is the private property of
the reigning family.
All the princes are called Heinrich, and to distinguish them,
they have numbers attached to their names, beginning and ending
in each century. Number one is given to the first prince of the
branch born in the century, and the numbers follow in the order of
birth until the century is finished, when they begin again with
number one. Thus the late prince, who was born in 1789 and died
in 1867, was Heinrich LXVIL, and his son, the reigning prince,
born in 1832, is Heinrich XIV., being respectively the 67th and
14th prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born in the 18th and 19th centuries.
I 76 GERMANY — SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
A charter of liberal tendencies was granted by the Prince to his
subjects, Nov. 30, 18-19, but modified April 14, 1852, and again,
June 20, 1856, when its principal enactments were destroyed. The
chief prerogative of a Chamber of Representatives which has been
left to exist, is the right of petition to the sovereign. The latter has
the whole legislative and executive power, as well as the appoint-
ment of all public functionaries. In the administration of the State
a cabinet of three members acts under his direction. The public
income and expenditure, of which accounts are published at
irregular intervals, is stated to average 285,664 thaler, or
42,820/., and the expenditure 278,400 thaler, or 41,695/.
The census of 1867 gave a population of 88,097, on an area
of 297 English square miles. All the inhabitants are Lutherans.
XXI. SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.
(FuiiSTENTHU.U ScHAUMBURG-LlPPE.)
Reigning- Sovereign.
Adolf, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, born Aug. 1. 1817, the
son of Prince Georg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Xov. 21, 1860; married, Oct. 25, 1844, to Princess
Hermina, born Sept. 29, 1827, daughter of the late Prince Georg of
Waldeck. There are offspring: — 1. Hermina, born Oct. 5, 1845.
2. Georg, born Oct. 10, 1846. 0. Hermann, born May 19. 1848.
4. Ida, born July 28, 1852. 5. Otto, born Sept. 13, 1854. 6.
Adolf, born July 20, 1859.
The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a count of the
same name, who lived in the sixteenth century, acquiring some
small territorial possessions in Westphalia. It was only in 1807
that the two counts of Schaumburg-Lippe and Lippe-Detmold were
elevated to the rank of princes, and became independent rulers of
their estates, by espousing the cause of Napoleon, as members of the
Rheinbund. They would have been struck from the list of sovereigns
by the Congress of Vienna, but for the protection of Prince Metter-
nich, who preferred having two crowned heads more in Europe to
giving their territories to Prussia. The civil list of the reigning
Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe amounts to 25,000/., or about three-
fourths of the revenue of the whole principality, notwithstanding which
the court is known to be deeply in debt. The Crown domains are
mortgaged to the extent of 2,980,000 thaler, or 447,000/.
GERMANY — REUSS-GREIZ. I 7 7
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
Representative institutions of a very limited character were given
to Schaumburg-Lippe in 1816. They comprise Landstande, or a
Diet composed of all the noble landed proprietors, with four deputies
of towns and six of the rural districts. The functions of this Diet
are chiefly consultative, and to the Prince belongs the whole
legislative and executive authority. He acts through a minister,
called the President of the Government.
The budget, as far as it is known through statements laid at
intervals before the Diet, comprises an annual revenue of 228,000
thaler, or 34,050/., and an expenditure of the like amount. There
exists a comparatively large public debt, particulars of which,
however, are not published.
The last census, of 18G7, gave a population of 31,186 souls, on
an area of 212 square miles.
XXII. REUSS-GREIZ.
(FtfRSTENTHUM EEUSS- Gp.EIZ.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Heinrich XXII., Prince of Reuss-Greiz, born March 28, 1846,
the Son of Prince Heinrich XXL, and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-
Homburg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
November 8, 1859; assumed the government March 28, 1867.
Regent of Reuss-Greiz from 1859 to 1867 was the Prince's
mother, Princess Caroline, born March 19, 1819, daughter of
Landgrave Gustav of Hesse-Homburg ; married October 1, 1839,
to Prince Henry XXI. ; widow, November 8, 1859.
The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the Emperor
Heinrich I. of Germany, surnamed the Fowler, who died in 936. All
the heads of the house, ever since the commencement of the eleventh
century, have been called Heinrich. At first the succeeding genera-
tions were distinguished by descriptive appellations, such as ' The
Rich', ' The Stout,' ' The Valiant,' and so forth ; but subsequently
they adopted numbers. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family
council, that the figures should not rim higher than a hundred,
beginning afterwards again at one. Previous to 1814 there were
three reigning houses of Reuss ; but the Congress of Vienna ' me-
diatised' the branch of Schleiz-Kostritz. The present sovereign of
Reuss-Greiz has no civil list. He is very wealthy, the greater part
of the territory over which he reigns being his private property.
N
I 78 GERMANY HAMBURG.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution, bearing date March 28, 1867, provides for
a legislative hody of 12 members, 3 nominated by the sovereign,
2 by the nobility, 3 elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts.
The public revenue, balanced by the expenditure, averaged
200,000 thaler, or 29,500/. There was a small public debt, in
1869, to the amount of 100,000 thaler, or 14,750/.
The population of the principality amounted, in 1867, to 43,889
souls, living on an area of 148 English square miles. Nearly all are
members of the Lutheran Church.
XXin. HAMBURG.
(Freie Stadt Hamburg.)
Constitution and Revenue.
The present constitution of the State and Free City of Hamburg
was published on the 28th September, 1860, and came in force on
the 1st of January, 1861. According to the terms of this funda-
mental law, the government — Staatsgewalt — is intrusted, in common,
to two chambers of representatives, the Senate, and the Blirgerschaft,
or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises chiefly, but
not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen members,
one-half of which number must have studied jurisprudence, while
seven out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants.
The members of the Senate are elected ' for life by the House of
Burgesses ; but a senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years.
A first and second burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot,
preside over the meetings of the Senate. No burgomaster can be
in office longer than two years ; and no member of the Senate is
allowed to hold any public office whatever. The House of
Burgesses consists of 192 members, 84 of whom are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax-paying citizens. Of the remaining 108
members, 48 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house pro-
perty in the city valued at 3,000 marks, or 187/., over and above the
amount for which they are taxed ; while the other 60 members are
deputed by various guilds, corporations, and courts of justice. All
the members of the House of Burgesses are chosen for six years, in
such a manner that every three years new elections take place for
one-half the number. The House of Burgesses is represented, in
permanence, by a Biirgcr-Ausschuss, or committee of the house, con-
sisting of twenty deputies, of which no more than five are allowed to
CONSTITUTION AND REVENUE.
179
be members of the legal profession. It is the special duty of the
committee to watch the proceedings of the Senate, and the general
execution of the articles of the constitution including the laws voted
by the House of Burgesses. In all matters of legislation, except
taxation, the Senate has a veto; and, in case of a constitutional
conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen in
equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses.
The revenue of the Free City in each of the years 1865 and 1866
amounted to : —
Sources of Revenue
1865
1866
Income from State Property .
Taxes and Duties .....
Emoluments and Fines ....
Extraordinary Receipts ....
Total |
Marks Current
1,658,554
8,267,280
731,300
77,257
10,734,391
£659,717
Marks Current
1,688,059
8,811.500
696,100
70,374
11,265,833
692,379
The expenditure in the same 1
/WO )'(
jars was as follows : —
Branches of Expenditure 1865
1866
Marks Current
Marks Current
Senate and House of Burgesses
461,148
442,448
Foreign Affairs
101,750
118,575
Administration of Finances
4,457,350
4,455,140
Courts of Justice
337,459
340,019
Education
153,398
144,714
Army ....
927,150
927,030
Public Works
1,871,877
2,184,459
Trade and Navigation
302,938
316,290
Police ....
816.005
876,390
Charitable Institutions .
818,400
929,300
Suburbs and Rural Districts
179,749
186,549
Extraordinary Expenses .
307,167
10,734,391
344,919
Total J
11.265,833
£659,717
692.379
The budget estimates for the year 1867 were based upon a
revenue of 11,999,450 marks current, or 749,996/., and an expendi-
ture of 13,574,450 marks current, or 848,403/. The increase
in expenditure, and consequent deficit, was due to the entrance
of the Free City into the North German Confederation, to the
cost of common government of which, and maintenance of army,
Hamburg had to contribute, in the year, the sum of 2, .'134, 000
marks current, or 145,875/. For the privilege of remaining a
n 2
150 GERMANY HAMBURG.
' Free Port,' and exempt from the customs of the Zollverein,
Hamburg had to pay, the same year, the sum of 1,749,725
marks current, or 109,357/.
The public debt of Hamburg on the 1st of January, 1868, was as
follows : —
Description of Debt Marks Banco
Old debt 23,224,298
Loan from fire insurance .... 26,001,000
State bonds 7,080,000
3% Loan of 1866 10,000,000
T , rMarks Banco 66,305,298
lotai 1 £ 4,722,897
4,722,897
A considerable part of this debt was incurred after the great
fire in 1842, and spent in rebuilding the city on a new and im-
proved plan.
Population and Commerce.
The state embraces a territory of 148 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of December 3, 1867,
of 306,507 inhabitants. Included in the census returns were two
battalions of Prussian soldiers, forming the garrison of the Free
City. The state consists of three divisions, the city proper, the
suburb of St. Paul, and the township of Bergedorf, the population
of each of which districts was as follows on December 3, 1867 : —
Inhabitants
City of Hamburg: 189,145
Suburb of St. Paul 33,086
Township of Bergedorf ..... 84,276
Total 306,507
The increase of population has been very considerable since
the census of 1858, when the total number of inhabitants was
210,973. A large stream of the German emigration to America
Hows through Hamburg. In the year 1866, there embarked
39,040 emigrants, in 97 vessels, and in 1867 the number of
emigrants was 38,214, in 93 vessels.
The commercial intercourse of the United Kingdom with Ham-
burg is very important, embracing more than one-half of the total
commerce with Germany, and more than nine-tenths of that of the
three Free, or 'Hanse Towns.' The subjoined tabular statement gives
the total value of the exports from the Hanse Towns to the United
Kingdom, and of the imports of British produce and manufactures
into the Hanse Towns, in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
POPULATION AND COMMERCE.
181
Export? from the Hanse Towns
Imports of British Home Produce
to the United Kingdom
into the Hanse Towns
£
£
1865
8.837,585
15,091.373
1866
10,576,620
13.555,988
1867
9,415,188
17,229,251
1868
9,245,372
19,318,702
1869
10,273,898
19,252,150
The exports from the Hanse Towns to the United Kingdom con-
sist mainly of the agricultural produce of Germany, such as wheat,
barley, oats, flour, butter, wool, and live and dead meat. The exports
of wheat, wheat meal, barley, oats, and other kinds of corn, in the
year 1869 amounted to 1,348,917/. in value ; of butter, to 896,693/. ;
of wool, to 447,842/. ; and of live and dead meat — the former chiefly
oxen and sheep, and the latter bacon — to 1,698,720/. The staple
imports from the United Kingdom into the Hanse Towns are cotton
and -woollen manufactures, the value of the former 4,741,186/., and
of the latter 8,704,306/. in the year 1869.
The total number and tonnage of the merchant vessels which
belonged to the port of Hamburg, at the commencement and end of
each of the years 1865 and 1866, is shoAvn in the subjoined table : —
Mercantile Navy of Hamburg
1865 1866
Vessels Lv?l°} Vessels
6 tons
Lasts of
3 tons
Effective on January 1st
Increase.
Home built .....
Foreign built
Bought ......
Decrease.
Wrecked .....
Broken up ....
Sold
Effective on 31st December
530 79,380 539
83,710
12
20
42
2,296
3,552
6,781
7
24
14
1,142
4,700
1,881
14
1
50
1,660
159
6,480
26
51
3,882
6,714
539 83,710
509 | 80,837
The mercantile navy of Hamburg is more than eight times as
large as that of the kingdom of Belgium, and nearly double, in
tonnage, to that of Denmark and Belgium together.
1 82 GEIIMANY — LUBECK.
XXIV. LUBECK.
(Freie Stadt Lubeck.)
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The free city and state of Lubeck is governed according to the
constitution oi' Dec. 29, 1851. The main features of this charter
are two representative bodies, the Senate, exercising the executive,
and the Burgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising the legislative
authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen members, elected for
life, and presided over by two burgomasters, who hold office for tAvo
years each, and retire in rotation. There are 120 members in the
House of Burgesses, chosen by all citizens who are members of any
of the twelve colleges, or guilds of the town. A committee of thirty
burgesses, presided over by a chairman elected for two years, has
the duty of representing the legislative assembly in the intervals of
the ordinary sessions, and of carrying on all active business. The
House of Burgesses has the initiative in all measures relative to the
public expenditure, foreign treaties, and general legislation ; while
the Senate, entrusted chiefly with the executive government, has
also to give its sanction to the passing of every new law.
The high court of appeal for the three Free Cities of Germany,
reorganised by treaty of Nov. 30, 1866, after the incorporation of
Frankfort-on-the-Main Math Prussia, is established at Lubeck. It
is composed of a President, nominated by the Senates of the three
cities, and six councillors, three of whom are chosen by Hamburg,
two by Bremen, and one by Lubeck. The direction of the Court
is in tlie Senate of the three cities, passing in rotation from one to
the other on the 22nd July of every year.
The budget of Lubeck for the year 1868 exhibited a revenue of
1,852,000 marks current, or 122,125/., and an expenditure to the
same amount. Nearly one-third of the revenues are derived from
public domains, chiefly forests; another third from excise duties ; and
the rest mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-half goes
for the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting,
at the commencement of 1868, to 19,403,800 marks current, or
1,212,737/. Rather more than one-fifth, 3,985,300 marks, of the
liabilities were contracted in 1806, at the time of the French
occupation ; of the rest, 7,385,500 marks, borrowed at 4%, date
from 1850, and 8,070,000 marks, at H%, from the year 1863.
According to the census of December 3, 1867, the state com-
prises a territory of 127 square miles, with a population of
48,538, including a Prussian garrisou of 615 men. The city
GERMANY — BREMEN. 1 8 3
proper had 36,353, and the rural districts, composed of scattered
portions of territory surrounded by Prussia and Mecklenburg,
12,185 inhabitants at the date of the census operation.
Liibeck possessed, at the commencement of 18G8, fifty-nine
sea-going vessels, among them thirteen steamers. Particulars ot
the commerce of the free city with England are summed up under
that of Hamburg, chief of the ' Hanse Towns.'
XXV. BREMEN.
(Fkeie Stadt Bremen.)
Constitution and Revenue.
The Free City of Bremen is governed by a Senate of thirty members,
acting under the legislative authority of the General Assembly of
citizens, sitting under the name of the Blirgerconvent, or Convent of
Burgesses. The Convent is divided into committees, and presided
over by members of the College of Aldermen, in whom is vested a
portion of the executive power. Two burgomasters, the first elected
for six years and a half, and the second for four years, direct the
affairs of the Senate, through a Ministry divided into eight depart-
ments, namely, Foreign Affairs, Church and Education, Justice,
Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary Administration, Military
Affairs, and Commerce and Shipping. All the ministers are
senators.
The public revenue for the year 1866 amounted to 1,858,992
thaler, or 309,834Z., and the expenditure to 2,163,019 thaler, or
360,503/. Very nearly one-half the revenue is raised by indirect
taxes ; while about the same amount is expended for interest and
reduction of the public debt. The latter amounted, in 1867, to
11,734,165 thaler, or 1,760,124/. This sum includes a railway
loan of four million of thaler, at 4|- per cent., negotiated in 1859.
Population and Commerce,
The population of the. state amounted, in 1867, to 109,572,
inclusive of a garrison of 780 Prussian soldiers. The inhabitants
<^f the city proper numbered 74,945 at the census date*, the rest
living at the port of Bremerhaven, and in the rural districts.
The state comprises an area of 106 English square miles.
The territory of Bremerhaven, at the mouth of the river Weser, was
bought from the Hanoverian Government in the year 1827, for the
sum of 77,200 thaler, and has proved of great advantage to the
commercial interests of the Free City, having become of late years
the seat of an extensive shipping trade, as well as the- chief
184
GERMANY — BREMEN.
outlet of the vast German exodus to America. There embarked at
Bremerhaven : —
In 1854
„ 1855
,, 1856-60, annual average 32,450
„ 1861-65 „ „ 20,397
,. 1866 .... 61,877
,, 1867 .... 73,971
76,875 emigrants, in 362 vessels.
31,550 „ ,, 174
183
126
179
226
Total 1854 to 1867
. 528,595 emigrants in 2,484 vessels.
The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to the state
of Bremen, in each of the five years 1863 to 1867, was as follows : —
Years
Sailing and Steam Vessels
Steamers
Vessels
Tons
Vessels . Tons
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
302
298
294
291
287
206,324
206,800
219,352
221,192
231,174
10
10
11
14
16
19,608
19,148
23,128
32,094
37,921
The value of the imports into Bremen in each of the years 1865
and 1866 is shown in the subjoined table : —
Imports
1865
1866
By Sea.
From Transatlantic Ports ....
„ European Ports and the Levant .
Total by Sea (
By Land and Riyeb.
From the Zollverein .....
„ other States .....
Total by Land and River . <
Total Imports, including Specie . . -j
Imports of Specie only <j
Thaler
27,626,880
£22,113,656
Thaler
32,378,880
23,523,095
49,740,536
£8.290,089
55,901,502
9,316,917
23,290,423
£4,263,414
28.996,666
4,325,144
27,553,837
£1,592,306
33,321,810
5,553,635
77,294,373
£12,882,395
89,223,312
14,870,552
116.262
£19,377
1,820,923
303,487
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
l85
The following table gives the value of the exports of Bremen in
each of the years 1865 and 18G6 : —
Exports
1865
1866
By Sea.
To Transatlantic Ports ....
„ European Ports and the Levant .
Total by Sea ... |
By Land and Kiyer.
To the Zollverein .....
,, other States .....
Total by Land and River . <
Total Exports (Merchandise and Specie) -.
Exports of Specie only . . . <
Thaler
16,634,742
£15.823,452
Thaler
22,241.707
16,124.177
32,458,194
£5,409,699
38,365,884
6.394,314
33,207,718
£5,213,931
34.488,074
7,475,356
38,421,649
£6,403,608
41,963,430
6,993,905
70,879,843
£11,813,307
80,329,314
13,388,219
6,800
£1,133
20,400
3.400
The imports and exports of Bremen in the year 1869 were from
and to the following; countries : —
Countries
Imports
Exports
Ports of Germany .
United Kingdom
Austria .....
Russia .....
France .....
Other countries
Total ....
Thaler
36,010,000
14,800,000
1,920,000
1,410,000
1,425,000
2,760,000
Thaler
44,160,000
4,370,000
5,920,000
5,250,000
421,000
11,157,000
55,335,000 1 70,388,000
The trade with the United Kingdom is of a stationary character.
The value of the imports from the United Kingdom amounted to
15,562,445 thaler in 1865, and to 17,360,425 thaler in 1866.
The exports from Bremen to the United Kingdom were of the value
of 4,015,825 thaler in 1865, and of 4,358,885 thaler in 1866.
To Bremen and its river harbour of Bremerhaven was conceded,
in 1868, together with Hamburg, the privilege of remaining 'tree
ports,' exempt from the German customs limits. In compensation
for the loss of duties thus arising, the state agreed to pay a tax,
proportioned to its trade, annually to the administration of the
Zollverein.
1 86 GERMANY.
Trade and Commerce.
The Zollverein.
The trade and commerce of the Empire are under the adminis-
tration and guidance of special laws and rules, emanating from
the Zollverein. or Customs' League. As in the formation of
modern political alliances tending towards the unity of Germany, so
in the earlier attempt of creating commercial and industrial combina-
tions, Prussia took the lead. The first step towards the establishment
of the Zollverein was taken in the year 1828, when, by special
treaties, the grand-duchv of Hesse and the duchy of Anhalt were
brought within the customs' limits of Prussia. Previous to this date
the various states of Germany were under complete commercial
separation, each having its own tariff of import and export duties, its
own line of custom-houses, and in most cases its own system of money,
weights, and measures ; but the efforts of the Prussian government
caused the gradual overthrow of these barriers to mutual intercourse,
by the extension of the bond of union inaugurated in the treaties
with Hesse and Anhalt. In 1829, the two Saxon duchies of Mei-
ningen and Coburg-Gotha were induced to join the Zollverein, and
four years after, in 1833, its boundaries were vastly enlarged by the
entrance into it of the kingdoms of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and
Saxony. The circle was completed within the next thirty years,
during which all the states of Germany, with the exception of the
two duchies of Mecklenburg, and the three free cities of Hamburg,
Liibeck, and Bremen, were brought into the great commercial
union. The two Mecklenburg duchies, together with Liibeck, ac-
ceded to it on September 1, 18G8 ; so that, at this date, the whole
of the states of Germany, with the sole exception of the two cities
of Hamburg and Bremen — allowed to remain 'free ports' for a
time — were included within the limits of the Zollverein.
The administration of the Zollverein, according to a treaty
signed July 8, 1867, and ' in force from January 1, 18G8, till
December 31, 1877, is carried on by delegates of the various
states composing it, with a central government at Berlin.
There is a twofold representation, that of Governments, in the
Zollverein Council, and that of populations, in the Zollverein
Parliament, the members of which latter body, elected in the
same manner as the deputies to the North German Federal diet,
meet in annual session at the. beginning of the year. In the
Zollverein Council are vested the chief functions of the executive,
while the Zollverein Parliament has legislative, together Avifh some
administrative powers. The Council has three committees, sitting in
permanence, namely, for finance, for taxes and customs, and for trade.
THE ZOLLVEREIN. 107
All the receipts of the Zollverein are paid into a common exchequer,
and distributed, pro rata of population, among the members of the
league. The chief sources of revenue are import and export
duties, and taxes upon spirits, wine, sugar manufactured from beet-
roots, and tobacco, that of imports being by far the most important.
The gross receipts of the customs of the Zollverein in the year
1865 amounted to 23,991,085 thaler, of which there came from
import dues 23,923,365 thaler, and from export dues 991,085
thaler. In comparison with the year 1864 there was a diminu-
tion in the receipts from import dues of 445,7-19 thaler, and from
export dues of 95,507 thaler, making a total of 541,25(3 thaler, or
81,188/. The share of the amount of receipts coming to Prussia,
when the division was made, was 10,820,271 thaler, or 1,623,940/.
The total receipts from the spirit tax amounted, for 1865, to
11,553,867 thaler, or 1,733,080/., and the transit dues upon spirits,
for the same period, to 9,853 thaler, or 1,478/. After deducting
for defects of registration, compensation-, back payments, &c. there
remained lor division the sum of 9,145,684 thaler, or 1,871,855/.,
of which stun Prussia and the states and countries in close union
with her received the sum of 7,773.745 thaler, or 1,166,069/. 15s.
As regards the production of sugar from beet-roots, there were, in
the year 1865. in employment 295 factories, of which 252 were in
Prussia; 25,605,694 centners of fresh beet-roots were used, and
the tax upon beet-root sugar, inclusive of register defects, deduction
of back payments, and expenses of administration, amounted to
6,148,304 thaler, or 922,245/., of which Prussia received 3,252,144
thaler, or 487,821Z. The duties levied on wine in the year 1865
amounted to 106,393 thaler, or 15,809/., and those upon tobacco
leaves and tobacco manufactures to 120,313 thaler, or 18,046/.
The total sum for division was 226,982 thaler, or 34,047/., of
which Prussia received 156,886 thaler, or 23,531/. There were
used for the cultivation of tobacco in the Zollverein 92,914 Prussian
morgen — in Prussia about 28,154 morgen — and the amount of
tobacco obtained from the dried leaves was 676,140 centners — in
Prussia 185,423 centners. The yields were on an average about
7*28 centner per morgen.
According to an official report upon mines, foundries, and salines,
it appears there were produced in the Zollverein in the year 1865,
from the coal pits, 388,179,637 centners of coals, 124,078,356 cent-
ners of brown coal (Bovey), 52,400,407 centners of iron ore,
703,650 centners of gold and silver ore, 3,398,944 centners of lead
ore, 3,122,785 centners of copper ore, 6,265,983 centners of zinc
ore, besides other products, making a total of 578,966,407 centners,
of which Prussia produced 463,846,947 centners. The total amount
of works was 4,788, of which there were in Prussia 2,313.
GERMANY.
In the smelting establishments there were produced 16,162,897
centners of raw iron in streaks or veins, 790,114 centners of raw
steel iron, 1,1-40,150 centners of casting ware from ore, 3,814,737
centners of casting ware from raw iron, 3,286,780 centners of bar
iron and rolled iron, 1,386,000 centners of iron plate, 701,342
centners of iron wire, 1,427,179 centners of steel, 84,276 lbs. of gold,
148,689 lbs. of silver, 713,163 centners of lead (' Kaufblei '), 74,140
centners of litharge, 15,892 centners of lead plates, 66,768 centners
of rose copper, 52,895 centners of wrought copper, 43,402 centners
of brass, 1,184,956 centners of sheet or bar zinc, and 349,509 cent-
ners of zinc plates, making a total of 37,389,783 centners in 1,744
works, of which 1,177 were in Prussia.
The total length of railways in Germany, open and under con-
struction, was as follows at the end of June 1870 : —
States of the Empire
Lines open for
traffic
Lines in course
of construction
Total
Prussia and minor States
Bavaria .....
Wiirtemberg ....
Saxony .....
Bade .....
Hesse
English miles
3,650
1,089
622
581
551
56
English miles
3,511
542
4
138
172
47367
7,161
1,631
626
719
551
228
Total ....
6,549
10,916
The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the growth of the com-
mercial intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom,
giving the total value of the exports from the states of the Empire,
including the Hanse towns, to Great Britain and Ireland, and the
total value of the imports of British home produce into them, in each
of the ten years 1860 to 1869 :—
Exports from Germany
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Germany
I860
14,898,813
13,356,210
1861
13,668,373
12,968,329
1862
14,801,309
12,654,814
1863
14.168.046
13.415,991
1864
14,790,335
15,388,233
1865
16.222,243
17.758,779
1866
18,592,259
15,652,185
1867
18,331,725
20,421,738
1868
17,653,553
22,671.140
1869
is.::., i. in i
22,841,745
It will be seen from the preceding table that while the exports
from Germany to the United Kingdom increased to the amount of
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
l89
3^ millions sterling in the ten years 1860-69, the imports of British
produce and manufactures augmented 9-^ millions in value during
the same period, or at the average rate of nearly one million sterling
per annum.
The exports from and imports of British produce into Germany
were distributed as follows among the maritime states and territorial
divisions of the Empire in the year 1869 : —
States and territorial divisions
Exports to
Great Britain
Imports of
British produce
Prussia (Old provinces) .
Schleswig-Holstein
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .
Hanover ....
Oldenburg ....
Hanse Towns
Total ....
&
6,117,352
925,188
385,855
611,433
40,288
10,273,898
£
3,239,839
90,687
37,064
. 186,151
35,854
19,252,150
18,354,014
22,841,745
The ports of Prussia and the Hanse Towns, Hamburg, Llibeck,
and Bremen, are, it will be seen, the chief gates of commercial inter-
course of Germany with the United Kingdom.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures generally in use throughout
the whole of Germany, and their British equivalents, are —
Money.
The Thaler, of 30 Grosschen .
„ Gulden, or florin, of 60 Kreuzer
= 35.
= Is.
Weights and Measures.
The Centner
„ Ship Last, of timber
„ Scheffel
„ Klafter .
,, Schock .
[ Measure of coals
,, Loth
„ Morgen .
„ Eimer
,, Acker
„ German Mele
= 110|lbs. avoirdupois.
= About 80 cubic feet.
= \\ Imperial bushel, or about
5i to the Imperial quarter.
= 6 feet,
= 60 pieces.
= 2,270 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 6 bushels.
= 225 grains troy, about 9^ dwts.
= 0-65 acre.
= 15 gallons.
= 137 English acre.
= 4 miles, 1,056 yards.
I9O BOOKS OF KEFEKENCE.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Germany.
1. Official Publications.
Norddeutsehe Bundrszeitung. Berlin. ^1867-70.
Koniglich Preussischer Staats-Kalonder fur 1870. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Preussische Statistik, herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau in Berlin, fol.
Berlin, 1870.
Jahrbuch fiir die amtliche Statistik des Preussischen Staates. Herausge-
geben vom Konigl. Statistischen Bureau. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Uebersichten, stat. iiber Waaren-Verkehr und Zoll-Ertrag im deutsehen
Zoll-Vereine fiir das Jahr 1868. Zusammengestellt von dem Central-Bureau
des Zoll-Vereins naeh den amtlichen Ermittelungen der Zoll-Vereins-Staaten.
fol. Berlin, 1870.
Staatshandbuch fiir das Konigreich Saehsen. Dresden, 1870.
Zeitschrift des Statistischen Bureaus des Koniglich Sachsischen Ministe-
rium des Innern. Dresden, 1870.
Hot-uud Staats-Handbuch des Konigreichs Bayern. 8. Miinchen, 1870.
Koniglich Wi'irttembergisches Hof-und Staats-Handbuch, herausgeg. v, n
dem Konigl. statistisch-topographischen Bureau. 8. Stuttgart, 1870.
Hof-und Staats-Handbuch des Grossherzogthums Baden. 8. Karlsruhe,
1870.
Hof-und Staats-Handbuch des Grossherzogthums Hessen. 8. Darmstadt,
1870.
Grossherzoglich Mecklenburg-Schwerinscher Staats-Kalender. 8. Seirwerin,
1870.
Hof-und Staats-Handbuch des Grossherzogthums Oldenburg. 8. Olden-
burg, 1870.
Hof-und Staats-Handbuch fiir das Herzogthum Anhalt. 8. Dessau, 1870.
Hamburgischer Staats-kalender auf das Jahr 1870. 4. Hamburg, 1870.
Staatskalender der freien Hansestadt Bremen auf 1870. 8. Bremen, 1870.
Liibeckischer Staatskalen'er auf das Jahr 1870. 4. Liibeek, 1870.
Reports by Mr. Hugh Wyndham, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the
Einances of Prussia and North Germany, dated Jan. 12, and Jan. 31, 1867;
in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. IV. 1867.
London, 1867.
Reports by Mr. William Lowther, H M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the
Commerce, Manufactures, Mines, Agriculture, &c. &c. of Germany, dated July
28, 1866; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I.
1867. London, 1867.
Reports by Mr. Lowther, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Trade, Navi-
gation, Industry, and Finance of the Zollverein, dated July 15, 1863, and Jan.
27, 1864; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
No. VII. London, 1864.
Reports by Mr. Lowther, II. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Commerce
and Revenues of the Zollverein, dated July 28, 1864 : in ' Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. VIII. London, 1865.
Report by Mr. II. P. Fenton, II. M.'s Secretary of Legation, ' On the Introduc-
tion and Pre.-ent Condition of the Manufacture of Beet-root Sugar in the States
of the Zollverein, and on the Importation, Exportation, and Consumption of
Sugar, Coffee, and Tea in those States,' dated Munich, Juno 1868 ; in 'Reports
of II. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. V. and VI. 1868.
Londou, 1869.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
igi
Report by Mr. Consul Kuchen. on the Trade and Commerce of the Zoll-
verein during the year 1868 ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
Reports by Messrs. Ward, Harriss-Gastrell, Herslet, Barnard, Phipps, and
Baillie, on Trade, Agriculture, and the Tenure of Land in Germany, dated
Oct. -Dec. 1869 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure
of Land in the several countries of Europe.' Parti. Fol. London, 1870.
Reports by Mr. W. A. White, British Consul at Danzig, on the Population,
Trade. Industry, Agriculture, and General Resources of Prussia, dated Dec.
1869, and January, 1870; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting the
Tenure of Land in the several countries of Europe.' Part II. Fol. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Blankenhurg (Heinrich) Der Norddeutsche Bund und seine Yerfassung. In
4 Unsere Zeit.' 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Bockh ( Richard) Der Deutsehen Volkszahl und Sprachgebiet in den europais-
chen Landern. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Bockh (Rich.), Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der amtlichen Statistik des
Preussischen Staatts. 4. Berlin, 1861.
Brachdli (H. F.) Handbuch der Statistik des Deutsehen Bundes und seiner
Staaten. 2 vols. 8. Vienna. 1862-4.
Daniel (Dr. Herm. Adalb.) Deutschland naeh seinen physischen und
politisehen Verhaltnissen geschildert. 2. Aufl. 8. Leipzig. 1867.
Duterici (C. T. W.) Statistische Uebersieht der wichtigsten Gegenstande des
Yerkehrs und Verbrauehs im Deutsehen Zollvereine. 8. Berlin, 1865.
Engel (Dr. Ernst) Land und Leute des Preussischen Staats und seiner Pro-
vinzen nach den statistischen Aufnahmen Ende 1861 und Anfang 1862 8
Berlin, 1863.
Engel (Dr. Ernst) Zeitschrift des Koniglich Preussischen Statistischen
Bureau. 4. Berlin, 1860-70.
Frantz (Adf.) Tabellen der Gewerbe Statistik des Deutsehen Zollvereins. 4
Brieg, 1868.
Gothaischer genealogischer Hof kalender auf das Jahr 1871. 108r Jahrgan-r
32. Gotha, 1870.
Huhn (Dr. E. H. Th.) Vergleichende Darstellung der Macht und Kulturver-
haltnisse aller Staaten der Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Kdlner (Dr. Wilhelm) Handbuch der Staatskunde. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
Kolb (G. Fr.) Handbuch der vergleichenden Statistik, der Yolkerzustands-
und Staatenkunde. 4th ed. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Petermann (Th.) Zeitschrift des Koniglich Sachsischen Statistischen Bureaus,
15 Jahrgang. 4. Leipzig, 1870.
Reden (F. W. Freiherr von) Handbuch der Boden-, Bevolkerungs-,
Ervrerbs- und Yerkehrs-Statistik etc. 8. Wiesbaden, 1864.
Bitter (Karl) Geographisch-statistisches Lexikon iiber die Erdtheile, Lander,
Meere, Staaten, Stadte etc. 5th ed. Vols. I. II. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Rudolph (H.) Yollstjindiges geographisch-topographisch-statistisches Orts-
Lexicon von Deutschland. 8. Zurich, 1867.
Sayidler (Chr.) Deutschlands Handel und Industrie. Neuestes Repertorium
des Deutsehen Handels-, Fabrik- und Gewerbestandes. Norddeutschland naeh
den amtlieh aufgenommenen Materialien des Jahres 1866. 8. Berlin, 1867.
Viebahn (Dr. Geo. von) Statistik des Zollvereinten und nordlichen Deutsch-
lands. Unter Benutzungamtlicher Aufnahmen. 3 vols. 8. Berlin, 1868-70.
192
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
(United Kingdom of Great Bkitaix and Ireland.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, born at Ken-
sington Palace, London, May 24, 1819, the daughter of Edward,
Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George III. and of Princess Vic-
toria of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich of Leiningen.
Ascended the throne at the death of her uncle, King William IV.,
June 20, 1837 ; crowned at Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1838.
Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ;
widow, Dec. 14, 1861. Issue of the union are: — 1. Princess Vic-
toria, born Nov. 21, 1840; married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Fried-
rich Wilhelm, eldest son of King Wilhelm I. of Prussia. There are
offspring three sons and two daughters (see Prussia : Reigning Sove-
reign and Family). 2. Prince Albert Edward, heir-apparent, born
Nov. 9, 1841 ; married, March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest
daughter of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, present King Christian IX. of Denmark. Issue,
two sons and three daughters: — Albert Victor, born Jan. 8, 1864;
George, born June 3, 1865 ; Louise, born Feb. 20, 1867; Alexandra,
born July 6, 1868 ; and Maud, born Nov. 26, 1869. 3. Princess
Alice, born April 25, 1843 ; married, July 1, 1862, to Prince
Ludwig of Hesse. Issue, three daughters and one son (see Hesse —
Germany). 4. Prince Alfred, born Aug. 6, 1844; entered the
royal navy, Aug. 31, 1858; created earl of Kent, eai-1 of Ulster, and
duke of Edinburgh, by letters patent of May 24, 1866. 5. Princess
Helena, born May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5, 1866, to Prince
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Aiigustenburg, born
Jan. 22, 1831, formerly captain in the 3rd Regiment of Lancers of
the Prussian army. Issue, two sons, and one daughter, Christian,
born April 14, 1867, Albert John, born Feb. 26, 1869, and Victoria,
born May 3, 1870. 6. Princess Louise, born March 18, 1848.
7. Prince Arthur, born May 1, 1850. 8. Prince Leopold, born
April 7, 1853. 9. Princess Beatrice, born April 14, \>'u .
Covsins of the Queen. — 1. Georf/e V., ex-King of Hanover, born at
London, May 27. LS19, the son of Duke Ernest Augustus of Cumber-
land, fifth son of King George III. 2. Prince George, Duke of Cam-
bridge, born at Hanover, March 26, 1819, the son of Duke Adolphus
REIGNING SOVEREIGN AND FAMILY. 1 93
of Cambridge, sixth son of King George III. ; field-marshal
commanding-in-chief the British army. 3. Princess August <z, sister
of the preceding, born at Hanover, July 19, 1822; married, June
28, 1843, to Grand-duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. 4. Princess J fan/, sister of the preceding, born at Hanover,
Nov. 27, 1833; married, June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von
Teck, born Aug. 27, 1837, son of Prince Alexander of Wiirtemberg,
and of Claudine Rheday, Countess A-on Hohenstein. Issue, one
daughter, and two sons, Victoria, born May 26, 18G7, Albert, born
Aug. 13, 1868, and Franz Joseph, born Jan. 9, 1870.
Avnt of the Queen. — Princess Augusta, born at Cassel, July 25,
1797, the daughter of Landgrave Friedrich of Hesse- Cassel; married,
May 7, 1818, to Duke Adolphus of Cambridge, youngest son of
King George III. ; widow, July 8, 1850.
The queen reigns in her OAvn right, holding the crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled, on the death of King William
and Queen Anne, without issue, on the Princess Sophia of Hanover,
and the ' heirs of her body, being Protestants.' The inheritance
thus limited descended to George I., son and heir of Princess Sophia,
she having died before Queen Anne ; and it has ever since continued
in a regular course of descent.
The civil list of the queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the income of previous sove-
reigns. By the Revolution of 1688, the duly of the king to bear
the expenses of government out of the State income allotted to him
was abolished, and certain portions of the income of the country
were assigned to the king to meet the expenses of the royal house-
hold. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to 1,000,000/.
sterling. If it did not reach 800,000/. the deficiency was coA'ered
by Parliament. In 1777, the civil list of the king Avas fixed at
900,000/., and the income OA'er and above that sum from the here-
ditary possessions of the CroAvn passed to the Treasury. But at tins
period the king had to pay from the civil list the salaries of the
judges and ambassadors, and other government officers. Under
William IV. the civil list was relieved of many burthens, and
fixed at 510,000Z. By 39-40 Geo. III. c. 88, it was settled that
the king might have a private and separate estate. It is esta-
blished by 1-2 Vic. c. 2, that as long as Queen Victoria lives, all the
revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Consolidated Fund, but
that a civil list shall be assigned to the queen. In virtue of this
Act, which received the royal sanction Dec. 23, 1837, the queen has
granted to her an annual allowance of 385,000Z. 'for the support of
Her Majesty's household, and of the honour and dignity of the Crown
0
I94 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' By the same
statute, the application of this allowance is limited in a prescribed
form. The Lords of the Treasury are directed to pay yearly 60,000/.
into Her Majesty's Privy Purse; to set aside 231,200/. for the
salaries of the royal household ; 44,240/. for retiring allowances and
pensions to servants ; and 13,200/. for royal bounty, alms, and spe-
cial services. This leaves an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/.,
which may be apjjlied in aid of the general expenditure of Her
Majesty's Court. It is provided that whenever the civil list
charges in any year exceed the total sum of 400,000/., an account
of the expenditure, with full particulars, shall be laid before Parlia-
ment within thirty days. The Queen has also paid to her the
revenues of the Dnchy of Lancaster, which in the year 1869 amounted
to 50,360/., being 8,743/. more than in the preceding year.
The salaries, law charges, taxes, charities, and other disbursements
in 1869 amounted to 11,858/., and the payment made to Her
Majesty for the year was 31,000/., or 3,120/. more than in the
preceding year. The payment to Her Majesty's use in 1865 was
26,000/., in 1866 and in 1867 it amounted to 29,000/., and in
1868 it was 27,880/.
The annual grant of 385,000/. to Her Majesty is paid out of
the Consolidated Fund, on which are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family: — 15,000/. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh ; 8,000/. to Princess Friedrich Wilhelm
of Prussia; 6,000/. to Princess Ludwig of Hesse ; 6,000/. to Princess
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ; 6,000/. to the Duchess of Cam-
bridge ; 3,000/. to her daughter, the Grand-duchess of Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz ; 5,000/. to Princess Teck, formerly Princess Mary
of Cambridge; and 12,000/. to Duke George of Cambridge.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/. The Prince of Wales has besides
as income the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall. Previous to the
year 1840, these revenues amounted jo between 11,000/. and 16,000/.
per annum ; but since that period they have greatly risen. The
income of the Duchy of Cornwall for 1869 amounted to 75,707/.,
the salaries and other expenses to 18,295/., and the sum of 63,587/.
was paid over for the use of the Prince of Wales. In 1866, the
sum paid over was 53,403/., in 1867 it was 54,927/., and in 1868
it was 55,252/., showing an increase from year to year. The
Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict. cap. 1, the
annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case of
widowhood. Both the parliamentary grants of the Prince and
Princess of Wales are paid out of the Consolidated Fund, which
bears a total yearly charge of 111,000/. for annuities to members
of the Royal Family.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
'95
\\ llham and J\
William III.
lary
. 1689
. 1694
House of Stuart.
Anne ....
. 1702
Horn
cof
Hanover.
George I.
.
. 1714
George II.
. 1727
George IIL
George IV.
William IV. .
. 1760
. 1820
. 1830
Victoria
.
1837
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of
Great Britain with date of their accession, from the union of the
crowns of England and Scotland: —
House of Stuart. House of Stuart- Orange.
James 1 1G03
Charles 1 1625
Commonwealth.
Parliamentary Executive . 1649
Protectorate .... 1653
House of Stuart.
Charles II 1660
James II 1685
The average duration of the reigns of the sovereigns of Great
Britain, exclusive of the period of the Commonwealth, but including
the actual reign of her present Majesty — amounting in the aggregate
to two centuries and a half — has been twenty years.
Constitution and Government.
The supreme legislative power of the British empire is by its
constitution given to Parliament. ' The power and jurisdiction of
Parliament,' says Sir Edward Coke, ' is so transcendent and absolute
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within
any bounds.' And, repeating the words, Sir William Blackstone
adds, that it is ' the place where that absolute despotic power, which
must in all governments reside somewhere, is entrusted by the con-
stitution of these kingdoms.' The sovereign is not only the head,
but also the beginning and the end — caput, principium, et finis — of
Parliament ; he alonp. can summon Parliament ; and no Parliament,
save on the demise of a sovereign, can assemble of its own accord.
Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of
Chancery, by advice of the privy council, at least thirty-five days
previous to its assembling. On a vacancy occurring whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker. By
4 Edw. III. c. 14, it was enacted, ' It is accorded that Parlia-
ment shall be holden every year once or more often if need be.'
Also by 36 Edw. III. c. 10, it was directed, ' that a Parliament
be holden every year if need be.' By 16 Chas. I. c. 1, it was
o 2
I96 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
enacted, that if the king neglected to call a Parliament for three
years, the chancellor or keeper of the great seal might issue writs
for summoning the peers and for the election of the commons:
that if the chancellor or keeper should neglect to do it, any twelve
of the peers might summon the Parliament ; that if the peers should
neglect to issue the necessary summons, the sheriffs of the counties
and other magistrates respectively might proceed to the election :
and should they refuse, then that the freeholders of each county
might elect their members, and that the members so chosen should
be obliged, under severe penalties, to attend. This Act was deemed
such an invasion of the prerogative, that it was repealed on the
Eestoration by 16 Chas. II. c. 1. But the latter Act contains a
provision that Parliament shall not in future be intermitted for above
three years at the most. By 1 Will, and Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, it was
enacted, ' that Parliaments shall be holden frequently.' As, how-
ever, the Mutiny Act and the Budget are only granted for a
year, the Crown, since the Eevolution, is compelled to summon a
Parliament annually. By ancient right and usage, lying at the
foundation of the constitution, the House of Commons has the
exclusive control over taxation, and at its will may grant or re-
fuse supplies to the Crown.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in annual
session extending over the first six months of the year. Every
session must end with a prorogation, and by it all bills which have
not been brought to a conclusion fall to the ground. Both Houses
of legislature must be prorogued at the same time. The pro-
rogation takes place either by the sovereign in person, or by
commission from the Crown, or by proclamation. The Lower
House appears at the bar, and if the sovereign be present, the
speaker reports upon the labours of the session ; the royal assent
is then given to bills of the closing session, and a speech from the
sovereign is read ; Avhereupon the chancellor prorogues the Parlia-
ment to a certain day. Parliament resumes business, however, as
soon as it is summoned by royal proclamation on a certain day,
which may be at a date earlier than the original date of prorogation
appointed. Should the term of prorogation elapse, and no procla-
mation be issued, Parliament cannot assemble of its own accord.
The royal proclamation which summons Parliament in order to
proceed to business must be issued six days before the time of
meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament ; it may
occur by the will of the sovereign, expressed in person or by com-
missioners, or, as is most usual during the recess, by proclama-
tion, or, finally, by lapse of time. Formerly, on the demise of the
sovereign, Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof; but
this was altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of post-
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
I97
poning the dissolution till six months after the accession of the new-
sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the Parlia-
ment ' in being at any future demise of the Crown shall not be
determined by such demise, but shall continue as long as it would
otherwise have continued unless dissolved by the Crown.' Other
statutes enact that if, at the time of the demise, the Parliament
be adjourned or prorogued, it shall immediately assemble ; and that,
in the case of the demise of the sovereign between the dissolution
of a Parliament and the day appointed by the writs of summons for
the meeting of a new oneT the last preceding Parliament shall
immediately convene for six months, unless sooner prorogued or
dissolved by the successor.
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses of
legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the time of
Edward II. , and it has been, except during the period of the Com-
monwealth, a fundamental principle of the constitution, that every
lawful Parliament shall consist of an Upper and a Lower House of
legislature.
The Upper House consists of peers who hold their seats —
1st, By virtue of hereditary right;
2nd. By creation of the Sovereign ;
3rd. By virtue of office — English bishops ;
4th. By election for life — Irish peers;
5th. By election for the duration of a Parliament — Scottish
peers.
In early times the summons of peers to attend Parliament de-
pended in a great measure, if not entirely, on the royal will; and
according to Camden, after the battle of Evesham every baron
was expressly forbidden to appear in Parliament Avithout special
writ. However, it has long since been held that every hereditary
peerage confers the right of a seat in the Upper House. Any
person giving proof that his ancestor was called by ' writ of sum-
mons ' may claim to sit as hereditary peer. New peerages are
created by royal patent, the peer being summoned by the writ
issued in pursuance thereof ' ad con.sulendum et defendendum
regem ; ' and the peerage rights are acquired whether the individual
summoned takes his seat in the Upper House or not. Should a
question arise as to the legal capacity of a peer to be admitted
to the sittings of the Upper House, the sovereign is prayed for
a writ through a secretary of state ; the attorney-general supports
the petition, and, if willing to allow it, it is ordinarily complied with.
If the matter is doubtful, he recommends it to be referred to the
Upper House, which resolves itself into a committee of privilege.
1 98 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Upon a report to the House the latter declares its opinion by way of
address. Hereditary peers may, by a 'standing order' of the Upper
House, take their seat without further preliminary ; peers newly
created or summoned have to be ' introduced.' The privilege of
the members of the Upper House, including the bishops, of voting
by proxy, was suspended by a ' standing Order ' — number XXXII
— passed, on the motion of the Lord Privy Seal, the 31st of March,
1868.
The Crown is unrestricted in its power of creating peers, and the
privilege has been largely used by modern governments to till the
House of Lords. In consequence of certain terms in the Act
of Union — 5 Anne, c. 8 — limiting the right of election of tin-
Scottish representative peers to the then existing peers of Scotland,
it is understood that the sovereign cannot create a new Scottish
peerage ; and such peerages are in fact never created except in the
case of the younger branches of the royal family, though extinct
peerages may be revived or forfeited peerages restored. By the Irish
Act of Union — 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 — the sovereign is restricted
to the creation of one new Irish peerage on the extinction of three
of the existing peerages ; but when the Irish peers are reduced to
100, then on the extinction of one peerage another may be created.
The House of Lords, in the session of 1870, consisted of 471
members, of whom 4 were peers of the Blood Royal, 2 arch-
bishops, 20 dukes, 20 marquesses, 127 earls, 30 viscounts, 24
bishops, 234 barons, 16 Scottish representative peers, 28 Irish
representative peers, and 4 Irish prelates, the latter sitting for the
last time as peers, their title becoming extinguished at the end of
the year. The list included 15 minors, reducing the actual con-
stituency of the Upper House in the session of 1870 to 456.
Deducting the Irish and Scottish representative peers, and the
prelates, the number of hereditary peerages, at the end of July,
1870, was 408. More than two-thirds of these hereditary peer-
ages were created in the present century. The three oldest existing
peerages date from the latter part of the thirteenth century ; while
four go back to the fourteenth, and seven to the fifteenth century.
Of peerages of the sixteenth century, there exist 12 ; of the
seventeenth, 35 ; of the eighteenth, 95 ; and of the present nine-
teenth century, 233. In the forty years 1830-70, there were
issued 176 patents of peerage, namely 34 under the administration
of Earl Grey; 39 under Lord Melbourne; 11 under Sir Robert
Peel; 24 under Earl Russell; 23 under Viscount Palmerston ;
25 under the Earl of Derby ; 4 under Mr. Disraeli ; and 16 under
Mr. Gladstone. (See page 208 for duration of office of the above
heads of the government).
The Lower House of legislature, representing, in constitutional
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 1 99
theory, all the ' Commons of England,' has consisted, since 49 Hen.
III., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties; of
citizens, or representatives of cities; and of burgesses, or repre-
sentatives of boroughs, all of whom indistinctly vote together.
Since the enactment of the statute 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, in the year
1429, regulating the election of knights of the shire, numerous Acts
have been passed for the election of members of Parliament. Pre-
vious to that statute, the Crown had a very large and absolute power
in limiting and prescribing, by royal writs, the numbers and quali-
fications of the persons to be elected, as well as of the constituencies.
However, the distribution of the franchise in counties has always
been far less variable and irregular than in boroughs, in nearly all
cases two members being elected for every county. For cities and
boroughs the constituencies varied greatly from time to time, and in
incorporated boroughs depended chiefly on ancient customs and
the terms of old charters and privileges. The number of cities and
boroughs for which writs were issued in the time of Edward I., and
thence to Edward IV., appears to have been 170. At the acces-
sion of Henry VIII., the total number of constituencies, including
counties, had become reduced to 147. In that reign the number
was considerably increased, chiefly by the addition of representatives
for Wales. In all the following reigns, up to the Restoration, large
additions to the borough franchises were made. Previous to this
period, members of Parliament had to be paid by their consti-
tuencies ; but the practice growing up of members bearing their
own expenses, many ancient boroughs, which had formerly been
exempted from the returns on account of their poverty, became
desirous of resuming their franchises. The additions from Edward
VI. to Charles I. were almost entirely of borough members. In the
fourth Parliament of Charles I., the number of places in England
and Wales for which returns were made, exclusive of counties,
amounted to 210; and in the time of the Stuarts, the total number
of members of the House of Commons was about 500. The number
of members was not materially altered from that time until the union
with Scotland, in the reign of Queen Anne, when 45 representatives
of Scotland were added. The next considerable change was at the
union with Ireland, at the commencement of the present century,
when the House of Commons was increased by 100 Irish represen-
tatives. The number of members of the House since that period
has remained nearly the same, fluctuating around the figure G50,
with a slight tendency to gradual increase, through the extension of
the suffrage and the formation of new classes of constituencies, such
as universities. (See pp. 202-3.)
By the statute of 2 Will. IV. c. 45, commonly called the Reform
Bill of 1832, the English county constituencies were increased from
200 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
52 to 82, by dividing several counties into separate electoral divi-
sions, and the- number of county members was augmented from 94
to 159. In Scotland and Ireland, the county representation remained
the same as before. By the Reform Act, 56 English boroughs, con-
taining a population, in 1831, of less than 2,000 each, and return-
ing together 111 members, were totally disfranchised, while 30
other boroughs, containing a population of less than 4,000 each,
were reduced to sending one representative instead of two. On
the other hand, 22 new boroughs, containing each 25,000 inhabit-
ants, received the franchise of returning two members, and 20 other
new boroughs, containing each 12,000 inhabitants and upwards,
that of returning one member. In Scotland, the town members
were increased from fifteen to twenty-three, so that the number of
representatives became eight more than the number assigned to
Scotland at the union.
The next great change in the constituency of the House of Com-
mons, after the Act of 1832, Avas made by the Reform Bill of
1867-68. The most important provisions of the new Act as regards
England are clauses 3 and 4, the first establishing household suffrage
in boroughs, and the second occupation franchise in counties. Clause
3 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a
voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member or members to serve
in Parliament tor a borough, who is qualified as follows : — (1) Is of
full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ; (2) Is on the last day
of July in any year, and has during the whole of the preceding 12
calendar months, been an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling-house within the borough ; (3) Has during the ticue^
of such occupation been rated as an ordinary occupier in respect of
the premises so occupied by him within the borough to all rates made
for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises ; (4) Has
before the 20th day of July in the same year bona Jide paid an equal
amount in the pound to that payable by other ordinary occupiers in
respect of all poor-rates that have become payable by him in respect
of the said premises up to the preceding 5th day of January, and
which have been demanded of him in manner hereinafter mentioned ;
or as a lodger has occupied in the same borough separately, and as
sole tenant for the twelve months preceding the last day of July in
any year the same lodgings, such lodgings being part of one and the
same dwelling-house, and of a clear yearly value, if let unfurnished,
of Id/, or upwards, and has resided in such lodgings during the twelve
months immediately preceding the last day of July, and has claimed
to be registered as a voter at the next ensuing registration of voters :
provided, that no man shall, under this section, be entitled to be
registered as a voter by reason of his being a joint occupier of any
dwelling-house.' Clause 1 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 201
to be registered as a voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member
or members to serve in Parliament for a county who is qualified as
follows: — (1) Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ;
and who shall be seised at law or in equity of any lands or tenements
of copyhold or any other tenure whatever, except freehold, lor his
own life, or for the life of another, or for any lives whatsoever, or for
any larger estate of the clear yearly value of not less than live pounds
over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of
the same, or who shall be entitled either as lessee or assignee to any
lands or tenements of freehold or of any other tenure whatever, for
the unexpired residue, whatever it may be, of any term originally
created for a period of not less than 60 years of the clear yearly
value of not less than five pounds over and above all rents and charges
payable out of or in respect of the same ; (2) Is on the last day of
July in any year, and has during the twelve months immediately
preceding, been the occupier, as owner, or tenant, of lands or tene-
ments within the county of the ratable value of 12/. or upwards;
(3) Has during the time of such occupation been rated in respect to
the premises so occupied by him to all rates made for the relief of
the poor in respect of the said premises ; and (4) Has before the
20th day of July in the same year paid all poor rates that have be-
come payable by him in respect of the said premises up to the pre-
ceding 5th day of January.'
The result of the Reform Act of 1868 in enlarging the constituencies
is shown in the following tabular statement, which gives the total
number of electors, in boroughs and counties of England and Wales,
in 1868 and in 1866 : —
Electors of England and Wales.
1868 1866 Increase
Boroughs . . . 1,220,715 . 514,026 . 706,689
Counties . . . 791,916 . 542,633 . 249,283
Total . . 2,012,631 . 1,056,659 . 955,972
It will be seen that the total constituencies of England and Wales
were nearly doubled by the last Reform Act, so as to increase
from rather more than one million to two millions, or, stated
accurately, 90^ per cent. The largest portion of this increase was
in the boroughs, the electors of which became 137 per cent., or
above one and a third times more numerous than before. The
rate of increase in the counties, on the other hand, was but 46
per cent., or one-third that of the borough constituencies.
The Reform Acts for Scotland and Ireland, passed in the session
of 1868, differ in some important respects from that of England. By
the Act for Scotland, the franchise in burghs is conferred upon
202 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
every male person of full age, and subject to no legal incapacity,
who has been for twelve months an occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling, unless at any time during that period he shall have
been exempted from poor-rates on the ground of poverty, or shall
have failed to pav his poor-rates, or shall have been in the receipt
of parochial relief within twelve months. The lodger franchise in
Scotland consists in the permission of any lodger to vote who has
occupied in the same burgh separately, and as sole tenant, for twelve
months, a lodging of the clear annual value, if let unfurnished, often
pounds or upwards, and has claimed to be registered as a voter. In
Scottish counties, the ownership franchise is five pounds, clear of
any deduction in the shape of burdens, with a residential qualifica-
tion of not less than six months. The Reform Act for Ireland
made no alteration in the county franchise, but reduced that of
boroughs to a 41. rating occupation, qualified as in England.
The Reform Bill of 1867-68 left in force all the old legal require-
ments for electors. Under them, aliens, persons under twenty-one
years of age, of unsound mind, in receipt of parochial relief, or
convicted of felony and undergoing a term of imprisonment, are
incapable of voting. No one can be a member of Parliament who
has not attained the age of twenty-one years, and no excise, custom,
stamp, or other revenue officer is eligible. All the judges of the
United Kingdom, except the Master of the Rolls in England, priests
and deacons of the Church of England, ministers of the Church of
Scotland, Roman Catholic clergymen, government contractors, and
sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act,
are also disqualified. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to
the House of Commons, but Irish peers are eligible. No foreigners,
and no persons convicted of treason or felony, are eligible for seats
in Parliament.
To preserve the independence of members of the House of Com-
mons, it was enacted, by statute 6 Anne, that, if any member shall
accept any office of profit from the Crown, his election shall be void,
and a new writ issue ; but he is eligible for re-election if the place
accepted be not a new office, created since 1705. This provision
has been made the means of relieving a member from his trust,
which he cannot resign, by his acceptance of the Stewardship of the
Chiltern Hundreds, a nominal office in the gift of the Chancellor of
the Exchequer.
At the commencement of the session of 1870, the House of Commons
numbered 658 members, but in the course of it, by Acts 33 & 34
Vict., c 21 and 38, two English boroughs, each returning two mem-
bers, and two Irish boroughs, each returning one member; were dis-
franchised, thus reducing the total to 652. The 652 members are
returned as follows by the three divisions of the United Kingdom : —
CONSTITUTION AND (.OYEIINM KM-.
203
England and Wales :
52 counties and Isle of Wight
198 cities and boroughs ....
3 universities ......
Total of England and Wales
Scotland :
33 counties ......
22 cities and burgh districts
4 universities ......
Total of Scotland
Ireland :
32 counties .....
31 cities and boroughs
1 university .....
Total of Ireland
Total of United Kingdom
Members
187
297
5
489
32
26
2
60
64
37
2
lo:i
652
It is stated in a Parliamentary paper issued in the session of 1869,
that whereas the then existing distribution of representation left
England and Wales to return 493 (now 489) members, Scotland 60,
and Ireland 105 (now 103), the numbers, if regulated by population,
would be 469 for England and Wales, 69 for Scotland, and 120 for
Ireland : if regulated by contributions to revenue, 496 for England
and Wales, 93 for Scotland, and 69 for Ireland; and if regulated
by the mean of the two numbers, 482 for England and Wales, 81
for Scotland, and 95 for Ireland.
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom, from the period of the Union : —
Reign
j Parliament
When met
When dissolved
] Existed
Y. M. D.
George III. .
1st
27 Sept. 1796
29 Jan. 1802
5 11 18
.,
2nd
31 Aug. 1802
24 Oct. 1806
4 1 25
3rd
15 Dec. 1806
29 Apr. 1807
0 4 15
VI
4 th
22 June 1807
24 Sept. 1812
5 3 7
»
5th
24 Nov. 1812
10 June 181 S
5 6 16
17
6th
4 Aug. 1818
29 Feb. 1820
1 6 25
George IV. .
7th
23 Apr. 1820
2 June 1826
6 19
>»
8th
14 Nov. 1826
24 July 1830
3 8 10
William IV.
9th
26 Oct. 1830
22 Apr. 1831
0 5 2S
„
10th
14 June 1831
3 Dec. 1832
1 5 20
»»
11th
29 Jan. 1833
30 Dec. 1834
1 11 1
i>
12th
19 Feb. 1835
18 July 1837
2 5 0
Victoria
13th
14 Nov. 1837
23 June 1841
3 7 9
14th
11 Aug. 1S41
23 July 1847
0 11 6
H
loth
21 Sept. 1847
1 July 1852
4 11 9 I
-
16th
4 Nov. 1852
20 Mar. 1857
4 4 16
11
17th
30 Apr. 1857
23 Apr. 1859
1 11 23
!!
18th
31 May 1859
6 July 1865
6 16
!>
19th
6 Feb. 1866
31 July 1868
2 5 25
»
20th
10 D°c. 18 68
—
—
204 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The union of Ireland with England was carried into effect Januarv
1, 1800, and the Parliament which sat the same month, and which
included the members from Ireland, is styled the first Imperial
Parliament. The Parliament which assembled January 29, 1833,
is generally styled the first Reformed Parliament.
The powers of Parliament are politically omnipotent within the
United Kingdom and its colonies and dependencies. Parliament
can make new laws, and enlarge, alter, or repeal those existing.
The parliamentary authority extends to all ecclesiastical, temporal,
civil, or military matters, as well as to altering or changing the
constitution of the realm. Parliament is the highest Court of law,
over which no other has jurisdiction.
The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested
nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of ministers,
commonly called the Cabinet, which has come to absorb the
function of the ancient Pi ivy Council, or 'the King in Council,'
the members of which, bearing the title of Right Honourable, are
sworn ' to advise the King according to the best of their cunning
and discretion,' and ' to help and strengthen the execution of
what shall be resolved.' Though not the offspring of any formal
election, the Cabinet is virtually appointed by Parliament, and
more especially by the House of Commons, its existence being
dependent on the possession of a majority in the latter assembly.
As its acts are liable to be questioned in Parliament, and require
prompt explanation, it is essential that the members of the Cabinet
should have seats in either the Upper or the Lower House, where
they become identified with the general policy and acts of the
Government.
The member of the Cabinet who fills the situation of First Lord of
the Treasury, and combined with it sometimes that of Chancellor of
the Exchequer, is the chief of the ministry, and therefore of the
Cabinet. It is at his recommendation that his colleagues are
appointed ; and he dispenses, with hardly an exception, the pa-
tronage of the Crown. Every Cabinet includes the following ten
members of the administration, the First Lord of the Treasury,
the Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the Lord
Privy Seal, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the live Secretaries
of State. A number of other ministerial functionaries, varying from
five to eight, have usually seats in the Cabinet, those most frequently
admitted being the Chief Commissioner of Works and Buildings, the
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, the First Lord of the Admi-
ralty, the President of the Board of Trade, Vice-President of Privy
Council, the Postmaster-General, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, and
the President of the Poor Law Board. The selection usually falls upon
those amongst the last-mentioned functionaries whose rank, talents,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 205
reputation, and political weight, render them the most useful auxi-
liaries, or whose services, while in opposition, may have created the
strongest claims to become members of the Cabinet. It has occasion-
ally happened that a statesman possessing high character and influence
accepted a seat in the Cabinet without undertaking the labours and
responsibilities of any particular office. Although the Cabinet has been
regarded during several generations as an essential part of the institu-
tions of Great Britain, yet it continues to be unknown to the law.
The names of the members who compose it are never officially
announced ; no record is kept of its resolutions or meetings, nor
has its existence been recognised by any Act of Parliament.
The present Cabinet, formed December 9, 1868, and altered
July 4, 1870, consists of the following sixteen members : —
1. First Lord of the Treasury. — Eight Hon. William Ewart
Gladstone, born December 29, 1809, fourth son of Sir John Glad-
stone, Bart., merchant, of Liverpool; educated at Eton, and at
Christ Church, Oxford; M.P. for Newark, 1832-45; one of the
Junior Lords of the Treasury, 1834-5 ; Under-Secretary of State
for the Colonies, January to April 1835 ; Vice-President of the
Board of Trade, 1841-3 ; President of the Board of Trade, 1843-5 ;
Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1845-0 ; M.P. for the Uni-
versity of Oxford, 1847-65 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer, De-
cember 1852 to February 1855, and again June 1859 to July
1866 ; M.P. for South Lancashire, 1865-8 ; returned M.P. for
Greenwich, Nov. 1868 ; appointed First Lord of the Treasury,
Dec. 9, 1868.
2. Lord High Chancellor. — Lord Hatherley, born 1801, second son
of Sir Matthew Wood, Bart., M.P. for the City of London ; edu-
cated at Winchester, and at Trinity College, Cambridge ; called to
the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, 1827 ; M.P. for Oxford, 1847-53 ; Vice-
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1849-51; knighted, 1851;
Solicitor- General, 1851-2 ; one of the Vice- Chancellors, 1853-68;
a Lord Justice, Feb. to Dec. 1868; appointed Lord High Chancellor,
Dec. 9, 1868 ; raised to the peerage as Lord Hatherley, Dec. 10,
1868.
3. Lord President of the Council. — Earl De Grey and Ripon,
born 1827, eldest son of the first Earl of Ripon; returned M.P. for
Huddersfield, 1853, and for the West-Riding of Yorkshire, 1 <S f> 7 ;
succeeded to the earldom, 1859 ; Under-Secretary of State for War,
1859-61 ; Secretary of State for War, 1863-6 ; Secretary of State
for India, Feb. to July 1866 ; appointed Lord President of the
Council, Dec. 9, 1868.
4. Lord Privy Seal. — Viscount Halifax, born 1 800, eldest son of
Sir Francis Lindley Wood, Bart., of Barnsley, Yorkshire, ; educated
at Oriel College, Oxford ; M.P. for Great Grimsby 1826-31 ; M.P. for
206 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Wareham, 1831-32; M.P. for Halifax, 1832-6 >; Secretary to the
Admiralty, 1835-39; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1846-52;
President to the Board of Control, 1852-55; First Lord of the
Admiralty, 1855-58 ; Secretary of State for India, 1859-66 ;
raised to the peerage as Viscount Halifax, 1866 ; appointed Lord
Privy Seal, July 4, 1870.
5. Chancellor of the Exchequer. — Right. Hon. Robert Lowe, born
1811, son of the Rev. Robert Lowe, of Bingham, Notts; educated
at Winchester, and at University College, Oxford ; called to the Bar
at Lincoln's Inn, 1842 ; one of the Secretaries of the Board of Con-
trol, 1852-5; Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 1855-8; Vice-
President of the Board of Education of the Privy Council, 1859—64 ;
M.P. for Kidderminster, 1852-9; M.P. for Calne, 1859-68; re-
turned first M.P. for the University of London November 1868 ;
appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, Dec. 9, 1868.
6. Secretary of State for the Home Department. — Right Hon
Henry Austin Bruce, born 1815, second son of John Bruce-Pryce,
Esq., of Duffryn St. Nicholas, Glamorganshire; called to the Bar at
Lincoln's Inn, 1837 ; police magistrate of Merthyr-Tydfil and Abei-
dare, 1847—52 ; Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department,
1862-4; Vice-President of Board of Education, 1865-6; M.P. for
Merthyr-Tydfil, 1852-68; returned M.P. for Renfrewshire, 1868;
appointed Secretary of State for the Home Department, Dec. :% 1868.
7. Secretary of State for Foreir/n Affairs. — Earl Granville, born
1815, eldest son of the first earl ; educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford ; returned M.P. for Morpeth, 1836, and for Lichfield,
1840 ; succeeded to the earldom, 1846 ; Vice-President of the Board
of Trade, 1848-51 ; Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1851-2 ;
Lord President of the Council, 1852-4; Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster, 1854-5; for the second time Lord President of the
Council, 1859-66; Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1868-70;
appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, July 4, 1870.
8. Secretary of State for the Colonies. — Earl Kimherley, born 1826,
grandson of second Baron Wodehouse ; educated at Eton, and at
Christ Chinch, Oxford ; succeeded to his grandfather's title, 1846 ;
Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1852-6; Ambassador
to Russia, 1856-8; again Under-Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, 1859-61 ; Lord -Lieutenant of Ireland, 1864-6 ; created
Earl of Kimberley, 1866; Lord Privy Seal, 1868-70; appointed
Secretary of State for the Colonies, July 4, 1870.
9. Secretary of State for India. — Duke of Argyll, born 1823,
eldest son of the seventh duke; succeeded to the title, 1847 ; Lord
Privy Seal, 1852-5 ; Postmaster- General, 1855-8 ; for the second
time Lord Privy Seal, 1859-66 ; appointed Secretary of State for
India, Dec. 9, 1868.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
207
10. Secretary of State for War. — Right Hon. Edward Card well,
born 181 3, son of John Card well, Esq., merchant of Liverpool; educated
at "Winchester, and at Balliol College, Oxford ; called to the Bar of
the Inner Temple, 1838 ; M.P. for Clitheroe, 1842-7 ; Secretary
to the Treasury. 1845—6; M.P. for Liverpool, 1847—52; President
of the Board of Trade, 1852-55 ; Chief Secretary for Ireland,
1859-61; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1861—4 ; Secretary
of State for the Colonies, 186-1-G ; M.P. for Oxford since 1853.
11. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Right Hon. Hugh Culling
Eardley Childei'S, born 1827, son of the Rev. Eardley Childers, of
Cantley, Yorkshire ; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; one
of the junior Lords of the Admiralty, 1864-5; Financial Secretary
to the Treasury, 18G5-G; M.P. for Pontefract since 1860; appointed
First Lord of 'the Admiralty, Dec. 9, 1868.
12. President of the Board of Trade. — Right Hon. John Bright,
born 1811, son of Jacob Bright, Esq., of Greenbank, Rochdale;
entered as chief partner in the firm of Bright & Brothers, cotton
spinners and manufacturers of Rochdale ; one of the leading mem-
bers of the Anti-corn-law League, 1838-46; M.P. for Durham,
1843-7 ; M.P. for Manchester, 1847-57 : M.P. for Birmingham
since 1857 ; appointed President of the Board of Trade, Dec. 9,
1868.
13. Postmaster-General. — Marquis of Hartington, born 1833,
eldest son of the seventh Duke of Devonshire ; educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge; one of the junior Lords of the Admiralty, March
to April 1863; Under-Secretary of State for War, 1863-6; Secre-
tary of State for War, February to July 1866; M.P. for North
Lancashire, 1857-68 ; appointed Postmaster General, Dec. 9, 1868;
returned M.P. for New Radnor, 1869.
14. President of the Poor-Law Board. — Right Hon. George Joa-
chim Goschen, born 1831, son of Wilhelm H. Goschen, Esq., banker,
of London; educated at Rugby, and at Oriel College, Oxford;
member of the firm of Friihling & Goschen, bankers, 1853-64 ;
Vice-President of the Board of Trade, November 1865 to January
1866 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, January to July 1866 ;
M.P. for the Citv of London since 1863 ; appointed President of the
Poor Law Board, Dec. 9, 1868.
15. Chief Secretary for Ireland. — Right Hon. Chichester Samuel
Fortescite, bom 1823, son of Lieut-Col. Chichester Fortescue, of
Dromisken, Co. Louth ; educated at Christ Church, Oxford ; one of
the junior Lords of the Treasury, 1854-5 ; Under-Secretary of
State for the Colonies, 1857-8, and 1859-66 ; M.P. for Louth since
1847; appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, Dec. 9, 1868.
16. Vice-President of the Committee of Privy Council on Educa-
tion.— Right Hon. William Edward Forster, born 1818, son of
208
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
William Forster, Esq., of Bradpole, Dorset; returned M.P. for
Bradford, Yorkshire, 1861 ; Under-Secretary of State for the
Colonies, 1865-66 ; appointed Vice-President of Council on Edu-
cation, Dec. 9, 1868 ; admitted a member of the Cabinet, July, 1870.
The following is a list of the heads of the various administrations
of Great Britain since the accession of the House of Hanover: —
First Lords of the Treasury Dates of Appointment
Robert Walpole
James Stanhope
Earl of Sunderland
Sir Robert Walpole
Earl of Wilmington
Henry Pelham
Duke of Newcastle
Earl of Bute .
George Grenville
Marquis of Rockingham
Duke of Grafton
Lord North
Marquis of Rockingham
Earl of Shell >urne .
Duke of Portland .
William Pitt .
Henry Addington .
William Pitt .
Lord Grenville
Duke of Portland .
Spencer Perceval
Earl of Liverpool .
George Canning
Viscount Goderich .
Duke of Wellington
Earl Grey
Viscount Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Viscount Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Lord John Russell .
Earl of Derby
Earl of Aberdeen
Viscount Palmerston
Earl of Derby
Viscount Palmerston
Earl Russell .
Earl of Derby .
Benjamin Disraeli .
William Ewart Gladstone
The list shows the average duration of each Ministry to be of
three years and eight months, or about the same as the average dura-
tion of Parliaments.
. October 10,
1714
. April 10,
1717
. March 16,
1718
. April 20,
1720
. February 11,
1742
. July 26,
1743
. April 21.
1754
. May 29,
1762
. April 16,
1763
. July 12,
1765
August 2,
1766
January 28.
1770
. March *30,
1782
. July 3,
1782
. April 5,
1783
December 27,
1783
. March 7,
1801
. May 12,
1804
January 8,
1806
. March 13,
1807
. June 23,
1810
June 8,
1812
. April 11.
1827
. August 10,
1827
. January 11,
1828
. November 12,
1830
. July 14,
1834
. December 10,
1834
. AprD. 18,
1835
. September 1,
1841
. July 3,
1846
. February 27.
1852
. December 28,
1852
February 8,
1855
February 26,
1858
. June 18,
1859
. October 18,
1865
. July 6,
1866
. February 25,
1868
e
. December 9,
1868
CHURCH AXD EDUCATION.
Church and Education.
209
The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal. Its
fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-nine
Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised and finally
settled in 1571. But though the Episcopal is the State religion, all
others are fully tolerated, and civil disabilities do not attach to any
class of British subjects.
The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church, possess-
ing the right, regulated by the 4th section of the statute 25 Hen. VIII.
c. 20, to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the
form being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the
royal licence, or conge cFelire, to proceed to the election, accompanied
by the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and after-
wards the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is
signified under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the
sees of old foundation ; the bishoprics of Gloucester and Bristol
Chester, Peterborough, Oxford, Ripon, and Manchester, are conferred
direct by letters patent from the Crown. The Queen, and the First
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown.
There are 2 archbishops and 26 bishops in England. The former
are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have within them the
inspection of the bishops, as well as of the inferior clergy, for which
purpose they undertake visitations, which are now, however, practi-
cally episcopal, not archiepiscopal, and made only as bishops within
their own dioceses. They have, assisted by at least two other
bishops, the confirmation and consecration of the bishops. They
have also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise
episcopal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, jurisdic-
tion. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs, the provinces have
each a council, or convocation, consisting of the bishops, archdeacons
and deans, in person, and of a certain number of proctors, as the
representatives of the inferior clergy, each chapter, in both provinces,
sending one, and the parochial clergy of each diocese in the province
of Canterbury, and of each archdeaconry in the province of York
sending two. These councils are summoned by the respective arch-
bishops, in pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled,
they must also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate ;
as well as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they
are binding on the clergy. In the province of Canterbury, the Con-
vocation forms two Houses; the archbishop and bishops sitting
together in the Upper House, and the inferior clergy in the Lower.
In the province of York, all sit together in one House.
England is distributed into 200 extra-parochial places, and
about 12,000 parishes. In every parish there is a parish church,
210 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
presided over by a rector, who holds the living. Whoever is in full
possession of all the rights of such parish church is called ' parson ' —
persona ecclesice — and constitutes a jural person. During his life he
has the freehold of the parsonage, the glebe-lands, the tithes, and
other dues. Occasionally these dues are ' appropriated,' that is,
the benefice is perpetually annexed to some spiritual corporation,
which, either sole or aggregate, is the patron of the living. Such cor-
poration appoints a vicar, to whom the spiritual duty belongs, in the
same manner as, in parsonages not appropriated, to the rector. The
patronage — advocatio, advoicson — is ranked under the head of real
property. Advowsons are either appendant or in gross ; appendant
when annexed to the possession of a manor, and passing by a grant
of the manor only, without any other authority. But when the
advowson has been once separated from the property of the manor,
it is called advowson in gross. The owner of the advowson is
invested with the same privileges as in landed property. "When an
alien purchases a right of presentation, the Crown has to present ; if a
Catholic, it is exercised by either university in turn. Since 1885
the right of presentation of corporate towns has been abolished.
Besides the right of presentation pertaining to the Queen, the Lord
Chancellor, the Prince of Wales, the higher clergy, the chapters, and
the universities, there are about 3,850 lords, gentlemen and ladies
in the enjoyment of private patronage.
No information regarding the number of persons belonging to the
Episcopal Church and those adhering to other religious creeds in
England is given in the last official census. It is estimated that
in the middle of the year 1870 the population of England and
Wales claiming membership with the Established Church was
about 12,600,000, leaving about 9,300,000 to other creeds.
Among the Protestant dissenters the most prominent bodies and
religious organisations are the Wesleyans, or so-called Methodists,
the Independents, or Congregationalists, and the Baptists. The
Wesleyan Body, subdivided into members of the Old and New
Connexion, Primitive and Free Church Methodists, Bible Christians,
and various other sects, is stated to possess above 9,000 places
of worship ; the Independents 3,500 ; and the Baptists 2,000. Of
more or less importance, among the other Protestant dissenters,
are the Unitarians, the Moravians, and the members of the
Society of Friends. There are altogether 146 religious denomina-
tions in Great Britain, the names of which have been given in to
the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
The number of Roman Catholics in England has greatly increased
within the last forty years. In the year 1830, there were, in
England and Wales, 434 priests; the churches Avere 410; and
there were 16 convents. The total number of Roman Catholic,
priests in England and Wales in 1869 was 1,489 ; the number
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 211
of churches, chapels, and 'mission stations' 1,122; the monasteries
or convents of men, G7 ; the nunneries, or convents of women, 214;
and the colleges 18, including some preparatory colleges. Of the
Roman Catholic chapels in England and Wales in 1869, there were
640 registered for marriages. There were thirteen high dignitaries
of the Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales in the year
1869, namely, one archbishop and twelve bishops in England pre-
siding over as many ' dioceses,' united in the so-called ' Province of
Westminster.' The Roman Catholic Church in Scotland was presided
over, in 1869, by four bishops, and geographically divided, not into
' dioceses,' but into ' districts.' These were three in number, the
Eastern, the Western, and the Northern. These districts numbered
201 clergy, who served 207 chapels and mission stations. Besides
these, there were in Scotland 18 convents for women and two
colleges. The total Roman Catholic population of Great Britain
was estimated in 1869 at 2,000,000.
The Church of Scotland differs in many and important respects
from the Episcopal Church of England. The Scottish Church is a
perfect democracy, all the members being equal, none of them having
power or pre-eminence of any kind over another. There is in each
parish a parochial tribunal, called a kirk session, consisting of the
minister, who is always resident, and of a greater or smaller number
of individuals, of whom, however, there must always be two selected
as elders. The principal duty of the latter is to superintend the
affairs of the poor, and to assist in visiting the sick. The session
interferes in certain cases of scandal, calls parties before it, and
inflicts ecclesiastical penalties. But parties who consider themselves
aggrieved may appeal from the decisions of the kirk session to the
presbytery in which it is situated, the next highest tribunal in the
church. The General Assembly, which consists partly of clerical
and partly of lay members, chosen by the different presbyteries,
boroughs, and universities, comprises 386 members, and meets
annually in May, sitting for ten days, the matters not decided
during this period being left to a commission.
The dissenters from the Church of Scotland are very numerous,
being estimated as comprising from one-half to two-thirds of the
entire population. The largest body is the Free Church formed from
a secession in 1843. Next is the United Presbyterian Church, re-
cently formed from the amalgamation of several bodies of seceders,
some dating as far back as 1741. The Established, the Free, and
the United Presbyterian Churches may be said to divide the Scottish
nation among them. There are also bodies of Baptists, Indepen-
dents, Methodists, and Unitarians. The Roman Catholics have in-
creased largely of late years, chiefly from the influx of Irish popu-
lation. There is an Episcopal Church which includes a large portion
p 2
212 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
of the nobility and gentry, and is said to be growing. Its members
were estimated, in 18G9, at 25,000.
The census of Ireland in 18G1 stated that there were 4,505,265
Roman Catholics, 693,357 persons belonging to the Established
Church, 523,291 Presbyterians, 45,399 Methodists, 4,532 Inde-
pendents, 4,237 Baptists, 3,695 Quakers, 393 Jews, and 15,666
individuals of other persuasions.
The Roman Catholic Church is under four archbishops, of Armagh,
Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three bishops. Eight of the
bishops, viz. Ardagh, Clogher, Derry, Down and Connor, Dromore,
Kilmore, Meath, and Raphoe, are suffragan to Armagh. Dublin
has but three suffragans, viz. Kildare and Leighlin united, Ferns, and
Ossory. Six are suffragan to Cashel, namely Ardfert and Aghadoe
usually called the Bishop of Kerry, Cloyne, and Ross — Cork,
Killaloe, Limerick, Waterford, and Lismore. Tuam has four suffra-
gans, viz. Achonry, Clonfert, Killala, and Galway. The bishop of the
united dioceses of Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora is alternately suffragan
to the archbishops of Tuam and Cashel. The wardenship of Galway,
formerly an exempt jurisdiction, subject only to the triennial visita-
tion of the archbishop of Tuam, has been lately erected into a
bishopric, under its former archiepiscopal jurisdiction. On the
death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese elect a vicar-capitular,
who exercises spiritual jurisdiction during the vacancy. They
also nominate one of their own body, or sometimes a stranger, as
successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postulate or petition
the Pope. The bishops of the province also present the names of
two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The new bishop is
generally chosen from among this latter number ; but the appoint-
ment virtually rests with the cardinals, who constitute the congregation
de propaganda fide. Their nomination is submitted to the Pope, by
whom it is usually confirmed. In cases of old age or infirmity, the
bishop nominates a coadjutor, to discharge the episcopal duties in his
stead ; and his recommendation is almost invariably attended to.
The emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, &c, and from the
cathedraticum. The last is an annual sum, varying from 21. to
10Z., according to the value of the parish, paid by the incumbent, in
aid of the maintenance of the episcopal dignity. The parochial
clergy are nominated exclusively by the bishop. The incomes of
all descriptions of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland arise partly
from fees on the celebration of births, marriages, and masses ; and
partly, and principally, from Christmas and Easter dues, and other
voluntary offerings. All places of worship are built by subscription.
There are numerous monasteries and convents.
The established Protestant Church of Ireland, formerly in union
with the Church of England, under two archbishops, and ten bishops,
CHURCH AND EDUCATION.
213
has ceased to be a state establishment. By 32 and 33 Vict., can. 42,
'An Act to put an end to the Establishment of the Church of
Ireland,' which obtained the royal sanction on July 26, 1869 it
was decreed that ' on and after January 1, 1871, the Union created
by Act of Parliament between the Churches of England and Ireland
shall be dissolved, and the Church of Ireland shall cease to be
established by law.'
Public education has made vast progress in Great Britain within
the last quarter of a century, though, according to the test of educa-
tion supplied by grown-up persons signing their names or having
to make their mark, a great difference exists in the prevalence of
elementary knowledge in different counties of England. The last
returns issued, for 1868, show that among the men who married in
that year only 65" 1 in 100 marrying in Monmouthshire wrote their
names; 66-l in Suffolk, 66*5 in Staffordshire, 67-8 in Bedfordshire,
68-5 in North Wales, 69-8 in Herefordshire, and 69-9 in South
Wales. On the other hand, 85 -4 in 100 marrying in Northumber-
land in 1868 wrote their names, 86"1 in Rutland, 86-6 in extra-
metropolitan Middlesex, 88*7 in Westmoreland, and. 909 in London.
Among the women in Lancashire only 58-l in 100 wrote their
names, only 57-9 in Monmouthshire, 57'6 in Staffordshire, 56-2 in
North Wales, 53*2 in South Wales ; on the other hand, as many as
82-1 women in 100 wrote their names in Oxfordshire, 83 in Kent,
84-6 in Hampshire, 85 -8 in London, 86*6 in Sussex, 87:2 in West-
moreland, 88 in Middlesex, and 88*1 in Surrey. A full-comparison
of the lists shows that the uneducated are found in greater numbers
among mining and manufacturing populations than in the agri-
cultural portions of the kingdom. The returns, as a whole, show
a decided improvement. Thirty years ago, in 1841, only 67-3 in
100 of the men marrying in England signed their names upon the
register, and 5P2 in 100 of the women ; 20 years ago, in 1851, 69"2
of the men and 547 of the women signed their names; 10 vears
ago, in 1861, 754 of the men and 65-3 of the women signed;" and
in 1868, the latest return, 79'9 of the men and 72-2 of the women
signed their names. Out of 100 men marrying, the marriage register
was signed in 1868 by 13 more than in 1841 ; in 100 women by 21
more than in 1841. In round numbers, it may be stated that the last
returns show one out of every five grown-up persons in England with-
out education, as far as measured by the test of writing their names.
An important measure towards the further spread of education in
England was passed by Parliament in the session of 1870. By 33
Victoria, cap. 75, entitled 'An Act to provide for Public Elemen-
tary Education in England and Wales,' it is ordered that ' there
shall be provided for every school district a sufficient amount of
accommodation in public elementary schools available- for all the
children resident in such district, for whose elementary education.
214
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made.' It is enacted
further that all children attending these ' public elementary schools,'
•whose parents are unable, from poverty, to pay anything towards
their education, shall be admitted free, and the expenses so incurred
be discharged from local rates. The new schools are placed in each
district under " School boards," invested with great powers, among
others that of making it compulsory upon parents to give all children
between the ages of five and thirteen the advantages of education.
The following official return, relating to the Primary Schools in
Great Britain, gives a view of the progress of education within the
years 18G1-G9 : —
Years ended 31st August
Number of
Schools
inspected
Number of Chil-
dren who can be
accommodated
Average number
of Children in
attendance
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1861
1862
1863
1864
I860
1866
1867
1868
1869
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
England and Wales (including Isle of JIan and
Roman Catholic Schools for Great Britain)
6,259
6,113
6,227
6,470
6,867
7,134
7,601
8,051
8.592
1,215,782
1,292,560
1,315,988
1,332,553
1,470.473
1,510,721
1,605,409
1,724.569
1,838,416
773.831
813,850
846.805
862.817
901.750
919.922
978,3:i2
1,060,082
1,153.572
Scotland, exclusive of Roman Catholic Schools
1,446
1,456
1,512
1,421
1,573
1,619
1,739
1,843
1,745
180,701
183,680
196,794
188.904
207.335
213,487
231. S98
246,041
237,928
146,104
150,999
162,120
148,317
155,995
162.133
169,131
181.698
179.214
Total for Great Britain
7,705
7,569
7,739
7,891
8,438
8.753
9,340
9,894
10,337
1,396.483
1,476,240
1,512,782
1.521.457
1,677,808
1,724.208
1,837,307
1.970,610
2,076.344
919,935
964,849
1,008.925
1,011,134
1.057.745
1,082.055
1,147,463
1,211.780
1,332.786
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
2I5
The annual parliamentary grants to popular education in Great
Britain, which amounted to 30,000/. in 1840, rose to 83,406/. in
1848 ; to 180,110/. in 1850 ; to 326,436/. in 1854; to 668,873/. in
1858 ; and to 774,743/. in 1862. In 1863, the grant was reduced
to 721,386/.; in 1864, to 655,036/. ; in 1865, to 636,306/.; in
1866, to 649,006/.; in 1867, to 682,201/.; and in 1868, to
680,429/.; while in 1869 it was raised again' to 840,711/., and in
1870 to 914,721/., being an increase of 74,010/. over the vote for
1869—70. The grants for popular education in Ireland amounted to a
total of 2,948,669/. in theten years 1860-69 ; in 1868, itwas 360,195/. ;
and in 1869, it was 373,950/. A return stating, for the year ending
August 31, 1868, the actual income of 8,937 schools. in Great
Britain receiving annual grants from the Parliamentary vote, and
having an average attendance of 1,197,975, shows that they re-
ceived the largest item of their income, 508,772/., from the school
pence; from the Government, 484,010/.; from voluntary con-
tributions, the schools having 194,745 subscribers, 443,523/.;
66,820/. from endowments, and 43,008/. from various sources,
bringing the whole income of the year to 1,546,933/. The expen-
diture rather exceeded that amount, and averaged 1/. 5s. lie/, per
scholar. As regards Ireland, during the ten years 1860-69 the sums
voted for public education represented a total of 2,948,669/., the
amount raised by school fees was only 360,363/., and by local sub-
scriptions and from endowments, 111,437/.; the two items together
amounting to but 471,801/., or less than a sixth of the sums voted
by Parliament.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The following statement gives the official account of the gross
and the net public revenue of the United Kingdom for the financial
year ending March 31, 1870 : —
Sources of revenue
Gross receipts
Net receipts
& s. d.
& s. d.
Customs ....
23,569.892 17 6
21,449,843 4 8
Excise .....
22,605,285 3 6^
"]
Stamps .....
m f Land and Assessed .
\ Property and Income
9,545,751 6 4^-
4.551,021 14 1H
145,799,386 4 10|
10,243,342 1 10
J
Post Office ....
4.687,260 12 10j
4.671,230 0 H
Telegraph Service .
107,479 16 9
100,760 16 5
Crown Lands
447,723 11 4
447,723 11 4
Miscellaneous
Total ....
3,205,252 10 6
3,205.252 10 6
78,960,009 15 7|
75,674,196 8 0|
2l6
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The following statement exhibits the official account of the gross'
expenditure of the United Kingdom for the financial year ending
March 31, 1870 :—
22,434,760 16
4,365,848 8
89,750 0
149,098 12
Debt:
Interest and Management of the Perma-
nent Debt
Terminable Annuities ....
Interest of Exchequer Bonds
Interest of Exchequer Bills
Interest of Bank Advances for Deficiency
Interest of Bank Advances in aid of
Ways and Means ....
Charges on Consolidated Fund :
Civil List . . _ .
Annuities and Pensions
Salaries and Allowances
Diplomatic Salaries and Pensions
Courts of Justice
Miscellaneous Charges
Supply Services :
Army
Navy .....
Abyssinian Expedition
Miscellaneous Civil Services
Salaries, Superannuations &c. of Cus
toms and Inland Revenue
Ditto ditto of Post Office
Telegraph Service
Packet Service .
Total Ordinary Expenditure .
Expenses of Fortifications .....
Total Expenditure (including Fortifications) .
d.
8
2
0
7
8,874 12 10
5,227 7 9
405.941
4
6
290.405
3
10
141,711
4
5
56,096
9
5
645,398
5
0
190,580
18
3
. 13,565,400
0
0
. 9,757,290
0
0
1.300,000
0
0
9,303,013
16
6
s-
2.557,802
9
8
;e 2,316.000
0
0
60.000
0
0
1,221,552
9
11
d.
27,077,529 18 0
1,730,133 5 5
40,221,058 16 1
68,864,751 19 6
200.000 0 0
69,064,751 19 6
It will be seen that the total gross revenue of the United Kingdom
in the year ended March 31, 1870, amounted to 78,9.00,009/. lbs. l^d.
The total gross expenditure was 69,064,75 11. 19s. (W., showing an
excess of revenue over expenditure of 9,895,257/. 16s. lfd. The
balance in the Exchequer on March 31, 1870, consisted of the sum
of 8,606,647/. lis. 2d., being 3,S99,388/. 19s. lid. more than the
balance at the same date of the previous year.
The following statement gives an abstract of the gross produce of
the revenue of the United Kingdom, in the four quarterly
periods, ended September 30, 1870, and of the year ended September,
compared with the preceding year : —
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
217
Quarters ended
'
Sources of
Revenue
Dec. 31, 1869
March 31, 1870
June 30, 1870
Sept. 30, 1870
£
£
£
£
Customs
5,740,000
4,941,000
5,033,000
4,828,000
Excise
5,452,000
7,014,000
5,266,000
4,559,000
Stamps
2,158,000
2,425,000
2,262,000
2,120,000
Taxes
595,000
2,157.000
699,000
93,000
Property-tax
643,000
5,784,000
890,000
448,000
' Post Office
1,180,000
1,170,000
1,170,000
1,110.000
Telegraph Service
—
100,000
140,000
100,000
Crown Lands
113.000
114,000
75,000
75,000
Miscellaneous
Totals .
650,702
1,123,766
773,594
869,413
16,531,702-
24,828,766
16,308,594
14,21)2,413
Year ended »
5ept. 30, 1870
Sources of
Revenue
Year ended
Sept. 30, 1870
Tear ended
Sept. 30, 18G9
Increase
Decrease
£
£
£
£
Customs
20.542,000
22.331,000
—
1,789,000
Excise
22,291.01)11
20,718,000
1,573,000
—
Stamps
8,965,000
9,427,000
—
462,000
Taxes
3.544,000
3,466,000
78,000
—
Property-tax
7,765,000
8,906,000
—
1,141,000
Post Office
4,630,000
4,670,000
—
40,000
Telegraph Service
340,000
—
340.000
—
Crown Lands
377.000
362,000
15,000
Miscellaneous .
Totals .
3,417,475
3,382,767
34,708
—
71,871,475
73,262,767
2,040,708
3,432,000
Net decrease
—
—
—
1,391,292
The budget estimate? for the financial year 1870-71 — laid by the
Chancellor of the Exchequer before the House of Commons on
April 11, 1870 — were as follows: —
Estimated Expenditure, 1870-71.
Estimated Revenue, 1870-71.
£
Customs . . . 21,650,000
Excise .
Stamps .
Income-tax .
Assessed taxes
Post-office
Telegraphs
Crown lands .
Miscellaneous
Total Revenue
21,640,000
8.700,000
7,600,000
2,850,000
4,900.000
675,000
385.000
3,050.000
71.450,000
Interest and management £
of Debt . . . 26,650,000
Consolidated Fund Charges 1.820. noil
Army
Navy
Civil Service .
Collection of Revenue
Packet Sennce
Telegraph Service .
12,975,000
9.251.000
9,990,000
4.960.000
1.107.000
360,000
67,113,000
Total Expenditure
According to these estimates, there was a calculated surplus in
the financial year ending March 31, 1871, of 4.oo7,000/., to which
2l8
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
the Chancellor of the Exchequer proposed to add 150,000/., the
computed produce of a new licence, thus making the total estimated
surplus 4,487,000/. The disposal of this surplus -was laid in
remissions ol taxes to the total estimated amount of 4,156,000Z., the
main items being remission of sugar duties to the amount of
2,350,000/., and of income-tax to the amount of 1,250,000/. The
propositions of the Chancellor of the Exchequer having been adopted
by the House of Commons, the votes left the final summary of the
budget estimates for the financial year 1870-71 as follows: —
Estimated excess of revenue over expenditure
Gains by new licence ....
Estimated total surplus ....
Reductions in taxation ....
4,487,000
4,156.000
331,000
Estimated actual surplus ....
A supplementary vote of expenditure of 2,000,000/., passed by
the House of Commons, August 2, 1870, 'towards defraying the
expenses incurred in maintaining the naval and military services of
the kingdom,' converted the estimated surplus of 331,000/. into a
deficit amounting to 1,669,000/.
The following table shows the total amounts of the estimated and
actual revenue for the last sixteen years, together with the proportion
of actual receipts per head of population of the United Kingdom : —
Revenue
Proportion
of receipts
Years ended
Estimated
Actual receipts
More (+)
in the
at the
or less ( — )
per head
Budgets
Exchequer
than Budget
of
population
Net amounts
£
£
£
£ .<:. <!.
March 31, 1855 .
59,496,000
59,496,154
+ 154
2 3 0
1856 .
1857 .
67,139,000
65.704.491
-1,434.509
2 7 3
2 12 1
Gross amounts
71,740.000
72,334.062
+ 594.062
1858 .
66,365.000
67,881,513
+ 1,516.513
2 8 3
1859 .
63.920,000
65,477.284
+ 1.557.284
2 6 3
1860 .
69,460,000
71,089,669
+ 1,629.669
2 9 10
1861 .
72,248,000
70,283,674
-1,964.326
2 8 11
1862 .
70,283.000
69,674.479
- 608,521
2 8 3
1863 .
70,050.000
70,603.561
+ 553,561
2 8 4
1864 .
68.171.iioo
To. 2os. 061
+ 2.037,964
2 7 9
1865 .
67,128.000
70,313.436
+ 3,185.436
2 7 7
,. 1866 .
66,392,000
67,812.292
+ 1.420,292
2 5 7
1867 .
67,013.000
69, 134.568
+ 2.421,568
2 6 5
1868 .
69,970,000
69.600.21 S
- 369,782
2 6 2
1869 .
73,150,000
72.591.991
— 558.009
2 7 9
1870 .
73,515,000
75,434,252
+ 1.919,252
2 9 3
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
219
The following table shows the total amount of the estimated and
actual expenditure for the last sixteen years, with the difference
between the calculated and real expenses, and the proportion of
actual payments per head of population of the United King-
dom : —
Years ended
Expenditure
Proportion
of
expenditure
per head of
population
of the
United
Kingdom
Estimated
Actual pay-
More ( + )
in the
ments out of
or less ( — )
Budgets
the Exchequer
than Budget
Net amounts
£
£
£
& s. d.
March 31, 1855
63,039,000
65,692,962
653,962
2 7 6
1856
1857
86,034,000
88,428,345
+ 2,394,345
3 3 7
2 14 4
Gross amounts
81.113,000
75,588,667
-5,524,333
1858
65,434,000
68,128.859
+ 2,694,859
2 8 3
1859
63,610,000
64,663,882
+ 1,053,882
2 6 3
1860
69,207,000
69,502,289
+ 295,289
2 9 10
1861
73.534,000
72,792,059
- 741,941
2 8 11
1862
69,875,000
71,116.485
+ 1.241,485
2 8 3
1863
70,040,000
69,302. (ins
- 737,992
2 8 4
1864
68,283,000
67,056,286
-1,226,714
2 7 9
1865
67,249,000
66,462,206
- 786,794
2 7 7
„ 1866
67,349,000
65,914,357
-1,434,643
2 5 7
1867
67,031,000
66,780,396
+ 250,604
2 6 5
„ 1868
71,287,000
71,236.242
- 50,758
2 6 2
1869
77,858,000
74,971,816
-2,885,184
2 7 9
1870
68,498,000
68,864,752
+ 366,752
2 9 3
The expenditure for 1859-60 included 858,057/. for military ope-
rations in China, not provided for in the budget estimates ; and the
expenditure for the seven years 1860-67 was irrespective of the
amount paid for fortifications, provided for by annuities, under the
Acts 23, 24, 25, and 26 Vict., and not estimated in the budget.
The expenditure for the financial periods 1868 and 1869 included
supplemental votes for the Abyssinian expedition to the amount of
5.600.000/., and of other services to the amount of 1,268,000/. — being
a total of 6,868,000/. extraordinary disbursements.
It will be seen from the above tables that, as regards the ten last
•financial periods, in each of the two years ending March 31, 1861
and 1862 respectively, there was a deficiency of revenue, the amount
of such deficiency being 2,508,385/. in 1861, and 1,442,006/. in
1862, and that in each of the five subsequent years there was a
large surplus — viz. 1,301,553/. in 1863, 3,152,678/. in 1864,
220
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
8,851,230?. in 1865, 1,897,9852. in 18G6, and 2,654,172/. in 1867.
But in the year ending March 31, 1868, there was again a con-
siderable deficit, namely, 1,636,024/., which increased to 2,380,835/.
in the year ending March 31, 1869, the deficit of both periods being
due entirely to the expenditure of the expedition to Abyssinia. The
financial year 1869-70, to make up for these deficits, showed the
vast surplus of 6,569,500/., representing the largest ever known.
During what maybe called the surplus period, there has been an un-
interrupted reduction of taxation. The details of the changes made in
taxationinthe eight years from 1861-2, to 1869-70, were as follows: —
Years,
ending
Mar.31
Taxes repealed or
reduced
Estimated
Amount
Taxes imposed
Estimated
Amount
Customs : —
£
Customs : —
£
Repealed :
Chicory, raw or 1
kiln-dried . J
' Excise : —
15,000
Hats or bonnets 1
of straw . J
285
Paper, books, 1
and prints . J
29,743
Duty on chicory -^
increased from |
Reduced :
5s. Qd. to 8s. Qd. J
Hops .
5,372
per cwt. ; licen-
1862
Wine . .
Excise :
244,158
ces to retail spi- >
rits in bottles,
5,000
Paper duty repealed 1,350.000
table beer, and i
Property tax re- 1
duced . J
1,060,000
methylated
spirits . . J
Total .
Stamps : — imposed .
Total .
60,000
2,689,558
80.000
Customs : —
Excise : —
Hup duty repealed .
Excise :
9S,671
Brewers' licences: ^
— increased . J
230,000
Hop duty repealed :
250,000
Victuallers' occa- \
1863
Stamps .
5,000
sional licences
Duty on chicory : f
increased . )
Stamps: — increa- 1
sed or imposed . J
Total .
2,000
20,500
Total .
252,500
353,671
( iustoms: —
Customs : —
Duties reduced :
Duty on Chicory : ")
Tea . . .1,641,541
— increased . J
6,811
Tobacco . . 7-1,055
Excise: —
Charges on bills
Chicory : -increased
1,000
1864
of Jading re-
180,723
Stage carriages
11,000
pealed
Beer dealers :-ad- ~|
ditional licence J
Beer retailers
Total .
2,000
10.000
Property tax re- )
duced . 5
2,750,000
Total .
4,646,319
30,811
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
221
Tears,
ending
Mar.3]
Taxes repealed or
reduced
Estimated
Amount
Taxes imposed
Estimated
Amount
Customs : —
£
Excise : —
£
Reduced :
Occasional licen- \
Sugar & molasses
1,7H,272
ces to beer and
Confectionery
3,112
wine retailers -
and dealers in
1,000
Excise: —
tobacco . '
Tea licences reduced
1-5,000
Sugar used in ]
Stamps : —
brewing: — Duty [■
6,000
1865
increased . j
Licences trans- )
ferred to the l
excise . j
Licences : — vari- \
ous trade, trans- 1
110,000
ferred from j
110,000
Fire insurance 1
duty . . J
Property tax re- ~|
duced . J
Total .
255,000
Stamps . J
1,230,000
Chicory duty in- "£
creased . _)
2,000
3,354,384
119,000
Customs : —
Customs : —
Tea duty reduced .
2,214,981
Sugar cane juice "I
1,576
Excise: —
duty increased J
Malt duty reduced .
10,000
1866
Stamps : —
Fire insurance "1
duty reduced J
Taxes :—
Property tax re-~\
duced . /
Total .
520,000
2,600,000
1,576
5,344,981
Customs : —
Repealed : Pepper .
124,171
Timber and wood .
314,221
Ships built of wood
7,070
Reduced : Wine ?
in bottles . . J
71,000
1867
Excise: —
Mileage duties of "J
stage carriages \
reduced . . J
Post horse li-1
cences reduced . J
Total .
69,000
16,000
601,462
Stamps : —
Excise : —
1868
Marine Insu-T
ranees reduced . J
210,000
Dog licences"!
transferred from 1
Assessed Taxes : —
Assessed taxes |
150,000
Duties on Dogs )
reduced . . J
105,000
at reduced rate J
222
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Years,
ending
Mar. 31
Taxes repealed or
reduced
Estimated
Amount
Taxes imposed
Estimated
Amount
Taxes: —
1868
Total .
Income-tax in- ~\
creased . . J
Total. .
1,450,000
1,600,000
315,000
Taxes :—
1869
Nil .
Income-tax in- "1
creased . . J
1,450,000
Customs : —
Customs : —
Repealed : Corn, "1
grain, meal, and >
flour . . J
Beer, spruce : in- "j
114
85,3,581
creased . J
Other farina- 1
ceous substances /
8,855
Reduced:
Beer and ale, ^
1,251
except spruce J
Total .
Excise : —
865,687
Excise: — ■
Repealed :
Licences imposed in
Tea dealers' li- "1
73,000
lieu of Assessed
cences . J
Taxes repealed :
Post horse .
135,000
Armorial Bearings
76,000
Stage carriage"!
Carriages
435,000
duty a ad li- >
47,000
Horses
381,000
1870
cences . J
Servants
205,000
Hackneycarriage 1
Horse Dealers
16,000
duty a n d 1 i- >
111,000
cences . J
Total .
Stamps : —
Total
366,000
1,113,000
Repealed :
Fire Insurance ~\
duty . . /
1,000,000
Assessed taxes, re-
pealed, and licences
substituted :
Hair powder
995
Armorial bearings
68,430
Carriages
407,474
Horses
438,122
Servants
234,596
Horse dealers
17,366
1^166,98:5
Income-tax :
Reduced:
1,1.10,1)01)
i
Total .
1,848,670
Total 1,113,114
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
223
The subjoined table gives an abstract of total alterations of taxes
from 1855 to 1869 : —
Repealed or
Actual
Reduced
Imposed
Diminution
&
£
£
Customs .....
12,092,010
2.836,484
9,255,526
Excise .....
4,441,000
4,153,000
288,000
Property and Income-tax .
20,315,000
10,300,000
10,015,000
Other Taxes ....
1,411,983
—
1,411,983
Stamps (including Succession
Duty)
Total ....
2,350,000
411,200
1,938,800
40,609,993
17,700,684
22,909,309
The most important of direct taxes, that upon incomes, under-
went fourteen alterations from the time it was established in its
present form, in 1842, till the year 1870. On its introduction, the
income-tax was fixed at Id. in the potmd, which rate was
maintained until 1854, when it was doubled in consequence of the
war with Russia, and in 1855 it was further raised to 16d. The
war being ended, the rate was reduced again to Id. in 1857. In
1858 it was reduced to 5c?., in 1859 raised to 9d., in 1860 to 10c?.,
in 1861 reduced to 9c?., in 1863 to 7c?., in 1864 to 6d., in 1865 to
4c?., in 1867 raised to 5c?., in 1868 to 6c?., in 1869 reduced to 5c?.,
and, finally, in 1870, it was once more reduced to Ad., or the 60th
part of a pound sterling.
The total amount annually raised by local taxation to provide for
expenditure connected with the relief of the poor, county and
borough police, roads and bridges, drainage and lighting of towns, &c,
is estimated —
£
For England and Wales, in the year 1870, at . . 20,500,000
„ Scotland „ „ . 2,000,000
,, Ireland „ „ . 2,500,000
Making a total for the United Kingdom of . £25,000,000
The total here given is in the proportion of 16s. per head of the
population of the United Kingdom.
If the sums raised for public and local purposes be added together,
the total taxation of the United Kingdom in the year ended 31st
March, 1870, amounted to about 100,500,000/., or 31. 5s. per head
of the population.
The largest branch of national expenditure, amounting to more
than the total revenue from local taxation in the United Kingdom,
is the interest on the National Debt. The debt, offspring of a
series of deficits, produced by extraordinary expenditure for the
224-
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
army and navy in periods of war, dates from the time of the Revolution,
and grew up in the proportions sketched in the following table : —
Historical Periods
Capital of Debt,
fancied and
unfunded
Interest
and manage-
ment
♦ Debt at the revolution, in 1689
Excess of debt contracted during the reign
of "William III. above debt paid off
Debt at the accession of Queen Anne, in 1 702
Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign
Debt at the accession of George I., in 1714
Debt paid off during the reign of George
I., above debt contracted
Debt at the accession of George II., in 1727
Debtcontraetedfrom the accession of George
II. till the peace of Paris in 1763, three
years after the accession of George III.
Debt in 1763
Paid during peace, from 1763 to 1775
Debt at the commencement of the American
war, in 1775
Debt contracted during the American war
Debt at the conclusion of the American war,
in 1784
Paid during peace from 1784 to 1793
Debt at the commencement of the French
war, in 1793
Debt contracted during the French war
Total funded and unfunded debt on the 1st
of February, 1817, when the English and
Irish exchequers were consolidated
Debt cancelled from the 1st of February,
1817, to 5th of January, 1836
Debt, and charge thereon 5th of January,
1836
Debt, and charge thereon 31st of March,
1870
£
664,263.
15,730,439
£
39,855
1,271,087
16,394.702
.37,750,661
1,310,942
2,040,416
54,145,363
2,053,125
3,351,358
1,133,807
52,092,238
86,773,192
2,217,551
2,634,500
138,865,430
10.281,795
4,852,051
380,480
128,583,635
121,267,993
4,471,571
4,980,201
249,851,628
10,501,380
9,451,772
243,277
239,350,148
601,500,343
9,208,495
22,829,696
840,850,491
32,038,191
53,211,675
2,894,674
787,638,816
29,143,517
747,551,048
27,046,653
The state of the national debt for the
to 1870, has been as follows : —
sixteen years, from 1856
ARMY.
225
Financial Years ending
March 31
Funded
Unfunded
Total
£
*
*
, 1856 .
775,730.994
28.182,700
803,913,694
, 1857 .
780,119,722
27,989.000
808,108,722
, 1858 .
779,225,495
25,911,500
805.136,995
1859 .
786,801,154
18.277,400
805.078,554
I860 .
785,962,000
16,228,300
802,190,300
1861 .
785,119.609
16,689,000
801,808,609
1862 .
784,252,338
16,517,900
800,770,238
1863 .
783,306,739
16,495,400
799,802,139
1864 .
777,429,224
13,136,000
790,565,224
, 1865 .
775.768,295
10,742,500
786,510,795
, 1866 .
773,313,229
8,187,700
781,500,929
, 1867 .
769,541.004
7,956,800
777,497,804
, 1868 .
741,190,328
7,911,100
749,101,428
1869 .
740,418,032
8,896,100
749,314,132
1870 .
740,789,548
6,761,500
747,551,048
There are to the charge of the funded debt, not included in the
above statement, a constantly varying amount of terminable
annuities, the estimated capital of which, computed in 3 per cent,
stock, amounted on the 31st of March, 1870, to 53,130,380/.
The balance in the Exchequer for the sixteen years 1855-70
amounted to : —
Financial Years ended
Amount
Financial Years ended
Amount
March 31, 1855
3,949,775
Marcli 31, 1863 .
£
7,263,839
1856 .
5,600,621
„ 1864 .
7,352,548
1857 .
8,668,371
1865 .
7,690,922
1858 .
6,657,802
1866 .
5,851,314
„ 1859
7,789,083
„ 1867 .
7,294,151
1860
7,972,864
1868 .
4,781,846
1861 .
6,672,132
1869 .
4,707,259
1862 .
5,288,676
1870 .
8,606,647
Taking the population of the United Kingdom according to the
census of 1861, the average share of each individual in the capital
of the national debt amounted, in 1869, to 2bl. 9s. 10d., while that
in the annual interest was 17s. Id.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The maintenance of a standing army, in time of peace, without the
consent of Parliament, is prohibited by the Bill of Eights of 1690.
226 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
From that time to the present, the number of troops which the
security of the kingdom and its possessions rendered it necessary to
maintain, as well as the cost of the different branches of the service
in detail, have been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House of
Commons. The amount of the military force to be maintained for
the year is always a matter for the decision of the government. The
qitestion is annually brought under consideration, shortly before the
commencement of the parliamentary session, at a meeting of the
Cabinet, when, on the basis of communications made by the Com-
mander-in-Chief, or the Field Marshal commanding-in-chief,* a deci-
sion is arrived at as to the number of officers and men, of each arm
of the service, to be maintained for the coming year. Upon this
decision, the Secretary of State for War frames the ' Army Esti-
mates,' or detailed accounts of the strength and cost of the army,
which are submitted in chapters, or ' votes ' — 27 in the estimates of
1870-71 — to the approval of the House of Commons.
Parliament exercises another important means of control over the
army. In time of war, or rebellion, troops are subject to martial law,
and might be punished for mutiny or desertion. But as soon as
armies began to be maintained in time of peace, questions of discipline
arose. The common law, which then alone prevailed, knew of no
distinction between a citizen and a soldier ; so that, if the soldier
deserted, he could not be punished for breach of contract ; if he
struck his officer, he was only liable to an indictment for the assault
Such questions soon came before the tribunals, and Chief Justice
Holt, when Eecorder of, London, decided that, although the King
may by his prerogative, enlist soldiers, even in time of peace, still,
if there was no statute passed to punish mutiny and to subject them
to a particular discipline, they could not be punished for any military
offence, and they were only amenable to the same laws as the rest
of the King's subjects. Hence the authority of Parliament became
necessary for the maintenance of military discipline. Parliament
granted this in an Act, limited in its duration to one year, which
Act was subsequently passed at the commencement of every session
under the name of the ' Mutiny Act,' investing the Crown with large
powers to make regulations for the good government of the army,
and to frame the Articles of War, which form the military code.
Subject to such restrictions, the army has now become a recognised
part of the constitution. Parliament nevertheless retains the power
* The difference between Commander-in-Chief and Field-Marshal Com-
nianding-in-Chief is that the Commander-in-Chief is appointed by patent for
life, while the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief is nominated by a letter of
service, and holds his appointment during Her Majesty's pleasure. The Duke
of Cambridge, actual head of the British Army, is the Field-Marshal com-
nmnding-in-chief, and not, as sometimes called, Commander-in-Chief.
ARMY.
227
to make any reduction in its numbers, or even to terminate its legal
existence by a single vote.
According to the army estimates laid before the House of Commons
in the session of 1870, the total force of the United Kingdom, during
the year 1870— 71, is to consist of 115,037 men. This force is composed
of the following regiments, depots, and training establishments : —
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
Branches of the Military Service
Officers
trumpeters,
Rank and
and
file
drummers
Officers on the General and Departmental
Staff
1,239
—
—
Regiments :
Royal horse artillery ....
78
138
1,834
Life guards and horse guards
81
192
1,029
Cavalry of the line . .
475
969
7.733
Royal artillery
»
661
1,550
12,866
Riding establishment
.
7
13
205
Royal engineers
393
564
3,879
Army Service Corps
.
8
386
1,801
Foot guards .
.
237
4S3
5,220
Infantry of the line
2,934
6,468
51,990
Army hospital corps
1
165
694
West India regiments
.
104
150
1,680
Colonial corps
Total
58
149
1,632
6,276
11,197
90,593
Depots of Indian Regiments :
27
54
513
Total
200
600
5,000
227
654
5,513
Recruiting and teaching Establishments:
Cavalry riding school ....
2
2
— ,
Infantry depots .....
5
9
—
Recruiting establishments
6
17
—
Instruction in gunnery and engineering .
Total
Training Schools and Factories:
10
57
62
23
85
62
Cadet company, Woolwich
10
20
9
Royal military college. Sandhurst .
17
30
1
Regimental schools and factories
32
281
7
Total
59
331
17
Q 2
228
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Years 18C8-G3.
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,
and
drummers
Rank and
file
Recapitulation :
Total, general and departmental staff
„ regiments ....
„ depots of Indian regiments .
„ recruiting and teaching establish-^
ments .... J
,, training schools and factories.
Total force, officers and men, the cost of ~\
which is defrayed from Army Grants/
1,239
5,037
227
23
59
11,197
454
85
331
90,593
5,513
62
17
6,585
12,267
96,185
. —
—
115,037
As a supplement to the regular army estimates, enumerated above,
the House of Commons granted, on the 2nd August, 1870, supplies
for raising ' a further number of land forces not exceeding 20,000
men, during the war in Europe.' Excepting this supplementary-
vote, the army estimates of 1870-71 showed a decrease of 12,329
men over the previous year, and of 28,654 over 1868-G9. The
number of men provided for in the estimates of 1868-69 was
138,691, while in the estimates of 1869-70 the number was 127,366.
The decrease embraced chiefly the royal artillery, infantry of the
line, and colonial corps. Three previously existing branches of the
army, the Military Train, the Commissariat Staff Corps, and Store
Staff Corps were abolished in 1870, and for them was substituted
the Army Service Corps.
The British forces in India, exclusive of depots at home,
comprise the following troops, granted by Parliament for the year
1870-71 :—
Troops
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,
and drummers
Rank and
file
Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Royal artillery and engineers
Infantry of the line .
Total .
200
225
1,016
1.500
253
424
795
3.262
2,680
3,672
7,936
41,000
2,941
4,734
62,963
The total force of the British army in India amounted, conse-
quently, to 62,963 men in the estimates of 1870-71. The number iu
the year 1868-9 was 64,466, while in the year 1869-70 it was 63,707.
The troops here enumerated do not constitute the whole army of
the United Kingdom ; but the army estimates for 1870-71, as well as
ARMY.
229
former years, contain votes of money for four classes of reserve,
or auxiliary forces. The army estimates provide 720.034/. for the
disembodied militia in the year 1870-71. The number to be called
up for twenty-seven days' training is stated at 128,971, but a deduc-
tion is made from the amount of pay required to the extent of one-
fourth for cost of officers and men not enrolled or absent. The
second class of auxiliary forces, the yeomanry cavalry, had 81,874/.
voted to it in the army estimates of 1870-71. of which sum 43,218/.
was to be expended in the payment of 7s. a day, for 8 days in the
year, to 15,435 non-commissioned officers and men. The third
class of auxiliary forces, the volunteers, had a vote of 412,399/. for
the year 1870-71, being a decrease of 1,631/. over the preceding
year. The capitation grants to the volunteers were calculated at
256,263/., distributed to. the artillery, at the rate of 30s. ; to the
light horse, engineers, and rifles, at 205., with 10s. for extra effi-
ciency; and at the rate of 5s. as travelling allowance for administrative
battalions. The vote for the fourth and last class of reserve forces,
namely the army reserve, including enrolled pensioners, was 68,020Z.
for 1870-71, a decrease of 820/. over the preceding year. The
capitation grants to the volunteers in 1869-70 amounted to 254,180/.,
or 2,083/. less than the vote for 1870-71.
The strength of the volunteer force of the United Kingdom in
the year 1870 comprised 201,196 enrolled men, of whom 170,094
were efficient, and 31,102 non-efficient. The numbers, fluctuating
at times, have been gradually on the increase since the year 1859,
when the force Avas organised, as shown in the following tabular
statement, giving the strength of the enrolled volunteers, efficient
and non-efficient, in each of the years I860 to 1870 : —
Tear
Efficients
Non-Efficients
Total enrolled
number
1860
105,918
12.425
118.343
1862
131.420
26.398
157,818
1863
113.511
49.424
162.935
1864
123.707
46.837
170.544
I860
] 33.848
44.636
178,484
1S66
142,S49
38,716
181.565
]867
155.216
32.648
187.864
1868
170.581
28,614
199.195
1869
174.548
28,758
199.306
1870
170,094
31,102
201,196
The volunteer corps now in existence were organised in conformitv
with a notice from the War Office, dated May 12, 1859, sanctioning
their formation, under the provisions of the Act Geo. III., cap. 54.
The total cost of the British army, voted by Parliament in the
regular estimates for 1870-71,. was calculated at 13,093,500/.; but
230
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
to this amount there was added, August 2, 1870, a supplementary-
vote of 2,000,000/., 'towards defraying the expenses incurred in
maintaining the naval and military services of the kingdom.' It was
left to the government to distribute the additional grant thus voted
between the army and navy.
The following is an abstract of the votes of the regular estimates
for 1670-71, with the corresponding sums of the year 18G9-70 : —
I. Regular Forces
General staff and regimental pay, allowances, and
charges ........
Commissariat establishment, services, and move-
ment of troops ......
Clothing establishments, services, and supplies .
Barrack establishment, services, and supplies
Divine service .......
Martial law
Medical establishment, services, and supplies
II. Reserve Forces:
Militia and inspection of reserve
Yeomanry
Volunteers .......
Enrolled pensioners and army reserve force
III. Stores :
Manufacturing departments and war stores
IV. Works and Buildings :
Superintending establishment and expenditure
for works, buildings, and repairs, at home and
abroad
V. Various Services:
Military education .....
Surveys of the United Kingdom, and topogra
phical department .....
Miscellaneous services ....
Administration of the army
Total effective services .
VI. Non-effective Services:
Rewards for military service
Pay of general officers ....
Pay of reduced and retired officers
Widows' pensions and compassionate allowances
Pensions and allowances to wounded officers
In-pension ......
Out-pension ......
Superannuation allowances
Militia and volunteer corps
Total non-effective services .
Recapitulation :
Effective services
Non-effective services ....
Total effective and non-effective services .
1870-1
£
4,777,900
1,049,600
383,700
412,300
43,400
62,100
340,800
893,200
81,900
412,400
76,000
1,000,000
700,400
140,700
118,500
118,500
81,500
90.600
222,300
223.400
10,796,700
12,047,600
27.300
27,000
73,()(i0
73,000
598.000
480.500
155,300
156,400
20,800
22,300
36,000
34,400
1,220,100
1,239.300
l4S.:-;no
132.000
18.000
17,900
2,296,800
2,182,800
10,796,700
12.047,600
2.'J!)G.800
2,182,800
13,093,500
14,230,400
ARMY.
23I
It will be seen that the estimates for 1870-71 showed a net decrease
of 1,136,900/. as compared with the previous year's vote ; the amount
of the vote in 1869-70 having been 14,230 400/., and the amount
of the estimate for 1870-71 being 13,093,500/. The approximate
amount to be paid into the exchequer as extra receipts, during the
year 1870-71, is 1,222,800/., as compared with 1,435,000/., the
amount paid in during 1869-70. The total number of men paid
out of the army estimates was 140,578 in 1865-6, 138,117 in
1866-7, 139,163 in 1867-8, 138,691 in 1868-9, 127,367 in
1869-70, and 114,981 in 1870-71.
The army estimates for 1870—71 included charges- for military
purposes in the Colonies as follows : — Australian colonies, 23,278/.,
of which sum nearly 19,000/. for Western Australia ; British North
America, 226,293/. ; Bermuda, 187,134/. ; South Africa, 132,376/. ;
West Africa, 34,754/.; West Indies, 197,596/. ; Mauritius, 78,832/.;
Ceylon, 160,026/. ; Straits Settlements, 78,748/. ; St, Helena,
20,630/.; China, 166,523/.; Gibraltar, 270,005/.; and Malta,
329,343/. The total colonial military expenditure was calculated, in
the estimates of 1870-71, at 1,905,538/., being 684,000/. less than in
the financial year 1869-70. The probable Colonial contributions in
aid of the military expenditure in the year 1870-71 were returned
at 309,000/., distributed as follows :— Ceylon, 160,000/.; Straits
Settlements, 59,300/.; Mauritius, 45,000/.; Hongkong, 2o,000/. ;
Malta, 6,200/. ; West Indies, 4,000/. ; South Africa, 13,500/. ; and
Labuan, 1,0007. The statement of Imperial expenditure in the
colonies was exclusive of the cost of arms, accoutrements, barrack,
hospital, and other stores, and also of amy proportion of recruiting
expenses, head-quarter administrative expenses, and non-effective
charges, all these falling to the share of the United Kingdom.
From a return made to the House of Commons, at the end of the
session of 1864, it appears that, in April, 1864, there were 109,760
non-commissioned officers and men in the army who declared them-
selves Episcopalians, 20,798 Presbyterians, 5,290 other Protestants,
and 58,508 Roman Catholics. Returns, issued in 1866, including
182,932 soldiers in the army, show 6'80 per cent, with a superior
education, and a further 63-67 per cent, able to read and write.
Of the remaining 29'52 per cent., 16-55 could read but not write,
and 12-97 could neither read nor write. In the infantry of the
line the proportion of uneducated men, or men not found able both
to read and write, was 45"62 per cent, in 1860, and 35*71 in 1865.
The classes from which the army is drawn are shown in a return
issued in the session of 1867, giving the results of recruiting for
several years. It appears from this statement that of every 1,000
recruits 563 came from England and Wales, 112 from Scotland,
and 320 from Ireland ; while of every 1,000 men that offered
232 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
themselves, 386, or more than one-third, were rejected as unfit for
military service. Of every 1,000 applicants, 618 were labourers or
servants, 317 artisans, and 65 shopmen or clerks.
The militia establishment in 1870 comprised 42 regiments in
England and Wales, with 128,971 men volunteered for service and
a permanent staff of 5,066 commissioned and non-commisioned
officers. Lancashire contributed seven, Cheshire two, Gloucester-
shire two, Kent two, Middlesex five, Yorkshire nine, Surrey three,
Warwickshire two, Staffordshire three, and Norfolk two regiments.
The total number of privates present at training on the day of
inspection in 1870 amounted to 61,082; the numbers required to
complete the regiments were 1,187 officers, 321 non-commissioned
officers, and -24,529 privates. There were 16 militia regiments,
including all arms, in Scotland, in 1870, and at the day of training
there were present 235 officers, 435 non-commissioned officers, and
9,345 privates. In Ireland there are 48 militia regiments of all
arms, numbering nominally 1,201 officers, 1,262 non-commissioned
officers, and 30,710 privates ; but no training took place in the years
1867-70.
The establishments for military educational purposes comprise the
Council of Military Education, *Royal Military Academy at Wool-
wich, Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst, Royal Military
Asylum and Normal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Military
School at Dublin, Department for Instruction of Artillery Officers,
Military Medical School, and a varying number of Garrison Schools
and Libraries. In the army estimates for 1870-71, the sum pro-
vided for military education was 139,345/., representing a decrease
of 18,825/. over the previous year. The two principal educational
establishments for the army are the Royal Military Academy at
Woolwich, and the Loyal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst.
In the army estimates of 1870-71, the cost of the Woolwich Academy
is set down at 31,506/., and of the Sandhurst Colleges at 30,722/.
At Sandhurst, 20 ' Queen's cadets' are educated gratuitously for the
Indian army, for which 3,000/. per annum is paid out of the reve-
nues of India.
2. Navy.
The government of the navy, vested originally in a Lord High
Admiral, is carried on since the reign of Queen Anne — with the
exception of a short period, April 1827 to September 1828, when
the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., revived the ancient
title— by a Board, known as the Board of Admiralty, and the mem-
bers of "which are styled ' Lords Commissioners for executing the
office of Lord High* Admiral.' The constitution of this Board has
latterly undergone great modifications. It now consists of five mem-
NAVY. 233
bers : the First Lord, always a member of the Cabinet, and four
assistant commissioners, styled, respectively, Senior Naval Lord,
Third Lord, Junior Naval Lord, and Civil Lord. Under the Board
is a Financial Secretary, changing, like the five Lords, with the
Government in power ; while the fixed administration, independent
of the state of political parties, consists of a Permanent Secretary,
and the heads of five departments, called Accountant-General of the
Navy, Comptroller of Victualling, Director-General of the Medical
Department, Director of Engineering and Architectural Works, and
Director of Transports. The duties of each member of the Board
as recently rearranged are as follows : — The First Lord has supreme
authority over everything, and all questions of grave importance are
referred to him for his immediate decision. He also is the dispenser
of all patronage. The Senior Naval Lord directs the movements of
the fleet, and is responsible for its discipline. The Third Lord has
the management of the dockyards, and superintends the building of
the ships. The Junior Naval Lord deals with the victualling of the
fleets, and with the transport department. The Civil Lord is answer-
able for the accounts. The Financial Secretary makes all purchases
of stores, and is what his name implies, the authority for all matters
connected with Finance. The different departments of the Admiralty
are being reorganised. At present there is a Secretary's department
presided over by a Permanent" Secretary ; and seven other depart-
ments, under the Accountant-General, the Controller of Victualling,
the Superintendent of Stores, the Superintendent of Contracts, the
Medical Director-General, the Director of Engineering and Architec-
tural Works, and the Director of Transports.
The navy of the United Kingdom is a perpetual establishment,
and the statutes and orders by which it is governed and its discipline
maintained — unlike the military laws, which the Sovereign has
absolute power to frame under the authority of an Act of Parlia-
ment— have been permanently established and defined with great
precision by the legislature. The distinction also prevails in the
mode of voting the charge for these two forces. For the army, the
first vote sanctions the number of men to be maintained ; the second,
the charge for their pay and maintenance. For the navy, no vote is
taken for the number of men ; the first vote is for the wages of the stated
number of men and boys to be maintained ; and though the result
may be the same, this distinction exists both in practice and principle.
According to the naval estimates granted by Parliament in the
session of 1870, the expenditure for the navy, for the year ending
March 31, 1871, will be 9.250,530/. as compared with 9,990,641/.
voted for the year 1869-70, or a decrease of 746,111/. The fol-
lowing is an abstract of the estimates for 1870-71 as compared with
the votes for 1869-70 :—
234
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Wages to seamen and marines . . .
Victuals and clothing for ditto .
Admiralty office .....
Coastguard service, royal naval coast volunteers
and royal naval reserve ....
Scientific branch .....
Dockyards and naval yards at home and abroad
Victualling yards and transport establishments at
home and abroad .....
Medical establishments at home and abroad
Marine divisions .....
Naval stores, and ships built by contract :
Naval stores .....
Ships &c. built by contract
New works, building, machinery, and repairs
Medicines and medical stores
Martial law and charges ....
Miscellaneous services ....
Total for the effective service
Half-pay, reserved half-pay, and retired pay to
officers of the navy and royal marines
Military pensions and allowances
Civil pensions and allowances
Total for the naval service .
1870-71
£
2,692,731
968,857
159,368
196,955
68,794
878,352
69,267
57,730
18,122
779,090
466,173
744,232
73,150
16,678
118,791
7,308,290
782,100
635,666
287,134
9,013,190
1869-70
£
2,762,353
1,172,268
168,704
224.073
62,820
1,086,004
80,671
54.757
16,566
801,572
767,070
749.816
79,300
18,144
120,650
8,164,768
723.231
569,728
222,566
9,680,293
Foe the Service of other Departments of Government.
Army department (conveyance of troops)
Grand total
237,3401
9,250.530
316,348
9,996,641
The number of seamen and marines provided for the naval ser-
vice in the estimates for 1870-71 was as follows: —
For the Fleet :
Seamen .... 34,430
Boys, including 3,000 for
training .... 7,000
Marines, afloat .
,, on shore
8,000
0,000
Total
41,430
14,000
55,430
For the Coastguard
Afloat (included with fleet)
On shore, officers and men.
4,300
Indian Service :
Officers and men 1,270
5,570
Included in the number of 34,430 seamen of the fleet, provided
for in the naval estimates, were 143 flag officers; 29 officers super-
intending dockyards and naval establishments; and 3,193 other
commissioned officers, on active service.
NAVY.
235
The strength of the navy of the United Kingdom is shown in the
subjoined official return, annexed to the naval estimates for 1870-
71, giving the number of steam ships afloat and building, together
with the number of effective sailing ships, on the 1st February
1870 :—
Steam
Classes of Ships
Sailing
ships
Total
Afloat
Building
afloat
Iron Wood
Iron
Armour-plated ships, 1st Class
1
1
2
„ 2nd „
3
3
6
3rd „
5 4
_
9
„ „ 4th „
3 5
-
8
5th „
4
-
4
6th „
2
_
2
,, ,, Unclassified sloops
and gun boats
3 2
-
5
„ „ Special, with turrets
5 1
5
11
„ „ Floating batteries
3 1
-
1
5
27 15
9
Total ironclads
42
9
1
52
Ships of the line . . screw
43
2
2
47
Frigates . . . . „
29
_
29
„ .... paddle
3
_
1
4
Block ships . . . .screw
1
_
2
3
Corvettes . . . . . ,,
24
_
24
Sloops . . . . . „
33
1
34
,, .... paddle
7
_
1
8
Small vessels . . . . ,,
8
_
8
Despatch vessels . . . . „
4
_
4
Gun vessels . {**** and
^ double screw
] 50
1
51
Gun boats . . . . . „
58
1
9
68
Tenders, tugs, &c. . . . screw
14
_
14
,, „ . . . paddle
38
-
38
Mortar ships .... screw
_
2
2
Troop and store ships . . . screw
11
_
11
,, „ . . paddle
1
-
1
Transports for India reliefs . screw
5
_
5
Yachts . . . paddle
4
1
5
Total screw
310
14
324 '
„ paddle
Grand total
65
1
—
66
375
15
18
408
Not included in the above list are several ships for the defence
of the colonies.
236
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The total naval force of the United Kingdom, in commission and
in reserve and building, was as follows at the end of August
1870:
Total number of ships
Total
horse-
power
Total
number
of
guns
Total
tonnage
Steam
Coast-
guard
tenders
Sailing
In commission
In reserve and building
174
318
25
39
57,205
64,286
1,984
3,610
314,449
318,845
There served in the fleet on commission, 30,722 officers and men ;
5,603 boys; and 6,618 marines, being a total naval conrplement
of 42,943.
The most important division of the navy, the ironclad fleet of
war, consisted at the end of September, 1870, of 54 vessels, in-
cluding those on the stocks. The following is the list, in alphabet-
ical order of names, of these 54 ironclads, with specification of
number of guns, horse-power, tonnage, material of hull, and year
of launch, or, in the case of dates later than 1870, estimated time of
completion. Those ironclads marked with an asterisk before their
names are turret ships.
Name
Guns
Horse-
power
Tonnage
Material
of hull
Year of
launch
*Abyssinia ....
4
200
1,854
Iron
1870
Achilles
26
1,250
6,121
Iron
1863
Agincourt .
28
1,350
6,621
' Iron
1865
Audacious .
14
800
3,774
Iron
1870
Bellerophon
14
1,000
. 4,270
Iron
1865
Black Prince
28
1,250
. 6,109
Iron
1861
Caledonia .
24
1,000
. 4,125
Wood
1862
*Cerbe.rus .
4
250
2,107
Iron
1870
Defence
16
600
3,720
Iron
1861
•Devastation
4
800
4,406
Iron
1872
Enterprise .
4
1 60
993
Wood
1864
Erebus
16
200
1,954
Iron
1856
Favorite .
10
400
2,094
Wood
1864-
*Fnry .
4
1„000
5,030
Iron
1873
*Glatton
2
500
2,709
Iron
1871
Hector
18
.800
4,089
Iron
1862
Hercules .
14
1,200
5.234
Iron
1870
•Hotspur
2
600
2,637
Iron
1870
Invincible .
14
800
3,774
Iron
1 869
Iron Duke .
14
800
3,787
Iron
1870
NAVY,
237
Name
Guns
Horse-
power
Tonnage
Material
of hull
Year of
launch
Lord Clyde
24
1,000
4,067
Wood
1864
Lord Warden
18
1,000
4,080
Wood
1865
fMagdala .
4
250
2,107
Iron
1S70
Minotaur .
34
1,350
6,621 .
Iron
1866
*Monareh .
7
1,100
5,102
Iron
1869
Northumberland
28
] ,350
6,621 .
Iron
1866
Ocean
24
1,000
4,047
Wood
1863
Pallas
6
600
2,372
Wood
1865
Penelope .
11
600
3,096
Iron
1867
*Prince Albert
4
500
2,537
Iron
1864
Prince Consort
24
1,000
4,045
Wood
1862
Kepulse
12
800
3,749
Wood
1868
Research .
4
200
1,253
Wood
1863
Resistance .
16
600
3,710
Iron
1861
Royal Alfred
18
800
4,068
Wood
1864
Royal Oak
24
800
4,056
Wood
1862
*Royal Sovereign
5
800
3,765
Wood
1864
*Rupert
3
700
3,159
Iron
1872
*Scorpion .
4
350
1,833
Iron
1863
Sultan
12
1,200
5,234
Iron
1870
Swiftsure .
14
800
3,893
Iron
1871
Terror
16
200
1,971
Iron
1856
Thunder .
14
150
1,469
Iron
1856
Thunderbolt
16
200
1,973
Iron
1856
*Thunderer .
4
800
4,406
Iron
1872
Triumph .
14
800
3,893
Iron
1871
Valiant
18
800
4,063 .
Iron
1863
Vanguard .
14
800
3,774
Iron
1870
Viper
2
160
737
Iron
1865
Vixen
2
160
745
Wood
1865
Warrior
32
1,250
6,109
Iron
1860
Waterwitch
2
167
777
Iron
1866
*Wirern
4
350
1,899
Iron
1863
Zealous
20
800
3,716
Wood
1864
Three of the vessels in the above list form part of a new class
called Her Majesty's Navy for the Defence of the Colonies. The
turret ships Abyssinia and Magdala were built for the defence of
Bombay, and the turret-ship Cerberus, paid for by the Colony of
Victoria, for the defence of Melbourne.
The cost of the principal ships of the ironclad fleet of war, together
with particulars as to construction, is given in the subjoined table,
drawn up on the basis of returns made by the admiralty, and statements
by Mr. E. J. Reed, chief constructor of the navy till 1870. The cost
given represents actual outlay on labour and materials, but does not
include establishment charges at the royal dockyards, calculated to
amount to an additional 12^ per cent. Sums marked in parentheses
are only estimates, the actual cost not having been ascertained.
238
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Achilles .
Agincourt
Audacious
Bellerophon
Black Prince
Caledonia
Defense .
♦Devastation
Enterprise
Favorite
*Fury
*Glatton .
Hector .
Hercules
*Hotspur .
Invincible
Iron Duke
Lord Clyde
Lord Warden
Minotaur
♦Monarch
^Northumberland
Ocean
Pallas .
Penelope
*Prince Albert.
Prince Consort
Repulse .
Research
Resistance
Royal Alfred
Royal Oak
♦Royal Sovereign
*Rupert .
♦Scorpion
Sultan .
Swiftsure
♦Thunderer
Triumph
Valiant .
Vanguard
Viper
Vixen
"Warrior .
Waterwitch
*Wivern .
Zealous .
Built at
Royal dockyard
private
ship yard
Royal
Private
Private
Royal
Private
Royal
Private
Royal
Royal
Royal
Royal
Royal
Private
Royal
Private
Private
Royal
Royal
Royal
Private
Royal
Private
Royal
Royal
Royal
Private
Royal
Royal
Royal
Private
Royal
Royal
Royal
Royal
Private
Royal
Private
Royal
Private
Private
Private
Private
Private
Private
Private
Private
Royal
Length
Breadth
Feet
Feet
380
58
400
59
280
54
380
58
380
58
273
58
280
54
248
58
180
36
225
47
282
58
212.
49
280
56
325
59
200
50
280
54
244
54
280
59
280
59
400
59
330
57
400
59
280
58
225
50
260
. 50
240
48
280
58
215
58
195
38
280
54 .
280
58
273
58
240
62
250
53
220
42
282
59
242
55
285
58
242
55
280
56
244
54
225
50
225
50
380
58
225
50
220
42
280
54
Cost
£
470,330
455,638
(227,000)
364,327
378,310
283,330
253,422
(296,400)
63,918
156,645
(296,000)
(184,000)
294,618
275,325
(182,000)
(240,000)
(250,000)
294,481
322,843
478,855
175,513
444,256
271,230
194,197
151,497
207,549
242,549
223,370
78,122
258,120
291,540
254,537
133,980
(231,000)
112,587
(399,000)
(251,000)
(297,000)
(260,000)
325,215
(259,000)
53,207
57,520
379,154
60,030
119,672
239,258
NAVY. 239
The whole of the vessels of the ironclad fleet may be divided
into five classes. In the first class are the Warrior, the Black
Prince, the Achilles, and the Bellerophon. The vessels of this
class are all iron-built, and of great speed ; but their draught of
water is great also, so that they could not be docked out of the
country. To improve upon them, a new class of vessels was designed
represented in the Minotaur, Aginconrfc, and Northumberland. The
Minotaurs, as they are generally called, are all of 6,621 tons, no less
than 400 it. long by 59 ft. beam, plated with 5^ in. armour on a
10 in. backing, carrying 36 protected guns, and propelled by screw
engines of 1,350 horse-power. All the Minotaurs are built on the
ram system, having what is termed the swan-breasted beak pro-
truding under water. The stem of this portion, which would have
to resist the first blow of the shock, is a gigantic forging, as is also
the stern frame. Every part of the vessel is of iron, even to the spar
deck, though the plating here, which is about three-quarters of an
inch thick, is covered with wood. In the second class of vessels
drawing less water, but possessing less speed, are the Boyal Oak, the
Prince Consort, the Ocean, the Caledonia, the Royal Alfred, the
Lord Clyde, and the Lord Warden. The first five of these are line-
of-battle ships converted; the last two are new ships, built with
wooden frames. In the third class are the Hector, the Valiant, the
Defence, and the Eesistance — four of the earliest British Ironclads
and the Zealous. These are lighter again than the vessels of the
second class, but slower also, and with them the list of ships of the
line is complete. Then follows a class of smaller Ironclads — corvettes
or gunboats— including the Favorite, the Enterprise, the Research,
the Pallas, the Viper, the Vixen, and the Waterwitch. These are
succeeded by a class consisting of vessels distinctly characterised by
the Admiralty as valuable for ' coast defences' only. In this category
are placed the Royal Sovereign, and also the steam rams, the Scorpion
and the Wivern.
The list of iron-clads given above includes 11 turret-ships, seven
of them afloat, and four in course of construction at the end of 1870.
The largest of those ships is the Monarch, launched July 17, 1869.
The Monarch has two turrets, fixed on pivots between the foremast
and the mainmast, both of the same size, with an outer diameter of
26ft. 6in., and an inner of 22ft. The turrets are plated with 10-
inch armour in rolled plates round the ports, and with 8-inch on
other parts. In each turret are mounted on compound pivoted iron
carriages and slides, two 25-ton muzzle-loading rifle guns of 12-inch
bore and 15 feet in length. They are exactly balanced at the
trunnions, and throw a 600-pound shot with a battering charge of
701b. of powder. In the ordinary position of the guns in the
turrets they have seven degrees of depression and four degrees of
24O GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
elevation. Lowered down to the next position, or ' step,' as it is
technically termed, they have half a degree of depression, and nine
degrees of elevation. Lowered still further, and into the deepest
position in the turrets, the guns have sixteen degrees of elevation,
so as to be able to throw shells into a loftily -planted fortress. The
guns are raised and lowered in the turrets by hydraulic power.
The most notable turret-ships, next to the Monarch, are the Glatton,
the Devastation, and the Thunderer, the two last in process of con-
struction end of September, 1870. The Glatton has only one
turret, with two 25-ton guns, cased in armour, varying in thickness
from 10 to 14 inches, and with a breastwork all around. Designed
to lie low, the Glatton has a flying deck, high out of the water, for
stowing boats, and for resort in rough weather. The Devastation
and the Thunderer, twin-ships, commenced in November, 1869,
have two turrets, like the Monarch, and an armoured- breastwork
and high flying deck, like the Glatton, with a ram-bow. The
Devastation and the Thunderer stand alone among the ironclads for
being without mast or sail, and dependent, therefore, solely upon
steam.
The naval force in commission varied considerably at different
periods of the year 1870. In the middle of August there were
213 ships in commission, exclusive of the coastguard and drill
ships, with a collective power of 57,205 horses, armed with 1,984
guns, and manned by 35,720 men. Twenty-six of these men-
of-war were armour-plated. Of the 213 vessels above mentioned
102, mounting 758 guns and manned by 15,991 men, were employed
on foreign stations. The total strength of the British Navy at the
end of September, 1870, consisted of 556 vessels, of all classes, in-
cluding ships in course of construction.
The classification of men-of-war is called ' rating,' and the vessels
registered on the list of the Royal Navy are known as rated ships.
There are six standards of rate, the first comprising ships carrying
110 "-uns and upwards; the second, ships carrying from 80 to 110
"•uns ; the third, ships carrying from 60 to 80 guns ; the fourth,
ships carrying less than 60 guns ; and the fifth and sixth, all lesser
ships of the Royal Navy.
The naval force, like the army of the United Kingdom, is recruited
by voluntary enlistment. The men are divided into two classes,
made up of those who ergage in the navy for ten years, which is
called ' continuous service,' and of those who volunteer for shorter
periods, the former having a higher rate of pay. Any person may
enter the navy as a common seaman, on application to the command-
ing officer of one of Her Majesty's ships in commission, provided
he is approved by the examining surgeon, and has not previously
been ' discharged from the service with disgraee.'
POPULATION.
24I
Population.
The population was thus distributed over the four divisions of the
United Kingdom at the census of April 8, 1861 :—
United Kingdom . .
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Islands in the British Seas .
Total
population
Population, ex-
cluding^ army,
navy, and mer-
chant seamen'
abroad
Proportion of
population
in four divi-
sions of the
Kingdom
29,321,288
29,070,932-
100-0
20,228,497
3,096,808
5,850,309
145,674
20,066,224'
3,062,294-
5,798,967-
143,447
69-1
10-5
199
•5
On the basis of the registration of births and deaths, the popu-
lation of the United Kingdom and its divisions Was, exclusive of
army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, as follows, in the middle
of the year, from 1863 to 1870 : —
Years
Total of
United
Kingdom
England
and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1863
29,395,051
20,554,137
3,101,345
5,739,569
1864
29,566,316
20,772,308
3,118.701
5,675,307
1865
29.768,089
20,990.946
3,136,057
5,641,086
1866
29,946,058
21,210.020
3,153,413
5,582,625
1867
30,157,473
21,429,508
3,170,769
5,557,196
1868
30,380,787
21,649,377
3,188,125
5,543,285
1869
30,621,431
21,869,607
3,205,481
. 5,546,343
1870
30,838,210
22,090,163
3,222,837
. 5,525,210
Subjoined is a more detailed account of the population of
1. England and Wales ; 2. Scotland ; and 3. Ireland.
1. England and Wales.
England and "Wales, taken by themselves, are more densely popu-
lated than any other country in Europe, except Belgium. On an
area of 58,320 square miles, or 37,324,883 acres, there lived, on the
8th of April, 1861, accordingto the census, 20,066,224 inhabitants,
or 347 individuals per square mile. The following table shows
the area, in statute acres, number of inhabited houses, and popula-
tion of each of the 52 counties of England and Wales, at the
date of the census : —
242
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Area in
Inhabited houses,
Population,
Counties or Shires
statute acres
April 8, 1861
April 8, 1861
England.
Bedford
295,582
27,422
135,287
Berks
451,210
35,761
176,256
Buckingham
466,932
34,909
167,993
Cambridge .
525,182
37,634
176,016
Chester
707,078
97,874
505,428
Cornwall . .
873,600
72,954
369,390
Cumberland
1,001,273
40,532
205,276
Derby
658,803
69,262
339,327
Devon
1,657,180
101,253
584,373
Dorset
632,025
37,709
188.789
Durham
622,476
84,807
508,666
Essex
1,060.549
81,261
404,851
Gloucester .
805,102
92,831
485,770
Hereford .
534,823
25,314
123,712
Hertford
391,141
34,893
173,280
Huntingdon
229,544
13,704
64,250
Kent .
1,039,419
126,221
733,887
Lancaster .
1,219,221
438,503
2,429,440
Leicester .
514,164
51,894
237,412
Lincoln
1,775,457
86,626
412,246
Middlesex .
180,136
279,153
2,206,485
Monmouth .
368,399
33,077
174,633
Norfolk .
1,354,301
96,672
434,798
Northampton
630,358
48,531
227,704
Northumberland
1,249.299
55,565
343,025
Nottingham
526,076
62,519
293,867
Oxford
472,717
36,034
170,944
Kutland
95,805
4,641
21,861
Salop .
826,055
48,391
240,959
Somerset .
1,047,220
87,456
444,873
Southampton
1,070.216
86,428
481,815
Stafford .
728.468
147.105
746,943
Suffolk
947,681
72,975
337,070
Surrey
478,792
130,362
831,093
Sussex
936,911
65,578
363,735
Warwick .
563,946
116,351
561,855
Westmoreland
485,432
11,793
60,817
Wilts .
865,092
53,059
249,311
Worcester .
472,165
63.126
307,397
York {East Biding) .
768,419
49,109
240,227
„ {City) . .
2,720
8,242
40,433
„ (North Bid ling) .
1,350.121
50,178
245,154
„ ( West Biding) .
Total of England
1,709,307
315.722
1,507,796
32,590,397
3,513,431
18,954,444
Wales.
Anglesey .
193,453
12,328
54,609
Brecon
460,158
12,913
61.627
Cardigan .
443,387
15,724
72.245
Carmarthen
606,331
23,070
111,796
POPULATION.
243
Area in
Inhabited houses,
Population,
Counties or Shires
statute acres
April 8, 1861
Aprils, 1861
Wales.
Carnarvon .
370,273
20,256
95,694
Denbigh
386,052
21,310
100,778
Flint ....
184,905
15,113
69,737
Glamorgan .
547.494
59,254
317,752
Merioneth .
385,291
8,499
38.963
Montgomery
483,323
13,501
66.919
Pembroke .
401,691
19,418
96,278
Radnor
Total of Wales
Total of England "1
and Wales J
272,128
4,688
25,382
4,734,486
226,074
1,111,780
37,324,883
3,739,505
20,066,224
The general classification of the population enumerated in England
and Wales at the census of 1851 and that of 1861 was as follows: —
1. Professional class ....
2. Domestic ,,....
3. Commercial ,,....
4. Agricultural „
5. Industrial ,,.•..
6. Indefinite ,,
1851
1861
376,434
10,010,343
528,599
2,084,153
4,143,293
784,787
481,957
11,426.720
632,710
2,010,454
4,828,399
694,984
17,927,609
20,066,224
It will be seen that, of the five classes into which the population
of England and Wales is divided by the Eegistrar-General, the agri-
cultural class was the only one which decreased in the ten years
from 1851 to 1861. The decrease was chiefly under the head of
indoor farm servants, the number of which is stated to have declined
from 288,272 in 1851 to 204,962 in 1861. In Essex the men are
stated to have decreased from 1,530 in 1851 to 587 in 1861, and the
females from 2,343 to 525 ; in Suffolk the men from 2,845 to 959,
and the females from 3,640 to 1,215. The number of farmers them-
selves, 249,735, was almost precisely the same in 1861 as in 1851.
With regard to agricultural statistics, the information in the census
returns is not given for all England, but only for 10 agricultural
counties, and it would appear from these that the size of farms has
increased in the 10 years from 1851 to 1861. The farms of less
than 100 acres declined from 31,583 to 26,567, so that 4,016 were
amalgamated to form other farms of larger acreage.
The population of England and Wales amounted to 9,156,171 in
the year 1801, so that it has more than doubled in the course of half
r 2
244
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
a century. The decennial rates of increase amounted to 14 per
cent, from 1801 to 1811; to 1G per cent, from 1811 to 1821; to
15 per cent, from 1821 to 1831 ; to 14 per cent, from 1831 to 1841 ;
to 13 per cent, from 1841 to 1851 ; and to 12 per cent, from 1851
to 1861. The progress of population for the last quarter of a century
may be stated roundly in the fact that each quinquennial period
added about a million to the account. Thus, in 1836—40 the pojju-
lation was rising through its sixteenth million; in 1841-45
through its seventeenth ; in 1846-50 through its eighteenth ; in
1851—55, through its nineteenth ; in 1856-60, through its twentieth ;
and in 1861-65, through its twenty-first million. The year 1870
brought the twenty-second, and 1875 is calculated to bring the
twenty-third million.
Subjoined is the birth, death, and marriage rate of the popidation
of England and Wales, for the last fifteen years, after the returns of the
Registrar-General. The estimated population is for the middle of the
year, and including army, navy, and merchant seamen at home, be-
lon^ino: to England and Wales: —
Years
Estimated
population
. Births
. Deaths
Marriages
1855
18,787,000
635,123
426,242
151,774
1856
19,045,000
657.704
391,369
159,262
1857
19,305,000
663,071
419,815
159,097
1858
19,523,000
655,481
• 449;656
156.070
1859
19,746,000
689,881
441,790
167,723
1860
19,902,918
684,048
422,721
170,156
1861
20,119,496
696,406
435,114
163,706
1862
20,336,614
711,691
436,573
163,830
1863
20,554,137
729,399
473,837
173,510
1864
20,772',308
740,275
495,531
18(1,387
1865
20,990,946
747,870
490,909
185,474
1866
21,210,020
753,870
500,689
187.776
1867
21,429,508
768,349
471,073
179.154
1868
21,649.377
786,156
480,622
176,962
1869
21,869,607
772.877
495,086
175,629
The estimated population of England and Wales in the middle
of the year 1870 was 22,090,163.
The proportion of male to female children born in England is as
104,811 to 100,000. But as the former suffer from a higher rate
of mortality than the latter, the equilibrium between the sexes is
restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally changed, by
emigration, war, and perilous male occupations, to the extent that
there are 100,000 women, of all ages, to 95,008 men in England.
The number of paupers in receipt of relief in the several unions
and parishes, constituted under boards of guardians in England and
POPULATION.
245
"Wales, was as follows, on the first day of January
years from 1856 to 1870 : —
for the fifteen
January 1
Number
of unions
and
parishes
Adult
able-bodied
paupers
All other
paupers
Total
1856 .
624
152,174
725.593
877.767
1857
624
139,130
704.676
843.806
1858
629
166,604
741,582
908,186
1859
642
137.418
723,052
860,470
1860
646
136,761
714.259
851.020
1861
646
150.526
739,897
890,423
1862
649
167,646
778.520
946.166
1863
653
253,499
889.125
1,142,624
1864
655
1S6.750
822,539
1,009,289
1865
655
170,136
801,297
971.433
1866
655
149.320
771,024
920,344
1867
655
158,308
800,516
958,824
1868
655
185,630
849,193
1.034,823
1869 .
655
183,162
856.387
• 1,039,549
1870 .
649
194,089
885,302
1,079,391
The numbers above specified are exclusive of vagrants and so-
called ' casual poor,' to whom temporary relief is given.
The number of criminal offenders, distinguishing men and women,
committed for trial, and convicted, and acquitted, in England and
Wales, was as follows for the last fifteen years, 1855-69 :? —
Tears
Committed for trial
Men
Women
Total
1855 .
19,890
6,082
25,972
19.971
1856 .
15.425
4,012
19,437
■14,734
1857 .
15,970
4,299
20,269
•15,307
1858 .
13,865
3,990
17.855
13.246
1859 .
12,782
3,892
16,674
12,470
1860 .
12.168
3,831
15,999-
■12,068
1861 .
14.349
3,977
18.326
•13,879
1862 .
15.896
4,105
20,001
15.312
1863 .
16,461
4,357
20,818
15.799
1864 .
15,398
4,108
19,506
14.726
1865 .
15,411
4,203
19,614
14.740
1866 .
14,880
3,969
18.849
14.25 t
1867 .
15,208
3,763
18,971
14,207
1868 .
16,197
3.894
20,091
15,033
1869 .
15,722
3,596
19.318
14,340
The decrease in the number of persons committed for trial in
England and Wales, since 1855, is partly to be -attributed to the
operation of the Criminal Justice Act of 1855, which authorises
246
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Justices to pass sentences for short periods, with the consent of the
prisoners, instead of committing for trial to the sessions.
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 30,G85 square miles, with a population, in
1861, of 3,062,294 souls, giving 101 inhabitants to the square mile.
The 33 counties into which Scotland is divided are of very unequal
size, some of them containing only four or five parishes, and some
above seventy. In the following table, the number of parishes in
each county, the area of each in square miles, and the numbers of
the population are given. The numbers of population include the
military in barracks and the seamen on board vessels in the harbours
and creeks of Scotland on the 8th of April, 1861 : —
Counties
Number
of
parishes
Area in
square
miles
Population,
April 8, 1861
Aberdeen .....
82
1,970
221,569
Argyll
34
3,255
79,724
Ayr ....
46
1,149
198,971
Banff ....
23
686
59,215
Berwick
32
473
36,613
Bute ....
6
171
16,331
Caithness
10
712
41,111
Clackmannan
5
46
21,450
Dumbarton .
12
320
52,034
Dumfries
43
1,098
75,878
Edinburgh .
31
367
273,997
Elgin or Moray
20
531
42,695
Fife .
62
513
154,770
Forfar .
53
889
204,425
Haddington .
24
280
37,634
Inverness
31
4,255
88.888
Kincardine .
19
394
34,466
Kinross
4
78
7,977
Kirkcudbright
28
954
42,495
Lanark
41
889
631.566
Linlithgow .
13
127
38,645
Nairn .
4
215
10,065
Orkney and Shetland
32
935
64,065
Peebles
14
356
11,408
Perth .
73
2,834
133,500
Renfrew
17
247
177,561
Ross and Cromarty
33
3,151
81,406
Roxburgh
32
670
54,119
Selkirk
5
260
10,449
Stirling
24
462
91,926
Sutherland .
13
1,886
25,246
Wigtown
17
512
42,095
Total .
883
30,685
3,062,294
POPULATION.
247
The following table exhibits the numbers of the population of
Scotland at the dates of the several enumerations, together with the
increase between each census, and the percentage of decennial increase.
Percentage
Dates of Enumeration
Population
Increase
of Decennial
Increase
March 10, 1801
1,608,420
.
May 17, 1811
1,805,864
197,444
12-27
May 28, 1821
2,091,521
285,657
1582
May 29, 1831
2,364,386
272,865
13-04
June 7, 1841
2,620,184
255,798
10-82
March 31, 1851
2,888,742
268,558
10-25
April 8, 1861
3,062,294
173,552
600
Increase in sixty years
1,453,874
90-32
The division of the population into five classes, after the same
method as that adopted in England, presented the following result : —
1. Professional class ....
2. Domestic ,,
3. Commercial ,,....
4. Agricultural „
5. Industrial „
6. Indefinite „
•
1851
1861
42.001
1,731,279
74,756
388,203
543,662
108,841
52,515
1,734,295
84,338
378.609
694,074
118,463
2,888,742
3,062,294
In 1861, therefore, of every 100,000 persons in Scotland 1,715 be-
longed to the professional class, 2,754 to the commercial, 12,364 to
the agricultural, 22,665 to the industrial ; while 56,634 were classed
as domestic, and 3,868 undefined, or ill-defined.
The following table of births, deaths, and marriages in Scotland, for
the years 1861-69, with the estimated population ' for the middle of
each year, is compiled from the returns of the Registrar-General : —
Years
Estimated
population
Births
Deaths
Marriages
1861
3,062,294
107,036
62,287
20,828
1862
3,079,650
107,138
67,159
20,544
1863
3,101,006
109,325
71,421
22.087
1864
3,118,701
112,445
74,303
22,675
1865
3,136,057
113,126
70,821
23,577
1866
3,153,413
113,639
71,273
23,629
1867
3,170,769
114,115
69,024
22,521
1868
3,188,125
115,673
69.386
21,853
1869
3,205,481
113,395
75,789
22,083
248
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The estimated population of Scotland in the middle of the year
1870 was 3,222,837.
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive
of casual poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland,
during 1860-69, on the 14th of May in each year, is shown in the
subjoined table : —
May 14
Number of
parishes
Paupers
Dependents
Total
1860
883
77,306
36,903
114,209 |
1861
883
78,433
38,680
117,113
1862
884
78.724
40,204
118,924
1863
884
78,717
41.567
120,284
1864
884
78,682
42,023
120.705 j
1865
884
77,895
43,499
121,394 j
1866
885
76.229
43.379
119,608
1867
885
76,737
44,432
121,169 1
1868
887
80,032
48,944
128,976
1869
887
80,334
48,005
128,339 |
The number of criminal offenders, distinguishing men and women,
committed for trial, and convicted, in Scotland, was as follows in the
ten years, 1860-69 : —
Years
Committed for trial
Convicted
Men
Women
Total
1860 .
1861 .
1862 .
1863 .
1864 .
1865 .
1866 .
1867 .
1868 .
1869 .
2.306
2,256
2,627
2,481
2,302
2,270
2,202
2,497
2,622
2,752
981
973
1.003
923
910
847
801
808
762
758
3,287
*3,229
3,630
3,404
3,212
3,117
3,003
3,305
3,384
3,510
2,414
2,418
2,693
2,438
2,359
2,355
2,292
2,510
2,490
2,592
It will be seen, comparing the above table with that on page 243,
that the proportion of criminal offenders committed for trial and
afterwards acquitted is less in Scotland than in England and Wales.
3. Ireland.
Ireland has an area of 31,874 square miles, or 20,322,641 acres,
inhabited, in 1861, by 5,79S,967 souls. This gives a density of
population of 181 inhabitants per square mile, or about one-half
that of England.
The following table gives the area in acres, the number of in-
POPULATION.
249
habited houses, and the numbers of population of each of the
four provinces and 32 counties of Ireland, after the census returns
of April 8, 1861 :—
Inhabited
Population,
Provinces and counties
Area in acres
houses, 1861
1861.
Leinster.
Carlow
221,293
10.231
57,137
Dublin
226,302
48,009'
410,2.'<2
Kildare
418,415
14,596
90,946
Kilkenny .
507,254
22.221
124,515
King's County .
493,019
16,365
90,043
Longford .
257.222
13,030
71,694
Louth & Droghcda
201,396
17.654
90,713
Meath
578,247
20,722
110,373
Queen's County .
424,854
16,768
90.650
Westmeath
433,769
16,589
90,879
Wexford
573,200
26,011 ■
143.954
Wieklow
Total of Leinster .
Munster.
499,894
14,418
86,479
4,834,865
236,614
1,457,635
Clare
768,265
28.108
166,305
Cork
1,838,921
86,598
544,818
Kerry
1,159,356
32,178
201,800
Limerick .
662,972
33,625
217.277
Tipperary .
1,048,969
41.316
249,106
"Waterford .
456,306
21,492
134,252
Total of Munster .
Lister.
5,934,789
243,317
1,513,558
Antrim
712,565
65,334
378,58S
Armagh
312,328
35,754
190,086
Cavan
466,260
28,326
153,906
Donegal
1,189,979
43,173
237,395
Dcwn
609,811
57,406
299,302
Fermanagh
417,782
19,276
105,748
Londonderry
513,388
33,644
184,209
Monaghan
318,733
24,164
126.482
Tyrone
778,944
44,577
238,500
Total of Ulster
Connavght.
5,319,790
351,654
1,914,236
Galway
1,499.210
48,695
271,478
Leitrim
376,212
18,691
104.744
Mayo
1,321,282
45,625
254.796
Koseommon
585.407
28,215
157,272
Sligo
•
451,086
22,394
124,845
Total of Connaught .
4,233,197
163,620
913,135
Total of Irelan
d .
20,322,641
995,205
5,798,967
250
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Divided into six classes after the same method as that adopted in
England and Scotland, the people of Ireland were found to be dis-
tributed as follows at the census of 1861 : —
Classes
Total number of
persons
Males
Females
1. Professional .
2. Domestic
3. Commercial .
4. Agricultural . •
5. Industrial
6. Indefinite
Total
Persons of no stated 1
rank, profession, or !-
occupation . J
Total population
96,613
3,075,324
120,576
988,929
667,172
468,192
83,150
1,007,079
95,116
904,748
325,323
384,590
13,463
2,068,245
25,460
84,181
341,849
83,602
5,416,806
382,161
2,800,006
37,364
2,616,800
344,797
5,798,967
2,837,370
2,961,597
Comparing the relative numbers under each of the six classes in
Ireland with those given for England and Wales, the following are
the per-centages : —
Ra1
e per
cent.
Classes
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1. Professional .
2-4
1-7
1-8
2. Domestic
.
57-4
57-0
56-8
3. Commercial .
.
3-1
2-8
2-2
4. Agricultural .
10-1
12-5
18-3
5. Industrial
24-3
22-8 .
12-3
6. Indefinite and non
A
2-7
3-2
8-6
productive
■j
100-0
100-0
ioo-o
The movement of the population of Ireland since the beginning
of the century was very different from that of England and Scotland.
There was an increase, slow at first, and then rapid, from 1801 to
1841, and a decrease, more rapid than the previous increase, from
1841 to 1861. At the census of 1801 the population of Ireland
was 5,395,456; in 1811, it had risen to 5,937,856; in 1821 to
6,801,827 ; in 1831 to 7,767,401 ; and in 1841 to" 8,175,124. At
the next census, that of 1851, the population was found to have sunk
to 6,552,385, representing a decline of nearly twenty per cent., while
the following, the last census returns, showed another decline of
above twelve per cent. The decline during the two decennial periods
was spread unequally over the four provinces, as illustrated in the
subjoined table, the totals of which are exclusive of the men of the
POPULATION.
251
army and navy serving in Ireland on the night of the 7th and 8th
of April, but include the wives and families of such persons, and
also soldiers on furlough : —
Provinces
Population
1S51
Decrease per
cent, from 1841
to 1851
18G1
Decrease per
cent, from 185]
to 18G1
Leiuster .
Minister
Ulster
Comiauglit
Total of Ireland
1,672,738 1 15-25
1,857,736 22-47
2,011,880 15-69
1,010,031 28-81
1,439,596
1,503,200
1,910,408
911,339
13-94
19-08
5-04
9-77
6,552,385 19-85
5,764,543
12-02
Civil registration, which began in England in 1837, and in Scotland
in 1855, was not introduced into Ireland till the year 1864.
The subjoined table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages, in each of the six years 1864-69, together with the
estimated population of Ireland in the middle of the year : —
Years
Estimated
population
Births
Deaths
Marriages
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
5,675.307
5,641,086
5,582,625
5,557,196
5,543,285
5,546,343
136,414
145,227
146,237
144,318
146,108]
145,912
93,144
93,738
93,598
93,911
86,803
90,039
27,406
30,802
30,151
29,796
27,753
27,364
Owing to the still defective state of registration in Ireland, the
figures given above are returned as only an approximation to the
real numbers.
The estimated population of Ireland, in the middle of the year
1870, was 5,525,210.
From the returns of the emigration commissioners, it appears
that, of 2,249,355 emigrants who sailed from ports in the United
Kingdom, between March 31, 1851, and April 8, 1861, no less
than 1,230,986 were Irish ; and from the returns obtained by the
Registrar- General for Ireland, through the constabulary agents at
Irish ports, during the like period, it is seen that as many as
1,174,179 persons were set down as permanent emigrants. The
annual average emigration between 1831 and 1841 was 40,346, and
from June 30, in the latter year, to the end of 1845, it averaged
61,242 per annum. In consequence of the potato blight, famine,
and pestilence, the number rose to 105,955 in 1846 ; after which,
252 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
in 1847, the numbers who left the country were more than double
those who had departed in the previous year. In 1848 there was an
arrest of the exodus, and the emigrants only amounted to 178,159,
but in the following year they again rose to 214,425. The emigra-
tion reached its maximum in 1851, when the numbers amounted to
249,721, after which they gradually decreased to 150,222 in 1854.
Independently, however, of emigration, there was a large deficiency
in the population from pestilence. The mortality increased gradually
from 1840 to 1846, when the deaths reached 17,145. In 1847
there were 57,095 deaths from fever ; in 1848 there were 45,948
deaths; in 1849 as many as 39,31G ; and in 1850 there were
23,545. The total deaths from fever during the period between
1841 and 1851 amounted to 222,029. The deaths from starvation
in the years 1841 to 1851 were 21,770. The causes which led to
the diminution of the population of Ireland between 1851 and 1861
were not of the twofold character to which the decrease was attributed
in 1841-51. The diminution between 1851-61 may be said to have
been caused by emigration alone, no fatal epidemic having prevailed
during that period. The total number of emigrants from 1841—51
was 1,240,737, while the number who emigrated from Irish ports in
the decade 1851-61 was 1,208,350— viz. 179,507 in 1851, 190,322
in 1852, 173,148 in 1853, 140,555 in 1854, 91,914 in 1855, 90,781
in 1856, 95,081 in 1857, 64,337 in 1858, 80,599 in 1859, 84,621
in 1860, and 17,485 from January 1 to April 7, 1861. In the
seven years 1862-68 the emigration from Ireland was about 666,000.
The returns of the Emigration Commissioners show that the number
of emigrants of Irish origin who left the United Kingdom in each
of the years 1862-68 respectively was as follows : — 127,920 in 1863,
118,061 in 1864, 100,676 in 1865, 98,890 in 1866, 88,622 in 1867,
and 64.961 in 1868; the last year showing a decrease of 23,661.
Starting with the enumerated population of 1851 — viz. 6,552,385
— the Census Commissioners estimate that if emigration and immi-
gration had been equal between 1851 and 1861, the population of
Ireland in 1861 would have been 7,241,758, whereas it was found
upon enumeration to be only 5,798,967, or 1,442,791 in defect.
Again starting with the population of 1851 — viz. 9,018, 799 — as es-
timated by the Commissioners on the supposition that emigration and
immigration had been equal, and assuming that the population had con-
tinued to increase at the moderate rateof 0'926 percent, perannum, the
population of Ireland would have numbered 9,887,400 souls in 1861,
and 10,548,000 in 1-S69. The Irish Registrar-General estimated the
population in the middle of 1869 at 5,546,343, so that during the 28
years 1841-69, the population of Ireland had been reduced to nearly
one-half of what it, would have been had the country not suffered
from famine and pestilence and been drained by emigration.
POPULATION.
253
The census returns show that the number of small holdings in
Ireland, above one and up to five acres, was reduced from 310,4.'ii; in
1841 to 85,409 in 1861, or 72'5 per cent. Holdings from five to
fifteen acres decreased from 252,799 in 1841 to 183,931 in 1861, or
27'2 per cent. The farms above fifteen acres increased in number;
those between fifteen and thirty acres, 79,342 in I841,were 141,251 in
180 1 , an increase of 78 per cent. ; and the holdings above thirty acres,
from 48,625 in 1841 to 157,833 in 1861, or 109-208 per cent. From
returns published, by order of Parliament, in 1869, it appears that
the number of holdings in Ireland at the end of 1867 was 597,118
—viz. not exceeding one acre, 50,670 ; above one and not exceeding
five acres, 78,064 ; above five and not exceeding 15 acres, 173,475;
above 15 and not exceeding 30 acres, 136,503; above 30 and
not exceeding 50 acres, 71,785; above 50 and not exceeding 100
acres, 54,752 ; above 100 and not exceeding 200 acres, 21,991 ;
above 200 and not exceeding 500 acres, 8,309 ; and above 500
.acres, 1,569.
The total area of Ireland was thus divided in 1867 : — Under
crops, 26-9 per cent. ; grass, 4945 per cent.; fallow, 0'1 per cent.;
plantations, 1*6 per cent. ; bog and waste, 2L9 per cent. Of every
100 holdings 29 were above five and not exceeding 15 acres, 22'S
were above 15 and not exceeding 30 acres, 13' 1 were above one and
not exceeding five acres, 12 were above 30 and under 50 acres, 9-2
were above 50 and did not exceed 100 acres, 3"7 were above 100
and did not exceed 200 acres, 1-4 were above 200 and not ex-
ceeding 500 acres, and 0"3 exceeded 500 acres. The number of
holdings in 1867 in each county is thus returned: — Antrim, 24,087;
Armagh, 22.033; Carlow, 5,409; Cavan, 20,939; Clare, 18,519;
Cork, 36,556; Donegal, 32,386; Down, 31,387; Dublin, 9,564;
Fermanagh, 13,817; Galway, 38,451; Kerry, 18,633; Kildare,
9,368 ; Kilkenny, 14,945 ; King's, 12,267 ; Leitrim, 15,233 ;
Limerick, 16,535 ; Londonderry, 18,429 ; Longford, 8,819 ; Louth,
8,684; Mayo, 37,329; Meath, 12,020; Monaghan, 19,544; Queen's,
11,803; Roscommon, 21,938 ; Sligo, 15,985; Tipperary, 25,912;
Tyrone, 29,264; Waterford, 9,336; Westmeath, 11,602; Wex-
ford, 16,910; Wicklow, 8,814. The valuation of the total number
of holdings in 18G7 was 13,245,235/., giving an average value
of 221. 4s. to each plot. Taking the entire population of the
agricultural districts of Ireland, as returned in the census of 1861,
at 4,286,019, there was, in the year 1867, one holding to every seven
persons, while, equally divided, each individual possessed or held 4f
acres of land.
The subjoined table gives the number of paupers in receipt of
relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week of January
in each of the ten years 1861-70 :
254
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Years
Indoor Paupers
Outdoor Paupers
Total
1861
47.352
3,331
50.683
1862
55,168
4,373
59,541
1863
60,038
5.809
65.847
1864
59.867
7,753
68,136
1865
59,498
9,182
69.217
1866
54,435
10,163
65.057
1867
54,930
13,291
68.650
186S
56,663
15,830
72,925
1869
56,934
17,320
74,743
1870
53,687
19,729
73,921
The number of criminal offenders, distinguishing men and women,
committed for trial, and convicted, in Ireland, was as follows during
each of the ten years 1860-69 : —
Tears
Committed for trial
Convicted
Men
Women
Total
1860 .
3.996
1.390
5.386
2,979
1861 .
4,262
1,324
5,586
3,271
1862 .
5,102
1,564
6,666
3,796
1863 .
4.667
1,411
6,078
3,285
1864 .
3,793
1.293
5.086
3,000
1865 .
3.564
1,093
4.657
2,661
1866 .
3,461
865
4,326
2,418
1867 .
3,665
896
4,561
2,733
1868 .
3.298
829
4,127
2,394
1869 .
3,340
811
4.151
2,452
The gradual decrease in the number of persons committed for
trial in Ireland, falling together with a vast increase of pauperism,
is ascribed to the improvement of the police and judicial organisation,
together with more extended administrative machinery for the relief
of the poor in Ireland.
Emigration from the United Kingdom.
Official returns state the number of emigrants who left the United
Kingdom during the fifty -five years from 1815 to the end of 1869
at 6,756,697. Of this total there went 4,276,597 to the United
States, 1,356,476 to the British North American colonies, 971,358
to the Australian colonies and New Zealand, and 152,266 to other
parts. The numbers include foreigners who embarked from port3
in the United Kingdom.
The following table gives the number and destination of emi-
grants fur each of the fifteen years, 1855 to 1869, the last column
porrLAHON.
255
including all individuals not enumerated under the three great
outlets of British emigration, namely, the United States, the North
American, and the Australasian colonies.
Years
To the North
American Colonies
To the United
States
To the Australian
Colonies and New
Zealand
Total
1855
17.966
103,414
52,309
176,807
1856
16,378
111.837
44,584
176.554
1857
21,001
126.905
61,248
212875
1858
9.704
59.716
39,295
113,972
1859
6,689
70,303
31,013
120,432
I860
9,786
87.500
24,302
128.469
1861
12.707
49.764
23,738
91,770
1862
15.522
58.706
41.843
121,214
1863
18.083
146,813
53,054
223,758
1864
12.721
147.042
40.942
208,900
1865
17,211
147,258
37,283
209,801
1866
13.255
161,000
24.097
204,882
1867
15,503
159,275
14,466
195.953
1868
21.062
155.532
12,809
196,321
1869
33,891
203,001
14,901
258,027
The number of 258,027 emigrants who left the United Kingdom in
18G9 comprised 90,416 English, 22,559 Scotch, 73,325 Irish, and
65,752 foreigners, the nationality of the remaining 5,975 indi-
viduals not being distinguished in the returns. The ports from
which the emigrants of 1869 embarked were few in number. There
sailed 172,734 from Liverpool, 29,607 from Cork, 21,077 from
Glasgow or Greenock, 15,672 from London, 8,723 from London-
derry, 4,751 from Plymouth, 2,519 from Southampton, 1,674 from
Portsmouth, 808 from Dublin, 382 from Falmouth, 47 from
Swansea, and 33 from Cardiff. The year's emigration consisted of
160,244 males and 97,783 females. The number included 28,975
married men and 31,489 married women, while 99,524 were single
men and 39,392 single women; 40,862 children from one to twelve
years of age, and 11,849 infants not a year old. More than half of
all the emigrants of 1869 are described generally as ' labourers; '
9,913 are registered as miners and quarrymen, besides 655 distin-
guished as coal miners; 9,459 as farmers, and 1,591 as agricul-
tural labourers, gardeners, carters, &c. Of the rest, 7.506 were
gentlemen, professional men, and merchants; 2,627 were car-
penters and joiners; 72 builders, and 1,519 bricklayers, masons,
plasterers, slaters, &c, while 1,119 are described generally as smiths,
224 as blacksmiths and farriers; 1,026 clerks, 878 tailors, 792
domestic servants, 707 spinners and weavers, 615 shopkeepers, shop-
25<
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
men, and warehousemen, 531 boot and shoemakers, 427 painters,
paperhangers, plumbers, and glaziers, 400 engineers, 284 bakers
and confectioners, 276 jewellers and silversmiths, 274 seamen, 245
coopers, 167 butchers and poulterers, and 160 printers. Other
trades supplied smaller numbers to the emigration of the year.
Commerce and Industry.
1. Imports and Exports.
The declared value of the imports and exports of the United King-
dom, distinguishing, in regard to exports, British produce, and
foreign and colonial produce, was as follows during each of the ten
years 1860 to 1869 :—
Years
Imports
Exports of
British produce
Exports of
Foreign and
Colonial produce
Total Imports
and Exports
£
£
£
£
1860
210,530,873
135,891,227
28,630,124
375,052,224
1861
217,485,024
125,102,814
34,529,684
377,117,522
1862
225,716,976
123,992,264
42,175,870
391,885,110
1863
248,919,020
146,602,342
50,300,067
445,821,429
1864
274,952,172
160,449,053
52,170,561
487.571,786
1865
271,072,285
165,835,725
52,995,851
489,903,861
1866
295,290,274
188,917.536
49,988,146
534.195,956
1867
275,183,137
180,961923
44,840,606
500,985,666
1868
294,693,608
179.677,812
48,100,642
522,472,062
1869
295,460,214
189,953,957
47,061,095
532,475,266
In the fifteen years ending with 1869, the increase of commerce
of the United Kingdom was nearly twice as large as the increase of
population. In 1855, the proportion per head of population of the
total imports and exports was 91. 7s., while in 1869 it had risen to
17/. 16s. 3d. The rise was gradual, represented by 10/. 14s. hd. in
1858 ; and by 13/. 0s. Id. in 1860. The following table exhibits
the average share per head of population of the United Kingdom in
the imports, the exports of British produce, and the total imports
and exports, during the ten years 1860 to 1869 : —
Years
Imports
Exports of
British
produce
Total Imports
and Exports
Years
Imports
Exports of
British
produce
Total Imports
ami Exports
£
s. a.
£ s. d.
£
s. d.
£
s. d. £ s. d.
£ s. d.
1860
7
7 0
4 14 7
13
0 7
1865
9
2 2
5 11 5
16 9 2
1861
7
10 2
4 6 5
13
0 5
1866
9
17 2
6 6 2
17 16 10
1862
7
14 7
4 5 7
13
8 5
1867
9
2 6
6 0 0
16 12 3
1863
8
9 5
5 0 ()
15
3 5
1S68
9
14 0
5 18 2
17 4 0
1864
9
6 0
5 8 7
16
9 10
1869
9
12 1
6 3 7
17 6 3
COMMERCE ASD INDUSTRY.
257
The following table shows the relative division of the imports
from British colonies and the principal foreign countries into the
United Kingdom in 18G9, compared with the previous year. Each
country is placed in the order in which it ranks according to the
magnitude of the supplies it sent to the United Kingdom in 1869.
The total of 18G9, it will be seen, shows an increase in amount
oyer the year 1868, while, at the same time, it represents the
highest figure ever recorded in imports: —
Imports into the United Kingdom.
Year 1809
Year 1S6S
From British Possessions : —
£
£
India .
. 33,245,508
30,071,871
Australasia .
. 12,146,685
12,571,473
Canada and X. America
7,734,531
6,772,253
West India Islands
. 6,024,679
6,570,016
Cej'lon
. 3,749,723
3,671,494
Cape and Natal
. 2,725,844
2,714,648
Singapore and Straits
. 2,313,260
2,050,163
Mauritius
667,516
1,055,419
Western Africa
609,256
538,431
Channel Islands .
450,817
391,080
Hongkong
281,932
235,804
Honduras
189,210
140,720
Malta . .
162,184
55,961
Gibraltar
112,504
72,026
Other Possessions
21,031
SI, 178
Total British Possessions
. 70,416,494
66,993,547
From Foreign Countries : —
United States
42,519,927
43,062,299
France .
33,536,972
33,896,327
Germany
17,927,192
17,653,553
Egypt .
16,796,233
17,584,616
Russia . .
16,674,524
20,050,162
Netherlands .
12,739,744
11,390,924
China .
9,814,388
11,481.565
Belgium
9,391,515
8,255,045
Turkey .
9,059,856
7,658,711
Brazil .
7,312,494
7,455,803
Sweden and Norway
6,353,545
6,215,346
Spain .
6,346,741
6,591,021
Cuba
4.823,331
4,830,295
Italy . . . .
3,997,965
4,018,034
Peru . . . .
3,992,472
3,400,026
Chili .
3,634,717
4,366,598
Portugal
2,664,257
2,253,095
Austria
2,276,806
2,029,310
Denmark . .
2,236,951
2.470,398
Western A.rica
1,612,625
1.884.229
Greece . . . .
1,526,069
1,147,581
Philippine Islands
1,406,892
1.714,649
Argentine Confederatioi
1.267,583
1,496,136
25b GREAT
BRITAIN
AND IRELAND.
Year 18G9
Year 1868
From Foreign Countries — continued.
C
&
Colombia
1,116,118
1,096,032
Central America .
1,114,50-1
■ 939,827
Uruguay
796,884
1,138.255
Mexico .
350j570
350,664
Java and Sumatra
22 1,679
75,290
Ecuador
200,064
]02.H»1
Japan .
167,308
181,222
Venezuela
71,325
30,803
Other Countries .
2,975,705
4,441,665
Total Foreign Countries
£225,043,720
£227,700,061
Total Imports
£295,460,214
£294,693.608
The following table shows the relative division of the exports of
home produce from the United Kingdom to British Colonies and
foreign states, the list of the various countries being arranged, in
the same manner as in the preceding table, according to the value
of the exports which they received in 18G9 : —
Expoets of Home Pkoduce from the United Kingdom.
Year 1SU9
Year 1SGS
To British Possessions :-
£
£
India .
. 17.565,769
21,251,773
Australasia .
. 13,424,103
12,075,610
North America
5,157,083
4,847,688
"West Indies .
. 2,530,571
2,505,851
Hongkong
2,131,388
2,185,972
Singapore
. 1,739,491
1,539,181
Cape and Natal
1,571,953
1,591,171
Gibraltar
821,993
706,298
Ceylon .
796,100
824,483
Western Africa
623,898
613,279
Channel Islands
581,920
555,120
Malta .
528,427
501,952
Mauritius
381,810
383,620
Honduras
126,781
133,755
Other Possessions
190.029
125,314
Total British Possession
s . 48,072,683
49,864,924
To Foreign Countries : —
United States
24,627,867
21,431,632
Germany
5
2,S13,994
22,777,390
France .
11,459,993
10,652,734
Netherlands .
10,658,194
10,395,098
Egypt . .
7,987,344
6,056,404
Turkey .
7,846,32:;
S. 157.701
Brazil .
6,965,011
5,351,989
China .
6,846,215
6,312.175
Russia .
6,469,303
1.250,721
Italy .
6,164,350
4,980.2 !(')
Belgium
3,992,772
3,150,105
Colombia
2,489,868
2.710,271
Argentina ( lonfi '1"
Mtinn
2,276,066
1,927,428
Spain .
2,20.\ 17:1
2,208,892
COMMERCE
AND INDUSTRY
Year 1869
To Foreign Countries— continued.
£
Chili ....
1,993,038
Portugal
1,637.996
Denmark
1,575,559
Sweden and Norway
1,564,143
Japan ....
1,442,054
Peru ....
1,383,238
Austria
1,340,591
Cuba and Porto Rico .
1.078,700
Uruguay
1,077,377
Greece ....
973.918
Philippine Islands
832,956
"Western Africa
792,409
Java and Sumatra
660/274
Mexico ....
636,723
Central America .
206,00S
Ecuador
55,162
Venezuela
53,333
Other Countries .
1.317,679
Total, Foreign Countries
141,8817274
Total Exports
189,953,957
259
Year 18GS
1,962,714
1,554,649
1,450,359
1,392,633
1,112.804
1,132,363
1,077,1.5!)
2,519,271
930,422
976,867
956,140
886.101
836.874
848,588
160,049
28,840
66,997
1,293,305
129,812,888
179,677,812
It will be seen from the above tables that while the imports from
British possessions showed an increase amounting to more than
3,500,000/. in 1869, the exports to them exhibited a slight decrease
in value over the previous year. The total imports from foreign
countries showed a decrease of 2,605,000Z., in 1860, and the ex-
ports to them an increase of upwards of 12,000,000/. The foreign
country which took the greatest supply of British produce and
manufactures in the year 1869 was the United States, while in the
year 1868 Germany held the first rank. There was an increase
of exports of British produce in the year 1869 principally to six
foreign countries, the same amounting in round numbers to the
following sums :— Increasc
&
Exports to the I nited States 3,196,000
.., Russia 2,219,000
„ Egypt 1,930,00(1
„ Brazil 1,613,000
„ Italy 1.182.000
„ Belgium 842,000
The countries to which there Avas a decrease of exports of British
produce and manufactures in 1869, compared with 1868, were
mainly Turkey, Colombia, Spain, Cuba and Porto Eico, and Greece.
The five principal articles imported into the United Kingdom are
cotton, com, wool, tea, and sugar. The five principal articles of
home produce exported are cotton, woollen, metal, and linen
manufactures, and coals. In the subjoined tallies the declared
real value of these ten great articles of British commerce, imported
and exported in the years 1867, 1868, and 1869, is exhibited: —
260 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The Five principal Articles of Import.
Articles imp
1867
1SUS
I860
1. Cotton, raw .
2. Corn, wheat .
„ other kinds .
„ flour, of wheat
„ ,, of other kinds
Total of corn .
3. Wool ....
4. Tea ....
5. Sugar, raw
51,999,537
£
55,184,680
£
56,834,709
21,985,096
12,766,111
3,519,577
93,350
22,069,353
14,495,021
2,832,077
22,839
19.515,758
14,032,021
3,792,939
6,640
37,347,358
14,696,746
41,364.134
16,178,034
39,420,290
15,120,498
10,067,813
11,501,961
12,431,454
10,311,465 j
13,540,917
13,339,758
The Five principal Articles op Export.
Articles exported
1SG7
18G8
isea
1. Cotton manufactures :
£
£
£
Piece goods, white or plain
33,727,447
31,284,643
30,530,220 !
„ printed or dyed
19,405,384
18,S44,117
19,372.518 1
„ of other kinds
2,840,299
2,703,337
3,098,813
Cotton yarn .
Total of cotton manufactur
2. "Woollen and worsted maaufac
14.870,562
14,709,194
14,157,513 |
67,159,064 |
2S 70,843,692
67,541,291
tures :
Cloths, coatings, &c.
5,338,407
3.766,894
4,272,949 j
Flannels, blankets, and baizes
861,197
963,743
1,107,360 1
"Worsted stuffs
12,149,260
13,065,236
15,119,029 1
Carpets and druggets .
1.102,036
1.095,009
1,467,355
Of all other sorts .
683,180
634,763
658,497 !
\ 20,134,080
worsted manufactures
3. Metals:
19,525,645
22,625,190
Iron, pig and puddled .
1.660,026
1,577,529
2,056,605
., bar, angle, bolt, and rod
2,359,062
2.272,906
2,684,071
., railroad, of all sorts .
4,8S9,389
4,646.156
7,282,040
,, wire
361,193
400,696
435,778
t ., cast
677,433
713,289
857,643
,, hoops and plates .
1,785,447
1,766,222
2.253.600
., wrought, of all sorts
2,141,496
2,259,059
2.427,154
„ old, for re-manufacture
188,912
377,679
483,510
„ steel, unwrought .
Total of iron and steel
1,063,954
1.008,371
1,038,800
15 126,912
15,021,907
19,201
rmniEitcE \xr> industry,
261
The Fire principal Articles of Export — continued.
Articles exported
1 1
1SG7 1868 1869
4. Linen manufactures :
White or plain, damask, &c. .
Printed, cheeked, or dyed
Of other sorts
Linen yarn ....
Total of linen manufactures
5. Coals, cinders, and culm .
6,528,041 | 6,280,930
237,445 ! 237,870
672,896 | 594,073
2,449,394 2,308,494
&
6,091,664
194,750
511,959
2,328,778
9,887,776 ' 9,422,367 | 9,127,151
5,392,452 | 5,352,525 j 5,069,574
Subjoined is a statement of the customs receipts for the two years
1868 and 1869, showing the increase or decrease of the gross pro-
duce in the year 1869, as compared with 1868 : —
Increase or Decrease
Gross produce of Customs
of the gross produce in
duties
186,9, as compared with
Articles
1S6S
1868
1S69
Increase
Decrease
&
£
£
&
Chicory
110,073
99,433
—
10,640 j
Cocoa, cocoa husks, and
chocolate
26.453
30,337
3.8S4
—
Coffee ....
382,626
363,872
—
18,754
Corn ....
864,097
339,347
—
524,750 i
Fruit, dried: Currants
277,148
281,248
4,100
—
„ Figs, plums,
and prunes
30,607
41,797
11,190
,, Raisins
126,580
123,624
—
2,956 1
Spirits : Rum .
2,007,712
1.916.077
—
91,635 :
,, . Brandy
1,729,356
1,701,441
—
27,915 !
,, Geneva and other
;
sorts
596,360
601.601
5,241
— i
Sugar ....
5.641,937
5,642,859
922
1
., Molasses
102,961
115,548
12,587
—
Tea ....
2,672.97s
2,797,219
124,241
—
Tobacco and snuff .
6,578,751
6,641,980
63,229
— ■
Wine ....
1,521,194
1,512,122
—
9,072
Other articles
Total gross receipts
24,674
22,693.507
21.243
—
3,431
22,229,748
—
463,759
Drawbacks and repay-
ments
Total net receipts
281,724
317,528
—
35.804
22,411,783
21,912,220
—
499.563
The gross receipts of customs were collected as follows in the
years 1868 and 1869 at the chief ports of England, in Scotland, and
'.n Ireland : —
262
GREAT RTHTAIN AND IRELAND.
J orl ■■
1868
186!) Increase
Decrease
London
Liverpool
Other Ports of England
Scotland
Ireland
Total .
Decrease
€ £
10.694,494 10,484,555
3,079,566 3,158,300
3 3 1 7.186 ! 3,413,027
3,436,308 ' 3,073,045
2,135,953 2,095,276
78,734
65,841
£
209.939
363,263
40,677
613.879
469,304
22,693,507 22,224,203
144,575
It will be seen that the amount of customs receipts collected in
London in each of the years 1868 and 1869 was more than that of
all the other ports of Great Britain taken together, and five times
that of the whole of Ireland. Besides London and Liverpool, there
is only one port in England, Bristol, the customs receipts of which
average a million a-year, and one more, Hull, where they are above
a quarter of a million, while in Scotland the two ports of Glasgow
and. Greenock, and in Ireland the one port of Dublin, absorb the
main share of the receipts. It appears from the customs returns of
the last thirty years, that there is an ever-increasing tendency of
concentration of trade within a few great centres of commerce and
industry.
2. Shipping.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels of the United
Kingdom engaged in the home trade, with the men employed thereon
—exclusive of masters — was as follows from 1856 till 1869 : —
Homo Trade
Sailing Vessels
Men
Years
Xnmber
Tons
1856
9.390
719,860
33,879
1857
9,676
767,925
37.138
185S
10,313
788,113
37.971
1859
Ki,035
777,422
35,545
1860
10.S48
821,079
39,163
1861
11.060
832,771
39.626
1862
10,481
771,326
36,514
1863
1D.677
752,589
36.720
1864
11.003
789,108
37.748 |
1865
. 11,160
795,434
37.631
1866
11,212
813.909
37,440
1867
; 11.198
839,523
38,526
1868
11,787
804,749
39,448
1S69
11.570
776,683
39,4S1
( 0M3IERCE AND INDUSTRY,
263
The number of steam vessels employed in the home trade during
each of the fourteen years, from 1856 to 1869, was as follows : —
Home Trade
Steam Vessels
Tears
Number
Tons
Jrcn
1856
317
07.616
4,786
1857
388
92.4S1
6,462
1858
372
90,739
6,215
1859
374
90.867
6,377
1860
402
92,254
6,416
1861
448
102,795
7,024
1862
434
104,020
6,892
1863
456
107,003
7,095
1864
510
125,808
7,858
IS 65
552
134,776
8,189
1866
612
147,194
9.005
1867
657
154,244
9,451
186S
729
153,265
9,755
1869
751
161.984
10,049
The number of sailing vessels engaged partly in the home and
partly in the foreign trade — the expression ' home trade ' signifying
the coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest' — was, in each of the fourteen years, from
1856 to I860:—
Partly Home and
partly
Sailing Vessels
Foreign Trade
Yi ari
Number
Tons
Men
1856
970
162,488
6,483
• 1857
1,098
162,112
7,007
185S
897
138,699
5.594
1859
848
132,768
5,229
1860
1,366
226,556
8.700
1861
1,326
219,522
8,443
1862
1,483
246,479
9,388
1863
1,720
284.413
10.831
1864
1,624
268,125
10,039
1865
1,663
282,295
10,457
1866
1.546
278.167
10.055
1867
1,196
199.846
7.339
186S
1,432
240.921
8,688
1869
1,617
288,849
10,265
264
GREAT DTUTAIN AND IRELAND.
The number of steamers employed alternately in home and foreign
trade, during the years 1856 to 1869, amounted to: —
Partly Homo and
partly
Steam Vessels
Foreign Trade
Years
Number
Tons
Men
18.56
42
16,102
965
1857
66
20,859
1,200
1858
62
20,604
1,141
1859
59
21.123
1,202
1860
80
29,803
1.731
1861
72
24,924
1,255
1862
89
29,463
1,664
1863
90
33,547
1,693
1864
92
36,944
1,787
1865
111
43,225
2,005
1866
110
47,194
2,050
1867
125
50,201
2,249
1868
134
52,150
2,339
1869
164
73,964
3,048
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels engaged in
the foreign trade alone, with the men employed — exclusive of masters
— was as follows during the fourteen years 1856 to 1869 : —
Employed in the
Failing Vessels
Foreign Trade
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1856
8,059
2,942,674
110,718 |
1857
7.655
2,900,082
107,289 1
1858
7,999
3.029,226
109,090 j
1859
7,792
2,969,402
105,434
1860
6,876
2.804.610
'J7.024 !
1861
6,902
2,866,21S
96,880. j
1862
7,095
2,993,696
100.145
1863
7,360
3,246,526
106,100
1864
7,557
3,532,242
110,489
1865
7,384
3,629,023
110,501
1866
7,454
3,612,973
109,073
1867
7,467
3,641,662
107,364
1868
7,306
3,646,150
105.7111
1S69
6,9fi3
3,611,743
102,110
COMMERCE ANT) INDUSTRY,
265
The number of steamers employed in the foreign trade during the
same period amounted to : — ■
Employed in the
Foreign Trade
Steam Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Hen
1856
492
247,337
17,087
1857
445
268,023
17,291
1858
42S
257,861
17,821
1859
462
277,527
18.719
1860
447
277,437
17.958
1861
477
313,465
18,729
1862
510
328,310
19,260
1863
574
371,201
22.288
1864
727
456,241
27.835
1865
756
523,698
28,860
1866
784
553,425
28,748
1867
834
608,232
31.411
1868
862
619,199
31,568
1869
S10
644,080
30,207
A summary of the total shipping of the United Kingdom, sailing
and steam, during the fourteen years 1856 to 1869 is shown in the
following table : —
Number of
Tears
Vessels
Tons
Men
1856
19.270
4.156.077
173,918
1857
19,328
4,211,482
176,387
1858
20, 071
4,325,242
177,832
1859
19,570
4,269,109
172,506
1860
20,019
4.251,739
171.592
1861
20,285
4,359,695
171,957
1862
20,092
4,473.294
173,863
1863
20,877
4,795,279
184,727
1864
21.513
5,208,468
19o,756
1865
21.626
5.408,451
197,643
1866
21,718
5,452,862
196.371
1867
21,777
5.493,708
196,340
1868
22,250
5,516,434
197,502
1869
21,881
5,557,303
195,490
The above numbers include vessels of the Channel Islands, but
not those of the British possessions.
The total tonnage of British and foreign vessels, both sailing and
steam, which entered and cleared at ports of the United Kingdom,
either with cargoes or in ballast, during the fourteen years 1856-69,
is shown in the subjoined table : —
266
CHEAT r.MTAIN AND IliETAXD.
Years
British
Foreign
Total
tons
tons
tons
1856
12.945,771
S.643.278
21,589,049
1857
13,694.107
9,484,685
23,178,792
1858
12,891,405
9,118,576
22,309,981
1859
13,311,843
9,592,416
22,904,259
1860
13,914,923
10,774,369
24,689,292
1861
15,420,532
11,175,109
26,595,641
1862
15,946,860
0,588,579
26,535,439
1863
17,019,392
9,719,341
26,738.733
1864
18.201,675
9,002,834
27,204,509
1865
19,358,955
19,538,137
28,897,092
1866
21,255,726
10,006,724
31,262,450
1867
22,370,070
10,386,042
32,756,112
1868
22,660,424
11,020,555
33,680,979
1869
23,789,167
11,121,114
34,910,281
The number and tonnage of vessels built and first registered in
the United Kingdom, in each of the years 1856-69, "was as
follows : —
Years
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
1856
921
187,005 i
229
57,573
1857
1,050
197,554
228
52,918
1858
847
154,930 1
153
53,150
1859
789
147,967 1
150
38,003
1860
818
158.172
198
53,796
1861
774
129,970 !
201
70,869
1862
827
164,001 :
221
77.338
1863
881
253,036
279
107,951
1864
867
272,499
374
159,374
1865
922
235,555
382
179,649 1
1866
969
207,678
354
133,511
1867
915
185,771
295
97,219 j
1868
879
300,477
232
79,096 1
1869
731
245,373
281
123,203
It appears from a parliamentary return, issued in 1870, that in the
year preceding the total number of seamen employed on board
British ships, registered in the United Kingdom, was 202,477.
Included in this number were 4,975 apprentices, and 20,203
foreigners, the rest, 177,239, being British seamen. Two years
before the number of foreign seamen on board British ships was
21,950, so that there was a decrease in the employment of foreigners
within the quinquennial period.
COMMERCE AND INDl^T^Y
267
8. Textile Industry.
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom in
1815 amounted to only 99,000,000 pounds; it rose to 152,000,000
in 1820; to 229,000,000 in 1825; to 204,000,000 in 1830; to
304,000,000 in 1835; to 592,000,000 in 1840; to 722,000,000 in
1845 ; and to 003,570,801 pounds in 1850. The subsequent in-
crease and fluctuations of imports are exhibited in the subjoined
tabular view, which shows the total cotton imports, exports, and the
amounts retained for home consumption in each of the fourteen years
1850 to 1809.
Years
Total imports of
Total exports of
Ectained for home
Cotton
Cotton
consumption
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1856
1,023,886,304
146,660,864
877,225,440
1857
969,318,896
131,927,600
837,391,296
1858
1,034,342,176
149,609,600
884,732,576
1859
1,225.986,072
175.143,136
1,050,845,936
1860
1,390,938,752
250,339,040
1.140,599,712
1861
1,256,984,736 ■
298,287,920
958,696,816
1862
523,973,296
214,714,528
309,258,768
1863
669,583,264
241,352,496
428,230,768
1864
893,304,720
244,702.304
648,602,416
1865
977.978,288
302,908,928
675,069,360
1866
1,377,129,936
388,952,368
988,177,568
1S67
1,262,536.912
350,626,416
911,910,496
1868
1,328,084,016
322,620,480
1,005,463,536
1869
1,220,809.856
272,928,544
947.881,312
The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool — sheep,
lamb, and alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for home con-
sumption during each of the years 1850 to 1809 : —
1
Tears
Total imports
Total exports
Retained for home
of Wool
of Wool
consumption
Hi-.
- lbs.
lbs.
1856
116,211,392
26,679,793
89,531,599
1857
129,749.898
36,487,219
93,262,679
1858
126,738,723
26,701,542
100.037.1S1
1859
133.284,634
29,106,750
104,177.884
1860
148,396,577
30,761,867
117.634,710
1861
147.172,841
54,377,104
92,795,737
1862
171,943,472
48,076,499
123,866,973
1863
177,377,664
63.927,961
113.449,703
1864
206,473,045
55,933,739
150,539.306
1S65
212,206,747
82.444,930
129,761.817
1866
239,358,689
06.573,488
172.7S5.201
1867
233,703.184
90,832,584
142,870,600
1868
252,744,155
105,070,311
147,673,844
1869
258,461.689
116.608,305
141,853,384 ,
268 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
The number of persons employed in the several branches of textile
industry in England and Wales in 1868 was 673,334, against 495,707
in 1850; showing an increase of 177,627 hands in the 19 years.
The numbers employed in each branch of industry were: — Lr cotton
manufacture, 357,052 ; woollen, 101,938; worsted, 128,410; silk,
39,956; flax, 21,859; hemp, 1,330; jute, 1,760; hosiery, 6,419;
shoddy, 3,187; horsehair, 828; felt, 19; elastic, 3,821; lace,
6,755. Out of the 673,334 hands, 184,904 were employed in spin-
ning; 101,077 in weaving ; and 352,287 in spinning and weaving.
Official returns show that at the end of the year 1868 there Avere
ten counties in England, three in Scotland, and one in Ireland which
had above a thousand of their population employed in the cotton
manufacture. Lancashire had 152,150 persons so employed in 1839,
315,627 in 1861, and 277,846 in 1868; Cheshire had 36,352 in
1839, 40,860 in 1861 ; 32,541 in 1868; Yorkshire had 12,436 in
1839, 27,810 in 1861, 23,844 in 1868 ; Derby had 10,462 in 1839,
12,965 in 1861, 10,454 in 1868 ; Cumberland, 1,986 in 1839, 3,281
in 1861, 3,213 in 1868 ; Nottingham, 1,460 in 1839,2,183 in 1861,
2,273 in 1868; Stafford, 2,078 in 1839, 1,982 in 1861; 2,076 in
1868 ; Gloucester, 29 in 1839, 1,514 in 1861, 1,529 in 1868 ;
Leicester, 244 in 1839, 219 in 1861, 1,339 in 1868 ; Warwick, 84
in 1839, 445 in 1861, 1,021 in 1868. In Scotland, Lanark had
20,288 persons thus employed in 1839, 27,065 in 1861, 26,183 in
1868; Renfrew, 7,851 in 1839, 8,749 in 1861, 8,873 in 1868;
Ayr. 961 in 1839, 1,089 in 1861, 1,642 in 1868. In Ireland,
Waterford had 1,011 in 1839, 1,412 in 1861, 1,629 in 1868 ;
Antrim 2,000 in 1839, 639 in 1861, 857 in 1868. The number of
spinning spindles employed in Lancashire was 21,530,532 in 1861,
and 24,160,955 in 1868. In Cheshire, 3,373,113 in 1861,
2,998,080 in 1868. In Yorkshire, 2,414,898 in 1861, 2,376,517
in 1868. In Derby, 682,008 in 1861, 542,894 in 1868. In Cum-
berland, 136,212 in 1861, 138,782 in 1868. In Nottingham, 36,000
in 1861, 6,292 in 1868. In Stafford, 81,116 in 1861, 87,616 in
1868. In Gloucester, 66,004 in 1861, 91,072 in 1868. In Lanark
the spinning spindles were 1,138,602 in 1861, 934,012 in 1868 ; in
Renfrew, 408,742 in 1861, 316,028 in 1868; in Ayr, 30,240 in
1861, 19,152 in 1868; in Perth, 57,796 in 1861, and 34,224 in
1868 ; in Stirling, 50,190 and 30,722 respectively ; in Bute, 52,148
and 26,000 ; and in Linlithgow, 19,800 and 20,408. In Waterford,
30,292 in 1861, 43,092 in 1868 ; in Antrim, 72,884 in 1861, 73,168
in 1868. In the other counties in which the cotton trade is found,
it is of less importance. The number of persons employed in the
cotton factories of the United Kingdom was 259,365 in 1839,
330,924 in 1850, 379,213 in 1850, 451,569 in 1861, 401,064 in
1868. The number of spinning spindles increased from 30,387,467
in 1861, to 32,000,014 in 1868. The woollen trade is found in
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. 269
32 of the 52 counties of England and Wales, but in some to a very
small extent. In 18G8, there were 17 of the 40 counties of England
that had more than 100 of their population employed in woollen
manufactures; in the same position were 6 of the 12 counties in
Wales, 16 of the 33 counties of Scotland, and 6 of the 32 counties of
Ireland. As regards the chief homes of the trade, Yorkshire heads
the list, with 27,548 of its people employed in the woollen trade in
1839, and 59,602 in 1868 ; Lancashire gave 4,947 people to the
trade in 1839, and 11,338 in 1868; Cheshire, 174 in 1839, and
6,045 in 1868 ; Derbyshire, 35 in 1839, and 4,668 in 1868 ;
Leicestershire, 85 in 1850, and 2,077 in 1868 ; Gloucestershire,
5.515 in 1839, and 6,368 in 1868 ; Wilts, 3,218 in 1839, and 3,192
in 1868; and Somerset, 2,133 in 1839, and 2,518 in 1868. In
Scotland, Selkirk shewed 406 persons in the woollen factories in
1839, and 2,696 in 1868 ; Stirling, 327 in 1839, and 1,889 in 1868 ;
Clackmannan, 1,083 in 1839, and 1,845 in 1868; Roxburgh, 640
in 1839, and 1,780 in 1868 ; Dumfries, 78 in 1839, and 1^238 in
1868 ; and Aberdeen, 1,083 in 1839, and 1,027 in 1868. In
Ireland, Dublin county had 580 persons in this employment in 1839,
and 9,304 in 1868. The progress of the woollen trade in the seven
years will be seen from the following statistics. In 1861 there were
in Yorkshire 1,296,190 spinning spindles, 11,405 power-looms,
amount of moving (horse) power 19,634 steam and 2,816 water;
in 1868, there were 1,342,690. spinning spindles, 20,028 power-
looms, moving power 21,029 steam and 2,774 water. In Lancashire
there were 277,655 spinning spindles in 1861, with 6,377 power-
looms, moving-power 2,121 steam and 837 water ; in 1868 there
were 1,842,730 spinning spindles, 7,581 power-looms, moving power
3,171 steam and 591) water. In Cheshire there were 7,828 spinning-
spindles in 1861, and 406,788 in 1868; in Derbyshire 11,928 in
1861, and 330,750 in 1868 ; in Leicestershire, 6,360 in 1861, and
43948 in 1868 ; in Gloucestershire, 59,986 in 1861, and 65,094 in-
1868 ; in Wilts, 44,825 in 1861, and 43,607 in 1868 ; in Somerset,
31,401 in 1861, and 40,469 in 1868; in Selkirk, 46,368 in 1861,
and 65,046 in 1868 ; in Clackmannan, 38,311 in 1861, and 62,116
in 1868 ; in Roxburgh, 60,747 in 1861, and 54,154 in 1868 ; in
Stirling, 32,950 in 1861, and 44,171 in 1868; in Dublin, 6,636 in
1861, and 6,020 in 1868; in Cork, 2,752 in 1861, and 6,410 in
1868. Taking the whole of the United Kingdom there were 54,918
persons employed in woollen factories in 1839; there were 86,983
in 1861; and 127,181 in 1868. As to spinning spindles, there
were 2,182,609 in 1861, and 4,189,560 in 1868.
4. Minerals and Metals.
The total quantities and value of the minerals raised in the United
Kingdom in the year 1869 were as follows : —
270
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Coal, 107,427,557 tons, value 26,856,882*. ; iron ore, 11,508,525
tons, value 3,732,560/. ; tin ore, 14,725 tons, value 1,027,805/. ;
copper ore, 129,953 tons, value 519,912/. ; lead ore, 96,866 tons,
value 1,189,030/.; zinc ore, 15,533 tons, value 49,366/.; iron
pyrites, 75,949 tons, value 41,023/. ; arsenic, 2,561 tons, value
11,464/.; gossans and ochres, about 5,000 tons, value 4,000/.;
■wolfram, 25 tuns, value 943/. ; manganese, 1,558 tons, value
7,897/.; barytes, 5,987 tons, value 3,415/.; salt, 1,250,000 tons,
value 687,500/. ; clays, fine and fire, 1,200,000 tons, value
450,000/. ; and earthy minerals, value 670,000/. In summary, the
total value of the minerals produced in the United Kingdom, in the
year 1869. was 35,252,120Z. The total quantities and value of
the metals obtained from the ores in the year 1869 were as
follows: — Iron, pig, 5,445,757 tons, value 13,614,397/.; tin, 9,760
tons, value 1,201,456/. ; copper, 8,291 tons, value 644,065/. ; lead,
73,259 tons, value 1,397,415/. ; zinc, 4,500 tons, value 92,400/. ;
silver, 831,191 oz., value 207,972/. ; gold, 18 oz., value 62/. ;
and other metals, value 500,000/. In summary, the total value
of metals produced in 1869 was 17,657,767/. Adding together the
value of the metals obtained from the mines of the United Kingdom,
17,657,767/., the value of coal, 26,856,882/., and that of other
minerals, not smelted, including stilt, barytes &c, 1,935,042/., the
total produce of the United Kingdom in the year 1869 amounted
to 46,449,691/.
The total quantities and value of the two most important products
of the mines of the United Kingdom, namely, coal and pig iron,
were as follows in each of the twelve years 1858 to 1869 : —
Years
Coal
Pig
iron
Quantities
Value
Quantities
Value 1
tons
A
tons
£
1868
63,008,619
16,252.162
3,456,064
8,640,160
1869
71,979,765
17.994,941
3,712,904
9,282,260
1860
80,042,698
20,010,674
3,826,752
9,566,880 •
1861
83.635,211
2n.908,803
3,712,390
9.280,975 !
1862
81,638,338
20,409,584
3.943,469
9,858,672
1863
86,292,215
21,573,053
4,510.040
ll.275.loo
1864
92,787,873
23,197,968
4.767,961
11,919,877 1
1865
98,150,587
21,537,646
4,819,254
12,048,133
1866
101,630,544
25,407,635
4,523,987
11.309.712
1867
104,500,480
26,125,120
4.761,023
11, 902. .',.,7
1868
103,1 11,157
25,785,289
4,970,206
12,381.280 |
1869
107.127,557
26.856.882
5,445,757
13,614,397
The values of the four most important metallic productions next
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY.
271
to iron, namely, copper, lead, tin, and silver, were as follows in the
same period of twelve years : —
The 107,427,557 tons of coal produced in the United Kingdom
in 1869 were raised from 2,900 collieries. The quantity was
4,286,400 tons more than in 1868, and 2,927,077 tons" more
than in 1867. In the counties of Durham and Northumberland
24,394,167 tons were raised in 1S68, or 473,277 tons less than
in 1867. In Cumberland 1,378,026 tons were raised in 1868,
a decrease of 134,488 tons. In Yorkshire 9,740,510 tons, a decrease
of 103,065 tons. In Derbyshire 4,957,879 tons, an increase of
407,329 tons. In Nottinghamshire 1,508,439 tons, a decrease of
66,561 tons. In Leicestershire 608,088 tons, a decrease of 541,912
tons. In Warwickshire 624 859 tons, a decrease of 255,991 tons.
In Staffordshire and Worcestershire 12,294,780 tons, a decrease of
231,774 tons. In Lancashire 12,800,500 tons, a decrease of 41,000
tons. In Cheshire 937,500, an increase of 2,500 tons. In Shrop-
shire 1,495,500 tons, a decrease of 63,000 tons. In Gloucestershire
and Somerset 1,969,000 tons, a decrease of 6,000 tons. In Mon-
mouthshire 4,250,500 tons, a decrease of 319,000 tons. In South
Wales 8,959,500 tons, a decrease of 132,800 tons. In North Wales
2,385,000 tons, an increase of 13,750 tons. In Scotland 14,709,959
tons, an increase of 584,016 tons. In Ireland 126,950 tons, or an
increase of 1,950 tons. The value of coal in the returns above
given was calculated at 5s. per ton, being the average price at the
pit's mouth.
The exports of coal from the United Kingdom to foreign countries
quadrupled within the last twenty years. They amounted to
2,483,161 tons in 1847 ; to 3,468,545 tons in 1851 : to 5,789,779
tons in 1856; to 7,855,115 tons in 1861 ; to 8,800,420 tons in
1864: to 9,170,477 tons in 1865: to 9,616,244 tons in 1866; to
1"]2
CHEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
10,907,062 tons in 1868 ; and to 10,744,945 tons in 1869. The
declared value of these exports was 1,087,122/. in 1847 ; 1,302,473/.
in 1851 ; 2,826,582/. in 1856 ; 3,604,790/. in 1861 ; 4,165,773/.
in 1864; 4,427,177/. in 1865; 5,102,805/. in 1866; 5,352,525/. in
1868 ; and 5,069,574/. in 1869. The quantities and value of the
exports of coal to the chief markets were as follows in the year
1869:—
Coal Exports to
ToilS
864,949
France .....
1,992,844
Germany .....
1,402,995
564,092 i
Russia .....
621.643
298,973
Italy
603,244
279,843
Denmark .....
545,478
234,368
Egypt
434,984
224,529
Spain .....
402,540
210,275
British India ....
278,379
138,331
Sweden .....
263,887
119.195
Turkey
261,486
135,883
Cuba
259,419
126,212
Netherlands ....
245,034
113,690
Brazil
230,143
132,653
British North America
192,558
87,886
Norway .....
184,754
75,304
Portugal .....
169,828
82,97S
1
The coal exports to all other countries were, in each case, under
150,000 tons in the year 1869.
5. Railways.
From the opening of the first railway, in 1825, till the end of
1850, a period of a quarter of a century, 6,621 miles of lines were
constructed in the United Kingdom, being at the rate of 265 miles
per annum. At the end of 1860, the length of lines opened for
traffic was 10,433, showing an increase of construction at the rate of
381 miles per annum. At the end of 1867 there were 14,247 miles
open for traffic ; the increase presenting an average of 545 miles per
annum. It appears from a return to an order of the House of
Commons, dated the 28th of June, 1869, and issued in the session
of 1870, that the amount of share and loan capital raised for rail-
ways in England and Wales was, up to the end of 1868, 425,161,506/.,
including 11,784,089/. subscribed to other companies. This did not
include, however, the capital of 72 authorised companies who made
no return, although . they were several times requested to do so by
the Board of Trade. The amount of share and loan capital raised
for railways in Scotland amounted at the same date to 59,375,372/.,
including subscriptions to other companies of 1.741,722/. The
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 273
amount of share and loan capital raised for railways in Ireland was
27,143,977/., including 394,800£. subscriptions to other companies.
This again did not include the capital of ten authorised companies,
also repeatedly requested to make the return. The total amount of
capital raised for railways in the United Kingdom, therefore, ap-
peared, as far as could be ascertained, to be 511,080,855/., and the
amount of subscriptions to other companies 13,920,011/. The total
amount of traffic receipts for the year 1808 on railways in England
and Wales, on 10,200 miles, amounted to 35,220,880/., not includ-
ing the receipts of 13 companies who made no return of their traffic.
The traffic receipts for the year 1808 on railways in Scotland
amounted, on 2,349 miles, to 4,421,849/. The traffic receipts for
the year 1808 on 1,254 miles of railway in Ireland amounted to
1,249,943/., not including the receipts of the Great Southern and
"Western, the Irish North- Western, and five other companies, which
I were requested by the Board of Trade to make the returns, but did
I not comply. The aggregate traffic receipts for the year 1808 onrail-
Avaysin the United Kingdom, with the exceptions mentioned, appeared
from the return to have been, on 13,803 miles, 40,898,078/.
The total working expenses on railways in England and Wales
amounted, as iiir as could be ascertained, to 17,134,795/., and the
net receipts to 18,092,091/. The total working expenses on rail-
ways in Scotland amounted to 2,234,518/., and the net receipts to
2,187,331/. The total working expenses on railways in Ireland
amounted to 045,121/., and the net receipts to 004,822/., with the
exceptions mentioned. The aggregate traffic receipts, according to
the accounts received from the companies which made returns,
amounted for the year 1808 to 40,898,078/., the working expenses
to 20,014,434/., and the net receipts to 20,884,244/. In the year
1807, the total receipts stood at 39,479,999/., while the total working
expenses amounted to 19,848,952/., leaving the net income at
19,031,047/., or rather less than 50 per cent, of the gross receipts,
Colonial Possessions.
The colonies and dependencies of Great Britain embrace about
one-third of the surface of the globe, and nearly a fourth of its
population. Official returns state the area of these possessions to be
|,556,317 square miles, or more than thirty times the extent of the
United Kingdom. Of this vast dominion, nearly a million square
miles are in Asia, more than two millions and a half in Australasia,
and more than half a million in North America. The population,
'according to the latest returns, was 161,111,574, or more than five
jtimes the population of the United Kingdom. The following table
gives the area and population of each of the colonies and depen-
dencies, after the most recent official returns :—
274
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Possessions
India. •
Straits Settlements .
North America:
Canada .
New Brunswick
Nova Scotia .
Prince Edward Island
Newfoundland
British Columbia .
Vancouver Island .
Total for North American \
Colonies . ■ • J
Bermuda .
Honduras .
West Indies:
Bahamas
Turks Island .
Jamaica .
Virgin Islands
St. Christopher
Nevis
Antigua .
Montserrat
Dominica
St. Lucia
St. Vincent
Barbadoes
Grenada .
Tobago .
Trinidad
British Guiana
Total for West Indies
Falkland Islands
Australasia:
New South Wales
Victoria .
Smith Australia _
Western Australia
Tasmania
New Zealand .
Queensland
Area
Sq. miles
988.091
1,095
331,280
27.037
18,671
2,173
40,200
200,000
13,000
Population
Number
150,707,851
282,831
2,881,862
252,047
330,857
84,386
122,638
38,600
16,000
3,021
6,400
57
103
50
183
47
291
250
131
166
133
97
1,751
76.000
35,487
4.372
441.264
6,051
24.440
9,822
37,125
7,645
25,666
29,519
31.755
152,727
36,672
15.410
84,438
155.026
323,437
86.831
383,328
978,000
26,215
106,259
678.0(H)
Total for Australasia
2.582,070
431.412
659,855
169,153
21,065
97,368
208,682
96,172
1,683,707
COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.
Statistics ofthi Colonies — continued.
2/5
Possession >
Area
Population
Sq. miles
Number
Hongkong .
32
115,098 1
Labnan
45
3,828
Ceylon
2-1,700
2,088,027
Mauritius .
70S
322,517
Natal.
16.145
193,103
Cape of Good Hope
200. (Uo
566.158
St. Helena .
47
6.860
Sierra Leone
468
41,800
Gambia
21
6,939
Gibraltar .
Is
24,005
Malta
115
4,556,317
116,852
General total .
161,111,574
The difficulty of making accurate measurements of the area, and of
taking enumerations of the population of many of the Colonial Posses-
sions, reduces many of the statistics of the above table to mere
estimates; and they differ as such, often to a considerable extent,
from other official returns.
The commercial importance of the various colonial possessions of
the United Kingdom is exhibited in the following table, which gives
he total value of their imports and exports, including bullion and
pecie, in the year 1868 : —
Colonial Possessions
Total Imports
Total Exports
India (year ending March 31, 1809)
£
50.9-13,191
£ i
53,706,830
Straits Settlements
7,711,680
7,086.005
Ceylon ......
4,403,177
3,786,722
Mauritius .....
2.200.097
2,339,342
Labuan ......
229,726
203.853
Hong Kong (no returns) .
Australasia :
—
—
New South Wah-s
8,051,377
7,192,904
Victoria .....
13,320,662
15,593,990
South Australia ....
2,238,510
2,819,300
Western Australia
225,614
192,636
Tasmania .....
845,152
920,820
New Zealand ....
4,985,748
4,429,198
Queensland ....
Total of Australasia .
1,899,119
2,107,437
31,566,182
33,256,285
276
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Imports and Exports — continued.
Colonial rossessions
Total Imports
Total Exports
&
&
Falkland Isles .
19,067
12,695
Natal
317,432
271,949
Cape of Good Hope ....
1,996.606
2,320,326
St. Helena .....
117,110
25,097
Gold Coast (no returns) .
—
—
Sierra Leone .....
295.S27
296,467
Gambia ......
North America :
144,521
187.358
Ontario and Quebec .
11,926.714
9,309,047
New Brunswick
1,359,041
963,902
Nova Scotia ....
1,902,341
1,133.601
Prince Edward Island
363,027
284,409
Newfoundland ....
896,755
888,263
British Columbia and Vancouver's
Island .....
Total of North America
Bermuda ......
491,719
154,411
16,939,597
12,733,633
199,930
33,876
Honduras .....
West Ixdia Islands :
177,684
203,659
Bahamas . . .
231.526
131,522
Turk's Island ....
40,778
38,743
Jamaica .....
1,024,566
1.138,804
Virgin Islands ....
14,691
8.389
St. Christopher ....
198,712
228,393
Nevis .....
54,804
69,000
Antigua .....
169,901
273,707
Montserrat .....
20,10ii
30,279
Dominica .....
57,181
70,92 t
St. Lucia .....
97,845
121,366
St. Vincent ....
130,376
195,551
Barbadoes .....
1,134,251
1.269.673
Grenada .....
108,767
103,896
Tobago .....
48,895
4S,417
Trinidad
Total of West Iii'lia Islands .
British Guiana
927,796
1,116,198
4,260, 1S9
4.844,862
1,618,378
2,232,212
I Gibraltar (no returns)
1 Malta
7,222,749
7,221,330
The total registered shipping of the whole of the Colonial Posses-
sions was as follows at the end of each of the ten years 1 859 to 180'S : — >
COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.
277
Year
Dec. 31
Vessels
Tons
Dec. 31 Vessels Ton*
1
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
10,498
10,838
10,830
10,987
11,558
997,211
1,052,281
1,088,543
1,106,958
1,296,330
1864 12,235
1865 12,477
1866 11,941
1867 12,169
1868 11,855
1,475,761
1,562,295
1,518,647 1
1,523,125 ''
1,455,172 j
The growth of the colonial empire of Great Britain, the result of
three centuries of peaceful and warlike enterprise, is illustrated
in the subjoined table : —
Colonies and dependencies
Date and mode of acquisition
Europe :
1
Gibraltar ....
Capture . . . 1704
Heligoland ....
Cession . . . 1814
Malta andGozo
Capture . . . 1S00
Asia :
Ceylon .....
Capitulation . . 1796
Bengal .
)
Bombay .
■
Settlement and conquest
Madras .
•
at various periods from
N.W. Provinces
1025 to 1849
Punjaub .
)
Hongkong
'
Treaty. . . . 1843
Labnan .
Cession . . . 1846
Africa :
Cape of Good Hope
Capitulation . . 1806
Gambia .
Settlement . . . 1631
Gold Coast .
„ 1661
Natal .
., . . . 1838
St. Helena
„ 1651
Sierra Leone .
„ 1787 *
Mauritius
Capitulation . . 1810
America :
Bermuda ....
Settlement . . . 1609 J
British Columbia .
,. —
Canada, Lower
\
Capitulation and cession J 1763 I
Canada, Upper
New Brunswick
1
\
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia .
Settlement . . . 1497
Prince Edward Island
J
Guiana, British
Capitulation . . 1803
Falkland Islands
Cession . . - 1S37
West Indies :
Antigua . . . . .
Settlement . . - 1632
Bahamas . . . .
„ 1629
Barbadoes
■„ 1605 ;
278
(JKEAT MUTAIN AND IltELAND.
Growth of the Colonial Empire of Great Britain — continued.
Colonies ami dependencies
Date and mode of acquisition
West Indies — continued.
Dominica ....
Cession
1763
Grenada
,
J! "
1763
Honduras
,
'
1670
Jamaica .
Capitulation
1655
Montserrat
, .
Settlement .
1632
Nevis
.
•
1628
St. Kitts
,>
1623, 1650
St. Lucia
Capitulation
1803
St. Vincent
Cession
1763
Tobago .
•
1763
Tortola, &c.
Settlement .
1665
Trinidad
Capitulation
1797
Turks Island
Settlement .
1629
AUSTRALASIA '.
Australia, South
Settlement .
1836
Australia, West
1829
New South Wales .
1787
Queensland
1859
New Zealand .
1839
Tasmania
18(13
Victoria .
1836
According to a parliamentary return issued in the session of 1870,
tlie cost of the colonial possessions of the Empire falling to the
charge of the British Exchequer, was 4,103,0047. in the financial
year 18GG-G7, and 3,9G9,42GZ. in 1867-68, The return which
divides the colonial possessions into three classes, namely, Military
and Maritime Stations, Plantations and Settlements, and Australasian
Settlements, gives the cost of each as follows : —
Colonial Possessions
Anmi
il Cost
LS66-7
1S67-8
Military axd Maritime Stations:
£
£
Gibraltar .....
338.172
420,465
Malta
399,!) ID
414,764
Cape of Good Hope
347,807
377.324
Mauritius.
119.279
122,119
Bermuda .
162,683
163,93.")
St. Helena,
44,291
o4,624
Heligoland
1,099
1,166
Falkland Islands
7,732
6,990
Hong Kong
236,928
210.890
COLONIAL POSSESSIONS*
2/9
Cost of Colonial Possessions of Great Britain — continued.
Colonial Possessions
Annual Cost
1866-7
1S67-8
Plantations and Settlements :
£
£
Jamaica .....
170.606
144,9.50
Baltamas .....
42,797
58..") 17
Honduras. ....
17,870
27,892
West Indies ....
172,129
1.5.5,930
Canada .....
864,980
937.90.5
Nova Seotia ....
289,818
303.121
New Brunswick
6,325
2.097
Prince Edward's Island
1,649
1..500
Newfoundland ....
24,182
24,76 1
Vancouver's Island and British
Columbia ....
6,635
1.29.5
West Coast of Africa
167.161
109.382
Ceylon .....
22,808
35,845
Labium .....
13,946
,5,1 (.5 6
Straits Settlements .
1,120
12,386
Australasian Settlements :
Western Australia
82,259
78,984
South Australia
1,422
1,97.5
Queensland ....
866
300
Victoria .....
49,322
6.5.707
New South Wales
6,964
3,763
Tasmania .....
35,558
3.5. US
New Zealand ....
4.56,920
173,255
Sundry Colonies
9,376
10,177
Total .
4.103,004
3,969,426
Iii accordance with repeatedly-expressed views of the Parliament
of* the United Kingdom, the policy of the British Government in
recent years has been to secure the greatest possible independence
and self-reliance for the colonies. It is specially aimed at that the
American and Australasian settlements shall provide their own
military resources, and to accomplish this object the reduction of the
British forces in the Dominion of Canada to the number of 5,000
was ordered in 18f>9. At the same time, the Secretary of State for
the Colonies addressed a circular despatch to the Governors of the
various Australasian Colonies, intimating that it was the intention of
the Administration of the United Kingdom to withdraw from
these possessions all troops in excess of a single regiment, preparatory
to the entire ceasing of military occupation.
For further details concerning the Constitution and Government,
Pevenue and Expenditure, Population, and Trade and Commerce of
the principal colonies and dependencies of the United Kingdom, see
Part II. of the Statesman's Year-book.
28 0 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.
I. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for
the twelve months ended 31st December, 1869. Fol. pp. 52. London, 1870.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the
nine months ended 30th Sept. 1870. "Fol. pp. 52. London, December, 1870.
Agricultural returns of Great Britain for 1869, with abstract tables for the
United Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries. 8. pp. 70.
London, 1870.
Agricultural Holdings in Ireland: Returns shoving the number and the
tenure by which they are held by the occupiers. Fol. pp. 20. Dublin, 1870.
Agricultural Statistics of Ireland : Tables for 1868. Fol. pp. 31 L». Dublin,
1870.
Agricultural Statistics, Emigration, &c. of Ireland: Tables for 1869. Fol.
pp. 50. Dublin, 1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1869. Imp. 4. pp. 516.
London, 1870.
Army Estimates of Effective and Non-Effective Services for 1870-71. Fol.
pp. 190. London, 1870.
Army List, Nov. 1870. 8. pp. 384. London. 1870.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England: 31st Report of Registrar*
General. 8., pp. 384. London, 1870.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England: Table for 1869. Fol. pp. 16.
London, 1870.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland: 13th Report of Registrar*
General. 8. pp. 256. Edinburgh, 1870.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Ireland : 2nd Report of Registrar*General.
8. pp. 144. Dublin, 1870.
British Customs Tariff, 1870, and Statistics of the Customs Revenue and
Foreign Commerce of the United Kingdom, from 1840 to 1869. 8. pp. 8.
London, 1870.
Civil Service Estimates for the year 1870-71. Fol. pp. 576. London,
1870.
Civil Services and Revenue Departments : Appropriation accounts for 1868-
69. Fol. pp. 336. London, 1870.
Coinage : Return of all Gold, Silver, and Copper Moneys of the Realm
coined at the Mint, for each year from the 1st day of January, 1 860, to the
31st day of December, 1869. Fol. pp. 8. London. 1870.
Colonies : Return of the. Annual Cost of the several Colonies of the British
Empire at the expense of the British Exchequer. Fol. pp. IS. London,
1870.
Duchy of Cornwall: Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year
1869. Fol. pp. 8. London, 1870.
Duchy of Lancaster: Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in tho year
1869. Fol. pp. 8. London, 1870.
Education: Report of Committee of Cuuncil on Education for 1869-70. 8.
pp. S28. London, 1870.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 28 i
Emigration: 30th Keport of the Commissioners of Emigration. Fol. pp.
194. London, 1870.
Finance Accounts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for
the financial year ended 31st March, 1870. Fol. pp. 92. London, 1870.
Income and Property Tax : Return of the Amount of Property Assessed to
Income and Property Tax under Schedules A, B, and I), in each County of
England and Wales and Scotland, in each of the years 1864-65 to 18G9-70.
Fol. pp. S. London, 1870.
Inland Revenue : Report of Commissioners on the Duties under their
Management for the years 18.56 to 1869, with some Retrospective History and
complete Tables of Accounts of the duties from their first imposition. 2 vols.
Fol. pp. 168 and 219. London. 1870.
Iron-plated Ships and Batteries.- Return of ships and batteries building or
ordered to be built. Fol. pp. 4. London, 1870.
Judicial Statistics of England and Wales for 1869. Imp. 4. pp. 226. London,
1870.
Lords : Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in the First Session of
the twentieth Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland. Fol. pp. 1 1. London,
1869.
Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom. Part VII. Fol. pp. 371.
London, 1869.
National Education in Ireland : 36th Report of the Commissioners for the
year 1869. Fol. pp. 352. London, 1870.
Navy Estimates for the rear 1870-71, with Appendix. Fol. pp.219. London.
1870.
Navy List, October, 1870. 8. pp. 600. London, 1870.
Poor Rates and Pauperism: Comparative Statements, July 1869 and 1870.
Fol. pp. 18. London, 1870.
Poor Law, England : 22nd Report of Commissioners. 8. pp. 480. London,
1870.
Poor Relief, Scotland : 24th Report of Commissioners. 8. pp. 336. Edin-
burgh, 1870.
Poor Relief, Ireland : 23rd Report of Commissioners. 8. pp. 380. Dublin,
1870.
Public Accounts: 1st Report from the Committee. Fol. pp. 144, Londou(
1870.
Public Accounts : 2nd Report from the Committee. Fol. pp. 35. London,
1870.
Public Health : 12th Report of the Commissioners. Fol. pp. 300. London,
1870.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools : 13th Report of Commissioners. 8.
pp. 240. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom in each of the fifteen years
from 1S55 to 1869. No. 17. 8. pp. 132. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1854 to 1868. No. 6. 8. pp. 87- London,
1870.
Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1860 to I860. No. 4.
8. pp. 63. London, 1870.
Weights and Measures : 4th Report of the Warden for 1869-70. 8. pp. 32.
London, 1870.
Woods. Forests, and Land Reveuues : 4Sth Report of the Commissioners.
Fol. pp. 224. London, 1870.
282 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adder//// (Sir C. B.), Colonial Policy and History. 8. London, 1870.
Bagehot (Walter), The English. Constitution. 8. London. 186(5.
Baker (Col. Valentine), Army Reform. 8. London, 1869.
Baxter (Dudley), National Income. 8. London, 1868.
Baxter (Dudley), The Taxation of the United Kingdom. 8. London, 1869.
Broom (H.), Constitutional Law. 8. London, 1866.
Burrows (Montagu), Constitutional Progress. 8. London, 1869.
Clodc (C. M.), The Military Forces of the Crown. 2 vols. 8. London,
1869-70.
Coke (E.), Institutes of the Laws of England. 2 vols. 8. London, 1823.
Disraeli (Rt. Hon. B.), Speeches on Parliamentary Reform. S. London,
1867.
Fawcett (Henry). Manual of Political Economy. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1870.
Gladstone (Rt. Hon. W. E.), Speeches on Parliamentary Reform. 8. London,
1866.
Godkin (James), The Land War in Ireland. 8. London, 187<>.
Head (Sir Francis), The Royal Engineer. 8. London, 1870.
Hcarn (W. E.), The Government of England. 8. London, 1870.
Hunt (Robert), Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom. 8. Loudon,
1870.
Irving (Joseph), Annals of our Time. 8. London, 1869.
Jevons (W. Stanley), The Coal Question. 8. London, 1866.
May (Thomas Erskine), Constitutional History of England. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1861-63.
May (Thomas Erskine). Treatise on the Law. Privileges, ecc. of Parliament.
8. London, 1844.
Mill (John Stuart), Chapters on the Irish Land Question. 8, London,
1870.
Noble (John), Fiscal Legislation, 1842-65. 8. London, 1867.
Palgrave (Francis Turner), The House of Commons. 8. London 1869.
Reed (Edward J.), Our Iron-clad Ships. 8. London, 1869.
Scott (Sir S.), The British Army. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Stephens (A. J.), New Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. S.
London. 1868.
Todd (AL), On Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. 8. London,
1867-69.
283
GREECE.
(Kingdom of the Hellenics.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Georgios I., King of the Hellenes, born Dec. 24, 1845, the second son
(Wilhelm) of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gllicksburg, present King of Denmark ; elected King of the Hellenes
by the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30), 1863 ; accepted
the crown, through bis father and the King of Denmark, acting
as his guardians, June 4, 1863; declared of age by decree of the
National Assembly, June 27, 1863; landed in Greece, Nov. 2, 1863.
Married, October 27, 1867, to
Olga, Queen of the Hellenes, born Aug. 22 (Sept. 3), 1851, the
eldest daughter of Grand-duke Constantin of Russia, brother of the
Emperor Alexander II. Issue of the union are two sons and one
daughter, Konstantinos, born Aug. 5, 18G8, Georgios, born June 24,
1869, and Alexandra, born Aug. 30, 1870.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, I860, a
civil list of 1,125,000 drachmas, or 40,178/., was settled on King
Georgios L, to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and
Russia added 4,000/. each, making the total income of the sove-
reign of Greece 52,178/. per annum.
Greece, a province of the Turkish empire since the commence-
ment of the 16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection
of 1821-9, and by the Protocol of London, of Feb. 3, 18:50, was
declared a kingdom, under the protection of Great Britain, France,
and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg having declined the
crown of Greece, it was offered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of
Bavaria, who ascended the throne Jan. 25, 1833, being under the
age of eighteen. He was expelled the kingdom after a reign of 29
years, in October, 1862, which event was followed by the "election,
under the directing guidance of the three protecting powers, of the
present sovereign.
The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864,
attains his majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before
he ascends the throne, he must take the oath to the constitution in
the presence of the ministers, the sacred synod, the deputies then in
the metropolis, and the higher officials of the realm. Within two
months at the most, the King must convoke the Legislature. If the
284 GREECE.
successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the time of the
King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative
Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within, ten days after
the occurrence of that event. The constitutional royal authority
in this case has to be exercised by the ministerial council until the
choice of a Regent, or the arrival of the successor to the throne.
The present sovereign is allowed, by special exception, to adhere to
the religion in which he was educated, the Protestant Lutheran
faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of the Greek
Orthodox Church.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Greece was elaborated by a Constituent
Assembly, elected in December 1863, and adopted Oct. 29, 1864.
It vests the whole legislative power in a single chamber of repre-
sentatives, called the Boule, elected by universal suffrage for the
term of four years. The elections take place by ballot, and each
candidate must be put in nomination by the requisition of at least
one-thirtieth of the A'oters of an electoral district. The voting takes
place by means of ballot-boxes, into which balls are dropped,
there being one box for each candidate, and every voter being at
liberty to give his vote either for or against each, so that the voter has
as many votes as there are candidates in his district. The Boule
must meet annually for not less than three, nor more than six
months. No sitting is valid unless at least one-half of the members
of the Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into law without
an absolute majority of members. Every measure, before adopted,
must be discussed and voted, article by article, thrice, and
on three separate days. But the Legislative Assembly has no
power to alter the Constitution itself; particular provisions may
be reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the exception of
' fundamental principles.' The Chamber of Deputies, unless spe-
cially convoked at an earlier date, for extraordinary occasions, must
meet on the 1st of November of every year. The number of
members, dependent upon the number of population, was 170 in
the session of 1868-9.
The executive is vested in the King and his responsible Ministers,
the heads of seven departments. They are the Ministry of the In-
terior, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry
of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, the Ministry of War, the
Ministry of Marine, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. .Since the
accession of the present sovereign, in I860, ministerial changes have
been very frequent, occurring, on the average, from three to lour
times u year.
( ONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 285
At the side of the executive Council of Ministers stands, by the
terms of the constitution, a deliberative Council of State. To the
Council of State all Bills must be referred from the Chamber of
Deputies, and returned with observations or amendments within 10
days ; but this term may be prolonged by resolution of the Chamber
to 15 days more. In case the Council of State make no report at
the expiry of the time fixed, the Chamber of Deputies may vote
the law and send it up to the king. The Council of State must
consist of not less than 15 nor more than 25 members. They are
named by the Crown at the recommendation of the ministers, and
hold office for ten years.
Church and Education.
The whole of the inhabitants of the kingdom are adherents of the
Greek Orthodox Church, the only dissenters from it consisting of
about 24,000 Poman Catholics, dispersed over the seaport towns.
By the terms of the constitution of 1864, the Greek Orthodox Church
is declared the religion of the state, but complete toleration and
liberty of worship is guaranteed to all other sects, of whateArer form
of belief. Nominally, the Greek clergy OAve allegiance to the Patri-
arch of Constantinople, who is elected by the votes of the bishops
and optimates subject to the Sultan, and whose jurisdiction extends
over Thrace and other countries, including Wallachia and Moldavia,
as well as the greater part of Asia Minor. But the jurisdiction of
the Patriarch, existing in theory, has frequently been challenged,
while the real ecclesiastical authority, formerly exercised by him,
was annulled by the resolutions of a National Synod, held at Nauplia,
in 1833, which vested the government of the Orthodox Church, with-
in the limits of the kingdom, in a permanent council, called the
Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, and four arch-
bishops and bishops, who must reside at the seat of the executive.
The Orthodox Church has four archbishops and six bishops, on the
continent of Greece ; six archbishops and six bishops in the Pelopon-
nesus ; and five archbishops, and as many bishops, besides the
Metropolitan of Corfu, in the Ionian Islands.
The Orthodox Greek Church differs from the Church of Pome as
to the honour given to the later General Councils, the number of
sacraments, the use of both kinds by the laity in the eucharist, the
time of observing Easter, the doctrine of Purgatory, the mode of
making the sign of the Cross, the celibacy of the clergy, and the use
of the Scriptures by the laity. While differing from the Church of
Pome on all these points, the Greek Church agrees with it in the
doctrine of Transubstantiation, in praying to the Virgin and saints,
286 f;i?EECE.
in the worship of pictures, in priestly absolution, and the efficacy of
rlio sacraments.
Public schools in Greece are divided into four classes. The
communal schools form the first class, the ancient Greek schools the
second class, the gymnasium the third class, and the university the
fourth class. The educational returns for 18G4 give the number of
professors and teachers in the pul ►lie and private schools at about 500,
with G4,0G1 pupils, G,2;">0 of whom were females. There were 42
superintendents, male and female, of schools on the mutual instruc-
tion system, 2,880 pupils, and 300 infant schools, with 10,000 pupils.
There were also eight gymnasia, with 50 masters and 1,124 scholars,
four medical schools, one theological, one military, one agricultural,
and one school of art-. The pupils and masters of these last are
not included in the numbers given above. The State expenditure for
education and religion amounted to 1,653,446 drachmas, or 59,052/.,
in 1868, while the expenditure of the previous year was 1,495,194
drachmas, or 53,39!)/.
Revenue and Expenditure.
In the last budget estimates laid by the Minister of Finance
before the Boule, the public revenue of Greece for the year 1*70
was calculated at 34,103,000 drachmas, or 1,217,904/., and the ex-
penditure at 33,883,531 drachmas, or 1,210,12G/., leaving a surplus
of 219,4G9 drachmas, or 7,838/. The budget estimates for 18G9,
in which the revenue Avas calculated at 37,020,200 drachmas, or
1,343,578/., exhibited a surplus of more than double the amount
than those for 1870, but which was admitted subsequently to have
turned into a deficit of un declared amount. The different branches
of revenue and expenditure of the kingdom, according to the
budget estimates, were as follows in each of the years 1807 and
1868:—
Revenue
Direct taxes .
Indirect taxes .
Telegraphs & Post offici
Produce of national pro-
perty . . . .
Sale of national property .
Miscellaneous receipl -
Ecclesiastical receipts
Am are .
Total .
186
.
1868
drachmas
12,205,000
13,285,000
804,700
2,615,110 :
1,000,000 !
577,ii'2.-)
245.5(10
1,560,000 '
32,292,335 j
&
435,893
474,464
28,739
93,397
35,714
20,608
8,768
55.71.:.
1,153,298
drachmas
12,950,000
13,900,000
804,000
2,811.(Hiii
1,090,000
660,025
212.000
1,050,975
£
462,500
496,429
28,714
100,393
38,928
23,572
8,643
37,535
33,508.000
1. 196,714
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
287
Expenditure
18
17
is
drachmas
OS
drachmas
&
Public debt .
6,091.190
217,543
7,096,370
253,442
Civil list ....
1,125,000
40,178
1,125,000
10,178
Legislative chamber.
371,000
13,250
381,874
13,638
Foreign office .
S42,17.3
30,078
834,028
29,787 ;
Ministry of justiet .
2,483,841
88,708
2,441,022
87,179
Ministry of interior .
3,909,556
139,627
3. .311, 384
125,407
Ministry of religion and
education
1.49.'). 183
53,400
1,653,446
•59,052
' Ministry of war
8,031.282
286,831
8,454,250
301,936
Ministry of marine .
1,629,150
.58,184
2,053,300
73,333
Ministry of finance .
( Jost of administration and
1,065,085
38,039
1,132,398
40,443
supervision. .
2,302,008
82,214
2.289,0.31
SI. 7-52
Miscellaneous expenditure
Total .
1,338,000
17,786
2,018,000
72,071
30,683,470
1,095,838
32,990,123
1,178,218
The above estimates represent the so-called ordinary expenditure,
to which were added in each year supplementary credits. As finally
voted by the chamber, the expenditure for the year 1868 stood as
follows : —
Ordinary expenditure
Supplementary ..
Extraordinary ..
Drachmas
32,! .12:;
1,158.000
11,200.000
= 1.178,218
41,357
400.000
4.5,348,123 1,619,575
This expenditure was to be met by a revenue estimated at 33,508,000
drachmas, or 1.100,714/., while the deficit of 11,840,123 drachmas,
or 422,861/., was to lie covered by loans.
The actual expenditure of the kingdom for many years is believed
to have been much larger than that shown in theVndget estimates;
but no official returns giving the real income and expenses of the
government have been published since the year 1859. T< > the budget
of Greece there was added, for the first time, that oi' the Ionian
Islands, in 1865. According to the Government estimates, the
islands were to contribute 3,648/Jll drachmas, or 100,318/., to the
revenue of the kingdom, with an expenditure, however, of nearly
twice the amount. But these estimates were avowedly conjectural,
and in the absence of any returns regarding the actual revenue and
expenditure, there is no basis for judging whether the Ionian Islands
will offer in the future a source of additional revenue or of increased
expenditure to Greece.
288 GREECE.
Since the establishment of Greece as an independent kingdom,
there have been few financial terms without a deficit. An
official report by the British Secretary of Legation, dated March
1869, remarks thereupon : — 'At first sight it seems difficult to
understand how the Greek Government, with an ordinary revenue of
some 30,000,000 drachmas, or 1,171,428/., can carry on its admin-
istration at all in the face of comparatively enormous deficits and
so infinitesimal a credit ; but for the last six years, besides frequent
loans, there have been issued Treasury bonds to the amount of
6,000,000 drachmas, and by their circulation and by keeping for
months in arrear the salaries of the civil employes, from the King
downwards, and by a similar postponement of payments of nearly
(•very kind, excepting the pay of the soldiers and sailors, successive
Governments have contrived to tide over difficulties from year to
year.'
The funded debt of Greece amounted, in July 1868, to
337,000,000 drachmas, or rather more than twelve millions sterling,
including a loan of one million sterling, raised in England in 1807.
The latter loan, issued at 80, and bearing 8 per cent, interest,
was raised on the security of the customs of Athens, the Pirceus,
and Patras. Exclusive of this loan, the principal portion of
the foreign debt of Greece consists of a five per cent, loan taken
in 182-4 by Messrs. Andrew Loughnan and Co. at 59, and of
another of 2,000,000/. taken in the following year by Messrs. J.
and S. Ricardo and Co. at 561. On the former the dividends
have been wholly unpaid since July 1826, and on the latter since
January 1827, a period of about thirty-three years. The loan
guaranteed by England, France, and Russia upon the elevation of
Prince Otto of Bavaria to the throne was for 2,313,750/., and was con-
ducted by Messrs. Rothschild. Upon this the dividends have been re-
gularly paid, but only from reserved funds of the loan itself in the first
instance, and since then chiefly from the treasuries of the guaranteeing
Powers, who are now, therefore, in each case heavy claimants upon
the Greek Government. The guarantee is not by the Powers jointly,
but is distinct in each case for a third of the loan. A parliamentary
return issued in February 1867 shows that between 1843 and 1866
inclusive the British Government has advanced to Greece in annual
payments a sum of 1,060,385/., of which the Greek Government
repaid only 58,750/. By the terms of a convention signed in 1866,
it is arranged that the government of Greece, instead of fulfilling
its original engagement to provide half-yearly for the interest and
sinking fund of the above loan, should pay to the three guaranteeing
powers not less than 36,000/. a year — British portion 12,000/. ; and
by the Act 27 and 28 Vict. c. 40, passed in 1864, a sum of 4,000/.
sterling a year, out oi' the amount thus repayable in respect of the
AKMY AND NAVY. 289
British portion, was relinquished in favour of the present King of
the Hellenes, during his reign.
Besides its funded debt, Greece has a floating debt, which, accord-
ing to official returns, amounted to 32,000,000 drachmas on the 1st
of January 1869. But according to other statements, from Greek
sources, the floating debt, at the same period, was above 1GG millions
of drachmas, or near six millions sterling. A royal ordinance,
dated January 17, 1869, authorised the Minister of Finance to issue
15,000,000 drachmas of notes with compulsory circulation.
Army and Navy.
The army of the kingdom is formed by conscription, with the
general privilege to procure substitutes, which is made use of to a
very large extent. A considerable number of the men actually under
arms are veteran soldiers, including many Albanians, and a few Ger-
mans and other foreigners.
In the budget estimates for 1869, the strength of the army was
given at 14,716 men, including 799 commissioned officers, with 862
horses. The actual number of soldiers under arms, the year pre-
vious, was reported to be as follows : —
10 battalions of infantry with 280 officers and 6,980 men
4 squadrons of cavalry „ 23 „ 381 „
5 companies of artillery „ 26 „ 466 „
1 company of sappers and miners 4 „ 92 „
1 „ „ artillery workmen 4 ,, 127 „
Staff ..... 43 „ 31 ,
Total . . .380 officers and 8,077 men
The cost of the army in the year 1869 was given in the budget
estimates at 8,070,507 drachmas, or 288,232/. The pay of a private
soldier is 42 lepta, or nearly 4c?., daily, but the soldier only receives
16 lepta, or l^d., in cash, the remaining 26 lepta being retained for
payment of his mess, and other purposes. The ration of bread,
which he receives over and above this allowance, is computed to
cost the country 24 lepta per head, and the clothing about 20 lepta
daily. By a law which passed the Boule in March 1867, the army
was reorganised and increased, nominally to 31,300 men, viz,
14,300 ' regular ' and 1 7,000 ' irregular ' troops.
The navy consisted, at the commencement of 1868, of a frigate of
50 guns, two corvettes of 26 and 22 guns ; one paddle-steamer of
110 horse-power, with 6 guns; five screw- steamers of 36 horse-
power each, with altogether 10 guns; and twenty-three smaller
vessels and gunboats. The navy is manned by conscription from the
inhabitants of the sea-coast ; but volunteering is greatly encouraged
by the Government.
u
290
GREECE,
Population,
The "kingdom off Greece, inclusive of the Ionian Islands, .-aianexed
in 1864, has the following area and population, according to the
census of 1861 : —
Administrative Divisions
Area
Square miles
Population,
1661
NOMARCHIES :
Attica and Boeotia ., .
' 116,024
Eubcea . - . . ..'
72,368
Phthiotis and Phocis . ...
102,291
Acarnania and iEtolia ....
109,392
Argolis and Corinth
18,900
;
138,249
Achaia and Elis .....
118,719
Arcadia ......
96,546
Messenia ......
(117,181
Laconia . . . . .
.112,910
Cyclades .. . .. <. .. ..*5
. 118,130
IoNIvLN Isii^NDS :—
Corfu .
•227
7©,T24
Cephalonia . . ....
311
73,571
Zante .. .
161
'39,693
Santa Maura
a 56
20,797
Ithaca . . . . .
44
11,940
Cerigo . . . .
116
14,564
Paxo • .
7 Total . . . .......
26
5.009
19,941
1,332,508
The above table shows an average density of population of GG per
square mile, or considerably less than that of European Turkey.
Previous to the year 1864, there were only 58 inhabitants to the
square mile, but the annexation of the Ionian Islands, with a dense
population — 226 per square mile — served to raise the figure, con-
tributing far more to the population than to the area of the kingdom.
The census.- of 1861 exhibited the existence, both in Greeoe and
in the Ionian Islands, of a considerably larger male than female
population, the former outnumbering the latter by 54,035 in-
dividuals. According to the census tables, the professions and
pursuits of the grown-up. .male population were, in Greece proper : —
4.27 per cent, persons of independent means ;
13-87 ,, „ tradesmen and shopkeepers ;
49-37
8 43
18-66
.5-40
cultivators and shepherds ;
mercantile men ;
professional men and students.;
domestic servants.
POPULATION.
29I
The statement shows that nearly one-half of the population of
Greece is agricultural. In the Ionian Islands at the census of 1861
there were —
51,342 agriculturists ;
8,365 industrial population ;
7,282 commercial „
The population of the kingdom, numbering in 1861, without the
Ionian Islands, 1,096,810, was divided into 248,949 families, or
4*62 individuals per family, inhabiting 225,716 buildings, or 4-86
per building. This population was distributed into 280 adminis-
trative communes, seven of which numbered above 10,000 inhabi-
tants; 216 from 2,000 to 10,000; and 57 below 2,000. The
principal towns are Athens, with a population of about 45,000 ;
Syra, about 20,000 ; and Patras, 25,000.
At the liberation of the country, there were only nine towns
which had partly escaped the total devastation of the rest ; the
principal of them being Lamia, Vonitza, Nauplia, and Chalkis. All
the other towns and villages were in ruins, so that the first neces-
sity of the inhabitants of the new State was to get housed. Since
that time ten new cities have been founded, and twenty-three old
towns, including Athens, Thebes, and Argos, have been rebuilt,
besides many villages.
The nationality of the inhabitants of the kingdom is very mixed.
The Albanian race occupies a considerable portion of the soil of
ancient Greece, both within, as well as without, the frontiers of the
new kingdom. With the exception of the two towns of Athens
and Megara, it monopolises the whole of Attica and Messenia, and is
in possession of the greater part of Bceotia, and a small part of
Laconia. The south of Eubcea, the north of Achaia, part of Elis,
and the whole of Salamis, are also peopled by Albanians. In the
Peloponnesus the Albanian element occupies the whole of Corinth
and Argolis, the north of Arcadia, the east of Achaia ; and stretching
into Laconia, down the slopes of Taygetus towards the plain of
Helos, it crosses the Eurotas, and holds possession of a large district
j round Monemvasia. However, in the kingdom its numerical
strength, amounting to about 250,000 souls, is less notable than its
j social and industrial activity. The Albanian race furnishes to the
Greek soil the greatest number of cultivators, and to the maritime
' population of Greece its most enterprising element.
Only one-seventh of the area of Greece is under cultivation ; the
rest, though in greater part good for agricultural purposes, lies
i waste. The whole superficies of Greece has been estimated at
5 45,699,248 stremmas, or about 15 millions of acres. Of these
45,699,248 stremmas, which comprise in extent the whole soil of
the kingdom, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, 11,748,000
u2
292
GREECE.
stremmas are said to be unfit for cultivation ; 18,599,240 stremmas
consist of rock and mountain ; 5,419,060 stremmas consist of forest;
833,448 of marsh ; and 1,653,000 of rivers, roads, cities, and vil-
lages. In all, therefore, there are 38,253,000 stremmas of un-
cultivated land, leaving 7,435,900 stremmas of land in cultivation.
The ground is chiefly in the hands of a few proprietors ; but
many of the peasants hold small patches of land of their own.
Others cultivate farms on the metayer system, the owner of the
land providing the farm-house, agricultural implements, and seed ;
the produce, after deducting the seed, is divided in certain propor-
tions between the cultivator and the owner of the land. A great part
of the ground is national property, and the cultivator of it pays to the
Government as rent 15 per cent, of the produce. By Article 101
of the Constitution of 1864, provision is made for the disposal and
distribution of the national lands.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Greece averages four and a half millions sterling
per annum, the imports amounting to about two millions, and the
exports to twomillions and a half. Nearly one-half of the imports come
from, and three-fifths, in value, of the exports go to the United
Kingdom. The principal other countries with which commercial
intercourse is carried on are, in order of importance, France, Turkey,
Austria, Italy, and Russia. But the value of the imports and exports
interchanged with these States is comparatively unimportant.
The commercial intercourse of Greece with the United Kingdom
is exhibited in the subjoined tabular statement, showing the value of
the total exports from Greece to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Greece, in the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Tears
Exports from Greece
to Great Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into Greece
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
1,071,645
879,598
1,246,683
1,147.581
1,526,069
£
1,020,489
851,873
949.124
976,867
973.918
The staple article of exports from Greece to Great Britain is
currants, the value of which, in the year 1869, amounted to
1,138,795/., of which 218,079/. from the Ionian Islands, and
920,716/. from the rest of the kingdom. At the head of the other
BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
293
articles stands lead, shipped to the value of 155,020/. in 18G9. Of
the imports from the United Kingdom into Greece, full one-half
are manufactured cotton goods.
Greece is mainly an agricultural country, and the existing manu-
factures are few and unimportant. Corn is not produced, however,
in sufficient quantities to serve for the subsistence of the inhabitants,
and a certain amount has to be imported every year, chiefly from
Southern Russia. The most favoured and best-cultivated of crops
is that of the currant, or the ' papolina.' Immense districts are
planted with currants in various parts of the kingdom, particularly
along the shores of the Gulf of Corinth, between the towns of Corinth
and Patras, and on the islands of Zante and Cephalonia. Almost all
trade is carried on by sea, and there is very little inland traffic, owing
to want of roads. In 18(38 the first railway, a short line connecting
Athens with the port of Piraeus, was opened in the kingdom.
The merchant navy of Greece numbered 4,721 vessels, of an
aggregate burthen of 290,000 tons, at the end of 1868, and was
manned by 25,000 sailors. A large portion of the carrying trade of
the Black Sea and the eastern parts of the Mediterranean is carried
on under the Greek flag:.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Greece, and their English
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Drachma, of 100 Jepta
_ S Average rate of exchange, 8^d., or
~~ I 28 drachmas =£1 sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Oke
=
2-80 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Cantar .
=
123-20 „
,, Livre
=
1-05 „
„ Baril (wine) .
. =
16'33 Imperial gallons.
„ Kilo .
. =
0-114 Imperial quarter
„ Pike .
=
\ of an English yard.
„ Stremma
. =
i » >» acre.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Greece.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Ellis, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances, Trade, and
Industry of Greece, dated Jan. 8, 1867; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. Farquhar, Secretary of Legation, on the Financial Situation
and State of Agriculture of Greece, dated Nov. 28, 1864 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. X. London, I860.
294 GREECE.
Report by Mr. Lytton, Secretary of Legation, on the Government, Educa-
tional Progress, Trade, and Industry of Greece; dated Jan. 20, 1865; in
' Eeports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. X, London,
1865.
Report by Mr. Edward Herbert, Secretary of Legation, on the Greek Budgets
for 1668 and 1869, dated Athens, March 20, 1869; in ' Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Reports of Messrs. Gould, Finlay, Merlin, Ongley, Sebright, and Saunders,
dated October— November, 1869, on Population, Agriculture, and Tenure of
Land in Greece, inclusive of the Ionian Islands ; in 'Reports from Her Majesty's
Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the various countries of
Europe.' Part I. Pol. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ansted (Prof. D. T.) The Ionian Islands in the year 1863. 8. London, 1865.
ApjJcrf (B.) Vovage en Grece. 8 Athenes, 1856.
Baird. (H. M.) Modern Greece. 8. New York, 1860.
Bikelas (Demetrius) Statistics of the Kingdom of Greece. In ' Journal of
the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXI. 8. London. 1868.
Carnarvon (Earl of) Reminiscences of Athens and the Morea. 8. London,
1870. . .
Casani (F.) Memorie storico-statistique sulla Dalmazia, sulle isole Ionie e
Bulla Grecia. 2 vols. 8. Milano, 1862.
Dora d'Istria (Mme.) Excursions en Roumelie et en Moree. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1865.
Kirkwall (Viscount) Four Years in the Ionian Islands : their Political and
Social Condition, with a History of the British Protectorate. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1864.
Koulouriot.es (A. J.) Greece : by a native of Athens. 8. London, 1863.
Lacroix (E.) Isles de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1861.
Lecontc (C.) Etude economique de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1849.
Maurer (G. L. von) Das Griechische Volk in offentlicher und privatrecht-
licher Beziehung. 3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.
Bots (L.) Erinnerungen und Mittheilungen aus Griechenland. Mit Vor-
■wort von Jahn. 8. Berlin, 1864.
Schmidt (Dr. Julius) Beitrage zur physiealischen Geographie von Griechen-
land. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864-70.
Strickland (Edw.) Greece, its condition and resources. London, 1863.
Tozer (Rev. H. F.) Researches in the Higldands of Turkey, including Visits
to Mounts Ida, Athos, Olympus, and Pelion, to the Mirdite Albanians, and
other remote tribes. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869.
295
ITALY.
(Regno d'Italia.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Vittorio Emanuele II.r King of Italy, born March 14, 1820, the
eldest son of King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia and Archduchess
Theresia of Austria. Succeeded to the throne of Sardinia on the
abdication of his father, March 23, 1849; proclaimed King of Italy,
by vote of the Italian Parliament, March 17, 1861. Married, April 12,
1842T to Archduchess Adelaide of Austria; widower, Jan. 20, 1855.
Children of the King: — 1. Princess Clotilde, born March 2,
1843; married, January 30y 1859, to Pz-ince Napoleon Jerome
Bonaparte, born September 9, 1822 ; offspring of the •anion are
Napoleon Jerome, born July 18, 1862, Louis Jerome,, born July 16,
1864, and Marie, born December 20, 1866. 2. Prince ITmberto,
heir-apparent and Prince of Piedmont, born March 14, 1844 ;
major-general in the' Italian army ; married, April 22, 1868, to
his cousin, Princess Margarita of Genoa; offspring of the union
is a son, Vittorio Emanuele, born Nov. 11, 1869. 3. King Amedeo,
formerly Duke of Aosta, born May 30, 1845 ; elected King of
Spain by the Cortes Constituyentes Nov. 16, 1870 (see Spain,
'Reigning Sovereign and Family'). 4. Princess Pia, born Oct. 16,
1847; married, Oct. 6, 1862, to King Luis I. of Portugal.
Sister-in-law of the King. — Princess Elisabetta, born Feb. 4, 1830,
the daughter of King Johann of Saxony; married, April 22, 1850,
to Prince Ferdinando of Piedmont, Duke of Genoa, second son of
King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia; widow, Feb. 10, 1855 ; re-married,
in 1856, to the Marquis of Rapallo. Issue of the first union are : —
1. Princess Margarita, born Nov. 20, 1851 ; married, April 22,
1868, to Prince Umberto, heir-apparent of the crown. 2. Prince
Tommaso, Duke of Genoa, born Feb. 6, 1854.
Other Relatives of the King. — 1. Princess Teresa, horn Sept. 19,
1803, the daughter of King Vittorio Emanuele I. of Sardinia ; married,
Aug. 15, 1820, to Carlo II., Duke of Parma, who abdicated April
19, 1848. 2. Princess Anna, twin-sister of the preceding, born
Sept. 19, 1803; married, Feb. 27, 1831, to Emperor Ferdinand I. of
Austria, who abdicated Dec. 2, 1848. 3. Princess Maria, born
Sept. 29, 1814, the daughter of Prince Giuseppe of Savoy-Carignano ;
married, June 16, 1837, to Prince Leopold of Naples, Count of
Syracuse; widow, Dec. 4, 1860. 4. Prince Eugenio, brother of the
preceding, born April 14, 1816 ; admiral in the Italian navyv
296 ITALY.
The origin of the House of Savoy is not historically established ;
but most genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, who,
in the eleventh century, established himself on the western slope of
the Alps, between Mont Blanc and Lake Leman. In 1111 his
descendants were enrolled among the Counts of the Holy Roman Em-
pire. Count Amadeus, in 1383, founded a law of primogeniture which
greatly strengthened the family, leading to the immediate acquisi-
tion of the territory of Nice. In 1416, the Counts of Savoy adopted
the title of Duke; and, in 1418, they acquired the principality of
Piedmont. Taking part in the great wars between France and the
Holy Roman Empire, now on the one side, and then on the other,
as policy dictated, the Princes of Savoy increased their possessions
in all directions, but chiefly towards the south ; and at the Peace of
Utrecht, in 1713, they obtained the island of Sicily, with the title
of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of Sar-
dinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached.
Genoa and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian
Crown at the peace of 1815. The direct male line of the House of
Savoy died out with King Carlo Felix, in 1831, and the exist-
ing Salic Law prohibiting the accession of females, the crown fell
to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the House of Savoy -Carignano, a
branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Carlo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto,
the first of the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne,
March 23, 1849, in favour of his son, the present king. By the
Treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and the Peace of Zurich, Nov.
10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained western Lombardy,
part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena,
while the remain'ng districts of Lombardy with Venetia were added
to his dominions by the Peace of Prague, of Aug. 23, 1866. Finally,
the Papal States, having been taken possession of by an Italian
army, after the retreat of the French garrison, were annexed to the
kingdom by royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870.
The ' Dotazione della Corona,' or civil list of the King, has been
settled at 16,250,000 lire, or 650,000/. The heir-apparent has
an annual allowance of 1,200,000 lire, or 48,000/., granted to him
at the time of his marriage, in April 1868. The cousin of the
King, Prince Alberto Vittorio, Duke of Genoa, has an ' Appannaggio,'
or State allowance, of 300.000 lire, or 12,000/. ; and Prince Eugenio
of Savoy-Carignano, an allowance of 200,000 lire, or 8,000/. To
the latter sum are added 100,000 lire, or 4,000/., as ' Spese di
rappresentanza.' Extraordinary expenses of the Court, such as
the journeys of the King into the different provinces of Italy,
are paid out of the public exchequer, trie same as the cost of
building and repairing the roval residences. The large private
domains of the reigning tkmily were given up to the State in 1848.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 297
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution of Italy is an expansion of the ' Statuto
fondamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by King
Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to this charter,
the executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the sove-
reign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers ; while
the legislative authority rests conjointly in the King and Parliament,
the latter consisting of two Chambers, an upper one, the Senato, and
a lower one, called the ' Camera de' Deputati.' The Senate is com-
posed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an
unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are
nominated by the King for life ; a condition of the nomination being
that the person should either fill a high office, or have acquired
fame in science, literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit
of the nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of
3,000 lire, or 120^. The number of senators, in the session of 18G9,
was 283. The deputies of the lower house are elected by a majority
of all citizens who are twenty-five years of age, and pay taxes to
the amount of 40 lire, or 1/. 12s. For this purpose the whole of the
population is divided into electoral colleges, or districts. No deputy
can be returned to Parliament unless at least one-third of the
inscribed electors appear at the poll. A deputy must be thirty
years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral law,
among them a slight property qualification. Incapable of being
elected are all salaried government officials below a certain rank, as
well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and filling clerical
charges, or receiving pay from the state. Officers in the army and
navy, ministers, under-secretaries of state, and various other classes
of functionaries high in office, may be elected, but their number
must never be above one-fifth that of the total number of members
of the chamber of deputies. Neither senators nor deputies receive
any salary or other indemnity.
The duration of Parliaments is five years ; but the King
has the power to dissolve the lower house at any time, being
bound only to order new elections, and' convoke a new meeting
within four months. It is incumbent upon the executive to call the
Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers has the right
of introducing new bills, the same as the Government ; but all money
bills must originate in the House of Depiities. The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower
house; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings
of both Chambers are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an
absolute majority of the members are present. The Camera de'
Deputati, in the session of 1870, numbered 493 members, being the
298 italt.
prescribed rate of one deputy to 40,000 souls. By royal decree
of October 19, 1870, the Italian constitution was introduced into
the newly annexed states of the sovereign Pontiff, and the proportion
of deputies to be returned by the same fixed at 14, thus raising to
507 the total number of members of the Chamber of Deputies of
the Kingdom.
The executive power is exercised, under the king, by a ministry
divided into the following nine departments : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Dr. Federico J. Lanza, born
1814; studied medicine; Minister of Finance, 1859-60; Minister of
the Interior from September 1864 to January 1866 ; appointed
again Minister of the Interior, December 14, 1869.
2. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Carlo Correnti, ap-
pointed December 14, 1869.
3. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Commendatore Visconti-
Venosta, born 1828 ; Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1866-67 ; ap-
pointed again December 14, 1869.
4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Giacomo Gadda, appointed
December 14, 1869.
5. The Ministry of War. — Lieutenant-General Ricotti-Magnani,
appointed September 8, 1870.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Rear-Admiral Acton, appointed
January 11, 1870.
7. The Ministry of Commerce. — Antonio Castagnola, appointed
October 28, 1867.
8. The Ministry of Finance. — Quintino Sella, born 1815;
Minister of Finance from September 1864 to January 1866 ; ap-
pointed again December 14, 1869.
9. The Ministiy of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Guiseppe
Racli, appointed October 21, 1869.
In each of the 73 provinces into which the kingdom of Italy
is divided — 59 previous to the annexation of the Lombardo-Venetian
territories, ceded by Austria under the terms of the Treaty of
Vienna, of Oct. 12, 1866, and 68 previous to the occupation of the
Pontifical territory, annexed by royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870 — the
executive power of the Government is intrusted to a prefect
appointed by the ministry.
Church of Rome.
The ' Statute fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article,
that ' the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion ia the sole religion
of the State.' By the terms of the royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870,
which declared that 'Rome and the Roman Provinces shall con-
CHURCH OF ROME. 299
stitute an integral part of the kingdom of Italy,' the Pontiff was
constituted supreme head of the Church, preserving his former
dignities as a reigning prince, and all other prerogatives of absolute
and independent sovereignty.
Sovereign-Pontiff. — Pius IX., born at Sinigaglia, May 13, 1792,
the son of Count Mastai Ferretti. Appointed bishop, id jjetto,
December 23, 1837; Archbishop of Imola, December 14, 1838;
created cardinal, December 24, 1839 ; elected Sovereign-Pontiff, as
successor of Gregory XVI., June 16, 1846 ; crowned June 21, 1846.
The Pontiff was originally elected by the priests and people of the
diocese of Rome; but subsequently by the cardinals. In the eleventh
century Nicholas II. conferred on the cardinals the right of directing
the election, and, in accordance with his statutes, the cardinals, who
had figured as a body since the eighth century, were bound to demand
of the Roman people and the Roman clergy the ratification of their
choice. To legalise the election it was indispensable that the same
name should obtain two-thirds at least of the votes of the Conclave,
together with the suffrages of the people and the clergy of Rome.
This mode of proceeding, however, was found to give rise to dissen-
sions, and the consequence was that both the clergy and the people
were excluded from all participation in the election. This reform
took place in 1217, on the accession of Gregory X.
The election of a Pontiff is by scrutiny or ballot. Each cardinal
writes his own name with that of the candidate he proposes on a
ticket. These tickets are deposited in the consecrated chalice which
Stands on the altar of the chapel where -they sit; and each one
approaching and leaving the altar kneels and repeats a prayer. After
a pause the tickets are taken from the sacred cup by officers named
ad hoc from their own body ; the tickets are compared with the
number of cardinals present, and when it is found that any one of
them has two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected.
If no one" can show the requisite number of votes another proceeding
is gone through. This proceeding is the election by access — so
called because any cardinal has the right to accede to the vote of
another by altering his ticket according to a prescribed form. The
moment the election is declared the tickets are burnt. The present
Pontiff Pius IX. was elected by unanimity. He is the &57th Pope.
The rise of the Pontificate of Rome, as a temporal power, dates from
the year 755, when Pepin, king of the Franks, granted to Pope Stephen
III. the exarchate of Ravenna, to which Charlemagne added the pro-
vinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser Heinrich III., in 1053, increased
these possessions of the head of the Church by the city of Benevento,
with the surrounding territory ; and not long after, in 1102, the Mar-
chioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the pro-
300
IT ALT.
vinces known as the { Patrimony of St. Peter.' In 1297, Forli and
the rest of the Romagna, and, in 1364, Bolcgna, became portions of
the Papal dominion ; and. towards the end of the fourteenth century,
the Pontiff acquired full jurisdiction over Rome and Sabina.
From the accession of Stephen III., first temporal sovereign, and 95th
in the official list of Pontiffs, to Pius IX., last temporal sovereign,
there were 165 Popes, as follows : —
X o. in
the list,
Name of Pontiff Nationality Election
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Nationality
Tear of
election
95
Stephen III. i Italian
752
125
John X.
Italian
913
96
Paul I.
ii
757 1
126
Leo VI.
,
928
97
Stephen IV.
>>
768 J
127
Stephen VIII.
»»
928
98
Adrian I.
77-
128
John XI.
931
99
Leo III.
795
129
Leo VII.
..
936
100
Stephen V.
»
816
130
Stephen IX.
German
939
101
Paschal
817
131
Martin II.
Italian
943
102
Eugene II.
M
824
132
Agapet II.
>>
946
103
Valentine
»>
827
133
John XII.
956
104
Gregory IV.
827
134
Benedict V.
,,
964
105
Sergius II.
ti
844
135
John XIII.
,,
965
106
Leo IV.
847
136
Benedict VI.
„
972
107
Benedict III.
n
856
137
Donus II.
jj
974
108
Nicholas I.
858
138
Benedict VII.
975
109
Adrian II.
867
139
John XIV.
»»
983
110
John VIII.
H
872
140
John XV.
995
111
Martin I.
ii
882
141
Gregory V.
German
996
112
Adrian III.
884
142
Silvester II.
French
999
113
Stephen VI.
885
143
John XVI.
Italian
1003
114
Formosus
891
144
John XVII.
„
1003
115
Stephen VII.
896
145
Sergius IV.
,,
1009
116
Bomanus
897
116
Benedict VIII.
(J
1012
117
Theodore II.
897
147
John XVIII.
,,
1024
118
John IX.
898
! 148
Benedict IX.
,,
1033
119
Benedict IV.
n
900
149
Gregory VI.
„
K)44
120
Leo V.
903
i 150
Clement II.
German
1046
121
Christopher
1,
903
151
Damasus II.
jj
1048
122
Sergius III.
904
152
Leo VIII.
„
1049
123
Anastasius III.
yt
911
| 153
Victor II.
„
1055
124
Lando „ | 913
1 154 Stephen X.
„
1056
155
Nicholas II.
French 1 105S
: 207 1 John XXI.
Italian
1410
156
Alexander II.
Italian 1061
208
Martin V.
„
1417
157
Gregory VII.
i>
1073
209
Eugene IV.
„
1431
158
Victor ill.
1086
210
Nicholas V.
.,
1447
159
Urban II.
French
1088
211
Calixtus III.
Spaniard
1455
160
Paschal II.
Italian
1099
212
Pius II.
Italian
1458
161
Gelasius II.
1118
213
Paul II.
„
1464
162
Calixtus II.
French
1119
214
Sixtus IV.
„
1471
163
Honorius II.
Italian
1124
215
Innocent VIII.
,,
1484
164
Innocent II.
1130
216
Alexander VI.
Spaniard
1492
165
( • lest ine II.
ii
lit:;
217
Pius III.
Italian
1503
166
Lucius II.
»>
1144
218
Julius 11.
1503
CHURCH OF ROME.
301
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Nationality
Tear of
Election
No. in J
the list
Name of Pontiff
1
Nationality
Year of
Election
1513
167
Eugene III.
1145
219
Leo X.
168
Anastasius IV.
1153
220
Adrian VI.
Dutch
1522
169
Adrian IV.
English
1154
221
Clement VII.
Italian
1523
170
Alexander III.
Italian
1159
222
Paul III.
1534
171
Lucius III.
1181
223
Julius III.
n
1550
172
Urban III.
1185
224
Marcellus II.
n
1555
173
Gregory VIII.
,,
1187
225
Paid IV.
1555
174
Clement III.
1187
226
Pius IV.
1559
175
Celestine III.
1191
227
Pius V.
1566
176
Innocent III.
1198
228
Gregory XIII.
„
1572
177
Honorius III.
1216
229
Sixtus V.
„
1585
178
Gregory IX.
„
1227
230
Urban VII.
1590
179
Celestine IV.
1241
231
Gregory XIV.
1590
180
Innocent IV.
1243
232
Innocent IX.
1591
181
Alexander IV.
'
1254
233
Clement VIII.
n
1592
182
Urban IV.
French
1261
234
Leo XL
n
1605
183
Clement IV.
1265
235
Paul V.
tj
1605
184
Gregory X.
Italian
1271
236
Gregory XV.
n
1621
185
Innocent V.
French
1276
237
Urban VIII.
})
1623
186
Adrian V.
Italian
1276
238
Innocent X.
1644
187
John XIX.
Prtguese
1276
239
Alexander VII.
)j
1655
188
Nicholas III.
Italian
1277
240
Clement IX.
1667
189
Martin IV.
1281
241
Clement X.
H
1670
190
Honorius IV.
1285
242
Innocent XL
1676
191
Nicholas IV.
1292
243
AlexanderVIII.
1689
192
Celestine V.
1294
244
Innocent XII.
n
1691
193
Boniface VIII.
1294
245
Clement XL
n
1700
191
Benedict X.
1303
246
Innocent XIII.
n
1721
195
Clement V.
French
1305
247
Benedict XIII.
n
1724
196
John XX.
1316
248
Clement XII.
n
1730
197
Benedict XL
1334
249
Benedict XIV.
it
1740
198
Clement VI.
1342
250
Clement XIII.
n
1758
199
Innocent VI.
?>
1352
251
Clement XIV.
M
1769
200
Urban V.
1362
252
Pius VI.
n
1775
201
Gregory XL
,,
1370
253
Pius VII.
1800
202
Urban VI.
Italian
1378
254
Leo XII.
1823
203
Boniface IX.
»
1389
255
Pius VIII.
(J
1829
204
Innocent VII.
,,
1404
256
Gregory XVI.
1831
205
Gregory XII.
„
1406
257
Pius IX.
1846
206
Alexander V.
Greek
1409
The average reign of the 163 occupants of the Pontifical throne
from the establishment to the extinction of the temporal power of the
Popes, amounted to not quite seven years.
The Sovereign-Pontiff is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of
the Eoman Catholic Church. His judgments are held to be infal-
lible, and there is no appeal against his decrees. The Pontiff may
seek advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting, when
complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinal-bishops, fifty
302
ITALY.
cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal- deacons, but not always com-
prising the full number. On November 1, 1870, the Sacred College
consisted of four cardinal-bishops, forty cardinal-priests, and seven
cardinal-deacons. The following tabular list, drawn up from official
information, gives the names of these fifty-one cardinals, together with
their ecclesiastical office, or dignity, their nationality, year of birth,
and year of nomination : —
Names
Office or dignity
Nationality
Year of
birth
Year of
Nomi-
nation
Cardinal-Bishops : —
Constantin Patrizi
Dean of Sacred Col.
Italian
1798
1836
Luigi di S. Filippo
Bp. of Palestrina
,,
1796
1837
Nic. Clarelli-Paraccini
„ Frascati
,,
1799
1844
Camilla di Pietro
„ Albano
t*
1806
1853
Cardinal-Priests : —
Filippo de Angelis
Archbp. of Fermo
Italian
1792
1838
Luigi Vannicelli Casoni
„ Ferrara
,,
1801
1839
F. von Schwarzenberg
„ Prague
German
1809
1842
Cosimo Coi'si
Pisa
Italian
1798
1842
Fabio Asquini .
Prft. of Congregation
u
1802
1844
Dom. Carafa di Traetto
Archbp. of Benevento
ft
1805
1844
Sixto Riario-Sfurza
,, . Naples
„
1810
1846
Jacques Mathieu
Archbp. of Besancon
French
1796
1850
Francois Donnet.
„ Bordeaux
,,
1795
1852
Carlo Morichini .
„ Jesi
Italian
1805
1852
Gioachino Pecci .
,, Perugia
„
1810
1853
Joseph von Rauscher .
,, Vienna
German
1797
1855
Alessandro Barnabo .
Prft. of Congregation
Italian
1801
1856
Cir. de Alameda y Brea
Archbp. of Toledo
Spanish
1781
1858
Antonio Antonucci
„ Ancona
Italian
1798
1858
Enrico Orfei
,, Ravenna
,,
1800
1858
Giu. Pironi-Ferretti .
Legate of Bologna
„
1817
1858
Pietro di Silvestri
>>
1803
1858
Alexis Billiet .
Archbp. of Chambery
French
1783
1861
Carlo Sacconi
Pres. of Crt. of Appeal
Italian
1808
1861
Garcia Cuesta .
Archbp. of Compost ella
„
1803
1861
Angelo Quaglia .
Pref. of Congregation
,,
1802
1861
Antonio Panebianco .
Grand Penitentiary
,,
1808
1861
Guiseppe Trevisanoto .
Patriarch of Venice
,,
1801
1863
Antonio de Luca
Preft. of Congregation
*»
1805
1863
Guiseppe Bizzarri
„ „
,,
1802
1863
L. de la Lastray Cuesta
Archbp. of Seville
Spanish
1803
1863
Jean Pitra :
French
1812
1863
Filippo Guidi
Archbp. of Bologna
Italian
1815
1863
Gaston de Bonnechose
,, Rouen
French
1800
1863
Paul Cullen
Dublin
English
1803
1806
Gustav von Hohenlohe
German
IS '2 3
1866
Luigi Bilio .
Italian
1826
1866
Lucien Bonaparte
,,
1828
1868
Innoceute Ferrieri
»
1810
1868
CnURCH OF ROME.
303
Year of
Name
Offloe or dignity
Nationality
Year of
birth
Nomina-
tion
Cardinal Priests — cont.
Lorenzo Barili .
■
„
1801
1868
Giuseppe Berardi.
Minister of Finance
,,
1810
1868
Giovanni Moreno
Arehbp. of Valladolid
Spanish
1817
1868
Kafiu-le La Valletta .
Italian
1837
1868
Cardinal Deacons : — ,
Giacomo Antonelli
Minister of State
Italian
1806
1847
Prospero Caterini
Preft. of Congregation
„
1795
1853
Gasparo Grasselini
,,
1769
1856
Teodulo Mertel ,
Pres. Council of State
u
1806
1858
Domanico Consolini .
Preft. of Propaganda
,,
1806
1866
Edoardo Borromeo
u
1822
1868
Ann i bale Capalti
>t
1811
1868
The cardinals are Princes of the Church. In the early ages the
cardinals were the principal priests of the churches in Rome or
deacons of districts. In the eleventh century they numbered but
twenty- eight ; and it was in modern times that the number was
raised to seventy. When assembled the cardinals form the Sacred
College, compose the Council of the Pope, preside at special and
general congregations, and govern the Church so long as the Ponti-
fical throne is vacant. They received the distinction of the red hat
under Innocent III., during the Council of Lyons, in 1245; and the
purple from Boniface VIII., in 1294. The great Catholic Powers
propose a certain number of prelates to be named by the Pope, and
these are known as Cardinals of the Crown.
The upper Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world includes
7 Patriarchates of the Latin Rite, and 5 of the Oriental Rite, with
Patriarchal Jurisdiction; 132 Archbishoprics of the Latin Rite, and
7 of the Oriental Rite ; and 6G0 Bishoprics of the Latin and 63 of
the Oriental Rite. There are besides 284 titular Archbishoprics,
and Bishoprics or Sees ' in partibusf infidelium.' According to the
Annuario PontijiGio of 1870, the Hierarchy comprises —
I. Patriarchates.
Of the Latin Rite;—
1. Constantinople, %. Alexandria, 3. Antioch, 4. Jerusalem, 5. Venioe, 6. West
Indies, 7. Lisbon.
Of the Oriental Site, with Patriarchal Jurisdiction : —
1. Antioch, of the Melchite Greeks {Anliochen, Melchitarum) ; 2. Antioch, of
the Maronites (Antioehen. Maronitarum) ; 3. Antioch, of the Syrians Antiochen.
Syrortiiu); 4. Babylon of the Chaldeans \Babylonen. Chaldceorum); 0,. Cilicia,
of the Armenians (CUicics Armenorum).
II. Archbishoprics.
Latin Rite:—
Immediately subject to the Holy See . . . . .12
"With Ecclesiastical provinces 120
304
ITALY.
Oriental Bite: —
"With Ecclesiastical Provinces :
Armenian .......... 1
Greco-Roumaic ......... 1
Greco-Ruthenian ........ 1
Under Oriental Patriarchs :
Greco-Melchite . . .... ... 3
Syro-Maronite 1
139
III. Bishoprics.
Latin Fife: — ■
Suburban 6
Immediately subject to the Holy See 84
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical Provinces 570
Oriental Site: —
Armenian . . . . . . . . . .16
Greco-Melchite ......... 8
Greco-Roumaic ......... 3
Greco-Ruthenian ........ 5
Greco-Bulgarian 1
Syriac 11
Syro-Chaldaic 12
Syro-Maronite ......... 7
723
Sees 'in Paetibtts Infidelium.'
Archbishoprics .36
Bishoprics 198
234
The summary stands as follows : —
Patriarchates ......... 12
Archbishoprics . . . . • • • .175
Bishoprics 921
Total . . . 1,108
There were vacant at the commencement of the year 1870,
according to the Annuario Pontificio :
Patriarchates ......... 1
Archbishoprics in Ordinary 16
Bishoprics in Ordinary 106
Total . 123
Thus the actual number of prelates composing the upper Catholic
Hierarchy throughout the world was 935.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 305
The apostolical vicariates, the delegations, and prefectures in all
parts of the world stand under the Congregatio de Propaganda fide
at Rome. The number of vicariates is one hundred and seven, of
delegations five, and of prefectures twenty -three, ten of which were
first founded by the present Pope Pius IX., who also raised 15 sees
to metropolitan churches, and created five new archbishoprics and
one hundred and eleven new bishoprics, chiefly in Great Britain
and the United States of America.
Church and Education.
The Roman Catholic hierarchy in Italy consists of 45 archbishops
and 198 bishops. All these dignitaries of the Church are ap-
pointed by the Pope, on the advice of a council of Cardinals, the
congregation ' De propaganda fide.' But the royal consent is neces-
sary to the installation of a bishop or archbishop, and this having
been frequently withheld of late years, there were constantly a large
number of vacant sees. On the death or removal of a bishop, the
clergy of the diocese elect a vicar- capitidar, who exercises spiritual
jurisdiction during the vacancy. In case of old age or infirmity,
the bishop nominates a coadjutor to discharge the episcopal duties
in his stead. His recommendation is almost invariably attended to
by the Pope, and the bishop-coadjutor is appointed and consecrated,
and takes his title from some oriental diocese not actually existing,
which he relinquishes on succeeding to a bishopric. As long as he
retains the oriental title, he is styled a bishop ' in partibus infidelium,'
or, as usually abridged, a bishop ' in partibus.' Each diocese has
its own independent administration, consisting of the bishop, as
president, and two canons, who are elected by the chapter of the
diocese.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has been greatly re-
duced since the year 1850, when the bill of Siccardi, annihilating
ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the privileges of the clergy, passed the
Sardinian chambers. This law was extended, in 1861, over the
whole of the kingdom, and had the effect of rapidly diminishing the
numbers as well as the incomes of the clergy. But it was stated in
the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in May, 1869, that at that period
the proportion of priests to the general population was still as high
as seven per thousand, ' the average proportion in all the rest of the
Catholic world being four and a half per thousand.'
It appears from an official return laid before the Chamber of
Deputies in the session of 1865, that there were in that year
2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for men, and
876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of whom
14,807 were men, and 14,184 women. The Mendicant order num-
x
30 6 ITALY.
bered 8,229 persons, comprised in the above mentioned total. A
project of law, brought in by the Government, for the entire suppres-
sion of all religious houses throughout the kingdom, was adopted
by the Chamber of Kepresentatives in the session of 1866. Art. 1
of this law provides that all religious corporations shall cease to exist
from the moment of the promulgation of the law, and their property
devolve to the State. Art. 2 grants civil and political rights to all
the members of the corporations thus dissolved. By Art. 3, all
monks and nuns having taken regular vows before the 18th of Janu-
ary 1864, are entitled to a pension of 500 lire, or 20/. each ; lay
brethren and sisters to 250 lire, or 10/. each ; and servants 60 years
old and upwards, having served at least 10 years in a monastery,
may receive a pension of 120 lire, or a little less than 5/. By Art.
5, several monasteries are set aside for the reception of such monks
or nuns as may wish to continue their monastic life ; but there must
not be fewer than six in one monastery. Mendicant friars may
continue to ask alms under certain restrictions. By Art. 6, all
chapters of collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not
attached to parishes, lay benefices, and all brotherhoods and founda-
tions to which an ecclesiastical service is annexed, are suppressed.
Arts. 7 and 8 regulate the interests of present holders of such bene-
fices. Art. 9 regulates the transfer of ecclesiastical property to the
State. Art. 10 excepts from this transfer all property liable to re-
version to third parties ; also that of lay or ecclesiastical benefices
in the gift of lay patrons, the property of which reverts to the patron
on condition of his paving the holder of the benefice the annual
revenue of the property, leaving one-third of the revenue for the
execution of the ecclesiastical duties attached to the benefice on the
holder's demise. The other articles of the law of 1866 are of local
or minor importance.
When the monastic orders were partially suppressed in the former
kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in February 1861, the number of reli-
gious establishments for men was found to be 1,020, containing
13,611 inmates, of which number 8,899 lived entirely upon alms.
The remaining 4,712 monks possessed an annual revenue of
4,555,968 lire, or 967 lire, equal to 39/. per head. Of nunneries
there were 272, with 8,001 inmates, possessing an income of
4,772,794 lire, or 24/. per head. A previous return, of the year
1834, °howed that there were in the kingdom of Naples 14 arch-
bishops, 66 bishops, 26,800 ordained priests, 11,730 monks, and
9,520 nuns.
Under the new Italian Government, a great part of the property
confiscated from the monastic establishments has been devoted to
the cause of public education, for which, besides, an annual credit
of 15,000,000 lire, or 600,000/., is voted by the Parliament. Since
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 307
the commencement of the year 1860, there were opened, through-
out the kingdom, thirty-three great model schools, of which ten in the
Sardinian states, six in Lombardy, four in the Emilia, six in the
Marches and Umhria, two in Tuscany, and five in the Southern
Provinces. But notwithstanding these great aids to instruction,
education stands still very low in the kingdom. According to the
census of 1864, out of a total population of 21,703,710 souls,
there were 3,884,245 who could read and write (2,623.605 men
and 1,260.640 women); 893,588 who could only read (of these
the women were as more than 5 to 4 of the men), and 16,999,701
who could neither read nor write — 7,889,238 men and 9,110,463
women. Piedmont and the Basilicata occupy the first and last
place on the register of knowledge. In the former province, out
of every 1,000 inhabitants 573 cannot read or write; in the latter
out of the same number 912 are in the same ignorant state.
Next to Piedmont is Lombardy, which has 599 untaught out
of 1,000, and then Liguria, 708 in 1,000. Tuscany and iEmilia
are about the average of the whole country — 778 and 803 in the
1,000 ; Umbria, the Marches, Puglie, and the Abruzzi are rather
better. In the Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, and Sardinia, more than
nine-tenths of the inhabitants can neither read nor write.
An official return issued by the Italian government March, 1870,
furnishes detailed tabular information regarding the amount of
education received by the conscripts born in 1847, and called
up for military service in 1868. According to this return, the
per-centage of ' analfabets,' or totally illiterate men of the age of
twenty-one was as follows, in progressive ratio, in the various
provinces of the kingdom: — Vicenza, 20.37; Sondrio, 25.17;
Turin, 26.18; Novara, 29.39; Bergamo, 33.13 ; Leghorn, 35.40 ;
Cuneo, 35.99; Como, 37.23; Alessandria, 39 61; Pavia, 41.04;
Brescia, 41.18 ; Porto Maurizio, 43.27 ; Cremona, 44 25 ; Milan,
49.93 ; Belluno, 50.92 ; Verona, 53.54 ; Genoa, 54.61 ; Lucca,
55.34; Treviso, 55.34; Pisa. 56.72: Mantua, 58.06; Udine, 59.96:
Eeggio (Emilia), 61.34; Padua, 62.66: Venice, 63.84; Florence,
64.13; Eovigo, 64.90; Grosseto, 66.16; Modena, 66.61; Massa
Carrara, 66.67; Bologna, 67.03; Piacenza, 68.24; Ferrara, 68.80;
Abruzzo Ulteriore II., 70.43 ; Parma, 70.66 ; Siena, 70.91 ;
Macerata, 71.19 ; Molise, 71.36; Capitanata, 71.86; Principato
Citeriore, 72.25; Naples, 73.58; Arizzo, 76.45; Terra d'Otranto,
76.67; Ravenna, 77.49; Forli, 77.69; Aniona, 77.71; Sassari,
77.91 ; Umbria, 78.19; Terra di Bari, 78.56; Abruzzo Citeriore,
78.80; Syracuse, 78.91; Messina, 79.12; Abruzzo Ult.L, 79.60;
Cagliari, 79.74 ; Terra di Lavoro, 80.00 ; Calabria Ult. II., 80.04 ;
Caltanisetta, 80.34; Principato Ult., 80.55; Pesaro, 81.41:
Catania, 81.59; Palermo, 81.91; Calabria Git., 82.16; Basilicata,
x2
308 ITALY.
82.23; Benevento, 82.30; Ascoli Piceno, 82.49; Calabria Cit.
82.99 ; Trapani, 83.58 ; Girgenti, 85.82.
The above statistics give a general average of 64.27 persons
without the slightest rudiments of education in every hundred
members of the adult male population of Italy.
There are thirteen universities in Italy, including the Roman
States. These are — Bologna, founded in the year 1119; Naples,
founded in 1244; Padua, in 1228; Rome, in 1244; Perugia, in
1320 ; Pisa, in 1329 ; Siena, in 1349 ; Pavia, said to have been
established by Charlemagne in 774, reorganised in 1390; Turin.
founded in 1412; Parma, in 1422; Florence, in 1443; Catania, in
1445; Cagliari, in 1764 ; and Genoa, in 1783. To these may be
added the high schools of Palermo, Camerino, and Macerata.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial accounts laid before the Italian Parliament divide
both the revenue and expenditure into an ordinary and extraordinary
part, or ' Parte ordinaria,' and ' Parte straordinaria.' The total
ordinary revenue of the kingdom amounted, on the average of the
three years 1867-9, to 800 millions lire, or 32,000,000/., while the
ordinary expenditure was upwards of 1,000 millions lire, or
40,000,000/., leaving, without the extraordinary disbursements,
often very large, an annual deficit of more than 200 millions lire,
or 8,000,000/. The actual ordinary revenue of Italy — excluding
all receipts from loans, sales of public property, and other extra-
ordinary resources — rose in the seven years 1862-69 from
18,850,000/. to 34,420,000/. as follows :—
Years £
1862 18,850,000
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
20,473.000
22,612,000
25,487,000
24,350,000
31,339.000
29,320,000
34,420,000
The three years 1867-69 include the revenue of the Venetian
provinces ceded by Austria to Italy in 1866.
The budget estimates for the year 1870 stated the total revenue,
ordinary and extraordinary, at 950,538,000 lire, or 38,021,520/.
and the total expenditure at 1,111,871,000 lire, or 44,431,840/.
leaving a deficit of 161,333,000 lire, or 6,413,320/. The budge;
estimates for the year 1871, approved by the Chamber of Deputies
were calculated on a total revenue of 1,152,536,323 lire, or
46,101,453/., against an expenditure of 1,149,750,446 lire, or
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
309
45,990,018/., thus giving a small surplus, doubtful, however, of
realisation.
In the financial estimates of recent years the revenue calculated
upon almost invariably proved above the actual receipts, while the
estimated expenditure was exceeded by the actual disbursements.
The chief branches of public income and expenditure are shown in
the following tables, giving an abstract of the official budget for the
year ending December 31, 18G8 : —
Estimates of Eevextie for 1868.
Land and house taxes
Income tax
Assessed taxes
Succession and registration duties
Customs
Consumption duties
Monopolies
Lottery
State property
Post Office and other public services
Eepayments and other receipts .
Ordinary revenue
Extraordinary receipts
Total estimated revenue .
Total actual receipts
Estimates of Expenditure for 1868
Lire
158,622,295
72,843,771
3,567,000
81,777,770
77,660,000
62,868,526
162,800,000
60,000,000
19.073.836
31.(379,562
35,701,554
766,591,315
13,293,706
779.888,020
31,155,521
£ 29,320,000
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
Lire
Lire
Lire
Interest of debt, pensions, gua-
rantees, civil list, Parliament
520,672,720
14,931,389
535,604,109
Collection of revenue, manage-
ment of debt
99,876,127
5,000,807
105.876,934
Justice and Public Worship
j 29,612,036
1,815,129
31.427,165
Foreign Affairs
4,717,310
105,972
4,823,2S2
Public Instruction
15,250.992
276,401
15,527,393
Interior
43,145,238
2,584.785
45,730.023
Public Works .
38,213.200
18,783,704
56,996.904
War ....
147,316,360
14,885,740
162,202,100
Marine ....
27,853,421
7,274,767
35,128,189
Agriculture, Industry, and Com
merce ....
Total estimated expenditure
4,006,794
1,642,248
5,649,043
930,664,501
67,300,946
997,965,447
£ 37,226,580
2,692,038
39,918,618
3io
ITALY.
The actual expenditure for the year 1868 amounted to 46,919,001/.,
thus exceeding the estimates by 7,000,443/., while the actual
receipts were to the amount of 1,835,521/. below those calculated
upon.
The budget estimates for the year ending December 31, 1869,
were calculated upon a total ordinary and extraordinaiy revenue of
999,472,619 lire, or 39,978,905/., and a total expenditure of
1,074,183,493 lire, or 42,967,339/., leaving a deficit of 74,710,874
lire, or 2,988,434/. The actual receipts in 1869 amounted, ex-
clusive of loans, to 34,420,000/., and the actual disbursements to
46,030,000/.
The financial accounts relating to expenditure divide all dis-
bursements, besides the ' Parte ordinaria ' and ' Parte straordinaria,'
into permanent and administrative expenditure. Under the head of
permanent expenditure are comprised the charges of the public
debt, the civil list, pensions, and guaranteed interest of railways
and other public undertakings, while the administrative expenditure
embraces the cost of the general government, including the charges
for the maintenance of the army and navy. During the eight years
1862-69, the so-called permanent expenditure showed a constant
tendency towards increase, while the administrative expenditure
went gradually declining, as will be seen from the following
table :—
Years
Permanent Expenditure
Administrative Expenditure
1862
9,572,000
27,268,000
1863
10,971,000
24,931,000
1864
14,100,000
27,224,000
1865
20,088,000
22,570,000
1866
19,842,000
29,384,000
1867
21,349,000
23,354,000
1868
22,374,000
24,545,000
1869
24,250,000'
21,780,000
The ever-recurring deficits of recent years, produced by the vast
increase of expenditure, but slightly covered by augmented revenue,
were met partly by loans, and partly by the sale of state property,
and monopolies. In 1867, when the financial pressure attained)
dimensions not known before, the Government, by consent of the
Chamber of Deputies, levied the sum of 600 millions of lire, orl
24,000,000/., on ecclesiastical property, and two years later, in 1868,1
the State monopoly on tobacco was made over to a French company!
in consideration of a loan of 180,000,000 lire, or 7,200,000/., pay-J
able in gold, in six months' instalments. The State railways were!
also sold, in 1864, for a sum of 200,000,000 lire, or 8,000,000/.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
31'
The sale of other State property, valued at 423,000,000 lire, or
16,920,000/., is proceeding gradually. It was stated by the minister
of finance, in 1809, that a sum of 718,000,000 lire, or 28,720,000/.,
would be required by the Government to clear off arrears and
cover deficits, up to the year 1873, at which time, it was hoped,
there would be an equilibrium of revenue and expenditure.
The following table represents the growth of the debt of the
kingdom, after official returns: — Amount
Liabilities £
Sardinian Loan, October, 1859 3,800,000
Loan of the ^Emilia, January 22, 1860 .... 320,000
Loan of Tuscany, January 25, 1860 .... 1,040,000
National Loan, July 12, 1860 6,000,000
Alienation of Neapolitan Stock, 1860-61 . . . 4,930,000
Alienation of Sicilian Stock, 1860 . . . . )
Sicilian Loan, 1861 ) I'810.000
National Loan, July 17, 1861 20,000,000
National Loan, March 11, 1863 28,000,000
Sale of Rentes, November 25, 1864 . . . . 2,480,000
LoaD.May 11, 1865 17,000,000
Alienation of Stock for the Ligurian Railway . . 2,400,000
Advances on the sale of National property, Nov. 24, 1864 6,000,000
Sale of State railways, May 14, 1866 . . . . 7,400,000
Alienation of Church property, July 7, 1866. . . 3,800,000
Paid to Austria on Treaty of Peace, October 3, 1866 . 3,730,000
National Loan, July 28, 1866 12,440,000
Advances on sale of tobacco monopoly, August 24, 1868 6,940,000
Loan secured on State domains, October 8, 1869 . . 5,200,000
Loan from National Bank, February 1870 . . . 20,000,000
Total . 153,090,000
The above represents the consolidated debt of the kingdom, not
included in which are liabilities and guarantees of various kinds,
which brought the total debt of Italy, end of 1870, to upwards
of 251,000,000/., forming an annual charge on the revenue of
20,314,326/., distributed as follows : — Lire
Interest on Consolidated Debt 262,410,621
,, Redeemable do. .
„ Debt not included in the Great Book
Annuities and Railway Guarantees
Total Interest
Expenses of management .
Total .
66,461,634
27,942,339
149,303,125
506,117,720
1,740,536
507,858,156
£20,314,326
The floating debt of the kingdom was estimated, in April,
1870, to amount to 34,520,000/., represented by 15,120,000/. of
forced paper currency ; 7,400,000/. of church property bonds ; and
12,000,000/. of Treasury bonds.
312
ITALY.
Army and Navy.
The Sardinian law of conscription forms the basis of the military
organisation of the kingdom of Italy. According to it, a certain
portion of all the young men of the age of twenty-one, the number
varying from 40,000 to 50,000, is levied annually for the standing
army, while the rest are entered in the army of reserve, in which
they have to practise annually for forty days, and are then sent on
illimited furlough, but can be called permanently under arms at the
outbreak of a war.
By a royal decree of January 24, 18G2, the standing army of
Italy is divided into six corps d'armee, each corps consisting of three
divisions, and each division of two brigades ; four or six battalions of
' bersaglieri,' or riflemen, two regiments of cavalry, and from six to
nine companies of artillery. The actual strength of the rank and
file of the army, at the commencement of 1869, Avas as follows,
according to an official return of the Minister of War : —
1
Number of Men
Number of Men
Description of Troops ' under arms
on illimited
' (Peace-footing)
furlough
Infantry of the Line . . 118,850
184,272
303,122
Bersaglieri .
14,727
21,448
36,175
Cavalry
16,165
9,604
25,769
Artillery
17,202
18,162
35,364
Corp of Engineers
3,104
563
3,667
Military Train
2,454
7,151
10,605
Carabinieri .
19,628
—
19,628
Administrative troops
| 4,463
3,752
8,215
Military Instruction
2,964
—
2.964
Total
199,557
244,952
445,509
The army was commanded, in 1869, by 14,797 officers, not
included in the above returns. Of these, 870 formed the staff,
while 5,967 were attached to the infantry of the line, 890 to the
Bersaglieri, 789 to the Cavalry, and 965 to the Artillery.
The organisation of the Italian army was prescribed by a law
passed in the parliamentary session of 18G4, and which came into
operation on January 1, 1865. Under this statute, which fixed the
strength of the rank and file of the military forces at 189,541 on
the peace -footing, and 335,870 on the war-footing — a total increased,
in proportion to population, by the subsequent annexation of the
Venetian provinces — the standing army of the kingdom is to be
composed as follows : —
ARMY AND NAVY.
3*3
Infantry of the liDe (80 regi-
ments, 8 of which are grena-
diers) .
Bersaglieri (40 battalions)
Cavalry (4 regiments of the
line, 7 of lancers, 7 light
horse, and 1 of guides =115
squadrons) ....
Artillery (1 regiment of ponton-
nires, 3 foot, 5 mounted, with
80 batteries)
Six artisan companies, also at-
tached to the artillery
Two regiments of sappers of
the engineers (36 companies) .
Three regiments of train corps
(24 companies)
One administrative corps (7 com-
panies) ....
Total
Peace Footing
War]
rooting
Men
128.020
16,165
Horses
Men
245,680
26,495
Horses
18,167
13,569
19,000
14,102
9,646
4,260
16,086
11,234
1,174
—
1,589
—
4,132
48
6,793
396
2,460
960
9,240
11,340
3,173
189,541
19,027
335,870
37,562
The time of service in the standing army is 10 years, on the im-
plied condition of the men being sent on furlough, in time of
peace, for one-half the period. A certain number, distinguished as
' soldati d'ordinanza,' to which class belong the Carabinieri and
some of the Administrative troops, have to serve eight years com-
plete, and are then liberated. In the army of reserve, the time of
service is 5 years. Every native of the kingdom is liable to the
conscription, and to be enrolled either in the standing army or the
reserve. An exemption in favour of young men studying for the
priesthood was repealed by a law which passed both houses of
parliament in May, 1869.
The distribution of the standing army over the kingdom was as
follows in the middle of 1809. There were 8 battalions of infantry
at and near the capital, 5 at Genoa, 5 at Turin, 9 at Alessandra,
12 in Tuscany, and 120 in the valley of the Po, from Milan to
Ancona. The troops in the valley of the Po were supported by 2-1
squadrons of heavy and 36 squadrons of light cavalry, and 248
pieces of artillery. At Naples there were 18 battalions of the line,
2 of marines, and 3 of bersaglieri ; in the Neapolitan provinces, 39
battalions of the line, 20 of bersaglieri, and 32 squadrons of cavalry.
There were, finally, 32 battalions of the line in Sicily.
The navy of the kingdom of Italy consisted, at the commence-
ment of 1869, of 99 ships of war, armed with 1,032 guns. They
were classed as follows : —
3r4
ITALY.
Steamers : —
Frigates of the 1st class .
Frigates of the 2nd class .
Iron-clad Earn
Corvettes of the 1st class
Corvettes of the 2nd class
Corvettes of the 3rd class
Gunboats of the 1st class
Gunboats of the 2nd class
Transports
Total : Steamers
Total Horse-power
Ironclads
Screw steamers
Paddle steamers
Number
Guns
Number
Guns
Number
Guns
5
7
1
2
3
4
79
118
2
36
29
8
8
1
4
3
6
13
296
36
94
34
24
24
3
6
4
20
32
38
12
40
22 | 272
35
508
33
122
11,380
9,940
7,850
Sailing Vessels : —
Frigates of the 2nd class .
Corvettes .....
Brigantines ....
Transport .....
Total : Sailing vessels .
Number
Guns
2
4
2
1
52
52
20
6
9
130
In summary, the navy comprises ;
Ironclads
Screw steamers
Paddle steamers .
Sailing vessels
Total
Number
Guns
Horse-power
22
35
33
9
272
508
122
130
11,380
9,940
7,850
99
1,032 29,170
The following table gives the names, the horse-power, number of
guns, of crew, and the tonnage, of the principal ships of the Italian
fleet of war : —
Names of Ships
Horse-
power
Guns
Crews
Tonnage
Ironclads : —
Re di Portogallo
800
30
550
5,700
Ancona .....
700
26
484
4,250
Regina Maria Pia
700
26
484
4,250
Castelfidardo ....
700
26
484
4,250
St. Martino ....
700
26
484
4,250
Messaggiere ....
350
2
103
1,000
AKEA AND POPULATION.
Names of Ships — continued.
3r5
Names of Ships
Horse-
power
Guns
Crews
Tonnage
Frir/afes: —
Maria Adelaide ....
600
32
550
3,459
Duca di Genova .
600
50
550
3,515
Carlo Alberto
400
50
580
3,200
Vittorio Emanuele
500
49
580
3,680
Garibaldi .
450
51
580
3,501
Principe Uroberto
600
50
580
3,415
Gaeta
450
51
580
3,980
Corvettes : — ■
St. Giovanni ....
220
20
345
1,780
Governolo .
450
12
260
1,700
Guiseardo .
300
6
190
1,400
Ettore Fieramosca
300
6
190
1,400
Principe Carignano
700
22
440
4,086
Terribile
400
20
356
2,000
Formidabile
400
20
356
2,700
Varese
300
4
250
2,000
Esploratore
350
2
108
1,000
Sirena
120
3
63
354
The navy was manned, in 1869, by 11,193 sailors, and 660
engineers and working men, with 1,271 officers, of whom 2 were
admirals, 5 vice-admirals, 12 rear-admirals, and 104 captains. The
marines consisted of two regiments, comprising 28-1 officers and
5,688 soldiers. — (Communication of the Eoyal government to the
/Statesman's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The kingdom of Italy, at the last census of Dec. 31, 1861 — sup-
plemented, in the case of the Venetian provinces, ceded to Italy
in 1866, by an enumeration made by the Austrian Government in
1862 — had a total area of 284,243 square chilos, or kilometres, equal
to 107,961 English square miles, with a population of 24,273,776.
Not included in these numbers are the former Papal states, annexed
to the kingdom by royal decree of October 9, 1870, possessing an
area of 4,891 English square miles, with 692,106 inhabitants.
There were five new delegations, or provinces, added to the State by
the annexation, previous to which the kingdom was divided into 68
provinces. The names of these, areas in square chilos, number of
population, and density of population per square chilo, are given in
the subjoined table, drawn up after documents supplied by the
Italian Government.
316
ITALY.
Provinces
Area
in square cliilos
Population
Population
per square chilo j
Abruzzio Citeriore
2,86146
327,316
114-39
Abruzzio Ulteriore 1° (Re-
ramo) . . . .
3,324-74
230,061
6920
Abruzzio Ulteriore 2°
(Aquila)
6,499-60
309.491
47-61
Alessandria
5,055-00
649.607
12772
Aneona
1,916-36
254,849
13299
Arezzo
3,305-91
219,559
66-41
Ascoli Pieeno
2,099-77
196,030
93-94
Basilicata .
10.679-97
492,999
46-17
Belluuo
3,270-68
167,229
91-12
Benevento .
1,791-91
220,506
129-89
Bergamo .
2,660-38
347,235
13092
Bologna
3,603-80
407,492
113-06
Brescia
4,620-74
434,219
9397
Cagliari
13.529-92
372,097
27-90
Calabria Citeriore
7.: 98-04
431,691
98 67
Calabria Ultra 1° (Regaio).
3,924-29
324,546
82-70
Calabria Ultra 11° (Catan-
zaro) .
5,97900
384.159
64-29
Caltanisetta
3,768-27
223,178
59-23
Capitanata
7,692-18
312,889
40-89
Catania
9,102-19
490,460
88-29
Como.
2,717-26
497,434
168-34
Cremona .
1,736-21
289.148
164-23
Cuneo
7,136-08
997,279
83-70
Ferrara
2,61623
199,158
76-12
Firenze
5,861-32
696.214
118-78
Forli .
1,855-29
224,463
120-99
Genova
4,113-53
650,143
158-09
Girgenti .
3,861-39
263,880
68-34
Grosseto .
4,434-59
100,626
22-69
Livorno
329-67
116.811
39868
Lucca
1,493-64
296,161
171-90
Macerata .
2,736-81
229.626
8390
Mantova .
2,216-28
262.819
118-98
Massae Carrara
1,760-46
140,733
79-94
Messina
4,978-89
395,139
86-30
Milano
2,992-94
948,320
316-89
Modena
2,902-29
260,991
104-14
Molise
4,603-94
346,007
79-19
Napoli
1,110-92
867,983
78160
Novara
6,94390
979.389
88-94
Padova
2,086-32
304,762
146-08
Palermo . .
9,086-91
989,163
11903
Parma
3,23967
296,029
79-03
Pa via
3,329-91
419,789
12608
Pesaro Urbino
2,969-31
202,968
68-31
Piacenza .
2,499,78
218,969
87-44
Pisa .
3,056,08
243,028
79-92
AREA AND POPULATION.
3*7
Provinces
Area
in square chilos
Population
Population
per square chilo
| Porto Maurizio .
1,21034
121.330
100-24
1 Principato Citra
9,480-97
928,296
96-38
1 Principato Ultra
3,649-20
399,621
9749
Ravenna .
1,922-32
209,918
10899
I\egs;io Emilia .
2,288-00
230,094
10099
Eovigo
1,688-92
180.647
10698
Sassari
10,720-26
215,967
2019
Siena
3,793-42
193,939
51-12
Siracusa .
3,697-12
299,613
70-22
Sondrio
3,299-81
106,040
3293
Terra di Bari
9,937-92
994,402
9337
Terra di Lavoro
9,974-78
693,464
109-37
Terra d'Otranto
8,929-88
447,982
92-92
Torino
10,269-93
941,992
91-73
Trapani
3,149-91
214,981
6839
Treviso
2,431-36
308,483
126-87
Udine
6,430-70
440,542
6891
Umbria
9,632-86
513,019
93-26
Venezia
2,199-47
294,400
133-87
Verona
2,854-02
316,493
11089
A icenza
2,696-02
327,674
121-94
Total
284,223-36
24,273,776
84-22
The five provinces constituting the former ' Stato Pontificio,'
annexed to the kingdom of Italy in October, 1870, are — Rome and
Comarco, with 326,509 inhabitants; Civita Vecchia, with 20,701 ;
Viterbo, with 128,324; Frosinone, with 154,559; and Villetri,
with 62,013 inhabitants. Adding these, the 73 provinces of the
kingdom comprise a total area of 112,852 English square miles,
with a population of 24,965,882.
The extent and population of the former political divisions of
Italy, previous to the foundation of the kingdom, excluding the
' Stato Pontificio,' is shown in the following table: —
Ancient Divisions
Area in
Eng. sq. miles
Population in
1857
Continental Sardinian States .
15,373
3,780,967
Island of Sardinia .
9,547
573,115
Lombardy ....
7,765
2,764,912
\enetia .....
9,177
2,496,442
Emilia .....
8,821
2,044,108
Umbria and the Marches
5,997
1.393,824
Tuscany .....
9,150
1,812,253
Neapolitan States .
31,621
7,029,273
Island of Sicily
Total .
10,510
2,302,168
107,961
24,200,152
3i8
ITALY.
It will be seen, comparing the preceding table with the other,
giving the statistics of the 86 provinces, that the increase of popu-
lation between the years, 1857-61, period of war and warlike
movements, was very small, not amounting to more than 73,624.
Since 1861, the increase is calculated to have been at the rate of
nearly one per cent, per annum. The density of population is greatest
in Lombardy and the Island of Sicily; and it is least in the Island
of Sardinia. In Lombardy and Sicily, the population has increased
most rapidly of late years, and, next to them, in the Island of
Sardinia and the Neapolitan provinces.
It is calculated that only two-thirds of the area of the kingdom
capable of production are cultivated, and that the rest lies waste.
The superficial extent of the productive soil of Italy is 23,017,096
Ellaras, or hectares, divided thus: —
Arable land
Meadow land
Rice grounds
Olive plantations
Chestnut plantations
Woods and forests
Pastures
Total
Hectares
11,003,061
1,173,436
144,903
554,767
585,132
4,158,349
5,397,448
23,017,096
There are besides 3,997,057 hectares of rock and marsh, which,
being considered as unproductive, are not liable to the land tax.
Of the land capable of cultivation, more than half is devoted
to the growth of cereals, the annual produce of which is estimated
as follows : —
Hectolitres
Wheat . . . ... . ... . 34,397,168
Maize 16,352,141
Eye 2,799,951
Barley and oats 7.467,239
Rice . 1,433,398
Other cereals 6,543,905
Total 68,993,802
The average crop is insufficient for the supply of the country.
The great mass of the people in Italy are devoted to agricultural
pursuits, and the town population is comparatively small. The
number of inhabitants of the principal towns was as follows, accord-
ing to an enumeration of 1864 : —
AREA AND POPULATION.
3*9
Principal Towns
Population
Principal Towns
Population
Naples
447,065
Florence
114,363
Milan
242,457
Bologna
109,395
Turin
204.715
Messina.
103,324
Rome ....
201,161
Leghorn
96,471
Palermo
194,463
Catania
68,810
Genoa
127,986
Ferrara
67,9S8
The population of the city of Venice and its dependent islands,
inscribed on the registers of the municipality on the 31st December
1864, amounted to 122,942 inhabitants, composed of
Native Males, present 54,212
„ Females „ . 59J072
„ Males, absent . . . . . . .1.521
,, Females ,, . . . . . . . 913
115,71!
Strangers ......... 7 224
Total .... 122,942
-The number of inhabitants of the city of Rome is ascertained
every year at Easter, in an enumeration made by means of the
parish priests, who keep the registers of souls. At Easter, 1869
the population of Rome was 220,532. Exclusive of 10,207 soldiers'
328 prisoners, 637 ' heterodox persons,' and 4,682 Jews, the popu-
lation was returned at 204,678. The latter total comprised 105,569
men and 99,109 women; 7,480 clergy and ' religious,' and 197.198
belonging to the Civil State. The births were stated as 5,276, or
23-9 per 1,000 of population; the deaths at 5,874, or 26-6 per
1,000; the marriages at 1,564, or 7"1 per 1,000 during the year
past. The returns of ] 869 stated that there were in the city of
Rome 22 seminaries and ecclesiastical colleges, containing 841
persons; 61 religious institutions for men, containing 2,959, and
72 for women, containing 2,256 persons; nine lay colleges, con-
taining 298 persons; 68 conservatoires, nunneries, &c, containing
1,738 persons; seven charity institutions for men, containing 878,
and 12 for women, containing 1,216 persons.
The population of the States comprising the present kingdom of
Italy, with the exception of Venetia and the Roman territory,
amounted to, in the year 1788 : —
Sardinian States ...... 3,200 000
Lombardy
Tuscany .
Parma and Modena
Bomagna .
Umbria and the Marches
Naples and Sicily
Total
1,100.000
1,000,000
570,000
140,000
620,000
6,000,000
12,630,000
320
ITALY.
The above figures are only estimates, drawn, however, from the
best authenticated sources. They show that the population of Italy,
under previous administrations, made very little progress during a
period of three quarters of a century, exhibiting a lesser increase
than any other State in Southern Europe.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Italy is chiefly with four countries,
France, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Switzerland. The im-
ports from France average eight millions sterling per annum, and
the exports very nearly the same. Next in order of importance are
the commercial transactions with the United Kindom, and after that,
but far below, those of Austria and Switzerland. The value of
the total imports in 1869 amounted to 38,105,902/., and of the
imports entered for home consumption to 34,759,321/. The total
exports of 1869 were of the declared value of 31,912,347/., in-
cluding exports of domestic produce to the amount of 27,815,715/.
Corn and cotton manufactures form the chief imports into Italy.
The principal exports are silk, raw and manufactured, and spirits
and oils, the first of which averages 7,000,000/. and the second
4,000,000/. sterling per annum. The greater portion of these exports,
representing the chief productions of the kingdom, is sent to France.
The value of the commercial intercourse of Italy with the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the value of the exports from Italy to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Italy, in each of the ten years from 1860-69 : —
Tears
t, _i_ *_™. t*„i„ ! Imports of British
♦ Pp? Ky home produce into
to Great Britain > italv
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£ £
2.748.524 4,514,287
2,480,064 5,781,069
2,618,311 5,103,320
2,358,208 5,927,980
2.181,107 5,673,534
2,994,233 5,461,552
3,820.711 5,821,530
3,105,709 4,881,244
4,018,034 4,980,216
3,997,965 6,164,350
The subjoined tables show the relative commercial importance of
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
321
•the old territorial divisions of Italy, both as regards their exports to
the United Kingdom, and British imports into them, in each of
the five years 1865-9 : —
Exports from Italy to Great Britain.
Venetia, Adriatic
Years
Two Sicilies
Sardinia
Tuscany
and Mediterranean
Ports
£
£
£
£
I860
1,688,198
222,515
550,140
533,380
1866
2,272.108
316,212
643,873
588,551
1867
1,607,295
309,267
473,222
716,915
1868
2,122,578
406,872
596,414
892,270
1869
2,180,791
394,9-11
592,507
828,926
Imports of British Home Produce into Italy.
Venetia, Adriatic
Years
Two Sicilies
Sardinia
Tuscany
and Mediterranean
Ports
£
£
£
£
1865
2.343,828
1,527,138
1,128,762
475,533
1866
2,105,732
1,944,850
1,257,511
528,280
1867
1,855,645
1,554,759
952,799
518,041
1868
1,853,873
1,727,767
856,654
564,231
1869
2,480,149
2,060,068
972,591
650,642
The chief articles of export from the Two Sicilies are olive oil and
brimstone, the first averaging 500,000/., and the second 300,000/. per
annum. From Sardinia and the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian ports, the
exports are miscellaneous, not one of them, except lead, averaging
40,000/. ; while the only article of note from Tuscany is olive
oil, averaging 90,000/. per annum in value. Cotton goods form the
staple import of the United Kingdom into Italy. The Two Sicilies
take nearly 600,000/. per annum ; Sardinia 500,000/. ; Tuscany
500,000 ; and the Adriatic ports of Ancona and the Romagna
200,000/. With the former Papal States, the intercourse is very
slight; the total British imports not amounting to more than 48,148/.,
and the exports to the United Kingdom to 41,453/. in the year 1869.
The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to the
ikingdom, inclusive of Venice, on January 1, 1868, was as
■follows : —
322
ITALY.
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
From 801 to 1,000 tons .
7
6.120
—
—
„ 501 „ 800 „ .
170
98.789
8
4,547
„ 301 „ 500 „ .
583
227,962
31
11,180
„ 101 „ 300 „ .
1.332
249,775
28
5,499
21 „ 100 „ .
2,955
147,316
]
6 „ 20 ,, .
3,441
39,749
31
1,865
Under 6 tons ....
Total, Year 1868 .
Italy, exclusive of Venice, Year
9,202
17,690
22,719
J
792,430
98
23,091
1867
16,152
746,302
98
23,091
Year 1866
16,111
694,919
99
22,495
According to an official return, the kingdom of Italy had a sea-
faring population of 169,451 grown-up male individuals at the
commencement of 1808. At the commencement of 1866, the num-
ber was 155,747, without Venetia.
The distribution of the merchant navy over the several maritime
aismcts oi uie Kinj:
'Qora
was as io
lows, Oil
OcUl. 1,
iouo ; —
Maritime Districts
Sailing
vessels
Tons
Steamers
Tons
Horse-
power
Porto Maurizio
444
21.544
4
368
198
Genoa
1,832
351,157
59
13,378
7,439
Spezzia .
570
27.061
—
—
—
Leghorn .
656
38.028
■ — ■
—
—
Portoferraio
343
14,140
—
—
—
Gaeta
540
13,180
—
—
—
Naples
2,715
98.392
13
1,846
1,234
Castellammare
1,113
56,098
—
—
—
Pizzo
577
3,192
—
—
—
Taranto .
755
2,962
—
—
—
Bari
816
21.133
—
—
—
Ancona .
912
22,511
5
2,384
809
Bimini .
336
8,280
—
—
—
Venice
1,538
46.128
—
—
—
Cagliari .
430
2.635
—
—
—
La Maddalena .
222
718
■ —
—
—
Mes-sina .
571
17.551
1
73
56
Catanin .
1,183
14.700
—
—
Porto Empedocle
507
5,242
—
—
—
Trapani .
318
8,673
—
—
—
Palermo .
1,312
18,895
16
5,042
2,523
Total .
17,690
792,430
98
23,091
12,259
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
323
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, -weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those
of France, the names only being altered, the Franc changing into
the Lira, divided into 100 centisimi, the Kilogramme into the
Chilogramma, the Metre into the Metro, the Hectare into the Ellara,
and so on. In the former Papal states alone, the old monetary
denominations, represented by the Roman Scudo, worth 4s. 3d., and
its subdivision into 10 Paoli, or 100 Bajocchi, are partly retained
in common use, although abolished in 1867 in favour of the French
metric system. Of the latter, the British equivalents are : —
Money.
The Lira, of 100 Centisimi = Average rate of exchange, 25 to ll. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Gramma ....
„ Chilogramma
„ Quintal Metriei .
„ Tonnelata ....
,, Litro, Liquid Measure
„ Ettolitro /Liquid Measure
I, Dry .Measure
„ Metro ....
,, Chilometro ....
,, Metro Cube 1
„ Stero f '
„ Ellara, or Hectare
„ Square Chilo, or Kilometre Carre
15'434 grains troy.
2 '20 lbs. avoirdupois.
220
2200
0"22 Imperial gallon.
22
275 Imperial bushels.
3 28 feet or 39 "3 7 inches.
1093 yards.
35-31 cubic feet.
2-47 acres.
0-386 square mile.
(2-59 kil. carres — 1 sq. mile).
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official Publications.
Statistica Amministrativa del Regno d'ltalia. Eiveduta ed ampliata per cura
del Ministero dell' interno. 4. Firenze, 1870.
Annuario Pontificio. 8. Eoma, 1S70.
Annuario Generale dell' Industria e Commercio del Regno d'ltalia per
1'Anno 1868. 8. Firenze, 1870.
Annuario del Ministero delle Finanze del Regno d'ltalia. 4. Firenze, 1870.
Annuario Ufficiale della Marina Italiana. 4. Torino, 1870.
Bollettino Consolare pubblicato per cura del Ministero degli affari esteri di
S. M. il Re d'ltalia. 8. Torino, 1870.
Movimento della Navigaeione Italiana all'Estero. Anno 1868. 4. Firenze
1870.
t2
324
ITALY.
Movimento della Navigazione nei Porti del Regno d'ltalia. Pesca del pesce
edelcorallo; Marineria mercantile; Costruzioni navali ; Infortuni marittimi.
Anno 1868. 4. Firenze, 1870.
Statistics! della Popolazione. Parte I. Censimento generale (31 dicembre
1861 )per cura della direzione della statistica generale del Eegno. 8. Firenze,
1867.
Statistica della Popolazione. Movimento dello Stato Civile nell' anno 1866.
Pubblicato per cura del Ministero d'Agric. Industria e Commercio. 4.
Firenze, 1867.
Report by Mr. Hemes, British Secretary of Legation, on the Trade 'and
Navigation of Italy in the year 1868, dated July 22, 1869; in 'Reports of
H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. L, 1870. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. Herries, Secretary of Legation, on the Industrial Condition
of Italy, dated April 11, 1868 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' No. III., 1868. 8. London, 1868.
Reports by Mr. Herries, Secretary of Legation, on the Industrial and Financial
Condition of Italy, dated July 1866, Feb. 18, and April 1, 1867 ; in ' Reports
of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. I., IV. and V., 1867.
London, 1867.
Report by Mr. Herries, Secretary of Legation on the Finances, Trade, and
Navigation of Italy, dated January 30, 1869 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Alessandro Franz Secretary of H. M.'s Consul at Rome, on the
Trade, Commerce, Agriculture, and Population of Rome, dated August 1869;
in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I., 1870.
8. London, 1870.
Rpport by Mr. E. W. Bonham, Consul -General at Naples, on the Tenure of
Land in Southern Italy, dated Nov. 6, 1869; in ' Reports from H. M.'s Repre-
sentatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the several countries of Europe.
Part I. Fol. London, 1870.
Reports by Mr. D. E. Colnaghi, Consul at Turin, and Mr. A. Franz, Consular
Secretary at Rome, on the state of Agriculture and the division of Landed
Property in Northern and Central Italy; dated January 1870; in 'Reports from
H. M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land, &c.' Part II. Fol.
London, 1870.
2. Non- Official Publications.
Aliberti (V.) Rivista Amministrativa del regno, giornale ufficiale delle ammi-
nistrazioni centrali e provinciali, dei Comuni, e degli Istituti di Beneficenza.
8. Torino, 1870.
Annuario industriale italiano pel 1870, ossia Dizionario statistico-storico-
commerciale d' Italia. 8. Napoli, 1870.
Bodio (Luigi") Sui documenti statistici del Regno d'ltalia, cenni bibliografici,
presentati al VI Congresso internazionale di statistica. 8. Firenze, 1868.
Brown (Samuel) Statistical Progress of the Kingdom of Italy. In, Journal
of the Statistical Society.' Vol. XIX. 8. London, 1866.
Castro (Vincenzo de) Relazione sullo Stato dell' Istruzione Primarianel
Circondario di Abbiategrasso nell' Anno scolastico 1859-1860, presentatoal
Consiglio provineiale per le scuole. 8. Milano, 1862.
Cesare (Carlo de) II Passato, il Presente e l'Avvenire della Pubblica Ara-
ministrazione nel Regno d'ltalia. 8. Firenze, 1865.
Cobbe (Frances Power) Italics : Brief Notes on Politics, People, and Places
in Italy, in 1864. 8. London, 1865. •
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 325
Correnti e Maestri (N .) Annuario Statistico Italiano. 8. Torino, 1870.
DelV Aequo, (Angelo) Annuario statistico del Regno d'ltalia per l'anuo 1869,
compilato su dati ufficiali. Anno IX. 8. Milano, 1870.
Denechaud (N.) L'ltalie, ses finances, sa rente, ses chemins de fer, son Indus-
trie et son commerce. 8. 77 pp. Paris, 1865.
De So/is (Monsign., Protonot. Apostol.) Dell' Autorita, del Re nelle Materie
di Diseiplina e di Polizia Ecclesiastica. 12. Napoli, 1862.
Fabi (Massimo) Viaggio in Italia. Novissima guida descrittiva-storica-
statistiea. Ediz. 10. 12. Milano, 1866.
Gigli (Ottavio) Gli Istituti di Beneficenza e i Beni Ecclesiastici negli ex-
Stati Pontifici. Studii con Documenti inediti. 8. Firenze, 1866.
Guida. Generale del Commercio e dell' Industria Italians per il 1869. 4.
Milano, 1870.
Lossa (Augusto) Annuario del commercio ed industria del Regno d'ltalia.
8. Firenze, 1870.
Lossvw (Ed. v.) Handbuch znr Reise nach und in Italien. 8. Berlin, 1868.
Maestri (Dr.) L'ltalie economique en 1867- 8. Florence, 1867.
Nohl (Max.) Tagebuch einer italienischen Reise. Herausgegeben von Wilh.
Liibke. 8. Stuttgart, 1866.
Plebano et Musso (J.) Les Finances du Royaume d'ltalie, considerees par
rapport a l'histoire, a l'economie publique, a 1'administration et a la politique;
avec une preface, par M. Paul Boiteau. 8. Paris, 1865.
Eeali (prof. Eusebio) Del riordinamento scolastico nel Regno d'ltalia.
Memoria letta alia R. Accademia dei Fisiocratici in Siena nell' aduiianza della
classe morale il di 28 luglio 1867. 8. Siena, 1868.
326
NETHERLANDS.
(KONINGRYK DER NEDERLANDEN.
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Willem III., King of the Netherlands, born February 19, 1817,
the eldest son of King Willem II., and of Princess Anna Paulowna,
daughter of Czar Paul I. of Eussia ; educated by private tutors, and
at the University of Leyden ; succeeded to the throne, at the death of
■his father, March 17, 1819. Married, June 18, 1889, to
Sophie, Queen of the Netherlands, born June 17, 1818, the second
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wiirtemberg. Offspring of the union
are two sons: — 1. Willem, Prince of Orange, heir-apparent, born
September 4, 1840 ; admiral-lieutenant in the Dutch navy. 2.
Prince Alexander, born August 25, 1851 ; lieutenant in the army.
Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Prince llenc/rik, born
June 13, 1820; Governor of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg;
married, May 19, 1853, to Princess Amalia, daughter of the late
Duke Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. 2. Princess Sophie, born April 8,
1824 ; married, October 8, 1842, to Grand Duke Karl Alexander
of Saxe- Weimar.
Uncle and Aunt of the King. — 1. Prince Frederih, born February
28, 1797, second son of King Willem I. of the Netherlands; field-
marshal of the Dutch army ; married, May 21, 1825, to Princess
Louise, daughter of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia;
widower, Dec. 6, 1870. Issue of the union are two daughters,
Louise, born August 5, 1828, and married to the King of Sweden
and Norway ; and Marie, born July 5, 1841. 2. Princess Marianne,
born May 9, 1810, sister of the preceding; married, September 14,
1830, to Prince Albert of Prussia ; divorced March 28, 1849.
The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of
Orange, descend from a German Count Walram, who lived in the
eleventh century. Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of
the branch of Otto of Walram, with Joan of Polanen, in 1404, the
family acquired the barony of Breda, and thereby became settled
in the Netherlands. The alliance with another heiress, only sister
of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of Chalon, brought to
the house a rich province in the south of France ; and a third
matrimonial union, that of Prince Willem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II., transferred the crown of Great Britain
for a time to the family. Previous to this period, the members had
REIGNING SOVEREIGN AND FAMILY. 327
acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands, and,
under the name of ' stadtholders,' or governors, become the sovereign
rulers of the State. The dignity was formally declared to be heredi-
tary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V., had to
fly to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican
army, The family did not return till November 1813, when the
Jate of the republic, released from French supremacy, was under
discussion at the Congress of Vienna. After various diplomatic
negotiations, the Belgian provinces, subject before the French revo-
lution to the House of Austria, were ordered by the Congress to be
annexed to the territory of the republic, and the whole to be erected
into a kingdom with the son of the last Stadtholder, Willem V., as
hereditary sovereign. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed
King of the Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815,
and recognised as sovereign by all the powers of Europe. The
established union between the northern and southern provinces of
the Netherlands was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 1830,
and their political relations were not readjusted until the signing of
the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which constituted Belgium
an independent kingdom. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840,
making over the crown to his son Willem II., who, after a reign of
nine years, left it to his heir, the present sovereign of the JNether-
lands.
King Willem n. had a civil list of 1,000,000 guilders, or 83,333/.;
but the amount was reduced to 600,000 guilders, or 50,000/., at the
commencement of the reign of the present king. There is in addi-
tion an allowance of 150,000 guilders, or 12,500/., for the members
of the royal family and the maintenance of the Court. The latter
sum is divided at present in the manner that the heir-apparent has
100,000 guilders, or 8,333/. ; and the remaining 50,000 guilders, or
4,166/., are given as a subsidy for the maintenance of the royal
palaces. The family of Orange are, besides, in the possession of a
very large private fortune, acquired, in greater part by King Willem
L, in the prosecution of vast enterprises, tending to raise the com-
merce of the Netherlands.
The House of Orange has given the following Sovereigns to the
Netherlands, since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the Congress
of Vienna : —
Willem 1 1815
Willem II 1840
Willem III 1849
The average reign of the three Sovereigns, inclusive of that of
the present king, amounted to 18 years.
328 NETHERLANDS.
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution — grondwet — of the Netherlands received
the royal sanction October 14, 1848, and was solemnly proclaimed
Nov. 3, 1848. It vests the whole legislative authority in a Parlia-
ment composed of two Chambers, called the States- General. The
Upper House, or first Chamber, consists of 39 members, elected by
the provincial States from among the most highly assessed inhabitants
of the various counties. The second Chamber of the States-General,
elected by ballot, at the rate of one deputy to every 45,000 souls,
numbered 80 members in 1869. All citizens, natives of the
Netherlands, not deprived of civil rights, and paying assessed taxes
to the amount of not less than 20 guilders, or 11. 13s., are voters.
Clergymen, judges of the Hooge Eaad, or High Court of Justice,
and Governors of Provinces are debarred from being elected. The
members of the second Chamber receive an annual allowance of 2,000
guilders, or 166/., besides travelling expenses. Every two years one-
half of the members of the second Chamber, and every three years
one-third of the members of the Upper House retire by rotation. The
Sovereign has the right to dissolve either of the Chambers separately,
or both together, at any time, but new elections must take place
within forty days. The second Chamber alone has the initiative of
new laws, together with the government, and the functions of the
Upper House are restricted to either approving or rejecting them,
without the right of inserting amendments. The constitutional
advisers of the King, having a seat in the Cabinet, must attend at
the meetings of both Houses, and have a deliberative voice, but
they cannot take an active part in the debate. The King has full
veto power, but it is seldom, if ever, brought into practice. Altera-
tions in the Constitution can only be made by the vote of two-thirds
of the members of both Houses, followed by a general election, and
a second confirmation, by two-third vote, of the new States-General.
The executive authority is, under the sovereign, exercised by
a responsible Council of Ministers. There are seven departments in
the Ministerial Council, namely : —
1. The Ministry of Finance. — P. P. Van Bosse, appointed June
3, 1868.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — C. Fock, appointed June 4,
1868.
3. The Ministry of Justice. — F. G. E. Van Lilaar, appointed June
4, 1868.
4. The Ministry of the Colonies. — E. De Waal, appointed June
4, 1868.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 329
5. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — General Van Mulken,
appointed minister ad interim, Dec. 11, 1870.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Captain L. G. Broex, appointed
June 4, 1868.
7. The Ministry of War. — General Van Mulken, appointed
June 4, 1868.
Each of the above ministers has a salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,000/. per annum. "Whenever the sovereign presides over the
deliberations of the ministry, the meeting is called a Cabinet
Council, and the privilege to be present at it is given to princes
of the royal family nominated for the purpose. There is also a
State Council — Raad van State — of 14 members, nominated by the
Government, which the sovereign may consult on extraordinary
occasions.
Church, and Education.
According to the terms of the Constitution, entire liberty of con-
science and complete social equality is granted to the members of all
religious confessions. The royal family, and a majority of the inhabi-
tants, belong to the Reformed Church; but the Roman Catholics are not
far inferior in numbers. In the last census returns the number of
Calvinists, or members of the Reformed Church, is given as 1 ,942,387 ;
of Lutherans, 64,539 ; of Roman Catholics, 1,234,486 ; of Greek
Catholics, 32 ; of divers other Christian denominations, 48,960; and
of Jews, 63,890. The government of the Reformed Church is Presby-
terian ; while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, of
Utrecht, and four bishops, of Harlem, Breda, Roermond, and Herso-
genbosh. The salaries of several British Presbytei'ian ministers,
settled in the Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with
the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of the public funds.
Education is spreading throughout the kingdom, though as yet it
has not reached the lower classes of the population. Official returns
state that in 15,777 marriages that took place in North Holland —
province containing the capital — between the years 1864-67, there
were 541 in Avhich the man, 1,774 in which the woman, and 503 in
which neither the man nor the woman could write. It is calculated
that among the strictly rurai population of the kingdom, one-fourth
of the grown-up men, and one-third of the women, can neither
read nor write. However, the education of the rising generation
is provided for by a non-denominational Primary Instruction Law,
passed in 1857. Under its working, there were, in January, 1867,
according to government returns, 2,572 public schools, with 6,373
schoolmasters, and 284 schoolmistresses, and 1,069 private schools,
with 2,212 schoolmasters, and 1,396 schoolmistresses. At the same
33°
NETHERLANDS.
date, the pupils in the public schools numbered 302,491, among
them 209,204 boys, and the pupils in the private schools 98,254,
among them 44,443 boys. The teachers, appointed under the law
of 1857, are superintended by 94 district school-inspectors, who
act under 11 provincial superintendents, and an inspector-general,
depending on the Minister of the Interior. It is the duty of the
inspectors to grant licenses for the establishment of schools, and to
present to the Government three times a year, an account of the
state of public instruction. A fuller education than the schools for
primary instruction impart 50 schools of middle instruction, with
4,024 pupils, and 61 additional 'Latin schools,' with 1,165 pupils.
Above them are the three universities of Leyden, Groningen, and
Utrecht, with 1,326 students in January 1867, and the polytechni-
cal institution at Delft, with 146 pupils. The ecclesiastical training
schools comprise five Roman Catholic and three Protestant semi-
naries. The proportion of attendance in the schools for primary
instruction is one in eight of the entire population.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national revenue, derived mainly from indirect taxation,
averaged 108,000,000 guilders, or 9,000,000Z. sterling, in recent
years, while the expenditure was always within the income, leaving
a more or less considerable annual surplus. The following tables
exhibit the actual revenue and expenditure of the kingdom, in
guilders and pounds sterling, in each of the five years 1863-67.
Years
Revenue
Guilders
£
1863
100,208,820
8,350,735
1864
101,956,464
8,496,372
1865
107,742,756
8,978,563
1866
115,837,284
9,653,107
1867
116,482,868
9,706,905
Years
Expenditure
Guilders
£
1863
99,403,092
8,283,591
1864
101,891,100
8,490,925
1865
106.054,512
8,837,876
1866
105,833,728
8,823,644
1867
112,115,614
9,342,968
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
331
The revenue of the year 18G7 was derived from the following
sources, according to official returns : —
Sources of revenue :
Land tax ....
Assessed taxes (personal)
„ (licenses)
Excise
Indirect taxes
Import and export duties
Gold and silver plate dues
Public domains .
Post Office
Telegraph .
Government lotteries .
Shooting and fishing licenses
Pilotage ....
Mining dues
Profit of state railways
Miscellaneous receipts
Belgian share of national deht
Japanese indemnity
Colonial surplus
Surplus of former years
Guilders
9,965,393
7,802,863
3,245,995
25,737,684
14,909,904
4,449,2o5
253,109
1,266,437
2,411,720
509,696
414,115
114,872
808,401
1,183
210,744
L.862,166
400,000
1,023,250
14,856,335
26,325,767
116,482,868
£9,706,905
The branches of expenditure of the year 1867 were as follows:—
Branches of expenditure :
Royal household
Superior department of state
Foreign department
Department of jiistice
Roman Catholic -worship
Department of the interior .
Department of marine
National debt, interest and sinkin
Department of finance
Protestant worship
Department of war
Department of colonies
Miscellaneous expenses
fund
Guilders
750,000
579,073
510,174
3,436,996
677,498
23,008,039
14,470,336
27,537,504
13,67S,888
1,729,013
13,845,893
11,864.432
27,768
112,115,614
£9,342,968
It will be seen that there was a surplus of 4,307,254 guilders,
or 363,937/., of revenue over expenditure in the year 1807. In
1866, the surplus amounted to 10,003,256 guilders, or 829, 463/.,
which was the highest reached in the five years 1863-67.
332
NETHERLANDS.
The budget estimates for each of the years 1868 and 1869, voted
by the States-General, were as follows : —
Revenue
1868
1869
Guilders
Guilders
Land tax .......
10,030,657
10,069,248
Assessed taxes (personal)
7,860,000
7,944,000
,, (licenses)
3,238,400
3,225,600
Excise ....
34,780,000
25,230,000
Indirect taxes
13,800,000
14,076,000
Import and export duties
4,360,764
4,380,764
Gold and silver plate dues
251,300
251,300
Public domains
1,255,000
1,280,000
Post Office . ...
2,350,000
2,450,000
Telegraph ....
495,382
553,500
Government lotteries
410,000
410,000
Shooting and fishing licences
105,000
110,000
Pilotage ....
730,000
750,000
Mining dues
1,173
943
Profit of state railways
157,000
320,000
Miscellaneous receipts .
1,708,086
1,881.920
Belgian share of national debt
400,000
400,000
Colonial surplus .
10,619,555
15,618,358
Japanese indemnity
50,000
50,000
Surplus of 1866 .
8,480,000
—
„ of 1867 .
—
4,360,000
Colonial surplus of previous years
9,000,000
3,475,000
Total <
100,082,217
96,836,633
£8,340,184
£8,069,719
Expenditure
1868
1869
Royal household
Superior departments of state
Foreign department
Department of justice
Roman Catholic worship
Department of the interior
Department, of marine. .
National debt, interest .
Department of finance .
Protestant worship
Department of war
Depai'tment of colonies
Miscellaneous expenses
Guilders
750,000
598,077
526,284
3,084,224
682,876
23,161,498
10,302,742
28,029,669
13,884,026
1,753,853
14,185,000
2,167.741
50,000
Guilders
750,000
591,054
525,094
3,106,459
689,357
21,106,786
9,383.562
28,073,638
14,033,285
1,758,428
14,659,000
2,000,360
50,000
Total ....
•
•
{
99,175,990
£8,264,665
96,727,023
£8,060,585
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
333
The financial accounts for each year are not finally adjusted till
after the lapse, of two or three years, so that, the estimates being
framed with great moderation, there is usually the item ' surplus '
among the sources of revenue of each budget.
The 'Colonial surplus' for 1869 is explained in a more detailed
manner in the Netherlands India accounts for the year, which are
kept distinct from the budget of the kingdom. In the following
statement the summary is given of the Netherlands India estimates
for the year 1869 : —
Guilders
Expenditure in Netherlands 18,471,759
India 84,943,947
Total expenditure
Eeceipts in Netherlands { f Per cef Produce f lea\
r [ 1 per cent, repayments J
j n- J 80 per cent, taxation "|
I 20 per cent, produce sales J
Total receipts ....
Deduct total expenditure
. 103,415,666
56,865,410
62,168,614
119,034,024
103,415,666
Colonial surplus for 1869
The financial estimates for the years 1868 and
in tabular form, show that the largest source
derived from excise duties, producing about one-
receipts of the state, while the largest branch of
for the national debt. At the commencement of
national debt was represented by a capital of 96
or 80,642,409/., divided as follows :—
. 15.618,358
£1,301,529
1869, given above
of revenue is that
fourth of the total
expenditure is that
the year 1869, the
7,7087,914 guilders,
Division of Debt
Capital
Interest
Guilders
Debt bearing interest at the rate of 2|-
per cent.
653,143,702
16,328,592
,, „ » 3
„
98,752.712
2,962,581
H
„
13,828,000
478,730
4.
,,
191,984.500
7,679,380
Debt bearing no interest
.
10,000,000
Terminable annuities in 1868
Total ....
• {
—
127,854
967,708,914
27,577,137
£80,642,409
£2,298,095
The rest of the sum of 28,073,638 guilders, or 2,339,469/., set
down in the budget of 1869 as expenditure for the national debt,
went towards a sinking fund for ihe same. The entire reduction
of the national debt, from 1848 to 1869, amounted to above
188,000,000 guilders, or 15,750,000/.— (Communication of the
Royal government to the Statesman's Year-book.)
334
NETHERLANDS.
Army and Navy.
The army of the Netherlands is formed partly by conscription and
partly by enlistment, in such a manner that the volunteers form the
stock, but not the majority of the troops. The men drawn by con-
scription at the age of twenty have to serve, nominally, five years ;
but practically, all that is recpiired of them is to drill for ten
months, and, returning home on furlough, meet for six weeks
annually for practice, during a period of four years. Besides the
regular army, there" exists a militia — 'schuttery' — divided into two
classes. To the first, the ' active militia,' belong all men from the
twenty-fifth to the thirty-fourth year of age ; and to the second, the
' resting (rustende) militia,' all persons from thirty-five to fifty-
five. The first class, numbering about 26,000 men, is again
subdivided into two distinct parts, the one comprising the unmarried
men and widowers without children, and the other the remaining
married soldiers. The 'rpsting militia,' to the number of 61,000
men, is organised in fifty-four full and nine half battalions. About
one-third of the militia is made up of men who have previously
served in the regular army.
The regular army stationed in the Netherlands, at the commence-
ment of 1870, was composed as follows : —
General Staff and Military Administration .
Officers
Bank and File
188
Infantry : — •
36
—
1 regiment of guards ....
105
4,221
8 regiments of the line ....
872
38,280
1 battalion of instruction
31
601
Depot of discipline ....
12
44
Recruiting depot for the colonies .
20
91
Cavalry : —
7
—
4 regiments of hussars ....
184
4,310
Engineers : — . . . . •
Staff
77
39
1 battalion of sappers and miners .
25
984
Artillery : —
Staff
80
59
1 regiment of field artillery, with train .
88
3,156
3 regiments of heavy (fortress) artillery .
215
6,297
1 regiment of light-horse artillery .
32
626
2 companies of pontonniers
Total
12
316
1,984
59,078
ARMY AND NAVT.
335
The colonial army of the Netherlands comprises a force of 27,449
men, composed of the following rank and file : —
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery
Sappers and miners
Total
Europeans
Natives
Total
9,667
583
1,684
323
13,394
1,129
659
23,071
583
2,813
982
12,267
15,182
27,449
The number of officers, all- Europeans, commanding the rank and
file enumerated in the above statement, is 1,314. Of these, 745
are in the infantry, 36 in the cavalry, 118 iu the artillery, 62 in
the corps of sappers and miners, 209 in the sanitary service, 78 in
the military administration, and 66 on the staff.
The navy of the Netherlands was composed, at the beo-innino-
of June 1870, of 70 steamers, the names- of which, liorse-power,
number of guns, and strength of crews, are given in the following
list, furnished by the Eoyal Government to the Statesman's Year-
book : —
Name3 of Men-of-War
Horse-
power
Number
of Guns
Crews
Ieokclads : —
De Ruyter . . . , "
400
14
250
Prins Hendrick
400
4
200
Stier .
400
2
100
Buffel .
400
2
100
Schorpisen .
400
2
100
Matador
400
2
100
Krokodil
140
2
75
Heiligerlee .
140
2
75
Tyger .
140
2
75
Cerlierus
140
o
75
Bloedhond .
140
2
75
Panther
140
2
75
Hyena .
140
2
75
No. 1 (Gkmboat)
120
2
50
No. 2 (Gunboat)
40
2
30
Frigates : —
Admiraal van Wassenaer . . ...
300
45
470
Evert sen
400
51
500
Zeeland
400
51
500
Adolph ran Nassau
400
51
500
Anna Paulowna ,
•
600
20
325
336
NETHERLANDS.
Names of Men-of-War
Horse-
power
Number „
of Guna Crewa
Corvettes :
Prinses Amelia ......
150
16
206
Zilveren Kruis
250
12
212
Willem
250
16
212
Djambi .
250
16
212
Zoutman
250
16
212
Leeuwarden .
250
16
212
Metalen Kruis
250
16
212
Curasao
250
16
212
Van Galen .
250
16
212
Citadel van Antwerpen
250
13
175
Vice-Admiraal Koopman
250
13
175
Watergeus .
250
6
100
Marnix
250
6
100
Avisos and Gunboats :—
Ketch .
119
6
100
Prinses Maria
119
6
100
Soembing
119
6
100
Het Loo
119
6
100
Cornells Dircks .
119
6
100
Vesuvius
119
6
100
Reinier Claeszen .
119
6
100
Bali .
100
10
85
Amstel '
80
6
75
Soestdyk
80
6
75
Kykduin
80
6
75
Schouwen . .
80
6
75
Dommel
80
6
75
Bommelerwaard .
80
6
75
Haarlemmermeer .
80
6
75
Coehoorn
80
6
75
Den Briel
80
6
75
Aart van Nes
80
6
75
Maas en Waal
80
6
75
Stavoren
80
6
75
Hector
60
4
50
Vulkaan
60
4
50
Paddle Steamers : —
Amsterdam . . .
300
8
150
DeValk
300
6
100
Java ....
250
6
150
Bromo ....
220
8
125
Cycloop
220
6
90
Sumatra
200
4
90
Borneo
200
4
90
Timor
200
4
90
Banea .
200
4
90
Suriname
110
6
70
Celebes
150
4
50
Madura
100
3
50
Admiraal van Kinsberge
n .
80
1
40
Onrust
80
3
40
Sverabaya (transport) .
220
—
-
AREA AND POPULATION.
337
Besides the ships enumerated in the above list, the navy of the
Netherlands comprises several floating batteries for coast defence
as well as upwards of 30 sailing vessels. The latter are gradually-
withdrawn from service.
The navy was officered, at the commencement of June 1870, by
1 admiral, 2 'admiral-lieutenants,' 2 vice-admirals, 3 rear-admirals
('schouten-bij-nacht'), 20 captains, 40 commanders, 340 first and
second lieutenants, 76 midshipmen ('adelborsten '), 123 adminis-
trative and 104 medical officers. The marine infantry, at the same
date, consisted of 52 officers and 2,119 non-commissioned officers
and privates. Both sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment
conscription being allowed, but not actually in force.
A gradual transformation of the old portion of the navy into an
iron-clad fleet is taking place since the year 1865, when a law to
this effect was passed by the States-General.
Area and Population.
The Netherlands, since the separation of Belgium, consists of
eleven provinces, namely, Brabant, Guelderland, North and Soitth
Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, Groningen, Drenthe
and Limburg. Connected with the kingdom in the person of the
sovereign, though possessed of a separate administration, is the
grand-duchy of Luxemburg, included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation. The area and population of the
Netherland provinces, and of Luxemburg, are as follows according
to an enumeration of Dec. 31, 1865 : —
Area
Average
Provinces
Geographical
Population
Population
square miles
per
Geogr. sq. mile
Brabant ....
9338
423,421
4,546
Guelderland .
92-76
427,753
4,661
South Holland
55-32
672,367
12,154
North Holland
45-46
566,474
12,461
Zealand
3020
176,169
5,833
Utrecht
25-01
172,787
6,909
Friesland
59 61
288,949
4,832
Overyssel
61-54
250,358
4,036
Groningen
42-65
224,237
5,258
Drenthe
48-42
104,014
2,148
Limburg .
40-20
222,579
5,537
594-55
3,529,108
5,936
Grand duchy of Luxemburg
r
46-60
206,574
4,433
641-15
Total . . J
English
square miles
3,735,682
5,827
L
13,464
338 NETHERLANDS.
A general census, taken on the 31st December, 1869, but the
results of which are under revision, gave the total population of
the kingdom, exclusive of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, at
3,652,070, comprising 1,812,550 male, and 1,839,520 female in-
habitants.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively larger town population
than any other country in Europe. At the end of December 1865,
there were fifteen towns in the kingdom with a population of above
20,000 inhabitants. They were— Zwolle, with 20,438 ; Delft, with
21,877; Nymegen, with 22,551 ; Dort, with 24,117 ; Hertogenbosh,
with 24,201 ; Leeuwarden, with 25,273 ; Maestricht, with 28,495 ;
Arnhem, with 30,021 ; Harlem, with 30,006 ; Groningen. with
36,852 ; Leyden, with 38,160; Utrecht, with 58,607 ; The Hague
(s' Gravenhage), with 87,801; Eotterdam, with 115,277; and
Amsterdam, with 264,498 inhabitants. In the provinces of North
and South Holland the population of the eleven principal towns is
considerably larger than that of the country districts.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of the Netherlands is chiefly carried on with two
countries, Germany and Great Britain, the former standing first in
the list as export, and the latter first as import market. The value
of the trade of the kingdom in the year 1868 was as follows: —
Total imports .....
Imports for home consumption .
Total exports
Duty-free exports . ...
In transit ... ...
Guilders
578,265,475
469.927,381
474,424,904
368,911,341
105,513,563
£
48,188,790
39,160,615
39,535,409
30,742.612
8,792,796
To the total imports of 1868, Great Britain contributed 30, and
Germany 25 per cent. From Java came 18, from Belgium 10,
from Russia 6, and from France 4 per cent, of the imports of
the same year. Of the total exports of IS OS, there went 37
per cent, to Germany, and 26 per cent. to. Great Britain, while
Java had 12, Belgium 9, and France 3 per cent.- The trade with
both Germany and Great Britain has largely increased in recent
years.
The total value of the exports from the Netherlands to Great
Britain, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into the
Netherlands, in each of the ten years 18G0-69, is shown in the
subjoined table : —
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
339
Tears
Exports from the Netherlands
Imports of British Home Produce
to Great Britain
into the Netherlands
&
£
1860
8,256.690
6,114,862
1861
7,692,895
6,434,919
1862
7,863,031
6,046.242
1863
8,661,119
6,324.696
1864
11,660.539
6,885,463
1865
12,451,466
8,111,022
1866
11,768,913
8,999,713
1867
10,822,238
9,422,742
1868
11,390,924
10,395.098
1869
12,739,744
10,758,194
The principal article of export from the Netherlands to the
United Kingdom is butter, the average value of which, in the ten
years 1860-69, was about 1,500,000/. Live animals, of the
average value of 750,000/., corn, of the value of 300,000/., and
spirits, of 30,000/., form the other chief exports. The staple articles
of British imports into the Netherlands are cotton and woollen
manufactures, averaging two millions sterling per annum.
The following table shows the number and tonnage of the vessels
belonging to the Netherlands mercantile marine on December 31,
1868 :—
Description of Vessels
Ships
Tons
Clippers (Clippershepen)
16
6,000
,, with steam power .
2
1.878
Ships (Fregatten) .
120
55,843
Barques (Barkeu en Pinken).
278
85,ln3
Brigs (Brikken) .
225
26,600
Schooners (Sehoeners) .
387
32,759
Galliots (Gralgooten)
288
17,415
Koff boats (Koffen)
575
29,224
Smacks (Smakken)
25
883
Luggers (Gaffel-en Kaagsehepen)
10
276
Hookers (Hockerschepen)
148
3,429
Steamboats ......
43
8,136
Total .
2,117
267,596
The mercantile navy has been decreasing of late years. On the
31st of December, 1864, it numbered 2,2*1) vessels, of 55 1,244 tons,
and on the 31st of December, 1865, it had fallen to 2,203 vessels, of
269,338 tons burthen. It will be seen from the above statement
that, at the end of 1868, there was a continued decline.
Z2
340
NETHERLANDS.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands embrace an area of
651,267 English square miles, with an estimated population of
18,371,200. They are placed under three groups, namely : —
Colonies
Area in English
square miles
Population
Possessions in the East Indies
„ „ West Indies
Settlements on the West Coast of Africa
Total ....
585,723
54.187
11,357
18,175,595
85,605
110,000
651,267
18,371,200
Of the colonial possessions here summarised, the East Indian
island of Java, possessing Avith the adjoining Madura, an area of
2,445 geographical, or 51,336 English square miles, with a popula-
tion, in 1861, of 13,019,108 souls, is by far the most important.
Administered as dependencies of Java, are the whole of the other
possessions of the Netherlands in the East Indies.
The direct revenue derived from the Colonial Possessions is in-
sufficient to cover the expenditure of the Netherlands ; but the
deficit incurred is more than made good by the profits derived by
the home government from the sale of colonial produce, chiefly coffee,
sugar, indigo and cochineal, and tin, on what is called the Consig-
nation system. From documents issued by the Colonial Office in
September, 1866, it appears that the total amount realised by the
Government in 1864, from its importations from the colonies, was
57,852,700 guilders, or 4,821, 058Z. The expenses incurred for
administrative charges of the colonies during the year amounted
to 46,753,541 guilders, which left the home power a balance of
profit of 11,099,159 guilders, or 924,930Z.
The total values of imports of colonial produce into the kingdom
by the ' Netherlands Trading Company,' acting as Government
brokers, in the ten years 1858-67 were as follows : —
Years
Imports
Years
Imports
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
Guilders
89,130,684
86,272,453
82,215,868
80,813,605
86,216,143
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
Guilders
78,127,899
80,563,452
82,773,970
79,803,938
71,990,344
COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. 34 1
Slavery ceased in the "West Indian colonies on July 1, 1863.
There were at this period 44,645 slaves, for all of whom the
owners received compensation, the same amounting to 300 guilders, or
25/., per individual, in Surinam, and to 200 guilders, or 16/. 13s.,
in the rest of the colonies. The whole of the emancipated slaves
had to undergo an apprenticeship of three years, during which
period one-half of their income was retained by the Government.
For a detailed account of the principal colonial possession of the
Netherlands, Java and Madura, see Part II. of the Statesman's
Year-book.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Netherlands, and the
British equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Guilder, or Florin, of 100 Cents = Is. 8c?., or 12 guilders to £l sterling.
Weights and Measubes.
The Netherlands adopted the French metric system of weights and
measures in 1820, retaining, however, old designations for the same.
Much confusion having arisen therefrom, an Act was passed April 7,
1869, establishing from January 1, 1870, a series of new inter-
national names of weights and measures, with facultative use, during
the first ten years, of the old denominations. The principal new
names, aside ( ) with the old, are : —
The Kilogram (Pond)
„ Meter (El)
„ Kilometer (Myl)
„ Are (Vierkante Roede)
„ Hektare (Bunder)
,, Stere (Wisse)
„ Liter (Kan)
Hektoliter (Vat)
All the other French metr
2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.
3-281 imperial feet.
1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs.
119-6 sq. yards, or 024-6 sq. acre.
2-47 acres.
35'31 cubic feet.
176 imperial pints.
22 imperial gallons.
c denominations are adopted with
trifling changes in the new code of names.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands.
1. Official Publications.
_ Staats-Almanak toot het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1870. Met mag-
tiding van de regering uit officiele opgaven zamengesteld. 8. s' Gravenhaee,
1870.
Statistisch Jaarboek voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. Uitgegeven
door het departement van Binuenlandsche zaken. 's Gravenhage, 1870.
342 NETHERLANDS.
Marine, Koninklijke Nederlandsche, op den 1 January 1870. Verkrijgbaar
aan het Ministerie van Marine. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1870.
Geregtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 4. 's Graven-
hage, 1861-70.
Statistische Bescheiden, voor het koningrijk der Nederlanden. le deel, le
stuk. Loop der bevolking in 1865. Uitgegeven door het departement van
binnenlandsehe zaken. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1868.
Reports by Mr. Locoek, Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and Shipping
of the Netherlands, dated July 30, 1869 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. L, 1870. London, 1870.
Reports by Mr. T. J. Hovell Thurlow, Secretary of Legation, on the
Finances and Commerce of the Netherlands, dated February 1, 1868 ; in
' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1868.
London, 1868.
Report by Mr. T. J. H. Thurlow, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances
and Commerce of the Netherlands, dated The Hague, January 7, 1869: in
' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869.
8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Sidney Locoek, Secretary of Legation, on Land Laws and
Landed Property, dated The Hague, December 20, 1869; in 'Reports from
H. M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the several
countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Brngsma (F. C.) Nederland en zijne Overzeesche bezittingen. 8. Groningen,
1865.
Geuns (J. J. van) Het Recht van Amendement der Parlementaire Vergade-
ringen. Historisch-staatsreehtelijke proeve. 8. Utrecht, 1864.
Hardenhcry (H.) Overzigt der vornaamste Bepalingen betreffende de Sterkte,
Zamenstelling, Betaling, Verzorging en Verpleging van het Nederlandsche
Leger. sedert den vrede van Utrecht in 171.3 tot. den tegenwoordigen tijd.
Hoofdzakelijk op voet van vrede. 2e gedeelte. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1864.
Heusden (A. Van) Handboek der aardrykskunde, staatsinrigting, staatshuis-
houding en statistiek van het koningrijk der Nederlanden. 8. Harlem, 1S66.
Laveleye (E.), Etudes d'Economie Rurale : La Neerlande. 8. Paris, 1866.
MoUerus (J. H. M.) Geschiedkundig overzigt van het Handelsstelsel iu Ne-
derlandsch-Indie. 8. Utrecht, 1865.
Staatkundig en staathuishoudkundig, Jaarboekje voor 1870. Uitgegeven
door devereeniging voor de statistiek in Nederland. 20.jaarg. 8. Amsterdam, 1869.
Steyn Parve (D. C.) Overzigt van het handelsverkeer tusschen Nederland en
Engeland, ontleend aan Engelsche bronnon en in verband gebragt met de
belangen van den vaderlandschen handel landbouw en veestapel. 8. Amster-
dam. 1868.
Tydeman (H. W.) De Nederlandsche hand>'lmaatschappij. Bijdrage tot hare
gesehiedenis en waardeering in verband met het koloniaal beheer. 8. Leiden, 1868.
Tijdschrift voor Staathuishoudkunde en Statistiek. 8. Zwolle, 1870.
Verslag van den handel, scheepvaart en nijverveid van Amsterdam, over het
jaar 1869. 8. Amsterdam, 1870.
343
PORTUGAL.
(Reino de Portugal e Algarves.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Luis I., King of Portugal, born Oct. 31, 1838, the son of
Queen Maria II. and of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; suc-
ceeded his brother, King Pedro V., Nov. 11, 1861 ; married Oct. 6,
1862, to
Pia, Queen of Portugal, born Oct. 16, 1847, the youngest
daughter of King Vittorio Emanuele of Italy. Issue of the union are
two sons, Carlos, bom Sept. 28, 1863, and Alfonso, born July 31,
1865.
Sisters and Brother of the Xing. — 1. Princess Maria, born July
21, 1843; married, May 11, 1859, to Prince Georg, second son of
the King of Saxony. 2. Princess Antonia, born Feb. 17, 1845 ;
married, Sept. 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen, born Sept. 22, 1835 ; offspring of the union are three
sons, Wilhelm, born March 7, 1864, Ferdinand, born Aug. 24, 1865,
and Karl, born Sept. 1, 1868. 3. Prince Augustus, born Nov. 4,
1847.
Father of the King. — Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, titular
King of Portugal, born Oct. 29, 1816, the eldest son of the late
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; married, April 9, 1836, to Queen
Maria II. of Portugal; obtained the title 'King,' Sept. 16, 1837;
widower, Nov. 15, 1853 ; Regent of Portugal during the minority
of his son, the late King Pedro V., Nov. 15, 1853, to Sept. 16,
1855 ; married, in ' morganatic ' union, June 10, 1869, to Madame
Sensler, elevated Countess Edla.
Great- Aunts and Uncle of the King. — 1. Princess Teresa, born
April 29, 1793, the daughter of King Joao VI. of Portugal and of
Princess Charlotte of Spain; married, April 11, 1809, to Don Pedro
of Spain ; widow July 4, 1812 ; married, a second time, Oct. 20,
1838, to Don Carlos, pretender to the crown of Spain; widow,
March 10, 1855. 2. Princess Maria, sister of the preceding, born
July 4, 1801 ; Regent of Portugal March 10, 1826, to Feb. 26, 1828.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of
Braganza, which dates from the commencement of the fifteenth
3+4
POKTUGAL.
century, at which period Affonso, an illegitimate son of King Jofio
or John I., was created by his father Duke of Braganza and Lord of
Guimaraens. When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the House
of Avis, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his
nominal successor, Henrique ' the Cardinal,' Philip II. of Spain took
possession of the country, claiming it in virtue of his descent from a
Portuguese princess; but in disregard of the fundamental law of the
kingdom, passed by the Cortes of Lamego in 1139, which excluded
all foreign princes from the succession. After bearing the Spanish
rule for more than half a century, the people of Portugal revolted,
and proclaimed Don Joao, the then Duke of Braganza, as their king,
he being the nearest heir to the throne, though of an illegitimate
issue. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of Joao IV., to
which Portuguese historians appended the title ' the Fortunate.'
From this Joao, through many vicissitudes of family, the present
rulers of Portugal are descended. For two centuries the members
of the line of Braganza kept up the ancient blood alliances with the
reigning house of Spain ; but the custom was broken through by the
late Queen Maria II., who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg,
entered the great family of Teutonic Sovereigns. Luis I. is the
second Sovereign of Portugal of the line of Braganza- Coburg.
Luis I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis, or about 82,000/. ; but
His Majesty returns annually 26,000 milreis to the public exchequer,
to be employed for educational purposes. The expenses of the Avhole
Court, including the allowance to King Ferdinand and the other
princes, amount to 675,000 milreis, or nearly 152,000/. King Luis
has settled upon his consort, Queen Pia, sixty contos of reis, or
14,000/., from his own civil list, declining a proffered grant from
the funds of the nation.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns of Portugal since its
conquest from the Moors : —
I. House of Burgundy
A.D.
a.d.
Affonso V.. 'the African'
1438
Henri of Burgundy
1095
Joan II., 'the Perfect' .
1181
Affonso I.
1112
Manoel ....
1495
Saneho I.
1185
Joan III.
1521
Affonso II., 'the Fat' .
1211
Sebastian
1557
Saneho II., ' Capel '
1223
Enrique ' the Cardinal ' .
1578
Affonso III. .
1248
Diniz, ' the Farmer '
1279
III. Interval of Submission to
Spain.
Affonso IV.
1.325
Philip II.
15SCI
Pedro, ' the Severe '
1357
Philip III. .
1590
Ferdinando I.
1367
Philip IV.
1623
II. House of Avis.
IV. House of Braganza
Joan I., ' tlie Great '
1385
Joan IV., 'the Fortunate'
into
Eduardo
1433
Affonso VI
1656
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
345
Pedro II.
Joan V. .
Jose
Maria I. and Pedro III.
Maria I.
Joan Jose, Regent .
Joan VI.
Pedro IV.
A.D.
1683
1706
1750
1777
1786
1796
1816
1826
Maria II.
Miguel I.
Maria II., restored
A.D.
1826
1828
1834
V. House of Braganza-Coburg.
Pedro V 1853
Luis 1 1861
The average reign of the thirty-five sovereigns of Portugal, from
the ascension of the House of Burgundy, amounted to twenty-two
years.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental law of the kingdom is the ' Carta de Lei '
granted by King Pedro TV., April 29, 1826, and altered by an
additional act, dated July 5, 1852. The crown is hereditary in the
female as well as male line ; but with preference of the male in case
of equal birthright. The constitution recognises four powers in
the State, the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the
'moderating' authority, the last of which is vested in the Sovereign.
There are two legislative Chambers, the ' Camara dos Pares,' or
House of Peers, and the ' Camara dos Deputados,' or House of
Commons, which are conjunctively called the Cortes Geraes. The
peers, unlimited in number, but actually comprising 133, are named
for life by the Sovereign, by whom also the president and vice-
president of the first Chamber are nominated. The peerage was for-
merly hereditary in certain families; but on May 27, 1864, the
Cortes passed a law abolishing hereditary succession. The members
of the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by all citizens
possessing a clear annual income of 133 milreis, or 22/. The deputies
must have an income of at least 390 milreis, or 891. per annum ;
but laAvyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the
learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental
Portugal is divided into thirty-seven electoral districts, returning
154 deputies, to which Madeira and the Azores add twenty-five.
Each deputy has a remuneration of about 10s. a day during the
session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections
must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolu-
tion, a new Parliament must be called together within thirty days.
The General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law
passed twice by both Houses. All laws relating to finance and
general taxation must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.
346 PORTUGAL.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a respon-
sible Cabinet, divided into six departments, namely
1. The. Ministry of Public Works. — Marquis cFAvila e de
Bolama ; appointed Minister of Public- Works and President of
the Council of Ministers, October 30, 1870.
2. The' Ministry of the Interior. — Antonio, Bishop of Vizeu,
appointed October 30, 1870.
3. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Augusto
Saraiva de Carvalho, appointed November 1, 1870.
4. The Ministry of Finance. — Carlos Bento de Silva, appointed
November 1, 1870.
5. The Ministry of Marine and of the Colonies. — Jose de Mello
Gouveia, appointed November 1, 1870.
6. The Ministry of War. — General Jose Maria de Moraes
Bego, appointed November 1, 1870.
7. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Marquis cCAvila e de
Bolama, appointed ' ad interim ' November 1, 1870.
8. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Antonio, Bishop of
Vizeu, appointed ' ad interim ' November 1, 1870.
There have been very frequent changes of Ministry in recent
years. In the course of the first eleven months of 1870 there were
three changes, the office of President of the Council of Ministers
being held, first, by the Marquis de Sa da Bandeira, secondly by the
Duke de Louie, thirdly by the Duke de Saldanha, and fourthly by
the Marquis d'Avila e de Bolama.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice
of a Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting of thirteen
ordinary and three extraordinary members, nominated by the
Crown for life. The leading ministers, past and present, generally
form part of the Privy Council.
Church, and Education.
The Eoman Catholic faith is the State religion ; but all other
forms of worship are tolerated. The Portuguese Church is under
the special jurisdiction of a ' Patriarch,' with extensive powers, two
archbishops, and fourteen bishops. The Patriarch of Lisbon is
always a cardinal, and, to some extent, independent of the Holy See
of Rome. Under the Patriarch are five continental and five colonial
bishops; under the Archbishop of Braga, who has the title of
Primate, are six; and under the Archbishop of Evora three bishops.
The total income of the upper hierarchy of the Church is calculated
to amount to 300,000 milreis, or 67,500?. There are 3,7G9 parishes,
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 347
each under the charge of a presbitero, or incumbent. Most of the
conventual establishments of Portugal were suppressed by decree of
May 28, 1834, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the
State. At that period there existed in the country 632 monasteries
and 118 nunneries, with above 18,000 monks and nuns, and an
annual income of nearly a million sterling. This revenue was
applied to the redemption of the national debt ; while a library of
30,000 volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco,
at Lisbon, from the collections of books and manuscripts at the
various monasteries. A few religious establishments are still per-
mitted to exist ; but their inmates are in a state of great poverty,
and the buildings are gradually falling to ruin. The lower ranks of
the priesthood are poorly educated, and their income scarcely
removes them from the social sphere of the peasants and labouring
classes. The number of Protestants' in Portugal, mostly foreigners,
does not exceed 500. They have chapels and ministers at Lisbon
and Oporto . .
The superintendence of public instruction is under the manage-
ment of a superior council of education, at the head of which is the
Secretary of State for the Home Department, and which holds its
sitting at Coimbra. Public education is entirely free from the
supervision and control of the Church. By a law enacted in 1844,
it is compulsory on parents to send their children to a place of
public instruction ; but this prescription is far from being enforced,
and only a very small fraction of the children of the middle and
lower classes really attend school. In 1854 there were 1,136 schools
devoted to primary instruction, attended by 33,500 pupils of both
sexes, of whom, however, only 1,570 were females. From the year
1854 to 1862 the Government founded 588 new schools, of which for
boys 452, for girls 136. Portugal had in 1854, 1,200 public schools,
with 55,12 scholars. At the close of 1861 there were 1,788 public
schools, with 79,172 scholars, showing an increase of 23,980 scholars.
In 1862, there was one scholar to every 36 inhabitants. There is
only one university in the kingdom, that of Coimbra, founded in
1290. It has five faculties, and 46 professors and lecturers, who are
attended by between 800 and 900 students. The lyceums, which
impart secondary instruction, number 182, with, on the average,
3,000 scholars. The clergy are educated in six seminaries and
eight training schools, where most of them receive gratuitous in-
struction. In the building of the extinct monastery at Belem,
about 900 orphan and abandoned children of both sexes are sup-
ported, educated, and taught various useful trades.
Ths expenditure on public education by the government was
rather less than 9,000 milreis, or 2,000/., in each of the years
1867-6S.
3+8
PORTUGAL.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The annual revenue of Portugal amounted, on the average of the
last ten years, to 3,500,000/. sterling, while the average expenditure
during the same period was about 750,000/. more. The estimated
ordinary revenue of the kingdom for the year 1868-69 amounted to
16,910,137 milreis, or 3,757,808/., and the expenditure for the same
period to 23,043,764 milreis, or 5,120,836/., leaving a deficit of
6,133,627 milreis, or 1,363,028/.
The following were the gross sums of the budget of the financial
year 1868-69, as approved by the General Cortes : —
Revenue for 1868-69.
Direct taxes ......
Indirect taxes and customs
National domains and miscellaneous receipts
Deductions from civil list and salaries
Total estimated revenue
Milreis
6,098,466
8,441,137
2,330,534
40,000
f 16,910,137
\ £3,757,808
Expenditure for 1868-69.
Interest on home debt ....
,, on foreign debt ....
Ministry of finance ....
,, of the interior ....
„ of justice and ecclesiastical affairs
,, of war .....
,, of marine and colonies
„ of foreign affairs
„ of commerce and public woi'ks .
Extraordinary expenditure
Total estimated expenditure .
Milreia
4,602,224
3,358,760
3,718,592
1,898,635
642,970
3,692,584
1,562,233
226,166
1,114,392
2,227,208
23,043.764
£5,120,836
There has been no budget for the last thirty years without a
deficit. The expenditure amounted, in 1834, to 14,911,314 milreis ;
in 1844, to 11,158,214; and in 1854, to 11,784,472 milreis. In
the financial year 1858-59 the public expenditure was 12,947,061
milreis, or 2,913,088/., in 1860-61 it rose to 13,987,859 milreis,
or 3,147,268/.; in 1862-63, to 22,329,239 milreis, or 4,962,053/. ;
and in 1867-68 to 22,695,979 milreis, or 5,044,662/. The deficit
for the last-named year amounted to 5,81 1,560 milreis, or 1 ,292.59(1/.,
being rather more than the estimated deficit of 1868-69. The
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
349
revenue of the kingdom during the thirty-five years 1834-69 rose
but slightly, and in no proportion with the increasing national
expenditure.
The public debt of Portugal dates from the year 1796, when the
first loan of 4,000,000 milreis, or about 900,000/., was raised. In-
creasing very slowly at first, it was not till the year 1826 that
another large sum was raised, namely, 85 millions of milreis. To
this there were added 55 millions of milreis in 1835 ; 82 millions in
1838; 74 millions in 1848; 79 millions in 1853, and 90 millions
in 1854. The following statement gives in round sums, and
pounds sterling, the amount of capital and of interest of the national
debt in the middle of each of the years 1855 to 1867, and at the
end of November, 1869 : —
Years
Capital of debt
Annual interest
Jun
e 30, 1855
£
20,736,000
£
622,000
1856
20,974,000
629,000
1857
22,215,000
666,000
1858
24,165,000
725,000
1859
25,588,000
767,000
1860
27,834,000
835,000
1861
29,117,000
875,000
1862
33,300,000
999,000
1863
38,928,000
1,168,000
1864
41,207.000
1,236,000
1865
42,454,000
1,262,000
1866
43,255,000
1,297,000
1867
47,333,000
1,441,000
Oct
. 30, 1869
59,333,000
1,801,000
The last great loan of Portugal — issued in pursuance of a law
passed by the Cortes July 16, 1869, and which received the royal
sanction September 23, 1869 — was of the nominal amount of
12,000.000/. at 3 per cent. The bonds of this loan were offered by
the London financial agents of the Government at 32/. 10s. for every
100/. stock, so that the actual interest was above nine per cent.
About one-half of the total liabilities of Portugal rank as an exter-
nal debt, contracted for mainly in Great Britain, the rest being a
home debt.
The interest on the public debt has remained frequently unpaid.
Portions of the national debt have also been repudiated at various
periods ; among others the loan contracted by Don Miguel in 1832.
At times, as in the year 1837, the interest on the home debt has been
paid, but not that on the foreign debt. By a royal decree of Dec. 18
1852, the interest on the whole funded debt, internal and foreign'
was reduced to 3 per cent. Many of the creditors protested against
350
PORTUGAL.
this act, but without effect. On the 19th of June, 1867, the Chamber
of Deputies approved a bill presented by the government for raising
37,000,000 milreis to fund the floating debt and to negotiate 3 per
Cent. External Bonds at such a price that the interest shall not
exceed # per cent, above the rate of the actual stock, calculated upon
the market price.
Army and Navy.
The army of the kingdom is formed partly by conscription, and
partly by voluntary enlistment. Freedom from conscription may
be purchased by a fixed sum, amounting to about 80/., payable to
the Government. The time of service is eight years, of which five
have to be spent in the regular army, and three in the militia. More
than one-half of the standing army consists of men procured by en-
listment, or who have made the military service their profession.
By a law of military organisation passed June 23, 1864, the
strength of the army was fixed at 30,128 men on the peace-footing,
and 68,450 on the war-footing. The state of the finances of the
kingdom, however, has hitherto prevented the carrying out of the
plan of organisation, and scarcely more than half the number of men
fixed by law are kept under arms. The actual strength of the
army in 1869 was reported as follows: —
Officers Men
18 regiments of infantry of the line
683
9.218
9 battalions of riflemen
. 314
3.468
8 regiments of lancers and dragoons
244
2.253
3 ,, of artillery
. 107
1,278
1 battalion of engineers
3
317
Staff and sanitary troops
19 t
. 1,545
106
Total
16,640
The number of troops in the Portuguese colonies amount to
8,500 infantry and artillery, besides a reserve of 9,500 men.
The navy of Portugal numbers 22 steamers and 25 sailing
vessels, most of the latter laid up in harbour. The steamers
comprise —
7 corvettes, with a total of 98 guns and of 1,806 horse-power.
8 sloops. „ „ 35 „ „ 960
7 gun-boats, „ „ 21 „ „ 340 „
Total 22 steamers, . . witli 154 guns and of 3,106 horse-power.
The navy is officered by 1 vice-admiral, 5 rear-admirals, and 31
captains ; and manned by 3,493 sailors and marines.
AREA AND POPULATION.
351
Area and Population.
Portugal is divided into six provinces, the area of which and
population, according to the census of 1865, is given in the sub-
joined table : —
Provinces
Area sq. miles
Population
Tras-os-Montes .....
Beira
E.stremadura .....
Total
2,671
4,065
8.586
8,834
10,255
2,099
951,770
385,896
1,286,637
835,880
348,155
179,523
36,510
3,987,867
To the kingdom belong likewise the Azores, or Western Islands,
containing an area of 715 square miles, with a population, in 1865,
of 251,894 inhabitants ; Madeira, with 317 square miles and 111,76-1
inhabitants; and Porto Santo, with a population of about 1,500.
Portugal has few large towns. There were in 1865 but two
with a population of above 20,000, namely, Oporto, with 89,321 ;
and Lisbon, with 275,286 inhabitants. The number of aliens
residing in the kingdom is reported to amount to not quite twelve
thousand, one-fourth of them natives of Great Britain.
In the fifteenth century, Portugal is stated to have had about five
millions of inhabitants. According to a calculation of 1732, the
number was 1,850,000 at that period. An enumeration taken in
1841 — the first which counted ' heads,' instead of as before ' fire-
places' — gave the total number of inhabitants as 3,412,500. Since
then the population has been slowly increasing, the addition in the
quarter of a century being 575,367, or at the rate of 23,000 a year.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial relations of Portugal are chiefly with Great
Britain, and there is very little trade, either by land or sea, with
other countries. Next to Great Britain, but far below, stand
Brazil and France. The subjoined table gives the total value of the
exports from Portugal to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Portugal in the ten years
1860 to 1869:—
352
PORTUGAL.
Year
Exports from Portugal to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Portugal
£
£
1860
1,880,149
1,698,931
1861
1,962,899
1,987,450
1862
2,040,396
1,533,365
1863
2,333,809
2,225,777
1^-64
2,202.506
2,091.314
1865
2,471,301
2,070.381
1866
2,517,828
1,992,902
1867
2,324,541
1,823,382
1868
2.253,095
1.554,649
1869
2,664,257
1,638,313
It -will be seen from the preceding table that the commerce of
Portugal with the United Kingdom is of a stationary character, the
imports showing a tendency to decline.
Wine is the chief article of export from Portugal to the United
Kingdom, the average value approaching 1,000,000Z. per annum.
The imports of British and Irish produce into Portugal embrace cotton
goods, of the value of 857,46 11. in 1869 ; iron, wrought and
un wrought, valued at 106,160/. ; and woollen fabrics, of the value
of 90,252Z. in 1869.
The subjoined table shows the quantity and declared value of
Avine exported from Portugal to the United Kingdom in each of the
five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Tears
Quantities
Value
Gallons
£
1865
3,740,578
1,145,134
1866
3,541,225
944,573
1867
2,724,538
757,150
1868
2,965,846
797,832
1869
3,262,885
881,656
The total imports of wine, from all countries, into the United
Kingdom, amounted to 14,269,752 gallons in 1865, to 15,442,581
gallons in 1867, to 16,953,429 gallons in 1868, and to 17,184,330
gallons in 1869. Consequently, the average amount contributed by
Portugal was about one-fifth of the total quantity. It was, however,
not more than one-sixth of the average value — 5,265,000Z. in 1869.
The single article wine constitutes more than two-thirds of the
value of Portuguese exports to all countries. The other exports are
cattle, cork, olive oil, oranges and lemons, pyrites of iron or copper,
elephants' teeth, and sheep's wool.
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted, on the 1st of January,
1869, of 817 vessels, of a total burthen of 88,392 tons.
COLONIES.
353
Colonies.
The formerly numerous colonies of the Portuguese in Asia are
now reduced to Goa, Salcete, Damao and Diu, Macao, and scattered
settlements in the Indian archipelago. In Africa, Portugal retains
the Governments of Angola and Congo in South Guinea ; Mozam-
bique on the eastern coast, and some establishments in Senegambia,
with various islands. The population of these colonial possessions,
in the year 1864, amounted to —
Possessions in Asia :
Settlements at Goa, Salcete, &c. ....
,, at Damao and Diu ....
Indian Archipelago (estimate) ....
Macao (estimate) .......
Possessions in Africa :
Cape Verde Islands (14, of which 7 are inhabited)
Settlements in Senegambia .....
Islands of St. Thomas and Principe
Angola, Benguela, and Mossamedes
Territory of Mozambique (estimate) .
Total .
Inhabitants
474,18.5
52,882
850,300
100,000
84,191
1,095
18,369
9,000,000
300.000
10,881,022
The colonial budget for the year 1868-69, estimated, for the
whole of the possessions, a revenue of 1,378,920 milreis, and an
expenditure of 1,599, 9-10 milreis, leaving a deficit of 221,020 milreis,
or 41,112/. The average deficit for the preceding years amounted to
above 36,000/.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Portugal, with the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Milreis, or 1,000 Bets f A^*8?, rate °f f chanSe> 52\d-> «» roughly,
|_ 4~ milreis equal to one pound sterling.
Weights and Measubes.
The French metric system of weights and measures was introduced
in Portugal between the years 1860 and 1863, measures of length
being first adopted, and weights afterwards, and it became com-
pulsory from the 1st of October, 1868. The chief old measures
still in use are : —
The Libra .
„ Almude <
„ Alquiere .
,, Mow
= 1.012 lbs. avoirdupois,
of Lisbon = 3.7 imperial gallons.
Oporto = 5.6 „ ,,
= 0.36 imperial bushel.
= 2.78 imperial quarters.
A A
354 PORTUGAL.
Statistical and other Books of Reference relating to Portugal.
1. Official Publications.
Keport by Mr. Lytton, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Administration of Portugal, dated July 30, 1865; in 'Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XL London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Hemes, British Secretary of Legation, on Commerce and
Finance, dated July, 1863, and Jan. 27, 1861 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy,' &c. No. VII. London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Consul Smith on the Trade of Portugal for the year 1862 ; in
'Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Reports by Mr. Lytton, British Secretary of Legation, on Agriculture and
Manufactures in Portugal, and on the Portuguese Tariff, dated June 22, 1866,
and June 15, 1867 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' Nos. I. and IV., 1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. Wm. Doria, British Secretary of Legation, on the Mines and
Mineral Resources of Portugal, dated Lisbon, June 24, 1869 ; in 'Reports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. IV., 1869. London. 8.
1869.
Reports by Mr. Geo. Brackenbury, Consul at Lisbon, and Mr. Wm. Doria,
Secretary of Legation, on Agriculture and Land Tenure in Portugal, dated
December 1869; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting the
Tenure of Land in several countries of Europe.' Parti. Fol. London, 1867.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL Fol. London,
1868.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Aldama-Ayala (G. de) Compendio Geographico-estadisfico de Portugal e sua
Posesiones Ultramarinas. 8. Madrid, 1861).
Balbi (A.) Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal. 2 vols. 6. Paris,
1862.
Barros e Cunha (J. G. de) Historia da Liberdade em Portugal. Vol. I. 8.
Lisboa, 1869.
Barros e Cunha (J. G. de) Hoje : on the present situation, financial and
political, of the kingdom of Portugal. 8. Pp. 34. London, 1868.
Block (Moritz) Die Bevolkerung Spaniens und Portmgals, nach den Original-
quellen, in ihren wichtigsten Verhaltnissen statistisch dargestellt. 8. Gotha,
1861.
Brandao e Albuqvcrque (J. da C.) Censo de 1865. 8. Lisboa, 1866.
Diccionario abreviado de chorographia, topographia etc. de Portugal. -3 vols.
8. Lisboa, 1867.
Eschioegc (Wilhelm L. von) Portugal : ein Staats-und Sittengemalde, nach
dreissigiiihrigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.
Laviqne (Germond de) L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1867.
Marques (P. G ) Diccionario G?ogr/tfieo Abbreviado das -oito Provineias de
Portugal e Algarve. 8. Porto, 1868.
Minutoli (G. von) Portugal und seine Colonien im Jahre 1854. 2 vols. 8.
Stuttgart, 1855.
Bebello da Siha (L. A.) Compendio de Economia Industrial. 8. Lisboa,
1868.
Voqel (Ch.) Le Pertugal et ses Colonies ; Tableau Politique et Commercial de
la Monarchic Portugaise. 8. Paris, 1866.
Willkomm (Heinr. Moritz) Das Pyreniiische Halbinselland. &. Leipzig,
1866.
355
RUSSIA.
(Empire of all. the Russias.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, bora April 17 (April 29 new
style), 1818, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I. and of Princess
Charlotte of Prussia ; educated, under the supervision of his father, by
General Moerdex, a learned German, and the Russian poet Joukowski ■
entered the army, 1831 ; nominated colonel in the regiment of "-.rena-
diers, 1835 ; chancellor of the university of Helsingfors, Finland
1837 ; travelled in Germany,. 1810—11 ; superintendent of the
military schools of the empire* 1819 ;. appointed to. a command in
the Caucasian army, 1850. Succeeded to the throne, at the death
of his father, February 18 (March 2), 1855 ; crowned at Moscow,
August 26 (September 7), 1856. Married, April. 16 (April 28)'
1811, to "
Maria, Empress of Russia, born August 8, 1821, the daughter of
the late Grand-duke Ludwig II., of Hesse-Darmstadt. Ofispring of
the union are: — 1„ Grand-duke Alexander, heir-apparent, born
February 26 (March 10), 1815;, married, Nov. 9, 1866r to Maria
Dagmar, born Nov.. 26, 1817, daughter of King Christian IX. of
Denmark; offspring of the union is one son, Nicholas, born. May 6
(May 18), 1868. 2, Grand-duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April
22), 1817.. 3. Grand-duke Alexis, born January 2. (January 11),
1850. 1. Grand-duchess Maria, born October 5 (October 17)t
1853. 5. Grand-duke Scrgius, born April 29 (May 11),. 1857.
6. Grand-duke Paul, born. September 21 (October 3),, I860.
Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor.— A. Grand-dueheSvS Maria,
born August 6 (August 18), 1819 ; married, July 2 (July 11),1S39,
to Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg ; widow, October 20 (November
1), 1852 ; married, in second nuptials, November 4, 1856, to Count
Stroganoff.. colonel in the Russian army. 2. Grand-Duchess Olga,
born August 30 (September 11), 1822;: married July 1 (July 13;,
1816, to Prince Karl, then heir- apparent, now king, of? Wustemberg.
3. Grand-duke Constantine, born September 9 (September 21),
1827 ; high-admiral of the Russian navy ; married, August 30
a a 2
356 RUSSIA.
(September 11), 1848, to Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg,
of which union there are issue four sons and two daughters,
Nicholas, born February 2 (February 14), 1850 ; Olga, born August
22 (September 3), 1851 ; Vera, born February 4 (February 16),
1854 ; Constantine, born August 10 (August 22), 1858 ; Dimitri,
born June 1 (June 13), 18G0 ; and Viatseheslav, born July 1 ( July
13), 1862. 4. Grand-Duke Nicholas, born July 27 (August 8),
1831 ; general in the Russian army ; married, January 25 (February
6), 1856, to Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg, of which marriage
there are two suns, Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856,
and Peter, born Jan. 10 (Jan. 22), 1864. 5. Grand-duke Michael,
born October 13 (October 25), 1832 : married, August 16 (August
28), 1857, to Princess Cecilia of Baden, of which union there are
'issue five sons and one daughter, namely, Nicholas, born April 14
(April 26), 1859; Anastasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860;
Michael, born October 4 (October 16), 1861 ; George, born August
1 1 (August 23), 1863 ; Alexander, born April 1 (April 13), 1866 ; and
Sergius, born October 7, 1869.
The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from
Michael Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of
the House of Rurik ; and in the male line from the duke Karl
Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp, born in 1701, scion of a younger
branch of the ducal family of Oldenburg. The union of his daughter
Anne with Prince Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp formed part
of the great reform projects of Peter I., destined to bring Russia
into closer contact with the western states of Europe. Peter I. was
succeeded by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian
peasant, and she by the grandson of Peter's elder brother, with
whom the male line of the Romanofs terminated, in the year 1730.
The next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan III., and Elizabeth,
of the female line of Romanof, formed a transition from the native to
the German rulers of the empire, whose reign commenced with the
accession of Peter III., of the house of Holstein-Gottorp. All the
subsequent emperors allied themselves into German families, thus
gradually becoming completely Teutonic, in blood as Avell as origin.
The wife and successor of Peter III., daughter of the Prince of
Anhalt Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her
only son, Paul, who became the father of three emperors, Alexander
I., Constantine, and Nicholas, and the grandfather of a fourth, the
present Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German
princesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the
reigning houses of Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Prussia.
The emperor is in possession of the whole revenue of the Crown
domains, consisting of more than a million of square miles of culti-
vated laud and forests, besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 357
producing an annual revenue of 4,000,000 roubles, or about 571,500/.
In the last annual accounts of the finances of the empire, the expen-
diture of the Imperial Court, as far as drawn from the public trea-
sury, is given at 7,700,000 roubles, or 1,100,000/. ; but this sum
does not include the appanages, amounting to 539,973/., according
to an official statement made in 1863. The sum total of the income
of the imperial family is stated, in a British Consular report of 1867,
at 2,450,000/. sterling, it being added that 'about 450,000/. are
spent in charities, schools, theatres, &c.,' leaving a net revenue of
2,000,000/., or more than five times the amount of the civil list of
the sovereign of Great Britain.
The following have been the Tsars and Emperors of Eussia, from
the time of election of Michajlo Romanof. Tsar Peter I. was the
first ruler who adopted, in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.
House of Romanof — Male Line.
Michajlo . . . 1613
Alexei . . . 1645
Feodor . . . 1676
Ivan and Peter I. . 1682
Peter I. 1689
Catherine I. . . 1725
Peter II. . . . 1727
House of Romanof — Female Line-
Anne .... 1730
Ivan III. . . . 1740
Elizabeth . . . 1741
House of Holstein-Gottorp.
Peter III. . . . 1762
Catherine II. . . 1762
Paul . . . . 1796
Alexander I. . . 1801
Constantine . . . 1825
Nicholas . . . 1825
Alexander II. . . 1855
The above list shows that, notwithstanding many vicissitudes in
the succession of the crown, the average reign of the sovereigns of
Eussia, for two centuries and a half, has been fifteen years.
Constitution and Government.
The Government of Eussia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in the
emperor, whose will alone is law. There are, however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the house of Holstein-
Gottorp have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of the
Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, by
the right of primogeniture, with preference of male over female
heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued by Peter I.,
February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign -to select his
successor to the throne from among the members of the imperial
family, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture. Another funda-
mental law of the realm proclaimed by Peter I., is that every
358 RUSSIA.
sovereign of Russia, with his consort and children, must 'be a mem-
ber of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes and princesses of the
imperial house, according; to a decree of Alexander I., must obtain
the consent of the emperor to any marriage they may contract. ;
otherAvise the issue of such union cannot inherit the throne. By
an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is held to be of age at
the end of the sixteenth year, and the other members of the reigning
family with the completed eighteenth year.
The administration of the empire is entrusted to four great boards,
or councils, possessing separate functions, but centring in the
' Private Cabinet of the Emperor.' The first of these boards is the
Council of the Empire, established in its present form by Alexander
I., in the year 1810. It consists of a president, and an unlimited
number of members appointed by the emperor. On Julv 1, 1869,
the council consisted of forty -two members, exclusive of the minis-
ters, who have a seat ex officio, and of the princes of the Imperial
House, who can claim the right to be present at the deliberations.
The Council is divided into three departments, namely, of Legisla-
tion, of Civil Administration, and of Finance. Each department
has its own President, and a separate sphere of duties; but there
are collective meetings of the three sections. The chief function of
the Council of the Empire is that of superintending the action of
the general administration, of watching over the due execution of
the laws of the realm, and of proposing alterations and modifications
of the same whenever necessary. The Council stands in direct
communication with the ' Private Cabinet of the Emperor.'
The second of the great colleges, or boards of government, is the
Directing Senate or ' Prawitelstwujuschtschi Senat,' established by
Peter I., in the year 1711. The functions of the senate are partly
of a deliberative and partly of an executive character. It is the high
court of justice for the empire, controlling all the inferior tribunals,
The senate is divided into eight committees or sections, of which
rive sit at Petersburg and three at Moscow. Each committee is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain descriptions of
cases, brought either immediately before it, or by appeal from the
inferior courts. In a few cases, however, parties dissatisfied with its
decisions may petition the emperor. The senators are mostly per-
sons of high rank, or who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence
presides over each department, who represents the emperor, and with-
out whose signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenum^
or general meeting of the sections, the minister of justice takes the
chair, as high procurator for his majesty. Besides its superinten-
dence over the court of law, the senate examines into the state of
the public revenue and expenditure, and has power to appoint to a
great variety of offices, and to make remonstrances to the emperor.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 359
The third college, established by Peter I., in the year 1721, is
the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the
religions affairs of the empire. It is composed of the principal dig-
nitaries of the Church. All its decisions run in the emperor's name,
and have no force till approved by him. The President of the Holy
Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod.
The fourth board of government is the Council of Ministers. It
is divided into eleven departments. They are —
1. The Ministry of the Imperial House. — Count Alex. Adlerberg,
lieut. -general and aide-de-camp of the emperor : appointed
Minister of the Imperial House, in succession to his father Count
W. Adlerberg, April 29, 1S70.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Prince Alexander Michael
Gortschakoff, born 1798; entered the diplomatic service, 1818;
Secretary of Embassy at London, 1824; Minister at Florence, 1830;
Plenipotentiary at Vienna, 1832 ; Ambassador Extraordinary at
Stuttgart, 1841 ; Ambassador at Vienna, 1854; appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs, April 17, 1856.
3. The Ministry of War. — General Count Millntin, Assistant-
Minister of War, July 1860 to June 1862 ; appointed minister,
June 20, 1862.
4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Admiral Krubbe, appointed
October 15, 1860.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — General Timascheff, appointed
March 21, 1868.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Count Tolstoy, Procura-
tor-General of the Holy Synod, appointed April 27, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Finance. — Privy Councillor M. von Reutern,
appointed Nov. 9, 1862.
8. The Ministry of Justice. — Count Pahlen, appointed Jan. 10,
1868.
9. The Ministry of the Imperial Domains. — Lieut.-General A.
Zelenoi, appointed November 25, 1862.
10. The Ministry of Public Works. — Major-General Count
Wobrinsky, appointed May 2, 1869.
11. The Department of General Comptrol. — Privy Councillor
M. Tatarinow, appointed Comptroller-General, Feb. 15, 1863.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers,
who supply their place on certain occasions. They all communicate
directly with the sovereign, or with the ' Private Cabinet of the
Emperor,' in which body centres the whole executive authority of
the empire. The Private Cabinet is divided into four sections, the
first of which has the presidency and superintendence of the other two,
and is in immediate communication with the emperor. The second
is the legislative department ; the third is specially devoted to the
360 RUSSIA.
cnmptrol of the army and secret police ; and the fourth to public
instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.
The local administration of the empire differs in different pro-
vinces ; Government having always allowed conquered or annexed
countries to preserve their own laws and institutions, except in so
far as they were hostile to the general constitution of the empire.
The Grand-duchy of Finland has a special and partially inde-
pendent form of government; and the provinces wrested from
Sweden by Peter the Great, Courland, and those formerly belonging
to Poland, have peculiar institutions and privileges, which, however,
have latterly been much modified.
The empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are, at present, 14 of the first,
51 of the second, and above 320 of the last. There are, besides,
extensive districts which from the thinness of the population are not
organised into regular governments, which are called provinces, or
' oblasts.'1 At the head of each general government is a viceroy, or
general-governor, the representative of the emperor, who as such com-
mands the forces, and has the supreme control and direction of all
affairs, whether civil or military. All the functionaries within their
jurisdiction are subordinate to, and make their reports to the general-
governors. They sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts,
and exercise the right of pardon in a limited degree. A civil-
governor, representing the general-governor, assisted by a council of
regency, to Avhich all measures must be submitted, is established in
each goA-ernment or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the
governor is provisionally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor
with respect to the matter be ascertained. A vice-governor is
appointed to fill the place of the civil-governor when the latter is
absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of
finance under the presidency of the vice-governor.
The government of the parish, and part of the local administra-
tion, is intrusted to the people, to the extent of leaving them free
in matters of social interest. For this purpose, the whole country
is divided into communes denominated ' Mir ' — which means both
' the village ' and ' the world ' — and these again are united into dis-
tricts or ' Voloste,' embracing a population of about two thousand
souls. Each of the latter divisions is presided over by an Elder,
or ' Starshina,' who, in case the district consists of several villages,
has above him a ' Starosta,' or head of a commune, as also a
tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these officers
.-are elected by ballot at annual assemblies by the peasants, and
-from among themselves. The offices are more or less honorary,
•the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as
sfco ,be scarcely more than nominal. The annual assemblies for
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 36 1
electing these local representatives are constituted in a very
peculiar manner. Every five houses have the election of one
deputy for the communal assembly, and these again choose a dele-
gate for the district assemblies, in the proportion of one man to
every ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish
officers and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the
division of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper
distribution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of
the recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the
commune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and
similar matters. As a rule, these communal assemblies take place
regularly three times a year ; but they may be called more fre-
quently if business of importance requires it. In conjunction with
these assemblies are village tribunals, consisting of two elected
members of the commune called ' conscience, people.' Injuries and
offences of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not
involving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of
these popular tribunals.
The grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia by
the treaty of Frederickshamm, September 17, 1809, has preserved,
by special .crant of Alexander I. (renewed by the decrees of the
Emperor Nicholas, of December 24, 1825, and of Alexander II., of
March 3, 1855), its ancient constitution, dating from the year 1772,
and reformed in 1789. This charter provides for a national parlia-
ment, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the burghers,
and the peasants. The right of legislation and of general taxation
is nominally in the hands of this assembly, though in reality it is
exercised by a senate appointed by the ' Emperor Grand-duke.'
This senate was created by an ordinance of Alexander I., of October
25, 1811, and consisted first of three members, called the 'Com-
mittee for the Affairs of Finland.' Another ukase, of February 12,
1812, created a Governor-general of Finland, in whom was vested
the whole executive power, as representative of the sovereign. In
1816, a consultative body, called the 'Imperial Senate of Finland,'
was placed at the side of the ministerial council, as the ' Committee for
the Affairs of Finland,' and denominated, after a while, ' the Senate.'
The ' Imperial Senate,' originally consisting of fourteen members, then
of sixteen, and finally, up to the present time, of eighteen, is nominated
by the sovereign for three years, and chosen the one-half from the
nobility of Finland, and the other half from among the classes of
citizens and peasants. The organ of their communication with the
emperor is a secretary of state for the grand-duchy of Finland,
residing at St. Petersburg.
Poland, which had a constitution of its own from 1815 to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date
362 BTJSSIA.
of the last remnant of its administrative independence. By im-
perial decree of September 1, 1864, following in the wake of the
suppression of the great revolt of the two preceding years, the
kingdom was placed under the rule of eight military governors
depending from a 'Council of State' established at "Warsaw; and
this form of government again was superseded by a decree of March
22, 1867, which, abolishing the Council of State, transferred the
entire administration of the country to a ' Commission for the
interior affairs of Poland,' sitting at St. Petersburg. Finally, by
ukase of the Emperor dated Feb. 23, 1868, the Commission was
dissolved, and the government of Poland absolutely incorporated
with that of Russia.
Church and Education.
The established religion of the empire is the Greco-Russian,
officially called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. The Russian Church
separated from the See of Rome in 1054, and from the Byzantine
patriarchate in 1589. It has its own independent synod, but main-
tains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The sacred
synod, the board of government of the Church, was established with
the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs.
There have been three epochs in the government of the Russian
Church. At first it had a foreign head, the patriarch in Constanti-
nople, who appointed the Metropolitan of Kief, and afterwards of
Moscow ; during the second period, commencing in 1589, it was
governed by a patriarch appointed by the Tsar, but nearly indepen-
dent; lastly, the direction of the Church was transferred to the
emperor. He is however not the head of the Church in the same
sense as the Pope of Rome. The emperor exercises the external
functions in a still greater degree than the pontiff; he appoints to
every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to
the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates; and
he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain eases.
But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and
dogmatic questions. In the case of any new heresy springing up in
Russia, requiring a judgment, the emperor cannot pronounce a
decision, but this duty appertains to the synod, and, if the ques-
tion is critical, the opinion of the four Eastern patriarchs must be
consulted, and finally a council has to be convened. The judg-
ment of the Church being once given, the emperor must command
its execution. In official documents the emperor never calls him-
self the Head, but only the Protector or Defender of the Church.
The points in which the Greco-Russian Church differs from the
Roman Catholic faith, are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 363
the Pope, its prohibiting the celibacy of the clergy, and its autho-
rising all individuals to read and study the Scriptures in the
vernacular tongue. The prohibition of celibacy is carried to such
an extent, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before
he is married, nor after he becomes a widower; and as, by the rules
of the Church, he is not allowed to remarry, the death of his wife
occasions the cessation of his clerical functions. The priests may,
however, on the death of their wives, enter into a convent, and
enjoy the privilege of becoming eligible to be dignitaries of the
Church. There are in Russia nearly 500 cathedrals and about
29,000 churches attached to the established faith, the latter employ-
ing about 70,000 secular or parochial clergymen. There are also
about 550 convents, of which 480 are for men and 70 for women.
The clergy are either secular or regular — the former consisting of
the parochial clergy, and the latter of the higher dignitaries, monks,
and priests. The hierarchy is composed of bishops, archbishops,
and metropolitans. There are in all 38 dioceses.
The Russian Church formerly possessed immense wealth, but
it was partly confiscated by Peter I. and partly by Catherine II.
The latter sovereign appropriated the whole movable property of
the Church for the use of the State, assigning, in compensation,
pensions to the chief ecclesiastical dignitaries. But, with the
exception of a few benefices in Petersburg, Moscow, and other
principal cities, the stipends of the clergy, even when increased
by the offerings of the people, and by the fees on occasion of
births, marriages, and funerals, are almost inadequate to provide
for their subsistence. The total number of established clergy, of all
ranks and orders, is stated at 254,000.
With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, who are
not allowed to settle in Russia Proper, all religions may be freely
professed in the empire. No member of the Russo-Greek
Church is, however, permitted to renounce his creed ; and when a
marriage takes place between one of its members and a person
belonging to another faith, the children must all be brought up in
the established church. Catholics are very numerous in the Polish
provinces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and Mohammedans in
Southern Russia. There are no official religious statistics, but,
according to the most reliable estimates, the empire has 56,000,000
inhabitants professing the Orthodox faith ; 6,500,000 Roman Catho-
lics ; and 4,000,000 Protestants, mostly Lutherans. The Jews are
stated to amount to nearly 2,000,000, with the same number of
Mohammedans.
The following table shows, after official returns, the number of
Educational Establishments in European Russia, Siberia, and the
Transcaucasus, in the year 1867 : —
364
RUSSIA.
Government Institutions.
General Schools : —
f Upper
For Males . .< Middle .
[_ Lower
Total .
For Females . | J* J [
Total .
National Schools: —
For Males ....
,, Females ....
„ Both Sexes
Total .
Special Schools: —
For Males ....
„ Females ....
,, Both Sexes
Total
Jewish and Foreign Schools
Total Government Institutions
Private Institution*.
Schools attached to Churches of
foreign persuasions .
Schools kept by private individuals
Total .
Grand Total .
Number
of
Schools
Number of Pu
pils
|
Males
Females
Total
10
103
469
5,077
28,790
28,228
12,051
9,626
83,772
928,016
85,547
22,753
582
62,095
74
179
778,709
253
21,677
2,444 |
91
31,103]
149,307
33,638
83,701
452
907
487
482
10
4
496
84,153
1,394
331
12,597
10,156
35.300
937,554
182,534
1,120,088
35,685
215
828
7.521
12,086
2,008
14,070
1.043
19,607
16,078
36.343
957,161
198,612
1,155,773
It will be seen that the total number of schools established directly
by the State amounted, in 1867, to 35,300, and the pupils to
1,120,088, or about one and a-half per cent, of the population,
taking the latter at 70,000,000. The expenditure on education by
the State, in 1867, amounted to 6,000,000 roubles, being not quite
6 roubles per head per annum, or 50^- copecks, equal to Is. 3d. per
month. The charge for central administration, however, increased
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
365
the expenditure to 6 roubles 50 copecks, or 18s. 5(7., per head of the
population under tuition.
The empire is divided in respect of education into districts, each
of which has a university, with a number of lyceurns, at which the
young men intended to till civil offices are mostly instructed, besides
gymnasiums, high schools, and elementary schools, varying according
to area and population. The chief districts are those of Petersburg,
Moscow, Ivharkof, Kasan, Dorpat, Kief, Odessa, Wilna, and Warsaw.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The actual revenue and expenditure of the Russian empire in each
of the thirty years from 1832 to 1861 are shown in the following
table, compiled from the official returns of the Ministry of Finance.
Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
Actual excess of
expenditure
Silver roubles
Silver roubles
Silver roubles
1832
137,047,285
141,889,640
4,842,354
1833
131,969,867
141.442,338
9,472,471
1834
129,421.465
150,728,107
21,306,641
1835
152,695.308
167,740,976
15,045,667
1836
160,160,245
166.706,181
6,545,935
1837
158,436,560
163,810.059
5,373,498
1838
159,435,143
170,432.879
10,997.735
1839
165,181,097
179.407,059
14,225,961
1840
165,190,240
187,979,637
22,789,396
1841
176,609,823
195,767,490
19,157,667
1842
183,926,346
210,546,635
26,620,288
1843
188.332,021
211.513,157
23,181,135
1844
194,813,321
221,831,544
27,018,223
1845
196,947,527
224,082,770
27,135,242
1846
213,750,475
244.721,359
30,970,883
1847
209,863.860
244.973,351
35.109,490
1848
222.073.827
284,188,626
62,114,799
1849
211,037,247
270,465,571
59.428,324
1850
224,640,573
287,186,494
62,545.920
1851
224,911,120
280,615,100
55,703.979
1852
248,228,612
280,259,044
32,030.432
1853
261,913,728
313,085,778
51,172.050
1854
260.540,684
383,758,908
123,218.224
1855
264,119,453
525,969,770
261,850,316
1856
353,587,989
619,365,024
265.777,034
1857
309,412,890
347,855,645
38,442,755
1858
358,360.037
363,356,475
4,996,437
1859
344,703,157
350,514,917
5,811.760
1860
386,916,431
438,239.223
51,322,792
1861
411,584,163
413,796,856
2,212,693
The estimated gross revenue and expenditure of the Russian
empire, in each of the seven years 18G2 to 1868, were as follows,
366
RUSSIA.
according to the official budgets presented by the Minister of Finance
to the Emperor: —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Sil. roubles
£
Sil. roubles
£
1862
295,861,839
40,844,791
310,619,739
40,181,459
1863
347,867,860
47,079,078
347,867,860
47,079,078
1864
401,094,793
54,506,677
401,094,793
54,506,677
1865
380,093.514
52.164,219
380,093,514
52,164,219
1866
404,068,004
55,900,211
404,068,004
55,900,211
1867
443,850,171
60,876,277
443,850,171
60,876,277
1868
475,569,577
64,735,562
475,569,577
64,735,562
More than one-third of the total revenue of the empire is derived
from indirect taxation, and nearly one-third of the total expenditure
is for the maintenance of the army. It is very difficult to arrive at
a clear view of the details of revenue and expenditure from the
published accounts, inasmuch as the financial estimates of Russia are
framed on the model of the Imperial French budgets, the revenue as
•well as the expenditure being divided into ' ordinary ' and ' extra-
ordinary,' and loans treated as ' extraordinary revenue.' The fol-
lowing statement drives the official budget estimates of revenue and
expenditure for the year 1869, after the report of the Minister of
Finance presented to the Emperor : —
Estimates of Revenue for 1869.
Ordinary receipts: — ■
Gross receipts
Cost
of collection
Net receipts
Roubles
Roubles
Roubles
Direct taxes
94,239,540
2,296,819
91,312,720
Indirect taxes
201,899,543
16,846,726
185,052.815
State monopolies .
18,251,588
15,217,365
3,034,223
State domains
31,039,211
10,646,361
20,392,852
Miscellaneous receipts .
53,758,932
—
53,758,932
Revenue of Poland
15,208,387
801,712
14,406,676
,, of the Trans-Caucasus
Total of ordinary receipts
5,580,331
—
5,580,331
419,977,532
46,438,983
373,538,549
Extraordinary Receipts : —
£57,531,169
6,361,505
51,169,664
Resources from former loans
15,174.075
, —
15,174,075
Special Receipts 'to order ' .
15,804,496
—
15,804,496
Railway Loans .
Total Revenue .
31,123,303
—
31,123,303
482,079,406
46,438,983
435,640,422
£60,038,278
6,361,505
59,676,773
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
Estimates of Expenditure for 18G9.
367
Ordinary expenses : —
Roubles
Public debt
76,097,805
Superior institutions of the State .
1,765,949
Holy Synod .......
7,997,268
Ministry of the imperial household
8,881,886
„ foreign affairs ....
2,239,066
„ war ......
136,774,118
,, marine .....
17,141,078
,, finances .....
53,773,712
,, imperial domains
5,058,165
,, the interior
20,653,901
,, public instruction
9,281,220
,, public works ....
16,440,396
„ justice .....
8,885,481
Audit of the empire .....
1,873,785
General direction of studs ....
650,723
Expenses of Poland not comprised in the
budgets of the ministries of the empire .
11,470,639
Expenses of the Trans-Caucasus .
Total of ordinary expenses .
6,727,441
385,712.623
Extraordinary Expenses : —
£52,837,346
Anticipated deficit in receipts
3,000,000
Special expenses (' depenses d'ordre ') .
15,804,496
Temporary extraordinary expenditure for the
construction of railways, and of the ports of
Odessa and Riga .....
Total of ordinary and extraordinary
31,123,303
expenses, net .
435,640,422
£59,676,773
Cost of collection of revenue
Total gross expenditure
6,361,505
£66,038,278
The budget for 1870 differed but slightly from that for 18G9, the
expenditure being set down at almost exactly the same amount,
while the estimates of revenue showed an increase of 4,210,000
roubles, or about 600,000^.
Although the estimates of revenue and expenditure are always
nearly balanced, there has been no financial period during the last
forty years without a large deficit. These deficits were covered either
by sums withdrawn from banks and other institutions under Govern-
ment, or by the issue of paper money, or by loans contracted abroad.
It was from the year 1840 that the Russian Government became a
regular borrower of foreign capital, continuing to this day to make
368
RUSSIA.
loans, almost annually, either in London or Amsterdam. The
total amount of the loans raised, and the issue of banknotes and of
treasury bills, destined to cover the deficits of the thirty years
1832-61, was, in round numbers, as follows : —
Foreign loans
Loans from credit institutions
,, Commission for Extinc- "I
tion of Debt . j
Issue of banknotes
„ treasury bills •
Total .
Roubles
228,385,000
557,000,000
90,000,000
407,000,000
93,000,000
36,000,000
88,000,000
14,000,000
64,000,000
14,500,000
. 1,375,385,000 = 216,500,000
The subjoined table shows the loans raised by the Russian
Government in each of the thirty years from 1832 to 1861 : —
Loans from credit
Loans from Commis-
Years
Foreign loans
institutions of
sion for Extinction of
the state
Public Debt
Eoubles
Roubles
Roubles
1832
—
2,919,900
1,922,454
1833
—
7,701,042
1,771,428
1834
—
20,001,342
1,305,299
1835
—
14,352,535
693,131
1836
—
5,925,742
620,192
1837
—
4,889,400
484,098
1838
—
7,550,001
3,447,734
1839
—
10,387,647
3,838,314
1840
1,451,553
6,476,034
14,861,808
1841
4,061,661
2,310,714
12,785,292
1842
5,770,033
9,232,539
11,617,715
1843
7,972,227
15,208,908
—
1844
11,992,133
14,526,089
500,000
1845
ll,676-,370
15,458,872
—
1846
10,553,877
16,654,745
3,762,261
1847
60,773
15,907,161
7,141,555
1848
10,525,234
27,498,910
9,090 655
1849
2,554,161
40,073,517
1,800,645
1850
15,113,113
43,117.807
315,000
1851
18,656,292
36,632,686
415,000
1852
3,434,434
25,045,152
3,550,844
1853
—
45,914,696
5,257,353
1854
17,381,320
87,836,903
—
1855
30,548,800
30,401,516
2,000,000
1856
35,863,823
24,446,211
1,500,000
1857
5,135,896
15,106,858
—
1858
752,226
4,244,210
—
1859
280,975
6,530,785
—
1860
34,600,000
1,722,792
—
1861
—
—
2,212,693
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
369
To cover the deficits of the years 1862-70, a number of internal
and external loans was raised, as in the preceding years. The most
important of these were, first, an internal loan of 100,000,000 roubles,
issued in January 1865 ; secondly, a foreign loan of 6,000,000/.,
raised in January 1867 ; thirdly, a foreign loan of 11,110,000/.,
negotiated in April 1860; and, fourthly, another foreign loan of
12,000,000/., brought out in January 1870. The 100 millions were
issued in home bonds of the value of 100 roubles, bearing interest
at 5 per cent. The two foreign loans of 1867 and of 1869 were
contracted for by Messrs. Baring, and placed at Amsterdam and
London, at 63 and 80 per 100/. The loan of 1870 was issued by
Messrs. Rothschild, of London and Paris, at the price of 80 per 100/.
The total nominal capital of the foreign loans of Russia raised in the
years 1865-70, including those incurred for the purpose of railway
construction, amounted to 58,415,000/., of which sum 33,415,000/.
was contracted for in England, and 25,000,000/. on the continent
of Europe.
According to an official report of the Minister of Finance, dated
March 18, 1866, the public debt inscribed in the Great Book, at the
commencement of 1866, showed the following amounts : —
-Debts foe a Given Period, contracted previous to the year 1861.
Foreign.
Five per Cents. ......
Four-and-a-half per Cents.
Four per Cents.
Dutch florins
roubles
£ sterling
roubles
Home.
Five per Cents., bank-notes, issued by virtue of Imperial decree
of June 2, 1863 roubles
32,931,000
11,807,000
10,380,000
37,025,000
5,028,950
II. — Perpetual Rentes.
Foreign.
Five per Cents. .......
Three per Cents. ......
Home.
Six per Cents. .......
Four and five per Cents. .....
Total silver roubles .....
roubles 164,391,660
£ sterling 15,000,000
6,895,000
roubles
49,815,178
152,591,872
648,7S1,781
In the course of 1864 there were inscribed in the Great Book :-
Foreign Debts.
Five per Cent. Anglo-Dutch Loan, contracted by virtue of an
Imperial ukase of April 3, 1864
£ sterling 5,937,800
37C-
RUSSIA.
Home Beats.
Four per Cents, (subscription to the Consolidated Loan) roubles 1,707,304
Five per Cents. (Bank-notes issued by virtue of an Imperial
decree of June 2, 1863) 4,971,050
Five per Cents. .
Four-and-a-half per Cents.
Four per Cents.
Bank-notes at five per cent.
Sinking Fund. — Debts foe a Given Period.
Foreign.
Home.
Dutch florins
roubles
£ sterling
roubles
roubles
2,754,000
286,500
210,000
1,675.000
25,000
Perpetual Rentes.
Foreign.
roubles
250,000
Home.
roubles
1.849
Five per Cents. .
Six per Cents.
Bonds of the Consolidated Four per Cent. State Loan, which had
been exchanged for deposits not subject to be converted into
bonds of this character . . .....
91,591
In consequence of these transfers the position of the public debt
at the beginning of 1865 was as follows : —
Five per Cents.
I. — Debts fob a Given Period.
Foreign.
Four-and-a-half per Cents.
Four per Cents.
Five per Cents., Bank-notes
Home.
Dutch florins
£ sterling
roubles
£ sterling
roubles
78,110,000
1,937,800
11,520.500
10,170,000
55,350,000
9,975,000
Five per Cents.
Three per Cents.
II. — Perpetual Rentes.
Foreign.
Home.
Six per Cents.
Four per Cents. Consolidated Loan .
Five per Cents. Perpetual Deposits .
Grand total of the debt in roubles .
„ „ „ pounds sterling
roubles 164,141,600
£ sterling 15,000,000
6,895,000
roubles 49,813,329
153,919,380
288,377
690,089,575
120,764,751
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
371
Not, included in this account, are above 7.56 millions of paper
money, called Bills of Credit, issued by Government on the guarantee
of all the banks and other credit establishments of the empire, united
into a State bank by imperial decree of September 1, 1859. The
capital of these establishments, which are under the direction and
supervision of the Minister of Finance, is stated to amount to
96,241,618 roubles, or 13,748,802/. The note circulation of Russia
has increased very rapidly of late years, while the specie has
diminished at the same time. There was- —
Jan. 1856
Feb. 1862
„ 1866
Note circulation
Specie
£53,450,553
106,526,443
119,345.930
18,475,582
12,336,705
11,874,312
The guarantee fund of the note circulation not amounting to more
than one-tenth, it has been found necessary to give them a forced
currency. Notwithstanding this measure, gold and silver has been
for many years at a premium, varying from ,10 to 15 per cent.
The destruction of public credit, through an illimited issue of
iaper money, is of old standing. In the reign of Catherine II., the
first attempt, on a large scale, was made to cover the annual deficits
by a very liberal supply of paper roubles, the sum total of which at
the death of the Empress, 1796, amounted to 200,000,000. During
the subsequent wars with France and Turkey, new emissions of paper
followed,, with the consequence that, in 1815, the notes had fallen to
418, that is, one silver rouble was worth four roubles eighteen copecs
in paper. Great efforts were now made by the Government to im-
prove this state of things, by withdrawing a portion of the paper from
circulation. After ten years of improved financial management,
there remained, however, still 600,000,000 of notes,, circulating at the
rate of three paper roubles to one silver rouble. As a final remedy,
the Imperial Government withdrew, in 1843, the whole of the old
paper money, introducing, in its stead, a new form of bank notes,
with forced currency. By these and other means, particularly the
establishment of the State bank above mentioned, the nominal value
of the paper money, called Bills of Credit, was considerably raised,
so as. to stand only at from 10 to 15 per cent, discount. However, as
will be seen from, the above statement, the issue of paper money con-
tinues at an increasing rate,. the note circulation having more than
doubled in ten years.
The finances of the Grand-duchy of Finland, represented by an
average annual revenue and expenditure of 3,000,000 roubles, or
about 429,000/., and a public debt of 45,000,000 roubles, or
B B 2
RUSSIA.
372
6,435,000/., are administered separately from the imperial ex-
chequer ; but the special budgets of Poland ceased in 1867, on the
final incorporation of the kingdom with Russia.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The land forces of Russia are formed of two descriptions of troops,
different from each other in many respects — the regular troops, pro-
perly so called, and the feudal militia of the Cossacks and similar races.
Some corps of the latter have been brought into regular form and
training, and are occasionally employed like the rest of the army,
although in manv respects they differ entirely from the regular troops.
The regular army is recruited from the classes of peasants and arti-
sans, partly and principally by means of a conscription, partly by the
adoption of the sons of soldiers, and partly by voluntary enlistment.
Every individual belonging to these classes is, with a few exceptions,
liable to compulsory service, provided he be of the proper age and
stature. The levies, which take place alternately in the eastern and
western divisions of the empire, are ordinarily in the proportion of
one or two to every 500 males ; but during war the proportion is at
least as two or three to 500, and sometimes as much as four or even
five to 500. This last, however, may be taken as the maximum levy,
and is rarely exceeded. The number of recruits to be furnished by
the empire in general, and by each district in particular, is fixed accord-
ing to the results of the preceding census. The nobles nominate
such of their dependants as they please to complete their quotas, the
only conditions being that they should have a good constitution, and
be of the requisite size, and not less than 18, nor more than 40 years
of age. The contingents supplied by some of the great landed pro-
prietors are very large, sometimes amounting to 3,000, to 5,000, and
even to 6,000 and upwards. The recruits are first sent to the
recruiting establishments, and thence forwarded to the corps to
which they are assigned. Nobles, magistrates, clergymen, and
students are exempted from the service. Merchants and traders
enrolled in the different guilds are also exempted ; as are the only
sons of peasants, and peasants with more than three children. The
levies furnished by the Cossacks are regulated by pai-ticular treaties ;
and many half-savage tribes are excused, partly on account of their
diminutive size, and partly because of their great aversion to a mili-
tary life. Generally, it is found that a levy of two on every 500 males
produces a supply of about 90,000 or 100,000 men. Substitutes
are admitted in the event of the authorities being informed and not
objecting to their employment.
ARMY. 373
The period of service is fixed at 22 years for the guard, and 25
years for the other troops. But since 1840, soldiers after 10 or
1 5 years' service, according as they belong to the western or eastern
divisions of the empire, are entitled to an indefinite leave ; and
are sent home to their native place, their names being enrolled in
the reserve of the battalion or squadron of the regiment to which
they belong, that they may, if necessary, be again called into active
service. The aggregate strength of the reserves — those of 10
years' service being called the 1st reserve, and those of 15 years'
service the 2nd — is estimated at about 215,000 men. The entire
number of reserve troops formed in this manner is divided into two
great levies, the total amount of which is as follows: — First levy:
nine battalions of grenadiers, three of carabineers, thirty-six of in-
fantry of the line, and thirty-six of chasseurs, or a total of eighty-
four battalions of infantry, fifty-two squadrons, and twenty -four
foot-batteries, or in round numbers 100,000 men, with 192 guns.
Second levy : twelve battalions of the guard, twelve of grenadiers
and carabineers, seventy-two of infantry of the line and chasseurs,
or a total of ninety-six battalions of infantry, sixty-two squadrons,
and twenty-four foot, with eleven horse-batteries, and two and a half
battalions of sappers, or in round numbers 11 5, 000 men with 280 guns.
Formerly, the annual recruitment took place simultaneously
throughout the whole empire ; but this being attended by many
inconveniences, the Emperor Nicholas, in 1834, divided his realm
into two moieties, to be subjected to the recruitment in alternate
years. The divisions were at first into northern and southern, but
were changed, in 1839, into eastern and western halves. At pre-
sent, the two divisions consist of the following Governments : — The
Eastern Half comprises Vologda, Kostroma, Yaroslaf, Vladimir,
Moscow, Kaluga, Tula, Riazan, Tambof, the country of the Don
Cossacks, Caucasia. Astrakhan, Saratof, Penza, Nijni Novgorod,
Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan, Viatka, Perm, Orenburg, Tobolsk, Tomsk,
Yeniseisk, and Irkutsk. The Western Half consists of Archangel,
Olonetz, St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Pskof, Esthonia,
Livonia, Courland, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Vitebsk, Mohilef, Vol-
hynia, Kief, Podolia, Kherson, Taurida, Ekaterinoslaf, Poltava,
Tchernigof, Orel, Kursk, Kharkof.
The imperial ukase which fixes the number of recruits is generally
issued in November; the levy commences on the 15th of January,
and must be concluded by the 15th of February. The inhabitants
of some provinces are at times released from the necessity of fur-
nishing recruits on account of a bad harvest ; they are debited,
however, with the amount on future levies. The military colonies
in the south furnish eight men in a thousand every alternate year.
The levies ordered by the Government were, in 183G, for both
374
RUSSIA.
halves of the empire at once, five in a thousand ; 1837, for the
southern half, five in a thousand ; 1838, for the northern half, six
in a thousand; 1839, for the western half, five in a thousand;
1840, for both halves at once, six in a thousand From 1840 to
1867, the levies varied from nine to five in a thousand, and in 1868,
and again in 1869, the amount fixed was four men to every thousand
inhabitants.
The nominal strength of the Eussian army, according to the
returns of the ministry of war, is as follows: —
1. Regular army.
Infantry
Cavalry .....
Artillery .....
Engineers .....
Total.
2. Army of 1st reserve.
Troops of the line ....
Garrison troops in regiments .
„ „ in battalions .
Total.
3. Army of 2nd reserve.
Troops of all arms ....
General total
On the peace
footing
On the war
footing
364,422
38,306
41,731
13,413
694,511
49,183
48,773
16,203
457,875
80,455
80,455
19,830
808,670
74,561
23,470
29,892
100,285
254,036
127,925
199,380
812,096
1,135,975
The expenditure for the army was as follows in the five years,
186*2-66, according to the official budgets : —
Years
Roubles
£
1862
. 111,639,582
15,948,505
1863
. 115,577,167
16,511,024
1864
. 157,331,678
22,475,954
1865
. 127,972,665
18.281,809
1866
. 116,592,363
16,656,052
The principal branches of the military expenditure of 1866 were
as follows : —
Roubles
. 18,663,875
5,855,882
. 32,171,35!)
Pay and allowances of officers
,, ,, men
Rations of men
Clothing and equipment
10,090,383
ARMY.
Roubles
Administration of army ..... 9,460,419
Remount of cavalry ..... 596,737
Medical department — ■
Regimental hospitals . . 221,209
Medical department . . . 1,037,394
Medico-chirurgical academy . 220,386
1,478,989
375
Military instruction and miscellaneous expenses 5,386,869
There are at Petersburg schools for pages, engineers, officers of
artillery, and sub-officers of the guard, the rank of ensign being
given to pages who have gone through a certain course, and to
gentlemen cadets who have been two years in the service. But the
principal establishment for the education of officers is that of the
' Corps des Cadets,' at Petersburg, founded in 1731. It has about
700 pupils, the sons of noble parents, or of those who have attained to
the rank of captain in the civil or military service. The pupils are
divided into five classes, and on leaving school become ensigns in
regiments of the line. This school has materially contributed to
diffuse information among the inferior nobility, and to supply the
army with able officers. There are also schools for cadets at Moscow,
Woronesch, Polotsk, Tula, Tamboff, and other towns. The pupils
leave after a fixed time, and are ranked as ensigns. By a
decree of the Emperor, dated Oct. 22, 18G3, various new rules
Avere laid down for the entrance of officers into the army,
with the view of facilitating the entrance of young men leaving
public schools, and supplying the increased military forces of Russia
with a sufficient number of officers. Young men who have gone
through the course of studies in the high schools will be at once
admitted into the army as non-commissioned officers, without
examination, and after three months' service, and passing the
examination, will be promoted to the rank of officers. All these
young men will be promoted without waiting fur vacancies. Youths
who have pursued their studies in the middle schools receive the
rank of officers after the expiration of six months. All other
volunteers desirous of entering the army, whatever be their origin
— whether noble or plebeian — may be promoted to be officers at
the expiration of one year's service, and after passing the necessary
examination. If, notwithstanding this measure affording additional
facilities and inducements to enter the army, the necessary number
of officers should not be obtained, the period to be served by non-
commissioned officers who have risen from the ranks before they
can take rank as officers will be reduced — in the guards to seven,
and in the line to eight years.
The pay of the officers in the Russian army is very small com-
376~
RUSSIA.
pared with that of the other European nations. It is as follows : —
lieutenant-general, 1,116 roubles, or 159/. a year; major-general,
838 roubles, or 119/. ; colonel, 5G0 roubles, or 80/. ; lieutenant-
colonel, 419 roubles, or 59/. ; major, 336 roubles, or 48/. ; captain,
307 roubles, or 43/. ; second captain, 282 roubles, or 40/. ; lieu-
tenant, 238 roubles, or 34/. ; second lieutenant, 224 roubles, or 32/. ;
ensign, 209 roubles, or 29/. ; and non-commissioned officers, 10 to
123 roubles, or 1/. 10s. to 17/.
Among the irregular troops of Russia, the most important are the
Cossacks. The country of the Don Cossacks contains from 600,000
to 700,000 inhabitants. In case of necessity, every Cossack, from
fifteen to sixty years of age, is bound to render military service.
The usual regular military force, however, consists of fifty-four
cavalry regiments, each numbering 1,044 men, making a total
of 56,376. The number of Cossacks is computed as follows: —
On the Black Sea
Great Russian Cossacks on the Caucasian Line
Don Cossacks ......
Ural Cossacks ......
Orenburg Cossacks .....
Siberian Cossacks ......
Total
Heads
In military
service
125,000
150,000
440,000
50,000
60,000
50,000
18,000
18,000
66,000
8,000
10,000
9,000
875,000
129,000
The Cossacks are a race of free men ; neither serfage nor any
other dependence upon the land exists among them. The entire
territory belongs to the Cossack commune, and every individual has
an equal right to the use of the land, together with the pastures,
hunting-grounds, and fisheries. The Cossacks pay no taxes to the
Government, but in lieu of this they are bound to perform military
service. They are divided into three classes: — first, the minors or
' Maloletniye,' up to their sixteenth year; secondly, those on actual
service, the ' Sluzhiliye,' for a period of twenty-five years, therefore
until their forty-second year ; thirdly, those released from service,
the ' Otstavniye,' who remain for five years, or until their forty-
seventh year, in the reserve ; after that period they are regarded as
wholly released from service and invalided. Every Cossack is
obliged to equip, clothe, and arm himself at his own expense, and to
keep his horse. AVhilst on service beyond the frontiers of his own
country, he receives rations of food and provender, and a small
amount of pay. The artillery and train are at the charge of the
Government. Instead of imposing taxes on the Don Cossacks, the
navy. 377
Russian Government pays them an annual tribute of 21,310 roubles,
besides 20 roubles as a gift to be distributed among the widows
and orphans of those who have fallen in battle. Resides the Cos-
sacks of the Don, there are, on the Orenburg and Siberian lines, the
Bashkir Cossacks, numbering some 200,000 men.
By the terms of an Imperial decree, issued in December 1870,
preparations are to be made for repealing the whole existing army
organisation of Russia, and introducing in its stead general liability
to arms, as carried out in Germany.
2. Navy.
The Russian navy consists of two great divisions, the fleet of the
Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets is again
subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near the Baltic,
and three in or near the Black Sea, to which must be added the
small squadrons of galleys, gun-boats, and similar vessels. The
divisions, like the English, carry the white, blue, and red flag — an
arrangement originating with the Dutch — but without the rank of
the admirals being connected with the colour of the flag.
Thesailors of the imperial navj'are levied, like the army, by recruit-
ment ; as many of them, however, as possible are enlisted voluntarily,
and the crews furnished by Finland are obtained altogether in this
manner. The period of service in the navy was formerly twenty-
two years, but was reduced, by imperial decree of September 10,
1859, to fourteen years.
According to an official report, the Russian fleet consisted, January
1, 1869, of 290 steamers, having 38,100 horse-power, with 2,205
guns, besides 29 sailing vessels, with 65 guns. The greater and
more formidable part of this navy was stationed in the Baltic. The
Black Sea fleet numbered 43, the Caspian 39, the Siberian or Pacific
30, and the Lake Aral or Turkestan squadron 1 1 vessels ; the rest
of the ships were either stationed at Kronstadt and Sweaborg, or
engaged in cruising in European waters.
The expenditure for the navy was as follows in the five years
1862-66, according to the official budgets: —
Years
Eoubles
£
1862 .
. 20,589,831
2,941,405
1863 .
. 18,029,793
2,575,685
1864 .
. 21,684,339
3 097.762
1865 .
. 22,322,458
3,188,922
1866 .
. 21,636,417
3,090,917
The principal branches of the navy expenditure of 1866 were aa
follows : —
378
RUSSIA.
Pay and allowances of officers and men
Rations of seamen ....
Clothing .....
Central administration and outports
Naval instruction schools .
Medical depnrtment
Hydrographic ditto
Shipbuilding ....
Steam factories and miscellaneous expenses
Roubles
4,934,390
927,750
761,841
1.612,660
380,525
521,560
172,833
5,797,693
421.297
The iron-clad fleet of war consisted, at the commencement of
18G8, of 24 vessels, with an aggregate of 149 guns, as follows: —
2 frigates, one of 18 and one of 24 guns .
3 floating batteries, of 14, 16, and 27 guns
2 corvettes, of 8 guns each
1 1 turret ships, of 2 guns each
6 monitors, of 2 guns each
Total 24 iron-clads, with .
Guns
42
57
16
22
12
149 guns.
The largest of these iron-clads are two armoured frigates called
' Sevastopol,' and ' Kniaz — Prince — Pojarski.' The first of these,
the oldest iron-clad of the Eussian navy, was launched at
Cronstadt, August 24, 1864. The ' Sevastopol ' nearly equals
the British iron-clads ' Black Prince ' and ' Warrior ' in her
dimensions, and exceeds those of the French ' Gloire ' and ' Nor-
mandie.' At the line of flotation the ' Sevastopol ' measures 300 feet
in length, and her greatest breadth is 52 feet 3 inches. The ship
draws 26 feet at the poop and 24 at the chains. Her plates are
44/ inches thick, fastened to a double coating of teak from 6 to
9 inches thick. Her engines have a nominal force of 800 horse-
power, and she is armed with steel guns of the greatest calibre.
Her prow has a beak of a formidable kind attached to it. The next
largest iron-clad vessel of the Russian navy is the ' Pojarski,' built
bv English engineers at the naval yard of St. Petersburg, and
launched in September 186G. The ' Pojarski ' is 280 feet long,
49 feet beam, and about 31 feet deep. The armour-plating is 44/
inches thick, and extends the entire length of the vessel from the
depth of 5 feet below, and 6 feet above the line of flotation : the
armour is laid on a backing of East India teak 18 inches thick.
The ' Pojarski's ' armament is placed in a central battery occu-
pying about 80 feet on the length of gun deck, both sides and
ends being completely armour-clad : the armament consists of eight
300-pounder steel guns, four on each broadside. The iron hull is
POPULATION. 3/9
of great strength, being constructed on the cellular tubular principle.
The entire bottom of the vessel is built with double iron skin for
the purpose of giving great additional safety as well as strength. It
is a remarkable fact that not only are the hulls of the new iron-clads
built in Russia, but the entire quantity of iron used is home-made.
The steam-engines and boilers, the armour-plating, and the arma-
ment are also wholly of Russian manufacture. According to the
statement of a semi-official p;iper, the ' Pojarski ' was constructed at
an expenditure of 1,500,000 roubles, while the 'Sevastopol' cost
nearly two millions of roubles.
The Imperial navy was manned, at the beginning of 18G8, by
60,230 sailors and marines, under the command of 3,791 officers,
among whom 119 admirals and generals. The organisation of the
navy is after the model of that of France, but so far different that
the government of naval affairs is divided between the High Ad-
miral of the Fleet and the minister of the navy, the. latter with sole
charge of the administrative departments.
Population.
The Russian empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part
of the globe, and about one-twenty-sixth part of its entire surface.
But the superficial extent of the empire has never been determined
with accuracy. A topographical .-urvey made during the years
18G5-66, and embracing the provinces of Russia in Europe, showed
the total area of the same to be 90,117 geographical square miles,
or 1,992,574 English square miles. Finland and Poland were
not included in this survey, but their area was calculated on
the basis of other measurements. The following statement gives
a summary of all the official returns regarding the area of the
Empire : —
Geog. sq. miles
Russia in Europe ....... 90,117
Northern Asiatic Russia, or .Siberia .... 223,780
Southern Asiatic Russia, or Trans-Caucasia . . 3,123
Grand duchy of Finland 6,400
Kingdom of Poland 2,320
Total 325,740
or 7,210,374 Eng. sq. m.
The subjoined table gives the area and population of the empire,
according to general enumerations made by order of the govern-
ment in 1846 and in 1858 : —
3«o m
JSSIA.
Governments
Area in geo.
sq. miles
Pop. in 1840
Pop. in 1858
Northern Provinces — Archangel
15,519
253,000
274,951
Olonetz .
2,784
263,100
287,354
Vologda .
6,967
822,200
951,593
Great Russia — Petersburg
970
643,700
1,083,091
Novgorod .
2,213
907,900
975,201
Pskof
810
775,800
706,462
Smolensk .
1,019
1,170,600
1,102,076
Moscow
589
1,374,700
1,599,808
Twer
1,22-1
1,327,700
1,491,427
Yaroslaf .
660
1,008,100
976,866
Kostroma .
1,496
1,054,600
1,076,988
Nijni Novgorod .
877
1,178,200
1,259,606
Vladimir .
862
1,246,500
1,207,908
Riazan
767
1,365,900
1,427,299
Tambof .
1,202
1,750,900
1,910,454
Tula .
555
1,227,000
1,172,249
Kaluga
573
1,006,400
1,007,471
Orel .
859
1,502,900
1,532,034
Koursk
818
1,6S0,000
1,811,972
Baltic Provinces — Esthonia
376
310,400
303,478
Livonia
853
814,100
883.681
Courland
496
553,300
567,078
White Russia — Witepsk .
810
789,500
781,741
Mohilef .
885
931,300
884,640
Minsk
1,622
1,046,400
986,471
Lithuania — Wilna
768
863,700
876,116
G-rodo
693
907,100
881,881
Kowno .
758
915,580
988,287
Little Russia — Volhynia .
1.297
1,445,500
1,528,328
Podolia
774
1,703,000
1,748,466
Kief .
914
1,605,800
1,944,334
Tchernigoff
1,000
1,430,000
1,471,866
Pultawa
897
1,783,800
1,819,110
KharkoiF .
985
1,467,400
1,582,571
Voroneje .
1,209
1,657, P00
1,930,859
Don Cossacks
2,943
704,300
896,870
New Russia — Ekaterinoslaf
1,196
870,100
1,842,681
Kherson
1,332
842,41)0
1,027,459
Taurida
1,163
572,201)
687,343
Bessarabia .
838
792,000
919,107
Wolga and Caspian Provinces —
Kasan ....
1,128
1,342,900
1,543,344
Pensa ....
690
1,087,200
1,888,535
Simbirsk ....
1,31.-)
1,318,900
1,140,973
Saratof .
3,525
1,718,600
1,636,135
Astraklian ....
2,860
2S4,400
477,492
Caucasus ....
2,650
526,400
915,152
POPULATION.
381
Area and Population — continued.
Governments
Area in geo.
sq. miles
Pop. in 184G
Pop. in 1858
Oural Provinces — Orenbou
rg . 6,773
1,948,500
2,036.581
Perm
6,073
1,637,700
2,046,572
Viatka
2,500
1,662,800
2,123,904
Siberia — Tobolsk
1
Toomsk
.
Irkutsk
■
Yakutsk .
\ 223,780
2,937,000
4,070,938
Kamchatka
«
Okhotsk .
1
Yeniseisk .
J
Trans-Caucasia.
3,123
2,648,000
4,003,766
Grand-duchy of Finland
6,400
1,412,315
1,724,193
Former Kingdom of Polan
Grand total
d . 2,320
4,857,700
4,790,379
325,740
65,947,315
73,920,000
A later census than the above was made for the provinces of
European Russia, on the 1st of January, 1864, and for Finland and
Poland on the 1st of January, 1863. According to these enumera-
tions— instituted mainly for the purpose of finding the number of
individuals subject to the poll-tax, and as such having no claim to
great exactitude — the total population of Russia in Europe amounted
to GjjOGljgQl; of Finland to 1,798,909; and of Poland to 5,336,210
souls, giving a total, for the European portion of the empire, of
68,196,920 inhabitants.
To the Asiatic portion of the empire there was added, in 1866,
a new province, called Russian Turkestan. This province, according
to an imperial decree of March 1, 1866, comprises all the territory
bordering on the principalities of Central Asia, from the sea of Aral
to Lake Issik-Koul, of a total area of 12,800 geographical square
[miles, or three times the size of Great Britain.
The following table gives a view of the extent of the Russian
jlominions at different epochs : —
In 1535, at the accession of John the Terrible
In 1585, at his death ....
In 1613, at the accession of Michael KomanofF
In 1645, at his death ....
In 1725, at the death of Peter the Great .
In 1741, at the accession of Elizabeth
In 1796, at the death of Catherine II.
In 1855, at the accession of Alexander II.
Geog. sq. miles
37,200
144,000
148,000
258,000
280,000
325,000
335,000
343,240
382
RUSSIA.
The vast majority of the population of Russia are devoted to
agricultural occupations, and dwell in villages, spread thinly over the
vast area of the empire. According to local enumerations made by
order of the Ministry of the Interior in the year 18G3, there were,
at that time, fifteen towns containing more than 50,000 inhabitants,
as follows : —
Towns
Population
Towns
Population
St. Petersburg .
. 539,475
Nickolajew
64.561
Moscow
. 351,627
Kasan
63,084
Warsaw
. 162.805
Saratov
62,923
Odessa
. 118,970
Tiflis (Trans-Caucasia)
. 60.776
Kischinew (Bessa
•abia)
94,124
Tula ....
56,679
T\i<?a .
. 77,468
Eerditscbew
53.169
Wilna
69,464
Charkow .
. 52.056
Kiew.
.
6S,424
In the larger towns a considerable proportion of the trading and
industrial population are either aliens, or of foreign extraction.
More than a hundred tribes, with as many different languages,
are comprised within the circuit of the Russian empire, but nearly
all these live on the frontiers of the country ; the interior is in-
habited by a homogeneous race, the Russians, numbering about
50,000,000, whereas all the other tribes of the empire united do not
exceed 24,000,000. The Russians are generally subdivided into
Great Russians, numbering about 30,000,000 ; Little Russians, or
Ruthenes, to the number of 10,000,000 ; and White Russians, about
4,000,000. The dialect of the Little and the White Russians
slightly differs from that of the Great Russians, but not so much as
to prevent a mutual understanding. Of other races, the most im-
portant are the Slavonians of Poland and Lithuania, numbering
some 7,000,000 ; the Fins and Lettons, some 2,500,000 ; and the
Armenians, to the number of about 2,000,000. These figures,
however, are mere estimates, and there exist no official returns
regarding the various nationalities inhabiting the empire.
Previous to the year 1863, the greater portion of the inhabitants
of the empire were serfs, belonging either to the Crown or to private
individuals. The number of the latter class was estimated in 18G1
at 22,000,000, who were the property of 109,340 nobles and other
private persons. By an imperial decree of March 3, 1861, coming
into final execution on March, 3, 1863, serfdom . was abolished,
under certain conditions, within the Avhole of Russia. The owners
of the serfs were compensated for their land on a scale of payment
by which the previous labour of the serf was estimated at a yearly
rental of 6 per cent., so that for every six roubles which the labourer1
earned annually, he had to pay 100 roubles to his master as his
capital value to become a freeholder. Of this sum, the serfs had to'
POPULATION. 383
give immediately 20 per cent., while the remaining 80 per cent,
were disbursed as an advance by the Government to the owners, to
be repaid, at intervals extending over forty-nine years, by the freed
peasants. According to an official report, the whole of these arrange-
ments were completed at the end of July, 18G5, so that, from this
date, serfdom ceased to exist in Russia.
Besides the 22,000,000 of serfs belonging to private owners,
there were, according to a census taken some years ago, 22,225,075
Crown peasants — that is, 10,583,038 men, and 11,641,437 wo-
men. The emancipation of this class began previous to that of
the private serfs, and was all but accomplished on September 1,
1863. By an imperial decree of July 8, 1863, land was granted to
the peasants on the private and appanage estates of the Crown, and
to the peasants who belonged to the imperial palaces, which they are
to pay for in forty-nine years in instalments, each equal in
amount to the ' obrok,' or poll-tax formerly yielded by them. The
peasants on these Crown estates, about 2,000,000 in number, were
thereby elevated to the rank of rent-paying peasants, a situation in
which they will remain for forty- nine years, when they become
freehold landowners.
An important, though not very numerous class of the population
of Russia are the foreign settlers which the Government succeeded in
attracting to the country at various periods. The enormous extent
of excellent but waste land, and the small and thinly-scattered
population in all parts of the empire, early suggested the idea to
the Government of bringing these deserts into cultivation by inviting
colonists from other countries. Ivan Vasilievitch invited Germans
to Moscow, of which the German ' Sloboda ' still affords evidence.
Michael Fedorovitch, in 1617, brought several thousand inhabitants
from Finland and Carelia, and established them between Tver and
Moscow. Peter I. settled a great many Swedish prisoners, and in
1705, after the capture of Narva and Dorpat, carried away about
6,000 of the inhabitants, and planted them in scattered parties in
various parts of the empire. But Catherine II., immediately after
the commencement of her reign, conceived the idea of peopling with
immigrant foreigners the desert and waste lands of the southern
provinces of the empire, and through them of disseminating industry
and agricultural science among her subjects,' as it is expressed in the
ukase of 1763.
The first colonists received from the Russian Government the
necessary travelling expenses from their homes to their places of
destination ; they were allowed the importation, duty-free, of their
effects, to the value of 300 silver roubles ; they had houses built at
the expense of the Crown ; and they had provisions and money
for the first year, and a large sum as a loan, without interest, for a
3«4
KUSSIA.
certain number of years. These last privileges have not been granted
to the same extent to all subsequent colonists.
A return made several years ago stated the number of colonies
in the empire, inhabited by settlers who had not yet become quite
nationalised, as follows: —
Besides the foregoing, the Russian empire possesses considerable
colonies of the three peoples who seem to be adapted to the migra-
tory or pedlar trade — the Jews, the Armenians, and the Tartars, or
Bokharians. The Jews, who number about a million and a half,
are only found in the western provinces of the Russian empire,
in the south, and a few in Siberia. In the former Polish provinces
of the west they are more numerous than in any other part of the
world, and occupy there a very important position. In the central
provinces of the empire the Jews are not tolerated. The second
people for the migratory trade are the Armenians. Their numbers
are greater than those of the Jews, amounting to about two millions,
and thev are spread throughout all Asia and a part of Africa, and
to be found even frequently in China. The third of these peoples
are the Tartars, and especially the Bokharian part of them. The
Bokharians are everywhere indefatigable and skilful merchants ;
many are settled in the Siberian towns, and by their means Russia
has much intercourse with Bokhara and the commercial roads con-
nected with it.
An important feature in the social life of Russia is that the right
of primogeniture, as such, does not exist. Peter I. desired to intro-
duce an inheritance in fee of the oldest son among the nobility by
an ukase of March 13, 1713. This, however, was so much opposed
to the customs and traditions of the people, that it was abandoned.
Peter II. cancelled the former ukase by that of March 17, 1728.
Primogeniture has only been established in a few great families by
particular family statutes.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
385
Trade and Industry.
The trade of Russia with foreign countries has increased to an im-
mense extent during the last ten years. In that period the value of
the exports by the Baltic increased by 10,000,000 roubles, and the
value of those by the Southern Ports and the Western land frontier
nearly doubled ; while the imports increased nearly threefold by the
land frontier and doubled in the Baltic ports and in the ports of the
White Sea. The total value of the imports and exports of Russia,
exclusive of specie, in each of the five years 1863-67, is exhibited
in the subjoined table : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
Sil. roubles
£
Sil. roubles
£
1863
154,697,989
22,193,849
154,473,154
22,058,250
1864
175,312,202
20,557,765
186.745,077
26,567,970
I860
164,305,010
23,414,960
209,247,777
29,892,898
1866
178,175,605
25,453,658
194,838,184
27,834,026
1867
232,791,108
33,255,872
207,606,686
29,658,098
The imports of Russia on the average of the two years 1866-67
came from the following countries : —
^P0^01* troubles
Per cent, j
Germany ....
80,901,133
37
Great Britain .
67,340,364
31
France .
12,398,452
6
Austria .
10,604,239
5
Netherlands .
7,741,116
4
Turkey ,
5,095,877
2
Italy
4,175,938
2
United States .
3,425,375
2
Other countries
24,840,104
11
The exports in the same period went to the following countries :
Exports to
Value
Sil. roubles
Per cent.
Great Britain ....
104,767,571
52
Germany
29,543,294
15
France . .
17,322,616
9
Turkey .
7,565,899
4
Austria .
6,640,250
3
Netherlands .
6.280,845
3
Italy . .
4,877,924
2
United States .
1,348,032
1
Other countries
22,876,004
11
c c
386
EUSSIA.
The chief articles of export of Russia to European countries in
1867 were — cereals, 93,978,052 roubles, being an increase of 20
million roubles over the preceding year ; flax, 19,827,052 roubles;
flax seed (linseed), 18,300,342 roubles; tallow, 11,826,288 roubles;
wood, various kinds, 10,650,753 roubles; raw wool, 9,613,615
roubles, being a decrease of 6 millions over the preceding year ; and
hemp, 8,674,182 roubles. The principal imports into Russia from
Europe were raw cotton, 38,039,858 roubles ; unwrought metals,
21,520,081 roubles, an increase of nearly 13 millions; machinery,
15,022,671 roubles, an increase of nearly 5 millions; metal wares,
14,709,268 roubles, an increase of 4 millions ; tea, 14,345,575
roubles, an increase of 5 millions; and colours, 11,030,861 roubles.
Among the other imports figured wool above 8 million roubles, and
woollen goods 6 millions, being an increase of 3 millions and 2
millions ; cotton goods nearly 4 million roubles, an increase of a
million ; spun cotton nearly 5 millions ; silk 5 millions, and silk
goods 5 millions, an increase of more than 2 millions in the former
article, and nearly 2 millions in the latter ; linen tissues 3^ millions,
an increase of a million ; agricultural implements nearly a million
and a half, being an increase of 800,000 roubles ; drinks 8 millions,
an increase of a million ; fruit 5 millions; ladies' dress half a
million ; tulle and lace half a million. Among the exports not
before enumerated were cattle 4 million roubles ; horses, 354,000
roubles; furs, 732,000; cloth, 363,000; rags, 353,000 roubles.
The commercial intercourse of Russia with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined tabular statement', which gives the value
of the total exports from Russia to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the imports of British and Irish produce into Russia in each of
the ten years 1860 to 1869:— ' -
Exports from Russia to Great
Imports of British Home
Britain and Ireland
Produce into Russia
£
£
1860
16,201,498
3,268,479
1861
12,822,688
3,041,348
1862
15,101,059
2,070,918
1863
12,419,263
2,695,276
1864
14,711,202 •
• 2,854,898
1865
17,383,697
• 2,923,006
1866
19,636,129
• 3.093,231
1867
22,286.926
• 3,-944,035
1868
20,050,162 •
• 4,250,721
1869
16,674,524
• 6,469,303
The principal articles of export from Russia to the United Kingdom
are grain, particularly wheat; hemp and flax; timber; tallow;
TRADE AND COMMERCE. 387
bristles; wool; leather; fox, hare, and squirrel skins; canvas and
coarse linen ; cordage, isinglass, furs, and tar. The principal British
imports into Russia are cotton stuffs and yarn, of the value of
284,491/. in 1869; woollens, of the value of 429,868/.; and iron,
wrought and unwrought, of the value of 2,811,151/. in 1869.
The quantities of wheat and other kinds of grain exported
from Russia to the United Kingdom in each of the five years 1865
to 1869, from both the northern and southern ports of the empire,
were as follows : —
Exports
I860 1866
1867
1868
1869
Northern Ports .
Southern „
Total
Cwts. Cwts.
844,155 1,751,937
7,249,834 7,429,495
Cwts.
1,491,823
12,674.971
Cwts. Cwts.
4,683,813 4,134,808
8.371,525 9,173,124
8,093,989 9,181,432 114,166,794
13,055,338 13,317,932
I
In the year 1867, when the grain exports reached the highest
amount, those shipped for the United Kingdom from the Southern
ports alone were of the declared value of 9, U42, 909/., namely wheat,
8,767,761/.; barley, 138,368/.; maize,- 117,706/.; and other kinds
of grain, 19,074/. The average value of the exports of grain from
I the Northern ports of Russia to the. United Kingdom in the five years
1865 to 1869 amounted to about two millions sterling, of which
900,000/. was for wheat, and 1,100,000/. for oats.
In 1867 a total of 11.047 vessels, measuring 1,385,738 tons,
■entered Russian ports, 5,667 of the vessels, in ballast; 2,381 sailed
n! under the British Hag, 1,241 under the Russian, 1,052 under the
jj Italian, 1,134 Swedish and Norwegian. A total of 11,090 ves-
sels, of 1,400,552 tons, cleared out. The customs receipts in 1867
.amounted to 37,000,000 roubles — a sum unprecedented in any
former year.
The commercial navy of Russia consisted, at the end of the year
;1867, of 2,132 sea-going vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 90,496
Iship last, or 180,992 tons. The total comprised 607 ships engaged
in trading to foreign countries, and 1,525 coabting vessels, many of
them belonging to Greeks, sailing under the Russian nag. Not
1 included in the return were 396 trading steamers on the rivers and
lakes of the empire, very nearly two-thirds of the number on the
Briver Volga and its affluents. The inland trade has very largely
i [increased in recent years.
The internal commerce of the empire, as well as its foreign trade,
! has been great lv extended by the establishment, in recent years, of
l!a comprehensive network of railways. During the latter part of
cc 2
388
RUSSIA.
the reign of Nicolas, three lines were constructed by the initiative
of the Emperor, being the short line from St. Petersburg to Zarskoje-
Selo and Pawlosk, first of Russian railways, opened in 1838, the
more important one from Warsaw to the Austrian frontier and
Cracow, and finally, the line from St. Petersburg to Moscow,
called the Nicolas railway, commenced in 1842, and opened Nov. 1,
1851. Under the successor of Nicolas, the present Emperor,
the construction of railways, both directly by the state, and by
private companies — the latter, in every case, receiving more or less
considerable Government aid — was continued more actively than
before, and at the end of 1866 the following lines were opened
for traffic : —
Average receipts in 1866
Names of lines
Length in
versts
Per verst
Per Engl,
mile
State railways : —
Eoubles
£
Nicolas ......
604
18,098
4,324
Grouschevki to the Don ....
66
1,613
386
Odessa-Balta .....
200
2,419
584
Private railways : —
St. Petersburg- Warsow ....
1,206
5,162
1,233
Moseow-Nijni-Novgorod
410
9,759
2,332
Riga-Dunaburg .....
204
4,397
1,050
Moseow-Eiazan .....
196
7,262
1,734
Don-Volga
73
2.003
478
Zarskqje-Selo .....
25
14,303
3,411
Peterhof ......
51
7.105
1,705
Moscow- Yaroslaw .....
66
7,479
1,787
Additional lines, of a length of more than one thousand versts,
were opened for traffic in the years 1867 and 1868, and on the
1st of January, 1870, the total length of the railways of Russia open
for traffic was returned officially at 7,0-44 versts, or about 4,700
English miles, to be increased to 14,500 versts, or 9,500 English
miles, on the 1st of January, 1874. From the official returns of
State of the railways in Russia in the year 1869, it appears that at
the end of the year there were 27 lines open for public traffic, 2
belonging to the State, and 25 to private companies, while of the
total mileage of 7,044 versts, or 4,700 English miles, there were
1,142 versts of State railways. The aggregate receipts of the year
1869 amounted to 64,949,974 silver roubles, against 51,235,617 in
1868, thus showing an excess of 13,714,357 roubles, or nearly 27
per cent, in favour of 1869. All the lines excejit two showed an
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
389
increase of traffic. The total annual amount guaranteed by the
Russian Government to railways on the 1st of January, 1870, was
23,700,000 roubles, or 3,504,000/. the portion guaranteed on opened
lines being 2,798,000/.
The manufactures of Russia are comparatively of no great im-
portance, although a notable impulse has been given to many of
them since the end of the Crimean war. The following table gives
a summary statement, after official returns, of the number of the
principal manufactories, the value of their produce, and the number
of persons employed by them in 1866 : —
Principal manufactories
Number
Value of
produce
Number of
persons
employed
Sil. Roubles
Woollen cloth . . . . .
365
26,082,702
71,797
Other woollen goods .
120
6,364,193
13,031
Fine assorted woollen goods
51
4,653,790
7,242
Cotton yarn
35
26,111,093
21,711
Cotton manufactures
388
12,607,003
36,407
Linen manufactures
104
8,027,582
16,642
Hempen goods and cordage
147
4,300.952
5,055
Silk and trimming manufactories
326
5,483,944
8,957
Gold wares and epaulets
24
1,055,532
676
Paper, writing and other kinds
188
6,140,826
11,829
Tobacco and snuff
263
7.735.252
6,002
Linen yavn, dyed and twisted
348
21.193,472
22.723
Agricultural implements
970
9,438,753
5.723
Machinery ....
103
12,190,079
14,690
Sugar and molasses . .
432
31,081,501
54.980
Tallow ....
1,254
12,949,617
6,716
Stearine ....
13
5,701.859
1,761
Tanneries ....
2,508
16,564,417
12.169
Brandy distilleries
Total of principal and ot
manufactories
her"!
1,446
52,302,079
30,790
15,453
325,859,664
464,610
The mining and metallurgic industries of the empire are among
those Avhich have made the greatest progress in recent years.
Vast establishments for producing machinery, tools, and other
articles made of steel, iron, and copper have been founded in the
Oural provinces, especially the governments of Orenbourg and Perm,
which, served by skilful workmen, attracted from Germany, tend
to exclude, at no distant period, the highly-taxed foreign goods
of the same kind.
39°
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
Money, Weights, and Measures of Russia.
The money, weights, and measures of Russia, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
MoNETf.
The Silver Eouble, of 100 copecks
Approximate value 2s. I0d., or about
7 roubles to the pound sterling.
The silver rottble is the legal unit of money in Russia, and must
contain as such 278 grains, or 4 Zolotnicks and 21 Do! is, of fine
silver. In actual circulation there is little else but paper money,
discounted at from 10 to 20 per cent, below its nominal value.
Weights and Measures.
The Bcrkowitz
=
360 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Pood .
•
=
'36
, Chit vert
. .
=-.
' 5-77 imperial bushels.
, Oxhuft .
.
=
'58| wine gallons.
, Anker
. .
=
$ . " "
, Vi dro
=
2J imperial gallons.
, Arsheen
. .
=
28 inches.
„ Dessiatine
.
=
2-702 English acres.
„ Ship Last
. . .
=
2 tons.
1 Pound .
=
'■~6 of a pound English.
1 Pood, or 40lbs
. Russian .
=
361bs. English.
63 Poods .
,
=
1 ton.
1 Teketvert
.
. =
~g of imperial quarter.
100 Tchd verts
.
=
'70 quarters.
1 V&rst
3,500 ft., or 5 furlongs, 12 poles, 2 ft
Since 1831, the English foot
has been used as the ordinary
Rhenish foot, or Rhein Fuss — 1
is used generally in calculating
The system of weights and
that of Russia.
of 12 inches, each inch often parts,
standard of length measures. The
03 English feet = 100 Rhein Fuss —
the export duties on timber,
measures in Poland is the same as
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Russia.
1. Official Publications.
Materials for a Statistik of the Empire of Russia. Published, under the
sanction of His Majesty, by the Statistical Department of the Ministry of the
Interior (Russian). 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-70.
Memorandum on the Trade between Great Britain and Russia. Ry T. Michel],
Attache to II. M.'s Embassy at St. Petersburg. Presented to both Houses of
Parliament. Louden, 1866.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 39 1
Memorandum on the Trade. Manufactures, and Customs Legislation of Eussia.
By Mr. T. Mitchell. In ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.'
Pp. 334. 8. London, 1868.
Report by Mr. Lumley, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Railways of
Russia, dated August 25, 1869; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1870. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. Lumley, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Trade and
Manufacture of Cotton in Russia, dated January, 1865 ; in 'Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. VIII. London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Rumbold, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Russian
Budget for 1869, dated St. Petersburg, January 25, 1869 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1869. London, 1869.
Report bvMr. Consul T. Michell on the Finances of the Russian Empire,
dated St. Petersburg. June, 1867; in 'Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.' No. IX. 1867. London, 1867.
Reports by Mr. T. Michell, Consul at St. Petersburgh, Mr. W. Campbell,
Consul at Helsingfors, and Mr. J. Grignon, Consul at Riga, on the population,
state of agriculture, and land laws of Russia, dated December 1869
and January 1870; in 'Reports from H. M.'s Representatives respecting the
Tenure of Land in the Several Countries of Europe.' Part II. Fol. London,
1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL Fol. London
1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bar (K. E. von), and Hdmersen (Gr. von), Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Rus-
sischen Reichs. 25 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-69.
Brix (Prem. -Lieut.), Die K. Russische Armee in ihrem Bestande, ihrer Or-
ganisation. Ausriistung u. Starke im Kriege u. Frieden am 1. Jan. 1863. 4.
Berlin, 1864.
Buscken (A. von), Apergu statistique des forces productives de la Russie. 8.
Paris, 1868.
Buscken (A. von), BevoLkerung des Russischen Kaiserreiehs in den wichtig-
sten statistischen Verhaltnissen. 8. Gotha, 1862.
Custine (Marquis A. de), La Russie en 1839. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1843.
Eeieardi (Dr. Julius), Russland*s landliche Zustande seit Aufhebung der
Leibeigenschaft. 8. Leipzig, 1870.
Erman (Georg Adolf), Archiv fur die wissensehaftliche Kunde Russlands.
25 vols. 8. Berlin, 1841-68.
Flerqfski (N.), The Condition of the Labouring Classes in Russia. (Russian.)
8. St. Petersburg, 1869.
Gautur (Theophile), Voyage en Russie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1866.
Golovine (Ivan), .etudes et Essais : Richesse de la Russie, Economie privee,.
Economie hospitaliere. 8. Paris, 1864.
Gurowski (De), Russia and its People. 8. London, 1854.
Hagmnuister (Jul. von), The State Budget of 1866. (Russian.) 8. St.
Petersburg, 1866.
Haxthausin (A. von), Studien uber die innern Zustande, das Volksleben u. s. w-
Russlands. 3 vols. 8. Berlin 1847-52.
Jourdier (L.), Des forces productives, destructives, et improductives de la,
Russia. 8. 2nded. Leipzig, 1861.
3Q2 RUSSIA.
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1864.
Martin (Henri), La Russie d'Europe. 8. Pp. 135. Paris, 1865.
Miehie (Alexander), The Siberian Overland Route from Pekin to Peters-
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1864.
Murray (John), Handbook for Travellers in Russia, Poland, and Finland. 8.
Pp. 282. London, 1868.
Olherg (H.), Statistische Tabellen des russischen Reichs. 8. Berlin, 1859.
Oumanetz (Th.), Public Education in Russia (Russian). 8. Pp. 211.
Dresden, 1868.
Paidy (J. N.), Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie. 8.
St. Petersbourg, 1862.
Petzholdt (Alex.), Reise im Westlichen und Siidlichen Europaischen Russ
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Schnitzler (Jean Henri), Les Institutions de la Russie, depuis les reformes
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393
SPAIN.
(Las Espanas.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Amedeo I. King of Spain, born May 30, 1845, the second son ot
Vittorio Emanuele, heir-apparent of Sardinia, present King of Italy :
created Duke of Aosta, 1849; entered the army, 1861 ; nominated
rear-admiral in the Italian navy, 1867 ; elected King of Spain
by the Cortes Constituyentes, and proclaimed Sovereign by the
President, November 16, 1870; declared his acceptance of the
crown, Dec. 5, 1870. Married May 30, 1867, to
Maria, Queen of Spain, born August 9, 1847, daughter of the
late Prince Carlo Emanuele dal Pozzo della Cisterna, and of Louise
Caroline, Countess de Merode. Offspring of the union are two sons,
Emanuele, born January 13, 1869, and Carlos, born Nov. 24, 1870.
King Amedeo was elected at a full meeting of the Cortes, at which
311 members, out of a total of 345, were present. The majority
required by law for the election of a monarch was 173, and the King
obtained 191 votes, the remainder being given to three other candi-
dates for the throne, and in favour of a republic.
It is enacted by Art. 77 of the Constitution of Spain that the suc-
cession to the throne shall be hereditary, ' in the regular order of
primogeniture and representation.' The same section of the Con-
stitution provides that ' should the dynasty called to the possession
of the crown become extinct, the Cortes will proceed to a new choice,
as may best suit the nation— como mas convenga a la Nacion.'
Since the foundation of the Spanish monarchy, by the union of the
crowns of Aragon and Castille, there have been the following sove-
reigns of Spain : — ■
House of Aragon.
Carlos III. .
1759
Fernando V. ' the Catholic ' .
1512
Carlos IV. .
1788
Fernando VII.
1808
House of Habsburg.
Carlos I. .
1516
House of Bonaparte.
Felipe II
1556
Joseph Bonaparte
1808
Felipe III
Felipe IV
1598
1621
House of Bourbon.
Carlos II
1665
Fernando VII., restored
1814
House of Bourbon.
Isabel II
1833
Felipe V
1700
House of Savoy.
Fernando VI. . .
1746
Amedeo I. .
1870
394 spain.
It will be seen that in the three centuries and a half from
the union of the separate kingdoms till the revolution of Septem-
ber, 1868, which dethroned Queen Isabel, last ruler of the House
of Bourbon, there have been thirteen monarchs of Spain, giving to
each an average reign of twenty-seven years.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Spain, drawn up by a Cortes Con-
stituyentes, elected by universal suffrage in January 1809, bears date,
the 1st June, 1869, and was proclaimed at Madrid June 6
The fundamental laws of this charter are contained in sections 32 to
37, which decree : ' All powers emanate from the nation. The
form of government of the Spanish nation is the Monarchy. The
power to make laws resides in the Cortes. The King sanctions and
promulgates the laws. The executive power resides in the King,
who exercises it by means of his Ministers. The tribunals exercise
the judicial power. Questions of local interest to the population
belong respectively to the Ayuntamientos and Provincial Assemblies.'
The extent of the royal power is defined in sections 67 to 70, as
follows : ' The person of the King is inviolable, and he is not sub-
ject to responsibility. The ministers are responsible. The King
nominates and freely dismisses his ministers. The power to execute
the laws resides in the King, and his authority extends to all that
conduces to public order within, and public security without the
State. The King disposes of the sea and land forces, declares war,
makes and ratifies peace, giving afterwards documentary account to
the Cortes — dando despues cuenta documentada a las Cortes.'
Section 73 makes the choice of a consort for the King and his heirs,
and the right to abdicate the crown, dependent on the authorisation
of the Cortes.
The formation, mode of election, powers, and functions of the
Cortes are prescribed in sections 38 to 66 of the Constitution. It
is enacted that the Cortes shall consist of two co-legislative bodies,
called, respectively, the Senado, or Senate, and the Congreso, or
Congr-ess. .' The Congress is to be totally renewed every three years.
The Senate is to be renewed by fourth parts every three years.
The senators and deputies are the representatives of all the nation,
and not exclusively of the electors who nominate .them, from whom
they oannot receive any special mandate.' The Senate, according to
sections 60 to 64, is to be formed as follows : ' The senators will be
elected by provinces. Every municipal district will ele"ct by univer-
sal suffrage a number of " compromisarios " equal to the sixth part
of the councillors who compose its Ayuntamianto; those municipal
districts where the number of councillors does not amount to six
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 395
will elect one " compromisario." These compromisarios will unite
with the provincial deputation, and constitute the electoral junta.
They will proceed to elect, by plurality of votes, four senators for each of
the actual provinces. Whatever in future may be the territorial divi-
sion, the number of senators prescribed in this Constitution can never
be altered. To be senator requires to be a Spaniard ; to be forty years
of age; to be in possession of civil rights ; and to possess any one of the
following qualifications : — Of being or having been president of the
congress; deputy elected in three general elections, or for the
cortes constituyentes ; minister of the crown ; president of the
council of state, of the supreme tribunal, or of the upper tri-
bunal of accounts; captain-general of the army, or admiral, lieut.-
general, or vice-admiral ; ambassador ; councillor of state ;
magistrate of the supreme tribunals ; assessor of the tribunal
of accounts, or minister plenipotentiary during two years ; arch-
bishop or bishop ; rector of a university ; president of one of the
Spanish academies of history, of moral and political sciences, of
exact sciences, and of medical science ; inspector-general of the
body of civil engineers ; provincial deputy four times ; or, finally,
alcalde twice in districts exceeding 30,000 souls.' There are
also eligible ' the fifty largest payers of territorial taxes, and the
twenty largest contributors to industrial or commercial undertakings
in each province.' The senate will be ' renewable by fourth parts,
according to the electoral law, each time that general elections for
deputies are held. The renewal will be total when the King dis-
solves the Senate.' Sections 65 and 6G, treating of the second
legislative body, the Congress, enact that it shall be composed of
*at least one deputy to each 40,000 souls of the population,' the
mode of election being left to future legislation. Three conditions
only are requisite to be eligible as a deputy, namely, 'to be a Spaniard,
to be of age, and to be in the full possession of civil rights.'
The sections of the Constitution treating ' de la celabracion y
facultades de las Cortes,' enact: 'The Cortes will meet every year.
It will belong to the King to convoke, suspend, and close the
sessions, and dissolve one of the co-legislative bodies, or both, at the
same time. The Cortes will meet for at least four months in the
year. The King must convoke them at the latest by the 1st day of
February. The Cortes will meet whenever the Crown may be
vacant, or whenever, by any cause, the King is incapacitated for the
government of* the State. Each of the co-legislative bodies will
have to form the rules for their internal government, and nominate
and constitute its presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries. One of
the co-legislative bodies cannot be assembled unless the other is
also, except in the case when the Senate is constituted into a
tribunal. The co-legislative bodies cannot deliberate jointly nor in
396 SPAIN.
the presence of the King. No project can become law until after it
has been voted in both bodies. Projects of law on taxation, public
credit, and military forces, must be presented to the Congress
before being submitted to the Senate, and if in the latter assembly
the)? suffer any alteration which the former cannot admit, the resolu-
tion of the Congress is to prevail.'
The executive rests, under the King, in a Ministry divided into
seven departments, namely : —
1. Ministerio de Estado, or Ministry of State and Foreign
Affairs.
2. Ministerio de la Gobernacion, or Ministry of the Interior.
3. Ministerio de Hacienda, or Ministry of Finance.
4. Ministerio de la Guerra, or Ministry of War.
5. Ministerio de Marina, or Ministry of Marine.
G. Ministerio de Gracia y Justicia, or Ministry of Justice.
7. Ministerio de Fomento, or Ministry of Public Works.
It is enacted by section 89 of the Constitution that the Ministers
shall be responsible to the Cortes for all acts committed in the ex-
ercise of their functions — ' los Ministros son responsables ante las
Cortes de los delitos que cometan en el ejercicio de sus funciones.'
In these cases, the Congress has to form itself into a chamber ot
accusation, and the Senate into a chamber of judgment.
Church and Education.
The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the
whole population of the kingdom, with the exception of about
60,000 persons, adhere to the same faith. According to section 21
of the Charter of 1869, ' the nation binds itself to maintain the
worship and ministers of the Catholic religion.' It is further enacted,
that ' the public or private exercise of any other form of worship is
guaranteed to all foreigners resident in Spain without any further
limitations than the universal rules of morality and right — las reglas
universales de la moral y del derecho. If any Spaniards profess a
religion other than the Catholic, all that the last clause provides is
applicable to them.' Resolutions of former legislative bodies, not
repealed in the Constitution of 1869, settled that the clergy of the
established Church are to be maintained by the State. On the
other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835,
and March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed,
and their property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These
decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of the Roman
Catholic Church, which ended in the sovereign pontiff conceding
the principle of the measure. By a concordat with Rome, concluded
in August, 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised to sell the
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 397
whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates,
beai'ing interest at the rate of 3 per cent.
In 18G2 there \vei*e in Spain 2,806 prelates and priests of
cathedrals and colleges; 33,881 incumbents, or priests with paro-
chial cures; and 3,198 assistant priests, without cure of souls.
The numbers show an immense decline over previous periods.
According to the official returns of the census of 1787, the ecclesi-
astics of all descriptions, including 61,617 monks, 32,500 nuns, and
2,705 inquisitors, amounted to 188,625 individuals. Haifa century
later, in 1833, the class still comprised 175,574 individuals, of whom
61,727 were monks, and 24,007 nuns. The total number of secu-
larised religious persons or ' regulares exclaustrados,' amounted to
6,822 in 1858, to 6,323 in 1859, and to 6,072 in 1862. Of this
number about 3,000 assist the secular clergy, and the rest make up the
3,072 assistant priests without cure of souls. The upper hierarchy
comprises, since the year 1851, when a Concordat, settling the
administration of ecclesiastical affairs, was concluded with the Pontiff
of Rome, 43 bishops, and 9 archbishops, the latter of Toledo, Burgos,
Granada, Santiago di Compostela, Saragossa, Sevilla, Tarragona,
Valencia, and Valladolid. At the head of the Church stands the
Archbishop of Toledo, Primate of Spain.
Up to a very recent period, the great mass of the population of
Spain was in a state of extreme ignorance. It was rare, in the latter
part of the eighteenth century, and at the beginning of the present,
to find a peasant, or an ordinary workman, who was able to read,
which accomplishment, among women, was even held to be immoral.
Until the year 1808, public education was entirely in the hands
of the clergy ; but subsequent enactments, giving the instruction of
the people in charge of the Government, have made a radical change
in this respect. The State, however, pays but a very small
sum towards public education, which is left mainly to the charge
of the communes and the parents themselves : but the super-
intendence of the Government over educational matters has led
to vast progress. In 1797 only 393,126 children attended the
primary schools, which Avere very imperfect. In 1812, the Cortes
tried to introduce some modifications, but failed, on account of
the war, in making a radical reform in popular education. Fresh
efforts were made in 1820 and 1825, but still without much success.
The law of July 21, 1838, enjoining the expenditure of considerable
sums by the communes for the purpose of public instruction, proved
a great step in advance. Since that time the laws have been several
times amended, especially in 1847 and 1857, when the masters were
subjected to examination, schoolrooms built, and different scholastic
institutions founded. The result was, that in 1848 there Avere
398 SPAIN.
6G3,711 pupils, and on January 1, 1861, 1,046,558 pupils, of both
sexes, divided between the piiblic and private schools as follows : —
Description of schools
Schools
Scholars
Boys
Girls
Total
Public schools — Superior
Elementary
Mixed
Total
Infant ....
Adults.
Total
Private schools — Superior .
Elementary
Mixed
Total
Infant ....
Adult ....
Total
Total of public and private
schools ....
219
10,261
7,399
14,559
398,176
222,000
524
216,953
42,904
15,083
615,129
264,904
17,879
109
272
634,735
1,392
50,317
23,116
260,381
25
39,284
15,632
895,116
10,159
6,900
18,260
35
1,902
1,707
912,175
1,417
89,601
38,748
3,644
90
66
74,825
54,941
129,766
3,244
1,393
3,800
134,383
1,046,558
22,060
It was found at the last general census, of 1860, that of the total
population of the kingdom there were 2,414,015 men, and 715,906
women able to read and write; 316.557 men, and 389,211 women,
able to read but not to write, and that all the rest, upwards of 5,000,000
men, and 6,800,000 women, could neither read nor write. At the
preceding census, of 1846, the total number of persons, of both sexes,
able to write, was found to be no more than 1,221,001, while the
total number able to read was only 1,898,288, or considerably less
than one-fifth of the population.
According to the latest official returns, published in 1868, there
were 1,251,653 pupils attending the private and public schools, being
at the rate of one pupil to every thirteen of the population of Spain.
Middle-class education is given in fifty-eight public colleges by
757 professors to 13,881 pupils. In first-class education, the most
remarkable feature is the large number of law-students, namely,
3,755 in 1859-60, divided among ten faculties. There were, at that
date, ten faculties of literature and philosophy, with 224 students ;
seven faculties of sciences, with 141 students; four faculties
of pharmacy, with 544; seven faculties of medicine, with 1,178; and
six faculties of theology, with 339 students — in all 6,181 students.
The expenditure for public education by the government amounted,
on the average of the last years, to rather less than 250,000/.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
399
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the kingdom is raised by a system of direct and
indirect 'taxation, stamp duties, Government monopolies, and income
from state property. The direct taxes are imposed on landed pro-
perty, houses, live stock, industry, commerce, registration acts,
titles of nobility, mortgages, and mineral produce. The indirect
taxes are derived from foreign imports, articles of consumption,
tolls, bridge and terry dues.
The budget for the financial year commencing July 1, 1868, and
ending June 30, 1869 j was as follows :—
Sources of Bevenue.
Direct taxes . * .
Indirect taxes
Stamp duties .
State property
Colonial revenue .
Miscellaneous receipts
Total .
Branches of Expenditure
Civil List ......
Cortes .......
Public debt
' Compensations' .....
Pensions ......
Ministry of President of the Council
„ Foreign Affairs .
„ • Grace and Justice
War
,, Marine ....
,, ■ Interior ■. *
„ • Public Works . » .
,, Finance ....
„ Colonies ....
Expenses on account of sale of National
property ......
Total .
&
7,037,800
4,788,470
8,284,090
4,257,377
1,339,010
140,000
25,846,747
£
458,500
23,970
6,735,583
154.282
1,635,305
68,842
138,245
2,110,940
3,966,712
858,544
918,907
1,893,991
4,451,609
15,166
3,134,186
26,564,787
According to these budget estimates, voted by the Cortes early in
the year 1868, there was to have been a deficit of not more than
718,040Z. in the financial year ending June 30, 1869. The actual
deficit, as reported by the Minister of Finance of the Provisional
Government of Spain to the Cortes Constituyentes, amounted,
at the end of the year 1868, to 24,906,866/., being a difference of
24,188,826/. in. excess of the .estimates.
Both the budget estimates for 1866-67 and for 1867-68 showed
a surplus, but there was an actual deficit in each period of about
400 SPAIN.
two millions and a half sterling. In all the budgets for years past,
the expenditure was made to balance the revenue. The last, laid
before the Cortes Constituyentes on October 29, 1869, acknowledged
an actual deficiency of 5,400,000/., but the. Minister of Finance
stated at the same time that there would be a ' levelling of the es-
timates,' or equality of revenue and expenditure, in the year 1870.
Proposing to change the term of the financial year from July— June
to January— December, the minister submitted the following estimates
for the latter period, namely January 1, to December 31, 1870: —
Revenue . . . 656,824,499 . 26,272,979
Expenditure . . . 656,966,085 . 26,278,643
Deficit. . 141,586 . 5,664
In submitting these budget estimates for 1870, the Minister of
Finance declared that he was unable to place entire reliance upon
them, seeing the unsettled political state of the country.
Among the most important sources of national revenue, and the
one least liable to fluctuation on account of political causes, is that
derived from state property, the total of which was estimated at
4,257,376/. in the budget of 1868-69, and at very nearly the same
amount in that for the year 1870. The total was made up as follows
in the estimates of 1868-69 : —
£
Profits from State mines 390,455
Arrears of payment by former purchasers of National
property, to be made good in stock of the debt . . 400
Proceeds of State property , 28,030
Sale and administration of Church property by the State 269,642
Proceeds of sequestrated property 5,000
Various State dues. 66,094
Proceeds of tax on salaries of Registrars of property . 26,700
Arrears connected with State property to the end of 1849 200
Sales of National property effected previous to May 1,
1855, obligations which may be made good in currency 1,734
Ready money : —
Instalments due in seoond half-year of 1868, and first
half-year of 1869 ; with discount on those proceed-
ing from sales and redemptions anterior to Oct. 2,
1858 358,426
Instalments due in second half-year 1868, and first
half-year of 1869, with discount on those proceeding
from sales and exemptions subsequent to Oct. 2,
1858 3,089,882
Extraordinary receipts on account of sales and redemp-
tions 25,310
4,257,376
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 401
The national and church property of Spain was and is still of
immense value, but there was a reluctance in some persons to buy
the latter on account of religious scruples, till 1858, when a con-
cordat was concluded with the Pope and sanction obtained for the
sales, which were then actively continued, the Government giving
great facilities to the purchasers. The payments are made one-
tenth in cash, and the remainder in promissory notes from 1 to 10,
and, in some cases, to 19 years, the property remaining mortgaged
to the final instalment, owing to which the biddings at times have
been for even more than double the amount of its value. The
Cortes, in 1859, 1861, and 1863, authorised the Government to
apply 28,000,000/. for extraordinary expenses in constructing roads
and railways, and of this sum about 18,000,000/. had been spent
in 1869, the money being obtained out of the funds placed at in-
terest by capitalists, corporations, and the public in the ' Caja de
Depositos,' or Deposit Bank, under the direction of the Government.
The constant and ever- increasing excess of Government expendi-
ture over public revenue created a national debt of very large
amount, At the end of September 1870, the nominal capital of
the debt amounted to 237,411,091/. Two years previous the
debt was 225,093,091/., and it rose to the former amount by
two foreign loans, the first, of 10,000,400/., negotiated in April
1869, and the second, of 2,318,000/., raised in June 1870, on
the mortgage of the Almaden quicksilver mines. On November
30, 1867, the total debt of Spain amounted to 21,366,656,870
reales, or 213,666,568/., the annual charge upon which was
540,498,039 reales, or 5,404,980/. The previous year, en
March 1, 1866, the national liabilities amounted to 16,397,747,225
reales, or 163,977,472/. Of this capital the sum of 7,652,720/.
represented bonds issued by the Government in payment of sub-
ventions to railway companies ; and 2,722,590/. represented bonds,
or ' obligaciones de carreteras,' given in payment for common roads,
canals, and other public works, Avhile the sum of 17,737,068/.
sterling represented the amount of stock created, and given to the
civil, ecclesiastical, and charitable corporations in exchange for
their property, sold under the law of ' Desamortizacion ' passed in
1855. The following statement gives the various items of the debt
as existing on the 1st of March, 1366 : —
Description of Debt Amount in Reales
Debt of 5%, due to the United States .... 12,000,000
consolidated of 3%, due to Denmark
claim of England, 5%
external, consolidated 3%
internal ,, „ . .
external, deferred ,,
internal ,, ,, . .
D D
26,000,000
70,000
1,051,667,952
6,167,651,024
2,346,944,000
2,613,956,035
402
SPAIN.
external
internal
Description of Debt
Debt, redeemable, of the 1st class
2nd „
2nd „
„ perpetual, at 4%, internal
5°/
„ » 5%> external
Bonds, not consolidated ....
Debt, provisional .....
„ floating, 5% (paper)
„ without interest . .
,, passive, external . . . •
„ share of the civil corporations in tithes
Bonds in favour of the clergy .
interests on those capitals
Provisional documents for the interests of the floatin
External old debt, at 5% ...
„ perpetual, at 3%, of 1831 .
„ deferred, without interests, of 1S31
, ,, premium, of 1834
Shares of the national loan of 1821 .
Bills, of the first loan, Laffitte .
Shares, of the public roads loan
,, railways „
Treasury bonds, to the bearer, for railways
Shares, of public works ....
Bills on the treasury for materials .
for individuals .
debt
Amount in EefiJes
232,900,484
613,120,000
237.170,1)00
20,379,565
82,454,605
7,476,000
30,753,121
28,898,517
378,103,186
154,546,069
13,760,000
52,955,003
11,939,143
958,857
88,613.297
76,120,000
1,282,133
84,958,000
19,764,000
3,564,000
2,212,760
187,639,000
315.01 '0
307,338,000
70,512,000
14,109,946
483,835,530
Total
fEeales 16,397,747,225
1 £ 163,977,472
The 3 per Cents, were created by the Convention of the 17 th
February, 1834, for the settlement of American claims. The 3
per Cent. Consols, interior and exterior, comprise, first, liabilities
issued in conformity with a decree of the 21st January, 1841,
which authorised the capitalisation into 3 per cent, stock of the
interest payable on the consolidated debt at 4 and 5 per cent., in-
terior and exterior, due, but not then liquidated ; secondly, the
conversion of bills on the Treasury by contract ; thirdly, the con-
version of Treasury bonds of the colonies, approved by law of
the 14th February, 1845; fourthly, interest upon the capital held
by the layholders of tithes, guaranteed by law of 2nd September,
1841, and 20th March, 1846 ; fifthly, capital created for the amorti-
sation of the 60,000,000 reals, or G00,000L, English claims at 5 per
cent., recognised by the Convention of the 28th October, 1828, and
for the conversion of the deferred consolidated debt, acknowledged
by law, 1st of October, 1852 ; and, lastly, the issue made under the
laws of the 23rd February, 1855, and 31st May and 17th December,
185G. In 1851, on account of the inability of the Government to meet
its en'nio-ements in full, a portion of the debt of Spain was converted
ARMY AND NAVY. 4O3
into Passive Stock, that is, a stock not bearing interest, and which
was to be liquidated by an annual sinking fund. The law closed
the London market, and subsequently that of Paris, against Spanish
loans, and in order to raise the interdict, the Minister of Finance
introduced, in June 18G7, a bill in the Cortes which was adopted,
providing for the gradual redemption of the Passive Debt, the sum
of 120,000/. being set aside for the purpose in the budget of 1867— 'IS.
A commission, composed of three senators and three deputies, was
also appointed by the Cortes to watch and report upon all the opera-
tions connected with the public debt.
Army and JTavy.
The army of Spain was re-organised in 1868, after the model of
that of France. Under the new military law, which came partly into
operation in August 1868, the armed forces of the kingdom consist of
— 1. A permanent army ; 2. A first or active reserve ; 3. A second
or sedentary reserve. The permanent army consists of the force which,
in accordance with the terms of the Constitution of 1869, may be
annually fixed by the Cortes. All Spaniards past the age of 20
are liable to be drawn for the j^ermanent army, in which they
have to serve four years. The first or active reserve is composed
of all young men who, without reckoning four years of active
service, shall have exceeded the number of years fixed by law for
the permanent force. The position of these persons will be that of
soldiers upon six months' furlough without any pay. The second
reserve consists of all those men who, proceeding from the re-
cruits, shall have had four years' effective service, only excepting
those who at their own request or for the convenience of the service
may be allowed to remain on the active list. It is arranged that until
the new organisation shall have come into full effect, and in order to
preserve a proper proportion between the active army and the re-
serve, the government may anticipate the period of passing into the
second reserve, even before the completion of the four years of active
service, in the case of any number who, between the permanent
army and the first reserve, may exceed 100,000 men. Every soldier
will be liberated after having served eight years either in the active
;or in the reserve army. The total strength of these armed forces
is to consist of 200,000 men.
For military purposes the kingdom is divided into five districts,
or ' capitanias generales,' at the head of each of which stands a
I captain-general,' with the rank of field-marshal. Official returns
of the year 1868 state the actual strength of the army, including the
' provinciales ' or provincial militia, and the ' guardia civil ' or
national guard, as follows : —
4C4
SPAIN.
Infantry ....
Staff
Officers
Rank and file
Total
278
2,647
57.258
60,183
Artillery ....
44
369
9,486
9,899
Engineers ....
8
72
2,288
2,368
Cavalry .....
107
829
10.904
11,840
' Provinciales'
173
1,510
43,243
44,926
' Carabineros ' . . .
43
470
11,549
12,062
' Gnardia civil '
Total .
24
401
9,965
10,390
677
6,298
144,693
151.668
The general staff of the Spanish army comprises five captains-
general on the active list, besides titular dignitaries, 60 lieutenants-
general, 131 majors-general, and 238 brigadiers-general.
The navy consisted, according to official returns, of the following
vessels, at the end of June 1870 : —
1. Screw Steamers : — Guns
7 iron-clad frigates, of from 16 to 40 guns . . . 169
1 ship of the line, of 18 large guns .... 18
11 frigates, of from 26 to 51 guns ..... 461
26 corvettes, of from 2 to 5 guns ..... 68
18 gun-boats, each with 1 gun . . . . .18
10 transports —
73 steamers ......
2. Paddle Steamers : —
3 frigates, of 14, 16, and 18 guns .
11 corvettes, of from 2 to 10 guns
10 avisos, 2 pf 1, and 8 of 2 guns
24 paddle steamers .....
3. Sailing Vessels : —
5 frigates, of 16 guns each
1 corvette, of 15 guns ....
4 naval-school ships, of from 18 to 30 guns
3 coast-guard vessels, of 2 guns each
13
734
48
61
18
127
80
15
106
6
202
The seven iron-clads of the Spanish navy were, with one exception,
built in England. The largest of them, called the Victoria, launched
early in 1868, was constructed by the Thames Ironworks Company.
The dimensions of the ship are : — Length, 316 ft. ; breadth, 57 ft. ;
depth, 38 ft. ; burden, 4,862 tons. The Victoria carries 24 guns,
and is armoured from stem to stern with 5^-in. plates and 10 in.
teak; the engines, of 1,000-horse power, nominal, are of the same
type as those of the Warrior and Minotaur. Next to the Victoria
in size is the Numancia, built in the floating docks of Cartagena —
the latter, 324 feet in length, of 105 feet outside, and 78 feet inside
ARMY AND NAVY.
405
breadth, the erection of Sir John Rennie — under the supervision of
English engineers. The Numancia is built entirely of iron, with tin-
exception of the teak backing for the armour plating, and is 316
feet long, and 57 feet broad at the beam, with a draught of water of
27 feet 4 inches. The Numancia is completely encased by 5-in.
armour of 1,500 tons weight, and pierced for forty 68-pounders.
The port cills, with provisions for GOO men and 100 tons of coal on
board, are 7 ft. 6 in. out of water ; her full speed is 13 knots, and her
engines are of 1,000 nominal horse power. Next in rank after the
Numancia is the Arapiles, oldest of Spanish iron-clads, built at
Blackwall, and launched October 17, 1864. The Arapiles, con-
structed after French models, is of wood, covered with plates 4^
inches thick, and carries 34 guns in broadside battery, with engine's
of 800 horse-power. The other four iron-clads are smaller vessels,
carrying six and ten guns, with engines of 500 horse-power.
For the defence of the colonies, and mainly of Cuba and Porto
Rico, Spain maintains a small fleet of gun-boats, constructed in the
United States during the year 1870. The gunboats, thirty in
number, are all of the same size, 107ft. long, 22-lft. beam, 8ft.
depth of hold, and draw about 5ft. water. They are screw steamers,
and each one carries a 100-pounder pivot gun at the bow.
The navy of Spain was manned, in 1870, by 7,354 sailors, and
5,800 marines, and commanded by one ' captain -general of the fleet,'
and 1,100 officers of various grades. The navy, like the army, is
recruited by conscription, naval districts for this purpose being
formed along the coast, among the seafaring population. The num-
ber inscribed on these naval conscription lists in the year 1870
amounted to 66,000 men between 18 and 30 years of age.
Population.
The last general census, taken at the end of May 1860, stated the
area and total population of the kingdom as follows : —
Area
Population
Continent of Spain .
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands
English sq. miles
177,781
1,757
3,220
15,807,753
266,952
227,146
Total
182,758
16,301,851
An enumeration of the people on the continent of Spain was
made on the 31st of December, 1866, and showed that the total
population had risen to 16,336,699.
406
SPAIN.
The kingdom, inclusive of the adjacent islands, is divided into
forty-nine provinces, the area and population of which, and of the
twelve ancient divisions, was as follows, in 1846 and 18G0 : —
Area in Eng-
Population in
Population in
Provinces
lish sq. miles
1846
1860
New Castille— Madrid
1,315
369,126
475,785
Guadalaxara
1,946
159,044
199,088
Toledo
8,774
276,952
328,755
Cuenca
11,304
234,582
229,959
Ciudad Keal
Total
7,543
277,788
244,328
30,882
1,317,492
1,477,915
Old Castille— Burgos
)
f 224,407
333,356
Logrono
\ 7,674
\ 147,718
173,812
Santander
1
L 166,730
214,441
Oviedo .
3,686
434,635
524,529
Soria .
4,076
115,619
147,468
Segovia
3.466
134,854
146,839
Avila .
2,569
137,903
164,039
Leon
5,894
267,438
348,756
Palencia
1,733
148.491
185,970
Valladolid .
3,279
184,647
244,023
Salamanca
5,626
210,314
263,516
Zamora
Total
3,562
159,425
249,162
72,447
3,649,673
5,473,826
Galicia — Corunna
I 15,897
f 435,670
551,989
Lugo .
Orense
357,272
1 319,038
424,186
371,818
Pontevedra .
Total
I 360,002
428,886
6,250,7~05~
88,344
5,121,655
Estremadura — P>adajos
I 14 329
/ 316,622
404,981
Caceres
Total
L 231,398
302,134
102,673
5,669,675
6,957,820
Andalusia — Seville
]
f 367,303
463,486
Huelva
!■ 8,989
\ 133,470
174,391
Cadiz
J
I 324.703
383,078
Jaen
4,451
266,919
345,879
Cordova .
Total
4,159
315,459
351,536
120,272
7,077,529
9,676,190
Grenada — Grenada
)
f 376,974
441,917
Almeria
9,622
\ 234,739
315,664
Malaga
Total
1
( 338,442
451,406
129,894
8,027,734
10,885.177
Valencia — Valencia .
Alicant
f 451,685
606,608
7,683
318,444
378,958
Castellon-de-la-
Plana .
I 199,022
260,919
Murcia
7,877
/ 280,694
\ 180,763
380,969
Albacete .
Total
201,118
12,563,927
145,454 |
9,458,342
POPULATION.
407
Area and Population — continued.
Provinces
Area in Eng-
lish sq. miles
Population in
1846
Population in
1860
Brought foru
Catalonia — Barcelona .
Tarragona
Lerida
G-erona
Total
Aragon — Zaragoza
Huesca
Teruel .
Total
Navarre
Total
Guipuscoa — Alva
Biscay
Guipuscoa
Total
Islands — Balearic Islands .
Canary Islands
Total
ard .
;]
• i
145,454
12,180
9,458,342
f 442,473
1 233,477
j 151,322
[ 214,150
12,563,927
713,734
320,593
306,994
310,970
157,634
14,726
10,499,764
f 304,823
•{ 214,874
[ 214,988
14,216,218
384,176
257,839
238,628
172,360
2,450
11,234,449
221,728
15,096,861
297,422
174,810
1,082
1,267
622
11,456,177
67,523
111,436
104,491
15,394,283
96,398
160,579
156,493
177,781
1,757
3,220
11,739,627
229,197
199,950
15,807,753
266,952
227,145
182,758
12,168,774
16,301,851
It has been calculated that about the time of Julius Ca?sar, Spain
must have contained 78,000,000 inhabitants, and yet in 1688 it did
not possess more than 8,000,000. But from that time forward
there was a temporary increase ; in 1768 the popidation had risen
to 9,307,800 souls; in 1789 to 10,061,480; and in 1797 it ex-
ceeded 12,000,000 souls. In 1820 it had fallen to 11,000,000, or
thereabouts; but in 1823 it had again risen to 12,000,000, and in
1828 to 13,698,029. Nevertheless, the official return of 1837 only re-
gistered 12,222,872 souls, and a newtendency to decrease commenced.
In 1842 the population was found not to exceed 12,054,000 souls.
It rose again, as shown in the preceding table, to 12,168,774 in
1846, and to 16,301,851 in 1860, giving a density of population, at
the latter period, of 90 per English square mile, or considerably
less than half that of Italy, and less than one-third that of the
Netherlands.
The population of Spain in 1866 was estimated at 16,516,949.
In that year the births were in the ratio of 3"73 per cent, of the
population, being rather below the average of the six years, 1861-
1866, which was 3-759 per cent. This was a higher birth-rate than
that of the United Kingdom in 1866, which was 3-548 ; and much
higher than that of France, which was only 2-612 ; but it was below
408
SPAIN.
that of Italy — 3-862, and still more below the 4*034 per cent, of
Austria. But the death-rate in Spain in 1866 was also high, being
2-805 per cent.; and the average of the six years was 2*890 per
cent. This rate of mortality contrasts unfavourably with that of
the United Kingdom, which Avas 2'301 per cent, in 1866, as well
as that of France, which was 2'326 per cent. The death-rate in
Italy in 1866 was 2-896 per cent., and in Austria 3-232 per cent.
The result was that the excess of birth-rate over death-rate in Spain
in 1866 was only 0-93 per cent.; in the United Kingdom it was
1-247 per cent. The number of boys born in Spain is large, ave-
raging in the last decennial period, 1,068, to 1,000 girls; never-
theless the last census found more females than males in the
population.
Subjoined is the population of the principal towns of Spain,
according to an enumeration made on the 31st of December
1864:—
Towns
Population
Towns
Population
Madrid
Barcelona
Seville
Valence
Malaga
475,785
252,015
152,000
145,512
113,050
Murcia
Grenada .
Saragossa .
Cadiz
109,446
100,678
82,189
71,914
According to the census of 1860, out of 3,803,991 able-bodied
men, 125,000 belonged to the clergy, 241,335 to the army, navy,
and military functionaries, and 478,716 to the nobility. The re-
mainder comprised 47,312 students, 5,673 advocates, 9,351 writers,
27,922 belonging to the customs, and 206,090 servants, forming a
total of 1,221,799 men living apart from all manufacturing or agri-
cultm-al labour.
Nearly 46 per cent, of the whole surface of the kingdom is still
• uncultivated. The soil is subdivided among a very large number
of proprietors. Of the 3,426,083 assessments of the property-tax,
there are 624,920 properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666
from 10 to 20 reales; 642,377 from 20 to 40 reales; 788,184 from
40 to 100 reales ; 416,546 from 100 to 200 reales; 165,202 from
200 to 500 reales ; while the rest, to the number of 279,188, are
larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and upwards.
The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the
hands of 273,760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.
The titled nobility of the kingdom, the first class of which is
called the ' Grandeza,' while the members of the second are known
as ' Titulados,' is very numerous. It consisted in 1863 of 82 dukes,
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
all grandees of Spain ; 722 marquises, of whom 54 grandees
counts, of whom 59 grandees ; 74 viscounts; and 67 barons.
409
558
Trade and Industry.
The total imports of Spain, including bullion and specie, averaged
20 millions sterling per annum, within the five years 1865-69, while
the exports, within the same period, averaged 12 millions sterling.
Among the importing countries, France stands first, and the United
Kingdom second ; but in exports, the latter holds the first rank.
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports of Spain to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce into Spain, in each
of the ten years 1860 to 1869 :—
Exports from Spain to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Spain
1860
3,991,730
&
2,471,447
1S61
4,458,373
2,919,501
1862
3,766,437
2,862.261
1863
4,844,324
3.508,556
1864
5,879,705
3,084,778
I860
4,769,277
2,354,967
1866
5,553,132
2,336,903
1867
6,088,318
2,237,962
1868
6,591,021
2,208,892
1869
6,346,741
2,204,115
Both the exports and imports of the preceding table include those
of the Balearic Islands, but not of the Canary Islands and other
possessions of Spain. The principal article of export from Spain
to the United Kingdom is wine, the value of which was 2,348,714/.
in the year 1869. In 1868, it was 2,342,887/., against 2,229,101/.
in 1867 ; 1,959,675/. in 1866 ; 1,539,047/. in 1865 ; and 2,879,592/.
in 1864. The chief British imports into Spain are linen yarn and
linens, to the value of 714,563/. in 1869; iron, wrought and un-
wrought, to the value of 273,989/., and coals, to the value of
210,275/. in 1869.
The mineral as well as the agricultural riches of Spain are very
great, but neither of these two sources of national wealth are as yet-
developed. Much progress, however, has become manifest within
the last ten years. In the year 1863, there were 1,991 mines
worked in Spain, which produced the following quantities of metals
and minerals : —
413
SPAIN.
Metals and Minerals
From private mines :
Iron .
Lead
Silver
Copper
Tin .
Zinc .
Quicksilver
Cobalt
Antimony .
Manganese
Common salt
Soda .
Sulphur
Coal (pit) .
Lignite
Asphaltum
Turf .
From mines belonging to the State
Quicksilver
Copper
Lead .
Sulphur
Salt .
The total value of the minerals and ores raised in the year 18G3
amounted, according to official returns, to 1GG,073,965 reales, or
1,6G0,739Z., and that of the metals to 27G,765,054 reales, or
2,767,650Z. Of the most important of the minerals, coal, the
estimated value was 20,202,555 reales, or 202,025/., while iron and
lead were produced to twice the amount in value.
The material progress of Spain in the course of about ten years is
indicated, to some extent, by the growth of a system of railways,
the more important to the kingdom as there was formerly a great
want even of ordinary roads. The subjoined tabular statement
gives the length of railways open for traffic in Spain, at the end
of each year, from 1856 to 18G5 : —
Quantities
172,368 tons
311,161 „
L48,896,000 oz.
143,396 tons
6 „
106.858 „
157,952 cwt.
68 „
1,178 „
566,947 „
1,253 „
344,875 „
452,669 „
316,027 tons
17,218 „
61 „
127 „
14,496 cwt.
888 tons
2,186 „
3,779 cwt.
76.939,474 „
Years
Length
Kilometres
English miles
1856
fr>;,^i
326
1857
6731^
418
1858
853^
529
1859
1,148^2
713
1860
1,91.") "
1,189
1861
2,369145
1,471
1862
2, 728^
1,694
1863
3,587
2,227
1861
4,065
2,524
1865
4,712
2,902
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
411
The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private compa-
nies, bnt nearly all have obtained guarantees, or subventions,
from the Government. All the principal lines have been con-
ceded to private individuals, or companies, with large subventions.
The concessions, when a ' subvention ' is attached to them, are
given by public adjudication. Any one who has made the stipu-
lated deposit of ' caution money ' may apply for a concession in
sealed tenders, which are opened and read in public on the day of
adjudication, and whoever offers to make the railway with the
lowest subvention becomes legally entitled to the concession. The
subventions are paid by instalments during the construction of the
work, in bonds or obligations, bearing 6 per cent, interest, at their
market value of the day.
The following table exhibits the amount of capital realised and
subventions received by the different railway as well as the canal
companies in the kingdom on December 31, 1865 : —
Nominal capital assigned by statutes .
Capital represented by shares issued .
Subvention assigned by laws of concession
Capital in hand from shares
Subventions received
Nominal value of the shares issued .
Nominal value of the shares taken up
Net value received ....
Total amount of shares and subventions
Net produce of traffic for I860 .
Estimated amount necessary for the comple
tion of all the lines
At the end of 1865 the length of railways at work was, as before
stated, 2,902 miles, while there were in course of construction 806,
and projected 1,035 miles of lines.
The common roads of Spain are constructed by the Government,
the funds for which are obtained by the issue of 6 per cent, state
bonds, called ' obligaciones de carreteras.'
The merchant navy of the kingdom consisted, on January 1,
1868, of the following vessels : —
Railways
Canals
£
£
. 39,519.311
2,520.000
. 27,986,074
1,800,000
. 17,361,646
200,000
. 24,397,610
1,444,728
. 11,448,319
200,000
. 61,692,597
520,000
. 54,777.354
520.1)00
. 27,791,977
405. 670
. 62,750.833
2,110,402
2,927,450
476,606
. 31,764,217
118,561
Description
Vessels
Tons
c ., • , 1 Engaged in foreign trade .
Sailing vessels ] ° ° 5
I ,, in coasting ,, . . .
0. i f (Horse power 5,185) in foreign trade .
oteam vessels j ^ ^^ {q coasting ^ _
Total .
1,446
3,293
36
65
245,312
101.724
12,035
8,719
4,840
367,790
412
SPAIN.
The commercial navy has been declining in recent years, both in
number of vessels and tonnage. At the commencement of 1860,
there were 6,715 sailing vessels, of 449,436 tons burthen, so that
there was a decrease in the next eight years of 1,976 vessels, of an
aggregate burthen of 102,400 tons. But the steamers, in 1860, only
numbered 68, of 13,369 tons burthen, so that, as regards them, there
•was an increase of 33 vessels, and 7,385 tonnage.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Spain, formerly embracing nearly the
■whole of America, are reduced at present to Cuba, Porto Rico, and
the Philippine Islands, with scattered settlements in the Atlantic and
Indian archipelago, and a small strip of territory in Northern
Africa. The total area of these possessions is estimated at 110,000
English square miles, containing a population of about 5,000,000
souls, or 45 to the square mile.
The most important of the colonial possessions of Spain is the
island of Cuba, with an area of 48,489 English square miles, and a
population, in 1862, of 1,359,238 souk, of whom 764,750 whites,
225,938 free negToes, and 368,550 slaves. The subjoined table shows
the numbers, and division of sexes, of the white population, at the
end of each of the years 1860, 1861, and 1862 : —
Tears
Males
Females
Total
1860
1861
1862
343,953
468,087
437,869
288,844
325,397
326,881
632.7;>7
793,484
764,750
The numbers of the coloured population, both free and slaves,
were as follows, at the same period : —
Years
Free
Slaves
Males
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
1860
1861
1862
91,942
113,806
111,268
97,906
118,687
114,670
189,848
232, 193
225,938
224,076
218,722
220,305
152,708
151,831
1 18,245
376,784
370,553
368,550
The area of Porto Rico is 3,969 English square miles, with a total
population, in 1864, of 615,57 1 souls, of whom 311,034 males, and
304,540 females. The division of population, in 1864, was as
follows : —
COLONIES.
413
White
Coloured
Tree
Slaves
Total
323,032
2-19,900
42,642
292,542
The Philippine Islands contain an area of 52,647 English square
miles, with a population, in 1864, of 2,679,500 souls, of whom about
one-fourth slaves. The islands, more than 500 in number, are
divided into 27 provinces, 13 of which are on the isle of Luzon, 4 on
the isle of Negros, 3 on Panay, and 3 on the isle of Mindanao.
The estimated receipts and expenditure of Cuba, Porto Rico, and
the Philippine Islands for the year 1870 were stated as follows in
the colonial budget laid before the Spanish Cortes in March 1870 : —
Cuba : — Receipts, 6,002,333/. ; expenditure, 5,203,557/. ; surplus,
798,776/.
Porto Rico : — Receipts, 667,824/. ; expenditure, 749,442/. ;
deficit, 81,6 is/.
Philippine Islands: — Receipts, 2,451,918/.; expenditure,
2,475,009/.; deficit, 23,091/.
From Cuba Spain derives important commercial advantages, be-
sides a direct revenue. The cultivated lands of Cuba under sugar,"
coffee, tobacco, and gardens, were estimated, in 1858, at 54,000
caballerias, or 1,728,000 acres. There were 1,238 sugar estates,
employing 138,701 persons; 1,838 coffee plantations, with 114,760
persons; and 42,549 farms, with 393,993 persons, or a total, 647,454
agricultural labourers.
The following is a statement of the increase of production of Cuba
within the fourteen years from 1846 to 1862 : — ■
Siigar
. arrobas
1846
1862
17,729,589
41,418,444
Coffee .
,,
1.17H.7.31
1.711,542
Tobacco .
. cargas
168,091
305,626
Indian corn
. fanegas
912,491
2,179,7-' I
Eice
. arrobas
929,858
1,747.171
Wax
• "
32,326
68,420
Cuba is divided into three provinces, the SE. and central being
the richest and most populous, containing 22 cities and towns, and
204 villages and hamlets. The chief towns are Havana, Santiago,
Matanzas, Santa Clara, Santa Maria, and Trinidad. The commercial
prosperity of Cuba has been of late years rather on the decline, and
an insurrection, which broke out September 1868, and was not
subdued at the end of 1869, put an increased check upon industry.
414
SPAIN.
The government of Cuba is vested in a captain-general, who
is supreme military commandant and civil governor of one of the
provinces. There is a governor of the other provinces, who has
independent civil power, being responsible only to the government
of Spain.
The island of Porto-Rico, in point of importance the second
Spanish colony, produces, like Cuba, mainly sugar, tobacco, and
coffee, besides which there are exported considerable quantities of
cotton, molasses, rum, and hides. The exports of the island in each
of the years 18G4 and 1865 comprised the following articles: —
Articles
1864
1865
Sugar
Lbs.
110,425,025
157.332,185
Molasses .
. Gallons
3.732,076
5,554,037
Coffee
Lbs.
14,993,831
23,724,624
Tobacco
,,
4,698,729
5,559,569
Hides
„
569,665
722,838
Cotton
„
1,583,187
2,229,766
Rum .
. Quarts
32,055
191,887
The value of the commercial intercourse between Cuba and Porto-
dAico and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular
statement, which gives the value of the total exports of the two pos-
sessions to the United Kingdom, and the total imports into these of
British produce in the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from Cuba
Imports of British
Years
and Porto-Rico to
produce into Cuba
Great Britain
and Porto-Rico.
£
£
1865
5.063,839
2,193,677
1866
2,961,338
2,240,975
1867
4,267,684
2,266,624
1868
4,830,295
2,519,271
1869
4,823,331
1,088,517
The staple article of export from Cuba and Porto-Rico to the
United Kingdom is unrefined sugar, the value of which was
2,788,484/. in 1865; 1,903,232Z. in 1866: 3,379,549/. in 1867;
3,814,681/. in 1868 ; and 3,996,249/. in 1869. The British im-
ports mainly comprise cotton and linen manufactures.
The chief articles of produce of the Philippine Islands are sugar,
hemp, and tobacco. The total exports to Great Britain in 1869
were of the value of 1,406,892/., and the imports of British produce
of 832,981/. Of these imports the value of 748,952/., or consider-
ably more than two-thirds, was represented by cotton fabrics.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 415
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Spain, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Real = 100 Centimes = Average rate of exchange, 100 = £1 sterling.
„ Peseta = 4 Eeales = „ „ „ 25 = £1
„ Escude = 10 Eeales = „ „ „ 10 = £1 „
"Weights axd Measures.
Since January 1, 1859, the French metric system of weights and
measures has been introduced in Spain, with no other change than a
slight one of names, the metre becoming the metro, the litre the litro,
the gramme the gramo, and the are the area. But, beside these, the
old weights and measures are still largely used. They are : —
The Quintal .
„ Libra
. , i for wine
„ Arroba -j ^
„ Square Vara .
„ Fanega .
101 "4 lbs. avoirduoois.
1*014
3 5 imperial gallons.
2| „ „
1-09 Vara = 1 yard.
H imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Spain.
1. Official Publications.
Anuario Estadistieo de Espaha, correspondiente a 1867 y 1869. 4. Madrid
1869.
Censo de la Poblacion de Espaiia, segun el recuento verifieado en 25 de
diciembre de 1860 por la Junta General de Estadistica. Publicase de orden de
S. M. Eol. Madrid, 1863.
Constitueion de la naeion Espanola, promulgada en Madrid el 6 de Junio de
1869. 24. Madrid, 1869.
Diario de Sesiones de las Cortes Constituyentes. 4. Madrid, 1869.
Estado General de la Armada para el afio de 1868. 4. Madrid, 1869.
Memoria presentada al Congreso de Diputados por la Comision Inspeetora de
las Operaciones de la Deuda Publiea. Madrid, 1868.
Nomenclator de los Pueblos de Espana, formado por la Comision de Estadis-
tica General del Reino. Publicase de orden de S. M. Eol. Madrid, 1868.
Report by Mr. Robert Lytton, British Secretary of Legation, 'on Spanish
Finances,' dated Madrid, November 29, 1868; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1869. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. L. C. Sackville West, British Secretary of Legation, on the
Financial State of Spain, dated Madrid, March 1. 1866 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XIV. London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. L. C. P. West, British Secretary of Legation, on Commerce
and General Statistics, dated Jan. 1, 1866; in ' Reports by H. M.'s Secrc-taii^
of Embassy.' No. XIII. London, 1866.
41 6 SPAIN.
Reports by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, British Secretary of Legation, on the
Trade, the Railways and Navigation, and the Finances of Spain, dated Jan. 1,
and Jan. 15, 1867 ; in 'Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. V.
1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. Consul Grattan, 'on the Trade and Commerce of the Canary
Islands for the year 1867,' dated Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, June 30, 1868; in
' Commercial Reports received atthe Foreign Office.' No. XL 1868. London,
1868.
Report by Mr. Consul Ricketts, ' on the Trade and Commerce of the Philip-
pine Islands for the year 1867,' dated Manilla, April 15, 1S68 ; in ' Commercial
Reports received at the Foreign Office.' No XI. 1868. London, 1868.
Report by Mr. Consul Cowper, ' on the Trade and Commerce of Porto Rico
during the year 1869,' dated Porto Rico, Jan. 1, 1870; in 'Commercial Re-
ports received at the Foreign Office.' No. III. 1870. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL Fol. London,
1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Block (Moritz), Die Bevblkerung Spaniens und Portugals, nach den Original-
quellen, in ihren wichtigsten Verhaltnissen statistisch dargestellt. 8. Gotha,
1861.
C'arrasco (L.), Geografia General de Espana. 8. Madrid. 1861.
Codlo (Fr. de Lujan), Resehas Geografica, Geologica y Agricola de Espana.
8. Madrid, 1864.
Colmeiro (Manuel), Derecho Administrativo Espanol. 3rd ed. Vol. I. 4.
Madrid, 1865.
Colmeiro (Manuel), Historia de la Economia Politica en Espana. 2 vols. 8.
Madrid, 1864.
Fomento (El) de Espana. Revista Universal de Agricultura. Fol. Madrid,
1865.
Garrido (Fernando), L'Espagne Contemporaine, ses Progres Moraux et Mate-
riels an 19me Siecle. Bruxelles, 1862.
Garrido (Fprnando), La Espana Contemporanea. 8. Barcelona, 1865.
Jaybert (Leon), Situation financiere de l'Espagne. 8. 47 pp. Paris, I860.
Lestgarens (J.), La Situation Economique et Industrielle de l'Espagne en
1860. Bruxelles, 1861.
Madoz (Pascal), Diccionario Geografico, estadistico, y historico de Espafia
y sus provincias de ultramar, 16 vols. 4. Madrid, 1846-50.
Mazade (Ch. de), Les revolutions de l'Espagne. 8. Paris, 1869.
Murray (John). Handbook for Travellers in Spain. 8. London, 1868.
Polin (D. Jose Lopez), Diccionario Estadistico Municipal de Espana. 4.
Madrid, 1863.
Viilal (J. L.), L'Espagne en 1860. Etat Politique, Administrative, Legis-
lative; Institutions Economiques ; Statistique Generale de ce Royaume. 8.
Paris. 1861.
Vitta-Atardi (Baron de), Consideraciones sobre el Estado Administrativo y
Economico de Espana. 4. Madrid, 1S65.
WUlkomm (Heinrich Moritz), Das pyrenaische Halbinselland. 8. Leipzig,
1866.
4i7
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(SVERIGE OCH NORGE.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Carl XV., King of Sweden and Norway, born May 3, 1826,
the son of King Oscar I. and of Queen Josephine, daughter of
Prince Eugene of Leuchtenberg. In consequence of the pro-
longed illness of his father, appointed Prince Regent of Sweden
and Norway by royal decree, September 25, 1857. Ascended the
throne, at the death of King Oscar I., July 8, 1859 ; took the
oath to the constitution of Norway, at Christiania, Oct. 6, 1859 ;
crowned King of Sweden at Stockholm, May 3, 18G0. Married,
June 19, 1850, to
Loivisa, Queen of Sweden and Norway, born Aug. 5, 1828, the
eldest daughter of Prince Frederik of the Netherlands, uncle of
the reigning King of the Netherlands. Offspring of the union is
a daughter, Loivisa, born Oct. 31, 1851 ; married July 28, 18G9,
to Prince Frederik, eldest son of the King of Denmark.
Brothers and Sister of the King. — 1. Oscar, Duke of Ostergothland,
heir-apparent, born Jan. 21, 1829, the second surviving son of Kino-
Oscar 1. ; lieutenant-general in the armies of Sweden and Norway, and
vice-admiral in the Swedish-Norwegian fleet. Married June 6, 1857,
to Sophia, Princess of Nassau, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late
Duke Wilhelm of Nassau. Offspring of the union are four sons ;
namely, Gustaf, Duke of Wermland, born June 16, 1858; Oscar,
Duke of Gothland, born Nov. 15, 1859; Carl, Duke of Westergoth-
land, born Feb. 27, 1861, and Eugene, Duke of Nericia, born Aug.
1, 1865. 2. Eugenia, Princess of Sweden and Norway, born April
24, 1830. 3. August, Duke of Dalecarlia, born Aug. 24, 1831,
major-general in the army of Sweden and Norway ; married Auo-.
16, 1864, to Princess Theresa, born Dec. 21, 1836, daughter of the
late Duke Eduard of Saxe-Altenburg.
King Carl XV. is the third sovereign of the House of Ponte
Corvo, and grandson of General Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte Corvo,
who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by the
Parliament of the kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the throne
E E
4i8
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. The congress of
Vienna united Norway to the Swedish crown, as a recompense, for
the eminent services of the heir-apparent against French supremacy
in eastern and central Europe.
The present sovereign of Sweden and Norway has a civil list of
1,417,000 riksdaler, or 78,722/., as King of Sweden, and 143,155
specie-daler, or 31,812/., as ruler of Norway. The royal family,
besides, has an annuity of 300,000 riksdaler, or 16,66GZ., voted
to Bang Carl XIV. and his successors on the throne of Sweden.
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, from
the accession of the House of Vasa : —
House of Vasa.
Ulrika Eleonora
1719
Gustaf I.
1523
Fredrik ....
1720
Eric XIV.
1560
Adolf Fredrik .
1751
Johan III.
. 1568
Gustaf III.
1771
Sigismund
Carl IX. .
1592
Gustaf IV. Adolf .
1792
1604
Carl XIII. .
1809
Gustaf II. Adolf .
Christina
1611
1632
House of Ponte Corvo
CarlX. .
1654
Carl XIV.
1818
Carl XI. .
1660
Oscar ....
1844
Carl XII.
1607
Carl XV.
1859
The average reign of the nineteen rulers who occupied the throne
of Sweden since the accession of Gustaf I. amounted to seventeen
years.
The union of Sweden and Norway under one sovereign was
decided upon at the Congress of Vienna, and confirmed at the Peace
of Kiel, Jan. 4, 1814, when Denmark consented to dissolve its
ancient connexion with Norway. The provisions of this treaty
were accepted by the Norwegian Parliament Nov. 4, 1814, and
on August G, 1815, was promulgated a Charter, the Riksakten,
establishing the union on the following terms : — While the govern-
ment of the two countries is kept entirely separate, the common
sovereign exercises action over both through a Council of State,
composed of Swedes and Norwegians. The law of succession is the
same in both countries. In case of the minority of the king, his
absence in foreign countries, his physical or mental incapacity, or
any other temporary vacancy of the throne, the sovereign power is
exercised by a Council of Regency, composed of ten Swedish and ten
Norwegian state councillors, appointed by the Diets of the two
countries. In case of absolute vacancy of the throne, the two
Diets assemble for the election of the future sovereign, and should
they not be able to agree upon one person, an equal number of
Swed'sh and Norwegian deputies have to me^t at the city of Carl-
SWEDEN CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 419
stad, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nomination
to be absolute. It is settled by the Riksakten that the political
union of the two kingdoms shall be indissoluble and irrevocable,
without prejudice, however, to the separate Government, consti-
tution, and code of laws of either Sweden or. Norway. Each
therefore remains an independent kingdom.
I. SWEDEN.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are — 1. The
Constitution or Regerings-Formen of June G, 1809 ; 2. The law
of royal succession of September 2G, 1810; and 3. The amended
regulations for the formation of the Diet, adopted December 8,
1865. According to these statutes, the king must be a member of the
Lutheran Church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land.
His person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make
peace, and grant pardon to condemned criminals. He nominates to
all appointments, both military and civil : concludes foreign treaties,
and has a right to preside in the supreme Court of Justice. The
princes of the blood royal, however, are excluded from all civil
employments. The king has an absolute veto against any decrees of
the Diet, and possesses legislative power in matters of provincial
administration and police. In all other respects, the fountain of law
is in the Diet. This Diet, or Parliament of the realm, consists of
two chambers, or estates,. both elected by the people, but represent-
ing different interests. The First Chamber, or Upper House of
Parliament, consists of 127 members, or one deputy for every 80,000
of the population. The election of the members takes place by the
' landstings,' or provincial representations — one in each of the 24
' Ian,' or governments, of the kingdom — and the municipal corpora-
tions of all towns not already represented in the ' landstings.' All
members of the Birst Chamber must be above 85 years of age, and
must have possessed for at least three years previous to the election
either landed property to the taxed value of 80,000 riksdalers
— 4,450/. — or an annual income of 4,000 riksdalers — 223/. They
are elected for the term of nine years, and obtain no payment
for their services. The Second Chamber, or Lower House of Par-
liament, consists of 188 members, of whom 55 are elected by the
towns and 133 by the rural districts, there being one representative
for every 10,000 of the population of towns with more than 10,000
inhabitants, and one representative for every 40,000 of the popula-
420 SWEDEN.
tion of rural districts. All natives of Sweden, aged 21, possessing
real property to the taxed value of 1,000 riksdalers — 56Z. — or an
annual income of 800 riksdalers — 45/. — are elector's; and all
natives, aged 25, possessing the same qualifications, and making,
moreover, public profession of the Protestant faith, may be elected
for the Lower House of Parliament. The election is for the term of
three years, and the members obtain salaries for their services, at the
i-ate of 1,200 riksdalers — 67/. — for each session of four months,
besides travelling expenses The salaries and travelling expenses of
the deputies are borne by the G-overnment, as well as the cost of
elections; and the expenditure of any money for the latter purpose
by the parliamentary candidates is forbidden under heavy penalties.
The vote is by ballot, both in town and country.
The two Houses of Parliament assemble every year, voting the
budget for the same period. All the legislative measures are pre-
pared in committees, appointed every session, immediately after
meeting. The committees are five in number, namely, 1. The
Constitutional Committee, which maintains a watch over all con-
stitutional cptestions, and consists of ten members of each of the
two Houses of Parliament ; 2. The State Committee, which super-
intends the general State expenditure, and consists of twelve mem-
bers of each House; 3. The Subsidy Committee, which is charged
with the examination and settlement of all salaries, pensions, and
allowances to public servants; 4. The Legislative Committee, which
takes cognisance of matters connected with proposed alterations in
civil, criminal, or ecclesiastical law; and 5. The Bank Committee,
which superintends the affairs of the State Bank. Each Committee
has the right of calling upon the ministers and other members of
the Government for explanations, and of hearing witnesses in any
cases before them ; but the Constitutional Committee alone has
power to indict the ministers and chief servants of the crown, for
any acts contrary to the fundamental laws of the kingdom which
they may have committed.
The Diet of the two Houses constitutes the chief legislative power
in the kingdom. The executive is in the hands of the king, who
acts under the advice of a Council of State, composed of ten mem-
bers, seven of which are ministerial heads of departments, namely : —
1. The Department of Justice. — Axel Adlercreutz, Minister of
the Interior, 1868—70 ; appointed Minister of State, June 3, 1870.
2. The Department of Foreign Affairs. — Count Carl Wachtmeister,
appointed June 4, 1868.
3. The Department of Finance. — Carl Fredrik Woern, appointed
June 3, 1870.
4. The Department of the Interior. — Per Axel Bergstrom, ap-
pointed June 3, 1870.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
42I
5. The Department of Marine. — Major-General Baron Broder
Abraham Leijonhufvud, appointed January 14, 1870.
6. The Department of War. — General Gustaf Rudolf Abelin,
appointed July 5, 1867.
7. The Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Gunnar Wennerberg, appointed June 3, 1870.
The members of the Council of State without a department
are : —
1. Henrik Wilhelm Breclberg, appointed Nov. 2, 1860.
2. Baron Carl Jonas Oscar Jlstromer, appointed June 15, 1870.
3. Carl Johan Berg, appointed June 4, 1868.
All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the
acts of the Government, individually and collectively.
The administration of justice, is entirely independent of the
Government. Its two highest, functionaries are the Justitie-Kans-
ler, or Chancellor of Justice, head of the judicial organisation of
the kingdom, and the Justitie Ombudsman, or Attorney- General.
The latter, who is appointed by the Diet, and responsible to no
other tribunal, or person, in the kingdom, has to extend a general
supervision over all the courts of law, and to watch that the con-
stitution is upheld in the elections to the legislature, and in re-
spect of all the other rights and privileges of the Swedish people.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national income is derived mainly from indirect taxation, in-
cluding customs and excise duties, and an impost on spirits — the
latter made over partly to local societies and institutions for useful
purposes — while the expenditure is under the chief heads of army,
debt, and general administration. The sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure of the kingdom for each of the years 1869
and 1870 were as follows, according to the budget estimates passed
by the Diet : —
Revenue
1869
Riksdaler
15,260,270
13,000,000
2,250,000
1,300,000
9,800,000
1870
Receipts from Domains ....
Customs and excise .
Post ....
Stamps ....
Impost on spirits
Total . . |
Riksdaler
15,616,300
14,000,000
2,250,000
1,300,000
9,800,000
41,610,270
£2,311,682
12,966,300
£2,387,016
422
SWEDEN.
Expenditure
1869
1870
Riksdaler
Riksdaler
Royal household
1,417,000
1,417,000
Justice .....
2,354,100
2,495,700
Foreign affairs
457,950
607,000
Army .....
9.528,000
9,568,400
Navy
3,963,800
4.223,800
Interior .....
8,086,500
7,716,400
Finance .....
6,359,200
6,631,500
Church and public instruction .
4,714,700
4,741,500
Pensions ....
1,321,379
1,391,050
38.202,629
38,792,350
Extraordinary expenditure for public works 5,496,371
Total / I 43,699,000"
6.176.900
41,969,250 1
I
£2,427,722
£2,496,625 i
There is generally an excess of actual revenue over expenditure
in the financial accounts of the kingdom, though there have been
deficits in recent years, arising chiefly froru increased expenditure
connected with the construction of a network of railways, at the
cost of the State. For these works the Diet voted about 100
millions riksdaler during the sixteen years from 1855 to the end
of 1870.
Through the efforts of King Carl XIV. — formerly General Berna-
dotte — the whole public debt of Sweden was liquidated during the
years 1819 to 1840. Subsequent events, however, brought about
the creation of a new debt, the proceeds of which were in great
part devoted to the establishment of a system of railways by the
State. At the end of 1870, the public liabilities of the kingdom
were as follows, according to official reports: —
Loan of 1855, at 3i and 4 per cent.
Railway loan of 1858, at 4^ per cent.
Railway loan of 1860, at 4£ per cent.
Loan of 1861, at 4^ per cent.
Railway loan of 1864, at 4£ per cent.
Railway loan of 1866, at 5 per cent.
Railway loan of 1867, at 5 per cent.
Railway loan of 1868, at 5 per cent.
Loan of 1870, at 5 per cent.
Total
Riksdaler.
225,300
19,202.667
23,630,574
. 2,759,500
9,665.320
26,339,733
6,000,000
21.325,141
40,000,000
149,148,235
£8,263,791
The railway loans of 1864 and 186*8 were negotiated in England,
the former at the rate of 92 and the latter at '.Ml, All the loans
are paid ofFgiadually by means of a sinking fund.
AKMY AND NAYT.
423
Army and Navy.
The Swedish army is composed of five distinct classes of troops.
They are —
1. The Indelta, or national militia, paid and kept, not by the
Government, but by the landowners, and, to some extent, from the
income of State domains expressly reserved for this purpose. Every
soldier of the Indelta has, besides a small annual pay, his torp, or
cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his own
during the whole period of service, often extending over forty years,
or even longer. In time of peace, the troops of the Indelta are
not called up for more than a month's annual practice, and for the
rest of the year are free from military duty. In time of war, an
extraordinary Indelta has to be raised by landowners, who, on this
account, enjoy certain privileges, including non-contribution to the
cost of the peace establishment.
2. The Bevaring, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy,
from the male population between the age of 20 and 25 years.
The law of conscription, which admits the right of purchasing sub-
stitutes, was introduced into Sweden in 1812. About 19,000 men
are drafted annually, one-tenth of which number, on the average,
find substitutes for themselves, at a cost of from 101. to 25Z.
3. The Vcirfvade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the royal
lifeguards, the hussars, the engineers, and the artillery. The men
may engage for either three, or six, or twelve years; but the
greater number are for six years, peculiar inducements being held
out for this term.
4. The Volunteers, first organised in the year 1861, by the spon-
taneous desire of the population of the kingdom. In time of peace
the volunteers are individually free, and bound by no other but their
own rules and regulations ; but in time of Avar they may be com-
pelled to place themselves under the command of the military
authorities.
5. The militia of Gothland, consisting of twenty-one companies
of infantry, organised in a similar manner to the Indelta, yet quite
independent of the latter. They are not compelled by law to serve
beyond the confines of the Isle of Gothland, and have a separate
command from the other troops.
The armed forces of Sweden, not counting the Volunteers, consist
altogether of —
Indelta .
Be taring
Vcirfvade
Militia of Gothland
Total
33,405 rank and file
95,295 „
7,692 „
7,921 „
144,313 .,
424
SWEDEN.
In the organisation of the army, as here enumerated, 85,000 men
belong to the infantry of the line ; 6,000 to the cavalry ; 5,000 to
the artillery, and the rest to the irregular militia. The number of
volunteers was returned at 40,848 in 1869, but about one-third of
diese formed part also of the Indelta. Jn the parliamentary session
of 1862, and again in the sessions of 1865 and 1869, the Government
brought bills before the Diet for a reorganisation of the whole of the
army, on the basis of extending the conscription, reforming the Indelta,
and doing away, to a great extent, with the Varfvade. But neither
of these propositions was adopted by the representatives of the
people.
The navy of the kingdom was entirely re-organised in 1866-67,
being divided into two distinct parts, the first to serve as an ordi-
nary fleet of Avar, for aggressive as Avell as defensive purposes; and
the second stationary, and solely devoted to coast defence. Accord-
ing to official documents transmitted by the Swedish Government to
the Statesman 's Year-book, the entire navy consisted, in January
1869, of the folloAving vessels : —
Ironclads : —
Horse- power
Guns
4 monitors
600
8
2 gunboats
38
2
Unarmoiired steamers: —
1 ship-of-the-line .
350
66
] frigate
400
22
3 corvettes
1,000
19
10 gunboats
6 transports .
600
470
18
2
Sailing vessds : —
3 ships-of-the-line .
200
1 frigate
—
36
6 corvettes
—
110
6 brigs and schooners
—
30
Stationary vessels: —
4 vessels of the 1st class.
16
57 gunboats
97 floating batteries
332
203
Total 201
3,458
1,064
The Avhole of the iron-clads Avere built after the American model ;
one, a turret ship, called the ' John Ericsson,' is partly covered
with steel armour.
The navy of Sweden Avas manned in 1869 by 6,453 sailors and
marines in active service. At the same time 28,000 men were on
furlough, or attached to the fleet of reserve and the coast defence.
AREA AND POPULATION.
425
Area and Population.
Sweden was one of the first countries of Europe in which a regu-
lar census was taken. The first enumeration took place in 1748, at
the suggestion of the Academy of Stockholm, and it was repeated,
at first every third year, next, after 1775, every fifth year, which was
altered at last into an annual census, continued to the present day.
The population of Sweden amounted on December 31, 1867,
according to the official census returns of that date, to 4,195,681, of
whom 2,040,589 were men and 2,155,092 women. On the 31st
of December, 1869, the total population was 4,158,757, of whom
2,014,530 were men and 2,114,227 women. The decrease of
population in the two years from December 31, 1867, to December
31, 1869, arose through emigration. The kingdom had, at the
enumeration of 1869, but two towns with more than 50,000 inhabi-
tants, namely, Stockholm, the capital, with 134,650, and Gbteborg,
with 55,046.
The area and population of Sweden, on the 31st of December,
1869, are shown in the following table : —
Governments (Lan.) i ^rea in *eo.
sq. miles
Population,
Dec. 31, 1SG9
Stockholm (City) ......
134,650
Stockholm (Rural district)
137
131,405
Upsala
97
99,598
Sodermanland
118
135,286
Ostergotland
200
254,014
Jonkoping .
202
54,080
Kronoborg .
178
279,537
Calmar
200
231,802
Gotland
58
242,892
Blekinge
53
126.661
Christianstad
114
159,619
Malmohus .
84
313,430
Halland
89
233,213
1 Goteborg and Bohus
89
220,846
Elfsborg
237
127,531
Skaraborg .
156
181,767
Wermland .
327
261,522
(jrebro
153
166,424
Wcstmanland
125
113,155
Kopparberg .
577
175,927
Gefleborg
356
1 15,834
1 Wester JSorrland .
447
132,658
Jemtland
900
70,372
Westerbotten
1,382
90,938
Xorrbotten ....
1,554
75,596
Lapland (estimated)
Total .
4,705
—
8,026
4,158,757
English square miles
168,042
426
SWEDEN.
About three- fifths of the population of Sweden are devoted to
agricultural pursuits, and one-third of the rural population are
owners of the land which they are cultivating. The nobility, which
is very numerous, there being no law of primogeniture, and titles,
as well as property, descending equally to all children, enjoyed
formerly considerable privileges; but they have nearly all been
annulled. The last and most important, that of sitting unelected in
the Diet, was repealed in December 1865. Emigration from the
country, commencing with the year 18G0, shows a tendency to
assume considerable proportions. In 1860, the number of emigrants
was 348; in 1865 it rose to 6,691 ; in 1866 to 7,206; in 1867 to
9,334 ; and in 1868 to 27,024.
Education is well advanced in Sweden. Public instruction is
gratuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under
the supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of having
been privately educated. In the year 1866, seventy-seven per cent,
of all the children between eight and fifteen years visited the public
schools. There were above 5,000 teachers and professors in the
country in 1867. The vast majority of the population are Protest-
ants, the census of 1867 showing but 2,157 dissenters, including
419 Roman Catholics, and 1,326 Jews.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourseof Sweden is chiefly with Great Britain,
both as regards imports and exports, and, next to it, with Germany,
Denmark, and Russia, in the order here indicated. The imports
consist mainly of textile manufactures, coal, machinery, and colonial
merchandise, while the staple exports are timber, bar iron, and corn.
The value of the total imports and exports of Sweden, in each of
the five years 1864 to 1868, was as follows: —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
Riksdaler
&
Riksdaler
&
1864
96,549,000
5,363,833
94,003,000
5,222,388
1865
l()o,863,()oo
5,831,277
108,086.000
6,004,777
1866
112,910,000
6,222,778
107,066,000
5,948,112
1867
134,181,000
7,454,501
128,639,000
7,146,611
1868
137,740,000
7,652,222
119,524,000
6,640.222
The commerce of Sweden with Great Britain is twice as great
as that with any other country. Subjoined is a tabular statement
giving the total value of the exports from Sweden to Great Britain
and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into
Sweden in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
TKADi; AND INDUSTRY.
42 7
The principal articles of export from Sweden to the United
Kingdom are deals and timber, oats, and iron in bars. The value
of the deals, exclusive of all other wood and timber, exported to
Great Britain, was 1,588,595/. in 18(55 ; 1,499,024/. in 186G ;
1,569,962/. in 1867 ; 1,862,973/. in 1868, and 1,693,594/. in
1869. Of oats, the exports were to the amount of 1,108,171/.
in 1869; and of bar iron, unwrought, 580,853/. The imports
of British home produce are of a miscellaneous nature, the most
notable being cotton manufactures, of the value of 196,266/. in
1869.
The commercial navy of Sweden numbered 1,347 vessels regis-
tered for foreign trade, of a total burthen of 220,304 tons, at the end
of the year 1869. At the end of 1867, the number of vessels regis-
tered for foreign trade was 1,296, of a total burthen of 216,144 tons,
while at the end of 1864 the number of vessels was 1,238, of
193,611 tons burthen. The port of Goteborg had the largest
shipping in 1868, namely, 154 vessels, of 43,608 tons, and next to
it came Stockholm, possessing 63 vessels, of a total burthen of 14,916
tons. In 1864, Stockholm had 117 vessels, of 29,100 tons, regis-
tered for foreign trade, and Goteborg 137, of 36,216 tons; so
that while the shipping of the former port suffered a great decrease,
that of the latter showed a more than corresponding increase.
Mining is the most important department of Swedish industry,
and the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant
progress by the introduction of new machinery. There were raised
in the year 1867, throughout the kingdom, 11,401,833 cwt. of iron
ore from mines, besides 418,436 cwt. from lake and bog. The pig-
iron produced amounted to 5,838,535 cwt. ; the cast goods to
307,759 ; the bar iron to 4,010,369 CAvt., and the steel to 537,916
cwt. There were also raised in the same year 2,691 lbs. of silver ;
46,922 cwt. of copper, and 442,048 cwt. of zinc ore. There are
believed to be large veins of coal, but the quantity raised as yet
does not amount to more than 300,000 tons per annum.
Within recent years a network of railways, very important for
the trade and industry of Sweden, has been constructed in the
428
SWEDEN.
country, mainly at the cost of the state. The following table, the
materials for which were furnished to the Statesman's Year-book by
the Swedish Government, gives the chief particulars concerning the
length, cost, and produce of the Swedish railways in the years 1806
and 1867 : —
Kail ways
_ ., , „,. t ( Swedish miles
Total length of hues opened J EngUsh mileg
_ ., , , , ., C Eiksdaler
Capital employed per mile ^ £ gterling
Number of passengers conveyed
Eeceipts from passengers, Eiksdaler .
,, from goods & cattle, Eiksdaler
r,, , i • j. r u S Eiksdaler
Total receipts from all sources 1 £ sterling
„ f Eiksdaler
Total working expenses . -J £ aterling _
( Eiksdaler
Net revenue . . . } £ gterling _
j per Swedish mile, Eiksdaler .
" " j per English mile, £ sterling
Eate per cent, upon the expended capital
969
638
802,126
44,562
1,283.908
2.469,333
2,489,642
5,064,371
281,354
2,972.501
165,138
100-6
665
816,296
45,344
1,476,598
2,613,772
3,228,256
6,017,049
334,275
3,591,906
199,550
2,091,870
116,216
21,580
182
3-01
2,425,143
134,725
24,251
202
2-97
The revenue, during the first seven years in which the state
railways were open to the public, increased at the rate of 33'849
per cent, per Swedish mile, while the cost of maintenance and
traffic did not show any increase. The net revenue over and above
the expenditure during the seven years rose from 713 riksdalers 22
ore, or 39/!. 12s. 5cl, to 16,687 riksdalers 85 ore, or 927/. 2s., per
Swedish mile, while the expenditure, as compared with the revenue,
was reduced from 98 to 65 per cent. Moreover, the net revenue,
from having been at first 0092 per cent, on the capital expended ibr
the construction of the state railways, rose to upwards of 2 per
cent, on that capital.
It is calculated that the network of Swedish railways, as at
present planned, will be completed in 1872.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 429
II. NO E WAY.
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution of Norway was framed by a Constituent
Parliament of the nation, which met at Eidsvold in the year of the
union with Sweden, and having received the sanction of the king,
was proclaimed Nov. 4, 1814. According to its terms, the whole
legislative power of the realm is in the Storthing, or Great Court, the
representative of the sovereign people. The king has the command
of the land and sea forces, but cannot declare war, or make peace,
or bring foreign troops into the country, or send the native troops
away, without the consent of the Storthing. Pie makes all appoint-
ments, but, with the exception of the governor-general, is not
allowed to nominate any but Norwegians to public offices under the
crown. He can only remit punishment of death, and not grant a
complete pardon to criminals condemned by Norwegian courts of law.
The king possesses the right of veto over laws passed by the Storthimj,
yet only for a limited period. The royal veto may be exercised
twice ; but if the same bill pass three successive times, it becomes
the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign.
The Storthing formerly assembled every three years; but by a
modification of the electoral law, adopted in March 18G9, it was
resolved to hold annual sittings. The meetings take place, suojure,
ami not by any writ from the king or the executive. Every native
Norwegian of twenty-five years of age, who is a burgess of any town,
or possesses property in land to the value of 30/. sterling, or has been
tenant of such property for five years, is entitled to elect; and,
under the same conditions, if thirty years of age, to be elected.
The whole country is divided into electoral districts, according to
population, and again parcelled out into subdivisions, according to
area. The mode of election is indirect, the people first nominat-
ing a number of deputies, to whom devolves the task of appointing
the representatives in the Storthing. Towards the end of every
third year the people meet in the parish church, without summons
or special call, and choose their deputies, at the rate of one to fifty
voters in towns, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts. The
deputies afterwards meet at some public place, and there elect among
themselves, or from among the other qualified voters of the district,
the Storthing representatives. No new election takes place for
vacancies, which are filled by the person who received the second
largest number of votes.
The Storthing, when elected, divides itself into two houses, the
'Lagthing' and the ' Odelsthing.' The former is composed of one-
fourth of the members of the ' Storthing,' and the other of the
43°
NORWAY.
remaining three-fourths. Each ' Thing' nominates its own president,
vice-president, and secretaries. All new bills, whether presented
by the government, or a member of the Storthing, must originate
in the ' Odelsthing,' from which they pass into the ' Lagthing,' to be
either accepted, in which case they become law, or rejected. In
the latter case, should the ' Odelsthing' demand it, after having twice
passed the bill, the two Houses assemble in common sitting to
deliberate on the measure, and the final decision is given by a
majority of two-thirds of the voters. The ordinary business of the
Storthing is to settle the taxes for each financial period of three
years, to supervise the administration of the revenue, and to enact,
repeal, or alter any laws of the country. But the Storthing can also
form itself into a high court of justice, for the impeachment and trial
of ministers, judges, and other servants of the State. The bill of
accusation must always come from the ' Odelsthing ' and be brought
from thence before the ' Lagthing,' sitting for the occasion, together
with the Chief Court of Justice, as ' ftiksretten,' or supreme tribunal
of the realm. Before pronouncing its own dissolution, every Stor-
thing elects five state-officers, Avhose duty it is to revise the public
accounts, and to watch over the welfare of the realm. While in
session, every member of the Storthing has an allowance of three
specie-daler, or thirteen shillings and fourpence a day.
The executive is represented by the king, who exercises his
authority through a Council of State, composed of a governor-
general, nominated by the Crown, and of eight ministers, heads of
the following departments : —
1. The Ministry of State. — Georg Christian Sibber n, appointed
Dec. 10, 1858.
2. The Department of Audit, — Fredrik Stang, appointed Jan. 1845.
3. The Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Hans Ridderwold, appointed April 19, 1848.
4. The Department of the Interior. — Christen Zetlitz Bretteville,
appointed June 1850.
5. The Department of Finance and Customs. — August Christian
Manthey, appointed Dec. 1856.
6. The Army Department. — Major-General Niels Christian Irgens,
appointed April 3, 1868.
7. The Department of the Navy and of Postal Communication. —
Dr. Ole Jacob Broch, appointed Nov. 1869.
8. The Department of Justice. — John Collett Falsen, appointed
Dec. 1869.
Besides the above, there are two ministers without portfolio,
namely : — Hans Gerhard Colbjbrnen Mcldahl, appointed Dec. 17,
I «61; Henrik Laurentius Helliesen, appointed June 22, 1869.
The two last-named form, together with the Minister of State, a dele-
gation of the Council of State, resident at Stockholm, near the king.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
431
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial estimates are voted by the Storthing for the term
of three years. The budget, for the period commencing April 1,
1869, and ending March 31, 1872, provided for an annual revenue
of 5,092,000 specie-daler, or 1,130,220/., and an expenditure of
nearly the same amount, distributed as follows : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Specie-daler
Specie-daler
Customs .
3,050,000
Civil list
147,003
Duty on spirits
. ! 570,000
Storthing
47,017
,, barley
225,000
Council of State .
189,970
Stamps
77,000
Home department
480,775
Mines
. ! 178,000
Church and Justice
487,557
Post office
365.500
Army ....
1.115.500
Telegraphs
. j 124,500
Navy and Post
1,172,815
Miscellaneous 1
e-
Exchequer and Customs
1.222,949
ceipts .
Total
. j 502,000
Miscellaneous expenses
Total
61,831
5,092,000
5.052,000
£1,130,220
£1,121,800
The public revenue of Norway, in recent years, generally was
above the expenditure. There exists, nevertheless, a small public
debt, dating anterior to the union with Sweden. It amounted, at the
end of August 1859, to 7,688,000 specie-daler, or 1,750,000/., and
had become reduced, at the end of August 1869, to 3,000,000
specie-daler, or 674,900/., and, by the operation of a sinking fund,
will be extinct before the year 1872. The charge for interest and
redemption of the debt amounted to 553,662 specie-daler in the
financial period 1866-69.
Army and Navy.
The troops of the kingdom are raised partly by conscription and
partly by enlistment. By the terms of a law voted by the Storthing
on the 20th April, 1866, and which came into operation on the 1st
of January, 1867, the military forces are divided into the regular
army, with reserve, the Landvaern, or militia, and the Landstorm,
or final levy. Enlistment furnishes the soldiers of the regular army,
but, should this prove insufficient, recourse may be had to conscrip-
tion, to which all young men, past the nineteenth year of age, are
liable. The term of service in the regular army is seven years ;
however, the young men raised by conscription have but to go
432
NORWAY.
through a first training in the school of recruits, extending over not
less than 42 days, and are then sent on furlough, with obligation to
meet for an annual practice of 24 days. Every native of Norway,
between the age of 18 and 45, who is able in body, is bound to enter
the Landvaern for 3 years, to be trained in arms at stated periods,
and subsequently to be placed on the rolls of the Landstorm. The
Landvaern only serves for the defence of the country, and the
Landstorm is only raised in time of war. It is provided by the law
of 1SG6 that the number of troops actually under arms shall not be
more than 12,000 men in time of peace, and that, in war, it shall not
be raised above 18,000 without the express consent of the Storthing.
The king has permission to keep a guard of Norwegian volunteers,
and to transfer, for the purpose of common military exercises, 3,000
men annually from Norway to Sweden, and vice versa. Otherwise,
it is not allowed to any Norwegian soldier to set foot in the sister
kingdom.
The naval force of Norway comprised, at the commencement of
1869, twenty vessels, with an armament of 168 guns. The following,
according to official returns sent to the Statesman's Year-book, was
the composition of the fleet : —
3 iron-clad monitors .
2 steam frigates
3 ,, corvettes
1 „ sloop ....
4 „ gunboats
o „ transports .
2 sailing vessels
Horse-power 1 Guns
150
900
630
20
240
440
6
78
36
6
8
10
24
20 men-of-war ....
2,280
168
The navy was manned, in 1869, by 2,248 sailors, the greater
number of them volunteers, but a part raised by conscription. All
seafaring men and inhabitants of seaports, between the ages of
twenty-two and thirty- five, are enrolled on the lists of either the
active fleet or the naval militia, and liable, by the law of 1866,
to the maritime conscription. The numbers on the register
amounted, in 1869, to above 60,000 men.
In order to use the vessels of the navy for peaceful as well as war-
like purposes, they are attached to the postal service, and employed
in the conveyance of mails and passengers. At the head of the navy
is a secretary of state, called minister of marine and postal commu-
nication, whose first duty, in times of peace, is to superintend the
mail service.
AREA AND POPULATION.
433
Area and Population.
The kingdom is divided into twenty provinces, or Amts, the area
and population of which was as follows at the two last enumerations,
of December 31, 1855, and of December 31, 18G5 : —
Area in
Amts
geographical
Population,
Population,
sq. miles
Dec. 31, 1855
Dec. 31, 1S65
Christiania (town) .
0-17
31,715
57,382
Akershus
93-26
96,055
107,416
Smaalenene .
72-78
84.416
98,849
Hedemarken .
47196
101,394
120,411
Christians
454-79
115,149
124,968
Budskerud
26615
90,343
99,275
Jarlsberg
40-48
73,223
85,423
Bratsberg
268-3S
76.546
81,929
Nedenas
18128
59,112
68,033
Lister and Mandal
113-96
67,370
73,757
Stavanger
160-89
91,539
104,849
Sondre Bergenlms
275-31
104,763
113,386
Bergen (town)
0-03
24,512
27,703
Nordre Bergenhus
331-17
81,496
86,784
Bomsdal
265-44
90,283
104,337
Sondre Trondhjem
33328
96,318
109,043
Xordre Trondhjem
413-36
73,571
82,489
Nordland
689-51
77,587
89,668
Tromso
457-14
54,655 [
45,334
Finmark
Total .
860-54
20,329
5.749-88
1,490,047
1,701,365
English square miles
120,729
The inhabitants of the kingdom are homogeneous in race and reli-
gion, and the land is very equally divided among them. Landed
property descends the same as personal property, and there exists
no privilege of birth, that of hereditary nobility having been
abolished by a law which passed the Storthing August 1, 1821.
With the exception of 2,800 dissenters, enumerated in the last
census, the population adhere to the Lutheran Church. All sects
of Christians and Jews are tolerated, but only the members of the
Lutheran Church are admitted to public offices, and charges under
the Government.
Education is compulsory in the kingdom, parents being bound to
let their children, between the ages of seven and fourteen, receive
public instruction. Schoolmasters are settled in each parish, who
live either in fixed residences, or move at stated intervals from one
f p
434
NORWAY.
place to another, and who frequently attend different schools, devoting
one day only in the week to each. They are paid by a small tax
levied in each parish. Instruction in the primary schools is
limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and singing, with sometimes
the rudiments of grammar and geography. Almost every town
supports a superior school ; and in thirteen of the principal towns
is a ' herd skole,' or college, the instruction in which includes
theology, Latin, Greek, Norwegian, German, French, English,
mathematics, history, and geography. Christiania has a university,
founded by the Danish Government, in 1811, which is modelled on
the system of the German universities.
Norway is essentially an agricultural and pastoral country. At
the census of 1855, the inhabitants of towns numbered 197,815, and
at the census of 1865 they were 272,531, showing an increase of
14 per cent., against a general increase of the population of 12 per
cent. Besides Christiania and Bergen, there were no towns above
20,000 inhabitants in 1865. Only about 100th part of the entire
surface of Norway is under culture, or otherwise productive.
Trade and Industry.
The average value of the total imports into Norway, in the five
years 1864-68, was 20,000,000, and of the exports 13,000,000
specie-daler. Of the imports 36 per cent, came from' Great Britain,
35 from Germany, 10 from Russia, six from France, and five per
cent, from Denmark and from Sweden. About one-third of the
total exports were shipped to Great Britain, one-sixth to Germany,
and one-seventh to France.
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of
the exports from Norway to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Norway, in each of the five
years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from Norway to
Imports of British Home
Years
Great Britain
Produce into Norway
£
£
1865
1,454,009
677,058
1866
1,611,359
854,348
1867
1,721,362
848.843
1868
1.823,067
774,950
1869
1,855,161
857,660
About three-fourths of the exports from Norway to the United
Kingdom consist of wood and timber. In 1869 the exports of tim-
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
435
oer, not sawn or split, amounted to 254,489/. ; of deals and battens,
786,501/. ; of staves, 66,820/. ; of firewood, 84,762/. ; and other
sorts of timber, 10,942/. The remaining exports to Great Britain
comprise fish, ice, and small quantities of bar iron and copper
ore. Cotton manufactures, to the value of 238,866/., and wrought
and unwrought iron, to the value of 96,430/. in 1869, form the
staple articles of British imports into Norway.
Next in value to the commerce in wood are the fisheries, which
form the second staple commodity of export, and give employment
and support to the bulk of the population from the Naze to the
Warangerfiord, at the entrance of the White Sea. The fisheries
are divided into the herring fishery, which usually commences
soon after the new year ; the winter cod fishery, which commences
about the end of January ; and the spring and summer fishery along
the coast of Finmark to the White Sea.
The shipping belonging to Norway numbered 6,909 vessels, of a
total burthen of 948,792 tons, at the end of 1868. At the end of
1863, there were 6,109 vessels, of 578,722 tons, manned by 34,817
sailors, mostly natives. Norway has, in proportion to population,
the largest commercial navy in the world.
Colony.
Sweden — exclusive of Norway — possesses a small colony, the
Island of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, 30 miles west of St.
Christopher. The area of the island is 35 English square miles,
with a population, in 1860, of 2,802 inhabitants. It produces sugar,
tobacco, cotton, and cocoa. The colony, ceded by France to Sweden
in 1784, is administered by a governor. Slavery was abolished in
1848.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Sweden and Norway, and
the British equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Swedish Hiksdaler . =100 ore, value Is. 1 J<#.
„ Norwegian Specie-dalcr = 5 mark = 120 shilling, value 45. 5^d.
Weights and Measuees.
The Swedish Skalpund = 100 ort = 0"9361bs. avoirdupois.
„ Norwegian Pund = 128 kvintin = 1*1 „ „
,, Swedish Fot = 10 turn = 117 English inches.
„ Norwegian Fod = 12 tommer = 12-02 „ „
„ Swedish Kanna = 100 kubiktum= 4-6 Imperial pints.
., Norwegian Kande = 2 pod = 3-3 „ „
,, Swedish Mil = 360 ref = 6'64 English miles.
„ Norwegian Mil = 2,000 rode = 4-68 „
F F 2
436 SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Attempts are being made, which will probably "prove successful
before long, to introduce the French metric system of weights and
measures into Sweden and Norway.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Sweden and Norway.
1. Official Publications.
Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik. A. Befolknings-statistik. Ny foljd.
7. Statistiska central-b}Tans underdaniga berattelse for ar 1S67. 4. Stockholm,
1869.
Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik. B. Battsvasendet. Ny foljd. 1.
Justitie-statsministerns underdaniga embetsberattelse for ar 1867. Afd. 1, in-
nehallande arbetsredogorelser samt sarskilda uppgifter angaende inteckning och
lagfart, utsokningsmal och bysatte. 4. Stockholm, 1868.
Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik. C. Bergshandtering. Kommeree-kol-
lpgii underdaniga berattelse for ar 1862. D. Fabriker och nianufakturer. Kom-
mers-kollegii underdaniga berattelse forar 1862. F. Utrikes handel och sjofart.
Kommeree-kollegii underdaniga berattelse for ar 1862. G. Fangvarden. Ny
foljd. IV. Fansrvards-styrelsens underdaniga berattelse for ar 1862. J. Tele-
grafvasendet. Ny foljd. 2. Telegraf-styrelsens underdaniga berattelse for ar
1S62. K. Helso- och sjukvarden. I. Sundhets-kollegii underdiniga berat-
telse. 4 Stockholm, 1863.
Femarsberattelser, Kongl. Majets Befallningshafvandes. Ny foljd. Lands
hofdinge-embetenas i Ostergotlands, Skaraborgs och Westmanlands Ian und.
berattelser fir aren 1860-1865. (Tillhor Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik.
H.) 4. Stockholm, 1866.
Sveriges och Norges Stats-kalender for ar 1870. Utgifven efter kongl. maj.
nadisste forordnande, af dess vetenskaps-akademi. 8. Stockholm, 1870.
Statistisk Tidskrift, utgifven af Kongl. Statistiska Central-Byran. Stockholm,
1870.
Expose de l'Etat de la Statistique Officielle en Suede. Kapport a la cin-
quieme session du Congres International de Statistique a Berlin du delegue
officiel de la Suede. 8. Stockholm, 1864.
Beport by Mr. Hamilton. B.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
State. Trade, and Population of Sweden and Norway, dated March 14. 1863 ;
in ' Beports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. VI. London, 1863.
• Report by Mr. Hamilton, H. 31. 's Secretary of Legation, on Commerce,
Manufactures, and Railways in Sweden, dated February 9, 1867 : in 'Beports
by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. IV. 1867. London, 1867.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL Fol. London,
1868.
Report by 3Ir. Audley Gosling. Secretary of Legation, on Agriculture and
the Tenure of Land in Sweden, dated Stockholm, February 14. 187°: in
I vrts from H. M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the
several countries of Europe.' Part II. Fol. London. 1870.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Crowe on the Norwegian Fisheries for 1S69,
dated Christiania. December 13, 1869; in 'Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
BOOKS OF KEFERENCE. 437
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3 vols. 8. Carlstadt, 1859-62.
Agardh (C. A.) och Ljungberg (C. E.), Forsok till en statsekonomisk statistik
ofver Sverige. Den statsekonomiska afdelningen af C. A. Agardh, den statis-
tiska af C. E. Ljungberg. Stockholm, 1865.
Anrep (Gabr.), Sveriges ridderskaps och adels kalender for ar 1870. 12.
Stockholm, 1870.
Boivden (Eev. John), Norway: its People, Products, and Institutions. 8.
London, 1867.
Brandes (K. H.), Ausflug nach Schweden in 1858. 8. Lemgo, 1859.
Broch (Dr. 0. J.), Statistisk Arbog for Kongeriget Norge. 8. Kristiania,
1870.
Broch (Dr. 0. J.) Norges militsere Inddeling og Organisation. In ' Statistisk
Zrbog.' 1867. 8. Kristiania, 1867.
Forssdl (C), Ett ar i Sverige. Taflor af svenska allmogens kladedrrigt,
lefnadssatt och hemseder, samt de for landets historia markvardigaste orter ;
tecknade af J. G. Sandbers, beskrifne af A. Grafstrom och utgifne af C.
Forssell. 4. Stockholm, 1864.
Hassel (Frdr.), Schweden in der neuesten Zeit. Eine statistisch-flnanzielle
Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1866.
Ljungberg (C. E.), Allman Statistik. 2 vols. Stockholm, 1861.
Ljungberg (C. E.), La Suede : son developpeinent moral, industriel, et com-
mercial, d'apres des documents officiels. Traduit par L. de Lilliehook. 8.
Paris, 1867.
Kougaret (Jules), De l'enseignement populaire en Suede. 8. Paris, 1868.
Petermann (Dr. A.), Sehweden's Flacheninhalt und Bevolkerung; in ' Mit-
theilungen,' No. VII. Gotha, 1866.
Rudbeck (J. G.), Beskrifning ofver Sveriges Stader i Historisk, topographiskt
och statistiskt hanseende. 3 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1855-61.
Scgcrdahl (G.), Statistiska Notiser om tyska Staternas Skogstillgangar, skog-
sinrattning och Skogsafkastning. 8. Stockholm, 1863.
Thomee (G.), Lexikon, Historiskt, geografiskt och statistiskt, ofver Sverige,
af Gustaf Thomee, V. G. Granlund och Ake C. Wm. Hammar. Band. V.
4. Stockholm, 1864.
438
SWITZERLAND.
(Schweiz. — Suisse.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Switzerland, formerly a league of semi-inde-
pendent states, or ' Staatenbund,' has become a united confederacy, or
1 Bundesstaat,' since the year 1848. The present constitution, product
of a short civil war, bears date September 12, 1848. It vests the
supreme legislative and executive authority in a parliament of two
chambers, a ' Standerath,' or State Council, and a ' Nationalrath,' or
National Council. The first is composed of forty-four members,
chosen by the twenty-two cantons of the Confederation, two for
each canton. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of 128 representatives of
the Swiss people, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one deputy
for every 20,000 souls. Thus, on the basis of the general census of
1860 — in force till the declaration of the census of 1870 — the can-
tons are represented as follows in the National Council : —
Number of
Number of
Cantons
Represen-
Cantons
Represen-
tatives
tatives
Bern ....
23
Solothurn (Soleure) .
3
Zurich
13
Appenzell — Exterior and
Vaud (Waadt) .
11
Interior
3
Aareau
10
Glarus ....
2
St. Gall .
9
Schaffhausen .
2
Luzern
7
Schwyz ....
2
Tessin (Ticino)
6
Unterwald — Upper and
Fribourg .
5
Lower ....
2
Graubiinden (Grison
0 •
•5
Uri
1
Wallis (Valais)
5
Zug ....
1
Thurgau .
5
Basel — Town and Country
5
Total of representatives in "1
the National Council J
128
Geneve (Genf)
4
Neuchatel (Neuenburg) .
4
A general election of representatives takes place every three years.
Every citizen of the republic who has attained the age of twenty
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 439
years is entitled to a vote ; and any voter, not a clergyman, may be
elected a deputy. Both chambers united are called the ' Bundes-
Versammlung,' or Federal Assembly, and as such represent the
supreme Government of the republic. The chief executive authority
is depiited to a ' Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven
members, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. Every
citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible for be-
coming a member of the executive.
The president and vice-president of the Federal Council are the
first magistrates of the republic. The former has an annual salary
of 4001. ; and the latter of 3407. Both are elected by the Federal
Assembly for the term of one year, and are not re-eligible till after
the expiration of another year. The election takes place at a united
meeting of the State Council and the National Council. The Federal
Assembly alone has the right to declare war, to make peace, and to
conclude alliances and treaties with other nations.
Independent of the Federal Assembly, though issuing from the
une, is the ' Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal. It consists of
eleven members, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The
Federal Tribunal decides, in the last instance, on all matters in dispute
between the various cantons of the republic, as well as between the
cantons and the Federal Government, and acts in general as high
court of appeal. The Tribunal is divided into three sections, the
' Anklagekammer,' or chamber of accusation ; the ' Kriminalkammer,'
or jury department ; and the ' Cassations-Gericht,' or council of
judges. Each section consists of three members, and the remaining
two members, elected specially by the Federal Assembly, fill the
post of president and vice-president.
The seven members of the Federal Council, each of whom has a
salary of 3401. per annum, while the president has 4001., act as
ministers, or chiefs of the seven administrative departments of the
republic. The president and vice-president of the council, by the
terms of the Constitution, hold office for only one year, from
January 1 to December 31.
By a vote of the Federal Assembly of November 28, 1848, the
city of Bern was chosen as the seat of the Federal Council and the
central administrative authorities of the republic.
Each of the cantons and demi-cantons of Switzerland has its own
government, different in organisation in most instances, but all based
on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the people. In a few of
the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers direct, without
the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male citizens
of full age assembling together in the open air, at stated periods,
making laws and appointing its administrators. Such assemblies,
known as the Landesgemeinde, exist in Appenzell, Glarus, Unterwald,
440 SWITZERLAND.
and Uri. The same system is carried out, somewhat less directly,
in the cantons of Graublinden and Wallis, which possess legislative
bodies, but limited so far that they must submit all their acts to the
people for confirmation or refusal. There are three other cantons, St.
Gall, Luzern, and Thurgau, in which the citizens possess a veto
power under certain conditions. In all the remaining cantons, the
people delegates its sovereignty to a body chosen by universal
suffrage, called the Grosse Rath, which exercises all the functions of
the Landesgemeinde. The members of these bodies, as well as
most of the magistrates, are either honorary servants of their fellow-
citizens, or receive a merely nominal salary. There is no class of
paid permanent officials existing, either in connection with the can-
tonal administrations, or the general government of the republic.
Church and Education.
The popidation of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism
and Roman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants ad-
hering to the former, and 41 per cent, to the latter. According
to the census of December 10, 1860, the number of Protestants
amounted to 1,476,982; of Roman Catholics to 1,023,430: of
various Christian sects to 5,866; and of Jews to 4,216. By the
forty-fourth article of the constitution, ' all Christian sects are tole-
rated ; ' but with the proviso, stipulated in the fifty-eighth article,
that ' the order of the Jesuits is rigorously excluded from every part
of the republic' The Roman Catholic priests are much more nume-
rous than the Protestant clergy, the former comprising more than
6,000 regular and secular priests. They are under five bishops,
of Basel, Chur, St. Gall, Lausanne, and Sion. The government of
the Protestant Church, Calvinistic in principle and Presbyterian in
form, is under the supervision of the magistrates of the various
cantons, to whom is also entrusted, in the Protestant districts, the
superintendence of public instruction.
Education is very widely diffused through Switzerland, particu-
larly in the north-eastern cantons, Avhere the vast majority of inha-
bitants are Protestants. In these cantons, the proportion of school-
attending children to the whole population is as one to five ; while
in the half Protestant and half Roman-Catholic cantons it is as one
to seven ; and in the entire Roman- Catholic cantons as one to nine.
Parents are by law compelled to send their children to school, or
have them privately taught, from the age of six to that of twelve
years ; and neglect may be punished by fine, and, in some cases, by
imprisonment. The law is not always enforced in the Roman-
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 44 1
Catholic cantons, but is rigidly carried out, in most instances, in
those where the Protestants form the majority of inhabitants. In
every district there are primary schools, in which the elements
of education, with geography and history, are taught ; and secondary
schools, for youths of from twelve to fifteen, in which instruction is
given in modern languages, geometry, natural history, the fine arts,
and music. In both these schools the rich and the poor are edu-
cated together, the latter being admitted gratuitously. There are
normal schools in most of the cantons for the instruction of school-
masters, who are paid by the cantonal governments salaries
varying from 101. to 50/. a year. Sunday-schools exist in
several cantons, and Lancastrian schools in Geneve and Vaud.
There are superior gymnasia in all the chief towns. Basel has a
university, founded in 1460, which was formerly much frequented ;
and since 1832 universities have been established in Bern and
Zurich. The three universities of Basel, Berne, and Zurich had
135 professors, 31 private tutors, and 500 students in 1869. Geneva
and Lausanne possessed, at the same date, two academies with
theologic, philosophic, and jurisprudence facidties, 45 professors, and
413 students, of whom 70 at Geneva were foreigners, chiefly French
Protestants. A new academy was founded at Neuchatel in 1865.
The Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, founded in 1855, pos-
sesses a philosophic faculty and 46 teachers, some of them professors
of the universities, and was frequented, in 1869, by 589 regular
students, and 173 Zuhorer, or ' hearers.' The Polytechnic School
at Zurich, and a military academy at Thun (see pp. 445-6), are
maintained by the Federal Government, at an average annual ex-
pense of 1,000,000 francs, or 40,000/.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue of the Confederation is derived chiefly from
customs. By the constitution of September 12, 1848, customs dues
are levied only on the frontiers of the republic, instead of, as before,
on the limits of each canton. A considerable income is also de-
rived from the postal system, as well as from the telegraph estab-
lishment, conducted by the Federal Government on the prin-
ciple of uniformity of rates. The sums raised under these heads
are not left entirely for Government expenditure, but a great part
of the postal revenue, as well as a portion of the customs dues, have
to be paid over to the cantonal administrations, in compensation for
the loss of such sources of former income. In extraordinary cases,
the Federal Government is empowered to levy a rate upon the
various cantons after a scale settled for twenty years. A branch
442
SWITZERLAND.
of revenue proportionately important is derived from the profits of
various Federal manufactories, such as gunpowder and percussion
caps, and from the growing proceeds of the military school and
laboratory at Thun, near Bern.
The following two tables, drawn up after documents furnished to
the Statesman's Year-book by the President of the Federal Council,
give the revenue and expenditure of the government of the re-
public in each of the years 1867 and 1868 : —
Sources of Revenue
Produce of Real Property and Invested
Capital : —
Eeal property ......
Invested capital ......
Total
Interest on Sums advanced to Cantons .
Duties and Administrations : —
Customs ....
Posts ....
Telegraphs
Manufacture of gunpowder
„ of percussion caps
Polytechnic school
Government stud
Military Academy at Thun.
Laboratory at Thun .
Total
Receipts of Departments :—
Department of Chancery
., War .
,, „ Justice
Miscellaneous Receipts
Total Revenue
Francs
66.208
125,038
191.246
132,020
8,331,159
8.770.428
823,538
632,438
31,108
69,113
104,350
148,657
471,695
19,382,479
7.369
52,686
1,002
61,057
15,157
19,781,960
791.278
Francs
66,424
146,564
212.988
144,574
9,051,399
8,814,716
921,182
675,800
153.356
20.000
68,400
204.475
1,038,209
20,947,536
6,804
49,813
722
57,339
149
21,362.633
854,505
The expenditure of each of the years 1867 and 1868 was as
follows: —
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
443
Branches of Expenditure
Interest and Sinking Fund of National Debt
Expense of General Administration : —
National council
State
Federal „
Federal chancery
Federal tribunal
Pensions .
Total
Departments
Political
Interior
War .
Finance
Trade and customs
Justice and police
Special Administration
Army
Customs
Post .
Telegraph .
Gunpowder
Percussion caps
Mint .
Polytechnic school
Government stud
Military Academy at Thun
Laboratory at Thun .
Total
Total
Miscellaneous Expenses
Total Expenditure •!
Francs
709,252
1868
82,032
4,017
60,022
155.522
8,314
25,888
335,795
168,948
1,040,984
19,915
55,795
7,H8
19,309
1,312,069
2,384,347
3,493,869
8,770,428
748,976
537,121
77,681
325,649
170.203
148,651
552,877
6,069
19,572,987
782,919
73,105
5,714
61,000
157,555
6.275
19,701
323,350
185,515
76.3.604
19,917
54.647
4,495
10,607
1,040,785
2.442,011
3,467,702
8,814,716
921,182
575,249
176.156
20.000
318.400
102.178
125,329
1,070,512
17,209,802 ] 18,033,435
6.214
20,343.580
813,743
The public debt of the republic amounted, at the commencement
of 1869, to 15,299,481 francs, or 611,979/., as a set-off against
which there was a so-called ' federal fortune,' or property belonaino-
to the state, valued at 21,904,690 francs, or 876,187/.
The various cantons of Switzerland have, as their own local
administrations, so their own budgets, and, in all cases but two, their
own debts. The following table gives the revenue, expenditure,
and debt of the twenty-two cantons, after the latest returns : —
1-44
SWITZERLAND.
Cantons
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Debt
Franca
Francs
Francs
Bern ....
1867
5,663,681
6,182,055
68,620,474
Zurich ....
1867
3,382,000
3,537,400
—
Vaud (Waadt) .
1866
3,550,111
3,427,997
3,219.592
Aargau
1867
2,016,685
2,581,685
1,000,000
St. Gall
1866
1.635,713
1,668,415
9,093,700
Luzern
1867
966,048
1,174,654
1,871,220
Tessin (Ticino) .
1866
1,447,983
1,610,658
6,341,916
Fribourg
1865
4,273,043
4,602,900
41,091,320
Graubiiuden (Grisons) .
1866
1,008,960
997,245
4,725,598
Wallis (Valais) .
1S67
680,230
638,077
2,668.819
Thurgau
1867
978,755
968,267
1,042,343
Basel — Town
1865
1,205,988
1,529,373
5,987,885
„ Country .
1867
550,633
530,178
824,000
Geneve (Genf)
1866
3,430,440
3,565,609
19,993,000
Neuchatel (Neuenburg)
1866
1,249,194
1,253,095
3,621,000.
Solotliurn (Soleure)
1866
1,143,342
1,229,376
1,584,942
Appenzel — Interior
1866
183,620
180,475
—
„ Exterior
1866
252,837
252,837
38,000
Glarus ....
1867
435,145
436,708
3,311,525
Schaffhausen
1868
334,000
334,000
—
Schwyz
1866
283,927
307,751
821,349
Unterwald — Upper
1866
94,064
99,081
31,561
„ Lower
1866
112,275
90,372
71,147
Uri .
1865
248,114
251,777
810,276
Zug . . . .
Total .
1866
155,421
126,425
187,240
| 35,330,209
37,707,410
132,020,226
£1,413,208
1,508,296
5,280,809
The chief income of the cantonal administrations is derived from
a single direct tax on income, amounting, in most cantons, to li per
cent, on every 1,000 francs property. In some cantons the local
revenue is raised, in part, by the sale of excise licenses. In Bern
they form one-fifth of the total receipts ; in Luzern, one-seventh ; in
Uri, one-tenth ; in Upper Unterwald, one-eighth ; in Solothurn, one-
sixth ; and in the canton of Tessin one-fourteenth of the total
revenue.
Army.
The thirteenth article of the Constitution of September 12, 1848,
forbids the maintenance of a standing army within the limits of the
Confederation. To provide for the defence of the country, every
citizen has to bear arms, in the management of which the children
are instructed at school, from the age of eight, passing through
annual exercises and reviews. Such military instruction is volun-
ARMY. 445
tary on the part of the children, bnt is participated in by the greater
number of pupils at the upper and middle-class schools.
The troops of the republic are divided into four classes, namely :
1. The ' Bundesauszug,' or Federal army, consisting of all men
able to bear arms, from the age of 20 to 32. All cantons are obliged,
by the terms of the constitution, to furnish at least 3 per cent, of
their population to the ' Bundesauszug.'
2. The army of reserve, consisting of all men who have served in
the first class, from the age of 33 to 40. The numbers are calcu-
lated to amount to 1^ per cent, of the population.
3. The ' Landwehr,' or militia, comprising all men from the 41st
to the 45th year.
4. The 'Landsturm,' or army of defence, including all men above
45, till the term when they are disabled by age from military
service.
The numbers of the first three classes, in actual readiness to take
the field, are given as follows in an official return of April, 1869,
communicated to the Statesman's Year-book by the President of the
Federal Council : —
Men
1. Bundesauszug ..... 85,138
2. Army of reserve .... 50,559
3. Laudwelir 64^323
Total . . 200,020
The number of men belonging to the fourth class, the Landsturm
was estimated by the Government in April, 1869, at 150,000.
Every citizen of the republic not disabled by bodily defects, or ill
health, is liable to military service at the age of 20. Before beino-
placed on the rolls of the Bundesauszug, he has to undergo a train-
ing of from 28 to 35 days, according to his entering the ranks of
either the infantry, the Scharfschiitzen, or picked riflemen the
cavalry, or the artillery. Both the men of the Bundesauszug and
the reserve are called together in their respective cantons for annual
exercises, extending over a week for the infantry, and over two weeks
for the cavalry and artillery, while periodically, once or twice a year,
the troops of a number of cantons are brought together for a general
muster.
The military instruction of the Federal army is given to officers
not permanently appointed or paid, but who must have undergone a
course of education, and passed an examination at one of the training
establishments erected for the purpose. The centre of these is the
Military Academy at Thun, near Bern, maintained by the Federal
government, and which supplies the army both with the highest class
of officers, and with teachers to instruct the lower grades. Besides
446 SWITZERLAND.
this Academy, or ' Centralmilitiirschule,' there are special training
schools for the various branches of the service, especially the artillery
and the Scharfschutzen. The nomination of the officers, up to the
rank of captain, is made by the cantonal governments, and above
that rank by the Federal Council. At the head of the whole military
organisation is a general commanding-in-chief, appointed, together
with the chief of the staff of the army, by the Federal Assembly.
The total expenditure on account of the army was 2.384,347
francs, or 95,374/. in 1867, and 2,442.011 francs, or 97,680/!, in
1868. The expenses in the year 1868 were distributed as follows:—
Francs
Central military administration. . . . 119,716
Organisation of instruction .... 165,332
Pay of army instructors of all branches . . 1,756.231
War material 155,210
Frontier guards and fortifications . . . 17,860
Office of General eommanding-in-chief and staff 37.347
Construction of barracks. .... 140.447
Printing and advertising 33,975
Miscellaneous expenses ..... 7,003
m . , f 2,442.011
Total . . . . . I £97j68()
Not included in the above account is the maintenance of the
Military School at Thun, which has a fund of its own, the annual
income of which surpasses the expenditure.
The enlistment of citizens of the republic into foreign military
service is forbidden by the terms of a law passed in 1849, under
the penalty of loss of all civil rights.
Area and Population.
The Swiss Confederation was founded on the 1st January, 1308, by
the 3 cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwald. In 1353 it numbered
8 cantons, and in 1513 it was composed of 13 cantons. This old
Confederation, of 13 cantons, was increased by the adherence of
several subject territories, and existed till 1798, when it was re-
placed by the Helvetic Republic, which lasted four years. In 1803,
Napoleon I. organised a new Confederation, composed of 19 cantons,
by the addition of St. Gall, Graublinden, Aargau, Thurgau, Tessin,
and Vaud. This confederation was modified in 1815, when the number
of cantons was increased to 22 by the admission of Wallis, Neuchatel,
and Geneve. Three of the cantons are politically divided — Basel
into Stadt and Land, or Town and Country ; Appenzell into Ausser
AREA AND POPULATION.
447
Rhoden and Inner Rhoden, or Exterior and Interior ; and Unterwald
into Obwald and Nidwald, or Upper and Lower; but their union is
preserved by each of the moieties sending one member to the State
Council, so that there are two members to the divided as well as
the undivided cantons.
A general census of the population of Switzerland is taken every
ten years. At the last, of Dec. 10, 1860, the people numbered
2,510,494 souls, of whom 1,236,363 were males and 1,274,131
females. The area of the republic at the same date was 41,418
square kilometres, or 15,233 English square miles, giving an average
density of population of 81 per English square mile.
The following table gives the area, population, and density of
population of each of the 22 cantons, in order of size, according to
the census returns : —
Cantons
Area
Eng. sq. miles
Population
Population per
Eng. sq. mile
GrauLunden (Grisons)
2,968-0
90,713
302
Bern
2,561-5
467,141
178-8
WaHis (Valais)
1,661-6
90,792
50-5
Vaud (Waadt)
1,181-9
213,157
168-8
Tessin (Ticino)
1,034-7
116,343
113-8
St. Gall .
7477
180,411
228-2
Zurich .
685-3
266,265
365-8
Luzern .
587-4
130,504
226-1
Fribourg
563-9
105.523
177-1
Aargau .
502-4
194,208
397-7
Uri . . .
420-8
14.741
34-4
Schwyz .
338-3
45,039
130-5
Neuchatel (NeuenLurg)
280-2
44,149
252-5
Glarus .
279-8
33,363
107-9
Thurgau .
268-3
90,080
368-6
Unterwald
262-8
24,902
95-6
Solothurn (Soleure)
254-6
69.263
273-6
Basel .
184-6
92,265
4 20-2
Appenzell
152-8
60,431
359-3
Sehaffhausen .
119-7
35,500
294-9
Geneve (Genf )
91-3
82.876
702-5
Zug . .
85-4
19,608
204-4
Total
15,233-0
2,510,494 j
81-0
The population of the republic is formed by three nationalities
distinct by their language as German, French, and Italian, but the
first constituting the great majority. The German language is
spoken by the majority of inhabitants in sixteen cantons, the French
in four, and the Italian in two. It is calculated that 702 out of
every thousand inhabitants speak German, 226 French, and 72 Italian.
4+8
SWITZERLAND.
The soil of the country is very equally divided among the popu-
lation, it being estimated that of the two millions and a half inhabi-
tants of Switzerland, there are but half a million having no landed
possession. Of every 100 square miles of land, 20 are pasture, 17
forest, 11 arable, 20 meadow, 1 vineyard, and 30 uncultivated, or
occupied by lakes, rivers, and mountains.
Trade and Industry.
The Federal custom-house returns classify all imports and exports
under three chief headings, namely, ' live stock,' ' ad valorem
goods,' and ' goods taxed per quintal.' According to this classifi-
cation, the import and export trade of the Confederation, in the two
years 1867 and 1868, was as follows : —
Imports
1S67
1868
Live stock head
Agricultural instruments, carts and railway
carriages for travellers, and merchandise,
ad valorem ..... francs
Goods taxed per quintal, including loads re-
duced to quintals . . . quintals
Exports
Live stock ... . head
Wood and coal, ad valorem . francs
Goods, per load and quintal . quintals
242,931
406,458
19,006,133
219,553
938,696
17,292,449
120,418
6,102,833
2,486,668
127,681
7,802.515
2,609,138
Being an inland country, Switzerland has only direct commercial
intercourse with the four surrounding states — Austria, Italy, France,
and Germany. The trade with Austria is very inconsiderable, not
amounting, imports and exports combined, to more than 25,000
francs, or 1,000/. per annum, on the average. From Italy the annual
imports average 30,000 francs, or 1,200/. in value, while the exports
to it amount to 1,500,000 francs, or 60,000/. The imports from
France average 500,000 francs, or 20,000/., and the exports to it
5,5 I »0,000 francs, or 220,000/. The intercourse with Germany,
imports and exports, are nearly equal, averaging each 500,000 francs,
or 20.000/. per annum.
Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with
a strong tendency to manufacturing industry. According to the
census of 1860, there are 1,095,447 individuals supported by agricul-
ture, either wholly or in part. The manufactories employed, at the
same date, 216,468 persons, the handicrafts 241,425. In the canton
of Basel, the manufacture of silk ribbons, to the annual value of
1,100,000/., occupies 6,000 persons; and in the canton of Zurich silk
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
449
sniffs to the value of 1,000,000/. are made by 12,000 operatives.
The manufacture of watches and jewellery in "the cantons of Neu-
chatel, Geneva, Yaud, Bern, and Solotlmrn occupies 3G,000 work-
men, who produce annually 500,000 watches — three-sevenths of the
quantity of gold, and four-sevenths of silver — valued at 1,800,000Z.
In the cantons of St. Gall and Appenzell, G,000 workers make 400,000/.
of embroidery annually. The printing and dyeing factories of Glarus
turn out goods to the value of 6,0O0J. per annum. The manufacture
of cotton goods occupies upwards of 1,000,000 spindles, 4,000 looms,
and 20,000 operatives, besides 38,000 hand-loom weavers.
From official returns recentlylaid before the Swiss Federal Govern-
ment by the Minister of the Interior, it appears that the railways
open for public traffic in Switzerland have an aggregate length of
1,310 kilometres, or 820 English miles, distributed among thirteen
companies, the largest of which are, the Amalgamated Swiss Rail-
way, the Swiss North Eastern, the Swiss Central, the Canton of Berne
State Railway, the Swiss Western, the Fribourg Railway, and the
Franco- Swiss Railway. There is one kilometre of railway to 32
square kilometres of superficial area and 1,965 inhabitants, or 509
metres per thousand of the total population of the country.
Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which
excepting wires for railway service, is wholly under' the control of
the state. At the end of September 1870, there were 2,130 miles
of lines, and 3.717 miles of wire. The number of telegraph mes-
sages sent in the year 18G9 was upwards of half a million, having
increased to this amount from 109,600 in 1854. An uniform charge
of one franc is made for every inland telegram of 20 words. It is
found that nearly 1 4 miles of telegraphic line exist in Switzerland
to every 100 square miles of country, and that there is one
telegraphic office for every 10.000 inhabitants.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The French metric system of money, weights, and measures has
been generally adopted in Switzerland, with some changes of names,
and of subdivisions. These, and their British equivalents, are :
Money.
The Franc, of 10 Batzen, and 100 Happen or Centimes.
Average rate of exchange, 2.) Francs —£1 sterling
Weights akd Measuhbs.
The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 P/und= 110 lbs. avoirdupois. The
Arpcnt (Land) = 8-9ths of an acre.
The Pfund, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal
Grammes, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quarters,
named Halb-pfund, and Viertel-pfund.
G G
450
.SWITZERLAND.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Switzerland .
1. Official Publications.
Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau ties
Eidgenoss. Departements des Inuera. 4. Bern, 1870.
Schweizerische Statistik. Bevolkeruug. Eidgenossische Volksziihlung vom
10. Dec. 1860. 4. Bern, 1862.
Statistique de la Suisse. Commerce de la France avec la Suisse pendant les
annees 1858-1868. 4. Bern, 1870.
Waarenverkehr der Schweiz mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung auf den Zoll-
verein und Oesterreich. 4. Bern, I860.
Reports by Mr. Burnley, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, In-
dustry, Agriculture, Finance, and Popular Education of Switzerland, dated June
29, and Dec. 28, 1863, and June 20, 1864; in ' Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy.' No. VII. London, 1864.
Reports" by Mr. Rumbold, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Finances
of Switzerland ; dated May, 1866, and Feb., 1867; in 'Reports by H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' Nos. I. and IV. 1867. London. 1867.
Report by Mr. Rumbold, II. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, ' on the Trade and
Industry of Switzerland, during the five years 1863 to 1868,' dated December,
1868 ; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II.
1869. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Consul Mackenzie ' on the Trade and Commerce of the
Cantons of Switzerland,' dated Geneva, July 24, 1868 ; in ' Commercial Reports
received at the Foreign Office.' No. XL, 1868. London, 1S68.
Report by Mr. Consul Mackenzie on the Tenure of Land in the Canton of
Geneva, dated October 1, 1869; in 'Reports from II. M.'s Representatives
respecting the Tenure of Land in the several countries. Part II. Fol.
London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL Fol. London, 186S.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Berlcpsvh (H. A.) Sclrweizerkunde : Land, Volk, und Staat. 8. Braun-
schweig, 1864.
G-isi (Dr. Willi. ) Bevolkerungsstatistik der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschafl
und ihrer Kantone. 8. Aarau, 1868.
Hodltr (J.), Allgemeine Grundsatze des natiirlichen Staatsreehts mit ver-
gleichender Beriicksichtigung der Schweizerischen Bundesverfassung und der
Berner Cantonsvei-fassung. 8. Bern, 1865.
Kolh (G. Fr.), Beitrage zur Statistik der Industrie und des Handels der
Schweiz. 8. Zurich, 1859.
Stiff't (A. von). Culturstudirn. Kunst- und Reisebriefe aus der Schweiz und
Deutschland. 2 vols. 8. Berlin. 1865.
Zeitschrift fur Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben von der Schweizer-
ischen Statistischen Gessellschaft, under Mitwirkung des eidgenossischen
Statistischen Bureaus. 8. Bern, 1868-70.
45*
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES.
(Ottoman Empire.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Abdul-Aziz, Sultan of Turkey, born Feb. 9, 1830 (15 Shaban
1245), the second son of Sultan Mahmoud II. ; succeeded to the
throne at the death of his elder brother, Sultan Abdul-Medjid,
June 25, 1861.
Children of the Sultan. — 1. Yussvf Izzeddin Effendi, born Oct. 9,
1857. 2. Salihe Sultana, born Aug. 10, 18G2. 3. Mahmoud Djemil
Eddin Effendi, born Nov. 20, 1862. 4. Mechmed Selivi Effendi,
born Oct. 8, 1866. 5. Abdul-Medjid, born June 27, 1868.
Nephevs and Xirces of the Sultan. — 1. Amurath Murad Effendi,
Heir Presumptive, born Sept. 21, 18-40. 2. Fatime Sultana, born Nov.
1, 1840; married, Aug. 11, 1854, to Ali-Ghalib Pasha, third son of
Rescind Pasha; widow, Oct. 30, 1858; remarried, March 24, 1859,
to Mehemed Noury Pasha. 3. Refige Sidtana, born Feb. 6, 1842 ;
married, July 21, 1857, to Etham Pasha, son of Mehemed Ali Pasha.
4. Abdul-Ham id Effendi, born Sept. 22, 1842. 5. Dje'mile Sultana,
born Aug. 18, 1843 ; married, June 3, 1858, to Mahmoud-Gelal-
Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha. 6. Mohammed-Reschad
Effendi, born Nov. 3, 1844. 7. Ahmet- Kemaledd in Effendi, born
Dec. 3, 1847. 8. Behige Sultana, born July 16, 1848; married,
Oct. 11, 1859, to Husni Pasha, son of Mustapha Pasha. 9. Mo-
hammed-Buhran-Uddin Effendi, born May 23, 1849. 10. Nur-
Eddin Effendi, born April 14, 1851. 11. Seniche Sultana, born
Nov. 21, 1851. 12. Fehime Sultana, born Jan. 26, 1855. 13.
Chehime Sultana, born March 1, 1855. 14. Sohjman Effendi, born
Jan. 12, 1861.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-third, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and the
twenty-sixth sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By the
law of succession obeyed by the reigning family, every sovereign
has the right to nominate his successor to the throne, within the
circle of his own blood relations; but custom has changed this rule,
to the effect that not the nearest, but the eldest male heir, may lay
claim to the crown. Thus the late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, although
he left fourteen children, six sons and eight daughters, was suc-
ceeded, not by his eldest son — twenty-one years of age at the date
of his death — but by his brother, the present sovereign.
o e 2
452
TURKEY.
The private income of the sultan is variously reported. Official
-documents, issued by the Minister of Finance, state that the civil
list amounts to 240,982 purses, or 1,033,882/.; but this sum is
believed to represent only a part of the resources of the sovereign.
Other accounts fix the personal expenditure of the sultan at
9,600,000/., equal to more than three-fourths of the -whole revenue
of the empire. The private exchequer of the monarch is encum-
bered with vast liabilities, notwithstanding frequent attempts at
retrenchment. To the reigning family belong a great number of
crown domains, the income from which, as well as the customary
presents of tributary princes and high state functionaries, contribute
to the revenue of the. imperial house.
The following is a list of the thirty-three sovereigns of Turkey,
with date of accession, from the foundation of the empire and of
the reigning house.
House of
Othman .... 1299
Orchan .... 1326
Amurath I. . . .1360
BajazetL, ' The Thunder-
bolt* .... 1389
Solyman I. 1402
Mohammed I. . . . 1413
Amurathll. . . . 1421
Mohammed II., Conqueror
of Constantinople . 1451
Bajazetll. . . . 1481
Selim I. . . . 1512
Solyman II., ' The Magni-
ficent' . . . 1520
Selim II 1566
Amurath III. . . . 1574
Mohammed III. . . 1595
Ahmet I. . . . 1603
Mustapha I. . . .1617
Othman.
Osman I.
Amurath IV.,
pid'
Ibrahim .
Mohammed IV
Solyman III.
Ahmet II.
Mustapha II.
Ahmet III.
Mahmoud I.
Osman II.
Mustapha III.
Abdul Hamid
Selim III.
Mustapha IV.
Mahmoud II.
Abdul-Medjid
Abdul-Aziz
The Intre-
1618
1623
1640
1649
1687
1691
1695
1703
1730
1754
1757
1774
1788
1807
1808
1839
1861
The average reign of the above thirty-three rulers of the Turkish
empire, during a period of more than five centuries and a half,
amounted to seventeen years.
Constitution and Government,
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the precepts of
the Koran. The will of the sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not
in opposition to the accepted truths of the Mahometan religion, as
laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran,
the laws of the 'Multeka,' a code formed of the supposed sayings
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 45J
and opinions of Mahomet, and the sentences and decisions of his
immediate successors, are binding upon the sovereign as well as his
subjects. Another code of laws, the ' Canon nameh,' formed by
Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sheriffs,'
<>r decrees, issued by him and his predecessors, is held in genera!
obedience, but merely as an emanation of human authority. The
Koran and the ' Multeka ' alone, both believed to be of divine
origin, embody the fundamental laws of the State, and prescribe the
action of the theocratic government.
A charter of liberties, not yet fully executed, was granted by
Sultan Abdul Medjid to his subjects in the ' Hatti-Humayoun ' of
February 18, 1856. The principal provisions of this imperial order
are as follows : — ' Full liberty of worship is guaranteed to every
religious profession. No one can be forced to change his religion.
No legal documents shall acknowledge any inferiority of one class
of Turkish subjects to another, in consequence of difference in reli-
gion, race, or language. All foreigners may possess landed property,
while obeying the laws, and paying the taxes.'
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the
supreme direction of the sultan, by two high dignitaries, the Grand
Vizier, the head of the temporal Government, and the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,'
the head of the Church. Both are appointed by the sovereign, the
latter with the concurrence of the ' Ulema,' a body comprising the
clergy and chief functionaries of the law. The dignitaries are : —
1. The Grand Vizier. — All Pasha, appointed Grand Vizier, and
Minister of Foreign affairs, February 14, 1869.
2. The ' Sheik-ul-Islam.' — Hassan Effendi, formerly tutor of the
Sultan, nominated April 30, 1868.
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative
of the sovereign, is President of the ' Divan,' or Ministerial Council,
divided into nine departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Ruckdi Pasha, appointed Feb.
.">; 1869.
2. The Ministry of War. — Omar Pasha, formerly Governor-
General of Crete, appointed Feb. 8, 1869.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Mustapha Fazyl Pasha, appointed
August 13, 1870.
4. The Ministry of Marine. — Mahrmid Pasha, Grand Admiral,
appointed March 1, 1868.
5. The Ministry of Commerce, Agriculture, and Public "Works. —
Daovd Pasha, appointed March 28, 1868.
6. The Ministry of Police. — Hussein Pasha, appointed March
1 868.
7. The Ministry of Justice. — Sadyh Pasha, appointed August
13, 1870.
454
TUKKEY.
8. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — MunifEffendi, appointed
September, 1869.
9. The Ministry of ' Vakouf,' or of the domains of the Church
and of Charitable Institutions. — Tefvid Effendi, appointed March 9,
1868.
The whole of the empire, except the dependencies in Africa, is
divided into Governments, and subdivided into provinces and dis-
tricts. A general governor, or pasha, who is held to represent the
sultan, and is assisted by a council, is placed at the head of each
Government. The provinces and districts are subjected to inferior
authorities, under the superintendence of the principal governor.
All subjects, however humble their origin, are eligible to, and
may fill, the highest offices in the State. Birth confers no privilege,
as all true believers are equal in the eye of the law.
Religion and Education.
The adherents of the various religious creeds of the empire are
roughly estimated to consist of the following numbers: —
Keligion
In Europe
In Asia
In Africa
Total
Mussulmans
Greeks and Armenians
Catholics .
Jews ....
Other sects
Total .
4.550,000
10,000.00(1
640.000
70,000
240,000
12,650,000
3,000,000
260,00)
80,000
60,000
3,800,000
21,000,000
13,000,000
900,000
150,000
300.000
15,500,000 | 16,050.000
3.800,000
35,350,000
In this statement, the term Catholic is applied to the disciples of
all the Eastern churches which acknowledge the authority of the See
of Rome, although there are amongst them numerous differences in
the matter of discipline and ceremonial. Of these Eastern Catholics
there are : —
1. Latins, or Catholics who use the Roman Liturgy,
consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians,
Croats, and others, to the number of .
2. United Greeks .....
3. United Armenians ....
4. Syrians and United Chaldeans
5. Marcmitea, under a Patriarch atKanobin
in Mount Lebanon ....
25,000
75,000
20,000
110.000
Total
640,000
260,000
900,000
The above five religious denominations, together with the Pro-
testants and Jews, are recognised by the Turkish Government as
independent religious communities, with the privilege of possessing
their own ecclesiastical rule. The bishops and patriarchs of the Greeks
RELIGION AMD EDUCATION. 455
and Armenians, and the ' Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the
Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable poli-
tical power and independence.
Throughout Turkey, the ministers of religion are subordinate to
the civil authorities, who exercise over them the power of diocesans.
Magistrates may supersede and remove clergymen who misconduct
themselves, or who are unequal to the proper discharge of the duties
of their office. The magistrates themselves may also, whenever
they think proper, perform all the sacerdotal functions. Owing to
the fact that the Koran constitutes the code of law and charter
of rights, as well as the religious guide of the followers of Mahomet,
there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the
professors and interpreters of the law. Both together form the class
of ' Ulema,' governed by the ' She"ik-ul-Islam,' the former being
called 'Mollahs,' and the latter 'Muftis.' The members of the
' Ulema ' go through the same course of education, based on the
thorough knowledge of the Koran and the ' Multeka;' but though
they all study together, the lawyers- and judges are quite distinct
from the clergy, it being left to every young man brought up in one
of the colleges of the order to determine for himself, when he hae
attained a proper age and acquired a sufficient stock of learning,
Asdiether he will become a priest, or a doctor of law, or a judge.
The members of the Ulema constitute a form of aristocracy.
They pay no taxes or public imposts, and, by a peculiar privilege,
their property is hereditary in their families, and is not liable to
arbitrary confiscations. Their persons are sacred ; their blood may
on no account be shed ; nor can they be legally punished in any way
but by imprisonment and exile. However, the power and dignity
of the ulemas are not hereditary in individuals, but in the order.
Formerly they held their offices for life ; but about the end of the
seventeenth century they were made removable at pleasure, like
other public functionaries. But each individual enjoys all the pri-
vileges of the order, independently of his holding any office, or
exercising any public employment. Besides the ulema, there is a
priestly class limited to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter
Fatima. These are called ' oomra,' or ameers, and are authorised
to wear green turbans. They are very numerous, and are found in
the lowest ranks of life.
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a
consequence, public schools have been long established in most
considerable Turkish towns, while ' medresses,' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the prin-
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited. The pupils are chiefly taught to read and
write the first elements of the Turkish language; the class-books
456 TURKEY.
being the Koran, and some commentaries upon it. In the ' mo-
dresses,' which are the colleges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils
are instructed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher and
write the different sorts of Turkish characters. The instruction
comprises philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and morals founded on the
Koran ; and these, with theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on
history and geography, complete the course of study. Among recent
improvements in public instruction are the foundation of a new
university in 1845 ; and the subsequent organisation of a plan of
primary and secondary instruction. In 1850, Constantinople Lad
S97 primary schools, which were attended by 22,700 pupils; and
schools of the same description have been established in most other
great towns.
A new law of public instruction, designed to spread education
over the empire, was issued by the government in October 1S(19.
By its provisions there are to be five classes of public schools,
namely, primary, superior primary, preparatory schools, lyceums, and
special schools. Each quarter in a city and each village must
maintain a primary school, or if the population be mixed, a school
for Mahomedans, and another for non- Mussulmans. Children are
to receive instruction in the religious book of their persuasion,
attendance being compulsory during four years, from the age of six
to ten for girls, and of eleven for boys, save in certain instances,
specified in Article 13 of the law. A superior primary school, or
two if necessitated bv religious differences, is to be instituted, at the
charge of the vilayet, in every town of 500 houses. The course in
these will likewise extend over four years, and will include Turkish,
Persian, and Arabic grammar, arithmetic, book-keeping, geography,
history, geometry, and one local language. Preparatory schools are
to be open to Mahomedans and others alike. The course of three
years will include French, political economy, and natural history.
Those Ottoman subjects who have passed an examination in pre-
paratory schools will be admitted for three years as boarders to the
Lyceum in each chief town of a vilayet. The highest class of
educational establishments includes a normal school, the upper
schools of arts and sciences, and the University of Constantinople.
The normal school, destined to supply teachers, who must all be
Ottoman subjects, Avill receive 100 students at a time, with certificates
from the lower establishments. A corresponding institution will
provide female instructors. The University is to contain three
faculties — for letters, law, and physical science. There will }><■
instituted at the capital a Council of Education, and an Academic
Council in each chief city of a vilayet. The new law likewise
contains provisions for the control of private educational establish*
ments throughout the Ottoman Empire.
b e v i ; n r 1 : and expenditure.
457
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of Turkey is chiefly derived from taxes of three
denominations — the Verghi, the Aashr, and the Roussotvmiat. The
Verghi, or poll-tax, is a tax on the whole population, paid at a fixed
rate for each house or family; the second tax, the Aashr, or tithe,
is a tax of ten per cent, upon the produce of cultivation ; and the
third tax, the Roussoumiat, is revenue derived from the farming of
the customs, from taxes on food, and from the rent of crown lands.
The revenue and expenditure of the Government for each of the
two years, ending March 30, 1864 and 1865 — years 1270 and 1280
of the Turkish era — were officially returned as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
Taxes: — Vergbi, or Poll tax
Military substitution
Tithes
Sheep tax
Swine tax
Customs .
Tobacco .
Fish tax .
Contracts .
Stamps
Spirits
Tapou, or transfer duty
Miscellaneous taxes .
Total of taxes
Post Office.
Imperial Printing Office
Domains .
State fisheries .
„ forests
,, farms
„ salt works
,. mines
Tribute of Egypt
,, of Wallachia
,, of Moldavia .
,, of Seryia
„ of Samos
„ of Mount Athos
Special revenues of Ministry of Mari
„ „ of Commerce .
,, ,, of Public Works
Sale of State lands .
Total revenue
1804
1865
&
£
2,745,932
2,728.841
545,270
549,747
3,713,139
3,944,768
794,552
1,005,651
13.131
16,394
2,250,000
1,917,000
540,000
1,057,500
51,471
56,169
14,135
15,426
135,000
135,000
112,500
162.000
112.500
112,500
1,102,000
1,102,500
12,129,638
12,803,504
89,090
90,684
9,851
11,250
17.307
15,106
20,010
20,610
14.260
15,750
78,291
74,781
562,500
990,000
83,610
71,298
360.000
360,000
22,500
22,500
13,500
13,500
20,700
20,700
3,600
3,600
783
652
54.311
57,942
16,172
4,172
—
13,788
50,654
—
13,547,382
14,589,855
458
TURKEY.
Branches of Expenditure
1864
1865
Ordinary expenditure: —
External debt ......
Internal debt ......
Dotation to Mecca .....
Pensions .......
Supreme council of justice ....
Civil list .......
Ministry of war ......
Direction of artillery
Ministry of marine .....
„ of justice .....
., of the vakouf or Church domains .
,, of the interior ....
,, of foreign affairs ....
„ of commerce and agriculture
„ of instruction and public works
., of police .
,, of finance .....
£
1,582,065
2,071,680
333,522
306,990
61,790
1,084,419
3,725,059
171,000
946,607
94,023
181.180
1,585,066
118,026
17 955
42,435
148,271
586,953
£
2,061,216
2,222,579
337,401
532,687
75,568
1,085,400
2,956,725
600,057
918,929
94,252
177,547
1,657,057
118,687
21,532
56,646
146,304
613,620
Total ordinary expenditure .
Extraordinary expenditure :—
Accounts current with bankers .
Syrian bonds ......
Repayment of advance on taxes .
Circassian immigrants . . . .
13,057,082
280,940
22,500
13,676,226 1
158,562
263,520
102,217
225,000
Total expenditure
13,360,522
14,425,525
The budget estimates of the years 18C6-70 uniformly set down the
annual revenue at about 14,500,000/., and the exDenditure at slightly-
less; but it was at the same time acknowledged in the financial
statements that for years past there had been large annual deficits.
These deficits of the decennial period 1859— (38 amounted to the
following sums, according to reports made by the Grand Vizier: —
£
The actual revenue for the year 1859-60 was, in round numbers 9,711,000
„ expenditure „ „ „ „ 11.088,000
Deficit for 1859-60 was, in round numbers .... 1,377,000
1860-61 „ „ „ .... 1,574,536
1861-62 „ ., „ .... 1,700,000
1862-65 „ „ „ .... 3,500,000
Probable deficits for 1865-68 4,000.000
Total 14,848,536
The excess of expenditure over income, dating from the year
L850, lias given rise to a very large public debt. The liabilities
of the Ottoman Empire are divided into two categories — the External
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
459
or Hypothecated Debts, contracted, as their designation implies,
abroad, and secured on special sources of revenue ; and the Internal
Debts, known principally under the generic term of Consolides,
issued at Constantinople alone, and therefore dependent only on a
compact between the Porte and its subjects, and secured on the
general credit and resources of the Empire. The External Debts.
with the exception of two loans, the first contracted in 1855, and
guaranteed by England and France, bear an interest of 6 per cent.,
with a sinking fund of 1 and 2 per cent. Most of the Internal
Debts bear an interest of 6 per cent., with a nominal sinking fund of
2 per cent.
The foreign debts of Turkey are as follows : —
Years of issue
Nominal
capital
Interest
Sinking
fund
Annual
charge
£
£
1854
3.000,000
6 per cent.
1 per cent.
210,000
1855
5,000,000
4 per cent.
1 per cent.
250,000
1858
5,000,000
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
400,000
I860
2,070,000
6 per cent.
1 per cent.
144,900
1862
8,000,000
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
640.000
1863-4
8,000,000
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
640.000
18G5
36,363,363
5 per cent.
2 per cent.
2,545,435
1866
6.000,000
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
480,000
1867
2,500,000
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
200.000
1869
'2-2.222.220
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
1,198,400
1870
Total .
12.000.000
110,155,583
6 per cent.
2 per cent.
970.000
7,678,735
The first foreign loan of Turkey, of 1854, issued to meet the ex-
penses of the war with Russia, was contracted with Messrs. Dent,
Palmer, & Co., London, on the security of the tribute of Egypt, with
stipulation to be repaid by annual drawings in or before the year
1889. The second loan, of 1855, was brought out under the
guarantee of Great Britain and France. It is to be paid off at par
by annual drawings, the last of which will be in August, 1900, and it
is charged on the balance of the Egyj)tian tribute and on the customs
duties of Syria. The third loan, of 1858, was contracted with
Messrs. Dent, Palmer, & Co., and the Ottoman Bank, on the secu-
rity of the customs duties and octrois of Constantinople, and of the
general revenues of the empire. It was issued in two portions —
3,000,000/. in 185.S, at the rate of 85, and 2,000,000/. in 1859, at
the rate of 60 — and is to be repaid, at par, by annual drawings
before the year 1893. The fourth loan, of 1860, contracted with
M. Mires, Paris, on the security of the customs and other revenues
of the empire, was intended to be for 1(3,000,000/., but only
2,070,000/. could be issued, at the price of 62^. The fifth loan, of
460 TURKEY.
1862, contracted with the Ottoman Bank and Messrs. Devaux, Paris,
at the rate of 68, was secured on the tobacco, salt, stamp, and license
duties, and the general revenues of the empire ; while the sixth loan,
of 1863-4, contracted also by the Ottoman Bank, at the same price,
was issued on the security of the Imperial customs and tithes. The
seventh loan, of 1865, likewise contracted through the Ottoman
Bank, and issued at 66, was charged on the security of the sheep-
tax of Roumelia and the Archipelagus, and the produce of the mines
of Tokat. Finally, the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh loans, of
1866, 1867, 1«69, and 1870, contracted through the Societe Generale
of Paris, and Messrs. Louis Cohen and Son, Paris, were issued on
the security of a variety of special taxes, imposts, and tithes, as well
as on the general revenues, ' present and future,' of the empire.
The home debt, consisting of a great variety of State obligations,
issued at various periods, and amounting in the aggregate to about 2<»
millions sterling, was consolidated by two Imperial decrees published
in March 1865. These decrees established a system of public
management for the General Debt of the Empire. A Great Book
was instituted, in which all the liabilities of the Empire are inscribed,
under the direction of a high officer of State, called the Governor of
the General Debt. The internal debt under the new law of I860
consists of obligations at 5 per cent., with a sinking fund of 1 per
cent. The obligations are printed in Turkish, English, and French.
bearing a fixed value in the currency of the language. The interest
is ordered to be paid half-yearly, at a fixed rate of exchange, at
Constantinople, Paris, London, Amsterdam, and Frankfort. The
sinking fund is employed in the following manner: — 'A sum of 1 per
cent, on the original nominal value of the bonds issued, together with
the interest of bonds previously amortised, is to be annually applied t< 1
amortisation. With this sum bonds are to be purchased to the no-
minal amount of 1 per cent., at the market price of the day. Tin-
difference between the market price of the bonds and their nominal
value is to be applied to a reserve fund, which is to preserve the
equilibrium of credit.'
The present state of the finances of Turkey, and especially the
public debt, is described as follows by Mr. Henry Page Turner Bar-
ron, H. M.'s first Secretary of Embassy at Constantinople, in a report
to the Foreign Office dated February 11, 1867, written in conse-
quence of special instructions from the British government to inves-
tigate the financial state of the empire. ' To give anything like a
trustworthy balance sheet of the Ottoman treasury,' Mr. Barron says.
* is an impossibility. It is very doubtful whether the elements exist
to enable the minister himself to produce such a document. All.
therefore, that can be done is to present certain facts and to draw
from them the inferences which they would seem to justify.' ' The
ARMY AND NAVY. 46 1
sum of 14,000,000/. may be fairly t;iken as the maximum figure of
the national ordinary revenue, and 5,43G,000/. as the charge of the
two categories of debt. There remains, therefore, a balance of
8,564,000£, available for all the purposes of government. Now, of this
sum, about 5,393,000/. are required for government expenditure in
the provinces, being collected and distributed on the spot, and net
comingtothe capital at all. This would leave a balance of 3,171,000/.
available for all the central expenditure payable at the seat ol
government.' ' It must be acknowledged that the successive ad-
ministrations have exerted themselves to the utmost to keep faith
with their foreign creditors, in honourable contrast with several
Christian governments. The country, however, is beginning to
stagger under the load which has been so recklessly heaped upon its
shoulders.' Mr. Barron concludes: — 'Next to the maintenance of
peace, the first condition of solvency for the Turkish Treasury is a
total abstinence from all future loans. The experience of the past
shows that these operations never produce any results at all com-
mensurate with the sacrifices which they entail. Every future con-
version or manipulation of the debt must be strictly avoided, and the
pure and simple fulfilment of existing engagements be adhered to.
To make both ends meet by means of the normal resources should
be the whole aim of Turkish statesmen.' Since the date of the
report here quoted, the debt of Turkey, external and internal, in-
creased by more than one-fourth, and it is calculated that the annual
charge consumes fully one-half of the revenues of the empire.
Army and Navy.
The military force of Turkey is divided into — 1st, the regular
active army, called Nizam ; 2nd, the reserve, or litdif; 3rd, the
contingents of auxiliaries ; and, 4th, the irregular troops. The
regular active army consists of six corps or ' ordou,' under the
command of a field-marshal, or ' mushir,' with their head-quarters
at Scutari, Constantinople, Monastir, Karbrout, Damascus, and
Bagdad. Each ordou consists of two divisions, commanded by a
general of division, or ' ferik.' Each division is divided into three
brigades, commanded by generals of brigade, or ' livas.' The ordou
consists of eleven regiments, namely, six regiments of foot, four of
horse, and one regiment of artillery. Besides the six ordous, there
are three detached corps — one brigade on the island of Candia,
numbering 4,000 regulars, 3,500 irregulars, and GOO native can-
noniers — a total of about 8,000 men ; a second brigade in Tripoli,
consisting of one regiment of foot, and one of horse, to the strength
of 4,000 men ; and a third brigade, of 4,000 men, at Tunis. The
three detached corps muster, therefore, to the strength of 16,000
foot and horse.
462
TURKEY.
The special corps, under the command of the Grand Master of
the Artillery, are likewise divided into ordous. They consist of —
1. The central corps of artillery — four regiments — one reserve
regiment, and three special regiments which are quartered in the
various fortresses of the empire, in the forts of the Dardanelles and
of the Danube, on the coasts of Asia Minor and the Black Sea ;
2. The engineer brigade of two regiments of 800 men each.
The Reserve, or Redif, forms a second army, with the same organi-
sation as that of the Nizam, and consisting of the same number of
re«inients of the various arms. These regiments are divided into
battalions, squadrons, and companies, and have their standing staffs
of officers and corporals on active service, receiving full pay. If
is the duty of the latter to live in the towns and villages among the
soldiers, who, though on leave, are nevertheless not discharged from
the service, and these soldiers they must collect and drill once a
week. The Redif soldiers meet every year for four weeks at the
head-quarters of their respective ordous, and take part in the
field manoeuvres. While thus on service the men have the regular
pay and the usual allowance of provisions.
The auxiliaries consist of the contingents of the tributary pro-
vinces. These provinces are — Wallachia and Moldavia, Servia.
Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, Upper Albania, and Egypt. The
actual number of these troops varies greatly at different periods ;
and depends on the politics of the time or the enemy against
whom they are expected to take the field. In the late war Avith
Russia the number of auxiliaries amounted to about 75,000 men,
namely, 30,000 from Bosnia and the Herzegovina, 20,000i from
Upper Albania, and 25,000 from Egypt.
The total of the military forces of Turkey are officially estimated
as follows : —
Infantry . • .
Regiments
War-footing
Peace-footing j
36
117,360
100,800
Cavalry .
24
22.416
17,280 1
Field artillery
6
7,800
7,800
Artillery in fortresses
4
5,200
5.200
Engineers
2
1,600
1,600
f
In Candia
4
8,000
8,000
Detached corps <
Tripoli
2
4,000
4,000 !
1
Reserve
Tunis
2
4,000
4.00(1
80
170,376
148,680 j
148,680
Auxiliaries
.
.
.
75,000 :
87,000
Total of fo
rces .
459,360
AH MY AND NAVY.
463
The irregular troops are calculated to consist of —
1. Kavas or gendarmes on foot, Seymens or mounted gendarme
county militia or Soubechis .....
2. Tartars of Dobrodja and Asia Alinor ....
o. Hungarian and Polish volunteers ....
4. Moslem volunteers ....
Total of irregulars
and Men
30,000
5,000
2,000
50,000
87.<
During the late war with Russia, the actual number of troops in
the field was as follows, according to an official statement of the
Grand Vizier : — ■
Men
Infantry of the Nizam .... 72,180
Cavalry and field artillery . . . 22.737
Artillery in fortresses .... 10,408
Total troops of the Nizam . . 105,325
Of the above number 2,259 were in the pay of the British Go-
vernment. The Turkish army comprised besides : —
Men
Infantry of the Redif .... 92,650
Cavalry 11,177
Auxiliary troops in the pay of the British
Government ..... 7.741
Total troops of the Eedif . . 111,568
It will be seen that the total strength of the army in the field
was 216,893 men. The annual cost of these troops, according
to the same official statement, amounted to 0,055,000/., namely,
2,320,000/. for the troops of the Nizam ; 2,610,000/. for the Eedif:'
and 1,125,000/. for the artillery in fortresses.
Formerly a considerable portion of the troops were furnished by
the spahis and other holders of estates on condition of military service.
But that system was changed in 1843, since which time the army is
recruited by conscription. The conscripts are drawn at the age of
twenty years; the period of service is limited to five years ; and the
annual contingent is about 25,000 men. Only one son in a family
can be taken as a conscript ; and when there is but one son in
a family, he is exempted. After five years' service in the Nizam,
the soldier is liable to duty for seven years longer in the Redif.
Only a portion of the troops is raised by conscription, and the rest
is procured by enlistment, which is productive of many recruits, as
the pay in the Turkish army is comparatively high, amounting to
20 piastres, or 3s. Gd. per month, besides clothing, board, and full
rations. The Government undertakes the task "of procuring sub-
stitutes, at a fixed price, for all who wish to avoid the conscription.
46+
TURKEY.
The fleet of war of Turkey was composed, at the commencement
of September, 1869, of 163 vessels, currying a total of 2,283 guns.
The following was the classification of the fleet : —
Steamers:—
Ironclads ....
Screw steamers .
Paddle steamers.
Gunboats ....
Transports
Sailing Vessels : —
Ships of the line and frigates
Smaller vessels .
Transports
Total .
Number
Guns
13
216
27
645
23
820
12
28
35
52
17
406
8
82
28
34
163
2,283 j
The Turkish navy has been entirely reconstructed since the year
1858. Previous to the late war against Russia, the navy comprised
6 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 6 corvettes, 14 brigs, 16 cutters and
schooners. 6 steam-frigates, and 12 other small vessels, being a total
of 70 vessels, manned by 34,000 sailors and 4,000 marines. Most of
these ships were destroyed at Sinope, Nov. 1853, and others foun-
dered in storms in the Black Sea. Newly built in the years
1860-62 were 23 screw steamers, of various sizes, with 820
guns. To these were added, during the years 1863 to 1869,
seven large iron-clads built in England, the 'Abdul-Aziz,' the
' Osman Ghazy,' the ' Sultan Mahmoud,' the ' Ourkhan," the ' Feltah,'
the ' Said Bahri,' and the ' Moyini Zaffer.' Three smaller iron-clads,
called the ' Izzedin,' ' Fuad,' and ' Ismail,' were launched in July
1864, besides a screw frigate named the ' Guene-Bikhran,' while
two ' Monitors,' called the ' Bordeaux,' and ' Algiers,' each of SOD
tons burthen, constructed in France, were commissioned in the
summer of 1869. A screw-corvette was built in the summer of
1865, at the arsenal of Constantinople, called the 'Nousr-el-Azil ; '
and two other screw-corvettes, the ' Muzafer ' and ' Mensouri,' were
built on the stocks at Ismidt. The ' Ferad,' a steam -frigate, was
launched at Sinope, in August,. 1865 ; two sciew-corvettes were
built the same year at the arsenal at Ghiumlek, the ' Merikh,' and
the 'Akard;'and a steam-corvette, the ' Zeivan,' at Amasura, in
Asia Minor. The largest iron-clad in the Turkish navy is the
'Osman Ghazy,' built by Napier and Sons, Glasgow, and launched
September 2, 1864. The 'Osman Ghazy' is a 'ram,' armour-
plated from stem to stern, 309 feet long, 56 feet broad; of a
burthen of 4,200 tons, and a draught of water of 24 feet 9 inches.
AREA AND POPULATION.
465
The stem of the vessel projects about 4 feet beyond the upper
deck at the water line. The ' Osman Ghazy ' is propelled by hori-
zontal engines of 900 horse-power, and armed with 24 guns.
Twenty of these are 68-pounders, and the remaining four, which
are placed on the upper deck, 110- pounders. The next two power-
ful ironclads are the twin screw-steamers ' Avni Slab,' or ' Help
of God,' and the ' Moyini Zaffer,' or ' Aid to Victory ' ; the first built
at the Thames ironworks, and the second by Samuda Brothers,
Poplar, and both launched in June 1869. Each of these vessels is
230 feet long, and 36 feet broad, of a burthen of 1,400 tons, and
with engines of 600 horse-power. Both are clad in heavy armour,
of an average thickness of 5^ inches, and carry lour 12-ton rifle
Armstrong guns in a central battery, the construction of which
admits of the guns being fired ahead and astern without the aid of
a turret. The two ironclads are stated to possess the highest speed
of any vessels of war of the same tonnage.
The navy of Turkey was manned, in 1869, by 30,000 sailors
and 4,000 marine troops. A considerable number of the superior
officers of the fleet are foreigners by birth, and almost all received
their education at foreign academies, particularly in France, the
naval organisation of which country has been taken as a model for
that of Turkey. The crews are raised in the same manner as the
land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary enlist-
ment. The time of service in the navy is eight, or three years
longer than in the army.
Area and Population.
The area and population of Turkey are known only by estimates,
and not as the result of scientific measurement and of a general
census. Enumerations of the people took place in 1844 and in
1856, but it is generally stated that they cannot lay claim to any
degree of exactness. According to the former return — held to be
the most correct of the two — the total area of the empire, including
the tributary provinces, comprises 86,288 geographical, or 1,812,048
English square miles, the extent and population of the several geo-
graphical divisions in Europe, Asia, and Africa being given as
follows : —
Divisions
Area in Engl,
sq. m.
Population
Pop. to sq. m.
Turkey in Europe .
Turkey in Asia
Turkey in Africa
Total .
207,438
660,870
943,740
15,500,000
16,050,000
3,800.000
75
24
4
1,812,048
35.350,000 | 20
466
TURKEY.
According to other non-official estimates, the total population of
the empire, in Europe, Asia, and Africa, did not amount, in 1869,
to more than 32,000,000. Calculations based upon the returns of
the collectors of the Verghi, or poll-tax, in the year 1868, give a
population of not more than 13,500,000 to Turkey in Europe.
The total population, estimated, according to the official enume-
ration taken in 1844, at 35,350,000, is distributed as follows, in
the different divisions of the empire : —
Turkey in Europe.
Thrace
Bulgaria
Koumelia and Thessaly
Albania
Bosnia and the Herze-
govina . .
The Islands
Moldavia
Wallachia .
Servia .
1,800,000
3,000,000
2,700,000
1,200,000
1,100,000
700,000
1,400,000
2,600,000
1,000,000
15,500,000
Turkey in Asia.
Asia Minor, or Anatolia 10,700,000
Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Kurdistan . . 4,450,000
Arabia . . . 900,000
16,050,000
Turkey in Africa.
Egypt .... 2,000,000
Tripoli, Fez, and Tunis 1,800,000
3,800,000
Total . 35,350,000
The various races of which the population of the empire in
Europe, Asia, and Africa is composed, are thus classified in the
census taken in 1844 : —
Races
In Europe
In Asia
In Africa
Total
Ottomans .
2,100,000
10,700,000
—
12,800,000
Greeks
1,000,000
1,000,000
—
2,000,000
Armenians .
400,000
2,000,000
—
2,400,000
Jews ....
70,000
80,000
—
150,000
Slaves or Slavonians .
6,200,000
—
—
6,200,000
Koumains .
4,000,000
—
—
4,000,000
Albanians .
1,600,000
—
—
1,500,000
Tartars
16,000
20,000
—
36,000
Arabs
. —
885,000
3,800,000
4,685,000
Syrians and Chaldeans
—
200,000
—
200,000
Druses
—
80,000
—
80,000
Kurds
—
100,000
—
1,000,000
Turkomans
—
85,000
—
85,000
Gipsies
Total .
214,000
—
—
214,000
15,500,000
16,050,000
3,800,000
35,350 000
The territories of the Turkish empire in Europe are divided into
14 Eyalets, or Governments, and subdivided into 43 Sandjaks, or
provinces, and 376 Kazas, or districts. In Turkey in Asia there
are 18 Eyalets, 78 Sandjaks, and 858 Kazas; and hi Turkey in
Africa, 3 Eyalets, 17 Sandjaks, and 86 Kazas.
AREA AND POPULATION.
Turkey in Europe.
467
Pop. of
Pop. of
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
1. Edirne, or
8. Syrp, or Ser-
Thrace
Adrianople
100,000
via . . .
Belgrade .
50,000
2. Silistria . .
Silistria .
20,000
9. Bosnia
Serajevo .
60,000
3. Boghdan, or
10. Roumelia
Monastir .
15,000-
Moldavia
Jassy . .
50,000
,11. Yania
Janina
30,000
4. Eflak,orWal-
12. Selanik,or Sa-
!
lachia
Bucharest
80,000
lonica
Salonica .
80,000
5. Widdin . .
Widdin .
25,000
13. Djizair, or The
6. Niseh . . .
Nissa .
10,000
Islands .
Rhodes .
30,000
7. Uskup,orSco-
14. Kyrt, or Crete
Candia
20,000
pia
Uskup
10,000
1
The Eyalets of Silistria, Widdin, and Nisch are formed out of
the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria ; and those of Yania and Selanik
comprise the ancient Epirus and Macedonia. The Eyalets of Uskup
and Roumelia are formed from Albania. The Eyalet of Bosnia is
composed of Bosnia, a part of Croatia, and of the Herzegovina. The
Eyalet of Djizair, or The Islands, comprises all the isles of the Otto-
man Archipelago, of which the principal are Rhodes, Cyprus, Cos,
Tenedos, Lemnos, Mitylene, Scio, and Patmos.
Turkey in Asia.
Pop. of
Pop. of
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
towns
1. Kastamuni .
Kastamun
12,000
| 11. Khabrout .
Kharput .
50,000
2. Khowdavend-
12. Mossul . .
Mossul .
65,000
guiar
Brussa
100,000
13. Baghdad. .
Baghdad .
105,000
3. Aidin . . .
Smyrna .
160,000
1 14. Haleb, or
4. Karaman .
Koniyeh .
30.000
Aleppo . .
Aleppo
100,000
5. Adana . .
Adana
6.000
15. Sai'da . . .
Beyrout .
50,000
6. Bozok . . .
Angora .
60.000
16. Scham
Damascus
180,000
7. Sivas . . .
Sivas . .
30.000
17. Habesh .
Djedda .
18,000
8. Trabezouu .
Trebizond
50,000
18. Haremi-Na-
9. Erz-rum .
Erz-rum .
100,000
hevi .
Medina .
19,000
10. Kurdistan .
Diarbekhr
60,000
i
The Eyalet of Kastamuni comprises the ancient Paphlagonia;
that of Khowdavendguiar part of the ancient Bithynia, Phrygia,
and Mysia. The Eyalet of Aidin is formed from part of Isauria,
Lydia, Ionia, Caria, and Pisidia ; the Eyalet of Karaman contains
part of Isauria, Lydia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lycaonia, and Cappa-
h 11 2
468
TURKEY.
docia. That of Adana comprises Cilicia Petra^a ; those of Bozok
and Sivas, Cappadocia; while Trabezoun, or Trebizond, is formed
from the ancient provinces of Pontus and Colchis.
Turkey in Africa.
Eyalets
Chief towns
Pop. of chief
towns
1. ZVIisr. or Egypt
2. Thrablousi Garb, or Tripoli
3. Tunis ....
Cairo
Tripoli .
Tunis .
250,000
20,000
200.000
Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure, namely,
1st, as ' Miri,' or Crown lands ; 2nd, as 'Vacouf,' or pious founda-
tions ; 3rd, as ' Malikaneh,' or Crown grants ; and 4th, as ' Mulkh,'
or freehold property.
The first description of property, the ' miri,' or Crown lands,
which form by far the largest portion of the territory of the sultan,
are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the right to
cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, which,
of course, vary in proportion to its value. The deed which gives the
applicant a title to the grant has the sultan's cipher attached, and
the possession of this document ensures the property to the holder
and his heirs, while at the same time it forbids its alienation. The
sultan, however, still continues to exercise the rights of seigniory
over the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the
owner neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years, it is for-
feited to the Crown.
The second form of tenure, the ' vacouf,' is more complete in its
nature than the former. It is of two kinds, called, respectively,
' Vacouf-el-Zarai ' and ' Vacouf-el-Karama'in.' The object of both
is to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the
people, by the erection of mosques and schools, besides eleemosy-
nary institutions. The ' Vacouf-el-Zarai ' is land or other immov-
able property, originally obtained by grants from the Crown, and
entailed in the same form as the law of succession to the throne,
that is, not on the holder's natural heir, but on the eldest surviving
member of his family. The grant is sometimes conceded for a
limited period only, but generally in perpetuity. The ' Vacouf-el-
Karamaitn' is property bequeathed by private individuals for the
same pious purposes as enumerated above, but move especially for
the erection of caravanseries, fountains, wells, and other accommo-
dations for the convenience of those Avho make the pilgrimage to the
holy cities. Property of tins kind descends from father to son, and
is inalienable, though means are found to evade the Jaw by letting
TRADE AND COMMERCE. 469
the land for such a length of time as to be tantamount to a sale.
All the various forms of ' vacouf ' property are exempt from taxa-
tion, and the loss to the treasury, in this respect, is great. Sultan
Mahmoud II. meditated at one time the entire reconversion of
'vacouf property into ' miri ' or Crown lands, intending to provide
for the religious institutions out of the general revenue ; but pious
scruples, or considerations of State policy, interfered to preserve
the ' vacoufs.' It is said, however, that the subject is again under
consideration by the present Sultan Abdul- Aziz.
The third class of landed property, the land called ' malikaneh,'
was originally granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recom-
pense for the military service required of them, and for the safe
conduct of the caravans of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. This
property is hereditary, and exempt from tithes; and the payment of
a fee by the heir is all that is required to make the succession valid.
The fourth form of tenure — the ' rnulkh,' or freehold property, the
tenure most advantageous to occupiers — does not exist to a great
extent. Some house proj^erty in the towns, and of the land in the
neighbourhood of villages is 'mulkh,' which the peasants purchase
from time to time from the Government on very moderate terms.
To have a valid claim to laud held by this tenure, the estate must
be registered in books kept for that purpose by the various muni-
cipal councils.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total imports of Turkey in Europe amounted,
on the average of the three years 1866-G8, to 18,500,000/., and of
the exports to 10,000,000/., representing a total trade of 38,500,000/.
The commercial intercourse of the European portion of the empire
is mainly with four coimtries, namely, Italy, Great Britain, Austria,
and Russia, and it centres at Constantinople. Of 20,000 vessels
that annually enter the port of Constantinople, 2,000 sail under the
Italian; 1,500 under the British ; 1,000 under the Austrian ; 700
under the Russian, and the rest under the Turkish, Greek, and other
Hags.
The increase in the trade and commerce of Turkey within the
last thirty years has been very great. In 1831 the trade with Great
Britain and Ireland amounted to 888,684/. ; in 1839 to 1, -430,224/. ;
in 1848 to 3,110,365/. ; and in 1860 to 7,768,473/. Thus in thirty
years the trade had augmented by 850 per cent. The commercial
intercourse between the Ottomam Empire — including the tributarv
states in Europe, together with Syria and Palestine, but not Egypt
— and the United Kingdom during the ten years 1860 to 1869 is
shown in the following table : —
470
TURKEY.
Exports from Turkey and
Imports of British Home j
Years
Tributary States to
Produce into Turkey and
Great Britain
Tributary States
1860
£
5,505,781
£
5,237,105
1861
4,839,607
4,026,441
1862
8,020,775
4,244,865
1863
6,058,531
6,898,992
1864
6,306,315
7,503,988
1865
5,845,753
7,174,960
1866
5,884,336
7,089,969
1867
4,762,483
7.057,863
1868
7,658,711
8,157,701
1869
—
9,059,856
7,846,323
To the exports from Turkey to the United Kingdom the Asiatic
portion of the empire contributes very little, not having been on
the average of the years 1860-69, more than 100,000/. per annum.
On the other hand, the imports of British produce into Syria and
Palestine amount to about one-seventh of the total for the Empire,
having been 1,243,753/. in 1868, and 1,175,382/. in 1869.
The two staple articles of the exports of Turkey to the United
Kingdom, in recent years, have been corn and cotton. The corn
exports of 1869 were of the total value of 4,206,400, of which
amount 630,168/. was for wheat; 508,320/. for barley : 3,053,777/.
for maize, and 14,135/. for other kinds of corn and grain. The ex-
ports of cotton, which only amounted to 218/. in 1860, rose to
1,560,968/. in 1864; but sank again to 1,237,385/. in 1865; to
549,095/. in 1866; to 234,631/. in 1867; and to 506,972/. in 1869.
The most important article of British imports into Turkey is manu-
factured cotton. The imports of cotton and cotton yarn amounted
to 4.468,087/. in 1864; to 4,275,253/. in 1865; to 5,232,433/. in
1866 ; to 4,468,050/. in 1867 ; and to 3,584,779/. in 1869.
Turkey, which formerly possessed numerous manufactures, has
come to be at present almost entirely an agricultural country. The
only branches of manufacture still flourishing are the weaving
of coarse woollen and cotton goods in various parts of the
empire, together with the making of light silks, and gold and silk
embroidery in Cyprus. The camlets of Angora, the sandals of Scio,
the printed calicoes of Tokat, the crapes and gauzes of Salonica, the
carpets of Smyrna, still form a considerable portion of the home
trade ; but the commercial exchange of these and other articles, and
intercourse generally, is kept in a very backward state for want of
roads. A plan for the construction of a network of railways was
adopted by the Imperial Government in 1859, but up to 1870 only
two lines had been made in European Turkey.
47 «
TRIBUTARY STATES.
I. EGYPT.
See Part II. — Africa.
II. ROUMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The union of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
was granted by a firman of the sultan, dated November 12, 1861,
and was publicly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy, on December
23, 1861, the name ' Roumania' being given to the united provinces.
The first ruler of Roumania was Colonel Couza, who had been
elected ' Hospodar,' or Lord, of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1859,
and who assumed the government under the title of Prince
Alexander John I. A revolution which broke out at Bucharest,
February 23, 1866, forced Prince Alexander John to abdicate,
after which the representatives of the people assembled to elect a
second rider of Roumania, when the choice fell upon —
Karl L, Prince (Domnu) of Roumania, born April 20, 1839, son
of the late Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; formerly lieu-
tenant in the second regiment of Prussian dragoons ; accepted his
election as Prince of Roumania, May 10, 1866; arrived at Bucharest,
May 21, 1866; recognised by the Turkish Government, July 11,
1866. Married November 15, 1869, to Elizabeth von Neuwied,
born December 29, 1843, daughter of the late Furst Hermann von
Neuwied, one of the ' mediatised ' princes of Germany.
The constitution now in force in Roumania was voted by a
Constituent Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, in the summer
of 1866. The charter vests the legislative power in a parliament
of two houses, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
consists of 74 members, and the other house of 157 deputies, of
whom 82 are for Wallachia and 75 for Moldavia. The members
of both houses are chosen by indirect election, the first voters
nominating electors, and these, in their turn, the deputies.
Voters are all citizens, aged twenty-five years, who can read and
write, and eligible as deputies are all Roumans aged thirty, possess-
ing a small yearly income. The Prince has a suspensive veto over
all laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The
executive is in the hands of the reigning Prince, assisted by a
4J2
TURKEY — ROIJMAMA.
council of five -ministers, heads of the departments of the Interior,
of Foreign Affairs, of War, of Finance, and of Justice.
Wallachia is divided into eighteen, and Moldavia into thirteen
districts, each of which has a prefect or governor, a receiver-general
of taxes, and a civil tribunal, consisting of a president and two
other judges. Moldavia has a director of police and a town-council
in each municipality. Judges are removable at the pleasure of the
superior authorities. The legal codes are founded upon the civil
law and the customs of the principalities ; but though the system of
jurisprudence has been much amended, many reforms remain to be
effected, especially in the administration of the laws, which is said
to be most corrupt. Nearly the whole population belongs to the
Greek Church, and every village has a small church or chapel, with
one or more priests, who act as curates. The ecclesiastics of this
order are chosen from among the people, from whom they are little
distinguished in appearance, and whose avocations they follow when
not engaged in their clerical functions.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The chief source of revenue is a capitation-tax of thirty piastres,
or seven shillings per head on the rural population, with a higher
scale for tradesmen and merchants. Direct taxes, the profit from
State property, and the tobacco monopoly, produce about one-half
of the national income. On the initiative of the newly-elected
Prince of Roumania, the whole taxation of the country was revised
in 1867, and also a new monetary system adopted, designed to be
international, the unit being the Leu, equal to one franc. The pre-
liminary budget estimates for the year 1869 were calculated upon a
revenue of 74,362,883 lei. or 2,974,515/., and an expenditure of
74,217,961 lei, or 2,968,719/. The revised estimates for the year
1868 were as follows : —
Kevenne
Expenditure
Lei
Lei
Direct taxes
17.016,296
Civil list .
1,185,185
Indirect taxes .
12,553,704
Interest of debt
8,498,674
Tobacco monopoly .
2,444,444
Army
20,476,911
Domains .
16,373,384
Justice and "Worship .
13,030.865
Posts and telegraph .
4.555.556
Interior .
8,055.551
Voluntary loan.
2,522,222
Public works .
11.264,855
Miscellaneous receipts
867,956
General administra-
Extraordinary revenue
21,957,671
tion
11.528,812
Pensions • • •
4,250,380
78,291,233
£3,131.649
'
78,291,233
£3.131.649
REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION. 473
The public debt of Roumania was reported to amount to
70,624,694 lei, or 2,824,988/., at the commencement of September
1870. It is divided into an internal debt, amounting to 18,243,819
lei, or 729,753/J, and a foreign debt, of 3,595,235/. The latter
consists of three loans concluded with French and English banks
in 1864, 1866, and 1869-70: the first, ' Emprunt Stern,' of a
nominal capital of 22,900,000 francs, at 7 per cent, interest, with a
2 per cent, sinking fund, repayable in 1888; the second, 'Emprunt
Oppenheim,' of a nominal capital of 31,610,500 francs, at 8 per cent,
interest, also with a 2 per cent, sinking fund, repayable in 1889;
and the third, a railway loan of 1,500,000/., at 1\ per cent, interest,
contracted through the Anglo- Austrian Bank.
The military force of Roumania is organised on the plan of the Russian
army, and the staff officers are principally Russians. The militia is
formed by the peasantry, in the proportion of two men for every 100
families; but along the banks of the Danube all the inhabitants cap-
able of bearing arms are organised into a military force, employed
partly on the quarantine service, and partly and principally as a
national or civic guard. By a new military law passed in June, 1866,
all natives of Roumania, from 18 to 52, are liable to military service,
either in the standing army or the militia, and the ballot has to
decide in which of these two branches of the national forces each
individual has to be incorporated. The period of service in the
standing army is 4 years active, and 2 in the reserve ; and in the
militia 2 years active and 4 in the reserve. The standing army is
divided into eight regiments of infantry, numbering 16,000 men;
one regiment of chasseurs, of 2,400 men ; three regiments of
cavalry, of 1,500 men; and two regiments of artillery, of 1,600
men. The numbers represent the nominal strength of the army.
The area and population of the united principalities are shown in
the subjoined statement : —
Wallachia ....
Moldavia and New Bessarabian
Provinces ....
Total .
AreainEng. sq. m.
Population
27,500
18,142
2,400,921
1,463,927
45,642
3,864,848
The numbers for Wallachia, in the preceding table, are the result
of a census taken in 1860, while the population of Moldavia and the
Bessarabian provinces is after an enumeration made in January
1864. The capital of the principalities and seat of the Government,
Bucharest, had, in 1860, a population of 124,734. The census of
1860 showed a large preponderance of the male over the female
population in Wallachia. Among the inhabitants are nearly 500,000
gipsies.
474
TURKEY — SERVIA.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse between Roumania and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined statement, which gives the value
of the exports from Roumania to Great Britain and of the British
imports into Roumania, in the years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from Roumania
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Roumania
£
&
1865
348,381
162,828
1866
441,628
185,598
1867
525,867
432,365
1868
1,422,149
634,913
1869
1,312,924
907,838
The staple article of Roumanian exports to the United Kingdom
is corn, the value of which was 1,239,676/. in 1869, comprising
465,239/. for wheat; 103,775/. for barley; 665,123/. for maize;
and 5,539/. for other kinds of corn and grain. The British im-
ports into Roumania consist of miscellaneous articles of British
manufacture.
The principal shipping ports of Roumania are Ibraila and Galatz,
both on the left bank of the Danube, the former in Wallachia, and
the latter in Moldavia.
III. SERVIA.
Government.
The principality of Servia, since 1815 under the rule of native
princes, was placed under the protection of the great European
powers, as a semi-independent state, by the Treaty of Paris, of
March 30, 1856. The twenty-eighth article of the treaty orders
that, ' The Principality of Servia shall continue to hold of the
Sublime Porte, in conformity with the imperial decrees which fix
and determine its rights and immunities, placed henceforward under
the collective guarantee of the Contracting- Powers. In conse-
cpience, the said principality shall preserve its independent and
national administration, as well as full liberty of worship, of legis-
lation, of commerce, and of navigation.' The election of its rulers is
left to the Servian nation, under the nominal sanction of the Sultan.
Prince of Servia. — Milan Obrenovic IV., born 1855, the son of
Milos Obrenovic — son of Ephraim, brother of Milos I. Todorovich
Obrenovic, first independent ruler of Servia — and of Marie Katargy,
of Bucharest. Succeeded to the throne, by the election of the
SEKVIA — REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION. 475
Servian national assembly, after the assassination of his uncle,
Prince Michael Obrenovic III., June 30, 1868. Crowned at the
Cathedral of Belgrade, July 5, 1868.
During the minority of the prince, the government is carried on
in his name by a regency of three persons, namely: —
Milivoj Blaznovad, head of the executive.
Jovan Gavrianovic, president of the senate.
Jovan Ristic, president of the house of representatives.
The regency was elected by unanimous vote of the national
assembly of Servia, meeting in extraordinary session, June 30, 1868.
A civil list of 1,200,000 ' tax-piastres,' or 24,000/., is settled upon
the Prince.
By the constitution of Servia, the executive power is vested
in the prince, assisted by a council of five ministers, who are
responsible to the nation. The legislative authority is exer-
cised by two independent bodies, the Senate and the ' Skoup-
schina,' or House of Representatives. The Senate consists of
seventeen members, nominated by the prince, one for each of
the seventeen departments into which the country is divided.
This body is always sitting. Formerly all vacancies in the Senate
were filled up by the rest of the members, but for some time past
the prince has exercised the power of appointing the senators. The
' Skoupschina ' is composed of deputies chosen by the people, at the
rate of one deputy to every 2,000 electors. The electors are the
males of the country above the age of twenty-one years, paying
direct taxes, and not being either domestic servants or gipsies.
These two classes are excluded from the right of suffrage. Every
elector is eligible to become a member of the ' Skoupschina,' except
the holders of Government offices and the clergy. The ' Skoup-
schina' assembles in annual session. On extraordinary occasions,
such as the election of a new Prince, or the nomination of his suc-
cessor, a ' Grand Skoupschina,' four times as numerous as the
ordinary assembly, may be summoned by the government.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The revenue of Servia is derived chiefly from a general capitation
tax, producing about 16,000,000 ' tax-piastres,' or 320,000/. per
annum. The impost is minutely classified as to rank, occupation,
and income of each individual, a distinction being also made be-
tween married and unmarried persons, and is assessed, in the first
instance, on the different communes, or parishes, which have to dis-
tribute it among the heads of families. The total public revenue
of the year 1868 was calculated in the budget estimates at 28,879,000
'tax-piastres,' or 577,580/., and the expenditure at very nearly the
476 TUUKEY— SERVIA.
same sum, a small surplus being left. The finances of Servia have
been for years in a well-regulated condition, and there is no public
debt.
The army, reorganised in 18G7, consists of about 4,000 men,
actually under arms. The troops comprise a .small artillery corps
and 200 cavalry ; the remainder are infantry. Beyond these there
is in existence a militia service, the strength of which is estimated
at 70,000 men. The militia furnished by two departments of the
country, those of Belgrade and of Kragujewatz, are artillerymen;
the rest are infantry. There is also a newly organised volunteer
service.
The area of Servia is estimated at 12,600 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of 1861, of 1,098,281 inhabitants,
among whom are 20,000 gipsies, 1,800 Jews, and about 2,000 Ger-
man settlers. Belgrade, the capital of Servia, has a population of
14,600, exclusive of the garrison within the fortress.
Trade.
The chief trade of Servia is with Austria. Besides with this
country, commercial intercourse is only carried on with Turkey
and Wallachia. The trade of the principality is represented by
imports from Austria and Turkey of the annual value of 500,000/.,
and exports, to the same countries, of 600,000/. The chief articles
of export are wood, particularly oak, and pigs. The latter, which
are kept in countless herds, feeding on the acorns which cover the
ground for miles, are driven in large, quantities into Hungary and
adjoining parts of Austria. The commercial resources of Servia
are as yet wholly undeveloped, chiefly for want of roads.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Turkish Empire, and
the British equivalents, are : —
Moxey.
The Turkish Piastre . . . = Average rate of exchange, 111 piastres
to £1 sterling.
40 Paras = 1 Turkish Piastre . = 2-1604 pence.
100 Piastres = 1 Turkish Lira . — 18 shillings.
The Roumanian Leu . . . = 10</., or 25 Lei to £1 sterling.
„ Servian Tax-piastre . . = 5d., or 50 to £1 sterling.
Large accounts are frequently, however, set down in ' purses' of 500
Medjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. The 'purse' of former times
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
■//
varied with the value of the piastre. In 1861, the piastre Avas valued
at ^-g of 1/. sterling, and consequently the 'purse' at Al. Since
that time the value of the piastre has risen to 2*1664f/., and conse-
quently the pui-se to 4/. 10s. sterling. The Turkish gold currency
is of the standard of '91 GO. The golden Medjidie ought to "weigh
24/ drachmes, or 111*368 grains, to contain 102*0129 grains of fine
gold, and therefore to be worth 18s. 0*648^. In practice, however,
it is found that its average weight, when new, is only 11 1*109
grains, its contents in fine gold 101*7758 grains, and its value conse-
quently.— at the English Mint price of 4/. 4s. ll^d. per oz. for fine
gold, or 0*00884943/. per grain— would be 18s. 0*169c?. The
Medjidie piastre, or the 100th part of a Medjidie, would at this rate
be worth 2*1664, and the English sovereign 110*77 piastres.
The present monetary system of Turkey, was established in the
reign of the late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on which account the name
of Medjidie is frequently given to the Lira, the unit of the system.
Weights and Measures.
The Oke, of 400 drams .
,, Al in I'd ....
,, Killow ....
44 Okes = 1 Cantar or Kiiital
39*44 Okes ....
180 Okes = 1 Tcheki .
1 Kilo = 20 Okes .
816 Kilos ....
The Andaze (cloth measure)
,, Archin (land measure)
„ Donuin (laud measure)
2*8326 lbs avoirdupois.
1*151 imperial gallon.
0*9120 imperial bushel.
125 lb. avoirdupois.
1 cwt.
511*380 pounds.
0-36 imperial quarter.
100 imperial quarters.
27 inches.
30 inches.
40 square paces.
The killow is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures
being definite weights rather than measures. By the law of 17th
November, 1841, the killow of Constantinople was made the only
legal killow of the whole empire, and the killow of Smyrna and that
of Salonica were abolished. Two killows of Smyrna, or one of
Salonica, were equal to three of Constantinople nearly. 100 killows
are equal to 12*128 British imperial quarters, or 35*266 hectolitres.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Turkey
and Tributary States.
1. Official Publications.
Salname 1287. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire. 8. Constanti-
nople, 1870.
Eisale-Nameh. Turkish Almanac for 1287 Hedjra. 12. Constantinople, 1870.
La Turquie a l'Exposition Universelle de 1867. Par S. E. Salaheddin-bey,
commissaire imperial ottoman. Paris, 1867.
4/8
TURKEY — SERVIA.
Report by Mr. H. P. T. Barron, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Finances
of Turkey, dated Constantinople, February 11, 1867 ; in ' Reports by H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. III. 1867. London, 1867.
Report by Mr. H. P. T. Barron, Secretary of Embassy, on the Taxation of
Turkey, dated December 1, 1869; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Green on the Condition, Agriculture, and
Trade of Moldavia and AVallachia ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Consul Holmes on the Trade of Bosnia in 1864; in 'Con-
sular Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Longworth on the Trade of Servia ; in ' Con-
sular Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Reports by Messrs. Moore, Blunt, Ceccaldi, Wrench, Stuart, Calvert,
Wilkinson, Palgrave, and Sir R. Dalyell, on Agriculture and the Tenure of
Land in the Turkish dominions of Europe and Asia, dated October — December
1869 and January 1870; in 'Reports from H. M.'s Representatives respecting
the Tenure of Land in the several countries of Europe.' Part II. Foil
London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XI. Fol. London, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boue (Ami), La Turquie d'Europe. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Boue (Ami), Recueil d'itineraires dans la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Vienne, 1850.
Bratiano (J. C), Memoire sur la Situation de la Moldo-Valachie depuis le
Traite de Paris. 8. Paris, 1863.
Brophi/ (C. A.), and St. C/air (Capt.), The Ottoman Empire. 8. London, 1869.
Clarke (Hyde), The supposed extinction of the Turks and increase of
Christians in Turkey. In ' Journal of the Statistical Society of London.'
Vol. XXVIII. 8. London, 1865.
Farley (J. Lewis), The Resources of Turkey. 8. London, 1865.
Hafiz Husseyyi (Effendi). Hadikat-ul-dschevami. Description of the Mosks,
High Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.
Hammer (Jos. von), Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung des Osmanischen
Reichs. 2 vols. 8. Wien, 1815.
Kanitz (F. ), Serbien, Historisch-ethnographische Reisestudien aus den
Jahren 1859-68, gr. 8. pp. 744. Leipzig, 1868.
Lejean (G.), La Turquie d'Europe. 8. Paris, 1862.
Millingen (Fred.), La Turquie sous le regne d' Abdul Aziz. 8. Paris, 1868.
Peioli (Sim.), La Turquie devant l'Europe. 8. Paris, 1868.
Rosen (G.), Geschichte der Tiirkei neuester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig,
1866-67.
Thiirs (Henri), La Serbie : son passe et son avenir. 8. Paris, 1862.
Tozer (Rev. H. F.), Researches in the Highlands of Turkey. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1869.
Tschihatschcf (M.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 8. Bruxelles, 1859.
Ubicini (A.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1853.
Ubicini (A.), La Turquie Actuelle. 8. Paris, 1855.
Zinkeisen (J. W.), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa. 7 vols.
8. Gotha, 1840-63.
PAET II.
THE STATES OF
1. AMERICA,
2. AFRICA,
3. ASIA,
AND
4. AUSTRALASIA.
480
I. AMEEICA.
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
(CONFEDERACION ARGENTINA.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the Argentine Confederation, a group of states
formerly united under the name of ' Provincias del Rio de la Plata,'
bears date May 15, 1858. By its provisions, the executive power is
left to a president, elected for six years by representatives of the
fourteen provinces, 133 in number ; while the legislative authority is
vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of
Deputies, the former numbering 28, two from each province, and the
latter 50 members. The members of both the Senate and the Plouse
of Deputies are paid for their services, the annual salaries amount-
ing in the aggregate to 45,000/., of which sum the 28 senators
receive 16,500/., and the 50 deputies 25,500/. A vice-president,
elected in the same manner, and at the same time as the president,
fills the office of chairman of the Senate, but has otherwise no
political power. The president is commander-in-chief of the troops,
and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices ; but he and
his ministers are responsible for their acts, and liable to impeach-
ment before the Senate and the House of Representatives.
President of the Confederation — Colonel Domingo Faustino Sar-
viknto, born 1809 ; formerly governor of the province of San Juan;
elected president, October 12, 1868.
Vice-President of the Confederation. — Dr. A. Alsina, elected
October 12, 1808.
The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the
President, is divided into five departments, namely, of the Interior,
of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, of War and Marine, and of
Education and Public Worship.
The president of the. Confederation has a salary of 3,386/., the
vice-president of 1,505/., and each of the five ministers of 1,317/.
each per annum.
The governors of the various provinces are invested with very
extensive powers, and to a certain degree independent of the, central
executive. They are not appointed by the president of the
Confederation, but elected by the people for a term of three years.
REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION.
481
At the first meeting of the national congress of the Argentine
Confederation, in May 18G2, it was decided that the seat of the
central Government should be at the city of Buenos Ayres.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The larger part of the public revenue is derived from customs
duties, which average twenty-five per cent, upon imports, and ten
per cent, on exports. All other sources furnish comparatively little
to cover the national expenditure. The latter is made up chiefly
of the cost of army and navy, and the service of the public debt.
The revenue and expenditure of the Argentine Confederation for
each of the five years, ending March 31, from 1865 to 18G9, were
as follows : —
Years
ending March 31
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1864-5
1,401.066
1,235,878
1865-6
1,659,014
1,375,235
1866-7
1,952,766
1,653,150
1867-8
2,497,981
2,841,155
1868-9
2,592,735
2,927,358
The greatly increased expenditure of the last two financial
periods here given was due to the war carried on, in conjunction
with Brazil and Uruguay, against the republic of Paraguay, brought
to an end in 1870.
The official estimates of revenue and expenditure for the financial
year 1869-70, presented to the National Congress, were as follows :
Sources of Revenue
1S69-70
Import duties ....
Additional 5 per cent, ditto (war) .
Export duties ....
Additional 2 per cent, ditto (war) .
Storage ......
Stamp duty .....
Post Office
Interest at 7 per cent, on 17,000
shares of Central Argentine Kail-
way
Sundries .....
Total estimated revenue .
Dollars
8,400,000
2,100,000
1,500,000
500,000
260,000
155,000
105,000
116,920
50,000
£
1,680,000
420,000
30(1.000
100,000
52,000
31,000
21,000
23,384
10,000
13,186,620
2,637,324
1 1
482
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
Branches of Expenditure
1869-70
Dollars
£
Ministry of the Interior
1,297,989
259,597
Foreign Affairs
111.440
22,280
Finance
8,452,726
1,690.545
Public Instruction
786,271
153.654
War
Total estimated expenditure .
3.757,217
751,443
14,387,646
2,877,529
The budget for 1870-71, voted by the National Congress in the
session of 1870, shewed an estimated revenue of 3,160,000/., and an
expenditure of 3,200,000/., leaving a deficit of 40,000/., or 200,205/.
less than the estimated deficit of 1869-70.
The public debt of the Argentine Confederation, divided into
an external and an internal debt, was as follows, at the end of
1870, according to official returns: —
EXTERNAL. £
Old Buenos Ayres debt, 6 per cent, stock . . . 905,800
3 per cent, stock . . . 1,110,900
Loan authorised by Act of Congress of May 27, 1865 . 2,500,000
October 1870 . 6,000,000
Total external debt . . . 10,516,700
INTERNAL. £
Consolidated 6 per cent. Argentine Stock . . . 2,567.900
Buenos Ayres Public Stock (in paper currency) . . 596.988
Parana Debt, 1858, including interest .... 433,309
Obligations to foreign creditors 18,852
Loan from Brazilian Government, 1851 .... 228.541
Loan from Brazilian Government, 1865-66 . . . 400,000
Total internal debt . . . 4,245,597
Total debt . . 14,762,297
The greater part of the foreign loan of 1865, to the amount of
1,950,000/., was issued in June 1868, by Messrs. Baring Brothers,
London, at the price of 72-^ for 100. It is at 6 per cent, interest,
and to be repayable in 21 years. The loan of 1870, granted by
Congress for the construction of railways and other public works,
also at 6 per cent., is to be redeemed by an accumulative sinking
fund of 2\ per cent.
Besides the liabilities above enumerated, there is a floating debt
in treasury bills, to an unknown amount.
The above statement of the revenue and expenditure and debt of
the Argentine Confederation refers to the national or general govern-
REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION.
483
ment, called upon to defray the expenses of the army and navy, of
the Foreign Department, and to meet other obligations imposed
upon it by the constitution. Each of the fourteen provinces, or
states, of the Confederation has a revenue of its own, which is
derived by the imposition of local taxes. Buenos Ayres, the most
important state of the Confederation, requires annually about
400,000/. to meet the expenses of its government, law courts,
chambers, militia, country schools, and other public institutions.
The liabilities of all the states are internal, with exception of Buenos
Ayres, which contracted a foreign loan of 1,03-4,700/. in June 1870
in England. The loan, issued at 88, with interest of 6 per cent., is
to be redeemed at par in 38 years.
The army of the Confederation, now in course of reorganisation,
consists of about 10,700 men, exclusive of the militia and the
national guard of Buenos Ayres, numbering 19,867 men. The
navy comprises seven small steamers and ten sailing vessels.
The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces actually
composing the Argentine Confederation, the number of inhabitants of
each, and their superficial extent, according to returns of the year
186G:—
Provinces
Estimated
population
Area — English
square miles
Littoral or Eiverine :
Buenos Ayres ....
450,000
63,000
Santa le .
45,000
18,000
Entre Bios ....
107,000
45,000
Corrientes .....
90,000
54,000
Provinces contiguous to the Andes :
Bioja .....
40,000
31,500
Catamarca .....
97,000
31,500
San Juan .....
70,000
29.700
Mendoza .....
58,000
54,000
Central provinces :
Cordova
140,000
54,000
San Luis .....
58,000
18,000
Santiaga .....
90,000
31,500
Tucuman .....
100,000
13,500
Northern provinces :
Salta ......
80,000
45,000
Jujuy
Total .
40,000
27,000
1,465,000
515,700
A census taken in 1870, and under revision, stated the total
population of the Argentine Confederation at 1,736,700 souls.
The increase of population of recent years has been due chiefly to
*n 2
484
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
immigration. In 1863, the number of immigrants was 10,408; in
1864, it rose to 11,682 ; in 1865, to 11,767 ; in 1866, to 13,960 ; in
1867, to 17,046; and in 1868, to 29,384. Bather more than one-
half of the immigrants of 1863-68 were Italians, next to whom
natives of Spain and of France were most numerous. More than
70,000 Italians are settled in the province of Buenos Ayres alone,
of whom near 40,000 are in the capital.
Trade and Industry.
The total imports of the Argentine Confederation in the five years
1865-69 were of the average annual value of 6,540,000/., while the
exports averaged 4,970,000/. The imports into the Confederation
consist chiefly of manufactured cotton and woollen goods, machinery,
coal, and iron, Avhile the exports are made up to the amount of more
than one-half by the article wool. Other exports, besides wool, are
ox and cow hides, sheep skins, salt meat, horsehair, and ostrich
feathers.
The commercial intercoiu-se between the Argentine Confederation
and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of the Confederation to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures in each of the five years 1865 to
1869:—
Years
Exports from the Argentine
Confederation to Great
Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into the Argentine
Republic
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
1,014,329
1.073,013
911,851
1,496,136
1,267,583
£
1.950,892
2,840,936
2,837.124
1,927,428
2,271,496
The two staple articles of Argentine exports to the United Kingdom
are hides and tallow, the former amounting to 196,909/., and the latter
to 608,862/. in 1869. The imports of British produce into the
Argentine Confederation consist chiefly of cotton and woollen manu-
factures, the value of the former amountinc to 684,225/., and of the
latter to 285,305/. in 1869.
A network of railways, constructed mainly at the expense of the
State, has been in progress for several years. The following state-
ment gives the names of the various lines, amount of capital
subscribed, and of interest guaranteed by the Government : —
BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
485
Name of railway
Places connected
English
miles
Government guarantee
Amount
Term
of
years
Rate
of
intrst.
Western Buenos Ayres .
Northern Buenos Ayres
Southern Buenos Ayres
Buenos Ayres & Euse-
vada
Central Argentine
Eastern Argentine
Buenos Ayres and Mer-
cedes ....
Buenos Ayres and San
Fernando .
Buenos Ayres and Chas-
comas ....
Buenos Ayres and Euse-
vada ....
Rosario and Cordova
Concordia and Mercedes .
62A
17
75
30
247
200
&
150,000
700,000
6,400 per mile
13,353 per mile
20
40
40
40
Per
cent.
7
7
7
7
The railway lines open for traffic in September 1870 were of a
length of 458 English miles, while 60 miles more were under con-
struction at the same date, 210 more miles were contracted for. and
-100 miles were in course of being surveyed. A loan of 0,000,000/.,
granted by the National Congress in October 1870, was to be
devoted mainly for completing the Central Argentine Railway,
notably by the construction of a line from Cordova to Tucuman.
At the end of September 1870, there were 836 miles of telegraph
lines in operation, and upwards of 1,000 miles in course of con-
struction.
Nearly the whole of the capital for the construction of the lines
already opened was subscribed in England.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Argentine Confederation,
and the British equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Dollar (' hard dollar') Average rate of exchange, 4s.
,, Piastre . . . „ „ „ 116 to 1/. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba ......= 25-35 ,, „
„ Fancga = 1|. imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Confederation.
1. Official Publications.
Memoria del Ministerio del interior de la Eepubliea Arjentina presentada al
Congreso nacional de 1870. 4. Buenos Aires, 1870.
486
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
Memoria presentada por el Ministro de estado en el departamento de hacienda
al Congreso nacional de 1870. 4. Buenos Aires, 1870.
Mensage del poder ejecutivo-presentando las cuentas de inversion al Congreso
nacional, 1869. 8. Buenos Aires, 1869.
Keport by Mr. Mac Donell, British Secretary of Legation, of the Budget of
the Argentine Confederation for the year 1869-70, dated Buenos Ayres,
July 15, 1869; in 'Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
No. I. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
Keport by Mr. Francis Clare Ford, British Secretary of Legation, on the
Finances, the Trade, and the Besources of the Argentine Confederation, dated
Oct. 30, 1866 ; in ' Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
No. II. 1867. London, 1867.
Reports by Mr. M. E. Hollister, U. S. Consul at Buenos Ayres, dated Jan. 9,
1868, and of Mr. W. Wheelwright, U. S. Commercial Agent at Rosario, dated
March 5, 1868, on the Trade and Industry of the Argentine Confederation,
in ' Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8.
Washington, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Almanaque Agricola, pastoril e industrial de la Republica Argentine y de
Buenos Ayres. 4. Buenos Ayres, 1870.
Andree (Karl Theodor), Buenos-Ayres und die Argentinische Republik. 8.
Leipzig, 1856.
Arcos (Santiago), La Plata. Etude historique. 8. Paris, 1865.
Burmeister (Hermann), Reise durch die La-Plata Staaten. 2 vols. 8.
Halle, 1861.
Colonias de Santa Fe. Su origen, progreso y actual situacion. Con obser-
vaciones generales sobre la emigracion a la Republica Argentina. 4. Rosario
de Santa Fe, 1864.
Dominguez (S.), Historia Argentina. 8. Buenos Ayres, 1862.
Hutchinson (Thomas J.), Buenos Ayres and Argentine Gleanings; with
Extracts from a Diary of Salado Exploration in 1862-3. 8. London, 1865.
Latham (Wilfrid), The States of the River Plate, their Industries and Com-
merce. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1868.
Mitre (Bartolome), Estudios historicos sobre la Revolucion Argentina. 4.
Buenos Ayres, 1864.
Moussy (H. de), Description geographique et statistique de la Confederation
Argentine. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1861.
Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. 2 vols. 8. Buenos
Ayres, 1870. '
Richard (Major F. Ignacio), The mineral and other resources of the Argentine
Republic in 1869. Published by special authority of the national government.
8. pp. 324. London, 1870.
Sarmiento (Domingo Faustino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of
the Tyrants. Translated by Mrs. H. Mann. 8. London, 1868.
Sastre (Marcos), La educacion popular en Buenos Aires. Memoria pre-
sentada al consejo de instruccion publica. 8. Buenos Airos, 1865.
Virgilio (Jacopo), Delle migrazioni transatlantiche degli italiani e in especie
di quelle dei Liguri alle regioni del Plata, cenni economico statistici. 8.
Crenova, 1868.
*87
BOLIVIA.
(Eepublica Boliviana.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the republic of Bolivia, drawn up by Simon
Bolivar, liberator of the country from the Spanish rule, bears date
August 25, 182G ; but important modifications of it were added in
1828, 1831, and 1863. By its provisions, the whole executive power
is vested in a President, elected for a term of four years ; while the
legislative authority rests with a Congress of two chambers, called
the Senate, and the House of Representatives, both elected by univer-
sal suffrage. The President is assisted in his executive functions by
a Vice-president, appointed by himself, and a ministry, divided into
four departments, of the Interior and Justice ; of Finance ; of War ;
and of Education and Public Worship. The ministers are liable to
impeachment before Congress.
President of the Republic — Cap tain -General Don Mariano Mel-
garejo ; proclaimed President on the deposition of his predecessor,
Jose Maria de Acha, December 1864 ; re-proclaimed March 1869,
after an unsuccessful attempt at insurrection by a rival candidate
to the presidency, General Belzu, head of the government, from
March 22 to his execution, March 27, 1869.
The fundamental law of the republic, ordering the regular election
of the chief of the executive every four years, has seldom been carried
out since the presidency of Grand-Marshal Santa-Cruz, who ruled
Bolivia from May 1828, till his death, January 20, 1839. Subse-
quently the supreme power was almost invariably seized by some
successful commander, who, proclaimed by the troops, instead of
chosen by the people, was compelled to protect his office by armed
force against military rivals.
The seat of the executive government, formerly at the city of La
Paz, capital of the republic, was transferred in 1869 to the fortified
town of Oraro.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
There have been no official reports of the revenue and expendi-
ture of the republic for several years. In 1864, the receipts from
488
BOLIVIA.
all sources were stated to be 2,471,000 dollars, or 370,650/., and the
disbursements, 2,435,000 dollars, or 365,250/. The estimated revenue
and expenditure for 1865 amounted to 3,000,000 dollars, or 450,000/.
About one-half of the public revenue is derived from a land-tax,
which the aboriginal, or Indian, population is forced to pay, and the
rest from import and export duties, and the proceeds of mines and
other state property. Direct taxes, other than those laid upon the
aborigines, do not exist. The republic has no debt, and no paper
currency.
The standing army numbers 2,000 men, one-fourth of them
cavalry. In 1866, when engaged in war Avith Spain, the govern-
ment raised the armed forces to 3,000 men, but reduced the number
again to 2,000 the following year.
The boundaries of the republic, formerly vague and in dispute,
were settled to a certain extent, by a Treaty with Chili, concluded
August 10, 1866, and by another with Brazil, signed March 27,
1867. No survey of the area of the country has ever taken place,
but map measurements give it at 473,300 English square miles.
The population of European origin, according to an estimate of 1858,
based upon official returns, amounted at that date to 1,742,352, dis-
tributed over the nine provinces of the republic as follows :• —
Provinces
Population of
province
Chief town of province
Population of
chief town
La Paz
Cochabamba
Potosi
Chuquisaca
Santa-Cruz
Oruro
Tarija
Veni
Atacama .
475,322
349,892
281,229
223,668
153,164
110,931
88,900
53,973
5,273
La Paz
Cochabamba
Potosi
Sucre
Santa- Cruz
Oruro
Tarija
Trinidad .
Colija
76,372
40,678
22,850
23,979
9,780
7,980
5,680
4,170
2,380
Total white popi
ilatio
i
1,742,352
— —
To the above enumerated nine provinces, two others were added,
by presidential decrees, in 1866, and 1867 ; the first called Melga-
reja, taken from the old division of Cochabamba, and the other,
entitled Mejillones, from that of Atacama.
The aboriginal, or Indian population of Bolivia is variously esti-
mated at from 24,000 to 700,000 souls. A small number of them
have been gained to Christianity and civilised habits by the efforts
of Roman Catholic missionaries.
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
489
Trade and Industry.
The republic has but one seaport, the town of Cobija, or Cobija-
Puerto, on the Pacific. Till within the last few years, the vast agri-
cultural and mineral resources of the country were entirely dormant
for want of means of communication, nearly all internal trade being
carried on by packhorses and mules ; but more recently an attempt
has been made, by English capitalists and engineers, to construct
roads, and several lines of railway have been planned, and sanctioned
by the government.
The total imports into Bolivia are valued at G, 000, 000 dollars, or
900,000/., and the exports at 5,000,000 dollars, or 750,000/. The
total value of the merchandise sent to and received from Great
Britain, in each of the five yeai-s 1865 to 1869, is shown in the
subjoined tabular statement : —
Years
Exports of Bolivia
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Bolivia
£
£
1865
151,026
997
1866
173,855
12,907
1867
140,043
3,852
1868
163.359
3.425
1869
127,053
5,330
The principal exports of Bolivia to Great Britain are copper ore
and guano, the former of the value of 106,913/., and the latter of
11,284/. in 1869. In 1867, the exports of guano to Great Britain
amounted to 40,644/., and in 1868 to 26,393/. The British
imports into the republic consist chiefly of coals, valued 614/., and of
cotton coods, valued 543/. in 1869.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Bolivia, and the British
equivalents, are —
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 Centomas
= Approximate value 35.
The Bolivian dollar is theoretically worth 4s. 2d., that is, if of the
standard weight of 418 troy grains, of \^ pure silver. But, for a
number of years, the coins issued from the Government mint at
Potosi have been 25 per cent., and more, below the standard.
490 BOLIVIA.
Weights and Measubes.
The Libra
Quintal ....
. , f of 25 pounds .
Arroba < » . • •-„
^oi wine or spirits
Gallon ....
Vara ....
Square Vara .
1-014 lbs. avoirdupois.
101-44 „
25-36 „
6-70 Imperial gallons.
0-74
0-927 yards.
0*859 square yards.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia.
1. Official Publications,
Mapa de la Kepublica de Bolivia, levantado y organisado en los aiios de
1842 — 1859, porel Teniente Coronel, J. Ondarza, Commandante J. M. Mujia
y Major L. Camache. La Paz, 1861.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom
with Foreign Countries and British Possessions. 4. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Back (H.), Descripcion de la nueva provincia de Otuguis. 8. Buenos Ayres,
1843.
Bosch-Spencer (J.), Statistique commerciale du Chili, et de la Bolivie. 8.
Bruxelles, 1849.
Cortes (Manuel Jose), Ensayo sobre la historia de Bolivia. 8. Sucre, 1861.
Dalence (M.), Bosquejo estadistica de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca, 1851.
Grandidier (P.), Voyage dans TAmerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.
Orbigny (A. D. d'), Descripcion geografica, historica y estadistica de Bolivia.
8. Paris, 1845.
Orbigny (A. D. d!), Vovage dans l'Amerique meridionale. 2 vols. 8. Paris,
1835.
Reck (Hugo), Geographie und Statistik der Eepublik Bolivia. In Dr.
Petermann's ' Geographische Mittheilungen,' parts VII. and VIIL 4. Gotha,
1865. _ **
Tsckudi (J. J. von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1868.
49 1
BRAZIL.
(Tmperio do Brazil.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, born December 2, 1825, the son of
Emperor Pedro I. and of Archduchess Leopoldina of Austria ; suc-
ceeded to the throne on the abdication of his father, April 7, 1831 ;
declared of age, July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 1841. Married,
September 4, 1843, to
Theresa, Empress of Brazil, born March 14, 1822, the daughter of
the late King Francis I, of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union
are two daughters, namely : — 1. Princess Isabel, born July 29, 1846 ;
married, Oct. 16, 1864, to Prince Louis of Orleans, Comte d'Eu,
born April 28, 1842, eldest son of the Due de Nemours, of the ex-
royal house of Bourbon-Orleans. 2. Princess Leopoldina, born July
13, 1847; married Dec. 15, 1864, to Prince August of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha. Offspring of the union are three sons, Pedro, born March
19, 1866, Augusta, born Dec. 6, 1867, and Jose, born May 21,
1869.
Sisters of the Emperor. — 1. Princess Januaria, born March 11,
1822 ; married, April 28, 1844, to Prince Louis of Bourbon, son of
the late King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union
are two sons, Luis, born July 18, 1845, and Felippe, born August
12, 1847. 2. Princess Fran cisca, born August 2, 1824; married
May 1, 1843, to Francois, Prince de Joinville, born Aug. 14, 1818,
son of the late King Louis Philippe of the French. Offspring of the
union are a daughter and a son. namely Princess Francoise, born
August 4, 1844, and married June 11, 1863, to her cousin Eobert
d'Orleans, due de Chartres, born Nov. 9, 1840 ; and Prince Pierre,
born Nov. 4, 1845, lieutenant in the navy of Portugal.
The Emperor is a scion, in the direct male line, of the House of
Braganza, the female line of which is ruling over Portugal. In
1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil ; in 1815, the colony
was declared a ' kingdom ; ' and, the Portuguese Court having re-
turned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled at Eio de
Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Don Pedro, eldest son of King
Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ' Perpetual Protector ' of Brazil.
He proclaimed the independence of the country on Sep. 7, 1822,
492
BRAZIL.
and was chosen ' Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Protector'
on the 12th October following. Having decided to abdicate in
1831, he left the crown to his only son, the present Emperor
Pedro II.
The Brazilian empire derives from Portugal the principles of
hereditary succession to the crown, which exclude the Salic law,
and allow females to occupy the throne.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Brazil bears date March 25, 1824. If
establishes four powers in the State — the legislative, the executive,
the judicial, and the 'moderating' power, or the royal prerogative.
The legislative power is vested, for the affairs of the empire, in a
general legislative assembly, and for provincial affairs in the provincial
assemblies. The genei'al legislative assembly consists of two Houses,
the Senate and the Congress. The members of both Houses are
elected by the people, but under different forms. Senators are chosen
for life at electoral meetings expressly convened, each of which has
to nominate three candidates, leaving the choice between them to the
sovereign or his ministers. A senator must be forty years of age, a
native-born Brazilian, and possessing a clear annual income of 1,600
milreis, or 160/. Senators receive a salary of 3,600 milreis, or
360/., each session.
The members of the House of Congress are chosen by indirect
election, for the term of four years. For this purpose, the country
is divided into electoral districts, where every 30 voters appoint
one elector, and a number of the latter, varying according to popu-
lation, nominate the deputy. The qualification for a voter is an
annual income, of any sort, of 200 milreis, or 20/. The electors
must have an income of 400 milreis, or 40/. a year, as a qualifica-
tion ; and the deputies must have an income of 800 milreis each,
or 80/. per annum. All voters, inscribed on the lists, are bound to
eive their votes, under a penalty. Minors, monks, and servants are
not allowed a vote ; and naturalised foreigners, as well as persons
not professing the Roman Catholic religion, are incapable of being
elected deputies. The latter receive a salary of 2,400 milreis, or
240/., each session, besides travelling expenses.
The annual session of the legislative assembly has to commence on
May 3, and ordinarily extends over four months. Each House nomi-
nates its own officers. The two Houses sit in general assembly at the
opening and close of the session for the deliberation of important
measures; and on these occasions the president of the Senate takes
the chair, and the senators and deputies sit in mixed order. The
two Houses sit apart during the rest of the session, in the execution
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 493
of the ordinary duties of legislation. The Chamber of Deputies has
the initiative in the assessment of taxes, in matters concerning the
army and navy, and in the choice of the sovereign of the realm,
should the latter act become necessary. The Senate has the exclu-
sive privilege of taking cognisance of offences committed by members
of the Imperial family, and by senators and deputies, if committed
during the session. It is also invested with the right of convoking
the legislative assembly, should the Emperor fail to do so, within two
months after the period fixed by law.
The executive power is vested in the sovereign, assisted by his
ministers and a council of state. The ministers are responsible for
treason, corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the con-
stitution, or the liberty, security, and property of the citizens. From
this responsibility they cannot escape upon the plea of orders from
the sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convocation
of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly ; the nomination
of bishops, governors of provinces, and magistrates ; the declaration
of peace or war ; and the general execution and superintendence of all
measures voted by the legislature. The 'moderating' power, like-
wise vested in the sovereign, gives him the authority, not only to
select ministers and senators, but to temporarily withhold his sanction
from legislative measures, to convoke extraordinary legislative as-
semblies, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, and to grant amnes-
ties and pardons. The ministry is divided into seven departments,
namely : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Visconde de San Vicente,
appointed minister of foreign affairs, and president of the council of
ministers, September 29, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Conselheiro Francisco Salles Torres
Homen, appointed September 29, 1870.
3. The Ministry of the Interior. — Dr. Alfredo Correa de Oliveira,
appointed July 16, 1868.
4. The Ministry of Justice. — Barao das Tres Barras, appointed
September 29, 1870.
5. The Ministry of War. — Lieut. -General John Frederick
Caldwell, appointed minister of war ' ad interim,' September 30,
1870.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Dr. Luiz Antonio Pereira Franco,
appointed September 29, 1870.
7. The Ministry of Public "Works, Agriculture, and Commerce. —
Dr. Jeronymo Teixeira, appointed September 20, 1870.
The ministers are assisted by a Council of State, consisting of
twelve ordinary and twelve extraordinary members, all named by
the Emperor for life. The twelve ordinary members are constantly
consulted on matters of administration and international questions,
but the whole twenty-four are convened only on special occasions
494
BRAZIL.
The councillors of state, ordinary and extraordinary, are mostly
ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if of age, is by right a coun-
cillor of state.
At the head of each province is a president appointed by the central
Government. Each province has also its local parliament or Provin-
cial Chamber, and a general council, called the Legislative Assembly
of the province. The members of the latter are nominated by the
same electors who choose the deputies and senators to the general
legislative assembly, while the members of the Provincial Chambers
are elected directly by the voters. The election of members of the
Provincial Chambers is for two years. The Legislative Assemblies of
the provinces exercise, with some restrictions, as to political matters,
the same power within their districts as the Congress for the whole
empire.
Church and Education.
The established religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic,
but according to Article 5 of the constitution, all other religions are
tolerated, ' with their domestic or private form of worship, in build-
ings destined for this purpose, but without the exterior form of
temples.' No person can be persecuted for religious acts or motives.
The Roman Catholic clergy is maintained by the State ; funds,
however, are voted for the construction of chapels and for trie" sub-
sistence of ministers of different religions.
The bishops, and all other ecclesiastical officers are, depending
the confirmation of the Apostolic See, appointed by the Emperor,
and no Decree of Council, nor letters apostolic, nor any other
ecclesiastical statutes, can be executed in the empire without the
consent or placit of the Emperor, or of the General Assembly.
Marriages of Protestants celebrated in foreign countries or in the
empire, according to its civil law, are respected in all their legal
effects.
Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a metropolitan
archbishopric, the seat of which is at Bahia, 1 1 suffragan bishops,
12 vicars-general, and 1,297 curates. For the private instruction
of the clergy there are 11 seminaries, in general subsidised by the
State.
Public education is divided into three distinct forms, or classes,
namely, primary ; secondary, or preparatory ; and scientific, or
superior. The primary instruction in the capital is under the charge
of the General Assembly, and in the provinces under the Provincial
Assemblies. According to the constitution it is gratuitous, and it
' will become compulsory as soon as the Government considers it
opportune.' Notwithstanding the efforts of the legislature in recent
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 495
years for the spread of education, it is still in a very backward state,
and the public schools were frequented in 1868 by only 107,483
pupils.
The department of scientific instruction is represented by two
faculties of law and two faculties of medicine, maintained at the
charge of the Government.
Besides these establishments there are, regimental schools for the
army, several preparatory schools, an academy of arts, a central
college ; a naval academy, and a practical school of artillery. The
whole of the schools of the empire are under the supervision of the
Minister of the Interior, and the control of the General Assembly.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the empire is raised by a system of direct and in-
direct taxation ; all government monopolies, except the Post Office,
have been abolished. The direct taxes are principally imposed on
landed property, house-rent, trades and occupations, and transfer
of property, while the indirect taxes consist of duties on imports
and exports, and on some articles of consumption.
The revenue has largely increased during the last few years, and
continues to progress, an important reform of the system of taxation
having been effected in 1867. The total revenue of the country
during the years 1826 to 1860 was, in pounds sterling : * —
Years &
1826 464.320
1829-30 1,248,754
1834-35 1,278,752
1839-40 1,827,252
1844-45 2,401,053
1849-50 2,669,644
1854-55 3.561,544
1859-60 4,731,096
The total revenue of Brazil during the six years, ending June,
1865 to 1870, Avas as follows: —
Years, ending June
&
1864-65
. 6,105.841
1865-66
. 6,338.062
1866-67
. 6,675,643
1867-68
. 7,453,068
1868-09
. 8.693,700
1869-70 (estimated)
. 9,100,000
The ordinary expenditure during the years 1865-70 was, according
to official returns, as follows : —
* The exchange being fluctuating, 10,000 reis, or 10 niilreis, are reckoned
equal to £1 sterling in all the subjoined tables.
496
BKAZIL.
Years, ending June
£
1864-65 ....
. 5,387,866
1865-66 ....
. 5,387,866
1866-67 ....
. 5,881,873
1867-68 ....
. 5,887,173
1868-69 ....
. 6,853,022
1869-70 (estimate) .
. 7,600,000
The sums given above do not include the extraordinary disburse-
ments for the war in Paraguay, during the years 1865-70, the
annual cost of which was, for several years, equal to the amount of
the ordinary expenditure of the empire. Official returns state the
total expenditure, ordinary and extraordinary, of the years 1865-70
as follows : —
Years, ending June
1864-65 .
1865-66 .
1866-67 .
1867-68 .
1868-69 .
1869-70 (estimate)
£
8,632,500
12,449,800
10,629,400
13,339,700
15,255.300
9,500,000
The budget for the year 1870-71 showed an estimated revenue
of 9,300,000/., and an expenditure of 8,357,043/., leaving a surplus
of 942,057/. The details of the budget estimates for theypreceding
year were as follows : —
Sources of Revenue.
Import and Customs duties
Export duties .....
Tonnage duties
Tax on the rent of the land, in towns
Tax on the transfer of property
Trades and occupations tax
Stamp duties ......
Lottery ......
Commission, grants, and Universities taxes
Personal, or house-rent tax
Post office ......
Produce of D. Pedro II. Railway, and other ra
Consumption of spirituous licpuors .
,, cattle in Rio .
Mint and silver's Seignorage .
Proceeds of domains ....
Mining duties
Produce of printing office, prisons, and other
establishments ....
Slave tax
Sale of crown lands
Deposits ......
Other revenues
Total .
lway
State
£
4,494,030
1,359,870
40,000
172,300
275,000
149,200
320,000
159,500
96,830
26,000
54,000
309.000
16.800
17,000
12,700
9.300
4,012
32,070
51,600
20,000
463,195
233,145
8,315,552
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
497
Branches of Expenditure.
Ministry of the Interior
,, justice
foreign affairs-
war
marine .
finance .
agriculture, commerce, and public works
Total
£
500,735
341,323
74,842
859.059
1,398,582
4,023,488
1,160,521
8,358,550
Old charges of the colonial times, the war of independence and with
Uruguay, payments of indemnities to foreign nations, loans for public
improvements, and loans to fill up deficits, have laid the foundation
of a national debt, largely increased in recent years on account of
the considerable expenditure of the Paraguayan war.
The funded debt of Brazil is divided into an external and internal,
and was made up as follows on the 31st December 18G9 :
Foreign Debt
Original Capital
Outstanding Capital
Loan of 1852, due in 1882
1858, „ 1888
1859, „ 1879
1860, „ 1890
1863, „ 1893
1865, „ 1902
Total foreign debt
Total foreign debt outstanding
31st December 1869
&
1,040,600
1,526,500
508,000
1,373,000
3,855,300
6,963,600
&
727,000
954,700
361,800
1,014,800
3,264,800
6,741,200
15,267,000
13,064,300
Internal Debt.
6% stock
5% „
4% „
Loan of 1!
Total internal debt
15,900,650
195,040
11,960
3,000,000
19,107,650
The stock of the internal funded debt was held as follows in 1869: —
Countries
6 per cent.
5 per cent.
4 per cent.
Brazil . ....
Great Britain ....
Other countries ....
Charitable establishments (Brazil)
Unknown .....
12,529,510
482,080
374,220
2,514,840
59,220
5,780
24,260
39,040
66,740
380
11,580
498 BRAZIL.
The stock of the internal loan of 1868, the interest of which is 6
per cent., payable in gold, was held as follows in 1809 : —
Brazil ......... 1,751,800
Great Britain ....... 237,850
Other nations .' .' ..... 252,050
Charitable establishments (Brazil) . . . 758,300
While the foreign debt of Brazil is in course of being paid off,
the internal debt is increasing, in consecpience of the liabilities
incurred in the six years' war in Paraguay. On the 80th April
1870, the internal funded debt had risen from 10,107,650/., at
which it stood Dec. 31, 18G9, to 22,146,250/., showing an increase
of 3,038,600/.
The internal debt is represented by bonds, called Jpolices, in-
scribed to the holder, and the payment of its capital and interest,
which is provided for by the annual vote of Parliament, is under the
charge of the sinking fund department (Caixa da Amortisacao), in-
dependent of the Government, directed by a committee, presided
over by the Minister of Finance, and composed of a general inspector
and five Brazilian capitalists. The bonds held by foreigners are by
law exempt from embargo and reprisal in time of war, .and no op-
position to the payment of interest and capital is admitted, nor to
the transfer of the bonds, except when claimed by the bondholder.
In the budget of 1869-70 and 1870-71, the expenditure on
account of interest and amortisation of the foreign debt was set down
at 906,363/.
Besides the funded home and foreign debt, Brazil has a floating
debt, consisting mainly of Treasury bills. They increased during
the Paraguayan Avar to 8.300,000/. ; but did not exceed 7,000,000/.
in December 1869, the proceeds of the internal loan of 1868 having
been partly applied to their payment. According to official re-
ports the expenses of the war, calculated to amount to about
40,000,000/., were up to- the end of 1869 met as follows:— By the
sale of ApoliceSy 14,182,826/.; by the issue of paper currency,
12,307,469/.; and by the issue ofTreasury bills, 5,661,820^.
The Government paper money, in 1852 'of a very small amount,
and quite insufficient for the circulation, which consisted then of
gold and silver coins, has in recent years become the national
currency of Brazil.
Army and Navy.
The army is formed partly 1 >y enlistment and partly by conscription.
In extreme cases, impressment is resorted to. Liberal bounties and
grants of land at the end of fourteen years of service, are held out as
inducements to enlist, and procure large numbers of soldiers. Ex-
emption from military service may be obtained by either personal
substitution, or on payment of the sum of 120/. to the government.
ARMY AND NAVY.
499
In the army estimates for 1869-70, voted in June, 1869, the strength
of the standing army was fixed at 20,000 on the peace-footing, and
at 60,000 on the war-footing. There were actually under arms,
according to official reports, at the end of April, 1869 : —
In garrison within the empire:
6 . * Men
Troops of the line 7,793
Militia and Besorve ....... 6,458
Total . . 14,251
In campaign in Paraguay :
Staff and administration ...... 456
Engineers ........ 761
Artillery 1,577
Cavalry ......... 6,734
Infantry 18^379
Total . . 27,907
Aggregate total . 42,158
Besides the forces above enumerated, there exists a National
Guard, the strength of which, according to official returns, was as
follows at the end of June, 1869 : —
Men
Artillery 8,231
Cavalry ......... 53,325
Infantry, active ....... 453,992
,, reserve 88,383
Total . . 603,931
The army, formerly very small, was entirely reorganised in May
1865, when Brazil, in concert with the Argentine Confederation and
Uruguay, commenced war against Paraguay. According to official re-
ports, 20,550 men took the field on this occasion, and the number was
gradually increased, till, in the summer of 1869, it had been raised to-
neatdy 28,000 men. The troops of Uruguay at the same time num-
bered but about 1,000, and those of the Argentine Republic about
2,500, so that the burthen of the war fell upon Brazil. According to
government estimates, more than 100,000 men were dispatched
successively from the empire to the seat of war in the years 1865-69.
The Imperial navy consisted in June, 1869, of 87 men-of-war, 76
of which were commissioned, and 11 on the reserve. The active
naval force comprised 8 sailing vessels, 52 steam-gunboats, and 16
ironclads, with a total propelling force of 7,299 horse-power, and an
armament of 2GS guns, of which 55 were rifled cannon throwing- 70 to
150 pounders. The naval force in reserve consisted of 2 frigates, ;j
corvettes, and 6 steam-gunboats, besides 38 steam launches. The
navy was commanded and manned, at the same date, by 411 officers,
7,215 sailors, and 1,818 marines.
k x 2
500
BRAZIL.
In the navy estimates for 18G9-70, the number of sailors and ma-
rines in the Imperial fleet was fixed at 3,000 on the peace-footing,
and at 6,000 on the war-footing. The navy is manned by enlistment,
both from among foreigners, who may be willing to serve, and natives.
In case of necessity, impressment is resorted to, the same as in the
army. — (Communication of the Imperial Government to the States-
man's Year-booh.) .
Population.
The area of the empire is estimated at 291,018 Brazilian square
leagues, or 4,89.1,394 English square miles, with a population of
about 11,780,000, so that there are, on the average, but two in-
dividuals to each square mile. Brazil, in its extent of territory, is
second only to the empires of China and Russia. The subjoined
table gives the area and population, free and slave, of each of the
twenty provinces of the empire, according to official estimates, given
in the absence of a census : —
Population
Provinces
Area in square
leagues
Free
Slave
Amazonas . . . •
• 66,300
95,000
5,000
Para
40,000
325,000
25,000
Maranhao .
12.000
450,000
50,000
Piauhy . . •
10,500
230.000
2n,000
Ceara .
3.627
520,000
30,000
Eio Grande do Norte
2,000
235,000
5,000
Parahyba .
3,500
260,000
40,000
Pernambuco .
5,287
970,000
250,000
Alagoas
2,356
250,000
50,000
Sergipe .
1,360
285,000
35,000
Bahia .
14,836
1,170,000
280,000
Espirito Santo ....
1,361
90,000
10.000
Bio de Janeiro
2,400
1,150,000
250,000
Municipio Neutro (capital of the
empire) .
32
400,000
50,000
S. Paulo
10.300
825,0()0
75,000
Parana .
8,000
110.000
io,ooo
St a. Catharina
2,580
190.000
10,000
S. Pedro do Sul
8,204
550.000
30,000
Minas . . . . .
20,000
1,440,000
160,000
Goyax .
26,000
240.000
10,000
Matto Grosso ....
50,175
1)5,000
5,000
291,018
9,880.000
1,400,000
Indians .
Grand total .
500,000
11,780,000
POPULATION. 5OI
In the session of 1869 the General Assembly voted the necessary
funds for a census of the whole Empire.
Vast tracts of Brazil are uninhabited, or peopled only by a
scattered population. The masses of inhabitants congregate near
the coast, and around the chief seaports; thus the district of the
municipality of Rio de Janeiro comprises about 450,000 inhabitants,
while in the province of Para, with an area of 672,780 English
square miles, there live but 350,000 individuals, or not more than
one person on every two square miles.
The population of Brazil is made up of an agglomeration of
many races. While Brazil remained a colonv of Portugal, but
few Avomen accompanied the emigrants to South America. The
earliest European settlers intermarried and mixed with Indian
women ; and afterwards an extensive intermixture of race occurred
with the Africans who were bought for slavery. In the northern
provinces the Indian element prejDonderates, while in Pernambuco,
Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas the negroes are numerous.
At the seaports, the chief part of the population is of Eurojiean
descent.
The 1,400,000 slaves are scattered all over the country, but the
greater portion belong to the farms in the interior. A law of the
7th November, 1831, abolished the slave trade, declaring free all
those introduced in the empire after its promulgation ; but notwith-
standing the efforts of the Brazilian government, the slave trade
continued unlawfully until the passing of the Act of the 4th Sep-
tember, 1850, which put a stop to it on account of its severe pro-
visions, enforced by the Act of the 5th June, 1854. The negroes
captured during the period of the slave trade became free, but
under the tutorship of the state, most of them in the public estab-
lishments ; they were all definitively emancipated on the 24th
September, 1864. The movement for the emancipation of the
existing slaves is going on actively in the empire, and partial mea-
sures to the effect have already been adopted by the Legislature and
the Provincial assemblies.
To promote immigration into Brazil, an Act was passed the
18th September, 1850, offering large inducements to colonists, in
particular as to the easy purchase of crown lands. Numerous bye-
laws were published afterwards for the benefit of the colonists.
The immigration of settlers from Europe, particularly Germans and
Swiss, has been' otherwise encouraged by the government for a
number of years. According to an official report of 1869, there
existed in the empire above 50 colonies, or nucleus of settlements,
with about 40,000 settlers, the greater part of them in the Southern
Provinces. Many of the colonies have become independent of state
direction in consequence qf their flourishing condition.
502
BRAZIL.
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of Brazil in the five
years 186-4-18G8, ending June, was as follows : —
Years, ending June
Imports
Exports
£
£
1863-64
12,568,508
13,115,108
1S64-65
13,174,634
14,108,345
1865-66
13,776,684
15,708,756
1866-67
14,348,374
15,625,862
1867-68
13,825,894
18,175,138
The value of the imports in the years 18G7-68 was 3^ per cent,
less than in the preceding year, but 8^ per cent, higher than the
average of the five preceding years.
The value of the exports of the year 18G7-G8 was 1G^- j:>er cent,
higher than the preceding year, and 28^- per cent higher than the
average of the five preceding years.
The imports into Brazil in the year ending June 30, 18G7, the
last reported on in detail, came from the following countries: —
Great Britain and British possessions
France and French possessions
River Plate ....
Portugal and Portuguese possessions
Germany
United States .
Ports of the Empire .
Belgium ....
Austria ....
Spain and Spanish possessions
Chili ....
Italy ....
Sweden and Norway
Africa ....
Denmark
Mediterranean
China ....
Pussia ....
Netherlands .
Fisheries
Peru ....
Ports not specified .
Total
202
232
558
434
430
135
133
91
80
53
46
22
3,074
691
320
571
045
051
063
473
386
027
593
,702
,879
219
177
413
974
340
228
302
138
68
714
14,348,374
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
503
The exports from Brazil in the year ending July 31, 18G8, were
sent to the following countries : —
Great Britain ....
United States ....
France and French possessions
River Plate ....
Baltic _
Portugal and Portuguese possessions
Germany ....
Spain and Spanish possessions
Chili
Belgium .....
Italy
Russia .....
Mediterranean
Sweden and Norway
Africa .....
Denmark ....
Austria .....
In etherlands and Dutch possessions
Ports not specified .
Total
£
5,418,445
3,908,121
2,034,096
1,121,296
1,086,330
750,476
516,589
236,001
120,640
100,291
99,067
97,346
63,706
51,638
28,895
27,997
22,485
4,868
2,486,851
18,175,138
the ports of Eio de Janeiro,
neiro absorbing more than a
The largest importation is througl
Bahia, and Pernambuco, Rio de J;
half of the total imports.
The largest export towns are Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco,
and Santos. The following table gives the quantity and value of
exports from Rio de Janeiro during the year 1867 : —
Coffee .
. lbs.
Quantity
Value
424,531,680
&
8,776,590
Sugar . .
• >>
8,980,960
106,652
Cotton
,,
9,240,000
350,000
Rum
. pipes
3,865
40,000
Salted hides
4,200,000
57,540
Dry hides
250,000
8,250
Tapioca .
. barrels
11,294
25,066
Horns
116.860
1.519
Tobacco .
. bales
51,615
154,845
Diamonds
Total .
. oitavas
5,704
37,000
9,558,287
The exports from Pernambuco, Para, Bahia, Santos, and Rio
Grande do Siil, during the year, amounted to nearly 7,000,000/.
The principal feature in the export trade of Brazil is the in-
creased exportation of coffee and cotton, exhibited in the following
official returns : —
504
BRAZIL.
Tears
Arrabas
Value
1862-63
1,085,628
£
1,681,780
18.63-64
1,350,465
2,954,289
18.64-65
1,726,015
3,155,864
Cotton . . -
1865-66
2,899,004
4,691,741
1866-67
2,689,20C
3,346,025
Average
1,950,063
3,165,940
L
1867-68
3,382,025
3,392,864
'
1862-63
10,121,720
1,928,103
1863-64
8,016,127
2,003,634
1864-65
7,483,107
1,628,249
Sugar . . ■
1865-66
9,158,065
1,922,194
1866-67
8,167,685
1,826,126
Average
8,589,341
1,861,661
1867-68
8,710,930
2,273,542
r
1862-63
8,724,142
5,657,494
1863-64
8,183,311
5,413,084
1864-65
10,806,336
6,414,456
Coffee . .'A
1865-66
9,940,566
6,115,605
1866-67
13,048,464
6,978,255
Average
10,140,562
6,115,789
1867-68
14,546,770
8,363,315
The extent of the commercial intercourse of Brazil with the United
Kingdom for the ten years 1860 to 1869 is shown in the subjoined
table, which gives the value of the exports of the empire to Great
Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce : —
Exports from Brazil to
Imports of British Home
Years
Great Britain
Produce into Brazil
1860
£
2,269,180
£
4,446,776
1861
2,631,480
4,552,165
1862
4,414,187
3,735,781
1863
4,491,000
3,964.261
1864
7.021,121
6,249,260
1865
6,797,241
5,654,920
1866
7,237,793
7,224.794
1867
5,902,011
5,694,557
1868
7,455,803
5,351,989
1869
7,312,494
6,964,808
The two great staple articles of Brazilian exports to the United
Kingdom are raw cotton and unrefined sugar. The value of the
.cotton exports to Great Britain, was 4,379,793/. in 1864; 4,373,811/.
in 1865; 4,806,065/. in 1866; 3,341,206/. in 1867; 4,483,822/.
in 1868; and 4,093,727/. in 1869. Of sugar, sent in regularly
increasing quantities., the export value was 1,466,223/. in 1864 ;
TRADE AND COMMERCE. 505
1,027,217/. in 1865; 1,221,719/. in 18GG; 1,083,475/. in 1867;
1,402,4:58/. in 1868; and 1,541,581/. in 1869. By far the most
important article, of British imports into Brazil is manufactured
cotton, the value of which was 3,932,181/. in 1864; 2,834,069/.
in 1865; 4,219,468/. in 1866 ; 3,016,613/. in 1867 ; 2,831,064/. in
1868; and 4,109,757/. in 1869. It will be seen that the value of
British cotton manufactures exported to Brazil in the year 1869
almost exactly covered that of the raw cotton imported during the
same period into the United Kingdom. Wrought and unwrought
iron, of the value of 271,162/.; linens, of the value of 359,696/.;
and woollen manufactures, of the value of 599,012/. in 1869, form
the other chief articles of British imports into Brazil.
The empire possesses six lines of railways of a total length ot
410 miles, open for traffic; and 5 telegraphic lines of 1,030 miles,
belonging to the state, besides those of the railways. The six rail-
way lines are, the Pedro Segundo, 138 miles; the San Paulo, 85 ;
the Bahia, 75 ; the Pernambuco, 76; the Cantagallo, 21 ; and the
Maud, 15 miles. The gross receipts of all the railways for the year
1869 were 680,000/., and the expenses exactly one-half, leaving a
net profit of 340,000/., equal to 850/. per mile. The increase of
income in 1869 was 33 per cent, over the previous year, although
only 10 miles of new line had been opened. The number of pas-
sengers carried in 1869 was 1,158,000, showing an increase of 10
per cent., while the goods traffic was 375,000 tons, or an increase of
74/ per cent, over the previous year.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Brazil, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Milrcis of 1,000 Reis . Approximate value, 2s.
The standard of value is the gold Octavo, of 22 carats, equal to
4 Milreis. English sovereigns are legal tender to the amount of
8,890 Eeis since the year 1857. Gold and silver coins, as before
mentioned, have almost disappeared in recent years in Brazil, and
the only circulating medium is an inconvertible paper currency
consisting of treasury notes of a milreis and upwards, depreciated in
value, together with copper and bronze coins.
"Weights and Measures.
The French metric system, which is to be compulsory in 1872,
has been adopted since 1862, and is actually used in official
departments and in the customs tariff of March, 1869. Notwith-
506 BKAZIL.
standing, all over the country the ancient weights and measures are
employed concurrently. They are : —
The Libra . = 1*012 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba. . . = 32*38 „
„ Quintal . . = 129-54 „
,, Alqueire (of Rio) . = 1 imperial bushel.
,, Oitava . . . = 55-34 grains.
Besides the above, the weights and measures of Portugal are still
in use in some parts of the empire.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Brazil.
1. Official Publications.
Almanak do Ministerio da Marinha, 1870. Vol. XII. 8. Rio de Janeiro)
1870.
Almanak Militar para, o Anno de 1870. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1870.
Almanak para o Anno de 1870. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1870.
Collecciio das Leis do Imperio doBrasile e Colleccao dasDecisoes doGoverno
do Imperio do Brasil. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1864-70.
Reports by Mr. J. Pakenham, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Finances
and the Commerce of Brazil, dated Jan. 30, and Feb. 14, 1867; in 'Reports
by H. M."s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Xos. IV. and V. 1867.
London, 1867.
Report by Mr. F. J. Pakenham, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the
Finances of Brazil, dated Rio de Janeiro, May 1, 1S68 ; in ' Reports by H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.1 Xo. IV. 1868. London, 1868.
Report by Mr. Lennon Hunt, on the Trade, Agriculture, and Finances of
Brazil, dated Rio de Janeiro, Oct. 5, 1869 ; in 'Commercial Reports received
at the Foreign Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1S70.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Agassis (Louis), Journey in Brazil. 8. Pp. 540. London, 1S68.
Ave-Lallemant (Dr. Robert), Reise durch Siid-Brasilien und Nord-Brasilien,
1858 und 1859. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Burmeister (Hermann), Beise nach Brasilien. 8. Berlin, 1853.
Burton (Capt. R. F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1869.
Candida (Mendes de Almeida), Atlas do Imperio do Brazil. Fol. Rio de
Janeiro, 1868.
Heywood (James), The Resources of Brazil. In 'Journal of the Statistical
Society of London.' Vol. XXVII. 8. London, 1864.
ERnchliff (Thomas W.), South American Sketches; or, a Visit to Rio
Janeiro, the Organ Mountains. La Plata, and the Parana. 8. London, 1S64.
Kidder (J.) and Fletcher (F.), Brazil and the Brazilians. 8. Philadelphia,
1857.
Ixiemmert (Eduardo von), Almanak Administrative, mercantil e industrial
da corte e pruvincia do Rio de Janeiro para o anno de 1870. Rio de Janeiro,
1870.
Lahure (N. de), L'Empire de Bresil. 8. Paris, 1862.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 5C7
Moraes (Dr. Mello), Chorographia bistorica, chronographica, genealogica,
nobiliaria e politica do Imperio do Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, I860.
Orton (James), The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across the Continent of
South America. 8. pp. 352. London, 1870.
Pereira (Da Silva), Situation sociale, politique, et. economique l'empire du
Bresil. 18. pp. 252. Paris, 1865.
J', reira (Pinto), Colleecao de Tratados. 4. Eio de Janeiro, 1868.
Pimenta (Bueno), Direito publico brazileiro. 4. Rio de Janeiro, 1862.
Rihas (Antonio Joaquin), Direito administrative Brasileiro. 4. Rio de
Janeiro, 1868.
Rodriguez (Jos e Carlos), Constituicao Politica do Imperio do Brasil seguida
do acto addicional, da lei da sxia interpretaeao e de outras analysada. 8. Rio
de Janeiro, 1868.
Saint-Adolphe (ZMilliet de), Diccionario Geografico do Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1845.
Soares (Dr. Sebastiao Ferreira), Elementos de Estadistica comprehendendo
a theoria da Sciencia e a sua applieagao a estadistica commercial do Brasil.
2 vols. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1865.
Scully ("William), Brazil, its Provinces and Chief Cities; the Manners and
Customs of the People : Agricultural, Commercial, and other Statistics ; taken
from the latest Official Documents. New ed. 8. London, 1868.
Uruguay (Ve de), Direito administrative 4. Rio de Janeiro, 1868.
Varnhagen (J. Von), Historia General do Brazil. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1855.
Wallace (Alfred R.), Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro. S. Loudon,
1870.
508
CANADA.
(Dominion of Canada.)
Constitution and Government.
The Dominion of Canada consists of the provinces of Ontario,
Quebec — formerly Upper and Lower Canada — Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick. They were united by an Act of the Imperial
Parliament, passed in March, 1867, known and cited as' The British
North America Act, 1867,' and which came into operation on the
1st July, 1867, by royal proclamation. The Act orders that the
constitution of the Dominion shall be ' similar in principle to that
of the United Kingdom;' that the executive authority shall be
vested in the sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on
in her name by a Governor-general and Privy Council ; and that
the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two
Houses, called the ' Senate.' and ' the House of Commons.' Pro-
vision is made in the Act for the admission of Newfoundland,
British Columbia, Vancouver's Island, and the remaining provinces
and territories of British North America, into the Dominion of
Canada.
The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Dominion
are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor-general under
the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of the constitution, there
must be 72 senators, namely, 24 from the Province of Ontario, 24
from Quebec, 12 from Nova Scotia, and 12 from New Brunswick.
Each of them must be 30 years of age, a born or naturalised sub-
ject, and possessed of property, real or personal, of the value of
4,000 dollars in the province for which he is appointed. A sena-
tor's seat is vacated by his ceasing to have the requisite property
qualification, and by non-attendance in parliament for two consecu-
tive sessions. The House of Commons of the Dominion is elected
by the people, for five years, at the rate of one representative for
every 17,000 souls of the decennial census. At present, on the
basis of the census returns of 1861, the House of Commons consists
of 181 members — 82 for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 19 for Nova
Scotia, and 15 for New Brunswick. It is calculated, on the basis
of official returns stating the present ratio of increase of population,
that the next census, oi' L871, will give to Ontario 98, to Quebec
65, to Nova Scotia 18, and to New Brunswick 15 members. The
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
509
following exhibits the proportionate representation in the House of
Commons, both actual, and probable after 1S71, of the four provinces
of the Dominion : —
Provinces
Actual num-
ber of mem-
bers
Actual per-
centage of re-
presentation
Probable
number of
members after
1871
Probable per-
centage of re-
presentation
alter 1871
Ontario ....
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Total .
82
65
19
15
453
35-9
10-5
8-3
98
65
18
15
50-0
33-2
9-2
7-6
181
100-0
196
100-0
The members of the House of Commons of the first parliament
of the Dominion were chosen in conformity with the electoral laws
of each province, varying in many particulars, especially as to
property qualification ; and to ensure uniformity of franchise, a
general law of election was being elaborated in the session of 1869.
A statute passed in the first session, 1867-8, provides that the
Speaker of the House of Commons shall receive a salary of 3,000
dollars per annum, and that each member shall have an allowance
of 6 dollars per diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a session
lasting longer than this period, the sum of 600 dollars, with, in
every case, 10 cents per mile for travelling expenses. The statute
also provides that 5 dollars per diem shall be deducted for every
day's absence of a member, unless the same be caused by illness.
There is no allowance for the members of the Senate of the Dominion.
The four provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate
parliament and administration, with a Lieutenant-governor at the
head of the executive. They have full powers to regulate their
own local affairs, dispose of their revenues, and enact such laws as
they may deem best for their own internal welfare, provided only
they do not interfere with, or are adverse to, the action and policy
of the central administration under the Governor-general.
Governor-General. — Lord Lisgar, born 1807, eldest son of Sir
John Young, Bart. ; educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
and graduated B.A. 1829 ; called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, 1834 ;
M.P. for Cavan, 1831-55 ; one of the Lords of the Treasury, 1841-44;
secretary to the Treasury, 1844-46 ; succeeded his father, first
baronet, 1848; Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1852-55; Lord High
Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1855-59; Governor-General of
New South Wales, 1860-67 ; appointed Governor-General of the
Dominion of Canada and of British North America, Sept. 18, 1868;
elevated to the peerage, as Baron Lisgar, Oct. 8, 1870.
5io
CANADA.
The Governor-general has a salary of 10,000/. per annum. He
is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867,
by a Privy Council, composed of the ministers for the time being.
The ministry consists of thirteen members, namely — the President
of the Council, the Minister of Justice, the Minister of Finance,
the Minister of Militia, the Minister of Customs, the Minister of
Inland Revenue, the Minister of Public Works, the Minister of
Marine and Fisheries, the Minister of Agriculture, the. Secretary for
Canada, the Secretary for the Provinces, the Postmaster-General,
and the Receiver-General. Each of the ministers has a salary of
5,000 dollars, or about 1,000/. a year. The body of ministers is
officially known as the ' Queen's Privy Council for the Dominion of
Canada.'
Church and Education.
There is no State Church in the Dominion, and in the whole of
British North America. The Church of England is governed by
seven bishops; the Roman Catholic Church by one archbishop, and
eight bishops ; and the Presbyterian Church of Canada, in connection
with the Church of Scotland, by annual synods, presided over by
moderators. The number of members of each religious creed in
the Dominion of Canada was as follows, according to the census
returns of 1861 : —
Koman Catholics .
1,372,913
Presbyterians
471,946
Anglicans
465,572
Wesleyans and Methodists
431,924
Baptists
189,080
Lutherans
29 651
Congregational] sts
. 17,757
Miscellaneous creeds .
. 76,176
Of ' no religion '
. 18,860
No creed stated .
. 16,682
Total
3,090,561
The census returns, besides the broad religious divisions here
given, signalise a multitude of sectarian creeds, including ' Second
Adventists,' ' Disciples,' 'Bible Christians,' 'Junkers,' ' Menonists,'
' Universalists,' and 'Mormons.' Roman Catholicism prevails most
extensively in the province of Quebec, formerly Lower Canada, the
number of its adherents there, in 1861, amounting to 943,253, or
nearly 70 per cent, of the total of the Dominion. In the province
of Ontario, formerly Upper Canada, the number of Roman Catholics,
in 1861, was 258,141; while the Church of England numbered
311,505, the Church of Scotland 108,963, and the^Free Church of
Scotland 113,043 adherents.
The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have separate school laws,
adapted to the religious elements prevailing in either. Each township
in Ontario is divided into several school sections, according to the
requirements of its inhabitants. The common schools are supported
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
5"
partly by government, and partly by local self-imposed taxation, and
occasionally by the payment of a small fee for each scholar. The
salaries of teachers vary from 130/. to 40/. in country parts, and from
280/. to 75/. in cities and towns. All common-school teachers must
pass an examination before a county board of education, or receive
a license from the provincial Normal School, empowering them to
teach, before they can claim the government allowance. Similar
arrangements exist in the other provinces of the Dominion, nearly
all the public schools of which possess endowments of land and
personal property, the grant partly of private individuals, and
partly of the government.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the Dominion of Canada for the financial year
ending June 30, 1868, amounted to 14,695,500 dollars, or 3,019,623/.
and the expenditure, for the same period, to 14,321,360 dollars, or
2,942,745/., leaving a surplus of 374,140 dollars, or 76,878/. Not
included in the expenditure, however, were the sums disbursed for
the construction of roads, railways, and other works of public utility,
raised by loans. In the preceding year, the revenue and expendi-
ture of the three constituent parts of the Dominion were : —
Canada ....
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Total .
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
12,432.748
1,665,071
1,212,021
Dollars
11,711,320
1,600,201
1,080,047
15.309,840
14,391,568
The sources of the revenue of old Canada were as follows :
Customs, 6,166,000; Excise, 1,550,000; Post-office, 470,000;
Public Works, 450,000 ; Ocean Postage, 70,000 ; Territorial',
650,000; Stamps, 130,000 ; and other sources, 1,650,000 dollars;
making a total revenue of 11,136,000 dollars. The following
were the chief details of expenditure : — Interest and management of
debt, 3,890,000 ; Ordinary Charges, 4,634,000 ; Civil Government,
1,350,000; Eefunds, 100,000; Militia, 500,000; and Public Work*
600,000 dollars.
More than one-half of the revenue of Canada is obtained from
customs duties, and the rest from excise dues and other indirect
taxation. In the year 1867-8 the customs produced 7,000,000 dollars.
The chief item of expenditure is the interest of the public debt
requiring above four millions of dollars per annum.
512
CANADA.
The amount of the various descriptions of the public debt of
Canada Proper, exclusive of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the
rate of interest, and the amount of interest paid thereon, was as
follows, on December 31, 1867 : —
Description of Debt
Amount
Interest
Rates
Amount
Imperial loan
Debentures
7} * * *
>1 ' ' '
„ , , /Dollars
Total \£ sterling
Dollars
7,300,000
14,600
33,979,499
26,589,679
28,630
Per cent.
4
5
6
8
Dollars
292,000
657
1,698,975
1,595,381
2,290
3,589,303
747,771
67,912,408
14,148,418
To the above was added a loan of 2,000,000Z. sterling, at four
per cent, raised in London, July 1868, under guarantee of the
Imperial government, for railway purposes.
The public debt of Nova Scotia, separate from that of the Dominion
amounted in 1868 to 8,230,500 dollars, and the interest thereon to
297,580 dollars; while the debt of New Brunswick was 7,195,200
and the interest thereon 349,283 dollars. Of the other provinces of
British North America, the liabilities were, at the same period, —
Prince Edward Island, 600,000 dollars ; Newfoundland, 1,350,000
dollars; British Columbia, 1,638,000 dollars, and Vancouver's Island
220,000 dollars.
Army and Navy.
In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Govern-
ment— the strength of which Avas reduced, in 1869, to 5,000 men,
of whom 2,000 for a garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an
' Imperial station ' — Canada has a large volunteer force, and a newly-
organised militia, brought into existence by a statute of the first
Federal Parliament, passed in March, 1868, ' to provide for the
defence of the Dominion.' By the terms of the Act, the militia con-
sists of all male British subjects between 18 and 60, who are called
out to serve in four classes, namely : — 1st class, 18 to 30, unmar-
ried ; 2nd, from 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3rd, 18 to 45, married ;
4th, 45 to 60. Widowers without children rank as unmarried, but
Avith them, as married. The militia is divided into an active and a
reserve force. The active includes the volunteer, the regular, and the
marine militia. The regular militia are those who voluntarily enlist
AKMY AND NAVY. 513
to serve in the same, or men balloted, or in part of both. The
marine militia is made up of persons whose usual occupation is on
sailing or steam craft navigating the waters of the Dominion.
Volunteers have to serve for three years ; and the regular
and marine militia for two years. . The period of drill for
volunteer corps is 16 days, and for corps of regular militia not
less than 8 nor more than 16 days in each year, for which half a
dollar per day is paid to the men and' one- dollar to the officers of
regular militia. But the men of any corps residing within two miles
of the place appointed for drill may be ordered out at other times
than when performing their annual drills, without receiving pay.
All men serving in the militia must take the oath of allegiance to
the sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland.
Official returns of September, 1869, give as follows the strength of
the militia and volunteer corps of the Dominion of Canada : —
Ontario, 21,816; Quebec, 12,637; New Brunswick, 1,789; and
Nova Scotia, 928 — total, 37,170. The strength of the 'reserve
militia ' of the Dominion at the same date was as follows : — Ontario,
315,352; Quebec, 215,216 ; New Brunswick, 55,622; and Nova
Scotia, 69,876— total, 656,066.
Under the Act of 1868 Canada is divided into nine military dis-
tricts, four of which are formed by Ontario, three by Quebec, one
by Nova Scotia, and one by New Brunswick. The Act orders that
40,000 active militiamen shall be drilled every year, and that the
command of the whole force be vested in the Governor-General, who
may call it to arms, wholly or in part, whenever he deems it neces-
sary. The period of service in Avar is fixted at one year, to be
extended, in case of emergency, by six months. Each military dis-
trict is required to furnish its quota of the 40,000 men, but where
volunteers are organised they will count either in full or in part for
the quota, and where there are no volunteers, or not enough, a ballot
is taken. The ballot takes place for three years, and in the ballot-
ing, the number of battalions required from counties and town-
ships is furnished according to population. Sums are granted
towards the education of officers. A school of military instruction is
established in each province of the Dominion in connection with some
regiment of the British forces, a certain number of whose officers
and non-commissioned officers assist in the work of instruction, and
are paid an allowance for the extra duties they have to perform.
The Government defrays the expenses of travelling and maintenance
of those who receive instruction.
The naval forces of Canada consisted, in 1869, of the following
armed screw steamers, maintained on the great lakes and the river
St. Lawrence, and furnished in part by the British Government,
and in part by that of the Dominion.
L L
5H
CANADA.
Name
Horse- power
Guns
Tonnage
Prince Alfred .
75
3
456
Rescue . .
65
3
275
Britomart .
60
2
226
Cherub .
60
2
226
Heron .
60
2
226
Minstrel
60
2
226
Napoleon III.
300
2
211
Lady Head .
158
2
168
Besides the above, the Government of the Dominion owned the
' Daring ' and the ' Druid,' two fast steamers, employed on coast
service, not fitted with guns, but available as gunboats. — (Commu-
nication of the Dominion Government to the Statesman's Year~
book.)
Population.
The population of United Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at
240,000; in 1825 it amounted to 581,920; and in 1851 to 1,842,265.
The area and population of the Dominion of Canada, according to
the last census, taken in January 1861, are as follows: —
Ontario ....
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Total .
Area
Population
Eng. sq. miles
121,260
210,020
18,671
27,037
1,396,091
1,111,566
330,857
252,047
376,988
3,090,561
The probable population of the Dominion, calculated on the basis
of the registries of births and deaths, and the returns of immigra-
tion and emigration, is given as follows, for the end of each of the
three years 1869 to 1871 : —
Provinces
1869
1870
1871
Ontario ....
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
Now Brunswick
Total .
1,962,067
1,354,067
382,365
319,027
2,047,334
1,387,884
389,343
322,398
2,136,308
1,422,546
396,449
327,800
4,009,526
4,146,959
4,283,103
POPULATION.
515
The number of immigrants entering the St. Lawrence in 1869
was 43,114, against 34,300 in 1868. The number who entered by
Suspension-bridge and other inland ports was 30,326 ; at Halifax
448; at St. John's, New Brunswick, 456; and at Miramichi, 21 ;
making a total of 74,365. Of these it is calculated that the majority
passed through to the United States, and 18,630 became permanent
residents of Canada. Of the latter, 17,202 settled in Ontario, 503
in Quebec, 477 in New Brunswick, and 448 in Nova Scotia. This
number showed a steady increase compared with past years.
The origin of the population, at the census of Jan. 1861, was as
follows : —
Bom 111 the Dominion . 2,430,624
Bom out of the Dominion . 659,937
3,090,561
Natives of French origin .
Natives of other origin
Bom in England and Wales
,, Ireland .
,, Scotland
„ other countries
926,466
1,504,168
136,832
281,260
133,690
108,145
3,090,561
The origin of the population of the provinces of Ontario and
Quebec is thus stated in the census returns of 1861 :
Origin
Ontario
Quebec
England and Wales
114,290
13,179
Scotland .....
98,792
13,204
Ireland ......
191,231
50,337
Natives of Canada:
Not of French origin
869,592
167,949
Of French origin .
33,287
847,615
United States ....
50,758
13,648
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward
Island .....
4,383
977
New Brunswick ....
3,214
852
Newfoundland . •
487
232
West Indies . . • . ■
532
137
East Indies . • .
203
49
France . * . • . ■ .
2,389
949
Germany and Netherlands
22,906
672
Italy and Greece . ■
104
114
Spain and Portugal .
96
55
Sweden and Norway .
• 261
229
Russia and* Poland
161
56
Switzerland ......
617
81
Guernsey, Jersey, and other British
Islands .....
529
628
All other places ....
. 541
128
At sea ......
323
61
Not known .....
Total .
1,395
414
1,396.091
1,111,566
5i6
CANADA.
The population of Nova Scotia, at the census of 1861, consisted oi
294,706 natives, 16,895 Scotch, 9,313 Irish, and 2,993 born English-
men, the rest being immigrants from other countries. In New-
Brunswick, natives and aliens were in very nearly the same pro-
portion.
Not included at present in the Dominion of Canada, but attracted
towards the confederation, while forming part of the immense terri-
tory known as British North America, are the colonies of Newfound-
land, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia with Vancouver
Island, and Manitoba, formerly called Prince Rupert's Land — the
last surrendered by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870, but not at
once admitted into the Dominion. Their estimated area, and popu-
lation, according to the last returns, including the census of New-
foundland of 1869, are as follows : —
Colonies
Area
Population
Newfoundland
Prince Edward Island
British Columbia with
Vancouver Island
Manitoba
Total .
Eng. sq. miles
40,200
2,173
200,000
146,536
80,857
11,405
17,000
242,373
266,798
According to estimates ol the year 1869, British North America,
exclusive of Manitoba, had a total population of four and a quarter
millions, giving, on a territory of 619,361 English square miles, not
quite seven individuals to the square mile.
The population of the principal cities ox the Dominion and ot
British North America was as follows by the census of 1861 : —
Doiiixiox of Canada.
Ontario
Quebec
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick
( Toronto
Hamilton
Kingston
| Ottawa
L London
/Montreal
^ Quebec
Halifax
St. John
Bkitish North Ameeica.
Newfoundland . . St. John's .
Prince Edward Island . Charlotte Town
British Columbia . . New Westminster
44,821
19,096
13,743
14,696
11,555
90,323
51,109
25,026
27,317
30,476
5,210
5,000
By selection of the Crown, the city of Ottawa has been made the
capital and seat of legislature of the Dominion of Canada and Con-
federate States of British North America.
TEADE ACT INDUSTEY.
517
Trade and Industry.
The trade of the Dominion of Canada is chiefly with the United
States and Great Britain, the greater part of the imports being
derived from Great Britain, but the greater part of the exports
going to the United States. The following tabular statement gives
the total value of exports, the total values of imports and of imports
entered for consumption in the Dominion of Canada, during the year
ending June 30, 1868 :—
Ontario and Quebec
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick .
Grand total .
Total Exports | Total Imports
Entered for con-
sumption
Dollars
47,499,876
5,441,285
4,626,727
Dollars
57,805,013
9,131,236
6,523,395
Dollars
57,248,229
8,213,682
6,553,395
57,567,888 ; 73,459,644 71,985,306
The countries with which this trade was carried on, together with
the value of exports to and imports from them, are shown in the
following table : —
Value of Exports
Value of Imports
Dollars
Dollars
Great Britain ....
21,329,010
36.663,895
British North American Colonies .
1,634,166
1,634,414
British West Indies
1,718,463
928,907
United States of America
27,534.292 .
26,315.052
France ......
96,672
1,365.295
Germany .....
44,943
485,943
Other foreign countries .
2,248,620
2,114,354
The principal exports were : —
Produce of the mine
,, fisheries
„ forest
Animals .
Manufactures .
Agricultural products
Ships
Dollars
,446,857
,357,510
262,170
,893,167
,572.546
,871,055
837,592
In consequence of the abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty with
the United States, there was a reduction in the imports from the
5i8
CANADA.
latter country in the year ending June 30, 18G8. Previous to 1862
Canada took from the United States an average of ten millions of
goods ; since then the average did not exceed half that amount. The
reverse was the case with Great Britain, the imports of which were
less than 16 millions in ten years previous to 1868.
The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the commercial inter-
course of the North American Colonies with the United Kingdom,
giving the total value of the colonial exports to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures into the colonies, in each of the ten years I860 to 1869 : —
Tears
Exports from the North American
Colonies to Great Britain
Imports of British Home Produce
into the North American
Colonies
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
6,826,962
8,667,920
8,499,393
8,165,613
6,850,744
6,350,178
6,867,563
6,767,512
6,772,253
7,734,531
£
■ 3,727,350
3,689,953
• 3,991,010
4,813,482
5,611,276
4,77,7280
6,862,402
5,862,402
4,847,688
6,157,083
The imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures were
divided as follows, during the five years 1865-69, among the diffe-
rent North American Colonies : —
Colonies
1865
. 1866
. 1867
1868
1869
£
£
£
£
£
British Columbia
161,446
152,069
62,609
74,051
103,206
Hudson's Bay Company
Settlements
67,146
. 50,379
. 49,187
. 38,648
49,720
Newfoundland .
382,817
487,984
. 385,998
261,723
354,450
Canada .
2,448,077
3,926,307
3,729,528
3,054,669
3,144,901
New Brunswick
454,521
747,848
695,390
491,503
598,116
Prince Edward Island
129,439
169,156
103,742
107,352
129,725
Nova Scotia
Total of North American "1
Colonies • " • ' J
1,064,283
1,291,217
928,121
819,614
776,965
4^707,728 6,824,960
5,862,402
4,847,560
5,157,083
As regards the exports 'to the United Kingdom, those of Canada
form a much larger proportion of the whole than those of British
imports into the North American Colonies. The. exports from
Canada, which varied, in the five years 1865-69, from 4^ to near
6 millions sterling, consist principally of the two great staple articles,
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
519
wood and com, the first of the value of 2,669,844/., and the
second of the value of 1,916,235/. in the year 1869. Woollen and.
cotton manufactures, and iron, are the chief articles sent in return
from Great Britain. The value of the woollen goods imported into
Canada in the year 1869 was 465,011/. ;. of -cotton manulactures,
444,021/. ; and of iron,- wrought • and -un wrought, 633,301/.
The shipping of the Canadian Confederation 'was as follows, in the
year 1868. Entered, inwards : — Canada, 938,946 tons ; Nova Scoria,
929,929 tons ;' New Brunswick, 807,161 tons. .Outwards : — Canada,
1,113,386 tons; Nova Scotia, 722,017 tons; New Brunswick,
754,876 tons. Total tonnage, 5,316,316.
The Dominion of Canada has a considerable merchant navy. Ac-
cording to a return made by order of the Canadian House of Com-
mons, there were owned and registered on July 1, 1868, in the
Dominion 5,822 vessels, of a total burthen of 776,343 tons. The
shipping was divided as follows between the four provinces of the
Dominion : —
Provinces
Number of
Vessels
1 Percentage
Tonnage of Vessels
Percentage
of Tonnage
Ontario ....
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Total .
481
1,428
3,087
826
66,959
155,690
352,917
200,777
8
25
53
14
9
20
45
26
5,822
776,343
100
100
The number of steamers, forming part of the shipping here enu-
merated, was 335, of a total tonnage of 45,766. Of the number,
18 were sea-going steamers, and the rest for river and lake service. —
(Communication of the Dominion Government to the Statesman'' s
Year-book.)
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Canada and British North
America are : —
Monet.
The Dollar . . . Average rate of exchange, 4s. 2d.
Weights and Measures.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old
Winchester gallon and bushel are chiefly used instead of the new or
imperial standards. They are : —
Wine gallon . . = 083333 gallon.
Ah gallon . . . = 1-01695 „
Bushd . . . = 0-9692 imperial bushel.
520
CANADA.
44 lbs.
14 lbs.
40 lbs.
56 lbs.
22 lbs.
36 lbs.
By Act of 22nd Vict. cap. 21, the weights of many articles held
equal to the Winchester bushel were prescribed, as follows: —
Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, and onions . 60 lbs.
Flaxseed 50 lbs.
Hemp seed .....
Blue grass seed ....
Castor beans ....
Salt
Dried apples ....
Malt
By the same Act the British hundredweight of 112 pounds, and
the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundredweight was
declared to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000 pounds avoirdupois,
thus assimilating the weights of Canada and the United States.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Canada
and British North America.
1. Official Publications.
Summary and comparative statements of the Imports and Exports of Canada,
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1868. 8. Ottawa, 1869.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1869. Imp. 4. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XIV. Fol. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. VI. 8. London, 1870.
Correspondence relative to the proposed Union of the British North American
Provinces. London, 1865.
Further Correspondence relative to the proposed Union of the British North
American Provinces. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Canadian Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge. 8. Toronto, 1870.
Fail 1 'on (Abbe) Histoire de la Colonie Francaise en Canada. 2 vols. Fol.
Montreal, 1865.
Howe (Hon. Joseph), Confederation considered in relation to the interests of
the Empire. 8. London, 1866.
Hunt (F. Sterry) Canada : a Geographical, Agricultural, and Mineralogical
Sketch. Published by authority of the Bureau of Agriculture, for distribution
at the Dublin Exhibition. Toronto, 1865.
Macfie (Matthew) Vancouver Island and British Columbia ; their History,
Eesources, and Prospects. 8. London, 1865.
Monro (Alex.), History, Geography, and Statistics of British North America.
12. Montreal, 1864.
BawHngs (Thomas') The Confederation of the British North American Pro-
vinces : their Past History and Future Prospects. 8. London, 1866.
Russell (Wm. Henry) Canada : its Defences, Condition, and Resources. 8.
London, 1865.
Year-Book and Almanac of Canada for 1870, being an Annual Statistical
Abstract for the Dominion, and a Record of Legislation in British North
America. 8. Pp. 192. Montreal, 1870. •
52I
CHILI.
(Republica de Chile.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Chili threw off the allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810.
The constitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
establishes three authorities in the State — the legislative, the execu-
tive, and the judicial. The legislative power is vested in two assem-
blies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
is composed of twenty members, elected for the term of nine years ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, chosen for a period of three years,
consists of one representative for every 20,000 of the population. The
executive is exercised by a president, elected for a term of five years.
President of the Republic. — Don Jose Joaquin Perez, born 1801 ;
Secretary of Legation in France, 1829-31 ; Minister Plenipotentiary
at Buenos Ayres, 1832 ; subsequently Councillor of State, Minister of
Finance, of the Interior, of Foreign Affairs, President of the Chamber
of Deputies, and President, of the Senate ; elected President of the
Republic, September 7, 1861 ; re-elected July 24, 1866.
The president of the republic is chosen by indirect election. The
people, in the first instance, nominate their delegates by ballot — to
the number of 216 in the presidential election of 1866 — and the
latter, in their turn, appoint the chief of the State. The votes are
examined, and the declaration of the poll takes place at a meeting of
the two Houses of Legislature.
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a Council of
State, and a ministry, divided into four departments, namely, the
Ministry of the Interior and of Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of
Finance ; the Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs ; and
the Ministry of War and Marine.
The Council of State, appointed by the president of the republic,
consists of the ministers for the time being, two judges, one eccle-
siastical dignitary, one general or admiral, and five other members.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The public revenue of Chili averaged, in recent years, If million
sterling, and the expenditure the same. The subjoined table ex-
hibits the sources of actual revenue and the various branches of
expenditure in the year 1867.
522
CHILI.
Sources of Eevenue
Branches of Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
Customs
4.040,787
Ministry of the interior
1,149.669
State monopolies
1,110,648
,, foreign affairs
91,627
Land taxes
613.078
,, justice
378,116
Excise
237,831
„ public worship
212,437
Tax on capital
3,370
„ public instruction
580,583
Patents
84,980
,, finance
3.652.951
Stamps
95,105
„ war .
1,471,475
Post .
129,881
„ marine
533,507
Mint .
1,987
Tolls .
25,247
Railways
162,651
Other Receipts
Total revenue"
dollars
3,232,355
Total expenditure 1
dollars . J
L 9,274,920
8,070,366
i
£ 1,854,984
£
1,614,073
The public debt acknowledged by the republic consisted, at the
end of September, 1870, of the following home and foreign
liabilities : —
Dollars
2,500,000
5,000,000
Internal Debt — ■
Old Debt, at 3 per cent.
Loans of 1862-8, at 7 and 8 per cent.
Total internal debt
Foreign Debt —
Loan of 1862, at 6 per cent
War Loans of 1837-39, consolidated at 3 per cent.
Railway loan of 1858, at 4^ per cent. .
Railway Loan of 1870, at 5 per cent. .
Total debt
£
468,750
937,500
7,500,000 1,406,250
850.000
520.000
1,500,000
1,012,700
5,2*8,1)50
The railway loan of 1870, authorised by Act of Congress of Nov.
24, 1870, was contracted for in England at the price of 83, and is to
be redeemed at par by a sinking fund of 2 per cent, for the first five
years, and subsequently of 1 per cent.
To the above was added, in 1867, a loan of 2,000.000/., at 6 per
cent., contracted in England. It was issued at the price of 82, and
the bonds were secured by the hypothecation of the customs revenues,
which in 1865 amounted to nearly 825,000/.
The army of Chili, raised by conscription, was stated to amount
to 5,300 men at the commencement of 1866, when the republic was
at war with Spain. According to an official return of the same
period, there were 29,698 national guards, or militia, inscribed on
the lists.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
523
The navy of Chili consisted, at the commencement of 1868, of
the screw-corvette 'Esmeralda,' of 16 guns; the steamer ' Covadonga,'
of four guns ; the steamer ' Maipu,' of two guns, and several smaller
vessels. In attempting the defence of the coast against the Spanish
fleet, which included the iron-clad ' Numancia,' of 43 guns, the naval
force of Chili incurred great losses.
The area of the republic is estimated at 249,952 English square
miles, with a population, according to the census of 1862, of 1,676,243
souls. Included in the territory of the republic, since 1862, is the
land of the Araucanians, on the southern frontier, governed, for some
years, by a native of France, M. de Tonnens, who styled himself
King Aurelius Antonius I. He was made a prisoner by the Chilian
troops in February 1862.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign commerce of Chili is carried on mainly with Great
Britain, to which three-fourths of the exports are sent. Among the
importing countries France stands next in the list, followed by
Germany, the United States, and Peru. The following table gives
the value of the total exports and imports of the republic in each of
the five years 1863 to 1867 :—
Years
Total Exports
Total Imports
Pesos
£
Pesos
£
1863
23,772,646
4,754,529
25,307,0*45
5,061,409
1864
31,818,214
6,363,643
24,374,351
4,874,870
1865
30.865,015
6,173,003
26,129,526
5,225,905
1866
29,089,891
5,817,978
20.856,465
4,171,293
1867
30,690,132
6,131,026
24,861,095
4,987,325
The commercial intercourse between Chili and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
value of the total exports to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Chili, in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 :^>
Exports from Chili
Imports of
Years
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Chili
£
£
1865
3,798,543
1,601,987
1868
2,943,112
1,852,436
1867
4,417,568 -
2,524,438
1868
4,366,598
1,962,714
1869
3,634,717
1,989,794
Copper and silver ore, the former of the value of 2,782,901/.,
524 CHILI-
and the latter of 146,274/., in 1869, form the chief articles of
export from Chili to the United Kingdom. The exports of the
year 1869 also included, for the first time, a considerable quantity of
raw cotton, valued at 144,852/. Of British produce sent in return,
cotton manufactures, of the value of 719,377/., and woollens, of the
value of 282,879/. in 1869, form the staple.
The commercial navy of Chili consisted, on August 30, 1866, ol
259 vessels of 57,111 tons burthen, with 2,866 sailors.
Chili was among the first States in South America in the construc-
tion of railways, made for the special object of facilitating trade and
industry. Subjoined is a list of the lines, their length, and cost,
which were open for traffic in the middle of 1869, at which period
about one-half of the railway network for which concessions had
been given by the government had been constructed :
Railways
Length
Total cost
Cost per
kilometre
From Valparaiso to Santiago .
„ Santiago to Curico
„ Caldera to St. Antonio .
„ Pabellon to Chanarcillo .
„ Coquimbo to Las Cardas
Kilo.
184
15
150
43
64
Pesos
10,834,798
5,526,000
2,960,000
1,000,000
1,040,000
Pesos
69,020
41,370
24,860
23,952
16,000
Total. . . \
456
English miles
285
21,360,798
£427,215
:
The two lines of railway from Valparaiso to Santiago, and from
Santiago to Curico, belong to the state, and the others to private
companies. More state railways are in course of construction, and
the foreign loan of 1,012,700/. raised in 1870 was granted by the
Congress of the Republic for the completion of an important line
connecting Chillar and Talcahuano.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Chili are : —
Monet.
The Pesos, or Dollar = 100 Centavos . Average rate of exchange, 3s. 9d.
Weights and Measures.
The Ounce
,, Libra
Quintal
fof 25 pounds
Arr6ba\oi wine or spirits
Gallon
Vara ....
Square Vara
1-014 ounce avoirdupois.
1-014 lb.
101-44 „
25-36 „
6-70 imperial gallons.
074
0-927 yard.
0-859 square yard.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 525
The metric system of France has been legally established in Chili,
but the old weights and measures are still in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chili.
1. Official Publications.
Memoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento del Interior presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1868. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1868.
Memoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento de Hacienda presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1868. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1868.
Estadistica de la Republica de Chile. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1868.
Report by Mr. Consul Tait on the Trade of Coquimbo for the year 1864; in
' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1865.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. No. XL Fol. London, 1868.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom
with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1869. Imp. 4. pp.
516. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. J. H. McColley, U.S. Consul at Callao, dated Sept. 30, 1867,
on the trade, industry, and social progress of Peru; in ' Commercial Relations
of the United States, with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Asta-Buruaga (Francisco S.) Diccionario Qeografico de la Republica de
Chile. 8. New York, 1868.
Menadier (J.) Estadistica comercial comparativa de la Republica de Chile. 4.
Valparaiso, 1865-66.
Menendez (Baldomero) Manual de geografia y estadistica de Chile. 8. Paris,
1861.
Scherzer (Karl von) Reise der Oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde
in den Jahren 1857-59. 8. Vienna, 1864.
Wappaus (Prof. J. C.) Die Republiken von Siid-Amerika, geographisch,
statistisch, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihrer Production unci ihres Han-
delsverkehrs. 8. Gottingen, 1866.
526
COLOMBIA.
(ESTADOS UnIDOS DE COLOMBIA.)
Constitution and Government.
The federative republic of Colombia, officially styled the United
States of Colombia, was formed by the Convention of Bogota, con-1
eluded Sept. 20, 1861, by the representatives of nine states previously
apart of New Granada. A constitution, bearing date May 8, 1863,
vests the executive authority in a president elected for two years,
while the legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses,
called the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate,
numbering 27 members, is composed of representatives of the nine
states, each deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives,
numbering 66 members, is elected by universal suffrage, each State
forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000
inhabitants, and a second for every additional 20,000. Besides the
central government thus created, each of the nine states has its own
legislature and chief executive officer, the latter called Governor in
all except Panama, which gives him the title of President.
The President of Colombia has at his side a Vice-President,
acting as chairman of the Senate, and his executive functions must
be exercised through four ministers, or secretaries, responsible to
Congress. His biennial term of office begins on the 1st of April,
ending the last of March.
President of the Republic. — General Santos Gutierrez, elected for
the term 1870-72.
The first head of the executive government of Colombia, after
its establishment as a federative republic, was General Thomas
Mosquera, who acted as Dictator from Sept. 20, 1861, till the pro-
clamation of the constitution of 1863, under which Dr. Manuel
Murillo was elected President for two years, commencing April
1st, 1864. General Mosquera was chosen his successor, but before
his term of office had expired he came into conflict with the Con-
gress of the Republic, and on the 23rd of May was deposed and
imprisoned, his place being filled provisionally by the Vice-Presi-
dent, General Santos Gutierrez. The latter was subsequently elected
President for the next term, ending March 31, 1872.
Seat of the central government is the federal city of Bogota.
REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION.
527
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The revenue and expenditure of the federative government was
as follows, according to official returns, in the three financial
terms 18(54-67 : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1864-65
1865-66
1866-67
Pesos
2,200,000
2,715,128
2,350,000
£
440,000
543,025
470,000
Pesos
2,700,000
2,020,000
2,351,000
£
540,000
404,000
470,200
The public debt was reported to amount to 49,646,000 pesos, or
9,929,200/., in 1867, three-fourths of which sum was due to British
creditors, who hold as security on mortgage the chief source of
revenue of the Kepublic, that derived from the customs. In the
year 1867, the customs produced 205,510/., while in the year 1866
the receipts amounted to 250,242/.
The federal army, by the terms of the constitution, is to number
2,000 men on the peace-footing. In case of war, each of the states
is bound to furnish a contingent of one per cent, of the population.
The area of the Republic is estimated to embrace 432,400 English
square miles, on which lived in 1864, according to a rough enumera-
tion then made, 2,794,473 inhabitants of European descent, besides
an aboriginal, or Indian population, estimated at 170,000. The
white, or European-descended population, was divided as follows
between the nine states of the confederacy : —
States
Population of
state
Chief town
Population of
chief town
Panama
Santander .
Cauca
Boyaca
Cundinamarca .
Antioquia .
Tolima
Bolivar
Magdalema
Total
173,729
496,000
437,102
442,996
391,096
327,322
250,938
175,006
100,284
Panama
Pamplona
Popayan
Tunja
Bogota
Antioquia
Purificacior
Carthagena
Santa Mart
aa
18,000
3,200
20,000
8,000
46,000
20,000
500
25,000
2,000
2,794,473
The most important of the nine states of Colombia, the State ot
Panama, comprises the whole isthmus of that name, known histori-
cally as the Isthmus of Darien. The extreme length of the state
528
COLOMBIA.
from east to west is about 360 geographical miles, but the sinuosities
of the coast give about 400 miles on the Atlantic and 600 on the
Pacific Ocean.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of Colombia is carried on mainly through the
two ports of Panama and of Colon, or Aspinwall, and is of consi-
derable importance, owing to the geographical situation of these
places, which, united by railway, connect the Atlantic with the
Pacific Ocean. The transit trade across the Isthmus of Panama in the
year 1867 was of the estimated total value of 18,438,396/., divided
as follows: — 12,592,637/. imported at Panama and exported at Colon,
and 5,845,759/. imported at Colon and exported at Panama. The
traffic across the isthmus by the Panama Railroad in 1867 comprised
35,076 passengers ; gold to the value of 30,366,076 dollars; silver,
14,830,727 dollars ; and jewelry, 793,428 dollars. The American
mails carried 923,5211b., and English and French mails, 149,2731b.,
both items larger than in 1866. Of the treasure forwarded across
the isthmus, the amount shipped to Great Britain was of the value
of 3,873,134/.
The value of the imports and exports of Colombia, exclusive of
the transit trade, averaged one million sterling each in the five years
1863-67. The total imports in the year 1866 amounted to
1,579,441/., and in 1867 to 1,104,498/., while the exports were of
the value of 1,354,403/. in 1866, and of 1,098,851/. in 1867.
• The value of the exports of Colombia to Great Britain, and of
the imports of British home produce into Colombia, in each of the
five years 1865-69, was as follows : —
Years
Exports of Colombia
to Great Britain
Imports of British
Home Produce into
Colombia
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
&
1,566,973
1,542,664
983,511
1,096,032
1,116,118
£
2,371,333
2,947,778
2,390,931
2,515,170
2,109,758
Of the exports of Colombia to Great Britain the most important in
1869 were raw cotton, of the value of 419,492/.; skins, of the value
of 109,524/. ; and tobacco, of the value of 103,424/. At the head of
the articles of British home produce imported into Colombia in 1869
were manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 1,314,348/. In the
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 529
year 1869, British vessels to the number of 181, with a tonnage of
125,351 entered, and 169, with a tonnage of 125,067, cleared
Colombian ports.
In the summer of 1869 a treaty was concluded between the
government of the Republic and that of the United States of
America, which gave to the latter the exclusive right to construct an
inter-oceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien, at any point which
may be selected by the United States. The Colombian Govern-
ment cede six miles of land on each side of the canal, and are to
receive 10 per cent, of the net income for the first 10 years, and, after
the canal is paid for, 25 per cent, of the net profits. The surveys
are to be made within two years after the ratification of the treaty,
and the canal begun within five years and finished within fifteen
years after the ratification, otherwise the charter fails. The charter
runs for 100 years. The canal is to be under the control of the
United States, and navigation is to be open to all nations in time
of peace, but closed to belligerents.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Colombia, and the British
equivalents, _are : —
Money.
The Peso, or dollar, of 10 reals: approximate value, 4s.
The currency is entirely specie, the gold coins consisting of double
condors, of 20 pesos, condors, and half condors, and the silver of
pesos, reals, half reals, and quarter reals. There are no copper
coins. In foreign mercantile transactions, the French five-franc
piece, equal to one pese, is most generally in use.
Weights and Measures.
The weights and measures recognised by the government are
French. In custom-house business the kilogramme, equal to 2,205
pounds avoirdupois, is the standard. In ordinary commerce, the
arroba, of 25 pounds, the quintal, of 100 pounds, and the carga, of
250 pounds, are generally used. The Colombian libra is equal to
1,102 pounds avoirdupois. As regards measures of length, the
English yard is mostly employed, but in liquid measure the French
litre is the legal standard.
M M
530 COLOMBIA.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Colombia.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Bunch, H. M.'s Charge d' Affaires, ' on the Financial Condi-
tion of the United States of Colombia,' dated Bogota, May 11, 1868; in 'Re-
ports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. V. 1868.
London, 1868.
Reports by Mr. Little, U. S. Consul at Panama, and Mr. Pellet.U. S. Commer-
cial Agent at Sabanilla, on the Shipping, Trade, and Industry of the States of
Colombia, dated December 1866 and October 1867; in 'Commercial Relations
of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL fol. London,
1868.
• Annual statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom
with Foreign Countries and British Possessions. Imp. 4. pp. 516. London,
1870.
(In this great Blue-book, as well as other official returns of the Board of
Trade, Colombia is called 'New Granada'— old name of the country, which
ceased to exist September 20, 1861.)
2. Non-Official Publications.
Hassaurek (F.), Four Years among Spanish Americans. 12. New York,
1867.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Mosquera (General), Compendio de geografia general politica, fisica y special
dos Statos Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.
Powles (J.), New Granada: its internal resources. 8. London, 1863.
Restrepo (S.), Historia de la revolucion de Colombia. 10 vols. 8. Paris,
1837.
Samper (M.), Ensayo sobre las revoluciones politicas y la condicion de las
republicas Colombianas. 8. Paris, 1861.
Zeltner (A. de), La Ville et le port de Panama. 8. Paris, 1868.
53i
COSTA RICA
(Republica de Costa Eica.)
Constitution and Government. ]
The Republic of Costa Rica, an independent state since the year
1842, is governed by the Charter of January 21, 1847, modified in
1859, 1860, and 1863. By its terms the legislative power is vested
in a congress of two chambers, called the Senate and the House of
Representatives, the first consisting of 25, and the second of 29
members, elected by the people. The executive authority is in the
hands of a President, elected, together with a Vice-President, who
acts as chairman of the Senate, for the term of three years.
President of 'the Republic— Dr .Bruno Carranza, declared President
by the leaders of a revolution which broke out May, 1870, depriving
of the executive Dr. Jesus Ximenes, elected April, 1869, and pre-
viously head of the government from 1863 till 1866.
The President is assisted in the exercising of his executive and
administrative functions by two ministers, nominated by himself, the
first having under his charge the departments of finance, justice,
and foreign affairs ; and the second, those of the interior, army and
navy, and public works.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The public revenue of Costa Rica for the year ending April 30,
1868, amounted, according to government returns, to 1,500,785
dollars, or 300,357/., and the expenditure to 1,594,427 dollars, or
318,885/., leaving a deficit of 94,642 dollars, or 18,52s/. The fol-
lowing statement gives the details of the receipts and disbursements
for the year: —
Revenue of 1867-68.
Tobacco monopoly-
Liquor
Gunpowder
Stamped paper
Post office .
Inland revenue
Subsidies
Tax on coffee exports
Duties on foreign imports
Courts of Justice fees
Dollars
256,641
403,618
5,234
14,058
10,143
38,113
13,578
94,337
253.948
6,650
Cents
86
78
25
49
50
48
64
6
32
83
M M 2
532
COSTA RICA.
Licences
Church funds consolidated
Bullion office and mint
Sale of beer
Fines on cattle
Public lands and titles
Miscellaneous receipts
Proceeds of loans
Total .
Expenditure of 1867-
Government and legislature
Courts of Justice ....
"War department ....
Public works department
Custom-house and Government offices .
Diplomatic and consular bodies .
Ecclesiastical salaries ....
Public instruction ....
Collection of monopolies
Interest and liquidation of internal debt
Cost of Government brewery
Advances made to merchants
Municipal expenses
Payments to State contractors
Total
Dollars
11,861
11,740
144,83-1
4,714
845
7,275
119,747
1(14,440
Cents
45
93
88
21
62
98
66
0
1.501,785
94
£300,357
Dollars
Cents
111,717
78
46,251
72
131,547
54
199,116
23
525,950
49
12,956
83
15,416
69
10,260
0
244,623
27
91,890
1
7.557
89
8.612
0
80,182
79
108,344
0
1,594,427
£318,885
40
Costa Eica lias a small foreign debt, amounting to 104,500 dollars,
or 20,900/., owing to Peru. All the other liabilities of the state,
representing a total of nearly 3,000,000 dollars, or 600,000/., are
internal. During the years 1867-69, steps were taken for the
liquidation of the public debt.
The area of the republic is calculated to embrace 26,040 English
square miles, including some disputed territories on the northern
frontier. The population, in a government estimate of the year
1860, is returned at 126,750; but in another semi-official state-
ment— in 'Moniteur Universel ' of December 17, 1865 — given as
numbering 120,499 souls. Nearly one-third of the inhabitants are
aborigines, or ' Indians,' while another third have sprung from a
mixture of races. There are also about one thousand free negroes.
The population of European descent, many of them pure Spanish
blood, dwell mostly in a small district on the Rio Grande, around
and not far off the capital of the republic, the city of San Jose.
Costa Kica carries on a considerable trade, chiefly with Great
Britain. The value of the total imports and exports in the five
years 1864-68 amounted to : —
REVENUE, POPULATION, AND TRADE.
533
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
£
&
1864
312,363
329,524
1865
297,064
310,999
1866
284,974
358,517
1867
258,759
446,142
1868
291,951
453,675
The commercial intercourse of Costa Rica with the United King-
dom is not reported on in the ' Annual Statement ' published by the
Board of Trade, which throws the statistics of the republic together
with other states, under the general heading of ' Central America.'
The exports of Costa Rica consist almost exclusively of coffee.
Those of 1867 were sent to the following markets : —
&
Great Britain 165,914
France 29,913
Hamburg 26,687
Bremen ...... 2,278
San Francisco 79,001
Panama, for Europe and San Francisco . 141,458
Peru 672
States of Central America . . . 219
Total . . . 446,142
The whole foreign trade of the republic passes through the port
of Punta Arenas, on the Pacific. In the year 1867 there entered
the port 78 vessels, of a total burthen of 75,358 tons, and there
cleared 80 vessels, of 75,759 tons burthen.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Costa Rica, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Peso or Piaster, of 8 Rentes
„ Dollar, of 100 Centavas .
. approximate value, is. 3$d.
» „ 45.
Weights and Measures.
The Libra . . . . =1-014 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal . . . = 101-40 „
„ Arroha = 25"35 „
„ Fanega . . . = l£ Imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use, but
the introduction of the French metric system is contemplated.
534 COSTA KICA.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Ed. Corbett, British Charge, d' Affaires, on the Finances of
Costa Rica, dated January 31, 1869; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Consul Wallis, on the Trade and Commerce of Costa Rica,
dated San Jose\ June 1, 1868; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.' No. XL 1868. 8. London, 1868.
Report by Mr. Consul Wallis on the Trade of Costa Rica for the year 1868,
dated San Jose, Jan. 20, 1869 ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.' No. V. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL fol. London, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boyle (Frederick), Ride across a Continent : a personal narrative of Wander-
ings through Nicaragua and Costa Rica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Frobel (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Frobel (Julius), Seven Years' travel in Central America. 8. London, 1853.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morel ot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Republique de Costa Rica, Notice statistique : exposition universelle. 8.
Paris, 1867.
Scherser (Karl, Eitter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Statistisch-commerzielle Ergebnisse einer Reise
um die Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.
Wagner (Moritz), Die Republik Costa Rica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig,
1856.
535
ECUADOR
(Republica del Ecuador.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Ecuador was constituted May 11, 1830, in con-
sequence of a civil war which separated the members of the Central
American Free- state founded by Simon Bolivar on the ruins of the
Spanish colony and kingdom of New Granada. By its constitution,
dating March 31, 1843, the executive is vested in a President,
elected for the term of four years, while the legislative power is
•dven to a Congress of two Houses, the first consisting of 18 senators
and the second of 30 deputies, both elected by universal suffrage.
The Congress has to assemble on the 15th September of every year
at Quito, the capital and seat of the government, without being
summoned by the government. The nomination of the President
takes place, in an indirect manner, by 900 electors, returned by the
people for the purpose. The electors appoint, together with the
head of the executive, a Vice-President, who, in certain cases, may
be made to succeed him before his term of office has come to an
end.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Garcia Moreno, elected President
of Ecuador, as successor of Dr. Xavier Espinosa — January 18G8 to
May 1869— August 13, 1869.
The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of three
ministers who, together Avith himself and the Vice-President, are
responsible, individually and collectively, to the Congress. There
is no power of veto with the President, nor can he dissolve, shorten,
or prorogue the sittings of Congress. By the terms of the consti-
tution no citizen can enjoy titular or other distinctions, nor are
hereditary rights or privileges of rank and race allowed to exist in
the republic.
Since the year 1863 there has been almost uninterrupted civil
war in Ecuador.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The public revenue in the year 1865 amounted to 1,401,300
dollars, or 280,260/. ; and the expenditure to 1,339,672 dollars, or
267,934/. Nearly one-half of the revenue is derived from customs
536
ECUADOR.
duties on imports. At the commencement of 1870 the liabilities of
the republic amounted, according to unofficial returns, to 3,274,000/.,
the total made up of a foreign debt of 1,824,000/., and internal
liabilities amounting to 1,450,000/.
The standing army numbered 1,200 men in 1868, but plans were
entertained for its reduction, with a view to ultimate extinction.
The navy at the same date consisted of three small steamers.
There is nothing known accurately regarding the extent and
population of the republic, the limits of which towards the north
are in dispute. According to the best estimates of native writers,
the area amounts to 218,984 English square miles, with a popula-
tion of about 1,300,000 inhabitants, including 200,000 aborigines,
or Indians. The country is divided into three departments, the
most populous of which, Quito, contains the capital of the same
name, seat of the government, with 76,000 inhabitants.
The foreign commerce of Ecuador is carried on mainly through
the port of Guayaquil, the imports of which, in the years 1863-67,
averaged 610,000/. per annum, while the exports amounted to
nearly 700,000/. The total value of the exports of Ecuador to
Great Britain, and of the imports of British produce and manu-
factures to Ecuador, was as follows in the five years 1865-69 : —
Tears
Exports from Ecuador
to Great Britain
Imports of British
Home Produce into
Ecuador
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
40,715
120,889
107,424
102,101
200,064
£
28,685
43,833
44,672
28,840
55,152
The chief articles of export from Ecuador to Great Britain con-
sist in cocoa, to the value of 92,701/. ; caoutchouc, to the value of
35,782/. ; and tobacco to the value of 6,476/. in the year 1869.
Of the imports of British produce into Ecuador cotton goods, to the
value of 27,499/-, in 1869, form the chief article.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The chief coin is the dcllar, also called the piaster, of the approxi-
mate value of 4s. ; but the money in circulation is largely that of
France, Great Britain, and the United States. By a law of
December 6, 1856, coming into effect the 1st of January, 1858, the
French metrical system of weights and measures was made the legal
standard of the republic.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 537
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.
1. Official Publications.
Report of Mr. Vice-Consul Medina on the Trade and Commerce of Ecuador,
dated Guayaquil, January 1, 1866; in ' Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
Report of Mr. Lee, U. S. Consul at Guayaquil, on the Trade and Industry of
Ecuador, dated September 12, 1867; in 'Commercial Relations of the United
States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom.
Imp. 4. pp. 516. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL fol. London,
1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
GcrstacArr (Friedrich), Achtzehn Monate in Sud-Amerika. 3 vols. 8.
Leipzig, 1863.
Schwarda (T.), Reise um die Erde. Vol. III. 8. Braunschweig, 1861.
Ternaux-G'ompans (L), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduit de l'espagnol.
(Velasco : Historia del reino de Quito.) 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Villavicencio (D.), Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador. 8. New York,
1858.
Wagner (Moritz Friedrich), Eeisen in Ecuador; in 'Zeitschrift fur allge-
meine Erdkunde.' Vol. XVI. Berlin, 1864.
538
MEXICO.
(Eepublica Mexicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Mexico, in force up to the conquest of the
country by the troops of the Emperor of the French, suspended by
the latter in 1863, but re-established in 1867, bears date October 4,
1824. By the terms of it Mexico is declared a federative republic,
divided into nineteen States, each of which is permitted to manage
its own local affairs, while the whole are cemented together in one
body politic by fundamental and constituent laws. The powers of
the supreme government are divided into three branches — legisla-
tive, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power is vested in a
Congress consisting of a House of Representatives, and a Senate, and
the executive in a President. Representatives, elected by each State
at the rate of one member for 80,000 inhabitants, hold their places
for two years. The qualifications requisite are, twenty -five years' age,
and eight years1 residence in the State. The Senate consists of two
members for each State, of at least thirty years of age, who are
elected by a plurality of votes in the State Congress. The members
of both Houses receive salaries of 2,000 dollars a year. The presi-
dent and vice-president are elected by the Congress of the States,
hold office for four years, and cannot be re-elected for four years
after. Congress has to meet annually from January 1 to April 15,
and a council of Government, consisting of the vice-president and
half the Senate, sits during the recesses of Congress. The city of
Mexico is the seat of government. The legislatures of each of the
nineteen States are similar to that of the republic.
President of the Republic. — Benito Juarez, born atlxtlan, State of
Oaxaca, in 1807, descendant of the Indian race of Tapatecos ; studied
jurisprudence, and became advocate at Ixtlan, 1830 ; elected deputy
to the House of Representatives, 1846 ; governor of the state of
Oaxaca, 1848-52 ; exiled by President Santa Anna, 1853 ; returned
to Mexico, 1855 ; minister of justice under President Alvarez,
1856-58; minister of the interior under President Comonfort, 1858;
head of the insurrectionary forces of the ' Constitutional party '
against President Zuloaga, 1858-59, and against President Miramon,
1859-61 ; entered the city of Mexico, Jan. 12, 1861 ; elected Pre-
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 539
sident of the Republic, June 11, 1861 ; driven from the city oi
Mexico by French troops, May 31, 1863 ; ordered the execution of the
Emperor Maximilian, June 16, 1867 ; re-entered the city oi Mexico,
July 10, 1867; re-elected President of the Republic, Oct. 1867.
The following is a list of the rulers of Mexico from the year 1821,
date of the first establishment of an organised government, after the
declaration of independence from Spain : — 1821, Iturbide, Generalis-
simo ; 1822, Iturbide, Emperor; 1823, General Guerrero, General
Bravo, and General Negrete, Dictators ; 1824, General Guadalupe
Victoria, President ; 1827, General Pedraza, President ; 1828,
General Guerrero, President; 1829, General Guerrero, Dictator;
1830, General Bustamente, President; 1832, General Pedraza,
President; 1835, General Santa Anna, President; 1836, St. Jose
Justo Caro, President; 1837, General Bustamente, President ; 1840,
General Farias, Dictator ; 1841, General Bustamente, President;
1841, General Santa Anna, Dictator; 1843, Santa Anna retired,
succeeded by General Caro, after whom again succeeded, lb44,
General Santa Anna, Dictator; 1845, General Canalizo, President;
1845, General Herrera, President; 1847, General Paredes, Presi-
dent ; 1850, General Arista, President ; 1852, Dr. M. Juan Cebellos,
President ; 1853, St. Manuel Lombardini, President ; 1853, General
Santa Anna, President, April 20, elected constitutionally December
15, same year; 1855, Don Juan Alverez, President; 1856, General
Comonfort, President ; 1858, Don Felix Zuloaga, President ; 1858,
General Miramon, President; 1859, Don Felix Zuloaga, Vice-Pre-
sident; 1860, General Miramon, President ; 1861, Benito Juarez,
President; 1864, Maximilian, Emperor (executed June 19, 1867);
1867, Benito Juarez, President.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The finances of the State have been for many years in great dis-
order, the expenditure exceeding constantly the revenue. The
following statement represents the estimates of revenue and expen-
diture for the year 1866, according to official returns: —
Estimated Revenue foe 1866.
Dollars
Maritime Custom Houses 9,000,000
Provincial Custom Houses ..... 3,500,000
Direct taxes 3,000,000
Stamped paper, post, and other small taxes . . 1,000,000
Total 16,500,000
540
MEXICO.
Estimated Expenditure fob 1866
Interest of the public debt
Imperial house
Works at palaces and public edifices
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its
Civil and military pensions .
Ministry of Finance and offices
Other Ministries and their offices
Army and navy
Extraordinary expenses .
Total .
Total expenditure
Total revenue
Total deficit
depend
Dollars
8,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
2,000,000
29,500,000
29.500,000
16,500,000
13^000,000
The actual deficit was reported much larger than indicated in
the foregoing statement ; the expenditure having been far above the
estimates, and the revenue somewhat below. The revenue of the
country, at different periods, amounted to the following sums : —
Year Dollars Year Dollars
1700 . . . 3,000,000 I 1829 . . . 14,493,189
1763 . . . 5,705,876 1830 . . . 18,923,299
1802 . . 20,200,00'0 1831 . . . 16,413,060
1825 . . . 10,690,608
1826 . . . 13,289,682
1827 . . . 10,494,299
1828 . . - 12,232,385
The subjoined tabular statement shows the state of the Mexican
debt, both as regards capital and annual interest, in pounds sterling,
on August 1, 1865 : —
1844 f ^ePublAicUnder I 19,421,863
\ Santa Anna . )
1851 5 ?ePublicunder } 10,148,563
) Arista . .J
1861 [Republic under 1 n 350 0oo
^ Juarez . . J
Old English Three per Cent. Loan, as per settlement
of 1851
Three per Cent. Stock, created 1864, for settlement of
overdue coupons of old loan ....
Six per Cent. Anglo-French Loan of 1864
Six per Cent. Lottery Loan of 1865 .
Interest £600,000, Lottery Prizes £120,000, Sinking
Fund £250,000
Six per Cent. Internal Mexican Debt, circa
Admitted Claims of Foreigners bearing interest at
6 per cent. ........
Amount due to French Government for war expenses
at 31st March, 1865
Annual Payment to France on account of War Ex
penses, as per Paris Convention of 1864
Total ;
Capital
&
10,241,650
4,864,800
12,365,000
10,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
13,000,000
63,471,450 3,945,094
Annual
interest
307,205
145,944
741,900
970,000
420,000
360,000
1,000,000
AREA AND POPULATION.
541
The actual government of the republic does not recognise any
portion of the above liabilities, except the Six per cent. Internal
Mexican debt, the interest of which has not been paid for a great
number of years.
Area and Population.
The area of Mexico and number of inhabitants are only known
through estimates. The most reliable of these, based on partial
enumerations made by the Government at the two periods of 1837
and 1857, state the population of the nineteen States, together
with the Federal city of Mexico, the seat of the legislature, as
follows : —
-
States
Extent in
Population
Population
square miles
in 1837
in 1857
Chiapas ....
18,750
92,000
167,472
Chihuahua ....
107,500
190,000
164,073
Cohahuila ....
193,600
90,000
62,109
Durango ....
54.500
150,000
144,331
Guanaxuato
8,000
500,000
729,103
Mexico ....
35,450
1,500,000
1,029,629
Miehoacan ....
22,466
460,000
554,585
New Leon ....
21,000
100,000
213,369
Oaxaca ....
32,650
660,000
525,938
Puebla ....
18,440
900,000
558,609
Queretaro ....
7,500
100,000
165,155
San Luis Potosi .
19,000
300,000
397,189
Sonora and Sinaloa
254,700
300,000
329,374
Tabasco ....
14,676
75,000
70,628
Tamaulihas, or New Santander
35,100
150,000
109,673
Vera Cruz ....
27.660
150,000
349,125
Xalisco ....
70,000
870,000
90,158
Yucatan ....
79,500
570,000
668.623
Zacatecas ....
19,950
200,000
296,789
Federal city
Total
—
200,000
269,534
1,030,442
7,557,000
7,995,426
The Mexican population comprises five different classes : — 1. The
whites, constituting the aristocracy of the country, and generally
called Creoles. They are the direct descendants of the Spaniards,
and their number is estimated at 300,000. 2. Those who consider
themselves whites. They are the descendants of Spanish and Indian
parents, and chiefly follow the military profession or hold situations
under Government. This class numbers about 800,000. 3. The
Indians, reduced to a state of abject misery and servitude. They
live in villages, and constitute the agricultural class. Their number,
542 MEXICO.
in the returns of 1862, is given at 4,868,000 ; they speak the
Aztec or old Mexican language. 4. The Mestizos, or mixed races,
distinguished by various names ; the issue of an Indian and a
negro being called a zambo ; that of a white and a negress, a
mulatto ; of a white and a mulatto female, a terzeron ; of the latter
and a white, a quadroon ; and so on to the eighth or tenth shade
of colour. The number of Mestizos in the country is stated at
1,500,000. 5. The Europeans, among whom the Spaniards pre-
dominate. The number of the latter is about 40,000 ; they are
generally nicknamed Gachupinos — which, in the old Mexican tongue,
means pricking with the heel, in allusion to the spurs the first
conquerors wore. The King of Spain formerly exercised a right of
conferring the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the white population
on individuals of any shade by a decree of the audiencia, ' Que se
tenga por bianco ' — that he be deemed white. These distinctions of
colour have been abolished as far as political privileges are con-
cerned, by the constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all
colours to the equal enjoyment of civil rights.
Trade and Industry.
The total exports of Mexico, in the ten years 1860-69, averaged
in value 27,000,000 dollars, or 5,400,000/., per annum, and the
total imports 24,000,000 dollars, or 4,800,000/. The value of both
the exports and imports was highest in the years 1863 to 1865,
during the French occupation and the rule of the Emperor Maxi-
milian, and sank lowest in the year following the re-establishment
of the republic. The regular exports embrace copper and silver
ores, cochineal, indigo, hides, and mahogany and other woods.
Exceptionally, during the years 1863 to 1865, raw cotton was largely
cultivated and exported. The staple imports comprise cotton and
linen manufactures, wrought iron, and machinery.
The commerce of Great Britain with Mexico has undergone great
fluctuations for the last fifty years. The imports of British produce
into Mexico amounted to 112,599/. in 1818; they fell to 1,598/. in
1821; rose to 1,228,040/. in 1S27; fell to 160,752/. in 1831; and
rose again to 779,059/. in 1849. Then again came a period of
decline, which continued till 1861, after which avast progress made
itself felt, which again met with a sudden relapse in 1866. The sub-
joined tabular statement shows the total value of the exports from
Mexico to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British
and Irish produce into Mexico, in each of the six years, 1864 to
1869 :—
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
543
Exports from Mexico
Imports of
Years
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Mexico
£
£
1864
3,129,334
1,809,743
1865
3,216,924
1,898,056
1866
313,478
1,283,213
1867
315,168
812,948
1868
350,664
848,588
1869
350,570
631,724
The extraordinary value, far above the average, of the exports
from Mexico to the United Kingdom, in the years 1864 and 1865,
was due solely to the production of raw cotton, of which, previously
to 1863, nothing was exported, and which all but ceased again in
1866. The value of raw cotton exported to Great Britain in the
year 1863 was 2,067,939/., and rose to 2,954,127/. in 1864. In
1865 it was 2,834,187/., and then sank suddenly to 28,591/. in
1866, and to 121/. in 1867. In 1868, the exports of raw cotton had
ceased entirely. The other Mexican exports to Great Britain are of a
miscellaneous nature, the most notable being mahogany, of the
value of 169,687/. in 1869. Cotton manufactures, of the value of
392,890/., and linens, of the value of 85,787/. in 1869, form the
staple import of the United Kingdom into Mexico.
The formerly valuable silver mines of Mexico, neglected for a
long time, were partly reopened in 1864. The richest of all the
mines now worked are those of Real del Monte and Pachuca, situated
about sixty miles from the city of Mexico, and belonging to an
Anglo-Mexican company, which carries on its operations upon a large
scale, with the most perfect machinery, and employing the services
of experienced miners, chiefly from Cornwall. The existence of the
silver mines of Pachuca was known to the ancient Mexicans long
before the Spanish occupation of their country ; and they were ac-
quainted with the process of smelting the ores extracted therefrom.
It was here also that a Spaniard named Medina discovered the
process of amalgamation, by means of mercury, in the year 1557.
The original English company spent nearly 1,000,000/. upon the
mines of the Real del Monte district, without being able to declare
any dividend ; and they were subsequently sold for about 27,000/.
to some Mexican speculators, who had to spend about 80,000/. more
upon them before declaring any dividend. But the total value of
the produce during the ten years 1856-65 amounted to 32,045,285
dollars, or about 6,409,057/., while the divided profits of the com-
pany were on an average about 500,000 dollars, or 100,000/. per
annum.
544
MEXICO.
Before the Spanish conquest, great quantities of the precious
metals had been extracted from the Mexican soil, and mining con-
tinued actively before the introduction of mechanical appliances into
the country, which may be said to have commenced with the present
century. Silver was long the great staple of Mexican export trade ;
and it is reported that from the year 1796 to the year 1810, about
22,000,000 dollars, or 4,400,0001. were annually shipped from the
ports of the colony for Spain, commercial intercourse with any other
than the mother-country being interdicted.
The Mineria, or School of Mines, a conspicuous building within
the city of Mexico, and containing an extensive collection of minerals,
has never ceased to enjoy the support of all succeeding governments,
and a certain amount of protection even in the most anarchical times,
necessary in a country of which the mineral resources are so enor-
mous, and all but unrivalled.
A line of railway, called the ' National Mexican,' 300 miles long,
from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, with branch to Puebla, was
commenced, under State aid, in 1864, and is to be completed in
1869. A portion of the line, from the capital to San Angelo, was
opened in September 1865.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Mexico and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Dollar, of 100 cents: approximate value, As.
Weights and Measures.
„,, . , f for wine . = 3i imperial gallons.
The Arroba \ Q\\ _ gl
„ Square Vara . . = T09 vara = 1 yard.
„ Fancga . . . = l£ imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.
1. Official Publications.
Anales del Minesterio de fomento, colonizacion, industria y comercio. 8.
Mexico, 1865-69.
Comercio exterior de Mexico. Pol. Mexico. 1868.
Memoria del Secretario del despacho de hacienda. Fol. Mexico, 1865.
Report by Mr. It. T. C. Middleton, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the
Trade, Industry, Finances, and Population of the Mexican Empire, dated
Aug. 12, 1865; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XL
London, 1866.
Eeport by R. T. C. Middleton, on the Financial position of Mexico, dated
February 25, 1867 ; in 'Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. V. 1867. London, 1867.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 545
Eeports by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton, on the Mines and Mineral Districts, and
on the Sulphur Deposits of Mexico, dated July 10 and December 31, 1866 ; in
'Eeports bv H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. I. and II.
1867. London, 1867.
Eeport by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton, on the Silver Mines of Guanaxuato, dated
November 29, 1867; in 'Eeports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1868. London, 1868.
Reports by Mr. C. Move, U. S. Consul at Chihuahua, dated June 3, 1867,
Mr. F. B. Elmer, U. S. Consul at La Paz, dated Sept. 30, 1867, and of Mr.
F. Chase, U. S. Consul-General at Tampico, dated June 30, 1867, on the com-
merce, agriculture, and mining industry of Mexico; in ' Commercial Eelations
of the United States with Foreign Nations' 8. "Washington, 1868.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XL London, 1868.
Message of the President of the United States of March 20, 1866, relating
to the Condition of Affairs in Mexico, in answer to a resolution of the House of
Representatives, of Dec. 11, 1865. 8. Washington, 1866.
2. Non- Official Publications.
Alaman (Lucas), Hist oria de Mexico, 5 vols. 8. Mexico, 1849-65.
Berra (Orozco), Geografia de las lenguas de Mejico. 8. Mexico, 1864.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien et moderne. 18. Paris, 1866.
Bomenech (Emmanuel), Le Mexique tel qu'il est. La verite sur son climat,
ses habitants et son gouvernement. 12. Paris, 1866.
Eghffstein (Baron F. W. von). Contributions to the Geology and the Physical
Geography of Mexico ; with Profiles of some of the principal Mining Districts.
8. New York, 1865.
Flint (H. M.), Mexico under Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1867.
Hauslab (Frz. v.), Ueber die Bodengestaltung in Mexico und deren Einfluss
auf Verkehr und militarischen Angriff und Vertheidigung. "With Maps and
Plates. 8. Vienna, 1865.
La Bedolliere (Emile G. de), Histoire de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris,
1866.
Maillefert (Eugenio), Directorio del comercio del imperio niexieano para el
ano de 1866, primer ano. 8. Paris, 1866.
Miiller (J. W.), Eeisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und Mexico. 3,
vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Thomas (N.), Notice sur les principales productions du Mexique. 8. Paris,
1868.
NN
546
PARAGUAY.
(Republica del Paraguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish
rule in 1811, and after a short government by two consuls, the
supreme power was seized, in 1815, by Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez
Francia,who exercised autocratic sway as Dictator, till his death, Sept.
20, 1840. Dr. Francia's reign was followed by a state of anarchy,
which lasted till 1842, when a National Congress, meeting at the
capital of Asuncion, -elected two nephews of the Dictator, Don
Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the Republic.
Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, a new constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole President, with
dictatorial powers, which were continued by another election,
March 14, 1857. At the death of Don Carlos, September 10, 1862,
his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, born 1827, succeeded to the
supreme power, by testamentary order, without any opposition.
To protect the independence of Uruguay, President Lopez, in 1865,
made opposition to the government of Brazil, the consequence of
which was the entry of a Brazilian army, united with forces of the
Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the Republic, June,
1865. After a struggle of five years, carried on with varying
successes, Don Francisco Solano Lopez was defeated and killed in
the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870.
A Congress, meeting under Brazilian protection at Asuncion in
June 1870, voted in August a new constitution tor Paraguay, based
on the model of that of the Argentine Confederation, and at the same
time elected a President of the Republic for the term of six years.
President of the Republic. — Don Cyrillo Hivarola, eltcted
August 1, 187(3.
The country is divided into 20 sections, or commandancias, ex-
clusive of a territory in the south-east, called the Missions, occupying
600 square leagues, and governed by a special officer.
Revenue, and Army.
The public revenue of Paraguay was estimated at 500,000/.
sterling, and the expenditure the same, until 1865. About two-
POPULATION AND TRADE.
547
thirds of the revenue was derived from state property and monopo-
lies, and the remainder chiefly from customs duties. The republic
had no debt until March 1866, when the National Congress autho-
rised the President to contract a foreign loan of 5,000,000/. sterling
to carry on the war against the armies invading Paraguay. At the
same time, the National Congress voted a compulsory internal loan
of 900,000 pesos, or 135,000/.
The military force formerly numbered about 3,000 men, prin-
cipally cavalry ; but in the war against the united forces of Brazil,
Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic,, carried on during the years
18G5-70, the President raised an army of 60,000 men, including
10,000 cavalry, and 5,000 artillery. These troops were divided
for a time into four corps-d'armee of from 10,000 to 20,000 men,
and had with them 400 field pieces and battery guns.
The Paraguayan navy was said to consist, in 1868, of 3 bri°-s
of war, 21 steamers, and 15 small gunboats, partly iron-clad, each
carrying one 80-pounder Armstrong gun.
Population and Trade.
The frontiers of the republic have never been well defined', and
large territories considered as forming part of it are claimed by
Brazil, Bolivia, and the Argentine Confederation. Geographically,
Paraguay comprises three vast districts, the area of which, in leguas
quadra, or square leagues, is as follows, according to an official return
of the year 1860 : —
Districts Leguas quadra
Chaco, or Western Paraguay ....... 16,537
Country between the Parana and Paraguay rivers . . . 11,113
„ „ tile river Parana and Uruguay .... 1,820
Total . . 29,470
English square miles . . 1<)::;1L5
Not more than 2,500 leguas cpiadra, or less than one-tenth of
the area of the republic, are cultivated and inhabited.
An enumeration made by the government in 1857 showed the
population to number 1,337,439 souls. About one-third of the
inhabitants were living at the date of the census in the central pro-
vince, containing the capital, the rest being spread thinly as settlers
over the remaining portion of cultivated country. Nearly one-half
the entire territory is national property. It consists of pasturage
lands and forests, which have never been granted to individuals; the
estates of the Jesuit missions and other religious corporations : and
a great number of government farming establishments Part of these
lands are let at a very moderate rent, and for an unlimited period,
NX 2
548 PARAGUAY.
under the single condition that they shall be properly cultivated, or
turned into pasturage. According to an official survey made in
February 1863, the total area of state property, and of lands held
on lease from the government, comprised 30,508,040 linos, of which
4,16(5,979 linos was planted with orange, lemon, and other fruit
trees; 1,510,309 with cotton; 1,413,977 with tobacco; 11,969,191
with maize ; and 26,341,067 with other vegetable produce, including
yerba mate, or Paraguayan tea.
The latter produce forms one of the chief articles of the commerce
of Paraguay. The yerba mate, a species of cabbage, the leaves of
which are dried and reduced to powder, is exported in considerable
quantities, being extensively used in South America as a kind of tea.
When the crops of mate are being gathered, the government sends
its agents to the plantations, who fix the quantity wanted by govern-
ment, as well as the price to be paid for it, while the remainder is
left at the disposal of the proprietor of the land. The total exports
of yerba mate, in 1863, amounted to 4,882,000 pounds, valued at
290,000/., the other principal exports of the year comprising tobacco,
to the amount of 3,500,000 pounds, valued at ] 50,000/., and hides
to the value of 80,000/. The imports consist chiefly of cotton and
linen manufactures, derived to the extent of three-fourths from
Great Britain, and one-fourth from France and Germany. The
British imports are passing entirely through the territories of Brazil
and the Argentine Confederation, and since the year 1862, when a
few articles of machinery and furniture, valued at 1,764/., arrived from
England, there has been no direct intercourse between Paraguay and
the United Kingdom.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Paraguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Peso, or Dollar = 100 Centenas . Average rate of exchange, 3*.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal. . . . = 10T40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Arroba = 25-35 ,, ,,
Fanega . . . = H imperial bushel.
„ Lino (land measure) . = 69^ Engl. sq. yards.
„ Legua madra . . = 12| Engl. sq. miles.
Besides the above, the weights and measures of the Argentine
Confederation are in general use, and the currency of Brazil has
been largely introduced since the commencement of the war.
BOOKS OF KEFERENCE. 549
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Paraguay.
Non-Official Publications.
Demersay (L. A.), Histoire physique, eeonomique et politique du Paraguay et
des etablissements ties Jesuites. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.
Du Graty (Alfred), La Republique de Paraguay. 8. Bruxelles, 1865.
Expilly (Charles) Le Bresil, Buenos-Ayres, Montevideo, et le Paraguay
devant la civilisation. 8. 157 pp. Paris, 1865.
Kennedy (A. J.) La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay, during the War. 8.
London, 1869.
Mansfield (Charles), Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New edition. By the
Rev. Charles Kingsley. 8. London, 1866.
Master man (G. F.), Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay. 8. London, 1869.
Midhall (Michael G.), The Cotton Fields of Paraguay and Corrientes: being
an account of a tour through these countries, preceded by annals of cotton-
planting in the River Plate territories from 1862 to 1861. 4. Buenos Ayres,
1866.
Powell (David), The Republic of Paraguay. In ' Vacation Tourists and Notes
of Travel.' Edited by Francis Galton. 8. London, 1864.
Page (Commander Thomas G.), La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and
Paraguay. Narrative of the Exploration of the Tributaries of the River La
Plata and adjacent countries during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856,
under the orders of the United States Government. New ed. 8. New York,
1867.
Quentin (Charles) Le Paraguay. 8. Pp. 104. Paris, 1866.
Thompson (George), The Paraguayan War ; with sketches of the history of
Paraguay, and of the manners and customs of the people. 8. London, 1869.
Tschudi (_Joh. Jak. v.), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
550
PERU.
(Republica del Peru\)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Peru, one of the oldest of Spanish colonies in
America, issued its declaration of independence in 1821, after a
war of eleven years. The present constitution, proclaimed Aug. 31,
18G7, is modelled on that of the United States, the legislative power
being vested in a Senate and a House of Representatives, the former
composed of deputies of the provinces, two for each, and the latter
of representatives nominated by the electoral colleges of provinces
and parishes, at the rate of one member for every 20,000 inha-
bitants. The parochial electoral colleges choose deputies to the
provincial colleges, who in turn send representatives to Congress.
In the session of 1868, the Senate was composed of 36 members,
and the House of Representatives of 86 members.
The executive power is entrusted to a president, assisted by a
vice-president, both elected by the people for the term of five years.
President of the Republic. — Colonel Jose Balta, elected July 18;
assumed office August 1, 1868.
The President has to exercise his executive functions through a
cabinet of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The depart-
ment are those of Foreign Affairs, of the Interior, of Justice, of
Finance and Commerce, and of War and the Navy.
By the terms of the constitution of 1867, there exists absolute
political, but not religious freedom, the charter prohibiting the pub-
lic exercise of any other religion than the Roman Catholic, which is
declared the religion of the state.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
The public revenue is mainly derived from the sale of guano, and
but to a small extent from customs. Direct taxation does not exist.
The actual receipts were as follows in each of the years 1861 and
1866:—
REVENUE, ARMY, AND POPULATION.
551
Sources of Revenue
1861
1866
Customs . .....
Sale of guano .....
Miscellaneous receipts
Total ....<{
Dollars
3,251,755
16,921,751
1,072,326
Dollars
3,352,724
13,300,000
21,245,832
£ 3,275,399
16,652,724
£ 2,567,295
The expenditure in the same two years was as follows :-
Branches of Expenditure
1861
1866
Ministry of the interior .
,, foreign affairs
„ justice ....
,, finance and commerce .
„ war and the navy .
Total f
Dollars
2,034,959
429,460
1,092,665
7,604,402
10,284,980
Dollars
2,100,000
125,000
2,000,000
6,720,000
4,850,000
21,446,466
£ 3,306,330
15,795,000
£2,435,062
The budget estimates for 18G7 exhibited a revenue of 2,689, 0831.
— of which 1,426,000/. was derived from the sale of guano — and an
expenditure of 3,105,421/., leaving a deficit for the year of 416,338/.
Peru has a considerable public debt, divided into an external and
internal. The acknowledged foreign liabilities of the republic
were as follows on Oct. 1, 1<J70 : —
£
Debt, at 41- per cent., of May 30, 1862 . . . 1,270,000
Consolidated 5 per cent, loan, of Feb. 22, 1865 . 7,199,200
Eailway loan at 6 per cent, of June 1870 . . 11,920,000
Total . . . 20,389,200
The 5 per cent, loan of 1865, contracted through the banking
house of Thompson, Bonar, and Co., London, was originally to the
amount of 10,000,000/., and became reduced to 7,199,200/. by half-
yearly drawings. The railway loan of 1870, contracted through
the banking house of J. H. Schroder & Co., London, issued at the
price of 82-|, was hypothecated on the customs, the railways, and
the guano deposits of Peru.
The army of the republic in 1866 was composed as follows : —
Infantry 8,400 ]
Cavalry 1,200
Artillery 1,000
Gendarmerie 5, 408 J
■Total . 16,008
552 PERU.
The Peruvian navy consisted, in the summer of 1869, of 5 iron-
clads, the 'Independencia,' frigate, 14 guns; the ' Atahualpa,'
turret ship, 3 guns ; the ' Manco Capac,' turret, 3 guns ; the ' Victo-
ria,' 2 guns, and the ' Loan,' 2 guns ; and of seven other steamers, the
' Callao,' 30 guns, the ' America,' 14 guns, the ' Union,' 14 guns,
the ' Chalaco,' 4 guns, the ' Tumbez,' 4 guns, the ' Chanchamaya,' 2
guns, and the ' Colon,' 2 guns. The most important of these ships,
the ironclad frigate ' Independencia,' built at Poplar, London, in
1865, has a stem constructed as a ram, and the armament con-
sists entirely of Armstrong guns on the shunt principle — viz. 12
70-pounders of 4 tons each on the main deck, and 2 pivot guns,
150-pounders, weighing 7 tons each, on the upper deck. These latter
guns can be fired on a line even with the keel. The two next largest
ironclads in the list, the 'Atahualpa,' and the 'Manco Capac,' are
so-called Monitors, and were purchased in March, 1869, from the
United States. Each of these ships carries, on revolving turrets,
three guns, throwing shots of 500 pounds weight. They are thickly
armoured from stem to stern, and when in action only six inches
above the sea-level, with the further defence of being able to hurl
streams of boiling water on an enemy attempting to get on board.
The area of Peru is estimated to extend over 502,760 square
miles, while the population, according to a rough enumeration made
in 1860, amounts to 2,865,000, the greater number of them descen-
dants of Spaniards, mixed with ' Indians.'
Trade and Industry.
The imports of the republic averaged five millions sterling in the
years 1863-67, and the exports rather more than six millions. The
following seven ports divided between them the total exports of 1866 :
Callao
Iquique .
Arica
Is] ay
Huanchaco
San Jos6 .
Payta
Total
Value of Exports
Dollars
24,996,028
5,602.739
2,809,645
3,541,086
920,410
895,616
1,741,480
40,511,291
£
3,853.554
863,754
433.153
545,917
141,896
138,075
268,478
6,245,491
The commercial intercourse between Peru and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports from Peru to Great Britain and Ireland,
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
553
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Peru in each of the five years, 186-4 to 1868 : —
Exports from Peru
Imports of
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Peru
£
£
1865
4,002,150
1,185,756
1866
3,022,017
1,355,960
1867
3,701,362
1,422,112
1868
3,400.026
1,132,363
1869
3,992,472
1,383,238
The staple article of export from Peru to the United Kingdom
is guano, to the value of from 1,000,000/. to above 2,000,000/.
In 1864, the exports of guano to Great Britain amounted to 113,086
tons, valued at 1,357,032/. ; in 1865 to 210,784 tons, valued at
2,529,408/.; in 1866, to 109,142 tons, valued at 1,309,704/.; in
1867, to 164,112 tons, valued at 1,996,344/.; and in 1869 to
155,766 tons, valued at 1,890,219/. Among the other articles ot
export are sheep and alpaca wool, and nitre, each averaging 300,000/.
per annum in value. Cotton and woollen manufactures are the
principal British imports into Peru.
The chief wealth of Peru consists in the immense deposits of guano
on the islands belonging to the republic, particularly the Chincha,
Maccabi, and Guanape Islands.
The subjoined table shows the nationality and tonnage of vessels
which sailed with cargoes of guano from these islands in the years
1864 to 1866 :
Nationality of Vessels
1864
1865
1866
Tons
Tons
Tons
Great Britain .
129,852
126,289
74,851
Netherlands
675
4,370
3,025
Belgium ....
51,362
35,480
68,907
France ....
41,561
40,953
61,711
Germany ....
49,584
82,090
46,810
Spain ....
8,509
19,283
32,785
Portugal ....
—
403
7,7ol
Italv
8,508
3,210
1.738
United States .
—
. 7,707
44,242
Mauritius ....
894
—
7,751
Other English Colonies
3,240
—
269
Havanna ....
196
3,481
—
China ....
Total .
—
250
1,834
294,381
323,516
351,674
554
PERU.
According to a government report, published in the official
Gazette, 'El Peruano,' May 4, 1869, the exports of guano, and
their value, in the two years 1869 and 1870, were calculated to be as
follows : —
Exports of guano
Value per ton
Total value
320,000 tons to Great Britain
200,000 tons to France
140,000 tons to Belgium . . .
35,000 tons to Germany, with all charges paid
65,000 tons to Germany, from new deposits .
50,000 tons to United States
10,000 tons to Italy
8,000 tons to Netherlands ....
60,000 tons to other places ....
888,000 tons.
dollars
36
34^
37i
59^
34
35
34
30
35
dollars
11,520,000
6,900,000
5,250,000
2,082,000
2,210.000
1,750,000
340,000
240.000
2,100,000
32,392,000
According to this report there was to be an estimated sale of
444,000 tons at the net profit of 3,200,000/. per annum for each of
the years 1869 and 1870.
A system of railways, designed mainly to develop the exploitation
of the mineral wealth of the country, including important mines
of nitrate of soda, has been in course of construction for several
years. For this purpose the government raised in 1870 a foreign
loan of 11,920,000/., the proceeds of which were to be employed in
the first instance for the construction of a railway from Arequipa to
Perno, in the direction of Bolivia, and a road reclaimed a long time
ago — that from Lima to La Oroya — which, after crossing the Cordi,
will branch off in two directions, on one side towards the Cerro de
Pasco, the centre of the mineral districts, and on the other side
towards Janja, the middle of a province which furnishes the greater
part of its food to the metropolis.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Peru, and the British equi-
valents, are : —
Monet.
The Dollar = 100 centesimos . Average rate of exchange, 3s. Id.
"Weights and Measukes.
The Ounce
„ Libra
„ Quintal
, ( of 25 pounds
Arroha | of ^ m ^-^
Gallon ....
Vara .
Square Vara .
1*014 ounce avoirdupois.
1-014 lb.
101-44 „
25-36 „
6'70 imperial gallons.
0-74
0927 yard.
0859 square yard.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 555
The French metric system of weights and measures was established
by law in I860, but has not yet come into general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Peru.
1. Official Publications.
Anales de la dictadura. Coleceion de documentos oficiales de la jefetura
suprema del Coronel Mariano I. Prado. Entregas 1-15. Lima, 1866-8.
Eeglamento de eomereio de la Repiiblica del Peru. 4. Lima, 1864.
Report by Mr. Middleton, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Public Re-
venue and Expenditure of Peru, dated February 25, 1867; in 'Reports by
H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. V. 1S67. London, 1867.
Report of Mr. Consul Cocks on the Trade of Peru for 1864, in ' Commercial
Reports received at the Eoreign Office.' 8. London, 1865.
Report of Mr. Consul Wilthew on the Trade of Peru for 1865, in ' Commer-
cial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. J. H. McColley, U. S. Consul at Callao, on the Trade,
Industry, and Agriculture of Peru, dated Sept. 30, 1867 ; in ' Commercial
Relations of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Cabello (Pedro M.), Guia politica eclesiastica y militar del Peru, para el ano
de 1869. 12. Lima, 1869.
Grandidicr (E.), Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie. 8. Paris,
1863.
Fuentes (Manuel A.), Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru : Historical,
Statistical, Administrative, Commercial, and Moral. 8. London, 1866.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peru and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Menendcz (D. Baldomero), Manuel de geografia y estadistica del Peril. 12.
Paris, 1862.
Odriozola (J.), Documentos historicos del Peru. 2 vols. 8. Lima, 1863-64.
Paz-Soldan (D. Mateo) Geografia del Peru. 8. Paris, 1863.
Rivero (Don Mariano de) and Tschudi (Joh. Jakob von) Antiguedades
Peruanas. 4. Wien, 1851.
Soldau (M.), Geografia del Peril. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1862.
Tschudi (Joh. Jakob von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 5 vols. 8. Leipzig,
1866-68.
556
UNITED STATES.
(United States of America.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the United .States is based on the
constitution of September 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were
added, December 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment, January 8,
1798; a twelfth amendment, September 25, 1804; a thirteenth
amendment, December 18, 1865 ; a fourteenth amendment, July
28, 1868 ; and a fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870.
By the constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted to
three separate authorities, the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. The executive power is vested in a president. It is
enacted by section 1, article II. of the constitution, that the pre-
sident ' shall hold his office during the term of four years,' and be
elected, together Avith a vice-president, chosen for the same term,
in the mode here prescribed. 'Each State shall appoint, in such
manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors,
equal to the Avhole number of senators and representatives to which
the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator or repre-
sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the
United States, shall be appointed an elector.' The same section of
the constitution enacts that 'the Congress may determine the time
of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their
votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States ; *
and further that 'no person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen
of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this constitution,
shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither shall any person
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the
United States.'
The president is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and
of the militia in the service of the Union. He has the power of a
veto on all laws passed by Congress ; but notwithstanding his veto,
any bill may become a law on its afterwards being passed by two-
thirds of both Houses of Congress. The vice-president is ex-officio
president of the Senate ; and in case of the death or resignation of
the president, he becomes the president for the remainder of the
term, and his place is filled by the vice-president, or the temporary
president of the Senate. The elections for president and vice-
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
557
president are at present held in all the States on the first Tuesday in
November, every four years ; and on the 4th of March following
the new president elect is inaugurated.
President of the United States. — Ulysses Grant, born at Point
Pleasant, Ohio, 1822; studied military science at the college of
Westpoint, 1839-44; entered the army as lieutenant, 1845; promoted
captain, 1853 ; resigned his commission and settled as a farmer in
Missouri, 1854; re-entered the army at the outbreak of the civil
war, and appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, July, 1861 ;
nominated lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the armies
of the United States, December 27, 1862 ; elected president of the
United States, by 214 against 80 votes of the Electoral College,
November 3, 1868; installed as president, March 4, 1869.
Vice-president of the United States. — Schuyler Colfax, born in
the city of New York, 1823 ; learnt the trade of printer, and es-
tablished himself in the town of South-Bend, Indiana, where he
founded the ' South-Bend Register ' newspaper ; returned member
of Congress for the state of Indiana, 1859 ; chosen speaker of the
Lower House of Congress, 1863 ; elected vice-president of the
United States, November 3, 1868; installed March 4, 1869.
The president of the United States has an annual salary of 25,000
dollars currency, or 3,750/., and the vice-president of 8,000
dollars currency, or 1,200Z.
Since the adoption of the constitution the offices of president and
vice-president have been occupied as follows : —
Presidents of the United States.
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
George Washington .
Virginia .
1789-1797
1732
1799
John Adams
Massachusetts .
1797-1801
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia .
1801-1809
1743
1826
James Madison
Virginia .
1809-1817
1751
1837
James Monroe
Virginia .
1817-1825
1759
1831
John Quiiiey Adams
Massachusetts .
1825-1829
1767
1848
Andrew Jackson
Tennessee .
1829-1837
1767
1845
Martin Van Buren .
New York .
1837-1841
1782
1862
William H. Harrison
Ohio
1841-1841
1773
f841
John Tyler .
Virginia .
1841-1845
1790
1862
James Knox Polk .
Tennessee .
1845-1849
1795
1849
Zachary Taylor
Louisiana .
1849-1850
1784
1850
Millard Fillmore
New York.
1850-1853
1800
Franklin Pierce
New Hampshire .
1853-1857
1804
1869
James Buchanan
Pennsylvania
1857-1861
1791
1868
Abraham Lincoln
Illinois
1861-1865
1809
1865
Andrew Johnson
Tennessee
1865-1869
1808
Ulysses Grant
Illinois
1869 —
1822
—
558
UNITED STATES.
Vice-Presidents of the United States.
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
John Adams .
Massachusetts .
1789-1797
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia .
1797-1801
1743
1826
Aaron Burr
New York .
1801-1805
1756
1836
George Clinton
New York.
1805-1812
1739
1812
Elbridge Gerry-
Massachusetts .
1813-1814
1744
1814
Daniel D. Tomkins
New York .
1817-1825
1744
1825
John C. Calhoun
South Carolina .
1825-1832
1782
1850
Martin Van Buren .
New York .
1833-1837
1782
1862
Richard M. Johnson
Kentucky .
1837-1841
17. SO
1850
John Tyler
Virginia .
1841-1841
1790
1862
George M. Dallas
Pennsylvania
1845-1849
1792
1865
Millard Fillmore
New York .
1849-1850
isoo
—
William B. King .
Alabama .
1853-1853
1786
1853
John C. Breckinridge
Kentucky .
1857-1861
1821
—
Hannibal Hamlin .
Maine
1861-1865
1809
—
Andrew Johnson
Tennessee
1865-1865
1808
—
Lafayette S. Foster .
Connecticut
1865-1869
1806
—
Schuyler Colfax
Indiana .
1869 —
1823
— ■
The administrative business of the nation is conducted by seven
chief officers, or heads of departments, who form what is called the
' Cabinet.' They are chosen by the president, but must be approved
of by the Senate. Each of them presides over a separate depart-
ment, and has to act under the immediate authority of the presi-
dent. The heads of departments are : —
1. The Secretary of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Hamilton Fish,
born in the city of New York, 1809 ; studied for the bar, and gra-
duated at Columbia College ; successively member of the State Legis-
lature of New York, member of Congress, governor of the State of
New York, and United States Senator ; appointed Secretary of State,
March 11, 18G9.
2. Secretary of the Treasury. — George Bautivell, born in the
State of Massachusetts, 1818; educated for the mercantile career;
successively member of the State Legislature and Governor of Massa-
chusetts; Commissioner of Inland Revenue, 1861-67; member of
Congress since 1863. Appointed Secretary of the Treasury, March 1 1 ,
1869.
3. Secretary of War. — Major General William Belknap, born in
the State of Iowa, 1831 ; educated at Princeton College, New Jersey;
entered the army at the commencement of the civil Avar, and served
in the campaigns of Tennessee and Georgia; Collector of revenue in
Iowa 1866-69. Appointed Secretary of War, October 13, 1869.
4. Secretary of the Navy. — George Robeson, born in the State of
New Jersey, 1824; studied for the bar and graduated at Princeton
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 559
College ; was Attorney-General of New Jersey, 18G6-69. Appointed
Secretary of the Navy, June 25, 1869.
5. Secretary of the Interior. — Columbus Delano, born at Shore-
ham, Vermont, 1809; removed to Mount Vermont, Ohio, 1817;
admitted to the bar, 1831 ; elected representative of Ohio, in the
29th Congress, 1844 ; Commissary- General of Ohio, 1861 ; re-
elected representative of Ohio in Congress, 1863 and 1865. Ap-
pointed Secretary of the Interior, October 29, 1870.
6. Postmaster-General. — John Cresswell, born in the State of
Maryland, 1828 ; studied law, and graduated at Dickinson College,
Pennsylvania ; admitted to the bar in Maryland, 1850, and elected
a member of the State Legislature, 1861 ; elected member of Congress
1863, and United States Senator, 1865. Appointed Postmaster-
General, March 5, 1869.
7. Attorney-General — Amos T. Akerman, born in the State of
New Hampshire, 1819; admitted to the bar 1841; removed from
New Hampshire to Elberton, Georgia, 1850; United States Attorney
for Georgia, 1866-70. Appointed Attorney-General, June 15, 1870.
Each of the above ministers has an annual salary of 8,000 dollars
currency, or 1,200/. All hold office under the will of the president.
The whole legislative power is vested by the constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
The Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each
State, chosen by the State legislatures for six years. Senators
must be not less than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens
of the United States for nine years ; and be residents in the State
for which they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity, the
Senate is invested with certain judicial functions, and its members
constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment only
extends to removal from office and disqualification. Representa-
tives have the sole poAver of impeachment.
The House of Representatives, or Lower House, is composed of
members elected every second year by the vote of all male citizens
over the age of 21 of the several States of the Union. To ascer-
tain the number of members to which each State is entitled, a
census is taken every ten years. By the law of May 23rd, 1850,
under which the existing apportionment of representatives was
originally made, it was enacted that the number of representatives
in Congress should be 233, that the representative population deter-
mined by the census of that year and thereafter should lie divided
by said number 233, and that the quotient so found should be the
ratio of representation for the several States. The ratio thus
ascertained under the census of 1860 was 124,183; and upon this
basis the 233 representatives were apportioned among the several
States — one representative for every district containing that number
560 UNITED STATES.
of persons, giving to each State at least one representative.
Subsequently, by the admission of several new States into the
union, and other changes, the number of representatives was in-
creased to 242, and a bill which passed the House of Representatives
in April, 1870, fixed the number of its members in the next
Congress, commencing March 4, 1871, at 275, exclusive of the
representatives of States to be admitted in the future. According
to the terms of the constitution, representatives must not be less
than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of the United
States for seven years, and be residents in the States from which they
are chosen. In addition to the representatives from the States, the
House admits a ' delegate ' from each organised territory, who
has the right to debate on subjects in which his territory is
interested, but is not entitled to vote. The delegates are elected,
like the representatives, by the vote of all male citizens over 21,
with this difference, that in one territory (Wyoming) the franchise
is also accorded to women.
Every bill which has passed the House of Representatives and
the Senate must, before it becomes a law, be presented to the pre-
sident of the United States ; if not apyjroved, he may return it,
with his objections, to the House in which it originated. If after
reconsideration two-thirds of that House agree to puss, the bill, it
must be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by
which it must likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-
thirds of that House, it becomes a law. But in all such cases the
votes of both Houses are determined by yeas and nays, and the
names of the persons voting for and against the bill are entered
on the journal of each House respectively. The occasions when
presidents of the United States have used their veto poAver have
been very rare, except during the presidency of Andrew Johnson,
who employed it more frequently than all his predecessors in office
taken together. From the establishment of the republic to the end
of the year 18G6, a period embracing 39 Congresses, there were but
28 vetoes, being an average of one in three years. Of these vetoes
President Washington sent two to Congress ; President Madison,
six; President Monroe, one; President Jackson, nine; President
Tyler, four ; President Polk, three ; and President Buchanan, one.
Presidents John Adams, Jefferson, John Quincy Adams, Van Buren,
Harrison, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, and Lincoln, sent no vetoes to
Congress, and their administrations covered an aggregate of nearly
33 years. Of the 26 vetoes sent to Congress previous to the presi-
dency of Andrew Johnson, only one was overruled, but, on the
other hand, the numerous vetoes of the head of the executive from
I860 to 1869 were nearly thrown aside by a two-third majority of
Congress. If any Bill is not returned by the president within ten
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 56 1
days after it has been presented to him, it becomes a law, in like
manner as if he had signed it.
Each of the two houses of Congress is made by the constitution
the 'judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own
members ; ' and each of the houses may, ' with the concurrence of
two- thirds, expel a member.'
By the 8th Section of the 1st Article of the Constitution of the
United States, the Congress has power : —
1. To levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare
of the United States ;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
several States, and with the Indian tribes ;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalisation, and uniform
laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States;
5. To coin money and regulate the value thereof, and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States ;
7. To establish post-offices and post roads ;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
their respective writings and discoveries ;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offences against the law of nations ;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and
make rules concerning captures on land and water ;
12. To raise and support armies, but so that no appropriation of
money to that use be made for a longer term than two years ;
13. To provide and maintain a navy ;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land
and naval forces ;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ;
16. To provide for organising, arming, and disciplining the
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respec-
tively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training
the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ;
17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vested in the Government of the United States.
The Congress of the United States has the power to alter the
0 0
562 UNITED STATES.
Constitution, by the 5th article of the same. The article orders
that the Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary to propose amendments to the Constitution, or on the ap-
plication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall
call a convention for proposing the amendments, which in either
case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the Con-
stitution when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the
one or other mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress.
Under the law of July 28, 1866, the salary of a senator, repre-
sentative, or delegate in Congress is 10,000 dollars for each Con-
gress, or at the rate of 5,000 dollars per annum, and mileage at the
rate of one dollar for every five miles of estimated distance by the
most usual road from his place of residence to the seat of Congress,
at the commencement and at the end of every session ; but this
mileage is allowed for two sessions only in each Congress. The
salary of the Vice-President of the Senate, and of the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, is 8,000 dollars per annum, under the
same law.
The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators
and representatives are prescribed in each State by the Legislature
thereof; but Congress may at any time by law alter such regu-
lations, or make new ones, except as to the places of choosing
senators. No senator or representative can, during the time for
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under
authority of the United States, which shall have been created or
the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such
time ; and no person holding any office under the United States can
be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
According to the sixth article of the. Constitution, ' the senators
and representatives, and the members of the several State Legislatures,
and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and
of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to
support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required
as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United
States.'
The period usually termed ' a Congress,' in legislative language,
continues for two years; as, for example, from noon March 4, 1867,
until noon March 4, 1869, at which latter time the term of the
representatives to the Fortieth Congress expired, and the term of
the new House of Representatives commenced. Congresses always
commence and expire in years terminating with odd numbers.
The term of the First Congress was from 1789 to 1791, and the
term of the Forty-first Congress from 1869 to 1871.
By the tenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 563
passed December 15, 1791, the powers not delegated to Congress are
reserved to the individual States. Therefore the powers to enact
municipal laws, that is, all laws which concern only the States
directly and immediately, are among the reserved rights of the
States, and as such vested in the State Legislatures.
The constitutions of the several States all agree in their main fea-
tures, and the modes of administration are virtually alike. In all
there is the same form, and the same principles lie at the foundation.
The executive in every State is vested in a governor. The duties of
the governors are in general analogous to those of the president, as far
as the several State governments are analogous to that of the Union.
The governors have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the
Senate, the appointment of many important officers. Like the presi-
dent, they make recommendations to the Legislature, and take
care that the laws are executed. Like the president, they may
be impeached and removed for treason, bribery, or other high
crimes.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States
by the thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution, running as
follows : — ' Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con-
victed, shall exist within the United States or anyplace subject to their
jurisdiction.' The vast change in the political and social organisation
of the republic made by this new fundamental law was completed bv
the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments of the Constitution, passed
in 18G8 and 1870, which gave to the former slaves all the rights and
privileges of citizenship. The fourteenth Amendment declares that
'all persons born or naturalised in the United States are citizens
thereof and of the States in which they reside, and no State shall
deny such citizens due and equal protection by laws, nor deprive
them of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.' It
orders further ' that representation shall be apportioned among the
several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the
whole number of persons in each State.' Finally, the fifteenth
Amendment, ratified by the President March 80, 1870, enacts that
' No discrimination shall be made in the United States, among the
citizens of the United States, in the exercise of the elective franchise,
or in the right to hold office in any State, on account of race,
colour, nativity, property, education, or creed.'
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national income of the United States is mainly derived from
two sources, namely, customs duties, and indirect taxes upon pro-
perty, manufactures, and natural produce, the whole of them classed
0 o 2
564
UNITED STATES.
under the name of ' Internal Revenue.' The national expenditure,
too, is mainly on account of two branches, the maintenance of an
armed force by land and sea, and payment of interest of the public
debt, incurred by the civil war of 1861-66. Roughly stated, the
produce of the customs discharges the cost of army and navy, and
that of internal revenue pays the interest of the debt. The cost of
the general administration, including the expenses of the executive
and legislature, provided for under the head of ' Civil Service,' is
comparatively small.
The following two tables exhibit, in dollars and pounds sterling —
converted at 5 to 1 — the total revenue and expenditure of the
United States in each of the five fiscal years, ending June 30, from
1866 to 1870. In the report of the Secretary of the Treasury,
after which the tables are drawn up, the financial accounts for the
year ending June 30, 1870, are presented as partly on the basis of
actual receipts and disbursements, and partly official estimates : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Tears, end-
ing June 30
Dollars
£
Years, end- _. „
ingJuneSOj D°nars
£
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
447.831,025
399,265,465
335,509,655
370,943,747
394,831,622
89,566.205
79,853,093
67,101,931
74,188,749
78,966,324
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
408,409,535
288,166,305
308,868,860
321,490.597
294,730,514
81,681.907
57,633,261
61.773,772
64.298,119
58,946,103
The following statement gives, in dollars, the actual revenue
and expenditure of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1869, the partly
actual and partly estimated receipts and disbursements of 1870,
and, finally, the estimates of the Secretary of the Treasury for
1871:—
Revenue.
Sources of Revenue Fiscal Years ending
June 30, 1869.
Actual
June 30, 1870.
Actual
and estimated
June 30, 1871.
Estimates
Customs .
Internal revenue
Land sales
Miscellaneous .
Total .
Dollars
180,048,426
158,356,460
4,020,344
28,518,517
Dollars
187,598.921
174.926.352
4.893,864
27,412.485
Dollars
185,000,000
175.000.000
5,000.000
28,000,000
370,943,747
394,831,622
393,000,000
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
Expenditure.
565
Branches of Expenditure
Fiscal Years ending
Civil Service .
Pensions and Indians
Arm}'
Navy
Public debt
June 30, 1869.
Actual
June 30, 1870.
Actual
and estimated
June 30, 1871.
Estimates
Dollars
56,474,061
35,519,544
78,501,990
20,000,757
130.994.245
Dollars
55,102,202
34,547,943
54,095,468
19,782,630
131.2(12.271
Dollars
60,000,000
36,000,000
50,000,000
18,000,000
127,000,000
Total
321.490.597 1 294,730,514 291,000,000
Surplus . . .1 49,453,150 j 10 ,101,108 1 102,000,000
Comparing the two fiscal years 1869 and 1870, it will be seen
that the revenue increased nearly 24 million dollars, owing mainly
to augmented taxation, while through the greater economy of the
Government, chiefly in the army, the expenditure decreased over
26 million dollars.
Expressed in pounds sterling, the national revenue for the financial
year ending June 30, 1871, was calculated at 78,600,000/., and the
expenditure at 58,200,000/., leaving a surplus of 20,400,000/. The
surplus of every year has to be devoted, in conformity with several
enactments of Congress, to the redemption of the national debt.
The following table shows the total amount of the national debt,
on the 1st of March of each of the years 1862, 1864, 1866, 1869,
and 1870 : —
-+
Years
Capital of Debt
Dollars
&
1862
514,211,372
107,127,369
1864
1,740,690,490
362,643,852
1866
2,783.425,879
579,880,391
1869
2,380,094,127
499,214,041
1870
2,438,328.471
487,665,694
According to the official statement of the Secretary of the Trea-
sury, the various liabilities incurred successively by the government
under the sanction of Congress, which form the national debt of the
United States, were as follows — dollars converted as before, at
the rate of 5 to 1, into pounds sterling— on the 1st of March
1869:—
566 UNITED STATES.
Debt bearing Coin Interest.
£
5 Per Cent. Bonds, 10-40's redeemable in
1874 44,317,680
6 Per Cent. Bonds, issued in 1861, redeem-
able in 1881 56,735,460
6 Per Cent. Bonds, 5-20's of different
issues 320,514,080
421,567,220
Debt bearing Paper Currency Interest.
Certificates at 3 per cent, (deposits by dif-
ferent banks as security for money issued
by them) 8,246,809
Navy Pension Fund, at 3 per cent. . . 1,985,815
J 10,232,624
Matured Debt not presented for Payment.
3-year 7-30 notes, due August 15, 1867,
and June and July, 1868 . . . 351,553
Compound-interest notes, matured June
10, July 15, August 15, October 15,
December 15, 1867, May 15, August 1,
September 1 and 15, October 1 and 15,
1868 599,279
Bonds: Texas indemnity, consequent on
war of 1848 36,312
Treasury Notes : Acts July 17, 1861, and
prior thereto . . • • • 21,186
Bonds : April 15, 1842 ; January 28, 1847 ;
and March 31, 1848 .... 61.773
Tn-asury notes, March 3, 1863 . . 63,190
Temporary loan ..... 34,491
Certificates of indebtedness . . . 1,844
1,169,628
Debt bearing no Interest.
£
United States notes (greenbacks) . . 50,499,443
Fractional currency 4,805,002
Gold certificates of deposit . . . 4,651,188
59,955,633
492,925,105
6 Per Cent, (lawful money) Bonds, issued
to Pacific Railroad Company .... 6,288,936
Total debt . . . 499,214,041
The official statement of the public debt of the United States,
in dollars, on the 1st October, 1870, was as follows : —
NATIONAL DEBT. 567
Dollars Cents
Debt bearing interest in gold .... 1,961,152,05000
Debt bearing interest in paper .... 59,135,000 00
Debt on which interest has ceased . . . 3,437,067 35
Debt without interest 409,216,455 48
Total debt 2,432,940,572 83
Interest accrued and unpaid . . . 42,123,240 4
Total debt, principal and interest . . . 2,475,063,812 87
Amount in Treasury : — Dollars
Coin 96,061,661 89
Currency .... 32,088.505 30
128,150,167 19
Total debt, less amount in Treasury, October 1,
1870 2,346,913,645 68
Similar total, September 1, 1871 . . . 2,355,921,150 41
The reduction in the public debt during the month of September,
1870, was 9,007,498 dollars, while from the 1st of March, 1870, to
the 1st of October, 1870, it amounted to 91,414,826 dollars.
A very considerable portion of the national debt of the United
States is in the hands of foreign holders in the various European
states, especially in Germany, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.
' It is impossible,' says the Secretary of the Treasury in his report
to Congress in 1809, 'to ascertain with precision the amount of our
securities held in Europe, nor is there any perfectly reliable data for
ascertaining, even, what amount has gone there annually since the
first bonds were issued for the prosecution of the late war. In his
report of 18G6, the Secretary estimated the amount of United
States securities of different kinds, including railroad and other
stock, held in Europe, at 600,000,000 dollars. He soon after be-
came satisfied that this estimate was too low, by from one hundred
to one hundred and fifty millions. It would be safe to put the
amount so held at the present time, exclusive of stocks, at eight
hundred and fifty millions of dollars, of which not less than six
hundred millions are United States bonds, nearly all of which have
left the United States within the last six years. The amount is
formidable ; and little satisfaction is derived from the consideration
that these securities have been transferred in payment of interest
and for foreign commodities ; and just as little from the considera-
tion that probably not over five hundred millions of dollai-s in gold
values have been received for these eight hundred and fifty millions
of debt.'
It is ordered, by Act of Congress, that a sinking fund shall be
provided for the payment of the debt. The Act requires that the
surplus gold remaining after the payment of the interest shall be
568 UNITED STATES.
devoted ' to the purchase or payment of 1 per cent, of the entire
debt of the United States, to be made within each fiscal year after
July 1, 1862, which is to be set apart as a sinking fund, and the in-
terest of which shall in like manner be applied to the purchase or
payment of the public debt, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall
from time to time direct.'
By the terms of a ' Funding Bill,' which passed Congress July 13,
1870, the payment of the debt of the United States is fixed within
certain terms. The Bill orders the issue of several new classes of
bonds, namely, 5 per cent, bonds to the amount of 200,000,000
dollars, payable at the pleasure of the United States after ten years ;
4^ per cent, bonds to the amount of 300,000,000 dollars, payable
alter 15 years; and 4 per cent, bonds to the amount of 1,000,000
dollars, payable after 30 years. These bonds are payable, principal
and interest, in gold, and are exempt from all taxation. The Bill does
not force any holders of the old issues to take the new ones in ex-
change ; but the Secretary of the Treasury is authorised to redeem
such of the old issues as he sees fit, after giving notice, at par in
coin, to be procured by the sale of the new bonds.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
By the eighth section of the first article of the constitution of the
United States, Congress is empowered in general ' to raise and sup-
port armies;' and by the second section of the second article, the
president is appointed commander-in-chief of the army and navy,
and of the militia when called into the service of the United States.
On August 7, 1789, Congress established a Department of War
as the instrument of the president in carrying out the provisions of
the constitution for military affairs. A number of ' Original Rules
and Articles of War' were enacted by the Congress of 1776, and
continued in force under the constitution, with several modifications.
These rules were the basis of the actual Articles of War which were
enacted in 1806, and have been but slightly altered since that time.
They form the military code which governs all troops when
mustered into the service.
In 1790, the rank and file of the army, as fixed by act of Congress,
amounted to 1,216 men; to which force, in the next year, one
regiment 900 strong was added. In 1792, an act of Congress pro-
vided for a uniform militia throughout the United States, and the
system then arranged has received but slight alterations until the
ARMY. 569
present time. The nominal strength of the militia thus organised was
8,245,000 at the last census. In 1796, the regular army consisted
of not more than one corps of artillerists and engineers, two companies
of light dragoons, and four regiments of infantry of eight companies
each. This force was little increased, except during occasional
periods, till the outbreak of the civil war.
At the commencement of the year 1861, the United States army
consisted of about 14,000 regular troops, garrisoned chiefly in the
Southern States. A large number of these joined the cause of the
so-called Confederate States, reducing the Federal army to less than
5,000 men. On April 15, 1861, the president called out 75,000
volunteers for three months, to defend the capital, which was
threatened ; and on May 3, he called out 42,000 volunteers to serve
for three years or the war. On July 22, 1861, Congress passed an
act authorising the president to accept the services of 500,000
volunteers for such terms as he might deem necessary, ranging from
six months to three years or during the war. On July 25, 1861,
the president was again authorised to call out 500,000, making in
all 1,000,000 men. The number proving insufficient for the active
prosecution of hostilities, and the repair of losses occasioned by the
war, a draft was ordered in the summer of 1863, by proclamation
of the President of the United States. By a new proclamation of
the president, dated October 17, 1863, a levy of 300,000 men was
ordered, and another call of 500,000 men was made February 1,
1864. The total number of men called under arms by the Govern-
ment of the United States, from 1861 till the end of the civil war,
in 1865, amounted to 2,653,062, or nearly one-fourth of the entire
male population of the Northern States. The State of New
York furnished over one-sixth of the whole number, Pennsyl-
vania one-eighth, Ohio one-ninth,and Massachusetts one-fifteenth :
these four States gave to the army one-fifth of their entire male
population. New Hampshire and Vermont sent one-fourth of
their male citizens, and Indiana and Illinois over one-fourth.
Kansas showed the highest proportion, having sent 36 per cent.
of her men, while Iowa sent 30 per cent. The Southern or
Confederate States had in the field, during the greater part of the
war, an army of 400,000 men, of which, it is estimated, they lost
300,000 from wounds and disease. The Southern army was entirely
disbanded in April 1865 ; but of the Federal army there remained
210,000 on the pay rolls on July 31, 1865, after which date there
commenced a slow process of disbandment.
The following table gives, after the official return of the Secretary
of the Treasury, the total military expenditure of the United States
in each of the ten fiscal years from 1860 to 1869: —
570 UNITED STATES.
Tears Dollars
1860 16,409.737
1861 22,981,150
1862 394,368,407
1863 599,298,600
1864 690,791.842
1865 1,031,323,360
1866 284,449,701
1867 95.224,415
1868 128,906,351
1869 80,474,545
Total, ten years . .3,344,228,113
By Acts of Congress, approved July 28, 1866, and March 3, 1869,
the maximum number of land forces constituting the standing army
uf the United States was limited to 54,641 men. The actual
strength of the regular army, of all grades, at the end of June, 1870,
was 37,383 men. The term of service is three years, but it is pro-
posed by the government to be extended to five. The army, as now
organised, is composed of 10 regiments of cavalry, consisting each
of 12 troops, or companies ; 25 regiments of infantry, of 10 com-
panies each; 5 regiments of artillery ; and 1 engineer battalion;
besides the cadets of the military academy. The 9th and 10th
regiments of cavalry, and the 39th, 40th, and 41st regiments of
infantry are composed of negro soldiers, but are commanded by
white officers. The 42nd, 43rd, 44th, and 45th regiments are com-
posed of veteran reserves. The pay of a private soldier averages
Is. Id. a day. That of a colonel is 550Z. a year, that of a captain
250/., and that of a lieutenant 200/. These sunis do not include
allowances made for lodging, fuel, and rations.
The army was commanded, in June, 1870, by 1 general, 1
lieutenant-general, 16 brigadier-generals, 60 colonels, 83 lieutenant-
colonels, 270 majors, 39 aides-de-camp, 538 captains, and 1,342
first and second lieutenants.
There are four great military divisions, namely, 1. Division of
the Missouri; 2. Division of the South; 3. Division of the Atlantic;
4. Division of the Pacific. The first, subdivided into 3 departments
and 1 military district, has its head-quarters at St. Louis ; the second,
subdivided also into 3 departments and 1 district, has its head-
quarters at Louisville, Kentucky ; the third, subdivided into 2
departments and 1 district, has its head-quarters at Philadelphia;
and the fourth, divided into 3 departments and 1 district, has its
head- quarters at San Francisco. — (Communication of the Secretary
of War to the Statesman 's Year-book.)
NAVY.
S71
2. Navy.
The naval forces of the United States consisted on March 4, 1870,
of 46 iron-clads, 97 steamers, and 32 sailing vessels, with a total of
1,366 guns. The whole force, 'effective for immediate service,' was
43 vessels, mounting 356 guns. (Communication of the national
government to the Statesman's Year-book.)
There are four 'rates' in the official classification of ships of war.
First-rates are all vessels of 2,400 tons and upwards ; Second-rates,
vessels of 1,200 to 2,400; Third-rates, vessels of 600 to 1,200; and
Fourth-rates, vessels under 600 tons. The following table gives
a list, in alphabetical order of name, of all the First, Second,
and Third-rate steamers of the fleet, and of such Fourth-rates
as are iron-clad. The list is drawn up from the ' Navy-register
of the United States,' issued by the Secretary of the Navy, corrected
to July 1, 1870.
Name
Rate
Class
Guns
S
Tonnage
Ajax ....
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Alaska
Third
Screw
12
1,222
Albany
Second
Screw
15
2,000
Algoma .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Amphitrite
Third
Iron-clad
4
874
Antietam .
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Benicia
Third
Screw
12
1,222
Brooklyn .
Second
Screw
20
2,000
California
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Camanelie
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Canandaigua
Third
Screw
10
955
Canonicus
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Catskill .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Chattanooga
Second
Screw
23
2,020
Chickasaw
Fourth
Iron-clad
4
540
Cohoes
Fourth -
Iron-clad
2
483
Colorado .
First
Screw
45
3,032
Colossus .
Second
Iron-clad
10
2,127
Congress .
Second
Screw
16
2,000
Connecticut
Second
Screw
17
2,869
Delaware .
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Dictator .
Third
Iron-clad
2
1,750
Etlah
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Florida .
Second
Screw
21
2,135
Franklin .
First
Screw
39
3,173
Guerriere.
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Hartford .
Second
Screw
18
2,000
Hero
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Illinois
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Iowa
Second
Screw
23
2,019
572
UNITED STATES.
Name
Bate
Class
Guns
Tonnage
Iris ....
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Iroquois .
Third
Screw
6
695
Jason
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Java
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Juniata .
Third
Screw
8
828
Kearsarge
Third
Screw
6
695
Kewaydin
Fourth
Iron-clad
4
540
Klamath .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Koka
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Lackawanna
Third
Screw
10
1,026
Lancaster.
Second
Screw
22
2,120
Lehigh
Fourth
L'on-clad
2
496
Mahopac .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Manhattan
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Marietta .
Fourth
Iron -clad
2
295
Massachusetts .
Second
Iron-clad
4
2,127
Miantonoruoh .
Third
Iron-clad
4
1,225
Minnesota
First
Screw
46
3,000
MiDnetonka
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Modoc
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Mohican .
Third
Screw
6
671
Monadnock
Third
Iron-clad
4
1,091
Monongahela .
Third
Screw
10
960
Montauk .
Fourth
Iron -clad
2
496
Nahant .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Nantucket
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Napa
Fourth
Iron -clad
1
483
Nausett .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Nebraska .
Second
Iron-clad
4
2,125
Nevada .
Second
Screw
23
2,019
New York
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Niagara .
Second
Screw
12
2,958
Niobe
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Omaha
Third
Screw
12
1,122
Oregon
Second
Iron-clad
4
2,127
Osceola .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
365
Ossipee .
Third
Screw
8
828
Otsego
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Passaic .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
496
Pawnee .
Third
Screw
13
872
Pennsylvania
Second
Screw
21
2,490
Pensacola
Second
Screw
20
2,000
Piscataqua
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Plymouth
Third
Screw
12
1,222
Powhatan
Second
Paddle
17
2,182
Puritan .
Third
Iron-clad
2
1,870
Richmond
Second
Screw
15
2,000
Roanoke .
Second
Iron-clad
G
2,660
Sandusky .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
295
Sarauac .
Second
Paddle
11
1,238
NAVY.
573
Name
Kate
Class
Guns
Tonnage
Saugus ....
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Severn
Second
Screw
15
2,000
Shawnee .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Shenandoah
Third
Screw
11
929
Suncook .
Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Susquehanna
.
Second
Paddle
23
2,213
Tennessee
Second
Screw
23
2,135
Terror
Third
Iron-clad
4
1,085
Ticonderoga
Third
Screw
10
1,019
Tuscarora
Third
Screw
10
726
Umpqua .
Fourth
Iron -clad
2
483
Vanderbilt
i Second
Paddle
14
3,187
Wabash .
First
Screw
46
3,000
Wachusett
Third
Screw
6
695
Wassuc .
Fourth
Iron-clad
1
483
Winnebago
Fourth
Iron-clad
4
540
Worcester
Second
Screw
16
2,000
Wyandotte
! Fourth
Iron-clad
2
550
Wyoming .
1 Third
Screw
6
726
Yazoo
i Fourth
Iron-clad
2
483
Yuma
| Fourth
Iron -clad
2
483
Nine of the ships entered in the above list, namely, the Colossus,
Connecticut, Illinois, Java, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New York,
Oregon, and Pennsylvania, were on the stocks at the date of the
issue of the return, July 1, 1870.
The United States Navy was commanded on the 1st June,
1870, by one admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-admirals, 25 com-
modores, 50 captains, 90 commanders, 180 lieutenant-commanders,
64 lieutenants, 99 masters, and 160 ensigns.
The following table gives, after the official returns of the Secretary
of the Treasury, the total naval expenditure of the United States in
each of the ten fiscal years from 1860 to 1869 : —
Tears ending June
1860
Dollars
. 11,514,964
1861
1862
1863
1864
. 12.420,887
. 42,668,277
. 63,221,963
. 85,725.094
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
. 122,612.945
. 43,324,118
. 31,034.011
. 30,230,262
. 23,561,082
Total
, ten
years
. 466,314,508
It will be seen, on comparing the preceding table with that on
p. 570, that the total expenditure for the navy in the ten years 1860-69
was not quite one-seventh the cost of the army of the United States.
574
UNITED STATES.
The navy estimates for the financial year ending June 30, 1871,
provided for an expenditure of 28,205,671 dollars, or 5,641,034/.,
against 20,993,414 dollars, or 4,198,683/. for the year ending
June 30, 1870. The expenditure for the year 1870-71 was
distributed as follows : —
Pay of officers and seamen of the navy .
Repairs of buildings and docks
Pay of civil establishments .
Ordnance and repair of magazines .
Coal, hemp, and equipments .
Navigation supplies ....
Naval academy .....
Naval observatory and nautical almanack
Repair and preservation of vessels
Steam machinery and tools .
Provisions ......
Repairs of naval hospitals
Support of marine corps
Contingent expenses ....
Total
Dollars
7,600,000
3,722,494
434,647
1,119,062
2,000,000
202,203
234,540
39,800
6,975,000
1,750,000
1,405.200
57,800
1,060,627
1,604,000
28,205,671
£5,641,034
The United States possess eight dockyards, namely, Portsmouth,
Charlestown, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, Pensa-
cola, and Mare Island. Portsmouth, New Hampshire, has an area of
63 acres, and a water front of about 1,000 feet ; Charlestown, near
Boston, covers 80 acres of ground, and the water frontage is about
600 feet ; Brooklyn covers a surface of 80 acres of ground, and has
an available water frontage of 1,200 feet; Philadelphia yard has 15
acres surface, and a water front of about 600 feet ; and Washington
yard has an area of 42 acres, two acres of which are marsh, and
there is a water frontage of 900 feet with two building slips.
Norfolk and Pensacola yards were destroyed in the civil war, and at
present no work of any importance is done at either of them ; and
Mare Island, on the Pacific, is as yet unfinished, and is used only as
a place of temporary repair for ships of the navy.
Area and Population.
The area of the United States, according to Land-office measure-
ments, is 2,819,Kll square miles, exclusive of the immense district
lono- known as ' Russian America,' purchased from the Russian Go-
vernment by treaty of June 20, 1867, and annexed to the Re-
] ii!> lie Oct. 18, 1867, under the name of 'Alaska.' Excepting this
territory, of an estimated extent of 385,000 square miles, the area
of the United States is equal to 1,921 ,28*, 233 acres, of which
1,400,549,033 are public lands for sale by the Government Land-
office. Onlv one-fourth of the country is inhabited to any great
extent by civilised people.
AEEA AND POPULATION.
575
The population of the United States has been ascertained at all
times with great accuracy. The census is taken in the States in
obedience to Article 1, section 2, of the Constitution, which pro-
vides that ' Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included in this Union ac-
cording to their respective numbers ; ' and the same section directs
that ' the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years.' Under these provisions, and
the laws passed in pursuance of them, the census of the United
States has been taken nine times, viz., in 1790, in 1800, in 1810,
in 1820, in 1830, in 1840, in 1850, in 1860, and in 1870.
The following table gives the total population of the United
States, at each of the nine enumerations from 1790 to 1870, the
number of the ninth and last census being partly based on returns
not actually verified : —
Years
White
Free coloured
Slave
Total
1790
3,231,631
—
697,697
3,929,328
1800
4,304,489
108,395
893,041
5,30.3.: 2 i
1810
5,862,004
186,446
1,191.364
7,239,814
1820
7,861,937
233,524
1,538,038
9,638,131
1830
10,537,378
319,599
2,009,043
12,866,020
1840
14,195,695
386,303
2,487,455
17,069,453
1850
19,553,114
434,449
3,204,313
23,191,876
1860
26,975,575
488,005
3,953,760
31,445,089
1870
—
—
38,272.112
The subjoined table, drawn up for the Statesman's Year-book
by the Superintendent of the Ninth Census of the United States,
gives the population of the various States and Territories of the
Union according to the enumeration of June, 1870. In transmit-
ting the table, the Superintendent added the following explanatory
remarks, dated Department of the Interior, Washington, December
2nd, 1870 : — ' Unavoidable delays in some of the Southern States,
consequent upon the unsettled condition of society, the infrequency
and irregularity of the mails, and the occurrence of floods to an
unusual extent, will postpone the actual completion of the census
work. The table accompanying presents the population of the
several States and Territories under three classes : —
' " Exact " where full returns have been received and counted at
the Census office, after rejecting all improper entries ;
' "Approximate " where the enumeration has been completed, and
the marshals of the several districts have certified to the number of
names upon the returns ;
' ;' Estimated " where sub-divisions are still remaining incomplete.
576
UNITED STATES.
' In the majority of cases, the population not ascertained is insig-
nificant. With the exception of the States of Texas and Mississippi,
and the Treritorj of Utah, I feel confidence that the final report will
not vary greatly from the figures given in the accompanying table.'
Population
Ninth Census of the "United States,
June, 1870
Exact
Approximate
Estimated
States : —
Alabama ....
—
—
997,500
Arkansas .
■ —
—
486,103
California .
—
—
549,810
Connecticut
537,417
—
—
Delaware .
123,252
—
—
Florida
—
—
183,000 :
Georgia
—
—
1,179,886 ,
Illinois
—
2,540,216
—
Indiana
—
—
1,668,169
Iowa .
—
1,177,515
—
Kansas
361,089
—
—
Kentucky .
—
—
1,323,264 !
Louisiana .
—
—
716,394
Maine
—
630,423
—
Maryland .
—
—
775,000
Massachusetts
1,457,353
—
—
Michigan .
1,184,310
—
—
Minnesota .
—
460,037 1
Mississippi
—
—
843,190 j
Missouri
—
—
1,698,000
Nebraska .
—
—
125,000
Nevada
—
44,686
—
New Hampshire
318,300
—
—
New Jersey
—
—
903,046
New York .
—
—
4,373,068
North Carolina
—
—
1,032,500
Ohio .
—
2,675,468
—
Oregon
—
90,776
—
Pennsylvania
—
—
3,485,000
Khode Island
217,356
— ■
—
South Carolina
.,_
—
720,000
Tennessee .
_.
—
1,253,326
Texas
—
—
850,000
Vermont
330.585
—
—
Virginia
—
—
1,201,524
West Virginia
—
—
447,943
Wisconsin .
—
1,052,266
—
Total, St
ates
4,529,662
8,121,350
25,171,760
AREA AND POPULATION.
577
Ninth Census of the United States,
Population
June, 1870
Exact
Approximate
Estimated
Territories : —
Arizona ....
9,658
—
.
Colorado
39,681
— .
—
Dakota
14.181
—
Idaho
14,886
—
—
Montana
20,594
— .
—
New Mexico
—
86,245
—
Utah .
—
—
100,000
Washington
23,271
—
—
Wyoming .
9,118
_
—
District of Columbia
131,706
—
—
Total, States and Territories
4,792,757
8,207,595
25,271,760
Grand total
38,272,112
The ninth census of the United States did not embrace the
Territory of Alaska, purchased from the Russian government by
treaty of June 20, 1867.
The area, population, and number of inhabitants to the square
mile in various groups of states, in the year 1860, and the increase,
in percentage, over the preceding decennial period, is given in the
following table, in which the States are arranged in groups : —
States
Area in
sq. miles
1860
1850
Number of
Number of
Population
inhabitants
inhabitants
to sq. mile
to sq. mile
Six New England States
63,272
3,135,283
4955
4311
Six Middle States, including
Maryland, Delaware, and
Ohio
151,760
10,597,661
69-83
56-36
Six Coast Planting States, in-
cluding South Carolina.
Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisiana .
286,077
4,364,927
15-25
12-43
Six Central States, namely,
Virginia, North Carolina.
Tennessee, Kentucky, Mis-
souri, and Arkansas
309,210
6,471,887
2093
1671
Seven North-western States,
namely, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa,
Minnesota, and Kansas
250,295
5,543,382
22-14
1092
Texas .....
237,321
604,215
2-55
0-89
California ....
188,982
379,994
2-01
0-87
p p
578 UNITED STATES.
It will he seen, from the above tahle, that the population, during
the decennial period 1850-GO, increased most rapidly in the seven
North-Western States, and least in the six New England States.
The six middle States have the densest population, which, however,
is considerably less so than that of Turkey in Europe. The kingdom
of Sweden and Norway itself, which has the thinnest population of
any State in Europe, has seven times as many inhabitants to the
square mile as Texas and California. The population of Prussia
and Austria is three times, and that of Great Britain five times as
dense as that of the six New England States. As for the Southern
States, comprising the six Coast Planting, and the six Central States,
above enumerated, covering an area of 595,287 square miles, or
more than ten times the extent of England and Wales, their popu-
lation, at the census of 1860, was only half as dense as that of
Russia in Europe.
The immense extent of land forming part of the United States, as
yet uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be national property, at
the disposal of Congress, and the executive of the Republic. The
whole public domain is surveyed and divided by parallel lines into
' townships' of six miles square or thirty-six square miles, and these
are again divided by parallel lines exactly one mile apart. The
smaller squares are called ' sections,' and contain 640 acres, which
are again divided into half and quarter sections, and also eighths.
These lands are offered for sale at the several land offices in the
districts to be sold, the price being fixed at one dollar and a quarter
per acre. The purchaser comes in as the assignee of the United
States, and receives a patent from the President. There are some
fiftv different land offices, and from two to three million acres are
sold annually. It is provided by law that two sections, of 640 acres
of land in each ' township,' are reserved for common schools, so that
the spread of education may go together with colonisation.
The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive and
universal, except so far as restrained by stipulations in the original
cessions. This is not the case, however, with what is called
1 national property,' such as forts and arsenals, where the states have
not ceded the jurisdiction. In such cases, the administration of the
state continues, subject, however, to the exercise of the legal powers
of the national government.
The subjoined table gives the total population of each State and
territory of the Union, distinguishing white, free coloured persons,
Indians, and those which were slaves at the time the census was
taken, June 1, 1860, according to the returns of the government of
the United States : — .
AREA AND POPULATION.
579
States
White
Free
coloured
Indians
Slaves
Total
Alabama .
526,271
2,690
160
435,080
964,201
Arkansas . .
324,143
144
48
111,115
435,450
California .
338.005
4,086
14,555
—
379,994
Connecticut
451,504
8,627
16
—
460,147
Delaware .
90,589
19,829
—
1,798
112,216
Florida
77,747
932
1
61,745
140,425
Georgia
591,550
3.500
38
462,198
1,057,286
Illinois
1,704,291
7,628
32
—
1,711,951
Indiana
1,338,710
11,428
290
—
1,350,428
Iowa .
673,779
1,104
65
—
674,948
Kansas
106,390
625
189
2
107,206
Kentucky .
919,484
10,684
33
225,483
1,155,684
Louisiana .
357,456
18,647
173
331,726
708,002
Maine
626,947
1,327
5
—
628,279
Maryland .
515,918
83.942
—
87,189
687,049
Massachusetts .
1,221.432
9.602
32
—
1,231,066
Michigan .
739,799
6,799
2,155
—
749,113
Minnesota .
171.227
259
2,369
—
173,855
Mississippi
353,899
773
2
436,631
791,305
Missouri
1,063,489
3,572
20
114,931
1,182,012
New Hampshire.
325,579
494
—
326,073
New Jersey
646,699
25,318
—
18
672,035
New York .
3,831,590
49,005
140
—
3,880,735
North Carolina .
629,942
30,463
1,158
331,059
992,622
Ohio .
2,302,808
36.664
30
— .
2,339,502
Oregon
52,160
128
177
—
52,465
Pennsylvania
2,849,259
56,849
7
2,906,115
Rhode Island
170,649
3,952
19
174,620
South Carolina .
291.300
9,914
88
402,406
703,708
Tennessee .
826,722
7,300
60
275,719
1,109,801
Texas
420.891
355
403
182,566
604,215
Vermont .
314,369
709
20
—
315,098
Virginia
1,047,299
58,042
112
490,865
1,596,318
Wisconsin .
Total .
Territories :
773,693
1,171
613
—
775,881
26,699,342
476,562
23,370
3,950,531
31,149,805
Colorado
34,231
46
— .
—
34,277
Dakota
2,576
—
2,261
—
4,837
District of
Columbia .
60,763
11,131
1
3y185
75,080
Nebraska
28,696
67
63
15
28,841
Nevada
6,812
45
— .
__
6,857
New Mexico .
82,921
85
10,452
—
93,516
Utah .
40,125
30
89
29
40,273
Washington
Total
Total in states
11,138
30
426
—
11,594
267.320
11,434
13,292
3,229
295,275
and territories
26,966,662
487,996
36,662
3,953,760 !
31,445,080
pp 2
58o
UNITED STATES.
The territories of Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado were admitted
as States into the Union, the first in 186-4, the second in 1866, and
the third in 1869 ; while there were added, subsequently, four new
territories, namely Arizona, organised 1861, Idaho, 1863, Montana,
1864, and Wyoming, 1868. The Union thus consisted, in 1870, of
37 States and 9 Territories, besides the district of Columbia.
The total population of the principal towns of the United States,
in each of the years 1860 and 1870, is shown in the following list : —
In the States of
Population
Cities and Towns
1860
1870
New York
New York
805,651
926,341
Philadelphia .
Pennsylvania
562,529
0.17,159
Brooklyn
New York
266,661
396,661
Baltimore
Maryland
212,418
276,599
Boston .
Massachusetts
177,812
250,701
New Orleans
Louisiana
168,675
219,125
Cincinnati
Ohio .
161,044
218,900
St. Louis
Missouri
160,773
313,013
Chicago
Illinois .
109,260
348,709
Washington .
Districtof Columbia
61,122
109,338
San Francisco
California
56,802
150,361
Pittsburg
Pennsylvania
49,217
87,215
The United States acquired their actual power and greatness
mainly through immigration. From 1775 to 1815 immigration into
the country was very small, on account of the American Revolution
and the European wars, not over 3,000 or 4,000 a year arriving
durin"- this period. When peace between England and America
was re-established, in 1815, immigration took a fresh start, The
famine of 1816 and 1817 gave the first powerful impulse to a larger
immigration lrom Germany. In 1827, there were 11,952 immigrants
from the United Kingdom against 7,709 the previous year, and in
1828 the number rose to 17.840, sinking again in 1829 to 10,594,
and in 1830 to 3,874. The increase continued every year of
European disorder, or revolution, or national distress. In the decade
from 1845 to 1854, there came 1,512,100 Irish immigrants to the
United States, but since the latter year the numbers fell off to less
than one half the yearly average of that period. The failure of their
political reform attempts brought many Germans into the United
States, the greatest number coining in 1854. From L845 to 1854
inclusive the number of German immigrants was 1,226,392. In
lb56 every immigrant arriving in New York was questioned as to
AREA AND POPULATION. 58 I
the amount of money he had with him, and the average of 142,342
comers that year was found to be 68 dollars 8 cents. This course
was abandoned, however, as it was found that the full amounts
were not truly stated ; but it was shown that the immigrants pos-
sessed a larger sum than is actually held by the residents of a com-
munity. It is estimated that the German immigrants alone brought
into the United States annually an average of about 11,000,000
dollars. Each man has clothing, tools, and valuables also, the
amount of which with his cash capital is estimated at 150 dollars.
In 1859, there arrived 250,000 immigrants at New York, augment-
ing the national wealth that year by 37,500,000 dollars. From
May 5, 1847, to January 1, 1859, 4,1)38,991 immigrants arrived at
New York, which number represented a total increase to the national
wealth of 5,149,713,525 dollars. Assuming the immigration into
the whole country to amount to 300,000 souls a year, the Union
gains 382,000,000 dollars a year, or more than one million dollars
a day. Without immigration the yearly increase of population by
excess of births over deaths is about one in 38, while the actual
increase from 1840 to 1850 was 35-87 per cent., and from 1850 to
1860 amounted to 35-59 per cent.
The following statement shows the numbers of immigrants in the
forty years 1820 to 1860, spread over equal decennial periods : —
Four census periods
In the 10 years previous to June 1, 1830
,, 10 years previous to June 1, 1840
,, 10 years previous to June 1, 1850
,, 10 years previous to June 1, 1860
Passengers of
foreign birth
244,490
5.">2,000
1,558,300
2,707,624
According to an official report issued from the Bureau of Sta-
tistics, Washington, there arrived in the 13 years 1856-1868,
2,565,644 aliens in the United States, or an average of 1 97,357 a year.
The number was much larger in 1«66 than in the accompanying
years— 248,120 in 1865,318,554 in 1866,298,358 in 1 867, and
297,215 in 1868. The nationalities of the 2,565,644 aliens arriving
in the States, in the period from 1856 to 1868, were stated as
follows: — 1,215,600 from the United Kingdom; 108,531 from
British America ; 8,673 from the British West Indies; 193 from
Australasia; 845,479 from Germany, exclusive of Prussia; 64,355
from Prussia; 1,592 from Austria; 487 from Hungary; 58,289
from Sweden and Norway; 13,043 from Denmark; 11,205
from the Netherlands ; 8,245 from Belgium ; 49,383 from France ;
24,539 from Switzerland ; 10,340 from Spain ; 2,090 from Porta-
582
UNITED STATES.
gal; 11,G91 from central Italy; 1,397 from Sardinia; 337 from
Sicily ; 1,7 Gl from Russia, and 2,209 from Poland ; 65,943 from
China; 89 from Japan; 3,351 from Mexico, 391 from Central
America, 2,061 from various parts of South America, 1,956 from
Cuba ; and 4,588 from the Azores. The rest came from various
parts of the world, in small numbers from different countries.
In the year 1869 there arrived 352,569 emigrants, from the
following countries : —
From
Number
From
Number
From
Number
Germany
132,537
Denmark .
. 3,649
Poland .
. 184
Ireland .
64,938
West Indies
. 2,234
South Amer
ca . 90
Great Britain
60,?86
Belgium .
. 1,922
Portugal
. 87
Sweden .
24,224
Italy .
. 1,488
Africa .
. 72
Canada .
20,918
Netherlands
. 1,134
Japan .
. 63
Norway .
16,068
Spain.
. 1,123
Turkey .
. 18
China
12,874
Azores
. 420
Greece .
. 8
France .
3,879
Russia
. 343
Other countries . 25
Switzerland .
3,650
Mexico
. 320
Not stated .
. 15
Total
352,569
The immigration of 1869 was 55,354 above that of 1868, and
54,211 above that of 1867. — (Communication of the Secretary of
State and of Foreign Affairs to the Statesman 's Year-book).
The native countries of all the immigrants who arrived in the United
States from 1820 to 1860 are shown in the subjoined statement : —
Native countries
Number
England
Ireland .
Scotland
Wales .
Great Britain and Ireland
France ......
Spain
Portugal .....
Belgium . . . .
Prussia .....
Germany, ex Prussia
Netherlands .....
Denmark .....
Norway and Sweden
Poland
Russia ......
Turkey and Greece
Switzerland .....
Central Italy ....
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Malta
Iceland
302,665
967,366
47,890
7,935
1,326,856
208,063
16,248
2,614
9,862
60,432
1,486,044
21,579
5,540
36,129
1,659
1,374
286
37,733
11,202
2,718
10
AREA AND POPULATION.
583
Native countries
Egypt .
British America
South America, ......
Central America and Mexico ....
West Indies .......
China ........
East Indies .......
Persia ........
Other parts of Asia .....
Liberia, Morocco, Algiers, and Barbary States .
Cape of Good Hope .....
Africa ........
Azores, Canary, Madeira, and Cape Verd Islands
Sandwich and Society Islands
Australia .......
St. Helena
Isle of France ......
South Sea Islands and New Zealand
Not stated .......
Total aliens
Natives of the United States
Total .
Number
526
117,142
6,201
18,734
40,487
41,443
127
22
27
34
2
279
3,871
86
109
17
3
83
180,854
5,062,414
397,007
5,459,421
The following is an estimate of the number of naturalised citizens
residing in the United States, with the countries where they were
born: — Ireland, 1,611,000; Germany, 1,498,000; England,
430,000; British America, 250,000; France, 109,000; Scotland,
105,000; Switzerland, 54,000; Wales, 45,000; Norway, 43,000 ;
Netherlands, 28,000; Turkey, 28,000; Italy, 10,000; Denmark,
10,000; Belgium, 9,000; Poland, 7,000; Mexico, 7,000; the
Antilles, 7,000 ; China, 5,000 ; Portugal, 4,000 ; various countries,
204,000— total, 4,136,000.
A new feature in immigration, destined, in all probability, to be
of great importance for the future of the United States, has been the
arrival, within the last few years, of large numbers of people of
Asiatic race, especially Chinese, in the Western territories of the
Union. During the year 1866, the arrivals in California from China
were 2,300; in 1867 they were 3,300; in 1868 they were more than
10,000; and in 1869 they reached 12,874. An association of
merchants and land-owners was formed in the Southern States in
1869 to encourage the Chinese immigration.
The first negro slaves were imported into Virginia in 1619, and
in 1670 there were about 2,000 negro slaves in the colony. The
first slave ship fitted out in the English colonies sailed from Boston
in 1648. The importation of slaves into the United States was
584 UNITED STATES.
interdicted by laAV in 1808. In 1774 the Legislature of Rhode
Island interdicted the importation of slaves into that colony ; and
the next year, and while still a British colony, passed a law of
emancipation by declaring the children of all slave mothers to be
born free. Massachusetts abolished slavery by the Bill of Eights
in 1780. Connecticut, in 1784, put a stop to the introduction ot
negroes, and declared all born after March 1 of that year free at the
age of twenty-six. Pennsylvania prohibited the introduction oi
slaves in 1780, and declared free all children of slave mothers born
after the passing of the law. Virginia prohibited the importation ot
slaves in 1778, and Maryland in 1783. Slavery was abolished in
New Hampshire in 1792, in New York in 1799, and in New Jersey
in 1825. The constitutional amendment of Dec. 18, 1865 — see
p. 563 — abolished slavery throughout the United States.
The mortality of the entire population of the United States
amounted to 392,821 in 1860, as against 323,272 in 1850, the
average in each of those years being as 1*27 to 1*41. It varied,
in 1860, according to latitude, the nature of the population, the soil,
and other causes, from 0-44 per cent, in Washington territory, to
2-06 per cent, in Arkansas. The next highest mortality to that in
Arkansas was in the two States of Massachusetts and Louisiana, and
the same, 1-76 per cent,, in both. The next highest (L74 per
cent.) is set down to the district of Columbia, in which the capital
is situated. Taking the country by regions, the Pacific Coast and
the North- Western States show the lowest, and the Mississippi
Valley the highest, rate of mortality.
The ratio of increase of the population of the United States was
for the several decennial periods as follows : —
1790— 3,920,82?
1800 — 5,305,937 35-02 per cent, ratio of increase.
1810— 7,239,814 36-45 „
1820— 9.638,131 33-13
1830—12,866,020 33-40 „
1840—17,069.453 32'67
1850—23,191,876 33-87
1860—31,443,790 35-58
It will be seen from the above statement that there was an average
decennial increase of 34- 60 per cent, in population through the
seventy years from the first to the last census of the United States.
Trade and Industry.
The subjoined table gives the total value, in pounds sterling, of
the imports and exports of the United States, exclusive of bullion
and specie, in the ten fiscal years ending June, from 1860 to 1869 : —
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
5*5
Years
(ended June 30)
Imports
Exports
£
£
1860
73,670,024
69,495,011
1861
63,424.213
78,119,693
1862
39,459.327
40,219,209
1863
50.548.320
55,761,010
1864
65,699,761
49,070,797
1865
47,840,451
55,131.746
1866
91,174,784
73,282,098
1867
82,360,159
66,890,921
1868
69,509,842
53,808.408
1869
83,661,276
72,211,029
The declared value of the principal articles imported into the
United States in the two fiscal years ending June 18G8 and
1869 was as follows, in round numbers: —
1868
1869
£
£
Woollen goods
7.200,000
9,683,000
Silk .
3,730,000
4,467,000
Cotton
3,460,000
4,112,000
Flax .
2,800,000
3,445,000
Hemp .
800,000
647,500
Sugar .
12,400,000
12,305,000
Coffee .
5,000.000
4,906,000
Tea .
2,200,000
2,738,000
Tobacco
400,000
664,800
Wines
920,000
1,254,000
Iron and steel
4,700,000
5,739,000
Tin .
1,720,000
1,762,000
Lead .
600,000
706,400
Wood Manufactures
1,500,000
1,650,500
Glass .
600,000
779,100
Coal .
255,000
223,250
Bread stuffs
1,700,000
2,025,700
The importation of breadstuffs in 1868 and 1869, an entirely
novel feature in the commerce of the country, was from Canada
into the neighbouring State of New York.
The exports of the United States consist almost entirely of agri-
cultural produce. Foremost, as regards value, in the list of articles,
stands wheat and flour, and then follow cotton, tobacco, pickled pork
and hams, and butter and cheese. Considerably more than two-
hirds of the exports go to Great Britain and Ireland, the rest being
taken chiefly by Canada, the British West Indies, and Germany.
586
UNITED STATES.
The commercial intercourse of the United States with Great
Britain and Ireland is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of bullion and gold and silver specie — from the United States to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into the United States, in each of the ten
years 1860 to 1869 :—
Exports of Merchandise
Imports of British HomV
Years
from the United States
Produce into the United
to Great Britain
States
£
&
1860
44,727,202
21,667,065
1861
49,389,584
9,064,504
1862
27,715,157
14,327,870
1863
19,572,010
15,344,392
1864
17,923,577
16,708,505
1865
21,624,291
21,227,956
1866
46,854,518
28,499,514
1867
41,046,034
21,825,703
1868
43,062,383
21,431,632
1869
42,573,047
24,624,311
The immense fluctuations visible in the preceding table were
caused chiefly by the supply of the single article, cotton. In
1854, the United States sent 722,151,346 pounds of cotton to the
British market, and in 1860 the amount had risen to 1,115,890,608
pounds. The supply fell as low as 6,394,080 pounds in 1863,
but rose to 14,148,064 pounds in 1864, to 135,832,480 pounds
in 1865, to 720,057,440 pounds in 1866, to 528,162,096 pounds
in 1867, to 574,444,752 pounds in 1868 ; and finally, in 1869, to
644,327,921 pounds, of the computed real value of 23,706,662/.
Next to cotton, the most valuable export article of the United
States, for the above period, was wheat and wheaten flour, the sup-
ply of which, however, was subject to great fluctuations. In 1858,
the exports of wheat and wheaten flour from the United States to
Great Britain amounted to 4,782,785 cwt., in 1859 to only 430,504
cwt., and in 1860 again to 9,315,125 cwt. In 1861, the exports
rose to 15,610,472 cwt., and in 1862 to the unprecedented quantity
of 21,765,087 cwt. In 1863 the exports fell to 11,869,179 cwt.
in 1864 to 10,077,431 cwt., in 1865 to 1,498,579 cwt., and in
1866 to 986,229 cwt. In 1867, they rose again to 5,091,733 cwt.,
in 1868 to 6,753,389 cwt., and in 1869 to 15,320,257 cwt., of the
computed real value of 8,594,701/.
The values of exports from the United States to Great Britain
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
587
and Ireland showed great fluctuations in recent years, as will be
seen from the following tabular statement, exhibiting the distribution
of the exports over the four quarters of each of the three years
1867, 1868, and 1869 :—
Exports from the
United States to
Great Britain
1S67
1868
1869
1st Quarter
2nd „
3rd
4th
&
8,905,648
16,874,464
7,252,107
8,013,738
£
12,162,463
17,396,819
5,338,055
8,164,962
43,062,294
£
9,788,053
12,075,785
8,265,810
12,390,279
Total .
41,045,957
42,519,927
The division of exports from the Northern and Southern States,
and ports on the Pacific, to Great Britain and Ireland, in each of the
quarters of the year 1869 was as follows : —
Exports from the
United States to
Great Britain
Northern
States
Southern
States
Ports on the
Pacific
1st Quarter
2nd „
3rd
4th
Total
£
3,869,348
4,575,232
4,841,411
8,430,963
£
5,340,638
7,100,514
2,887,940
3,597,198
£
578,067
400,039
536,459
362,118
21,716,954
18,926,290
1,876,683
The following statement exhibits the gross amount of commercial
transactions between the United States and Great Britain and Ire-
land during the year 1869, namely, the exports of bullion and specie
as well as merchandise, and the imports of bullion, and foreign and
colonial goods, as well as British and Irish produce.
Exports to Great Britain and
Ireland.
£
General exports, inclusive
of corn and flour . . 42,573,047
Bullion, gold and silver . 2,938,433
Total Exports . . 45,511,480
Imports from Great Britain and
Ireland.
British and Irish produce
Foreign and Colonial ,,
Bullion, gold and silver
Total Imports .
&
24,624,311
2,163,420
1,051,717
27,839,448
The following table gives the value of the various articles of
British and Irish produce and manufactures imported into the United
States in each of the three years 1867 to 1869 : — •
588
UNITED STATES.
Imports of British Home Produce into the
18G7
1868
18G9
United States
Alkali, soda .....
£
801,746
£
716,473
£
655,588
Arms, ammunition, and military
stores : —
Fire-arms and parts of fire-arms .
37,329
18,920
34,491
Gunpowder .....
620
1,300
—
Of all other kinds
30,710
22,650
30,454
Beer and ale ....
93,516
94.878
103,158
Coals and culm ....
86,059
72.554
53,152
Cotton piece goods
2,238,664
1.883,376
2,453,621
,, thread for sewing .
359,434
435,122
445,567
Earthenware and porcelain .
711,349
640,558
741,452
Haberdashery and millinery
850,906
711,918
754,806
Hardware and cutlery
837,223
637,528
739,820
Linen, piece goods
2,748,329
2,588,253
3,000,868
,, thread
161,882
160,709
143,268
Metals :—
Copper, sheets, nails
15,339
9,944
7,364
Iron, pig
368,015
251,563
395,445
„ bar, bolt, and rod
374,269
347,159
434,023
„ railway, of all kinds
1,239,773
1,987,128
2,250,032
„ cast
12,223
10,667
16,715
„ hoops, sheets, and
boiler
plates
319,501
193.321
343,625
Iron, wrought, of all kiuds
134,095
86,963
140,445
,, steel, unwrought .
616,492
544,493
513,713
Lead, pig and lead shot
147,179
140,417
110,002
Tin plates
1,390,064
1,476,899
1,744,279
Oil seed ....
199.575
24,438
10,603
Salt
103,647
91,831
107,934
Silk manufactures : —
Stuffs, handkerchiefs, and ribbons .
94,973
91,476
107,529
Other articles of silk only
45,247
113,353
76,570
Mixed with other materials .
77,096
83,515
97,418
Spirits, British
11,932
16,970
15,495
Wool, sheep and lambs'
1,484
41,190
231,499
"Woollen manufactures : —
Cloths, coatings .
552,681
450,157
545,854
Worsted stuffs ....
2,234.016
2,677,205
2,623,309
Carpets and druggets
630,102
531,070
853,796
All other articles . . . .
4,300,233
21,825,703
4,277,604
4,812,416
Total
21,431,632
24,624,311
At the last agricultural census in the United States there were in
the country 4,049,142 horses, 280,847 mules, 7,965,148 cattle and
oxen, 6,066,748 cows, 2 1,346,391 sheep, and 16,148,712 hogs. The
States produced in the year of the census 397,839,212 bushels of
Indian corn, 173,677,928 bushels of wheat, 19,989,335 bushels ol
rye, 170,129,864 bushels of oats, 12,158,895 bushels of barley,
RAILWAYS.
589
15,786,122 bushels of buckwheat, 98,965,198 bushels of potatoes,
18,346,730 tons of hay, and 163,353,082 lbs. of tobacco. The
assessed value of real and personal property in the United States
•was 6,010,207,300 dollars in 1850, while at the census of 1860 it
had risen to 12,006,838,576 dollars.
The yield of the precious metals in the United States during 1868
was estimated at 66.50(1.001) dollars ; California produced the largest
amount, 20,000,000 dollars, and after it came Nevada. 18,000,000 ;
Montana, 12,000,000; Idaho, 6,000,000; Oregon, 5,000,000; and
Colorado, 4,000,000 dollars. Washington, New Mexico, and Ari-
zona territories produced smaller amounts.
It is calculated that 25,800,000 tons of coal were raised in the year
1867. The great coal region of the United States is Pennsylvania,
and in this district 13,405,016 tons of anthracite coal were raised
in 1868, as compared with 12,650,571 tons in 1867, showing an
increase of 754,445 tons. The extraction of bituminous and semi-
bituminous coal in 1868 amounted to 2,251,820 tons, as compared
with 2,255,738 tons, in 1866, showing an increase of 3,918 tons.
The coal region is divided into three sections, namely, the Schuyl-
kill, or southern district, the Lehigh, or middle district, and the
Wyoming, or northern district. In 1868, the raising of coal through-
out the region employed upwards of 35,000 men, mostly natives of
Wales, England, and Ireland.
The growth of the railway system of the United States dates from
1827, when the first line was opened for traffic at Quincey, Massa-
chusetts. The extent of railway in operation in 1830 was 41 miles-
in 1835, 918 miles; in 1840, 2,197 miles; in 1845, 4,522 miles;
and in 1850, 7,475 miles. At the end of 1851 there were 8,589
miles of railway ; from 1851 to 1857 inclusive, there were opened
2,400 miles, on an average, per annum, bringing the total up to
25,000 miles; from 1858tol866inclusive,the average of milesopened
was 1,300 per annum, bringing up the total to 36,900 miles. In
1867, 2,227 miles were opened ; in 1868, 3,000 miles ; and in 1869,
4,500 miles. The year of greatest railway enterprise was 1851, in
which 2,500 miles were constructed, and that of least, 1864 when
only 738 miles were built. On the 1st of January, 1870, there
were 48,860 miles of railway open for traffic, and" 27,507 miles
projected and in progress. The railway lines open for traffic were
spread over the country, according to a communication made by
the Secretary of the Interior to the Statesman's Year-book, as
follows : — ■
Miles
West and north-west States 20,828
Pacific and west „ 1,835
Total . . . 48,860
Miles
North-east States . . 4,274
Middle-east „ . . 10,792
South-east „ . . ft,837
Gulf and south-west States 5,294
590 UNITED STATES.
The State with the greatest mileage is Illinois, which figures for
7,186 miles, and is followed by Pennsylvania with 6,878, Indiana
with 5,331, New York with 4,735, and Ohio with 4, 613. Califor-
nia has already 2,307 miles, and is far above some of the older
States, such as Louisiana and Mississippi. The average cost of
construction of the railway system of the United States was 40,000
dollars per mile. The total amount of capital expended upon
United States railways to the close of 1869 was 2,212,412,719
dollars.
The annual railway commerce of the United States amounts to
six times the original cost of the railways. The gross tonnage
per head, according to population, in the year 1869, was 6,1701b.,
valued at 282 dollars, to each person in the United States. In 1851
the railway tonnage of the United States was only 5,000,000, the
earnings of which amounted to 20,192,104 dollars, the value of the
tonnage being 750,000,000 dollars. In 1869 the value of the tonnage
had increased to 10,800,000,000 dollars, or 14 times greater than
18 years before. The average annual increase of tonnage from 1851
to 1869 was 6,273,861 tons, while the average annual increase of
value was 556,666,666 dollars. It is calculated that the railroad
tonnage increases annually at the rate of about one-fourth of the
amount of the funded debt of the United States.
The strength of the commercial navy of the United States has
been decreasing since the year 1861, date of the outbreak of the civil
war. According to a statement of the Secretary of the Treasury,
annexed to his anmial report to Congress for 1869, the registered
shipping in the middle of 1868 was but little more than half of that
of 1855, and very little above what it was in 1847. On the 30th
of June, 1868, the total tonnage of the United States, including
steam and sailing vessels, barges, and canal boats was as follows : —
On the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 2,974,975 tons ; Pacific coasts,
166,512 tons; Northern Lakes, 695,604 tons; Western Rivers,
581,217 tons — makinga total of 4,318,309 tons. The shipping which
returned this tonnage consisted of 18,189 sailing vessels, 3,619
steamers, 1,631 barges, and 4,679 canal boats — making a total of
28,118. The tonnage in June, 1861, was 5,539,812 ; and in June
1868, only 4,318,309, or a decrease of 1,221,503 tons. In the fiscal
year 1^54-55, a more prosperous year in the trade than any previous
one, 373 ships and barques were built, and in 1867-68 only 69
vessels were launched. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1869,
there was renewed activity in ship- building, the number of
vessels built amounting to 1,153, of a total tonnage of 214,095.
The number included 2C0 river steamers, of an aggregate of 37,626
tons; 50 lake steamers, of 21,834 tons; and 29 ocean setamers, of
an aggregate of 5,605 tons. The total tonnage of the mercantile
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
591
navy sailing under the flag of the United States was 3,744,319
on the 30th June 1869. — (Communication of the Secretary of the
Interior to the Statesman's Year-book. )
The following shows the amount of United States, or, as commonly
called, ' American ' and of foreign tonnage that entered at ports of
the Union from foreign countries during the years named : —
Piscalyears
ending
June 30
American
Tonnage
Foreign
Tonnage
Excess of
American over
Foreign
Excess of
Foreign over
American
1830
1840
1850
1860
1861
1864
1866
1868
1869
967,227
1,576,946
2,573,016
5,921,285
5,023,917
3,066,434
3,372,060
3,550,550
3,402,668
131,900
712,363
1,775,623
2,353,911
2,217.554
3,471,219
4,410,424
4,495.465
5,347,694
835,327
864,583
797,393
3,567,374
2,806,363
404,785
1,038,364
944,915
1,945,026
It will be seen that in 1830 the American tonnage was seven-
fold that of foreign, and that from 1840 till 1861 the aggregate
tonnage of American vessels entered at seaports of the United
States was more than double that of foreign vessels ; but from 1863
to 1868 it went on a decline till it came to be only 26 per cent. The
steam marine during the same period showed a greater decline than
that of sailing vessels, being supplanted almost entirely bv foreio-n
shipping. The transfer was mainly in favour of the United
Kingdom.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the United States are :
Mo>TEY.
The Dollar, of 100 cents . . Approximate value, 4s.
There are practically two denominations of value employed in the
United States, the first the gold dollar, worth about 4s. British money,
and the second the paper dollar, principal currency since the civil war^
worth from 3.?. lOd. to 3s. 6d., according to the rates of exchange.
The average rate or ' premium on gold ' in the years 1868-69 was
141, so that, 100 gold dollars purchasing 141 dollars paper currency,
the latter was worth about 3s. Legal enactments have settled that
customs duties must be paid in coin, as well as the interest on the
national debt of the United States, and any disbursements which the
Government may have to make in the intercourse with foreign coun-
592
UNITED STATES.
tries. All other money transactions may be, and mostly are, in
paper currency.
Weights and Measvees.
British -weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Winch
gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards. They
are: —
Wine gallon = 0-83333 gallon.
Ale gallon . = 1-01695 „
Bushel . = 0-9692 imperial bushel.
Instead of the British cwt. a quintal, or Centner, of 100 pounds is used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- the United
States.
1. Official Publications.
Acts of Congress relating to Loans and the Currency from 1842 to 1870 in-
clusive. 8. New York, 1870.
Agriculture of the United States in I860, compiled from the original returns
of the Eighth Census, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, C. G.
Kennedy, Superintendent of the Census, 4. Washington, 1865.
Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, made to the President of the
United States. 8. pp. 40. Wa-hington, 1869.
Circular from the General Land Offices issued March 10, 1869. 8. pp. 25.
Washington, 1869.
Commercial Relations. Report of the 3 f S :te on the Commercial
Relations of the Unite 3 sign Countries for the year ended Sep-
tember 30, 1869. 8. Washington, 1869.
Commerce of the United States. Statistics of the Foreign and Do:.
Commerce of the United States. 8. Washington. 1869.
Manufactures of the United State- in I860. Compiled from the original
returns of the eighth census, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Interior, 4. Washington, 1866.
Message of the President of the United States to the two Houses of Congress
at the commencement of the second session of the forty-first Congress. 8. pp.
54. Washington, 1869.
Navy Register of the United States to July 1, 1870. Printed by order of
the Secretary of the Navy. 8. pp. 80. Washington. 1870.
Report of the Special Commissioner of the Revenue upon the industry, trade,
commerce, &c. of the United States, for the year 1S69. 8. pp. 131.
Washington, 1869.
Report of the Commis a dture for 1868. 8. Washington. 1869.
Report of the Secretary of the Navy, with an Appendix containing Reports
from ^69.
:rv of the Treasury on the state of the Finances for the
gton, 1869.
Report of the Secretary of War upon the operation of the War department
for the 8. pp. 33. Washington, 1869.
TL ! Statutes at larg es of the United States of America. Collated
with the originals at Washington. By authority. Published annually. 8.
1
nrt by Mx. Burnley, British Secretary of Legation, on the Iron and Steel
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. eg-.
Trade of the United States, dated Washington, March 5, 1866 ; in ' Reports of
H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. 13. 8. London, 1866.
Eeport by Mr. Stuart, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Revenue Ex-
penditure, and Public Debt of the United States, dated February 22, 1864 ■
in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation ' No VIl'
London, 1864.
Report by Mr. F. C. Ford, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Condition of the United States, dated Washington, December 31, 1868; in
'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No' I 1869
London, 1869.
Report by Mr. C. F. Ford, British Secretary of Legation, on the Revenue,
Expenditure, and Public Debt of the United States in 1869, dated Dec. 28,'
1869 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation ' No' II'
1870. 8. London, 1870.
Reports by Messrs. Ford, Le Strange, Jackson, Lousada, Walker, Lynn,
Cridland, Briggs, Archibald, Kortwright, Murray Booker, and Smith, British
Consuls, on the Trade, Agriculture, and Tenure of Land in the United States,
dated October— December, 1869; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Representatives
respecting the tenure of land in the several countries of Europe.' Part I. FoL
London, 1870.
Report by Mr. Archibald, British Consul, on the Trade, Navigation, and
Commerce of New York, dated January 18, 1868; in ' Commercial Reports
received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1869.
2. Non-Official Puisi.ications.
Abbott (John S. C), History of the Civil War in America. 2 vols 8 New
York, 1867.
Barbee (Dr. W. J.), The Cotton Question. The Production, Export, Manu-
facture, and Consumption of Cotton. 12. New York, 1867.
Bell (A.), New Tracks in North America. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
Benton (T. H.), History of the Working of the American Government for
Thirty Years. 2 vols. 8. New York, 1861.
BUihop (J. Leander), History of American Manufactures from 1608 to 1860,
exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Principal Mechanic Arts and Manu-
factures from the earliest Colonial period to the adoption of the Constitution
and comprising Annals of the Industry of the United States in Machinery'
Manufactures, and useful Arts. 2 vols. 8. Philadelphia, 1864.
Disturnell (J.), United States Register. 12. New York, 1870.
Draper (Dr. J.), The Future Civil Policy of America. 8. New York, 1865.
Goss (Rev. C. C), Statistical History of the First Century of American
Methodism, with a summary of the origin and present operations of other
denominations. 16. New York. 1866.
Rock (Carl Freiherr v.), Die Finanzen und die Finanzgeschichte der Ver-
einierten Staaten von Amerika. 8. Stuttgart, 1867.
Ho/nans (J. Smith), Banker's Magazine and Statist. Register. New York, 1870.
Lanman (Charles), Dictionary of the United States Congress, compiled as a
Manual of I' r the Legislator and Statesman. 8. Washington, 1870
M'icpherson (E.), The Political History of the. United States of America
during the Great Rebellion from 1860 to 1804. 8. Washington, 1864.
Nast (Dr. Wilhelm), Der hundertjahrige Bestand des Amerikanischen
Methodismus. Cincinnati, 1866.
0 Q
594-
JTJRUGUAY.
(Republica Oriental del Uruguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Uruguay, formerly a Brazilian province, declared
its independence, August 25, 1825, and was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The constitution of the
republic was proclaimed July 18, 1831. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament composed of two Houses, the
Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in annual
session, extending from February 15 to the end of June. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators and
five members of the LoAver House assume the legislative power, as
well as the general control of the administration.
The executive is given by the constitution to the President of the
Republic, who is elected for the term of four years, and cannot be
re-elected till after the lapse of four years. A vice-president, also
elected for four years, is at the head of the senate, but has no other
political power.
President of the Republic. — General Lorenzo Battle, born 1812;
Minister of War under the government of General Flores, pro-
visional President of Uruguay, 18G6-G8 ; elected President of the
Republic after the assassination of General Flores, February 28,
1868.
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a council ot
ministers divided into four departments, namely, the ' ministerio de
gobierno,' or ministry of the interior; the ' ministerio de relaciones
exteriores,' or department of foreign affairs ; the ' ministerio de haci-
enda,' or department of finance ; and the ' ministerio de la guerra,'
or department of army and navy.
Revenue, Army, and Population.
There have been no recent official returns of public revenue and
expenditure, owing .to almost uninterrupted civil war. Unofficial
statements give the total revenue for the year 1869 at 5,261,776
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
595
dollars, or 1,056,355/., and the expenditure at 6,521,000 dollars, or
1,304,200/. The greater part of the revenue is derived from cus-
toms, which produced, according to semi-official reports, 1,488,712
dollars, or 297,742/. in 1862, and rose to 1,895,013 dollars, or
379,003/. in 1864, and the duties having been greatly raised, to
4,268,807 dollars, or 853,761/. in 1869. About one-half of the
expenditure of 1869 was stated to be for payment of interest on the
public debt.
The republic owed in September 1870, a of reign debt of
7,000,000/., including a six per cent, loan of 3,000,000/., authorised by
Act of Legislature of 16th July 1868, 7th July 1869, and 4th May
1870, and negotiated at the London exchange in August 1870, at
the price of 77 per 100. There are unsettled foreign claims against
Uruguay to the amount of 6,000,000 dollars, or 1,200,000/. The
amount of the internal debt is unknown. It was decreed by the
government in June 1869, in consequence of suspension of payments
by the chief banks, that the notes of all of them, to the amount of
8,000,000 dollars should be under state guarantee, with forced
currency, redeemable within eight years out of the customs receipts.
The army of Uruguay was reported of the following strength in
September 1870 : —
Number of Men.
Garrison of the capital . ...... 1,700
Garrisons in the provinces ...... 1,900
National guard 25,000
The army of the republic was considerably increased in the
spring of 1865, when Uruguay entered into an alliance with Brazil
and the Argentine Republic, and declared war against Paraguay.
The troops which actually took the field were stated to number
3,500 men, but a portion of this force was disbanded before the end
of the war in 1870.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 73,538 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of I860, of 240,965, or little more
than three inhabitants per square mile. Other statements, of more
recent date, report the numbers of the population to be 470,000.
The country is divided into 13 provinces. The capital, Montevideo,
had, according to an enumeration of the year 1862, a population of
45,765, of whom about one-half were foreigners. There is a
steadily increasing flow of immigration, numbering 9,327 individuals
in 1866; 17,381 in 1867 ; 21,892 in 1868; and 27,362 in 1869.
Fully one-half of the immigrants of 1866-G9 were Italians.
Trade and Industry.
Uruguay carries on a very active commerce with foreign countries,
greatly developed in recent years. In the year 1862 the total
qq 2
596
URUGUAY.
exports were of the value of 1,760,889/., in 1866 of 2,647,600/., and
in 1868 of 2,579,273/. The imports, "which were of the declared
value of 1,630,360/. in 1862, rose to 3,066,000/. in 1866, and to
3,421,775/. in 1868. Nearly the whole of the exports and imports
of the republic pass through Montevideo, the capital, at the mouth
of the Rio de la Plata. In 1868, there were 426 British ships, of
an aggregate tonnage of 228,986, entered and cleared at the port.
The total exports shipped at Montevideo during the year 1868
amounted in value to 12,139,720 dollars, or 2,579,273/. Nearly
one-half of these exports were shipped to Great- Britain, and the
rest to France, the United States, Brazil, Spain, and Italy. The
articles exported in 1868 consisted chiefly of salted hides, tallow,
cows' and mares' grease, bones and bone ash, wool, and sheep-skins.
There was a considerable export, amounting to about 50,0001b. a
month, of extract or essence of meat prepared on Liebig's system.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United King-
dom is exhibited in the following tabular statement which shows
the value of the exports from Uruguay to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Uruguay in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Tears
Exports from Uruguay
to
Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Uruguay
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
&
1,249,211
1,540,250
1,222,228
1,138,255
796,884
£
812,861
1,392,803
1,452,508
930,422
1,078,938
The chief articles of export from Uruguay to the United King-
dom are tallow and hides, the first of the value of 297,291/. and the
last of 349,839/., in 1869. The British imports into Uruguay consist
chiefly of manufactured cotton and woollen goods, the former of the
value of 302,596/. and the latter of 101,582/., in the year 1869.
The rearing of cattle and other agricultural pursuits form the sole
industry of the inhabitants. Commerce, foreign as well as internal,
is chiefly in the hands of foreigners.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Uruguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Dollar, of 100 cen terms . . Approximate value, 4s.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 597
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba = 2535 „
„ Fanega = 1-} imperial bushel.
The money, weights, and measures of the Brazilian empire are
also in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning TJrugnay.
1. Official Publications.
Report of Mr. J. D. Long, U.S. Consul at Montevideo, on the Trade and
Industry of Uruguay, dated Dec. 31, 1867; in ' Commercial Relations of the
United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XII. Fol. London,
1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries and British Possessions, imp. 4. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Maria (Isid. de) Compendio de la historia de la Republiea Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1864.
Republique Orientale de 1' Uruguay. Notice historique. 8. Paris, 1867-
Reyes (M.), Descripeion geografica del territorio de la Republica Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1859.
Sommer- Geiser (H. ), Lebensbilder sus dem Staat Uruguay. 8. Basel, 1861.
The Republic of Uruguay, or Montevideo: geographical, social, and political.
8. London, 1861.
Woyck (F.), Mittheilungen iiber das sociale und kirchliche Leben in
Uruguay. 8. Berlin^ 18i65.
598
VENEZUELA.
(Republica de Venezuela.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession
from the other members of the Free-state founded by Simon Bolivar
within the limits of the Spanish colony of New Granada. The
charter of fundamental laws actually in force, proclaimed in 1864,
was designed on the model of the constitution of the United States
of America, but with considerably more independence secured to
provincial and local government. The provinces, or states, of the
republic, thirteen in number, have each their own legislature and
executive, as well as their own budgets, and judiciary officers, and
the main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. At
the head of the central executive government stands a President,
elected for the term of four years, with a Vice-President at his side,
and exercising his functions through six ministers. The President
has no veto power. The legislation for the whole republic ia
vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives, both composed of members deputed
by the same bodies in the individual states. The President, Vice-
President, and Congresses of States are elected by universal suffrage,
and all citizens are eligible who can read and Avrite, without dis-
tinction of birth, colour, and race.
Since the year 1847, the republic has suffered greatly from
intestine dissensions, leading to an almost continuous civil war,
through the struggles of the rival parties of the Unionists and
Federalists, the former desiring a strong central government, and the
latter the greatest possible state of independence. The struggle was
for a time embittered by race hatred, which was subdued partly by
the equalising provisions of the charter of 1864.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The only source of public revenue at the disposal of the central
government is that of customs duties, which produced 4,390,054 Pesos,
or 878,011/., in the year ending June 30, 1868. The expenditure
during the same period was 4,560,750 Pesos, or 912,152/.. more
than one-half of the disbursements being for the maintenance of
the army.
REVENUE, POPULATION, AND TRADE.
599
The public debt of Venezuela, internal and foreign, amounted to
10,594,350/. at the end of 1869. The internal liabilities are returned
at 19,500,000 Pesos, or 3,900,000/., while the foreign debt amounts
to 6,694,350/. The foreign debt, contracted chiefly in England,
comprises : —
£
3 per cent, stock 2,812,000
1^- per cent, stock or ' deferred debt '
6 per cent, loan of 1862
6 per cent, stock, issued for arrears
6 per cent, loan of 1864
Total .
1,382,350
900,000
200,000
L/400,000
6,694,350
"With the exception of the dividends on the 6 per cent, loan of
1S64, no interest has been paid by the government on any of the
liabilities here enumerated since the year 1865.
The army of the republic numbered 5,000 men, nominally, in
1869. Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in
which every citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must
be enrolled. Eecent intestine wars were chiefly carried on by the
militia.
The area of Venezuela is estimated to embrace 368,235 English
square miles, and to contain a population of 2,200,000 souls, inclu-
sive of about 600,000 unsettled aborigines, or Indians. The
following table gives the numbers of the white, or European
descended, population of each of the thirteen states of the republic,
orhcial estimates : —
States
Population
Caracas .
363,858
Barquisimento .
313,881
Cnrabobo .
230,509
Barinas ....
126,925
Maracaibo
89,718
Merida ....
84,843
Barcelona ....
78,634
Cumana ....
75,828
Coro .....
72,321
Trujillo ....
60,937
Apure ....
32.485
Margarita.
20,906
Guayane ....
13,588
Total
1,564,433
The trade of Venezuela is not very considerable, although the
country possesses vast agricultural and mineral resources. During
the five years 1865-69, the total imports averaged 1,000,060/., and
the exports 1,200,000/. per annum, the commerce being carried on.
chiefly with the United States and Great Britain. The total value.
6oo
VENEZUELA.
of the exports of Venezuela to Great Britain, and of the imports of
British produce and manufactures in 1865-69, was as follows: —
Tears
Exports from Vene-
zuela to Great
Britain
Imports of British
Hoiue Produce into
Venezuela
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
221,331
202,036
85,943
30,803
71,325
389,434
410,423
260,136
265,098
434,306
The chief article of export from Venezuela to Great Britain in
1869 was Brazil wood, of the value of 17,700/. In the preceding
years raw cotton took the lead, but the exports of it sank from the
value of 186,828/., in 1865, to 144,407/. in 1866, to 75,135/. in
1867, to 10,212/. in 1868, and to 7,985/. in 1869. The imports
from Great Britain comprise mainly cotton and linen manufac-
tures, the former of the value of 304,119/., and the latter of
34,179/., in the year 1869.
Money, Weights, and Measures,
The currency is the same as that of Colombia (see page 529),
with equal adoption of the French metric system.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Venezuela.
I. Official Publications.
Eeports of Mr. Charles H. Loehr, United States Consul at La Guayra, dated
October 31, 1867, and of Mr. A. Lacombe, United States Consul at Puerto
Cabello, dated November 14, 1867, on the Trade, Industry, and General Con-
dition of Nicaragua ; in ' Commercial Eelations of the United States with
Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Copy of a despatch from the Governor of Trinidad, reporting unfortunate
results of emigration to Venezuela. Presented to both Houses of Parliament,
May, 1870. Fol. London, 1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries. Fol. London, 1870.
II. Non-official Publications.
Codazzi (Col. Aug.), Resumen de la geografia de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1861.
Eastwick (Edward), Venezuela, or Sketches of Life in a South American
Republic ; with a history of the Loan of 1864. 8. London, 1868.
Glikkler (H.), Venezuela und deutsche Auswanderung. 8. Schwerin, 1850.
Thirion (C), Les e-tats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.
6oi
n. AFRICA.
ALGERIA.
(L'Algekie.)
Government, Revenue, and Army.
Algeria, the largest and most important of the colonial possessions
of France, is entirely under military rule. The supreme adminis-
tration is in the hands of a Governor- General, under whom are
placed the whole of the civil and military authorities. The country
is divided into three provinces, Algiers, Constantine, and Oran,
which are subdivided into twelve departments, at the head of each
of which is a Prefect. But the civil authority, in all cases, is subor-
dinate to the military power, placed in the hands of officers in charge
of five military districts, Aumale, Dellys, Medeah, Milianah, and
Orleansville,and which districts are subdivided into military ' cercles/
The Governor-General is invested with large discretionary powers,
both in civil and military affairs, and responsible only to the French
Government. The salary of the Govern or- General was fixed, by
Imperial decree of September 5, 1864, at 125,000 francs, or 5,000/.
_ The financial progress of Algeria is shown in the following table,
giving the revenue and expenditure at five annual periods : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
Francs
1830
250,059
18,000
1840
5,610.706
7,206,372
1850
19,632,271
27,959.358
1860
38,908,900
39.471,372
1865
42,221,927
47,470,363
The revenue of Algeria, in the year 1866, amounted to 42,223,000
francs, or 1,689,900/. ; and the expenditure to 47,470,300 francs, or
1,898,812/. The cost of maintenance of the army, the expenditure
for public works, and other large sums disbursed by the Government
602
ALGERIA.
are not included in the expenditure, being provided out of the French
budget. In the French financial estimates for 1809, approved by
the Legislative Body, the home expenditure for Algeria, ordinary
and extraordinary, was set down at 38,765,466 francs, or 1,550,618/.,
and the colonial revenue at 17,600,200 francs, or 704,000/., leaving
a deficit of 21,165,266 francs, or 846,618/.
The French troops in Algeria consist of one ' corps d'armee,' the
7th, numbering about 60,000 men. The troops in Algeria are
divided into two classes, namely, French corps, which remain there
in garrison for a certain number of years and then return to France,
and the so-called native troops, which never quit the colony except
for fighting purposes. In these latter corps, however, there are a
great number of Europeans. They consist of three regiments of
Zouaves, three of Turcos, or ' Tirailleurs Algeriens,' three of ' Chas-
seurs d'Afrique,' and three of ' Spahis,' — altogether 15,000 infantry
and 3,000 horse. Besides these there are the punishment battalions,
popularly known as the battalions of ' Zephyrs.'
Area and Population.
The boundaries of Algeria are not very well defined, large por-
tions of the territory in the outlying districts being claimed both
by the French Government and the nomade tribes who inhabit it,
and hold themselves unconquered. According to the official esti-
mates, the total area of the colony embraces 39,000,000 hectares, or
96,369,000 acres, being about three times the size of England. The
number of the population and their nationality — exclusive of troops
— is given as follows in the two last census returns of May, 1861
and 1866 : —
Nationality
1861
1866
French .....
Other Europeans
Arabs in towns
,, in tribes
Other races ....
Total
112,229
80,517
358,760
2,374,091
41,239
122,119
91.22S
251,050
2,434,974
21,875
2,966,836
2,921,216
It will be seen that the bulk of the inhabitants of Algeria consists
of wandering Arab tribes, and that leaving out of account the no-
made population, the numbers fall short of half a million. The
population returned as ' sedentaire,' or settled, in the census returns
AREA AND POPULATION.
603
of 1866, amounted to 486,272, among whom 217,990 were Europeans.
Among the latter, 122,119, or 56 per cent., were French ; 58,510, or
26 per cent., Spaniards; 16,655, or 7 per cent., Italians; 10,627, or
5 per cent., Maltese; and 5,436, or 3 per cent., Germans; the rest,
some 3 per cent., belonging to other nationalities.
The subjoined table gives the area in hectares of each of the
three provinces into which Algeria is divided, as well as the
numbers of the settled inhabitants according to the enumeration
made in May 1866, simultaneously with the census of France.
Provinces
Area
Population
Algiers .....
Constantino ....
Oran .....
Nomade population
Total ....
hectares
11,300.01)0
17,500,000
10,200,000
200,060
146,302
139,910
486,272
2,434,974
39,000,000
2,921,246
In 1862 there were 5,139,136 acres of land under cultivation in
Algeria, of which 413,112 acres, or on an average 8 per cent., were
cultivated by the European colonists, and 4,726,024 acres, or 92 per
cent., were cultivated by the natives. The total amount of cereals
grown' in 1862 was 4,159,712 imperial quarters, of which 426,023
imperial quarters, or 10 per cent., were produced by the colonists,
and 3,733,690 imperial quarters, or 90 per cent., were produced by
the natives.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of the colony is, like that of the mother country —
see 'France,' p. 80 — divided into 'general,' and 'special.' Accord-
ing to official returns, the General Commerce of Algeria, which in
the year 1867 amounted to 283,830,990 francs, or 11,353,240/., in
the aggregate of imports and exports, rose in 1868 to 295,733,664
francs, or 11,829,346/. In this total, France had a share of
226,170,650 francs, or 9,046,826/., in 1868, the great bulk of the
imports coming from and of the exports going to the mother country.
The European States that took part in the commercial movement of
1868, appeared in the following order: — Spain, for 19,720,328 francs;
Turkey, 16,314,172 francs; England, 13,844,109 francs; Russia,
8,373,813 francs; Italy, 7,716,289 francs; Barbary, 3,467,161 francs..
Next came Belgium, Greece, Austria, Portugal, Sweden and Norway >,
604
ALGERIA.
Egypt, Netherlands, Germany, the United States, Denmark, African
ports, Senegal, and the Papal States — the whole to an amount of
2,652,511 francs. The total of 295,773,664 francs, which repre-
sented the general commerce of Algeria in 1868, gave for the imports
the sum of 192,664,360 francs, or 7,706,574/., an excess over 1867 of
about 2^ per cent. France therefore furnished to the colony the
greater part of the produce of every kind required for its consump-
tion, representing a sum of 144,533,092 francs. The total of the
imports of 1868 was distributed as follows among the different ports
of Algeria: — Algiers, 40'43 per cent.; Oran, 33*33 ; Philippeville,
15-04 ; Bona, 7-01 ; and Mostaganem, 2*33. In 1867, the port of
Algiers occupied, in the category of imports, only the second rank ;
but in 1868 it rose to the first, with an increase of 11,128,042 francs.
The total value of the exports effected by the different ports in 1868
was 103,069,304 francs, or 4,122,712/., showing, compared with
1867, an increase of 6-08 per cent, in favour of 1868. The imports
of the latter year included cotton cloth of the value of 1,544,296/.,
and woollen, 340,442/. ; leather and leather goods, 527,308/. ; wine,
9,411,422 imperial gallons; brandy and spirits, 500,511 imperial
gallons; fresh fruit, 11,119 cwts. ; sawn timber, 3,205,782 running
yards; materials for building, 92,828/. The exports included
289,164 sheep, 103,725 cwts. of wool, 6,023 cwts. of tallow, 54,783
cwts. of hides, 572 cwts. of coral, 84,450 tons of iron, 43,566 cwts.
of fibre, 81,110 cwts. of reeds, 17,646 cwts. of cork, 64,636 cwts. of
olive oil, 6,846 cwts. of manufactured tobacco, 30,624 cwts. of raw
tobacco, 14,009 cwts. of fresh fruit, 16,839 cwts. of green vegetables,
rags of the value of 20,622/., and 7,512 cwts. of raw cotton.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the ex-
ports from Algeria to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Algeria, in each
of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from Algeria
Imports of
Years
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Algeria
£
£
1865
90,505
10,916
1866
48,405
15.636
1867
33,357
22.625
1868
37,076
23,697
1869
77,669
26,796
Small quantities of corn, chiefly barley, and ' Esparto,' for making
paper, the latter of the value of 19,970/. in 1869, form the chief
articles of Algerian export to the United Kingdom, while the British
imports consist almost entirely of coal and iron.
BOOKS OF EEFERENCE. 605
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Algeria, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Gold Sequin . . . Average rate of exchange, 8s. G^d.
„ Monzonnah ... ,, „ ,, ^d.
Weights and Measures.
The Onguyah = 4 grammes.
„ Hollah (liquid) . . = 1666 litres, or about 17 pints.
„ Psa (dry) . . = 48 litres, or about 51 1 pints.
The money, weights, and measures of France are in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria.
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire general de l'Algerie, sur des documents officiels. 8. Paris, 1 870.
Etat actuel de l'Algerie, publie d'apres les documents officiels sous la
direction du direct, general des services eivils. 8. Paris, 1867.
Statistique et, documents sur la propriete arabe. 8. Paris, 1864.
Tableau de la situation des etablissements francais. 4. Paris, 1869.
General Keport by Mr. Consul-General Playfair on Algeria, for the years
1867-68 ; in 'Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' No. I. and
II. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Consul-General Lieut. -Colonel R. L. Playfair, on the Trade and
Agriculture of Algeria, for the years 1868-69 ; in ' Commercial Reports
received at the Foreign Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
2. Non- Official Publications.
Beynet (Leon), Les Colons algeriens. 8. Alger, 1866.
Cosentino (M. de), L'Algerie en 1865. 8. Paris, 1865.
Dareste (Rodolphe), De la propriete en Algerie. Loi du 16 juin 1851 et
Senatus-consulte du 22 avril 1863. 2 e edit. 18. Paris, 1866.
Daumas (General M. J. E.), Expose de l'etat actuel de la societe arabe, du
gouvernement, et de la legislation qui la regit. 8. Alger, 1845.
Duval (J.), Tableaux de la situation des etablissements francais dans l'Algerie.
Rapport. 8. Paris, 1865.
Faidherbe (General), L'Avenir du Sahara et du Soudan. 8. Paris, 1866.
Hirsch (H.), Reise in das Innere von Algerien. 8. Berlin, 1862.
Lucet (Marcel), Colonisation europeenne de l'Algerie. 8. Paris, 1866.
Maltzan (Heinr. Freiherr von), Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika.
Reisen in Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Neitburger (Siegfried), Nordafrikanische Reise-Skizzen. 8. Munehen, 1868.
Trumelet (M.), Les Francais dans le desert. 8. Paris, 1863.
6o6
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
(Cape Colony.)
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was established by order in Council of the 11th of March,
1853. By Act 28 Vict. cap. 5, and Colonial Act III. of 1865, which
provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria with the colony,
various changes were made, and the present constitution as now
existing brought into force. It vests the executive in the Governor
and an Executive Council, composed of certain office-holders ap-
pointed by the Crown. The legislative power rests with a Legisla-
tive Council of 21 members, 10 of whom are elected for 10 years,
and 11 for 5 years, presided over ex officio by the Chief-justice;
and a House of Assembly of 66 members, elected for 5 years,
representing the country districts and towns of the colony. The
qualification for members of the Council is possession of im-
movable property of 2,000/., or movable property worth 4,000/.
With the exception of paid office-holders, and others specified in
the Order in Council, any person may be elected a member of the
Assembly. Members of both Houses are elected by the same voters,
who are qualified by possession of property, or receipt of salary or
wages, ranging between 25/. and 50/. per annum. The colonial
secretary, the attorney-general, the treasurer-general, and the
auditor-general, who are members of the Executive Council, can
take part in the debates of the Legislative Council and House of
Assembly ; but though they can introduce new measures, they cannot
vote in either House.
Governor of the Cape of Good Hope.— Sir Henry Barkly, K.C.B.,
born 1815 ; studied jurisprudence ; M.P. for Leominster, 1845-49
governor and commander-in-chief of British Guiana, 1849-53
governor of Jamaica, 1853-56 ; governor of Victoria, 1856-63
governor of Mauritius, 1863-70 ; appointed governor of the Cape
of Good Hope, 1870.
The governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the forces within the colony. He has a salary of 5,000/. as governor,
besides 1,000/. as 'Her Majesty's High Commissioner,' and an ad-
ditional 500/. as ' allowance for country residence.'
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
607
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the colony is derived mainly from import duties,
which produced, on the average of the last five years, rather more than
a quarter of a million sterling per annum. Comparatively little is
derived from rent or sales of public lands, although enormous dis-
tricts are waiting to be cultivated, and the price of agricultural
produce is very high. A large portion of the expenditure is for
police, gaols, and convicts. The actual income and expenditure
of the colony during the ten years, from 1859 to 18G8, were as
follows: —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1859
472,441
611,036
1860
508,211
657,505
1861
572,417
682,731
1862
504,703
632,288
1863
468,625
649,881
1864
519,390
600,411
1865
519,045
651,515
1866
536,347
540,384
1867
609,476
670,571
1868
565,556
656,172
The revenue of 1868 was obtained from the followin
Customs : —
Import duties .
Land sales .
Land revenue
Rent, exclusive of land
Transfer duties .
Auction ,,
Succession „
Tax .
Sources of Revenue
Stamps and stamped licenses
Banknotes duty .
Postage
Fines, forfeitures, and fees of court
Fees of office
Sale of Government property
Reimbursements in aid of expenses
vernment ....
Interest and premiums
Special receipts ....
Miscellaneous receipts
incurred by Go
Total :
g sources :
Amount
&
283,024
36,369
49,382
153
40,804
11,636
3,433
39
60,112
4,029
28,430
12,480
4,298
458
22,403
5,778
2,407
321
565,556
608 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
The various branches of expenditure in 1868 were as follows : —
Branches of Expenditure Amount
£
Governor and other officers 48,733
Judicial 16,168
Administration of justice 10,535
Divisional courts 28,006
Civil commissioners . 12,941
Stamp Office 308
Police, gaols, and constables 53,517
Crown forests . . . . . . . 1,380
Customs 13,413
Revenue services ....... 809
Ecclesiastical 15,382
Educational 21,644
Medical 11,310
Hospitals, lepers, and destitute ..... 23,025
Mounted frontier force 52,676
Border magistracy 8,713
Parliamentary expenses ...... 16,966
Pensions and retired allowances ..... 22,602
Conveyance of mails ....... 33,369
Convict expenditure 50,354
Pent ' 8,262
Transport 10,676
Works and buildings 9,881
Roads, streets, and bridges 19,384
Aborigines 11,178
Special payments . . 13,163
Immigration ........ 51
Railways 227
Loans refunded ........ 5,508
Interest on debt . ' 102,653
Miscellaneous expenses 33,298
Total expenditure . . 656,172
The colony had a public debt, at the end of 1868, of 1,101,650/.
The debt dates from the year 1859, when it amounted to 80,000/.
It rose to 368,400/. in I860; to 565,050/. in 1861; to 715,050/.
in 1863 ; to 851,650/. in 1865 ; and to 1,101,650/. in 1867. The
debt bears interest at the rate of 6 per cent., with the exception
of the sum of 255,400/. at 5 per cent., and the whole is under pro-
mise of repayment by instalments extending to the year 1900. —
(Communication of the Governor to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The Cape Colony was originally founded by the Dutch, under
Van Kiebeek, about the year 1652 ; the Portuguese having before
AIVEA AND POPULATION. 609
made an attempt at a settlement. It was at first but a very small
patch of ground, between the Liesbeek River and Table Mountain,
but when it was taken by" the English, in 179G, it had extended
east to the Great Fish River, and north along the great mountain
range of the Roggeveld to the Sneeuwberg and Bamboosberg.
In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up by the English,
who occupied it again in 180G. Since that time the boundary has
been extended north to the Orange River, and east to the grea.t Kei
and Indwe, an area of about 201,000 square miles. The present
boundaries of the colony are : The Orange River on the north and
north-east, which divides it from Great Namaqualand, Griqualand,
and the Free State Republic ; on the east and north-east, the 'Tees,
a small tributary of the Orange River, to its source, thence along
the Stormbergen mountains, the Indwe and Great Kei Rivers, to the
sea, which divide it from the Basuto territory and Kafirland ; on the
south, it is bounded by the Indian Ocean ; on the west by the
Atlantic. The colony is generally considered as forming two sec-
tions, the Western and Eastern Provinces, each divided into 16 elec-
toral divisions, which are again subdivided for fiscal and magisterial
purposes.
The first regular census of the colony was taken in March 18 05,
and gave the following result as to the numbers of the popula-
tion : —
"White or European 181,592 :
Hottentot 81,598 '
Kaffir 100,536
Other coloured 132,655 i
Total 496,381
Since the census, the annexation of British Kaffraria added, ac-
cording to returns dated Dec. 31, 1865 : —
White or European . . . . . . . 5,847
Coloured 63,930
Total 69,777
Total population of Cape Colony 566,158
The European inhabitants consist in part of the English authorities
and English settlers ; but the majority are of Dutch, German, and
French origin, mostly descendants of the original settlers. The
coloured people are chiefly Hottentots and Kaffirs ; the remaining
portion of the population consists of Malays, and so-called
Africanders, the latter the offspring of black women and Dutch
fathers. Very little communication takes place between the Kaffirs,
Africanders, and Malays, each race holding the others in contempt.
R R
6 io
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total imports and exports of the Cape Colony,
including British Kaffraria, in the fire years from 1865 to 1869,
was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
&
&
1865
2,111,332
2,322,995
1866
1,940.281
2,590,348
1867
2,405,409
2,814,385
1868
1,956,154
2,806,698
1869
1,819,723
2,681,075
The commercial intercourse of the colony is almost entirely with
the United Kingdom, and few exports are sent to, and imports
received from any other country. The value of the trade with
Great Britain and Ireland, during the five years 1865 to 1869, is ex-
hibited in the subjoined table : —
Exports from the
Imports of British
Years
Cape Colony to Great
Home Produce into the
Britain
Cape Colony
£
*
1865
2,249,784
1,701,060
1866
2,536,270
1,399,024
1867
2,584,574
1,893,011
1868
2,451,859
1,591,171
1869
2,352,344
1,572,067
Among the articles of export from the Cape to Great Britain, wool
is the most important, the value shipped annually constituting nearly
nine-tenths of the total exports. In 1864 the quantity of wool
exported to Great Britain amounted to 18,377,644 lbs, valued at
1,316,976/.; in 1865 to 26,637,388 lbs. valued at 1,737,158/.;
in 1866 to 27,681,816 lbs. valued at 2,063,048/.; in 1867 to
34,225,569 lbs. valued at 2,105,416/.; in 1868 to 33,398,027 lbs.
valued at 2,028,846/. ; and in 1869 to 1,892,333/. The principal
exports, next to wool, are copper ore, ostrich feathers, hides, ivory,
and wine. There were, at the end of 1865, in the colony 692,514
head of cattle, and 6,453,783 sheep.
The sheep-farms of the colony are often of very great extent,
comprising from 3,000 to 15,000 acres, and upwards : those in tillage
are comparatively small. The graziers are, for the most part, pro-
prietors of the farms which they occupy, paying a quit rent to
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 6 II
Government as the original owner of the soil. Land on rent, from
the farmer to a private owner, is almost unknown. The transfer of
and from one individual to another is effected with the utmost
facility by the laws of the colony, with the consequence that property
seldom remains long in one family.
The inhabitants of the colony are employed, besides sheep-
farming, in the production of wine, in the breeding of horses and
cattle, and in the growth of wheat, barley, oats, and maize. The
export of all these articles of agricultural produce is gradually, though
slowly, increasing.
Money, Weights, and Measures..
Money.
The coins in circulation within the colony are exclusively
British, with the exception of the Sydney sovereign, and half sove-
reign. All public accounts are kept in pounds,, shillings, and pence,
but many private persons still adhere to the old mode- of reckoning
in rixdollars, skillings, and stivers, the British equivalents of which
are
The Rixdo/lar,. of 8 Skillings .... Ls,.6^.
„ Guilder ......... Qd.
„ Sktiling, of 6 Stivers .. 2xd.
Weights- and Measures.
The standard weights and measures are British, with' the excep-
tion of the land measure. To some extent, however; the old weio-hts
and measures are still made use of in the colony, in the following
proportions : —
91-8 lbs. Dutch
1 Schepel
1 Muid, of 4 Schepels.
1 Load, of 10 Muids .
1 Anker, of 9^- gallons
129?£7/s. . ' .
equal to 100 lbs. avoirdupois.
„. "743 imperial bushel.
2-972
„ 29-72
„ 7'91& imperial gallons.
,r 100 English yards.
The general surface measure is the old Amsterdam Morgen,
reckoned equal to 2 English acres> but, more exactly, 211G54 acres.
Some difference of opinion existed formerly as to the exact equi-
valents of the shortest land measure, the foot, but it was ascertained
in 1858, and officially settled, that 1,000 Cape feet were equal to 1,033
British Imperial feet.
6l2 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Cape Colony.
1. Official Publications.
Cape of Good Hope Blue-book for 1870. Capetown, 1870.
Census of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 1865. Presented to Par-
liament. Fol. Capetown, 1866.
Report from Governor Sir P. E. Wodehouse, dated Cape Town, Nov. 11,
1867, in 'Reports showing the present state of Her Majesty's Colonial
Possessions.' Presented to both Houses of Parliament March 30, 1868. Fol.
London, 1868.
Correspondence regarding the establishment of responsible government at
the Cape of Good Hope, and the withdrawal of troops from that Colony.
Presented to the House of Commons. Fol. pp. 26. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XIII. Fol. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonies and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. VI. 8. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Cape of Good Hope Directory for 1870. 8. Capetown, 1870.
Chase (Hon. John Centlivres) and WUmot (A.), History of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, from its discovery to the year 1868. 8. pp. 552.
London, 1870.
Fleming (J.), Southern' Africa : geography, &c. of the colonies and inhabi-
tants. 8. London, 1856'.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Drei Jahre in Sud-Afrika. 8. Breslau, 1868.
Hall (H), Manual of South African Geography. 2nded. 8. Capetown, 1866.
Meidinger (H), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands, und die Freistaaten
der holliindischen Boeren in ihren jeteigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt A.M.,
1861.
Pos (Nicolaas), Eene stem uit Zuid-Afrika, Mededeelingen betreffende den
maatschappelijken en godsdienstigen toestand der Kaap-Kolonie. 8. Breda,
1868.
WUmot (G.), An historical and descriptive account of the colony of the Cape
of Good Hope. 8. London, 1S63.
613
■>
EGYPT.
(Kemi. — Mask.)
Government, Revenue, and Army.
Nominally a pashalik of the Turkish empire, Egypt has been
virtually an independent state since the year 1811, when Mehemet
Ali, appointed Governor in 1800, made himself absolute master of
the country by force of arms. His position was recognised, by the
Imperial Hatti-Skeriff of February 13, 1841, issued, under the
guarantee of the five great FAiropean powers, which established the
hereditary succession to the throne of Egypt, under the same rules
and regulations as that to the throne of Turkey. The title given to
Mehemet AH and his immediate successors was the Turkish one of
' Vali,' or Viceroy; but this was changed by an Imperial firman of
May 14, 1867, into the higher Arabic of ' Kedervi-el-Masr,' or
King of Egvpt, and the present ruler has since been known as the
Kedervi, or, as more commonly called, Khedive. By the same firman
of May 14, 1867, obtained on the condition of the sovereign of
Eorypt raising his annual tribute to the Sultan's civil list from
80,000 purses, or 360,000/., to 150,000 purses, or 675,000/., the
succession to the throne of Egypt Avas made direct, from father to
son, instead of descending, after the Turkish law, to the eldest heir.
Khedive of Egypt. — Ismail Pasha, born Nov. 26, 1816, eldest sur-
viving son of Ibrahim, son of Mehemet Ali ; succeeded to the
Government at the death of his uncle, Said, Jan. 18, 1863. Heir-
apparent of the Khedive is his son, Mechmed-Tefwik, born 1863.
The present sovereign of Egypt is the fifth of the family of
Mehemet Ali. His predecessors were : —
Born
Died
Eeigned
Mehemet Ali
Ibrahim, son of Mehemet
Abbas, grand-son of Mehemet
Said, son of Mehemet .
1769
1789
1813
1822
1849
1848
1854
1863
1811-48
June— Nov. 1848
1848-54
1854-63
The government of Egypt, since the time of Mehemet Ali, has
been a pure despotism, there being no laws, civil or religious, to
restrict the absolute power of the hereditary rulers. They unite in
their persons all legislate, executive, and judicial authority, and
dispose of the lives and property of their subjects.
The administration of Egypt is carried on by a Council of State
of four military and four civil dignitaries, appointed by the Khedive.
6i+
EGYPT.
At the side of the council stands a ministry, divided into three
departments, of finance, of home, and of foreign affairs.
The revenue of Egypt for the year 1868 amounted, accord-
ing to semi-official reports, to 7,478,800/., and the expenditure to
4,827,700/., leaving a surplus of 2,451,100/. It is very doubtful
•whether this statement is correct ; but no means exist of verifying
it, official returns of details of income and expenditure not being
published. Former years showed large deficits, amounting to from
500,000/. to 1,000,000/. annually. The deficits created a floating
debt, amounting, at the end of 1869, to upwards of 10,000,000/.
Exclusive of the floating debt, Egypt has a very large consolidated
debt, consisting chiefly of foreign loans. These are divided into
two classes, namely, general loans, supposed to be contracted by the
country, and loans of the Khedive, as sovereign and greatest of
landowners. The following table shows the state of the debt, both
general and that of the Khedive, on the 1st of January 1870 : —
General loans
Capital due
Jan. 1, 1870
Interest
Sinking
fund
Interest &
sinking
fund for
1870.
Date of
promised
repayment
Rate
Amount
Loan of 18 62 (1st
issue)
Loanofl862'(2nd
issue)
Loan of 1864 .
Railway loan of
1865
Loan of 1868 .
Medjidieh Obli-
gations .
Total
£
\ 1,980,000
I 990,000
4,407,900
I 2,500,000
11,767,000
I 141,108
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
10
10
£
69,300
68,635
34,650
34,347
154,277
148,824
87,500
70,000
411,845
409,570
7,055
4,924
£
19,000
19,000
9,500
9,500
155,800
161,300
500,000
500,000
65,000
67,000
42.681
42,626
£
88,300
87.635
44,150
43,817
310,077
310,124
587,500
70,000
476,845
476,570
49,612
4,924
1 1892
1 1879
}l874
|l898
\l872
21,786,008
1,500,897
1,048,726
2,549,623
Loans of Khedive
Capital due
Jan. 1, 1870.
Interest ■
Sinking
fund
Interest &
sinking
fund for
1870
Date of
promised
repayment
J 1881
j 1878
\ 1881
Rate
%
7
7
8
8
9
9
Amount
Laira loan of
1866 .
Halim Pacha
loan of 1 864 .
Must, Pacha
loan of 1867 .
Total .
£
I 2,876,840
| 226,200
\ 1,847,200
£
100.689
97.700
9,048
8,324
83,151
83,151
£
8 ',500
86.400
18,100
18,100
91,700
£
184.18!'
184,166
27,] ta
8,324
83,151
174,851
661,830
4,950,240
382,130
270,700
POPULATION AND TRADE.
615
The following is a summary of the consolidated debt :-
General loans
Khedive loans
Capital due
Jan. 1, 1870
Amounts payable in 1870
Interest
Sinking fund
Total
£
21,786,008
4,950,240
£
1,500,897
382,130
£
1,048.726
279,700
£
2,459,623
664,830
26,736,248
1,883,027
1,328,426
3,211,453
Not included in the foregoing statement is a loan of the Kehdive
of 7,142,860/. contracted in Paris and Loudon, May 1870, on the
mortgage of his private domains, known as the 'Daira Sanieh.'
The loan, bearing interest at 7 per cent., was issued at the price of
78^ per 100, and was announced to be repayable by half-yearly
.drawings at par, in 20 years.
The army is raised by conscription. It consisted, in January
1869, of four regiments of infantry, of 3,000 men each; of a bat-
talion of chasseurs, of 1,000 men ; of 3,500 cavalry ; 1,500 artillery;
and two battalions of engineers, of 1,500 each. There is, besides, a
regiment of black troops, of Sudan, numbering 3,000 men.
The Egyptian navy comprised, in 1869, seven ships of the line,
six frigates, nine corvettes, seven brigs, eighteen gunboats and
smaller vessels, and twenty-seven transports.
Population and Trade.
The territories under the rule of the Khedive, including those on
the Upper Nile, are vaguely estimated to embrace an area of 31,000
geogr. square miles, and to be inhabited by a population of
7,000,000, of whom about two-thirds in Egypt proper. The latter
is divided from of old into three great districts, namely, ' Masr-el-
Bakri,'' or Lower Egypt; ' El -Dustani,' or Middle Egypt; and 'Es-Said.'
or Upper Egypt — designations drawn from the course of the river
Nile, on which dppends the existence of the country. These three
geographical districts are subdivided into eleven administrative
provinces, which, according to a superficial enumeration made by
the government, had the following rural population in 1862 • —
6i6
EGYPT.
Provinces
Number of
Villages
Rural
Population
Lower Egypt : —
Behereh ......
Rodat-el-Bahrein ....
Dakalijeh .....
Kaljubijeh .....
Gizeh
Total, Lower Egypt
Middle Egypt : —
Minjeh and Beni-Mezar .
Fajum ......
Beni-Suef .....
Total, Middle Egypt .
Upper Egypt : —
Siut '
Girge
Kecne and Esne ....
Total, Upper Egypt
Total of Egypt .
355
843
1,266
574
167
86,545
945,903
413,854
462,418
209,234
3,205
281
104
169
2,117,945
280,791
143,389
95,402
554
234
191
195
519,582
404,064
347,055
417,876
620
1,168,995
4,379
3,806,522
The population of the six towns of Egypt, not included in the
above statement, was as follows, according to the enumeration of
1802:—
Towns
Cairo-
Alexandria
Damietta
Population
256,700
161,400
37,100
Towns
Tanta
Bosetta
Suez
Total town population
„ village ,,
Population
19,500
18,300
4,160
500,160
3,806,522
Total population 4,306,682
According to consular reports, the total population of Egypt
amounted, in May 18CG, to 4,848,500, and had increased in Mav
1867, by 67,000, thus numbering, at the latter date, 4,915,500
souls. Almost the entire rural population is in a state approaching
serfdom, holding life and property at the goodwill of the governing
class. The inhabitants of the towns comprise 150,000 Copts,
reputed descendants of the ancient Egyptians ; 8,000 Jews, 3,000
Armenians, and about 25,000 domiciled Europeans, one-third of
them Greeks. At Cairo and Alexandria there are numerous slaves.
The commerce of Egypt is very large, but consists to a great extent
of goods carried in transit. To the total value of imports and
exports, averaging 35,000,000/. per annum, Great Britain contri-
MONET, "WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
617
butes about 70 per cent., and the rest is divided between Turkey,
France, Austria, Italy, and Greece, in descending proportions.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the ex-
ports from Egypt to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Egypt, in each
of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from Egypt to
Imports of British Home
Years
Great Britain
Produce into Egypt
£
&
1865
21,773,250
5,990,943
1866
15,368,824
7,556,185
1867
15.198,292
8,198,111
1868
17,581.616
6;056,404
1869
16,796,233
7,982,714
The magnitude of the commercial transactions as regards the
exports from Egypt to the United Kingdom is mainly owing to the
costly transit trade which ilows from India through Egypt. The
single article, raw silk, enumerated among Egyptian exports to
the United Kingdom, but chiefly Indian produce, was of the average
annual value of five-and-a-half millions sterling in the years
1865-69. In 1868 the value Avas 5,990,434/.; but it fell to
4,916,777/. in 1869. The second staple article of export from, or
through, Egypt to the United Kingdom is raw cotton, the amount of
which, however, was for some years on the decrease. It was of the
declared value of 13,906,641/. in 1865 ; but sank to 9,200,580/. in
1866; to 7,200,291/. in 1867; and to 6,303,206/. in 1868. In
1869, the exports increased again to 8,568,782/.
The imports from the United Kingdom into Egypt comprise the
chief articles of British produce and manufacture, foremost among
them cotton goods, of the value of 3,476,097/. in 1868, and of
4,739,827/. in 1869. The greater part of these imports from the
United Kingdom pass merely in transit through Egypt on the way
to British India.
The commerce of Egypt derived great advantages from the con-
struction of the Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean with the
Red Sea, opened for navigation November 17, 1869. The Canal
was constructed by a French Company at a cost of 16,000,000/.,
upon a capital raised as follows : —
Original shares (holders principally French) .
Shares of Khedive (no interest for 30 years) .
Jsine per cent, preference shares .
Arbitrators' award paid Khedive (no interest for 30 years)
Lottery shares
&
4,000,000
4,000,000
4,000,000
3,500,000
1,000,000
16,500,000
6iS
EGYPT.
There passed through the Canal, from the day of opening till the
30th June, 1870, a period of 7£ months, 363 ships. Of this
number 130 passed through during the four days of festal inaugu-
ration, without paying dues ; leaving 233 ships, of an aggregate
burthen of 195,428 tons, who used the Canal for purely commercial
purposes. The shipping was distributed as follows : —
Nationalities.
Ships
Tonnage
Turkish
Total
153
35
19
9
7
4
3
1
1
1
134,712
33,804
12,760
5,948
3,717
2,548
732
480
686
37
233
195,428
Exclusive of the Shipping here enumerated, there passed through
the Canal small craft of a total tonnage of 6,498 tons, so that dues
were paid altogether upon 201,926 tons. The total receipts of the
1\ months amounted to 129,784/., a sum insufficient to discharge the
interest on the obligations of the Canal Company.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Egypt, are : —
Monet.
The Sequin . . . . . = Average rate of exchange, 5s. 4^.
„ Piastre, of 40 paras . . = „ 2%d.
,, Kees, or Purse, of 500 piastres — „ „ £5 is. 2d.
The coins of Turkey are a legal tender in Egypt, but are seldom
met with, the usual medium of circulation consisting in piastres,
Spanish and Mexican dollars, and British sovereigns.
Weights and Measures
The Killuw .
„ A/mud .
„ Oke, of 400 drams
,, Gasab, of A dirads
„ Feddan al risaoh
= 0'9120 imperial bushel.
= 1-151 imperial gallon.
= 2-8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
— 3 yards.
=> 3,208 square yards.
619
LIBERIA.
(United States of Liberia.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the republic of Liberia is on the model ot
that of the United States of America. The executive is vested in a
president and a non-active vice-president, and the legislative power
is exercised by a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The president and vice-president are
elected for two years ; the House of Representatives also for two years,
and the senate for four years. There are 13 members of the Lower
House, and 8 of the Upper House ; each county sending 2 members
to the senate. It is provided that, on the increase of the population,
each 10,000 persons will be entitled to an additional representative.
Both the president and the vice-president must be thirty-five years
of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars, or 120/.
In case of the absence or death of the president, his post is filled by
the vice-president. The latter is also President of the Senate, which,
in addition to being one of the branches of the legislature, is a
Council for the President of the Republic, he being required to
submit treaties and appointments for ratification.
President of Liberia. — Edward Joseph Raye, installed in office
Jan. 6, LS70. '
The president may be re-elected any number of times. Since
the foundation of the republic, the office was filled by —
Presidents Terms
Joseph Jenkins Roberts .... 1848-56
Stephen Allen Benson .... 1856-64
Daniel Basil Warner .... 1864-68
James Spriggs Payne .... 1868-70
For political and judicial purposes, the republic is divided into
states, or counties, which are subdivided into townships. The states,
four in number, are called Montserrado, Grand Bassa, Sinoe, and
Maryland. The townships are commonly about eight miles in
extent. Each town is a corporation, its affairs being managed by
officers chosen by the inhabitants. Conrts of monthly and quarter
620 LIBERIA.
sessions are held in each county. The civil business of the county
is administered by four sujaerintendents appointed by the president
with the advice and consent of the senate.
Population, Revenue, and Trade.
The settlement of Liberia, founded in 1822, was, on August 24,
1847, proclaimed a free and independent state, as the Republic of
Liberia. The state was first acknowledged by England, after-
wards by France, Belgium, Prussia, Brazil, Denmark, and Portugal,
and, in 1861, by the United States. The republic has about
600 miles of coast line, and extends back 100 miles on an average,
but with the probability of vast extension into the interior. Pro-
visionally, the river Shebar has been adopted as north-western, and
the San Pedro as eastern frontier. It is stated that the natives
everywhere manifest a desire that treaties should be formed with
them, so that the limits of the republic may be extended over all
the neighbouring districts. The Liberian territory has been purchased
by more than 20 treaties, and in all cases the natives have freely
parted with their titles for a satisfactory price. It was the chief
aim of the founders of the republic to purchase the line of sea-
coast, so as to connect the different settlements ixnder one govern-
ment, and to exclude the slave trade, which formerly was most
extensively carried on at Cape Mesurado, Tradetown, Little Bassa,
Digby, New Sesters, Gallinas, and other places at present within
the republic. The town of Monrovia, at the mouth of the river
Mesurado, and near the foot of Cape Mesurado, was selected in 1822
as capital of the state, and seat of the government.
The total population is estimated to number 720,000, all of the
African race, and of which number 19,000 are Americo-Liberians,
and the remaining 701,000 aboriginal inhabitants. Monrovia, the
capital, has an estimated population of 13,000. In the five years
1863-67, the public revenue averaged 100,000 dollars, nearly
always balanced by the expenditure. The budget estimates for
1868 stated the total receipts at 108,297 dollars, of which 69,747
dollars from customs, and 38,650 dollars from taxes. The ex-
penditure for the same year was to amount to 106,745 dollars,
leaving a surplus of 1,552 dollars. Among the disbursements,
40,095 dollars were assigned for the civil service, 46,650 for the
public debt, 7,000 for the administration of justice, and 13,000
dollars for the maintenance of an armed force. The Liberians have
built and manned 30 coast traders, and they have a number of ves-
sels engaged in commerce with Great Britain and the United States.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 62 1
There are no statistics regarding the extent of the commercial rela-
tions of the republic with the United Kingdom, the ' Annual
Statement of Trade and Navigation ' issued by the Board of Trade
not mentioning Liberia, but only ' "Western Africa.' The value of
the exports of the region thus designated to Great Britain in the
year 1869 was 1,446,770/., and of the imports of British produce
682,399/. The principal articles of export from Liberia are coffee,
sugar, palm oil, and various other products of the soil of Africa.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money chiefly used is that of Great Britain, but accounts are
kept generally in American dollars and cents. In the traffic with
natives on the west coast of Africa, gold is bought and sold by
Usanos, each of 16 Akis. A Usano of Gold is reckoned equal in
value -to 16,000 * Cowries.' It contains 314*76 English troy grains,
or 20*396 Grammes.
Weights and measures are mostly British. In the trade with the
interior of Africa, the Ardeb is the chief measure of capacity for
dry goods. The Gondar Ardeb contains 10 Madegas, or 120
Uckieh, or 1,440 Dirhems, and is equal to about 7*7473 British
imperial pints. The Massuah Ardeb contains 24 Madegas, and is
equal to 2*3242 British imperial gallons. The Kuba is the chief
liquid measure ; it is equal to 1*7887 British imperial pint.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.
Non-Official Publications.
Die Negerrepublic Liberia. In ' Unsere Zeit.' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858.
Hutchinson (E.) Impressions of Western Africa. 8. London, 1858.
Bitter (Karl) Begriindung und gegenwartige Zustande der Republic Liberia.
In ' Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Erdkunde.' Vol.1. 8. Leipzig, 1853.
Sfockwell (G. S.), The Republic of Liberia : its geography, climate, soil, and
productions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 1868.
Valdez (H.), Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa. 8. London,
1861.
Wilson (J.), Western Africa. 8. London, 1856.
622
NATAL.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Cape of
Good Hope settlement, was erected into a separate Government by
Letters Patent issued in November 1845. A Lieutenant-Governor
was appointed, as well as an Executive Council created. The Lieu-
tenant-Governor was subordinate to the Governor of the Cape, and
the Legislative Council of the latter continued to frame laws for the
colony till 1848, when a Legislative Council for Natal was estab-
lished. In 1856 Natal was erected into a separate colony under
the British crown, represented by a Lieutenant-Governor. Under
the charter of constitution granted in 1856, and modified, in a
direction towards greater independence, in 1870, the Lieutenant-
Governor is assisted in the administration of the colony by an Exe-
cutive and a Legislative Council. The Executive Council is com-
posed of the Chief-justice, the senior officer in command of the
troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the Attorney-General,
the Secretary for Native Affairs, and two members nominated by
the Governor from among the Deputies elected to the Legislative
Council. The Legislative Coimcil is composed of four official mem-
bers, namely, the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the Attorney-
General, and the Secretary for Native Affairs, and 12 members
elected by the counties and boroughs.
Lieutenant-Governor of Natal. — Robert William Keate; formerly
Civil Commissioner at the Seychelles Islands, 1849-53 ; Lieutenant-
Governor of Granada, 1853-56 ; Governor of Trinidad, 1856-64 ;
appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Natal Nov. 1866.
The Lieutenant-Governor has a salary of 2,500/. per annum.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony in the six,
years 1863-68 were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1863
123,089
116,891
1864
152,241
119.210
1865
105,104
147,915
1866
94,884
126,067
1867
96,780
118,328
1868
95,762
117,255
POPULATION.
623
About one-fourth of the revenue is derived from customs, and the
rest from miscellaneous sources of income, among them a ' hut-
tax on natives.' The customs produced 30,629/. in the year 1868.
The chief item of expenditure is for police and the administration
of justice. The public debt, which was 50,000/. in 1860, had
risen to 263,000/. at the end of 1868.
Natal is a solitary instance of a colony having been established by
Great Britain without cost to imperial funds. In its early days it
had a loan of ten thousand pounds, which has long since been repaid.
Its military expenditure is, however, still paid by Great Britain,
with the exception of a sum of 4,000/. given as a contribution by
the colony. — (Communication of the Lieutenant-Governor to the
Statesman s Year-book.~)
Population.
The colony has an estimated area of about 18,000 square miles,
with a seaboard of 150 miles. But the extent of some of the
districts is all but unknown. The following table gives the area of
the best explored counties and divisions, and the population of each,
according to Government returns of June 1869 : —
Area in
Counties and divisions
square miles
Population
County of Pietermaritzburg .....
—
38,831
Borough of „
—
6,192
County of Durban
3,774
23,179
Borough of „
—
5,708
County of Klip River
—
3,578
Ladysmith Division
—
46,379
Newcastle „
2,232
9,600
County of Victoria
—
870
Inanda Division
482
24,451
Tugela „
1,000
25,837
County of Umvoti
2,000
37,542
County of Weenen
—
34,379
Division of the Upper Umkomanzi
1,440
12,661
„ Lower „
1,600
18,905
County of Alfred .
—
1,562
Coast district
—
6,572
Midland „ ...
—
6,446
Northern „ ...
—
4,540
Tota
I
•
—
315,250
About one-seventh of the population enumerated in the above
table are of European origin. In the two towns of Pietermaritz-
burg and Durban, the European and native population are about
equal in numbers. Comparatively few emigrants arrived in recent
624
NATAL.
years, the former government aid to this effect having come to an
end.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total imports and exports of the colony, in the
five years 1865 to 1869, was as follows : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
£
£
1865
455,206
210,254
1866
263,305
203,402
1867
269,589
225,671
1868
317,432
271,949
1869
380,331
363,262
The extent of the commercial intercourse of the Colony of Natal
with the United Kingdom is exhibited in the subjoined table, which
gives the value of the total exports from Natal to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the total imports of British produce during the five
years 1865 to 1869 :—
Year
Total Exports from Natal
Total Imports of
to Great Britain
British Produce into Natal
£
£
1865
• 201,293
223,200
1866
183,053
172,182
1867
156.711
191,570
1868
• 262,787
269,133
1869
373,500
245,536
The staple article of export from Natal is sheep's wool ; next to
which in importance stand sugar, ivory, and hides. In the year
1865 the wool exports to Great Britain amounted in value to
100,325/., rising to 116,461/. in 1866, to 115,733/. in 1867, to
158,899/. in 186«, and to 208,416/. in 1869. Next in importance
to wool stands raw sugar, the exports of which were of the value of
56,146/. in 1869, anduntanned hides of the value of 40,954/. in t e
same year. Many of the exports of the colony, particularly wool,
come from the neighbouring Dutch republics, which also absorb
more than one-third of the imports. The natives of the colony,
though extensively engaged in agricultural pursuits, have not as yet
been able to produce any articles of export; but it is believed that
their industry will before long add thereto in the shipments of
coffee and maize, both of which are grown in large quantities.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 625
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Natal.
1. Official Publications.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XII. Fol. London, 1868.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. VI. 8. London, 1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom
■with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1869. Imp. 4.
London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Burkhardt (J.), Die evangelische Mission under den Volkerstammen in Siid-
Afrika. 8. Bielefeld, 1860.
Fritsch (Dr. G.), Drei Jahre in Sud-Afrika. 8. Breslau, 1868.
Hall (H.), Manual of South African Geography. 8. Capetown, 1866.
Mann (Dr. H.), Statistical Notes regarding the Colony of Natal. In ' Journal
of the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXX. 1. London, 1869.
Meidinger (H.), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands. und die Freistaaten
der holla'ndischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt a. M.
1861.
Walmsley (Colonel), The Kuined Cities of Zulu Land. 2 vols. 8. Lon-
don, 1869.
626
III. ASIA.
CEYLON.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of Ceylon was established by
Letters Patent of April 1831, and supplementary orders of March
1833. According to the terms of this constitution, the administra-
tion is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council
of five members; viz. the Officer Commanding the Troops, the
Colonial Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Treasurer, and the
Auditor-General; and a. Legislative Council of 15 members, in-
cluding the members of the Executive Council, four other office-
holders, and six unofficial members.
Governor of Ceylon. — Sir Hercules G. R. Rolinson, Knt., for-
merly in the 87th Fusiliers ; subsequently, 1846-53, a member of
the Irish Poor-law Board ; appointed President of Montserrat,
1854; Lieutenant-Governor of 'St. Christopher, 1855; Governor
of Hong-Kong, 1859. Appointed Governor of Ceylon, 1864.
The Governor has a salary of 7,000/., and the Colonial Secretary
2,000/.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of the
eight years 1861 to 1868, was as follows' —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
&
1861
751.997
635.230
1862
759,135
626,653
1863
952,790
738,194
1864
.867,728
1,843,292
1865
.978.492
838,193
1866
962.874
•917,670
1867
969,936
•927,932
1868
925,265
■974,950
The principal sources of revenue are the customs, of an average
produce of 286,000/..; licences, including the arrack monopoly,
returning 150,000/.; and sales, with rents of public lands, pro-
ducing together about 230,000/. per annum. The civil and judicial
establishments of the colony cost nearly 300,000/., and the con-
POPULATION.
627
tribution to military expenditure amounts to 100,000/. annually.
For public works, from 200,000/. to 250,000/. have been expended
in recent years, and about 20,000/. for education.
To aid in the establishment of a line of railway, a public debt, to
the amount of 800,000/., was raised in 1861-67, of which 100,000/.
was paid off in 1868. There is a sinking fund provided for the
final extinction of the debt, which amounted, at the end of 1869,
to upwards of 200,000/. The railway, 75 miles in length, yields
a profit of above 80,000/. per annum. — (Communication of the
Governor to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Population.
The island of Ceylon was first settled in 1505 by the Portuguese,
who established colonies in the west and south, which were
taken from them early in the next century by the Dutch. In
1795-96, the British Government took possession of the foreign
settlements in the island, which were annexed to the Presidency
of Madras; but two years after, in 1798, Ceylon was erected into a
separate colony. In 1815 war was declared against the native Go-
vernment of the interior; the Kandyan King was taken prisoner,
and the whole island fell under British rule.
The extreme length of the colony from north to south, that is,
from Point Palmyra to Dondera Head, is 266 miles ; its greatest
width 140^ miles from Colombo on the west coast, to Sangeman-
kande on the east ; its area is 24,454 miles, or about 15,678,900
acres.
The following table gives the area and population of the six
provinces of Ceylon, according to an official return of the year
1867 :—
Provinces
Area in square
miles
Total population
Population |>er
square mile
190-99
74 89
190-79
20-70
6926
62-32
Western .....
North-western
Southern ....
Eastern
Northern ....
Central
Total
Military ....
Total (including military) .
3,345
2,805
1,927
4,545
6,1)62
5,770
638,801
210,079
367,670
97,089
419,862
359,592
24,454
2,093,183
3,594
85-59
•14
2,096,777
85-73
Of the total population here enumerated, 4,515 were British :
13,968 other whites of European descent, imd the rest coloured,
ss 2
628
CEYLON.
The male sex preponderated over the female in the proportion oi
ten to five among the British, and ten to nine among the European-
descended and the coloured inhabitants of Ceylon.
Trade and Industry.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony,
including bullion and specie, in each of the five years 1864 to 1868.
was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
£
£
1864
5.526,964
3,192.268
1865
5,022,179
3,565.157
1866
4.961.061
3,586,454
1867
4,504,339
3,530,225
1868
4,403,177
3,786,722
The commercial intercourse of Ceylon with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the total
value of the exports from Ceylon to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Ceylon, in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Years
Exports from Ceylon to
the United Kingdom
Imports of British Home
Produce into Ceylon
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
3.707,717
3.256,250
3,224,512
3,671,494
3,749,723
£
687,189
1,082,973
771,879
828,483
796,372
The staple article of exports from Ceylon to the United King-
dom is coffee, of the declared value of 3,112,765/. in 1865; of
2,702,352/. in 1866 ; of 2,814 060/. in 1867 ; of 2,986,479/. in
1868; and of 2,867,724/. in 1869. Besides coffee, the only
other exports of note are cocoa-nut oil and raw cotton, the former
amounting to the value of 242,174/., and the latter to 70,747/.
in the year 1869. Manufactured cotton goods, of the value
of 446,142/. in 1869, form the principal British import into
Ceylon.
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 629
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Ceylon are the same as
those in the United Kingdom, but the ordinary coin of the country
is the Rupee of British India. Accounts are kept in pounds, shil-
lings, and pence, and the rupee is current at the par of 2s.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.
1. Official Publications.
Report of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, dated Colombo, Septem-
ber 14, 1867; in 'Reports, showing the present state of H. M.'s Colonial
Possessions.' Part III. Eastern Colonies. Fol. London, 1868.
Report of Governor Sir C. J. MacCarthy, dated Colombo, August 20, 1863 ;
in 'Reports on the Past and Present State of H. M.'s Colonial Possessions.'
Part II. London, 1864.
Report on the State of Ceylon, dated July, 1864; in 'Reports on the Past
and Present State of H. M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Part II. London, 1865.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XII. Fol. London, 1868.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom. No. VI. 8. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baker (S. W.), Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.
Duncan (George), Geography of India. Part II. Ceylon. 8. Madras,
1865.
Mouat (Frederic J.), Rough Notes of a Trip to Reunion, the Mauritius, and
Ceylon. 8. Calcutta, 1852.
Pridham (C), Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon. 2 vols.
8. Loudon, 1849.
Bansonnet- Villez (Baron E. von), Ceylon : Skizzen seiner Bewohner, seines
Thier und Pflanzenlebens. Fol. Brunswick, 1868.
Schmarda (L. K), Reise urn die Erde ; Zeilon. Vol. I. 8. Braunschweig,
1861.
Sirr(K. C), Ceylon and the Cingalese. 2 vols. 8. London, 1851.
Tennent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical,
Historical, and Topographical. 5th ed. London, 1860.
630
CHINA.
(Tsix— Katai.)
Constitution and Government.
The government of the Chinese empire, as far as known, is a
semi-military, semi- patriarchal despotism. The sovereign, called
' Ta-hwang-ti,' or the Great Emperor, is regarded as the father of
his people, and has unlimited power over all his subjects. The
fundamental laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-tsing-hwei-
tien, or ' Collected Regulations of the Great Pure dynasty,' which
prescribe the government of the state to be based upon the govern-
ment of the family.
Reigning Emperor. — T'oung-che, formerly called Ki-tsiang, 'High
Prosperity,' bom April 5, 1855, the eldest son of the Emperor Hien-
fung, ' Perfect Bliss ; ' succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, August 22, 1861.
The present sovereign is the 8th Emperor of China of the Tartar
dynasty of Ta-tsing, ' The Sublimely Pure,' which succeeded the
native dynasty of Ming in the year 16-44. There exists no law of
hereditary succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign
to appoint his successor from among the members of his family.
The late Emperor, on designating his son, a minor, as his successor,
ordered that he should be kept, till the time of his majority, under
the guardianship of eight high officials, who were to carry on the
government in his name. But in consequence of a palace revolution,
occurring soon after the accession of the young ruler, Nov. 2, 1861,
three out of the eight appointed imperial guardians were killed, and
the rest banished, while the supreme power was taken possession of
by two of the wives of the deceased sovereign, Tzi-an, the ' first
consort,'' and Tzi-ssi, the mother of the new Emperor. They
associated themselves with Jih-su, Prince of Kong, uncle of the
young Emperor, who was nominated head of the Council of ministers,
and became virtually Regent of the empire.
The Emperor is spiritual as well as temporal sovereign, and, as
high priest of the empire, can alone, with his immediate representa-
tives and ministers, perform the great religious ceremonies. No
ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any
priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion.
The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction
•of the ' Interior Council Chamber,' comprising four members,
itwo of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants
■horn the Han-lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing
REVENUE AND POPULATION.
63I
is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire, con-
tained in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien, and in the sacred books of Con-
fucius. These members are denominated ' Ta-hyo-si,' or Ministers
of State. Under their orders are the Li-poo, or six boards of
government, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a
Chinese. They are : — 1. The board of civil appointments, which
takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil
officers ; 2. The board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs;
3. The board of rites and ceremonies, which enforces the laws and
customs to be observed by the people ; 4. The military board,
superintending the administration of the army ; 5. The board of
public works ; and 6. The high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction.
Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the
central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, or board of public
censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents,
the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient
custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged
to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor is to be
present at the meetings of each of the six government boards, with-
out taking any part in the deliberation, and others have to travel
through the various provinces of the empire to inspect and superin-
tend the administration of the chief public functionaries.
Revenue and Population.
The estimates of the public revenue of China vary greatly, and
while they are stated by some to exceed 100 millions sterling, are
held by others not to come up to half that amount. Official returns
of the Chinese Government — intended for a special public use, and
as such not very reliable — which were published in 1844, give the
revenue as follows : —
Land-tax, in money
Ditto in kind, valued at ,
Salt tax .
Tea duties
Duties on merchandise
Duties on foreign ditto, at Canton
Sundries ....
Duties on marketable articles.
Duties on shops and pawnbrokers
Ginseng. ....
Coinage .....
Total taels
Sterling
Taels
53r730.218
113,398,057
7,486,3*0
204,5:50
4,335,459
3,000,000
1,052. 70S
1,174,932
5,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
191,804,139
£63,934,713
The above was returned as the net revenue of the country.
No statement of the expenditure is given in the official accounts ;
632
CHINA.
but from missionary reports, as well as the accounts published in the
• Peking Gazette,' it would appear that there are almost constant
deficits, which the governors and high officers of provinces must
make good by loans or extraordinary taxation.
The public revenue is mainly derived from three sources, namely,
customs duties, licenses, and a tax upon land. The customs duties
fall more upon exports than imports ; their total produce at the
thirteen treaty ports open to Europeans amounted to 8, 69 1,81 7 taels,or
2,897,272/., in 1863, and to 9,425,656 taels, or 3,141,885*., in 1868.
To the amount collected in 1868 the foreign trade contributed
8,002,751 taels, or 2,667,584/., while the portion paid by Great
Britain and British colonies in the same year was 6,706,365 taels,
or 2,235.455/., or above 83 per cent. Besides this sum, the British
trade paid transit duties to the amount of 1,117,727/. in 1868, so
that the total contribution of the same to the Imperial Exchequer
was 3,353,782/.
The population of China is very dense, but nothing accurate is
known respecting the number of inhabitants, although official
enumerations of the same are stated to have taken place at intervals
since the year 703, or for more than eleven centuries. One of the
causes of uncertainty regarding the population of the empire is that
its limits are undefined, the imperial government claiming the
allegiance of the inhabitants of many of the neighbouring territories,
which appear to be more or less independent. According to the
most reliable estimates, together with Chinese official returns, the
area of the empire and its dependencies, real and asserted, may be
set down, in round numbers, at about 200,000 geogr. square miles,
with a population of* nearly 390 millions, distributed as follows: —
Area
Population
geog. sq. miles
China proper
• 60,857
367,633,000
Dependencies: —
Mandehuria
18,000
3,000,000
3Iongolia.
61,000
3,000,1100
Thibet ....
30,600
6,000,000
Corea ....
4,100
8,000.000
Lienkhieu Islands .
110
500,000
Other dependencies .
Total
25,000
1,500,000
199,667
389,633,000
China proper, extending over 60,857 geographical, or 1,297,999
English square miles, is divided into eighteen provinces, the area
and population of which are given as follows in the imperial census
of 1812:—
REVENUE AND POPULATION.
633
Area in
Provinces
Provincial capital
English
miles
Population
Chih-le .
Peking .
58,949
27,900,871
Shan-tung ,
Tse-nan-foo .
65,104
28,958,764
Shan-se .
Tae-yuen-foo .
55,268
14,004,210
Honan
Kae-fung-foo .
65,104
23,037,171
Keang-soo
Nanking
[ 92,661 |
37,843,501
Gan-hwuy
Gan-king-foo .
34,168,059
Keang-si .
Nan-chang-foo
72,176
30,426,999
Foo-Keen .
Fuh-choo-foo .
53,480
14,777,410
Che-Keang
Hang-choo-foo
39,150
26,256,784
Hoo-Pih .
Woo-ckang-foo
I 144,770 j
37,370,098
Hunan
Chang-cha-foo
18,652,507
Shen-se
Se-gan-foo
[ 154,008 j
10,207,256
Kan-suh .
Lan-choo-foo .
15,193,135
Sze-Chuen
Ching-too-foo .
166,800
21,435,678
Kwang-tung, or Canton
Kwang-choo-foo
79,456
19,147,030
Kwang-si .
Kwe-lin-foo .
78,250
7,313,895
Yun-Nan .
Yun-nan-foo .
107,869
5,561,320
Kwei-Choo
Kwei-yang-foo
Total .
64,554
5,288,219
1,297,999
367,632,907
The above population, giving 283 souls per square mile throughout
the empire, appears to be excessive, considering that some of the
outlying portions of the immense territory are by no means densely
inhabited. Nevertheless, later returns than those of 1812, likewise
said to be official, give still higher figures. It is stated that in a
census taken in 1842, the population of China was ascertained to
number 414,686,994, or 820 per English square mile, and that in
1852 it had risen to 450,000,000, or 347 inhabitants per square
mile. But there is, probably, less accuracy in the given results of
the latter enumerations than in that of 1812, as the power and
authority of the government have been on the decline for more than
half a century, and disturbed by constant insurrections, mostly
spreading over large portions of the empire.
The standing military force of China consists of two great divi-
sions, the first formed by the more immediate subjects of the ruling
dynasty, the Tartars, and the second by the Chinese and other
subject races. The latter, the main force upon which the imperial
government can rely, form the so-called troops of the Eight Banners,
and garrison all the great cities, but so as to be separated by walls
and forts from the population. The Chinese forces are said to be
composed of 600,000 men, scattered over the surface of the empire.
The soldiers do not live in barracks, but in their own houses, pur-
suing as chief business some civil occupation, frequently that of
day-labourers, and meeting oniy on certain occasions, pursuant to
orders from the military chieftains.
634
CHINA.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total commerce of China at the ports open to
foreigners, in each of the five years 1864 to 1868, was as follows,
according to the official returns of the imperial maritime customs: —
Years
Imp
Taels
orts
Exports
&
Taels
&
1864
51,293,578
17,097.859
54,006,509
18,002,169
186.5
61,844,158
20,614,719
60,054,634
20,018,211
1866
74,563,674
24,854,558
56,161,807
18,720,602
1867
69,329,741
23,109,914
57,895,713
19,298,571
1868
71,121,213
23,707,071
69,114,733
23,038,244
The following table shows the distribution of the commerce
of China among the various countries, or groups of countries,
maintaining trading intercourse with the empire, in the year 1868.
Value of
Value of
Total
Countries
Imports from
Exports to
Commerce
Taels
Taels
Taels
Great Britain ....
24,478,843
42,040,836
66,519,679
Hong Kong .
India .
15,672,685
8,970,289
24,642,974
26,098,085
264,530
26,362,615
United States .
833,393
6,582,676
7,416,069
Japan .
Australia
2,614,007
937,482
3,551,489
734,718
2,849,636
3,584,354
Singapore and Straits
743,879
293,692
1,037,571
Continental Europe.
325,450
4,586,406
4,911,856
691,251
77,673
768,924
Philippine Islands .
315,458
183,404
498,862
Java
264,887
228,028
492,915
Cochin China .
383,710
46,274
429,984
British Channel Islands
—
634,080
634,080
Amoor Provinces .
93,913
7,834
101,747
South America
68,318
231,630
299,948
Canada .
37
237,002
237,039
New Zealand .
—
102,899
102,899
Russia .
—
796,240
796,240
Cape of Good Hope
—
44,122
44,122
Gross total .
73,318,634
69,114,733
142,433,367
Re-exports to foreign countries
2,197,421
—
2,197,421
Net total
•
71,121,213
69,114,733
140,235,946
It will be seen that the commercial intercourse of China is
mainly with the United Kingdom and the British colonies. To the
aggregate imports and exports of China in the year 1868, Great
&Titain contributed 66,519,679 taels, or 47 per cent.; the colony
of Hong Kong 24,642,974 taels, and India 26,362,615 taels, being
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
635
a total of 117,525,268 taels, or 83*8 per cent, of the whole com-
merce of China, and leaving only 16-2 per cent, for all the other
foreign nations. Among the latter the United States take the first
rank, with a trade, in 1868, of 7,416,069 taels, or 53 per cent, of
the commerce of China.
The first attempt on the part of Great Britain to open a trade with
China was made in 1637, when four merchant vessels arrived at
Macao; but through the intrigues of the Portuguese there established,
the enterprise failed. Afterwards the East India Company carried
on a small traffic at the different maritime ports, and chiefly at
Canton. In 1792, Lord Macartney's embassy attempted to put the
trade on a more liberal basis, but with little success. In 1816, Lord
Amherst's mission for a similar purpose also failed, though the English
trade continued for the next twenty years. In 1834 the exclusive
trade of the East India Company with China terminated, and the
country was thrown open to general traders. The opening thus made
was followed by a commercial treaty, signed on August 29, 1842, by
the plenipotentaries of the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor
of China, by the terms of which five ports of the empire were opened
to European trade. The five ports comprised those of Canton, Amoy,
Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghae. To these five ports were
subsequently added nine others — namely, Swatow, Tientsin, Che-foo,
Hankow, Kiu-kiang, Chin-kiang, Newchwang, Takow, and Tamsuy.
The relative importance of these fourteen gates of Chinese com-
merce is shown in the following table, which gives the total value of
the imports and exports of each, during the years 1867 and 1868 :
Ports
1867
1868
Imports and
Exports
Total
Commerce
Imports and
Exports
Total
Commerce
Shanghae : —
Foreign imports .
Chinese imports .
Exports
Hankow : —
Foreign imports .
Chinese imports .
Exports
Canton : —
Foreign imports .
Chinese imports .
Exports
Foo-chow : —
Foreign imports .
Chinese imports .
Exports
Taels
12,872,525
5,626,675
19,593,901
Taels
38,093,101
30,537,026
24,296,136
23,457,792
Taels
12,454,880
6,657,875
27,710,516
9,852,797
5,135,817
15,481,567
Taels
46,823,271
30,470,181
23,460,665
22,338,997
10,294,656
7,836,038
12,406,332
7,812,994
2,695,971
13,787,171
6,946,711
2,672,838
13,841,116
4,027,118
3,850,718
15,579,956
3,902,691
2,318,576
16,117,730
636
CHINA.
Tien-tsin : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Ningpo: —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Swatow : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Amoy : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Kiu-kiang : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Che-foo : — ■
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Chinkiang: —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Newehwang : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Takow :—
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Tamsny : —
Foreign imports
Chinese imports
Exports
Total commerce J-
Imports and
Exports
9,252,155
4,244,942
1,223,197
4,746,215
1,984,741
5,832,585
4,725,047
4,167,095
2,934,799
4,654,581
2,706,027
2,697,793
2,636,381
865,468
4,358,760
3,203,188
1,494,416
1,567,769
3,336,618
2,084,256
385,928
2,254,474
796,169
2,393,587
867,128
300,008
855,812
664,016
49,599
156,683
Total
Commerce
14,720,294
12,563,541
11,826,941
10,058,401
7,860,609
6,265,373
5,806,802
5,444,230
2,022,948
870,298
127,225,454
£ 1 2, 108,485
Imports and
Exports
651,871
790,267
944,751
720,063
808,661
070,721
955,513
778,329
793,668
901,763
664,549
373,819
869,545
594,314
683,993
,662,641
,352,454
,523,611
656,863
037,117
441,919
784,887
130,951
591,619
648,099
90,680
704,124
551,511
36,962
308,834
Total
Commerce
17,386,889
12,599,445
8,527,510
7,940,131
11,147,852
8,538,706
6,135,899
6,507,457
1,442,903
897,307
140,235,946
£■10,745,315
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
637
The amount of duties collected at each of the fourteen treaty ports,
in the years 1867 and 1868, was as follows : —
Ports
1867
1868
Taels
Taels
Shanghae
2,304,349
2,501,436
Canton .
934,774
866,269
Swatow
420.863
381,012
Amoy .
503.327
426,044
Foo-chow
1,708.658
1,813.361
Takow .
68,471
51,486
Ningrpo .
452.601
567,908
Hankow
943.857
1,152.580
Kiu-kiang
426,507
554,099
Chin-kiang ,
23.814
33,095
Che-foo .
238,911
284,363
Tien-tsin
411.297
390,605
New-chwang
231,972
215.736
Tamsuy
49,037
69,347
f
8.718.444
9,307,347
I
£2,906,148
£3,102,449
The value of the total exports from China to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
China, was as follows in each of the ten years from 1860 to 1869 : —
Tears
Exports from China to
Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into China
1860 .
1861 .
1862 .
1863 .
1864 .
1865 .
1866 .
1867 .
1868 .
1869 .
£
9,323,764
9,d70,445
12,137,095
14,186,310
15,673,930
10,677.995
10,846,388
9.340,402
11,217,450
9,621,358
£
2,872,045
3.114.694
2,024,118
2,416,705
3,092,611
3,603,595
5,090,074
4,996,469
6,312.175
6,842,840
The exports from China to Great Britain and Ireland are made up,
to the amount of more than nine-tenths, of one article of merchandise,
namely, tea. In the year 1864, the quantity of tea sent from the
treaty ports to the United Kingdom was 112,128,032 lbs., valued
at 8,386, 629/. ; in 1865 there were sent 109,805,895 lbs., valued at
9,081,486/. ; in 1866, 127,486,120 lbs., valued at 10,178,070/. ; in
1867, 114,511,388 lbs., valued at 8,951,954/. ; in 1868, 137,042,375
lbs., valued at 10,945,530/. ; and in 1869, the exports amounted
638 CHINA.
to 123,299,115 lbs., of the value of 9,007,598/. The other
exports from China to Great Britain, insignificant in comparison with
the staple export, comprise raw silk and various drugs. From 1863
to 1865, the exports included large quantities of raw cotton, but the
supply ceased entirely after 1867. Manufactured cotton and woollen
goods, the former of the value of 4,725,495/., and the latter of
1,366,092/. in the year 1869, constitute the bulk of the imports of
British produce into the Chinese empire.
China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, and
though most of them are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried
on over them, and by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers.
It is stated that the most populous part of the empire is singularly
well adapted for the construction of a network of railways. (' Reports
of Journeys in China.' See below : Books of Reference — Official
publications.)
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures, in ordinary use at the treaty
ports, and in the intercourse with foreigners, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Tael=\0 Mace=\00 Candarcens = 1,000 Cash =
Average rate of exchange, 6s. Sd., or 3 Taels to 1/. sterling.
„ Mexican Dollar . . . . = „ „ „ 4s. 2d.
There are no national gold and silver coins in China, and foreign
coins are looked upon but as bullion. The chief medium of pay-
ment in commercial transactions consists of whole and broken
dollars by weight. In accounts between foreigners and Chinese
merchants, Mexican dollars are mostly converted into taels, at the
rate of 1,000 dollars for 720 taels. But payments in cash are
usually weighed at 717 taels for 1,000 dollars.
Weights and Measuhes.
The Uang, or Tael
„ Picid
„ Catty
„ Ckih
„ Chang
„ Lys, or Li
= \\ oz. avoirdupois.
= 133 lbs.
= lf,.
= 14^ inches.
= 11| feet.
= 194 to a degree, or abont ^English mile.
In the tariff spttled by treaty between Great Britain and China,
the Chili of 14TV English inches has been adopted as the legal stan-
dard. It is the only authorised measure of length at all the ports of
trade, and its use is gradually spreading all over the empire.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 6?Q
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.
Abstract of Trade and Customs Revenue Statistics from 1864 to 1868, pub-
lished by the Imperial Maritime Customs. Presented to both Houses of Par-
liament. Fol. London, 1869.
Commercial Reports from H. M.'s Consuls in China and Siam. 8. pp. 103.
London, 1870.
Commercial Reports from H. M.'s Consuls in China, Japan, and Siam 1865
8. London, 1866.
Reports of Journeys in China and Japan performed by Mr. Alabaster, Mr.
Oxenham, Mr. Markham, and I)r. Willis, of H.M.'s Consular Service. Pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. London, 1869.
Reports by Consul Swinhoe of his Special Mission up the river Yang-tsze-
kiang. Presented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. pp. 27. London, 1870.
Report of the Delegates of the Shanghae Chamber" of Commerce on the
Trade of the Upper Yangtsze river. Presented to Parliament. Fol pp 67
London, 1870.
Correspondence respecting Inland Residence of English Missionaries in
China. Presented to the House of Commons. Fol. pp. 44. London 1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries. Imp. 4. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part XII. Fol London
1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abel (C), Arbeiten der Kaiserlich Russischen Gesandschaft zu Peking iiber
China, sein Volk, seine Religion. Aus dem Russischen. 2 vols 8 Berlin
1858.
Bastian (A.), Die Volker des Oestlichen Asiens. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
Chinese Topography, being an Alphabetical List of the Provinces, Depart-
ments, and Districts in the Chinese Empire, with their Latitudes and Longi-
tudes. Canton, 1844. Reprinted in 1864.
Courcy (Marquis de), L'Empire du milieu, description geographique, precis
historique, institutions sociales, religieuses, politiques, notions sur los sciences
les arts, 1'industrie et le commerce. 8. Paris, 1867.
Davis (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1857.
Dennys (N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan: a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo Hongkong
and Macao. 8. London, 1867.
Ferrari (Joseph), La Chine et l'Europe. 8. Paris, 1867.
Gutzlaff(Q. F. A.), China Opened ; or, a Display of the Topography, History,
Customs, Manners, Arts. Manufactures, Commerce, &c. of the Chinese Empire'
2 vols. 8. London, 1838. ^
Hanspach (Rev. A.), Report for the Years 1863 and 1864 of the Chinese
Vernacular Schools, established in the Sinon, Kiushen, Fayuen, and Chonglok
districts of the Quangtung province. 8. Hongkong, 1865.
Hue (L'Abbe E. R.), L'Empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.
Lauture (Comte dEseayrac de), Memoires sur le Chine : Gouvernement 4
Paris, 1864. ' '
64O CHINA.
Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord
Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.
OUphant (Oscar), China; a popular history. 8. London, 1857.
Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8.
London, 1860.
Pallu (Lieutenant Leopold), Relation de l'Expedition de Chine en 1860,
redigee d'apres les documents officiels, avec l'autorisation de M. le Comte de
Chasseloup-Laubat, Ministre de la Marine. 4. Paris, 1864.
Pauthier (J. P. G.), Documents statistiques sur la Chine. 8. Paris. 1841.
Plath (N.), Ueber die lange Dauer und Entwicklung des Chinesischen Reichs.
8. Munchen, 1861,
SacharoJf(T.), The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during
the Foiir Thousand Years of its Historical Existence; or, the Rise and Fall of
the Chinese Population. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid.
Also, the Chronology of the Chinese, from the Mythological Times up to the
present Rules. 8. Hongkong, 1865.
Sykes (Col. W. H.), Speech in the House of Commons in moving for papers
relating to China, pp. 8. 8. London, 1869.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude
and Latitude. 8. Hongkong, 1864.
Wells (S. Williams), The Chinese Commercial Guide, containing Treatise,
Tariffs, Regulations, Tables, &c, useful in the trade to China and Eastern Asia.
Fifth ed. 8. Hongkong, 1863.
Werner (Reinhold), Die preussische Expedition nach China, Japan, und
Siam. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1863.
Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom : a survey of the geography,
government, education &c, of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. New York.
1848.
Wilson (Andrew), The Ever Victorious Army: a history of the Chinese Cam-
paign under Lieut.-Col. C. G. Gordon, and of the suppression of the Taeping
rebellion. 4. London, 1868.
641
HONG KONG.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was con-
firmed by the treaty of Nankin, in August 1842 ; and the charter
bears date April 5, 1843. Hong Kong is mainly a factory for
British commerce with China, and a military and naval station for
the protection of that commerce.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary,
the officer commanding the troops, and the Attorney-General.
There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor,
and composed of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, the
Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor- General, the Sur-
veyor-General, and three unofficial members nominated by the
Crown, on the recommendation of the Governor.
Governor of Hong Kong. — Sir Richard Graves MaoDonnell, Knt. ;
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and graduated B.A. 1835,
MA., 1838, hon. LL.D., 1844 ; called to the bar in Ireland,
1838, and at Lincoln's Inn, London, 1840 ; chief justice of the
Gambia colony from 1843 to 1847 ; governor of Gambia from 1847
to 1851; conducted several exploring expeditions up the Gambia,
and in the interior of Africa, between that river and the Senegal ;
governor of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, in 1852 ; captain-general and
governor- in-chief of South Australia, 1855 to 1862 ; governor of
Novia Scotia, 1864-65 ; appointed governor of Hong Kong, 1865.
The Governor has a salary of 5,000/. per annum.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The occupation of Hong Kong at its outset was effected at con-
siderable cost to Imperial funds, the vote from Parliament in the year
1845 being nearly 50,000/. in addition to military expenditure. The
colony may be considered to have paid its local establishments in
1855, since which year it has held generally a surplus of revenue
over and above its fixed expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of the
five years from 1864 to 1868 were as follows: —
TT
642
HONG KONG.
Tearg
Eevenue
Expenditure
£
£
1864
132,885
159,022
1865 ........
175,717
195,376
1866
160,226
1.96,009
179,043
152,780
1868
236,276
208,651
Above one-half of the public revenue of the colony is derived
from land, direct taxes,, and licenses, which more than cover the
expenses of administration. In 1867, the land revenue, together
with rents, amounted to 38,380/., while the income from taxes was
42,564/., and from opium licenses, 15,341/. A very large portion
of the -expenditure, reaching one- fourth of the total amount, has to
be devoted to the maintenance of peace and the security of life and
property. The expenditure is owing to the low Chinese population,
and anomalous social state of the colony.
Hong Kong has a small public debt, created in 1866, and amount-
ing at the .end of 18(68 to 15,62.5/.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is one .of a number of islands called by the Portuguese
1 Ladrones,' or thieves., from the notorious habits of (the old inhabi-
tants. It is situated .off the south-eastern coast of China, .at the
mouth of the Canton river, about 40 miles east of Macao. The whole
of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge, stretching
nearly east and west ; its abrupt peaks rising to the height of 1,800
feet above the -sea level. The length -of the island is about 11 miles,
its breadth from 2 to 5 sniles, and its area rather more than 19 square
miles. It is separated from the mainland of China by a narrow
strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does not exceed half a
mile in width. The opjwsite peninsula of Koo-loon was ceded to
Great Britain by a treaty entered into in 1861 with the Govern-
ment of China-; it now forms part of Hong Kong.
The population of Hong Kong was as follows at the end of each of
the years 1863, 1864, and 1865, according to official returns: —
Tears
European population
Total population, including
Chinese
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total
1863
1864
1865
1,118
1,304
1,368
526
659
666
91,268
87,599
92,019
33,582
33,899
33,485
124,850
121,498
125,504
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
643
According to a report of the Registrar-General of Hong Kong, the
population of the colony had decreased, on th9 31st of December
1866, to 115,120, of whom only 29,459' were females. The number
was exclusive of the military and naval forces, and included 2,113
European and American civil residents, of Avhom 673 were females.
About one-fourth of the Chinese poprdation of Hong Kon" live in
boats on the river, as shown in the subjoined table, which gives the
numbers of both sexes, dwelling on land and water, at the end of each
of the years 1863,. 1864,. and 1865.
Description of
Native population
dwellings
Males.
Females
Total
Houses . . 1
Boats . . <
Total. . 1
1863
1864
1865,
1863
1864
1865,
60,148.
56.80a
73,653
21,124
20,004
18,366.
23.385
22,779
24,966
9,413
9,330
8,519
83,533
79,579
98, 61 a
30,537
29,334
26,885.
1863
1864
1865.
81,272
76,804,
92,019
32,798
32,109
33,485
114,070,
108,913
125,504
It will be seen that in the two years from 1863 to 1865, the boat
population kept on declining, while there took place, at the same
time, an increase of natives.
The criminal population of Hong Kong is reported to be exces-
sively large, owing mainly to the fact of the colony having been
since its establishment a place of refuge for Chinese malefactors...
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part;of. the
commerce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, the United .States,
and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total
imports and exports. There are no official returns of the value of
the imports and exports of the colony, from and^o ajl countries, but
only mercantile estimates, according to which the lornier average
four, and the la.tter two, millions sterling.
The extent of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong
and the United Kingdom is sh,ovvn in the following table, which gives
the value of the total exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures into Hong Kong, in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
itl
644
HONG KONG.
Years
Exports from Hong Kong
Imports of British Produce
to Great Britain
into Hong Kong
£
£
1865
773,068
1,548,698
1866
282,273
2,387,017
1867
183.373
2.471,809
1868
235,804
2,185,972
1869
281,932
2,130,837
The chief article of exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain in
the five years 18G5-69 was raw cotton, the value of which amounted
to 532,059/. in 1865, but sank to 10,0017. in 1867, and ceased
altogether in 1868. Tea, of the value of 48,9647. in 1869, against
157,907/. in 1868, was the only other notable export article during
the same period. The British imports into Hong Kong consist
almost entirely of manufactured textile fabrics, mainly cotton goods.
The subjoined table gives the value of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures from 1850 to 1869, exhibiting
separately the imports into China and into Hong Kong, and jointly to
both, so as to show the share of Hone Kong in Chinese commerce.
Imports of
Imports of
I
Tears
British Produce '
British Produce
Total into
into China
into Hong Kong
China and Hong Kong
£
£
£
1850
975,954
598,191
1,574.145
1851
1,528.869
632,399
2,161,268
1852
1,918.244
585,355
2,503,599
1853
1,373,689
375,908
1,749.597
1864
532.639
468.077
1.000,716
1855
888.679
389,265
1,277,944
1856
: .415.178
800,645
2,216.123
1857
L,728,885
721.097
2,449,982
1858
1.730,778
1,145,669
2,876,447
1859
2,525.997
1,931.576
4,457,573
I860
2,872,045
2,445,991
5,318.036
1861
3,114.694
1,733,963
4.848.657
1863
2,024.118
1,113.224
3,137,342
1863
2,416.705
1,473.222
3,889,927
1864
3,093,865
1,618.867
4,711,478
1865
3,603,595
1,548.698
5.152,293
1866
5,090.1)7 1
2.387,017
7.477.091
1867
4,996.469
2.171.809
7,468,278
1868
6,312,175
2,185,972
8,498,147
1869
6,842,840
2,130,837
8,973,677
It will be seen that the British trade Avith Hong Kong underwent
great fluctuations in the twenty years from 1850 to 1869, but
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 645
which corresponded throughout with the general Chinese commerce,
differing only in so far as showing a trebling in the value of the
British imports coming direct to China during this period, and
little progress in those arriving by way of Hong Kong.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in use at Hong Kong, and the
British equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mexican Dollar = 100 Cents = Average rate of exchange, 45. 2d.
„ Chinese Tad = 10 Mace =
100 Candareens = 1,000 Cash = „ „ „ 65. Sd.
The Mexican dollar is the only legal tender of payment for sums
above two hundred cents, but silver dollars, bearing the effigy of the
British sovereign, are issued from the Hong Kong Mint.
Weights and Measuees.
The Tad = 1^ oz. avoirdupois.
„ Picul = 133 lbs. „
,, Catty = lj „
„ Chih = 14-L inches.
„ Chang = llffeet.
Besides the above weights and measures of China, those of Great
Britain are in general use in the colony.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.
1. Official Publications.
Keport of Governor Sir Richard Graves MacDonnall, dated Hong Kong„
October 29, 1867 ; in 'Reports showing the present state of H. M.'s Colonial
Possessions.' Part III. Eastern Colonies. Fol. London, 1868.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1853 to 1867. No. VI. London, 1870.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XII. Fol. London, 1868.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bennys (N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan : a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong
and Macao. 8. London, 1867.
Lauture (Count cFJOscayrac), Memoires sur le Chine. 4. Paris, 1864.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude
and Latitude. 8. Hong Kong, 1864.
Wells (S. Williams), Chinese Commercial Guide. 8. Hong Kong, 1863.
646
INDIA.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is esta-
blished by the Act 21 and 22 Victoria, cap. 106, called ' An Act for
the better Government of India,1 sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
the terms of this Act, all the territories heretofore under the
government of the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty,
and all its powers are exercised in her name ; all territorial and
other revenues and all tributes and other payments are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone, subject to the provisions of this Act.
One of Her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, called the
Secretary of State for India, is invested with all the powers hitherto
exercised by the Company or by the Board of Control, and all
warrants and orders under Her Majesty's sign-manual must be
countersigned by the same.
The executive authority in India is vested in a governor-general
or viceroy, appointed by the Crown, and acting under the orders of the
Secretary of State for India. The Governor-General has power to
make laws and regulations for all persons, whether British or native,
foreigners or others, within the Indian territories under the dominion
of Her Majesty, and for all servants of the Government of India within
the dominions of princes and states in alliance with Her Majesty.
Governor- General of India. — Right Hon. Richard Southwell,
Earl of Mayo, born 1822, eldest son of the fifth Earl of Mayo, in the
peerage of Ireland; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and M.A.
1844; M.P. for co. Kildare, 1847-52; Chief Secretary for Ireland,
March to December 1852, and again February 1858 to June 1859 ;
M.P. for Coleraine, 1852-57 ; M.P. for Cockermouth, 1857-68 ; for
the third time Chief Secretary for Ireland, with a seat in the cabinet,
July 1866 to September 1868; appointed Governor-General of India,
September 1868.
The salary of the Governor-General is 30,000/. a-year, exclusive
of allowances, which may be estimated at 10,000/.
The following is a list of the Governors-General of India, since
the battle of Plassy, with the dates of their appointments: — Colonel
Clive, 1751); Mr. Holwelh 1760; Mr. Vansittart, 1761; Mr.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 647
Spencer, 1765; Lord Clive, 1765; Mr. Verelst, 1767; Mr. Car-
tier, 1769; Mr. Warren Hastings, 1772 ; Sir J. M'Pherson, 1785 ;
Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis, 1786 ; Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore),
1793; the Earl of Momington (Marquis Wellesley), 1798; the
Marquis Cornwallis, 1805 ; Sir G. Barlow, 1805 ; the Earl of
Minto, 1807 ; Earl Moira (Marquis of Hastings), 1813 ; Earl
Amherst, 1823; Lord W. Bentinckr 1828; Lord Auckland, 1835;
Lord Ellenborough, 1842 ; Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge, 1844 ; Earl
(Marquis of) Dalhousie, 1847 ; Lord Canning, 1855 ; Lord Elgin,
1862; Sir John Lawrence, 1863; Karl of Mayo, 1868.
The administration of the Indian empire is entrusted by the
charter of August 2, 1858, to a Secretary of State for India, aided
by a Council of fifteen members, of whom seven are elected by
the Court of Directors from their own body, and eight are nominated
by the Crown. Vacancies in the Council, if among those nominated,
are filled up by Her Majesty, and if among the elected, by an
election by the other members of the Council ; but the major part
of the Council must be of persons who have served or resided ten
years in India, and not have left India more than ten years, previous
to the date of their appointment ; and no person not so qualified
can be elected or appointed, unless nine of the continuing members
be so qualified. The office is held during good behaviour : but a
member may be removed upon an address from both Houses of
Parliament. No member is to sit or vote in Parliament. The
salary of each is fixed at 1,200/. a-year, payable, together with that
of the Secretary of State, out of the revenues of India.
The duties of the Council of State are, under the direction of the
Secretary of State, to conduct the business transacted in the United
Kingdom in relation to the government of and the correspondence
with India ; but every order sent to India must be signed by the
secretary, and all despatches from governments and presidencies in
India must be addressed to the secretary. The secretary has to
divide the Council into committees, to direct what departments
shall be under such committees respectively, and to regulate the
transaction of business. The secretary is to be president of the
Council, and has to appoint from time to time a vice-president.
The meetings of the Council are to be held when and as th^
secretary shall direct ; biit at least one meeting must be held every
week, at which not less than five members shall be present.
The Government in India is exercised by the ' Council of the
Governor-General,' consisting of five ordinary and one or two extra-
ordinary members, the latter being the commander-in-chief and
the governor of the presidency where the Council may be sitting.
The ministry, divided into the departments of foreign affairs, finances,
the interior, military administration, and public works, do not form
648
INDIA.
part of the Council. The appointment of the members of the Council,
and of the executive governors and lieutenant-governors of the
various territories and provinces of the empire, rests with the
Secretary of State for India.
Revenue and Expenditure.
According to the Act of 1858, the revenue and expenditure of
the Indian empire are subjected to the control of the Secretary in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of the revenue
can be made without the concurrence of a majority of the Council.
Such parts of the revenues of India as may be remitted to
England, and moneys arising in Great Britain, must be paid into
the Bank of England ; and paid out on drafts or orders signed by
three members of the Council, and countersigned by the secretary
or one of his under-secretaries. The sovereign of Great Britain is
empowered to appoint from time to time an auditor of the accounts,
with power to inspect all books and examine all officers, and his
report is to be laid before Parliament. The accounts of the whole
revenue and expenditure of the Indian empire must be laid annually
before Parliament.
The subjoined table gives the total gross amount of the actual
revenue and expenditure of India, in each of the ten fiscal years
ending April 30, from 1860 to 1869, and March 31 subsequently.
By a decision of the Government the termination of the financial
year was changed in 18G7 from the 30th of April to the 31st of
March, and the accounts of the year ending March 31, 1867,
embrace a period of only eleven months : —
Years end-
ed April 30
and
March 31
Kevenue
Expenditure
Total
Expenditure
In India
In Great Britain
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
39.705,822
42,903,234
43,829,172
45,143,752
44,613,032
15, 652,897
48,935,220
42,122,433
48.534,412
49,262,691
£
44.622,269
40,408,239
37,245,756
36,800,805
38,087,772
39,452,220
41,120,924
37,094,406
41,646,947
43,225,587
£
7,239,451
7,745,848
7,624,476
7,252,317
6,894,234
6,998,770
6,211,178
7,545,518
8,497.622
10,181,747
£
51,861,720
48,154,087
44,870,232
44.053,122
44,982,006
46,450,990
47,332,102
44.639,924
50,144,569
53,407,334
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
649
The finance accounts of India laid before Parliament in the session
of 1870 stated the gross revenue in the year ending the 31st of March,
1869, at 49,262,691/.; and the expenditure at 53,407,334/., in-
cluding refunds and drawbacks, charges of collection, and direct
claims on the revenue. The estimates for the year ending March
1870 differed little from the actual revenue, which had been calcu-
lated at 52,242,940/.; but the expenditure, set down at 55,756,090/.,
was surpassed to the amount of 428,729/. In the estimates for the
year ending March 31, 1870, the total revenue was calculated at
52,327,755/., and the total expenditure at 55,226,615/., leaving
a deficit of 2,898,860/.
The subjoined tables exhibit the estimated and actual sources of
the revenue of India for the fiscal year 1869-70, and the estimated
and actual branches of expenditure for the same period, as well as
the budgets of revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year 1870-71 :
Revenue of India.
Estimates,
Actual,
Budget,
Sources of Revenue
1869-70
1869-70
1870-71
£
£
£
Land revenue ....
21,075,500
21,537,278
21,023,632
Tributes and contributions from
native states
693,200
765,143
737,073
Forest
436,600
476,090
588,780
Abkaree (Excise)
2,289,000
2,245,700
2,285,000
Assessed taxes
900,000
1,051,600
2,180,000
Customs .....
2,773,500
2,416,500
2,416,500
Salt
5,826,800
5,842,350
6,177,370
Opium .....
8,286,540
7,953,800
6,922,281
Stamps .....
2,396,900
2,364,600
760,000
Mint
136,800
158,340
139,970
Post-office ....
687,500
714.077
750,590
Telegraph ....
244,000
238,000
193,056
Law and justice
865,100
782,100
2,474,800
Police .....
301,400
265,960
251,966
Marine .....
248.500
300,530
265,615
Education ....
83,400
73,958
78,574
Interest ....
289,600
356,850
365,321
Miscellaneous ....
Total, ordinary revenue .
Army .....
966,700
1,415,172
737,874
48,501,040
48,958,048
48,348,402
732,000
913,760
736,225
Public works ....
153,600
156,500
117,870
Railways ....
Grand total
2,856,300
2,914,174
3,125,258
52,242,940
52,942,482
52,327,755
650
IXDIA.
Expenditure of India.
Branches of Expenditure
Estimates,
1869-70
Actual,
1869-70
Budget,
1870-71
£
£
£
Interest on funded and un-
funded debt
4,956,990
5,030,506
5,300,538
Interest on service funds and
other accounts
518,710
643,635
514,002
Allowances, refunds, and draw-
backs .....
259,370
449,700
400,000
Land revenue ....
2,542,320
2,460,210
2,497.612
Forest .....
284,850
319,934
437,540
Abkaree (Excise)
263,050
261,050
288,994
Assessed taxes
30,000
41,220
59,100
Customs .....
182,640
181,800
189,214
Halt
395,270
395,720
499,019
Opium .....
1.724,330
1,848,200
2,013.110
Stamps .....
120,335
110,462
68,363
Mint
98,554
102,455
95,908
Post-office ....
771,074
737,136
729,583
Telegraph ....
581,211
533,538
589,719
Administration
1,360,862
1,396,837
1,400,601
Minor departments
255,785
246,138
239.167
Law and justice
2.869,670
2,885,840
3.064,538
Police .....
2,374,290
2,440,900
2,319,964
Marine .....
883,227
1,265,109
784,100
Education
653,332
614,032
680,530
Ecclesiastical ....
169,100
162,840
169,795
Medical services
456,066
467,967
503,654
Stationery and printing .
281,388
362,600
344,250
Political agencies and other
foreign services .
270,590
422,880
313,675
Allowances and assignments un-
der treaties and engagements
1,905,520
1,892,850
1,787,090
Miscellaneous ....
585,135
1,033,863
Superannuation, retired and
985,192
compassionate allowances
945,600
1,249,572
1,376,253
Total, ordinary expenditure .
25,739,219
27,556,994
27,651,511
Army .....
16,054.061
16,47/6,892
15.745,341
Public works ....
5,834.160
5,040,395
3,998,400
Railways ....
4,562,850
4,493,795
4.769.063
52,190,290
53,568,076
52,164,315
Public Works extraordinary .
Grand total ....
3,565,800
2,616,743
3,062,300
55,756,090
56,184,819
55,226,615
The following table, compiled from official documents, exhibits
the growth of the three most important sources of the public-
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
65I
revenue of India, namely, land, salt, and opium, in the ten years
from I860 to 1869 :—
Years ended
Land
Salt
Opium
£
£
£
(i860
18,757,400
2,926,436
5,887,778
rt 1861
18,508,991
3,805,124
6,676,759
& [1862
< { 1863
19,684,668
4,563,082
6,359,270
19,570,147
5,244,150
8,055,476
ro 1864
20,303,423
5,035.696
6,831,992
I860
20,095,041
5,523,584
7,361,405 '
^3 U866
20,473,897
5,342,149
8,518.264
1 T1867
19,136,449
5.345,910
6,803,413
g <^ 1868
19.986,640
5,726.093
8,923,568
ph 1868
co "-
19,926,171
5,588,240
8,453,365
The most important source of public revenue to which rulers in
India have, in all ages, looked for obtaining their income is the
land, the tax on which, in the year before the Mutiny, furnished
more than one-half of the total receipts of the East India Company's
Treasury. At present, when the necessities of the Indian exchequer
require that Government should resort more largely to the aid of
duties levied on the continually increasing trade of the country, the
tax on land produces not quite so much in proportion, but it still
forms two-fifths of the total receipts of the empire.
The land revenue of India, as of all eastern countries, is generally
regarded less as a tax on the landowners than as the result of a joint
proprietorship in the soil, under which the produce is divided, in
unequal and generally undefined proportions, between the ostensible
proprietors and the State. It would seem a matter of justice,
therefore, as well as of security for the landowner, that the respective
shares should, at a given period, or for specified terms, be strictly
defined and limited. Nevertheless, the proportion which the
assessment bears to the full value of the land varies greatly in the
several provinces and districts of India. Under the old native
system, a fixed proportion of the gross produce was taken; but the
British system deals with the surplus or net produce which the land
may yield after deducting the expenses of cultivation, and the direc-
tions to the revenue settlement officers provide that at least one-third
of this net produce shall always be left to the cultivator as his profit.
In Bengal, a permanent settlement was made by Lord Cornwallis,
in 1793, with the zemindars or principal landowners, who pay direct
to the Government a sum probably somewhat exceeding one-half of
the amount which they receive as rent; by this measure, the Go-
vernment was debarred from any further direct participation in the
agricultural improvement of the country. In the north-w ester n
652 INDIA.
provinces, a general settlement of the revenue was completed in
1840, fixing the amount to be paid by each village for a period of
thirty years ; and a similar course has been adopted in the Punjab.
It is estimated that in this case the assessment was about two-thirds of
the yearly value — that is, the surplus after deducting expenses of culti-
vation, profits of stock, and wages of labour. In the revised settlements,
more recently made, it was reduced to one-half of the yearly value.
In the Madras Presidency there are three different revenue
systems. The zemindary tenure exists in a feAV districts, but prin-
cipally in the northern Circars ; the proprietors, of whom some possess
old ancestral estates, and others were created landholders in 1802, hold
the land direct from the Government, on payment of a fixed annual
sum. The prominent defects of this system are, that the whole of
the waste lands are alienated from the State, and form part of the
emohunents of the proprietor, to whom a considerable allowance,
estimated at from 15 to 33 per cent, of the revenue, is also made for
expenses of management, so that the intluence of the landowner,
which is very powerful, owing to the state of dependence in which all
classes are placed under him, is often injuriously exercised, par-
ticularly in matters of police. In the village-renting system, the
villagers stand in the position of the zemindar, and hold the land
jointly from the Government, allotting the different portions for culti-
vation among themselves; but this involves the serious defect of joint
responsibility, and the want of clearly denned individual property in
the land. Under the ryotwar system, every registered holder of
land is recognised as its proprietor, and pays direct to the Govern-
ment : he can sublet, transfer, sell, or mortgage it : he cannot be
ejected by the Government, and, so long as he pays the fixed assess-
ment, he has the option of annually increasing or diminishing the
cultivation on his holding, or he may entirely abandon it. In
unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are granted for loss of
produce. The assessment is fixed in money, and does not vary from
year to year, except when water is obtained from a Government
source of irrigation ; nor is any addition made to the rent for
improvements effected at the ryot's own expense. He has, therefore,
all the benefit of a perpetual lease without its responsibilities, as he
can at any time throw up his lands, but cannot be ejected so long as
he pays his dues, and receives assistance in difficult seasons. The
original assessment was unfortunately fixed too high, but the reduc-
tions and re-assessments made of late years are materially improving
the position of the cultivators. An annual settlement is made, not
to re-assess the land, but to determine upon how much of his
holding the ryot shall pay ; when no change occurs in a holding,
the ryot is not affected by the annual settlement, and is not required
to attend it. The ryotwar system may be said essentially to prevail
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 653
throughout the Presidency of Madras, as the zemindar and village
renter equally deal with their tenants on this principle.
In Bombay, the revenue management is, generally speaking,
ryotwar ; that is, as a rule, the occupants of Government lands settle
for their land revenue, or rent, with the Government officers direct,
and not through the intervention of a middle-man. Instances,
however, occasionally occur, in which the Government revenues of
entire villages are settled by individual superior holders, under
various denominations, or by a co-partnership of superior holders.
The survey and assessment of the Bombay Presidency has been
almost completed on a system introduced and carefully elaborated
about twenty years ago. The whole country is surveyed and mapped,
and the fields distinguished by permanent boundary marks which it
is penal to remove ; the soil of each field is classed according to its
intrinsic qualities and to the climate ; and the rate of assessment to
be paid on fields of each class in each subdivision of a district is fixed
on a careful consideration of the value of the crops they are capable
of producing, as affected by the proximity to market towns, roads,
canals, railways, and similar external incidents, but not by improve-
ments made by the ryot himself. This rate was probably about
one-half of the yearly value of the land, when fixed ; but, owing to
the general improvement of the country, it is not more than from a
fourth to an eighth in the districts which have not been settled quite
recently. The measurement and classification of the soil are made
once for all ; but the rate of assessment is open to revision at the end of
every thirty years, in order that the ryot, on the one hand, may have
the certainty of the long period as an inducement to lay out capital,
and the State, on the other, may secure that participation in the advan-
tages accruing from the general progress of society to which its joint
proprietorship in the land entitles it. In the thirty years' revision,
moreover, only public improvements and a gezieral change of prices,
but not improvements effected by the ryots themselves, are con-
sidered as grounds for enhancing the assessment The ryot's tenure
is permanent, provided he pays the assessment.
The important questions of the expediency of settling in per-
petuity the amount of revenue to be paid to the Government by land-
holders, of permitting this revenue to be redeemed for ever by the
payment of a capital sum of money, and of selling the fee simple of
waste lands not under assessment, have been within the last few
years fully considered by the Government of India. The expediency
of allowing owners of land to redeem the revenue has long been
advocated as likely to promote the settlement of European colonists;
but experience seems to show that advantage is very rarely taken of
the power which already exists in certain cases to redeem the rent by
a quit payment; and it appears unlikely that such a permission
654 INDIA.
would be acted upon to any great extent, while the rate of interest
afforded by an investment in the purchase of the land assessment is
so far below that obtained in ordinary transactions, as is at present
the case in India, Entertaining no doubt of the political advantages
whioh would attend a permanent settlement, and considering it most
desirable that facilities should be given for the gradual growth of a
middle class connected with the land, without dispossessing the
present proprietors and occupiers, the Government of India recently
decided to sanction the redemption of the revenue only in oases
where lands are required for dwelling-houses, factories, gardens,
plantations, and similar purposes, but to authorise a permanent
settlement being effected throughout the empire at the present or
revised rates, in all districts or parts of districts in which no consider-
able increase can be expected in the land revenue, and where its
equitable apportionment has been, or may hereafter be, satisfactorily
ascertained. In proceeding to carry this measure into effect, it was
decided that, where agriculture is backward, population scanty, and
rent not fully developed, permanency of settlement must be refused ;
and that, on the other hand, where the estates are so fairly cultivated,
and their resources so fully developed, as to wan-ant the introduction
of a settlement at the existing rates, it may be granted.
Next in importance to the land-tax, as a great source of Indian
rerenue, is the income derived from the opium monopoly, The
cultivation of the poppy is prohibited in Bengal, except for the
purpose of selling the juice to the officers of the Government at a
certain fixed price. It is manufactured into opium at the Govern-
ment factories at Patna and Benares, and then sent to Calcutta, and
sold by auction to merchants who export it to China. In the
Bombay Presidency, the revenue is derived from the opium which is
manufactured in the native states of Malwa and Guzerat, on which
passes are given, at a certain price per chest, to merchants who wish
to send opium to the port of Bombay. The poppy is not cultivated
in the Presidency of Madras. The gross revenue derived from
opium averaged during the ten years 1860-69 about 6,500,000/.
sterling, having risen from 5,887,778/. in 1859-60 tp 8,453,365/. in
the year ending March 31, 1869.
The land tax, largest source of Indian revenue, has discharged for
years past, with ample margin left, the largest branch of public
expenditure, that for the army. The maintenance of the armed
force, which must be maintained to uphold British rule in India,
cost 13,874,956/. the year before the great mutiny, and subsequently
rose to above 16,000,000/.; but after the year 1861 sank, for a
short period, to less than 13,000,000/. It was 13,909,412/. in the
financial year 1865-66; 13,181,210/. in 1866-67; 16,476,892/.
in 1869-70; and 15,745,341/. in the budget estimates of 1870-71.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
655
A gradual reduction of army expenditure is contemplated by the
government.
The revenue derived from the opium monopoly is more than
sufficient, even in the lowest years, to pay the interest of the public
debt of India. The amount of the debt, including that incurred in
Great Britain, was, on April 30, 1857, 54,490,798/. In the course
of the next five years the debt was very largely increased, and on
April 30, 1862, it had risen to 107,514,159/. Since that time, the
Government have been enabled to pay off some portion of it, and at
the end of the financial year 1869, the principal sum had been
reduced to 102,866,189/.
The subjoined table shows the amount of the public debt, and
the interest thereon, of British India, distinguishing the debt in India
and in Great Britain, in each of the ten years 1860 to 1869 : —
Years ended
April 30 and
Slarch 31
In India
In Great Britain
Debt
Interest
Debt
Interest
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
71,969,460
71,901,081
72,418,859
72,656,135
72,207,645
72,352,455
71,437,251
72,526,815
71,289,111
71,168,289
£
3,123,327
3,232,104
3,134.897
3,351,680
3,093,250
3,261,261
3,327,651
2,953,038
3,650,297
3,559,999
A
26,138,000
29,976,000
35,095,300
31,839,100
26,310,500
26,125,100
26,946,400
29,538,000
30,697,000
31,697,900
£
766,864
1,061,233
1,426,008
1.486,916
1.372,599
1,221,124
1,249,765
1,306,293
1,452,490
1,465,015
It will be seen that the total debt amounted to 98,107,460/. in
1860, and that it had grown to 102,866,189/. in 1869. The total
interest, which was 3,889,191/. in 1860, had risen to 5,025,014/. in
1869, or nearly one-third within ten years. The debt in England,
it will be remarked, grew alone, while there was an actual decrease
of the debt in India.
The currency of India is mainly silver, and the amount of money
coined annually is large. In the five financial years, ending the
31st March, 1869, the value of the new coinage was as follows: —
Tears
Gold
Silver
Copper
Total
£
A
A
£
1865
95,671
10,485,865
229,861
10,811,397
1866
17,662
14,507,079
269,337
14,794,078
1867
27,717
6,182,668
143,566
6,353,951
1868
21,534
4,382,359
26,361
4,430,254
1869
25,156
5,341,708
90,219
5,457,083
656 INDIA.
On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of
India, providing for the issue of a paper currency by a Government
department of Public Issue, by means of promissory notes for sums
of not less than ten rupees, or 11. in value. Circles of issue were
established from time to time, as found necessary, and the notes were
made legal tender within the circle in which they were issued, and
rendered payable at the place of issue, and also at the capital city of
the Presidency within which that place was situated. Afurther Act was
passed in 1862, authorising the banks of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay,
1o enter into arrangements with the Government for managing the
issue, payment, and exchange of the currency notes, and such of the
business previously transacted by the Government treasuries as it
might be desirable to transfer to them ; and on February 28 of the
same year an Act was passed, repealing the power previously held by
the bank of Bengal to issue its own promissory notes, placing the
affairs of the bank on a new footing, with power to enlarge its capital
very considerably, and transferring to it the management of a large
part of the treasury business of the Government, and also that
connected with the paper currency. Similar Acts were passed with
reference to the banks of Madras and Bombay.
An arrangement was more recently concluded with the bank of
Bengal for carrying out the details of this measure. In the first
instance, the issue of notes was entrusted to the bank, but it being,
in the opinion of the Secretary of State in Council, necessary that the
functions of banking and currency should not be united in one
establishment, the management of the issue was shortly afterwards
placed in the hands of a commissioner, whose office is at the Mint.
Ten currency circles have been established, the head-quarters of
which are at Calcutta, Allahabad, Lahore, and Nagpore, Madras,
Calicut, Trichinopoly, and Vizagapatam, Bombay, and Kurrachee,
and instructions have been issued for receiving the notes of branch
circles at any Government treasury in payment of taxes, and for
converting them at any place of issue where the officer in charge
anticipates no risk in doing so. The total amount of notes now in
circulation is in value a little above 7,000,000/.
Army.
The Act of Parliament which transferred the Government of India
to the Crown, in 1858, directed that the military forces of the East
India Company should be deemed to be Indian Military Forces of
Her Majesty, and should be ' entitled to the like pay, pensions,
allowances, and privileges, and the like advantages as regards pro-
motion and otherwise, as if they had continued in the service of the
said Company.' It was at the same time provided, that the Secretary
ARMY.
657
of State for India should have ' all such or the like powers over all
officers appointed or continued under this Act as might or should
have been exercised or performed by the East India Company.'
The following table gives the total number of troops, both royal
and Indian forces, employed in British India, in each of the ten years
— ending April 30 the first seven, and March 31 subsequently —
from 1860 to 18G9 : —
Indian Forces
Years
Royal Troops,
Europeans
Europeans
Natives
1860
72,1.58
20,708
213,002
305,868
1861
62,120
22,174
184,672
268,966
1862
67,545
10,629
125,913
204,087
1863
71,074
5,011
121,775
197,860
1864
70,674
4,287
121,060
196,021
I860
65,901
5.979
118,315
190,195
1866
62,451
4,363
117,095
183,909
1867
61,498
3,969
117,681
183,148
1868
58,288
3,609
119,169
181,066
1869
60,969
3,889
120,000
184,858
In the above table, the East India Company's troops appear under
the head of 'Indian Forces' in the year 1857, after which the
Europeans and natives are Her Majesty's Indian forces, distinct from
royal troops employed in India.
In the army estimates laid before Parliament in the session of 1870,
the strength of Her Majesty's British Forces in India for the year
1870-71 was given as follows : —
British forces
Officers
Non-com-
missioned
officers
Rank and
File
Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Artillery and engineers .
Infantry of the line .
Total
200
225
1,016
1,500
253
424
795
3,262
2,680
3,762
7,936
41,000
2,941
4,734
62,963
The total cost of the Indian army in 1857, the year before the
mutiny, with 45,522 European and 232,224 natives on the pay-rolls,
was 13,874,950/., while in the financial year 1868-9, when there
were 64,858 Europeans, and 120,000 natives on the pay-rolls, the
charges amounted to 16,044,061/. The Secretary of State for India,
when submitting the Indian budget, for the year 1869-70, to ParUa-
u u
658 INDIA.
ment, declared that he had ' directed the attention of the Govern-
ment of India very earnestly to the question whether considerable
economy might not be carried out in the military expenditure.'
Population.
The total area and population of India are as follows, according to
official returns of the year 1870: —
Presidencies and Provinces
under the Administration of —
Area in
English
sq. miles
Population
Governor-General of India in Council
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal
Lieutenant-Governor of North-West Provinces
Lieutenant-Governor of Punjaub
Chief Commissioner of Oude
Chief Commissioner of Central Provinces .
Chief Commissioner of British Burmah
Governor of Madras
Governor of Bombay . .
Commissioner of Sind .
46,738
200,724
83,690
95,768
24,060
82,839
93.879
141,113
87,639
54,403
6,285,593
40,352,960
30,086,898
17,593,946
11,220,747
7,987,476
2,392,312
26,539.052
11,093,512
1,795,594
Total under British administration .
910,853
155,348,090
Not belonging to British India, but more or less under the control
of the Indian Government, are a number of Native States, covering
an extent of (140,147 English square miles, with upwards of 46
millions of inhabitants. They are : —
Area in
Native States under —
English
sq. .miles
Population
Government of India ......
385,296
27,716,352
Bengal .....
79,156
2,139,565
North-West Provinces
5,390
1,2S4,691
Punjaub .....
43,877
5,086,502
Central Provinces
28,399
1,095,275
Madras .....
31,953
2.371,333
M Bombay ..."....
Total Native States
72,076
6,552,170
646,147
46,245,888
There has never been a regular census of the whole of India
under British administration, but enumerations, more or less re-
liable were made in the North- Western and in the Central Pro-
vinces in the vears 1865 and L866. The census of the North-West
Provinces, taken January 10, 1865, showed that this division of
India had increased in prosperity within the decennial period
1856-65 as reckoned by the number of houses and extension of
POPULATION. 659
cultivation. There were found to be 471 persons to a house or hut,
and 7-06 to an enclosure, or family dwelling. The census further
showed that there were 44j millions of Mussulmans, in the North-
West Provinces, or about one-seventh of the total population, the
other sixth-seventh being Hindoos of the four chief castes, namely,
Brahmins. 70 subdivisions; Kshatryas, 175 subdivisions; Vaisyas,
65 subdivisions; Soodras, 230 subdivisions. The Soodras were
found to form the great bulk of the Hindoos, being 18,304,309
in number; the Vaisyas numbered 1,091,250; the Kshatryas,
2,827,708; and the Brahmins, 3.451,092. As regards occupa-
tions, the people of the North-West Provinces, in the census of
1865, were classified after the English system, as follows : — ' Pro-
fessional ' were 428,246, of whom 93,204 government servants,
20.454 soldiers, and 313,908 belonging to the learned professions.
The bidk of the people were returned as ' agricultural/ viz.
17,657,006, of whom 138,559 were engaged about animals. Under
the head of ' industrial ' came 3y868,822 ; of these, 303,356 were
devoted to arts and mechanics, 1,456,326 to textile fabrics and dress,
and 951,420 to food and drink. The sixth class, ' indefinite and
nonproductive,' embraced 4,369,049. Of these, 3,824,956 were
dependents, and 4,080 persons of rank and property.
The census of the Central Provinces, taken on November 5, 1866,
showed that the race and religious elements of the Inhabitants of
this division of British India were 6,064,770 Hindoos, 1.995,663
Gonds and aboriginal tribes, 237,962 Mussulmans,. 6,026 Europeans
and Eurasians, and 90 Parsees. An unexpected fact here was the
small number of Mussulmans. Taking the results of this and the
North-West census, the Mahomedans seem to be only one-eighth, and
not, as formerly believed, one-fourth of the inhabitants of India.
The occupations of the native inhabitants of the Central Provinces
were found much the same as in the adjoining North -West Pro-
vinces. Fifty-seven per cent were engaged in agriculture, against 64
in the latter, and 56 in the Punjaub. Of the 57 per cent.. 155.7 t0
were landholders, 3,750,457 tenants, 795,805 farm servants, and
177,629 ' other agriculturists.' The commercial classes numbered
204,950, of whom 52,405 dealt in monev, 77,419 in grain and
tobacco, and 75,126 in English cloth and other goods. The artisan
class was returned at 844,952. Of these, 141,702 worked in iron,
gold, silver, copper, and brass; 47,097 were potters; 414,124
weavers and spinners; 55,148 carpenters; and 122,148 shoemakers
and workers in leather. As regards the proportion of the sexes, it
was found that in the North- West thei*e were only &6"6 females to
each 100 males. The proportion was more equal in Central India,
or 95*4 to 100, because, as- stated by the Census Commissioners, 'the
Rajpoot or female infant-slaying castes are not so numerous; the
v v 2
66o
INDIA.
population is of more value, females especially are valued by the hill
tribes, and among them marriage is at a later and more healthy time
of life.'
It was found at all the enumerations yet taken in India, that there
exists a high proportion of children to adults. Thus, while the per-
centage of children under 12 years of age was 29 in England and 36
in the counties at the last census, it was in many parts of India as
high as 55. Various reasons are adduced to account for such a
remarkable result, among which may be mentioned the custom of
polygamy, the main cause of which is reported to be ' the desire to
have male issue, which induces Hindoos to marry as many wives as
they can afford to keep until a son is born.'
The three largest towns in India are Calcutta, Madras, and
Bombay. Enumerations of the population of Calcutta were made in
January 1866, of Madras in January 1863, and of Bombay in
February 1864, the results of all of which are shown in the follow-
ing tables. The first gives the number of inhabitants of the three
towns, distinguishing males, females, and children : —
Towns
Males
Females
Children
Total
Calcutta
Madras ....
Bombay
Total .
19S,077
134,302
. 436,305
115,311
165,307
207,285
64,536
128,162
172,972
377,924
427,771
816,562
768,684
487,903
365,670
1,622,257
l
The origin, caste, or religion of the inhabitants of Calcutta is
specified in the subjoined statement : —
Origin, caste, or religion
Males
Females
Children
Total
Europeans
6,820
2,545
1,859
11,224
Indo-Europeans
4,082
4,218
2.736
11,036
Armenians
291
238
174
703
Jews ....
240
228
213
681
Greeks ....
17
7
6
30
Africans
39
9
5
53
Asiatics
786
412
243
1,441
Chinese ....
378
—
31
409
Parsees ....
73
15
10
98
Hindoos
119,539
78,901
40,750
239,190
Mussulmans .
Total .
65,812
28,738
18,509
113,059
198,077
115,311
64,536
377,924
The following table gives the same particulars about the inhabit-
ants of Madras : —
POPULATION.
66 I
Origin, caste, or religion
Males Females
Children | Total
Europeans
Indo-Europeans
Hindoos
Mussulmans .
Total .
4,707
6,804
103,793
18,998
5,160
8,490
127,643
24,014
6,501
6,545
94,242
20,874
16,368
21,839
325,678
63,886
134,302
165,307
128,162
427,771
The subjoined statement exhibits the like classification of the
inhabitants of Bombay : —
Origin, caste, or religion
Males
Females
Children
Total
Europeans
6,173
1,148
1,094
8,415
Indo-Europeans
749
533
609
•1,891
Native Christians
10,641
4,728
4,534
19,903
Jews
1,024
831
1,017
2,872
Africans
1,206
386
482
2,074
Chinese .
296
19
43
358
Parsees .
21,332
14,556
13,313
49,201
Brahmins
18,559
6,574
5,471
30,604
Buddhists
4,812
1,540
1,669
8,021
Bhatia .
10,689
6,410
4,672
21,771
Hindoos
285,172
131.386
107,416
523,974
Lingaet
898
387
313
1,598
Mussulmans .
Total .
74,754
38,787
32,339
172,972
145,880
816,562
436,305
207,285
The following is an analytical estimate partly based on census
returns, of the chief races and creeds dwelling among the bulk of
the popidation of British India, the Hindoos :-
Number
1,129,319
Sikhs
Mahomedans : —
Punjaub .
North -West Provinces
Central Provinces
Berar
Madras .
British Burmah
Mysore
Coorg
Seinde
Bombay, in 12 out of 21 districts
Bombay Island
Calcutta .
Dacca Division .
Best of Bengal and Bombay, and Oude
Total .
Census
1868
1868
9,335,652
1865
4,105,206
1866
237,962
1867
154,951
1867
1,502,134
1867
38,601
—
172,255
—
3,318
—
1,354,781
—
779,264
1864
145,880
1866
113,059
—
2,493,174
—
5,400,000
24,936,237
662 INDIA.
Non-Aryans : —
Madras 650,000
Central Provinces 1,995,663
South Bengal 4,000,000
North-East Bengal 1,000,000
Karens . 402,117
Khyens and Yabangs . . . 61,562
Best of India 4,000,000
Total 12,099,342
Not included in the above statement are Parsees, to the estimated
number of 180,000; Eurasians 91,000, and Jews about 10,000.
Leaving out of account the Native States, the following may be
roughly accepted as the relative proportions of creeds and races in
India :—
Asiatic Christians 1,100,000
Buddhists 3,000,000
Aborigines or Non- Aryans 12,000,000
Mussulmans 25,000,000
Hindoos 110,000,000
The English population in India amounted, according to the re-
turns made by the several Governments, to 125,945 persons at the
census of 1861. Of these. **4,083 went to compose the British
officers and men of the Indian army; while 22,556 consisted of men
and boys in civil lif« including the civilians in the public service ;
the remaining 19,306 being females, of whom 9,773 were over 20
years of age. When the census was taken, the number of females
of English origin in India above the age of 15 was 11,636, including
8.356 wives and 1.146 widows. Of the officers and men of the
Royal army 93 per cent, of all ages were unmarried, while the pro-
portion of unmarried civilians amounted to 50 per cent.
Efforts for spreading education among the population of India
have been made since 1848, in which year the Lieutenant-Governor
of Agra brought forward a scheme for giving a schoolmaster to every
village, of at least a hundred families. After three years' discussion,
the Court of Directors of the East India Company accepted the
groundwork of the plan, and orders were issued directing that a
good vernacular school should be established for every ' circle ' of
villages, called ' Nulkabundee,' and that the teacher should be paid
from a cess of 2 per cent, on the land revenue. The State takes 50
per cent, of the net produce of the soil, the peasant proprietor takes
45, and the remaining 5 is devoted to schools, roads, and police for
the villages. As each 30 years' settlement, or leases, fell in, this cess
was made compulsory, beginning with Jhansi. From the year 1852
the cess has spread all over India, except part of Bengal, form-
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
663
ing a fund for the education of the cultivators of the soil. In the
North-Western Provinces and Madras the foundation has been
laid of a national system of Education ; while the general position
for the whole of India is, that the Government has succeeded in
establishing a system of public instruction for the upper and middle
classes, but has, as yet, naade little or no impression upon the great
body of the population.
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of the Indian empire,
including treasure, was as follows, in each of the ten fiscal years
ending April 30 and March 31, from I860 to 1869 : —
Years ended
Imports
Exports
£
£
I860 .
40,622,103
28,889,210
—
1861 .
34,170,793
34,090,154
u
1862 .
37,272,417
37,000,397
-5ft
1863 .
43,141,351
48,970,785
0
1864 .
50,108,171
66,895,884
1865 .
49,514,275
69,471,791
.1866 .
56,156,529
67,656,475
g 1 1867 .
42,275,619
44,291,497
! S i 1868 .
47,128,291
51,527,588
£ 1 1869 .
50,943,191
53,706,830
Divided into merchandise and treasure, the imports in each of the
ten fiscal years were as follows : —
Imports of
Imports of
Total
Merchandise
Treasure
Imports
£
£
£
r1860 .
24,265,140
16,356,963
40,622,103
1861 .
23.493,716
10,677,077
34,170,793 1
Fh
1862 .
22,320,432
14,951,985
37,272.417
<N
1863 .
22,632,384
20,508,967
43,141,351
0
1864 .
27,145,590
22,962,581
50,108,171
1865 .
28,150,923
21,363,352
49,514,275
J866 .
29,599,228
26,557,301
56,156,529
J
r1867 .
29,038,715
13,236,904
42,275,619
*J
1868 .
35,397,832
11,730,459
47,128,291
£
1869 .
35,793,767
15,149,424
50,943,191
Similarly, the exports in each of the ten years were as follows:
664
INDIA.
Exports of
Exports of
Total
Merchandise
Treasure
Exports
£
£
£
'I860 .
27,960,203
929,007
28,889,210
1861 .
32,970,605
1,119,549
34,090,154
•c
1862 .
36,317,042
683,355
37,000,397
< 1
1863 .
47,859,645
1,111,140
48,970,785
o
1864 .
65,625,449
1,270,435
66,895,884
1865 .
68,027,016
1,444,775
69,471,791
L1866 .
65,491,123
2,165,352
67,656,475
s-.
(1867 .
41,859,994
2,431,503
44,291,497
£
1868 .
50,045,849
1,481,739
51,527,588
CO
(l869 .
52,316,486
1,390,344
53,706,830
The imports, including treasure, were distributed as follows
between the four great commercial divisions of India — Bengal, Bur-
mah, Madras, and Bombay : —
Imports into
Imports into
Imports into
Imports into
Bengal
British Burmah
Madras
Bombay
£
£
£
£
1860 .
20,717,598
1 Included f
3,000,846
16,903,659
ph j 1861 .
15,550,277
J Bengal (_
3,205,097
15,415,419
1862 .
14,307,358
533,790
3,474,519
18,956,750
«H
1863 .
14,979,456
572,956
3,408,640
24,180,299
1864 .
15,080,219
565,519
4,055,024
30,407,409
1865 .
17,780,203
812,015
4,262,689
26,659,368
,1866 .
20,700,324
875,798
4,494,265
30,086,142
a
r1867 .
18.976,850
781,084
3,144,730
19,372,955
a-
1868 .
21,840,163
1,130,213
3,681,869
20,476.046
s
[1869 .
21,321,371
1,388,814
4,104,692
24,128,314
The exports, including treasure, were d
ivided as follows : —
Tears ended
Exports from
Exports from
Exports from
Exports from
Bengal
British Burmah
Madras
Bombay
;£
£
£
£
r1860 .
12,903,770
1 Included f
2,492,156
13,493,284
H
1861 .
13,656,506
J Bengal \
2.868,767
17.564,881
1862 .
13,110,859
1,425,871
3,413,634
19,050.033
<-\
1863 .
15,627,387
1,377,203
5,089,726
26,876,469
©
1864 .
19,328,765
1,630,733
7,367,662
38,568,724
1865 .
18,014,796
2,933,907
6,920,187
41,602,901
11866 .
20,196,481
2,825,522
7,769,015
36,865,457
3 i 1867 .
17,797,428
1,271,002
3,339,121
21,883,946
S 1868 .
20,066,098
1,629,508
4,302,763
25,528.619
£ ' 1869 .
21,367,819
2,454,663
6,114,041
23,770,307
The extent of the commercial intercourse between India and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports from India to Great
Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
665
and manufactures into India in each of the ten years ended
December 31, 1860 to 1869 :—
Years
Exports from India to
Great Britain and Ireland
Imports of
British Home Produce
into India
£
£
1860
15,106.597
16,965,292
1861
21,968,752
16,411,756
1862
34,133,551
14,617,673
1863
48,434,640
20.002,241
1864
52,295,599
19,951,637
1865
37,395,454
18,269,413
1866
36.901,997
20,009,490
1867
25,487,786
21,805,127
1868
30,071,871
21,251,773
1869
33,245,442
17,559,865
The chief articles of export from India to the United Kingdom,
in the year 1869, were raw cotton, of' the value of 18,340,869/.;
indigo, of the value of 2,309,882/. ; jute, of the value of 2,124,398/. ;
and rice, of the value of 2,078,265/. The chief articles of British
produce imported into India in 1869 were cotton goods, of the
value of 10,850,509/. ; iron, of the value of 1,732,357/. ; and copper,
of the value of 1,245,491/.
Next to the United Kingdom, the countries having the largest
trade with India are China and Japan, France, and Australasia. The
value of the imports into India from all countries — including treasure
and, in the case of the United Kingdom, foreign and colonial pro-
duce— was as follows in each of the years ending the last of March
1867 and 1868 :—
Countries
1867
1868
£
£
United Kingdom .....
22,763,591
24,750,966
Aden .....
200,574
134,427
Africa, coast of
183,471
202,424
America, North and South
79,426
111,867
Arabian and Persian Gulfs
i
1,350,484
1,305,538
Australasia ....
1,022,786
644,245
Batavia, Java, and Sumatra
17.712
65,675
Ceylon
1,420,998
1,952,423
China .....
8,569,291
8,280,852
France .....
1,103,268
661,023
Maldive Islands
19,353
35,089
Mauritius and Bourbon .
487,720
442,102
Mediterranean ports
9,888
7,612
Penang, Singapore, and Malacca
1,703,683
1,417,155
-Egypt
2,756,843
5,486,918
Other Countries
566,861
60,231
Total .
42,275,619
47,128,291
666
INDIA.
The imports under the head of Egypt represent mainly, if not
entirely, merchandise and treasure sent from the United Kingdom by
the ' overland route.'
In the year ending March 31, 1869, the imports rose to
50,943,191/., the total being represented by merchandise to the
value of 35,793,767/., and treasure 15,149,424/. The imports
into Bengal amounted to 21.840,163/. in 1867-68, and to 21,321,371/.
in 1868-69, and into Bombay 20,476,046/. in 1867-68, and
24,128,314/. in 1868-69.
The total exports of India, including treasure, were divided
between the following countries, in each of the years ending
March 31, 1867 and 1868:—
Countries
United Kingdom
Aden ....
Africa, including Cape Colony .
America, North and South
Arabian and Persian Gulfs
Australasia
Ceylon ....
China and Japan
France ....
Germany
Maldive Islands
Mauritius and Bourbon .
Mediterranean ports
Penang, Singapore, and Malacca
Egypt .......... ..„._„....
West Indies ....
Other Countries
Total .
23,534,864
25,088,513
268,451
777,350
69,845
286,773
975,962
1,172,735
1,230,457
1,545,825
105.753
94,969
2,046,841
1,757.099
11,176,816
14,295,396
1,796,115
2,455,877
9,385
69,624
38,864
31,399]
931,821
583,084
1,474
163,806
998,176
1,190.927
87,859
158,415
79,502
122,267
839,312
104,021
. 44,291,497
51,527,588
The exports of India in the financial year ending 31st March,
1869, were of the value of 53,706\830/., the total being represented
by merchandise to the value of 52,316,486/., and treasure 1,390,344/.
The exports from Bengal amounted to 20,006,698/. in 1867-68, and
to 21,367,819/. in 1868-69, and from Bombay to 25,528,619/. in
1867-68, and to 23,770,307/. in 1868-69.
The number of vessels of all nations, entered at ports in India
from long sea voyages during the year ending March 31, 1869, was
3,435, of 1,581,906 tons; while of vessels in the coasting trade
there entered 11,956, of 1,252,689 tons. The number of vessels
cleared on long voyages during the same period was 4,378, of
1,740,296 tons ; and in the coasting trade, 10,424, of 1,250,203
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
667
tons. The following table shows the number and tonnage of all
vessels, including native craft, which entered and cleared in each
of the ten fiscal years — ending April 30 till 1866, and March 31
subsequently — from 1800 to 1869 : —
Years ended
April 30 and
March 31
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
21,190
22,931
22,034
21,387
25,748
26,823
24,870
16,862
16,734
15,391
2,374,969
2,547,018
2,932,057
2,788,958
3,509,979
3,913,310
3,695,364
3,142,517
4,423,605
3,813,480
20,458
21.701
21,960
20,114
24,126
26,070
23,531
15,457
16,966
14,802
2,523,983
2,554,956
2,955,294
2,823,247
3,344,273
4,007,607
3,926,020
3,225,244
4,648,921
2,990,499
The number and tonnage of vessels under the British flag which
entered and cleared at ports in India during each of the ten fiscal
years from 1860 to 1869 was as follows : —
Years ended
April 30 and
March 31
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1860
3,059
1,412,797
3,365
1,505,204
1861
3,169
1,430,496
3,441
1,435,627
1862
3,608
1,628,032
4,092
1,663,946
1863
3,743
1,654,844
3,755
1,737,636
1864
4,790
2,249,300
4,756
2,159,622
1865
5,385
2,690,687
5,526
2,726,834
1866
5,180
2,568,397
5.401
2,780,443
1867
4.353
1,517,760
4,634
1,523,763
1868
5.159
1,862,814
5,329
1,962,519
1869
3,435
1,581,906
4,378
1,740,296
The internal commerce of India has been vastly developed of
late years by the construction of several great lines of railways,
made under the guarantee of the Government. In the year 1845
two private associations, termed the East Indian and the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway Companies, were formed for the purpose
of constructing lines of railroad in India; but the projectors found it
impossible to raise the necessary funds for their proposed schemes
without the assistance of the State. It was, therefore, determined
by the East India Government to guarantee to the railway companies,
for a term of 99 years, a rate of interest of 5 percent, upon the capital
668
INDIA.
subscribed for their undertakings ; and, in order to guard against the
evil effects of failure on the part of the companies, power was
reserved by the Government to supervise and control all their pro-
ceedings by means of an official director in England and of officers
appointed for the purpose in India. The land required for the
railways and works connected therewith was given, and continues to
be given, by the Government free of expense, and the stipulated
rate of interest is guaranteed to the shareholders in every case,
except that of the traffic receipts of the line being insufficient to
cover the working expenses, in which event the deficiency is charge-
able against the guaranteed interest. Should the net receipts, on
the other hand, be in excess of the sum required to pay the amount
guaranteed, the surplus is divided in equal parts between the Govern-
ment and the shareholders, until the charge to the Government for
interest in previous years, with simple interest thereon, has been
repaid, after which time the whole of the receipts are distributed
among the shareholders. The railway companies have the power of
surrendering their works, .after any portion of the line has been
opened for three months, and of receiving from the Government the
money expended on the undertaking ; and, on the other hand, the
Government has the power at the expiration of a period of 25 or 50
years from the date of the contracts, of purchasing the railways at the
mean value of the shares for the three previous years, or of paying a
proportionate annuity until the end of the 99 years, when the land
and works will revert to the Government, unless the railway
companies have previously exercised their powers of surrender.
The progress of the railway system in India within ten years is
exhibited in the following table, which gives the length of lines open
for traffic in each of the territorial divisions, at the end of 1859,
1863, 1867, and 1869 :—
Presidency or Province
1859
1863
1867
1869
Bengal ....
North-west Provinces
Madras ....
Bombay ....
Scinde ....
Punjaub ....
Total
Miles
142
96
194
Miles
611
292
522
652
114
43
Miles
\ 1,311
772
1,159
109
246
Miles
1,536
840
1,182
111
359
432
2,234
3,597
4,028
The following statement shows the traffic on all the Indian rail-
ways in each of the years ended June 30, 1868 and 1869 : —
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
669
Total earnings ......
Mean mileage open .....
Average receipt per week ....
Average receipt per week per mile open .
1868
18G9
£
5,145,957
3,945
98,960
25-1
£
5,512,918
4,128
106,017
25-7
The following statement gives the mileage, and the average weekly
receipts per mile, of the various railway companies, in each of the
years, ending June 30, 1868 and 1869 : —
Weekly Receipts per mile
Companies
Miles
1868
1869
£
£
East Indian —
Main Line
1,131
365
41-8
Jubbulpore .
223
7-4
8-3
Great Indian Peninsida .
873
324
314
Eastern Bengal
113
275
28-0
Bombay and Baroda .
308
25-7
267
Madras —
South-west
492
157
15-6
North-west .
197
170
137
Scinde ....
106
17-0
12-8
Delhi ....
201
5-8
12-3
Oudh ....
42
11-3
9-7
Great Southern .
168
4 5
8-4
Punjaub ....
246
8-0
7-6
Mullah ....
28
5-4
52
The total amount of paid-up capital of all the railway companies,
on the 31st December, 1869, was 84,721,306/., while the total
expenditure up to the same date was 82,135,559/. The total
amount of guaranteed interest paid by the Indian Government
to the Indian railway companies, from the beginning of 1849 to
the close of the year 1869. was 29,778,757/. Of this sum, how-
ever, upwards of 15,000,000/. was repaid out of the net earnings of
the various lines. The payments made for guaranteed interest to
each company, to December 31, 1869, were as follows: — East
Indian, 12,767,601/.; Great Indian Peninsula, 6,780,613/.;
Madras, 3,909,174/.; Scinde, 942,312/.; Punjaub and Delhi,
1,492,351/. ; Indus Steam Flotilla, 183,269/. ; Bombay, Baroda,
and Central India, 382,473/. ; Eastern Bengal, 786,155/. ; Great
Southern of India, 394,702/.; and Oude and Rohilcund, 140,105/.
The average amount paid by Government in the period 1849-69
was 707,500/. per annum.
6;o
11NDIA.
The construction of railways, besides fostering trade and cpm-
merce, has produced social and moral effects indicated, to some
extent, by a vastly increased postal intercourse. In the fiscal year
1859-60, there were 850 post offices and receiving houses in British
India, and the number of letters and newspapers sent through them
was 47,788,105, and in 1859-60 the number of post offices had
risen to 3,710, and the letters and newspapers to 74,664,817. The
following table gives the number of offices and receiving houses,
together with the total revenue and expenditure of the post office in
each of the ten fiscal years 1860 to 1869 : —
Tears ended
and receiving
houses
Total
revenue
Total
expenditure
Number
£
£
[I860 ....
850
661,505
480,637
_
1861
914
608,524
519,805.
'£
1862
984
402,135
481,328
<<
1863
1,142
425.528
481,196
o
1864
1.293
459.882
502,671
co
1865
1,421
362.333
426,456
1^1866
2,070
406,466
433,304
S| f 1867
2,558
496,439
466,642
g ■{ 1868
3.159
659,679
548.439
S 1 1869
3,710
707.792
693,316
The following table shows the total number of letters and news-
papers sent through the post offices in each presidency or province
during the fiscal years 1867 to 1869 : —
Presidency or Province
Years (ended 31st March)
1867
1868
1869
Number
Number
Number
of covers
of covers
of covers
Bengal
11,950.962
13.822.252
15.236,422
Madras .....
9,598.559
10*829,753
11,917,657
Bombav .....
12,516,454
15.1(35,672
17,123,690
North- West Provinces
14.227,435
15.652,848
16,986.561
Punjab and Scinde .
8,496,235
10,001.172
10,631,585
Central Provinces .
1,632.352
1,991 j 175
2,142.100
British Burma h
Total
460,819
515,593
626.796
58,882,816
67,978 365
74,664,817
Tn the fiscal year L'859-60, the mails travelled over 39,338 miles,
of which total 32,765 miles was done by boats and 'runners;'
5,861 miles by carts and on horseback; and only 712 miles by
railways. Ten years after, in the fiscal year 186S-69, the mails-
MONET, "VTEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
67I
travelled over 50,281 miles, of which total 40,586 miles was'done
by boats and 'runners;' 5,460 miles by carts and on horseback,
and 4,235 miles by railways.
It is stated in the last official report made by the Government
director of the Indian railway companies that 10,000 miles, in addi-
tion to nearly 5,000 which were either open or in course of construc-
tion at the commencement of 1869, will provide necessary commu-
nication through all the chief provinces ; and that b}^ an annual
expenditure of 3,750,000/. about 300 miles could be opened every
year, supposing the cost to be 12,000/. per mile, so that thus, in
about 30 years, all the requirements of India would be met, ' without
either extraordinary taxation, inconvenient pressure on the public
revenues, or objectionable increase of the liabilities of the State.'
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mohur of Bengal, average rate of exchange
,, Mohur of Bombay ,,
,. Rupee of Bombay „ „
„ Rupee of Madras of 15 Silver Rupees „
„ Star Pagoda of Madras „
,, Madras or Company's Rupee of 16 Annas or 192 Pice
„ Sicca Rupee: 16- loths of Company's Rupee .
In 1835 the Government remodelled the currency of India,
establishing a more uniform system, in conformity with which
accounts are mostly kept at present in Rupees, reckoned of the value
of 2 shillings, subdivided into Annas, worth l| pence, of Pice, of £
of a penny. Silver is the only legal tender and standard of value.
£
i.
d.
1
13
H
1
10
1}
1
9
n
1
9
2|
0
7
4
0
1
10J
0
1
111
Weights and Measuees.
The Maund of Bengal, of 40 seers
,, „ Bombay .
,, ,, Madras .
„ Candy, of 20 maunds
„ Tola ....
„ Guz of Bengal
2'0o4 lbs. avoirdupois.
28 lbs.
25 lbs.
24-3 bushels.
180 gr.
36 inches.
Besides the above, there are a very large number of weights and
measures of purely local value, the abolition of which, and'consoli-
dation into one uniform standard, has been for some years under the
consideration of the Government.
672
INDIA.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trad*5 and Navigation of British India with
Foreign Countries, and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies
in the year ending 31st March, 1809, together with Miscellaneous Statistics
relating to the Foreign Trade of British India, from various periods to 1868-69.
Imp. 4. pp. 203. Calcutta, 1870
Finance and Revenue Accounts ; and Miscellaneous Statistics relating to
the Finances of British India. Part I. Revenues, Charges, and other Cash
Transactions of British India from 1st May, 1861, to 31st March, 1869. Fol.
pp. 136. Calcutta, 1870.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part II. Revenues and Charges of each
Presidency and Province, from 1st May, 1861, to 31st March, 1869. Fol. pp.
105. Calcutta, 1870.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part III. Revenues and Charges, Statis-
tics for the Administration of Revenue, and Miscellaneous Statistics. Fol. pp.
2-12. Calcutta, 1870.
Indian Army and Civil Service List. Issued by permission of the
Secretary of State for India in Council. 8. pp. 574. London, 1870.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the Railways in
India for the years 1S69-70. By Julian Danvers, Government Director of
Indian Railway Companies. Fol. pp. 39. London, 1870.
Statement of the Moral and Material Progress of India, 1864-65. Fol. pp.
86. London, 1866.
Statement of the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India during
the year 1868-69. Fol. pp. 92. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1854 to 1868. No. VI. 8. pp. 87.
London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1860 to 1869. No. IV.
8. pp. 53.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XIII. Fol. pp. 516. London, 1869.
2. Non- Official Publications.
Auber (Peter) Rise and Progress of the British Power in India. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1837.
Bastian (Adolf) Die Volker des Oestlichen Asien's. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig,
1866.
Bell (Major Evans) The Empire in India. 8. London, 1864.
Chesney (George) View of the Administration in India. 8. London. 1868.
Dilkc (Sir Charles Wentworth) Greater Britain : a record of travel in Eng-
lish-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1869.
Elliot (Sir H. M.) Memoirs of the North-Western Provinces of India. 2 vols,
8, London, 1869,
Fitzgerald (W. F. Vesey) Egypt. India, and the Colonies. 8. London, 1870.
Gh ig (Rev. G. R.) History of British India. 4 vols. 16. London, 1830.
Hunter (W. W.) The Annals of Rural Bengal. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869.
Kay (John William) The Administration of the East India Company: a his-
tory of Indian progress. 8. London, 1853.
Kay (John William) The Sepoy War in India. 2 vols. 8. 1869-70.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 673
Knight (Robert) The Indian Empire and our financial relations therewith. 8
London, 1866.
Latham (R. G.) Ethnology of India. 8. London, 1859.
Mahon (Lord) Rise of our Indian Empire. 8. London, 1S58.
Marshmah (John Clark) The History of India, from the earliest period to the
close of Lord JJalhousie's administration. 3 vols. 8. London, 1867-70.
Martin (R. Montgomery) The Progress and Present State of British India
8. London, 1862.
Martineau (Rev. A.) British Rule in India. 12. London, 1857.
Morley (W. H.) Administration of Justice in British India. 8. London
1858.
Owen (Sidney) The Mussulman, the Maratha, and the European. 8.
London, 1870.
Prichard (J. T.) The Administration of India from 1S59 to 1868. 2 vols
8. London, 1869.
Eaikes (C.) The Englishman in India. 8. London, 1867.
St. John (Horace) History of the British Conquests in India. 8. London
1858.
Sullivan (Sir E.) The Conquerors, Warriors, and Statesmen of India. 8
London, 1866.
Thurlom (Hon. T. J.) The Company and the Crown. 8. London, 1866.
Valbezen (E. de) Les Anglais et l'lnde. 8. Paris, 1857.
Watson (J.Forbes) and Kaye (Jn. Wm.) The People of India : a Series of
Photographic Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and
Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols. Imp. 4. London, 1S66-70.
X X
674
JAPAN.
(Sho Koku. — Nippon.)
Constitution and Government.
The system of government of the Japanese empire is as yet but
imperfectly known. The supreme head of the State is an hereditary
Emperor called Mikado, or ' the Venerable,' whose name is said to
be known only to the princes of the Imperial family, and who ap-
pears to be considered of semi-divine origin. At his side stands a
second Emperor, the Ziogoon, ' Great Lord,' or, as commonly styled,
the Tycoon, whose office also is hereditary in his family, and who
represents the central executive. But neither the Mikado nor the
Tycoon seem to be possessed <©f absolute authority, extending over
the whole State. The government of the country is partly vested in
a number of feudal princes, or Daimios, proprietors in their own
right of a more or less extensive territory.
There exists no regular law of succession to the throne, but in
case of death of the Mikado, or of his abdication — the latter ex-
tremely frequent in. modern times — the crown devolves generally,
not on his son, but on either the eldest or the most distinguished
•m'embel- of his house. It is not uncommon that palace intrigues
settle the choice, the only condition of legality of which is that the
elect should be member of the Shi sinwo, the ' Eour Imperial
Relatives,' or Royal Families of Japan. The throne can be, and
has frequently been, occupied by a female, who, however, is not
allowed to remain single, but must seek a consort within the limits
of the Shi sinwo.
The administration of the empire is carried on by two Councils of
State, the first, called the Gorogio, composed of five members, and
the second, the Qnwakado-uchisri, of seven members. Over the
first council, which more immediately represents the executive
authority, presides the Gotario, or prime-minister, who occupies
the post of regent of Japan, in the event of the minority, or during
the temporary illness of the Tycoon. The Gotario is elected by the
two Councils of State and the principal Daimios of the empire,
from among the latter class.
The Daimios form among themselves the Great Council of the
TRADE AND COMMERCE. 675
empire, and in order that they may be known to the people, an
official list of their names is published periodically, at Yedo, the
capital. The list gives the family name and genealogy of each, as
well as the fullest particulars of his family, his wife, the names of
his sons' wives, and his daughters' husbands, the number of his
residences, the extent and value of his territorial and other property,
the uniform of his retainers, the design of his coat of arms, the flag
carried on his ships, and the shape and colour of the leather co-
vering of his spears of state, carried before him on visits to the
Mikado and the Tycoon. A list of Daimios published at Yedo in
1862, stated their number at 266, with incomes varying from 10,000
to 610,500 koban, or from about 15,000/. to 915,500/. The terri-
tory of each Daimio forms a sovereignty within itself, governed,
in the case of the more powerful magnates, by a Secretary of State,
called Karo, and a number of assistant ministers going by the title
of Byshing, who are often persons of high rank. It is reported that
'some Byshing are wealthier men than the majority of the Daimios,
dwelling in splendid castles, and recognised by the Yedo government.'
Each of the great territorial magnates called Daimios being
absolute lord within his own territory, and having power of life and
death over all his subjects and dependents, certain districts only
are under the immediate control of the central Government, and
their revenues are assigned to the maintenance of the sovereign rulers
of the State, the Mikado and the Tycoon. The influence of the
former rose greatly after a short civil war, which came to an end at
the commencement of 1869, and the consequences of which to seem
tend to the establishment of a monarchy in Japan.
Army and Population.
The armed force of Japan is composed of two distinct elements : —
1. The troops maintained by the Daimios, and destined for the de-
fence of their domains. 2. The troops kept by the Tycoon, and
constituting the imperial army. The number of Daimios who have
troops in their service amounts to 200, and they together maintain an
effective of 370,000 infantry, and 40,000 cavalry, forming the Federal
army, and placed at the orders of the Tycoon when the independence
of the country is threatened. The imperial army, placed under the
command of the Tycoon, reaches the nominal figure of 100,000 in-
fantry and 20,000 cavalry, but its actual force does not exceed half
that amount. The late Tycoon reorganised the force in 1865-66,
and it is said to comprise 80,000 men, infantry, cavalry, artillery,
and engineers. The infantry is formed into regiments, manoeuvring
like the French soldiers, and armed on the same model. A number
xx2
6; 6 japan.
of Japanese officers and sub-officers were instructed by French mili-
tary men at Yokohama in 1866-69.
The total area of Japan is estimated at 156.604 square miles,
with a population of 35,000,000, or 229 per square mile. The
empire is geographically divided into the three islands of Nippon,
the central and most important territory ; Kiushiu, ' the nine pro-
vinces,' the south-western island ; and Sikok, ' the four states,' the
southern island. Administratively, there exists a division into seven
large districts, called ' Do,' or roads, which are subdivided into
sixty-three provinces.
The number of foreigners settled in Japan is as yet very small.
At the end of the year 1862, the foreign community at Kanagawa, the
principal of the six ports of Japan open to aliens (see page 679), con-
sisted of fifty-five natives of Great Britain ; thirty-eight Americans ;
twenty Dutch ; eleven French ; and two Portuguese ; and in the
latter part of 1864 the permanent foreign residents at Kanagawa had
increased to 300, not counting soldiers, of which number 140 were
British subjects, and about 80 Americans and 40 Dutch. At
Nagasaki, the second port of Japan thrown open to foreign trade
by the Government, the number of alien settlers on the 1st of
January 1866, amounted to 166, of whom there were — British
subjects, 70 ; American citizens, 32 ; Dutch, 26 ; Prussians, 19 ;
French, 14; Portuguese, 3 ; and Swiss, 2. A third port opened
to European and American traders, that of Hakodadi, in the
north of Japan, was deserted, after a lengthened trial, by nearly
all the foreign merchants settled there, it having been found im-
possible to establish any satisfactory intercourse with the' natives.
Hakodadi is situated on an island, where there is little or no cultiva-
tion, separated from the continent of Niphon by the Sangar Straits.
No Japanese can enter Hakodadi, or have commercial intercourse
with any foreigner, without permission from the officials, who claim
a larce percentage on the business transacted.
There is an edict of 1637 still in force in the whole of Japan, which
makes it a capital offence for natives to travel into other countries.
Japanese seamen, even when accidentally cast on foreign shores, are
on their return subjected to a rigorous examination, and sometimes
imprisonment, to purify them from the supposed pollution contracted
abroad. The laws of Japan are very severe. Fines are seldom
imposed ; and banishment to the mines, imprisonment, torture,
death by decapitation and impaling on a cross, are the ordinary
penalties of crime, the shades of which are little distinguished. It
frequently happens, also, that the courts visit with punishment not
only the delinquents themselves, but their relatives and dependents,
and even strangers who have accidentally been spectators of their
crimes. The prisons are gloomy abodes, containing places for
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
677
torture and private executions, besides numerous cells for solitary
confinement. The Japanese police is extremely strict in the main-
tenance of order, and the punishment of delinquents. It is also
charged with the registration of births, deaths, and marriages.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Japan is carried on mainly with
two countries, the United Kingdom and the United States of Ame-
rica ; the former absorbing more than two-thirds of the whole.
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom is shown in the sub-
joined table, which gives the value of the total exports from Japan
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the total imports of British and
Irish produce and manufactures into Japan in" each of the five years
1865 to 1869 :—
Years
Exports from Japan to
Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Japan
1365
1866
1867
1868
1369
£
614,743
273,745
317,7.99
188,222
167.308
&
1,576,794
1,444,539
1,545,336
1.112,804
1,442,104
The chief article of exports from Japan to Great Britain in 1869
was tea, of the value of 44,007/. ; while the chief article of imports
of British produce in 1869 consisted in cotton manufactures, of
the total value of 428,932/.
The trade of Jaj^an with the United Kingdom has been of late
years, as will be seen from the preceding table, constantly on the
decline. It is generally stated that the diminished intercourse,
particularly striking as regards the exports from Japan, was due to
the influence of the Daimios, though this is contradicted by the
best authorities. ' Those who have most narrowly watched the pro-
gress of foreign intercourse with Japan,' wrote the British Consul at
Kanagawa, under date of March 1864, ' liave long suspected that
much of the antagonism to foreign countries, attributed by the
Tycoon to the semi-independent Princes, was fictitious rather than
real; that foreign trade as between the two parties was a struggle —
on the Tycoon's side to open the door leading to the outer world,
of which he was lucky enough, in his representative capacity, ac-
cording to the traditions and established institutions of Japan, to
possess the key, at the highest price — on the side of the Unimios, to
get cheaply through the carrier, and part with as Uttle as possible
678
JAPAX.
of their profits.' The quantities and value of the exports from
Japan to the United Kingdom, in the year 18G8, were as follows: —
Exports from Japan to the United Kingdom
Quantities
Value
Camphor ......
Cwts.
4,583
£
32,081
China or porcelain ware or earthenware
•
74
2,003
192
683
Galls
»
1,608
3,955
Japanned or lacquered ware .
,_
267
2.261
Hi Ik, waste, knubs or husks .
>J
1,209
20.311
Tea '
.Lbs.
1,041.150
66,301
Tobacco, unmanufactured
._
212,329
5,832
Wax, bees ......
Cwts.
188
1.971
vegetable ....
,,
8,343
39,S85
All other articles ....
Total
Value
—
5,939
—
181,222
The quantities and value of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into Japan, in the year 1868, were as
follows : —
Imports of British Home Produce into Japan
Quantities
Value
Apparel and haberdashery . . . Value
£
10,870
Arms and ammunition
,,
■ — ■
89,090
Beer and ale .
. Barrels
1,962
8,426
Coals, cinders, and culm .
Tons
30,109
18,051
Cotton yarn
Lbs.
4,302,110
267,205
Cottons, entered by the yard
Yards
22,834,439
396,204
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Tons
2,682
21,174
Lead and shot .
992
25,211
Linens, entered by the yard
Yards
68,019
2,623
Machinery and millwork .
Value.
■ —
10,371
So;1p ....
Cwts.
1,194
1,918
Tin plates ....
Value
—
1,331
Woollens, entered by the yard .
Yards
3,682,239
206,976
All other articles
Total .
Value
—
53,354
—
1,112,804
The internal trade of Japan is very extensive, and a variety of
regulations are in force, the object of which is to protect and en-
courage home industry. The prices of goods are not enhanced by
imposts of any kind; and communication between the great markets
and all parts of the empire is facilitated by numerous coasting
vessels and well -maintained roads. Foreign commerce, however, so
far from being encouraged, is vigorously opposed by the Government.
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 67$
Nevertheless, by the treaties made with several European Govern-
ments— with the United States in March 1854; with Great Britain
in October 1854: ; with Russia and the Netherlands in 1855 ; with
France in 1859 ; with Portugal in 1860 ; with Prussia and the
Zollverein in 1861 ; with Switzerland in 1864 ; with Italy in 1866 ;
and with Denmark in 1867 — the six Japanese ports of Nagasaki,
Kanagawa, Niegata, rliogo, Osaka, and Hakodadi were thrown open
to foreign commerce.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in common use at the three
open ports of Japan, and the British equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Ichibu (silver), average rate of exchange . . Is. 4^d.
,, Piiu, or Tad ,, . . 5s. I0d.
„ Koban (gold) „ . £l 9s. 2d.
The Chinese system of taking money only for its strict metal
value, and rising it indiscriminately, either whole or in pieces,
obtains also in Japan ; but, unlike the Chinese, the Japanese have
national coins. These coins were made out of the country until
the latter part of 1870, when the government purchased at Hong
Kong the complete machinery of a mint, manufactured in England,
and set it up at Osaka, in a building constructed for the purpose.
The new coinage issued for this mint consists of gold 10, 5, and 2^
dollar pieces, equal to Mexican dollars in shape, weight, and fineness ;
of silver dollars, and 50, 20, and 5 cents ; besides copper 1 and -5-
cents and 1 mil, the latter said to be the smallest modern coin.
They are made of iron, copper, silver and gold, and an alloy of gold
and silver, and are of different shapes — rectangular, square, circular,
and oval. There is also a paper currency, consisting of banknotes
of one-quarter, one-half, and one Koban.
Weights and Measures.
The Picul, or ton . . . . = 133 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ King = 160 nomme . . . = 1^- ,, „
„ Shaku = 10 sung . . . = 11 1 inches.
„ Ei = 36 ehoo . . . . = 24_ miles.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Sidney Locock, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Weights,
Measures, and Currency of Japan, dated Yokohama, Jan. 10, 1867; in ' Eeports
by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. V. 1867. London, 1867.
Commercial Eeports from H. M.'s Consuls in China and Japan. 1864. 8.
London, 1865.
68 O JAPAN.
Commercial Reports from H. M.'s Consuls in China and Japan. 1865. 8.
London, 1866.
Reports of Journeys in China and Japan performed by Mr. Alabaster, Mr.
Oxenham, Mr. Markham, and Dr. Willis, of H.M.'s Consular Service. Pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. London, 1869.
Reports by Messrs. Fisher, Rice, and Walsh, United States' Consuls at
Kanagawa, Hakodadi, and Nagasaki, on the trade and commerce of Japan ; in
' Annual Report on Foreign Commerce.' 8. Washington, 1865.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries. Imp. 4. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
AlcocJc (Sir Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a narrative of a three
years' residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1863.
Cornwall/s (Kinahun), Two Journeys to Japan. 1856-57. 8. London, 1859.
Dickson (Walter), Japan, being a sketch of the history, government, and
officers of the Empire. 8. London, 1869.
Di r Pin (M.), Le Japon: Mceurs, coutumes, rapports avec les Europeens.
8. Paris, 1868.
Fisschcr (J. F. Van Overmeer), Bijdrage tot de kennis van het japansche
rijk. 4. Amsterdam, 1833.
Fmissinct (Ed.), Le Japon, histoire et description, mceurs, coutumes et
religion. Nouvelle edition, augmentee de trois chapitres nouveaux, rapports et
traites avec les Europeens. 2 vols. 12. Paris, 1866.
Humbert (Aime) Lo Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.
Jephson (R. M.) and Elmhirst (E. P.), Our Life in Japan. 8. London, 1869.
Humbert (Aime), Le Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.
Leupe (P. A.), Reise van Maarten Gerritz-Uries in 1643 naar het Noorden en
Oostcn van Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.
Liddor/(J. A.), Acht Monate in Japan. 8. Bremen, 1857.
Osborn (Capt. S.), A Cruise in Japanese Waters. 8. London, 1859.
Pompe de Mecrdervoort (J. L. C.) Vijf Jaren in Japan, 1857-63. Bij-
dragen tot de kennis van het japansche keiserrijk en zijne Bevolking. 2 vols.
8. Levdi'n, 1867.
Siebo/d (Ph. Franz Von), Nippon : Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan. 8.
Leyden, 1834-7.
Siebold (Pr. Franz Von), Urkundliche Darstellung der Bestrebungen Nieder-
lands und Russlands zur Eruffnuug Japans. 8. Leyden, 1854.
Spiess (Gust.), Die Preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wiihrend der Jalire
1860-62. Reise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der Indischen Insehvelt.
8. Berlin, 1865.
Titsinyh (Isaac), Nipon o Dai Itsi Ran, ou Annales des Empereurs de Japon.
Ouvr. co'rr. sur l'original Japonais-Chinois par M. J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834.
Titsingh (Isaac), Memoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie Regnante des
Djogoungs, souverains du Japon. Public par A.' Remusat. 8. Paris, 1820.
IVidJcrstorf-Urbair (Baron von), Reise der OesterreichischenFregatte Novara
um die Erde' in den Jaliren 1857, 1858, 1859. Beschrei bender Theil von Dr..
Karl v. Scherzer. 2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.
68i
JAVA.
(Nedeelandsch Indie.)
Constitution and Government.
Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Nether-
lands, is governed in an absolute manner, under a system established
by General Van den Bosch, in 1832, and known as the ' culture
system.' It is based in principle on the forced labour of the natives,
which is directed to produce not only a sufficiency of food for them-
selves, but the largest possible quantity of colonial produce best
suited for the European market. To carry out the ' culture system,'
there exists a complicate bureaucratic administration, the functions
of which descend into the minutest details of public and private life.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura
is divided into twenty-four provinces, or residencies, each governed
by a Resident, who has under him an Assistant-Resident and a
number of inspectors, called Controleurs. All these functionaries
must be citizens of the Netherlands, and the higher class must have
gone through an examination at the college of Delft, near Rotterdam.
The Resident and his assistants exercise absolute control over the
province in their charge ; not, however, directly, but by means of a
vast hierarchy of native officials, who receive either salaries or per-
centages on the amount of produce cultivated by the natives. The
latter are controlled by these means in all their actions, and incited
to labour ; and the better to ensure such control, a register is kept
by the Resident, of the number of people in each village, with the
names and condition of each, and the minutest particulars affecting
their character and occupation. No person is allowed to move from
one place to another without a passport, and no occupation of any
kind can be engaged in without the permission of the authorities.
There is a regular and unceasing personal intercourse between the
native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the immediate agents of
the Resident.
The superior administration of Java, and executive, is in the
hands of a Governor-General, who is at the same time governor of
all the Netherland possessions in the East Indies. He is assisted by
a Council of five members, who, however, have no share in the
executive, and can act only as a Court of Advice.
Governor-General of Java. — Baron P. Mijer, appointed Governor-
General of Java and Netherlandsch India, Sent. 18; 1866.
682
JAVA.
The Governor-General represents the legislative as well as execu-
tive power of Government. He has the right of passing laws and
regulations for the administration of the colony, which remain in
force until allowed or disallowed by the legislature of the mother-
country. He is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy
stationed in the Netherlands' possessions. But he is bound to adhere
to the constitutional principles on which Java and its dependencies
are governed, and which are laid down in the ' Regulations for the
Government of Netherlands' India,' passed by the King and States
General of the mother-country in 1854.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Java produces, for the benefit of the Netherlands, a large surplus
revenue, after paying for its own government. The local revenue
is derived from taxes on houses and estates, from licenses, customs
duties, personal imports, the income of crown lands, the Government
monopolies of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But
the chief portion of the large profits derived by the home Government
from Java is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of
colonial produce, grown under the ' culture system,' and disposed of
in Europe at a price far above that of the cost of production. The
goods are brought into the European market through the medium of
the ' Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij,' or Netherlands Trading
Company, acting as Government brokers.
The subjoined tabular statement gives the total revenue and
expenditure of the colony during the forty years 1821 to 18G0. The
profits derived from the introduction of the ' culture system ' may
be ascertained by a glance at the last column, which shows the
deficits — with occasional surplus — previous to 1834, and the subse-
quent balances in favour of the mother-country : —
Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficit
£
£
£
1821
1,981,814
1,892,385
89,429 surplus
1822
2,163,552
2,249,823
86,271 deficit
1823
2,301,453
2,181,898
119,555 surplus
1824
2,437,122
2,378,768
58,354
1825
1,967,782
2,565,105
597,323 deficit
1826
1,685,187
1,720,807
35,620
1827
1,727,942
1,914,715
186,773
1828
1,857,975
1,859,506
1,531
1829
1,774,146
2,062,883
288,737
1830
2,214,420
2,405,780
191,360
1831
2.228,165
2,320,943
92,778
1832
2,293,448
2,435,517
142,069
1833
2,537,482
2,749,761
212,279
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
683
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficit
£
£
£
1834
3,540,562
2,594,465
946,097 surplus
1835
4,169,784
3,468,652
701,132
1836
4,957,138
3,717,174
1,239,964
1837
5,620,523
4.104,577
1,515,946
1838
6,275,020
4,154,881
2,120,139
1839
6,854,989
4,600,198
2,254,791
1840
7,825,915
4,302,386
3,523,529
1841
7.778.264
4,279,466
3,498,798
1842
6,751,774
5,480,907
1,270,867
1843
6,609,438
5,472,201
1,137,237
1844
6,791,186
5,283,586
1,507,600
1845
6,880,002
4,950,069
1,929,933
1846
6,557,409
4,961.236
1,596,173
1847
6,128,541
5,021,031
1,107,510
1848
5,262,117
4,709,593
552,524
1849
6,392,891
4,482,554
1,910,337
1850
6,106,374
4,790,489
1,315,885
1851
6,195,140
4,900,769
1,294,371
1852
6,773,022
4,754,481
2,018,541
1853
7,261,762
4,781,431
2,480,331
1854
7,033,167
5,107,045
1,926,122
1855
7.513.809
5,277,455
2,236,114
1856
8,577.462
5,415,547
3,161,915
1857
9,586,382
5,804,054
3,782,328
1858
9.369,771
5,619,278
3,750,493
1859
9,271,343
5,730,203
3,541.140
1860
9,687,925
5,953,711
3,734,214
To the sum total of the revenue here enumerated, the direct
receipts from all sources obtained in Java contributed only about
one-third, and the remaining two-thirds were obtained in the Nether-
lands from the sale of colonial produce. The most important part
of the direct revenue of Java is that derived from customs duties
and shipping dues, the produce of which, in each of the years
1862-64, was as follows : —
Customs Duties and Shipping Dues
18C2
1863
1864
Duties : Import .
Export .
Dues : Bonding .
Shipping .
Weighing
Warehouse rent .
Excise duty on tobacco
Additional 5 per cent. .
Guilders
6,383,675
3,166,565
109,430
3,351
44,763
197,042
82,504
482,663
10,469,994
872,499
Guilders
5,780,569
3,116,715
56,031
5,363
40,911
223,564
94,258
452,988
Guilders
5,096,717
3,577,120
63.008
2,484
31,664
123,650
90,538
436,82.3
Total
r
uilders
£
2,770,399
814,200
9,422,010'
785,167
684 JAVA.
The direct revenue of Java has, even since the introduction of the
1 culture system,' never been sufficient to meet the expenditure of
the government of the colony.
Army and Navy.
The peculiar system of government of Java necessitates a com-
paratively large army, numbering, on the average, about 30,000
rank and file, commanded by 1,200 commissioned and non-com-
missioned officers. More than one-half of the troops are natives,
and the rest Europeans of all countries, the whole of them recruited
by voluntary enlistment. No portion of the regular army of the
Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service ; but individual
soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by the permission of their com-
manding officers, and they form the nucleus of the garrison of Java.
The native and European soldiers are not divided into separate corps,
but mixed together in the same battalions. The artillery is composed
of European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are chiefly
Europeans.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in
Java, is divided into field and garrison battalions. In the former
there is a greater proportion of Europeans than in the latter. Each
company is composed separately either of Europeans or of natives,
but the European and native companies are mixed in the same
battalion, in the proportion of one-third to two-thirds. Each bat-
talion is composed of six companies, the two flank companies con-
sisting of European soldiers, and the four centre companies of natives.
The European companies often contain ' half-castes,' negroes, and
Christianised natives of India, all on a footing of perfect equality,
except that of military rank. The native companies are composed
of the different Mahometan and heathen tribes of Netherlands' India,
mixed together so as not to allow of any great preponderance of race
or religion. The whole of the commissioned officers are Europeans,
and in each of the companies composed of natives, at least one-half
of the non-commissioned officers must also be Europeans. The
greater number of the soldiers, both Europeans and natives, are
married, and are allowed to be always accompanied by their families,
except when on active service in the field. Every man, when not
actually quartered in a town, has a small plot of land which he may
cultivate, and on which his family may live. Schools, both for
adults and children, are attached to every battalion.
Unlike the Java army, which is purely colonial, the fleet of war
in Netherlands' India forms a part of the royal navy, and its expenses
are borne partly by the mother-country and partly by the colony.
The fleet consisted, in the summer of 18G5, of two screw frigates,
three corvettes, and twenty-five smaller steamers.
AREA AND POPULATION.
685
Area and Population.
The area of Java, including Madura, embraces 51,330 English
square miles, with a population, according to the census of 1861, of
13,019,108, or 253 per square mile. The population has trebled
since the year 1810, when the British Government, after a temporary
occupation extending over five years, restored the colony to the
Netherlands.
Arabs and
Years
Europeans
Chinese
other foreign
Orientals
Natives
Total
1795
—
—
—
3,559,611
1808
—
—
—
—
3,730,000
1815
—
—
—
—
4,615,270
1826
—
—
—
—
5,403,786
1836
—
—
—
—
7,861,551
1845
— ■
—
—
—
9,530,781
1849
16,409
119,481
27,687
9,420,553
9,584,130
1853
17,417
130,940
27,554
10,114,134
10,290,045
1854
18,471
129,262
29,209
10,404,948
10,581,890
1855
18,858
133,655
26,099
10,737,546
10,916,158
1856
19,431
135,649
24,903
11,110,467
11,290,450
1857
20,331
138,356
24,615
11,410,856
11,594,158
1861
20,523
139,960
24,451
12,834,174
13,019,108
The numbers of the population, as given for 1795 and 1808, are
but estimates, but the rest are the result of official enumeration.
Slavery, so-called, was abolished in Java by a law which took
effect on January 1, 1860. There were then 5,265 slaves in the
colony, for each of whom, without regard to age or sex, the
owner received 400 florins, or about 33/.. in compensation.
The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government
property, and it is only in the residencies in the north-western part
of Java that there are private estates, chiefly owned by natives of
the Netherlands. The bulk of the people are held in strict sub-
jugation as agricultural labourers. The landlords, whether under
Government or private landowners, enforce one day's gratuitous work
out of seven from all the labourers on their estates, and they are
besides entitled to as much work as they choose to claim, on the
sole condition of paying each man the wages of the district. Great
power is vested in the Kesident and his European and native officials
to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.
The whole population of Java is legally divided into Europeans
and persons assimilated with them, and natives. Christianity is the
broad distinguishing feature ; all Christians, even those among the
native population, being theoretically assimilated with Europeans, and
686
JAVA.
all heathens and Mahometans being classed with natives. The former
are generally under the laws of the dominant race, and the latter
under the more stringent rules enacted for the government of the
tribes held in subjection. The division of the whole population into
two classes is a fundamental principle in the policy of the admi-
nistration, and enacted in the code specifying the limits and con-
ditions for future legislation in Netherlands' India. It is thereby-
withdrawn from the competence of the Governor-General and all
other local legislative powers, and entirely preserved from alteration,
except by the paramount legislative authority of the King and States
General of the Netherlands.
Trade and Commerce.
Almost the entire trade of Java is with the Netherlands, and there
is comparatively little commercial intercourse with other countries.
The subjoined table gives the total value of merchandise and
specie imported and exported at the Islands of Java and Madura, in
each of the years 1862, 18G3, and 18G4 : —
Years
Imports of
Total Imports
Exports of
Total Exports
Merchandise
including Specie
Merchandise
including specie
1862. jGuilders
44,349,193
46,243,633
43.077,737
51,970,233
3,695,766
3,853,636
3,589,811
4,330,853
1863. |GuilderJ
41,783,983
45,239,213
42,815,396
50,847,439
3,481,998
3,769,934
3,567,949
4,237,286
, n„ . ( Guilders
1864 . | £
36,314,688
37,835,248
44,882,224
55,986,527
3,026.224
3,152,937
3,740,185
4,665,544
The principal articles of export from Java are sugar, coffee, rice, in-
digo, and tobacco. The value of the sugar exported in 18(54 amounted
to 20,350,965 guilders, of which 18,297,951 guilders went to the
Netherlands. Of coffee, the exports in the same year amounted to
5,821,797 guilders ; of rice, to 4,443,644 ; of indigo, to 2,006,866,
and of tobacco, to 1,812,638 guilders. With the exception of rice,
about one-half of which was shipped for Borneo and China, nearly
four-filths of these exports went to the Netherlands.
The subjoined table shows the value of the trade of Java with
the United Kingdom in each of the five years 1865 to 1869: —
Tears
Exports from Java to
Great Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into Java
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
226
8,152
13,773
75,290
199,467
£
927,755
1,725,558
1,329,040
834,193
660,237
TRADE AND COMMERCE. 687
The exports from Java to the United Kingdom in each of the
years 18(58 and 18G9 were as follows : —
Exports from Java to Great Britain
1868
1869
£
2,248
40
3,378
45,233
140,352
8,216
Canes : rattans, not ground .
Coffee
Gum, dammar ....
Rice, not in the husk
Sugar, unrefined ....
All other articles ....
Total
£
846
19,443
540
14,683
37,101
2,677
75,290 I 199,467
The whole of the exports from Java to the Netherlands are carried by
and the property of, the ' Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij.' This
trading society was established at Amsterdam in 1824, with a capital of
37,000,000 guilders, or upwards of three millions sterling, but which
was subsequently reduced to 24,000,000 guilders, or 2,000,000?.
The King of the Netherlands, Willem I., was one of the principal
shareholders, and to create confidence in the company, he promised
% a guarantee of i\ per cent, per annum to his associates. His Majesty
had to pay this interest from his own purse up to the year 1832
when the introduction of the ' culture system ' in Java laid the
foundation for the prosperity of the company, which has since been
at the same time, was appointed sole agent in buying and importing
into Java all Government supplies, and in exporting ail produced and
selling it in Europe.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Java, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Guilder, or Florin =100 Centen = Is. 8d.
Weights and Measures.
The Amsterdam Pond . = 1-09 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Pecul . . . = 133 lbs.
„ Catty . . ■ -" l£ ,,
„ Chang . . . = 4 yards.
The only legal coins, as well as weights and ' measures, of Java
are those of the Netherlands.
688 java.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Java.
1. Official Publications.
Almanak en Naamregister Tan Nederlandsch-Indie, voor 1870. Batavia,
1870.
Regerings Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie. 1869. 8. Gravenhage,
1870.
Yerslag van den Handel, de Seheepvaart en de inkomende- en uitgaande
Regten op Java en Madura, over het jaar 1869. Eatavia, 1870.
Verslag van den staat van het school wezen in Nederlandsch Indie, afgesloten
onder ultimo 1866. 8. Batavia, 1868.
Verslag over het jaar 1866, zamengesteld door de Earner van koophandel
en nijverheid te Batavia. 8. Batavia, 1867.
Report by Mr. Ward, British Secretary of Legation, on the Progress of the
Netherlands' East India possessions since 1857, dated January 17, 1863; in
' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. VI. London,
1863.
Report by Mr. T. J. Hovel Thurlow, British Secretary of Legation, ' on Java
and its Dependencies,' dated the Hague, July 1, 1868 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. V. and VI. 1868. London,
1869.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Dcvcntcr (JSz., S. van), Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op
Java, op last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D. Fransen van de
Putte, bijeenverzameld. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1865.
Money (J. \V. B.), Java, or, How to Manage a Colony ; showing a practical
solution of the questions now affecting British India. 2 vols. 8. London,
1861.
Miilkr (Joh.), Beschreibung der Insel Java. 8. Berlin, 1860.
Vliet (L. van Woudrichem van), Over Grondeigendom en heeredienstpligtigheid
op Java. 8. Amsterdam, 1864.
Wallace (Alfred Russel) The Malay Archipelago. 8. London, 1869.
689
PERSIA.
(Arjana. — Erax.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Nassr-ed-Din, Shah of Persia, born in 1829, the eldest son of
Shah Mohammed ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
Sept. 10, 1848.
Children of the Shah. — 1. Jfazaffer-ed-'Dm, heir-apparent, born
in 1850. 2. Z)/7/a/-el-Dardeh, born in 1853.
The Shah of Persia — by his official title, ' Shah-in-shah,' or king of
kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of the
lives and goods of all his subjects. The law, or rather custom, of
succession to the throne is the same as in Turkey.
The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent
sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private fortune.
That of the present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to
four millions sterling, one-half represented by diamonds — the largest
the Derya-i-Noor, of 178 carats — and other precious stones, forming
the crown jewels.
The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty of
the Kadjars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war
extending over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date of
accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty
was : —
Aga-Mohammed . . 1794 I Mohammed . . . 1835
Feth-Ali . . . 1797 j Nassr-ed-Din . . . 1848
It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to over-
rule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown, with
disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their family.
Government, Religion, and Education.
The form of government of Persia is in its most important features
similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on the precepts
of the Koran, and though the power of the Shah is absolute, it is
only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the
Mahometan religion, as laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet,
his oral commentaries and sayings, and the interpretation of the
Y Y
690
PEESIA.
same by his successors and the high priesthood. The Shah is
regarded as vice-regent of the Prophet, and it is as such that he
claims implicit obedience. Under him, the executive government
is carried on by a ministry, formerly consisting of but two high
functionaries, the Vizier- Azein, or grand vizier, and the Ameen-a-
Doulah, or lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into ten
departments, alter the European fashion. However, the grand vizier
and lord treasurer are still by far the most important members of
the executive, the vizier directing the whole foreign policy of the
governmeat, and acting as commander-in-chief of the army in the
absence or as substitute of the sovereign, and the treasurer superin-
tending the home administration and the collection of the revenue.
The country is divided for administrative and other purposes into
twenty provinces, each under the rule of a Beglerbeg, or civil and
military governor, usually a member of the royal family. The pro-
vinces again are subdivided into districts, superintended by a Hakim,
or governor-lieutenant, whose chief duty is the collection of the revenue.
There is a certain amount of self-government in towns and villages,
the citizens of the former electing, at fixed times, a Ketkhodah, or
magistrate, and of the latter a Muhuleh, who administer justice, and
also serve as organs of intercommunication between the people and
the government.
The vast majority of the inhabitants of Persia are Mahometans, the
total number of dissenters not amounting to more than about 7-4,000.
The latter consist of Armenians, Nestorians, Jews, and Guebres, or
Parsees. The Armenian population is estimated at 4,6G0 families,
or 26,035 souls; the Nestorians — including both Protestants and
persons who have joined the Roman Catholic Church, about 3,500
and 600 families respectively — at 4,100 families, or 25,000 souls;
the Jews at 16,000 souls; and the Guebres at 1,200 families, or
7,190 souls.
The Mahometans of Persia are of the sect called Shiites or Sheahs,
differing to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical
belief, lrorn the inhabitants of the Turkish empire, who are called
Sunnites. The Persian priesthood consist of many orders, the chief
of them at the present time being that of Mooshtehed, of whom
there are but five in number in the whole country. Vacancies in
this post are filled nominally by the members of the order, but in
reality by the public voice, and the Shah himself is excluded from
all power of appointment. Next in rank to the Mooshtehed is the
Sheik-ul-Islam, or ruler of the faith, of whom there is one in every
large town, nominated by, and receiving his salary from, the go-
vernment. Under these dignitaries there are three classes of
ministers of religion, the Mooturelle, one for each mosque or place
of pilgrimage ; the Muezzin, or Bayer of prayers, and the Mollah, or
REVENUE AND ARMY. 69 1
conductor of rites. The Armenians are under two bishops, one of
them Roman Catholic, and both residing at Ispahan. There is wide
tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, but the Jews
and Guebres suffer under great oppression.
Education is in a comparatively advanced state, at least as far
as the upper classes are concerned. There are a great number of
colleges, supported by public funds, in which, students are instructed
in religion and Persian and Arabian literature, as well as in a certain
amount of scientific knowledge, while private tutors are very com-
mon, being employed by all families who have the means. A larger
portion of the population of Persia are possessed of the rudiments
of education than of any other country in Asia, except China.
Revenue and Army.
During the reign of the present Shah, the revenue of Persia has
been increased by nearly 8-5- crores of tomans, or 094,000/. The
receipts,, in 1S68, were calculated to, amount to 4,361,600 tomans,
or 1,744,664/. in money, besides payments in kind, consisting of
barley, wheat, rice, and silk, valued at 550,840 tomans, or 220,336/.,
making the total revenue equal to 4,012,500 tomans, or 1,965,000/.
The following return shows the revenue demanded from each pro-
vince during the year 1866 : —
Tomans
Ispahan 420,000
Fars 380,000
Kerman 210,000
Yezd 170,000
M;tzanderan 110,000
Ghilau ........ 440,000
Gazveen . . . ... . . 70,000
Khemseh 180,000
Azerbijan 020,000
Koordistan and Gerroos .... 50,000
Khorassan, with Shahrood aud Bestam . . 220,000
Asterabad . . 25,000
Kt-rinanshah, with Looristan and Nehavend . 200,000
Arabistan 215,000
Bboroojird 60,000
Gulpaigan 60,000
Cashan 70,000
Kooni 15,000
Tehran and adjacent districts . . . 210,000
Hamadan 30,000
£
3,825,000 = 1,530,000
Customs receipts 536,660= 214,664
Total revemie in money . . 4,361,060 = 1,744,064
Y Y 2
692
PERSIA.
The income received in kind is as follows :—
47,000 kherwars of barley and wheat, valued at
8,500 kherwars (650 lbs. each) of rice .
58,500 kherwars of straw ....
75 kherwars of nokhood (peas)
71 mans of silk .....
Total revenue, in money and kind
Tomans
494,000
25,500
29,250
300
1,790
550,840= £220,336
. £1,965,000
The payments in kind are mostly reserved for the use of the army
and the Shah's own household. The whole revenue is raised by
assessments upon towns, villages, and districts, each of which has to
contribute a fixed sum, the amount of which is changed from time
to time by tax-assessors appointed by the government. Almost the
entire burthen of taxation lies upon the labouring classes, and,
among these, upon the Mahometan subjects of the Shah. The
amount of revenue collected from the Christian population, the
Jews, and the Guebres, is very trifling.
Although the public revenue of Persia is comparatively small, it
is in excess of expenditure, which was reported as follows for the
year 1868 : —
For the army and equipment of troops
Salaries of princes, ministers, and
government officials .
Salaries and pensions to priesthood
Private expenses of the Shah .
Extraordinary disbursements .
Surplus paid into Shah's treasury .
Total .... 8^ crores = 1,700,000
The Persian Government has no debt. The balance due for many
years by the Shah to Russia on account of the expenses of the war
concluded in 18*28, amounting to about 200,000/., was cancelled by
the present Shah in 1856.
The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of
War, numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery,
70,000 the infantry, and 30,500 the cavalry, regular and irregular.
Of the total of these troops, however, only one-third are employed
on active service, the standing army of Persia consisting, on the
peace -footing, of: —
Tomans
3| crores
=
700,000
H „
=
300,000
i
i
1
=
100,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
Artillery
Infantry
Irregular cavalry ,
Regular cavalry
Total
1,500
is. 000
10,000
500
30,000
AREA, POPULATION, AND TRADE. 693
The remainder of the 105,500 troops enumerated in the govern-
ment returns form the reserve. The soldiers composing it are
allowed to reside in their own villages and districts, where they may-
engage in agricultural and other pursuits, subject to no drill or
military discipline, the infantry and artillery being usually disarmed
when placed on this footing. They, as well as the irregular cavalry,
are liable, however, to be called out at any moment, on the requi-
sition of the Minister for War.
The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts.
A province furnishes several regiments; a tribe gives one, and
sometimes two, and a district contributes one battalion to the army.
The commanding officers are almost invariably selected from the
chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised.
The Christians, Jews, and Guebres in Persia are exempt from all
military service.
Area, Population, and Trade.
The area and population of Persia are known only by estimates.
According to the latest and most trustworthy of these, the country
— extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and for 900
miles from east to west — contains an area of 648,000 square miles.
A vast portion of this area is, however, an absolute desert, and the
population is everywhere so scanty as not to exceed, on the average,
seven inhabitants to the square mile. According to a carefully
made estimate, furnished by the British secretary of legation, in May
1868, the population of Persia at that period numbered : —
Inhabitants of cities 1,000,000
Population belonging to wandering tribes . . 1,700,000
Inhabitants of villages and country districts . . 1,700,000
Total population . . . 4,400,000
The largest cities of Persia are — Tauris, or Tabreez, with 210,000 ;
Tehran, with 85,000 ; Ispahan, with 60,000 ; and Yezd, with 40,000
inhabitants. The one million of inhabitants of towns constitute the
pure Persian race, and more than half of the remaining population
belongs to the Turkish, Eek, Koordish, and Arab tribes, which are
spread over the whole of the Shah's territory. In some provinces,
such as Khorassan, and in the districts contiguous to the Turkish
and Russian frontiers, nearly the entire population belongs to one
or other of these tribes.
The population of Persia is believed to be steadily declining in
numbers, owing to the ravages of the plague, the general absence of
sanitary laws, the results of polygamy, and various other not well
ascertained causes.
694
PERSIA.
The "whole external trade of Persia may he roughly valued at
4,000,000/. sterling annually, of which 2,500,000/. may 'he taken as
the value of the imports, and 1,500,000/. as that of the exports. A
diminution in the latter to the extent of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling
has taken place Avithin the last three years, owing to the failure of
the most important industry of the country, the silk production.
The imports from Europe and India into Persia consist of cotton
manufactures, cloths, silks, cotton yarns, cochineal, sugar, tea,
jewellery, cutlery, china, crystal, glass-ware, iron, brass, and
copper in sheets, tin, paper, indigo, and fire-arms ; and the exports,
of raw silk, raw cotton, tobacco, opium, wheat, gall-nuts, wool, furs,
madder -root, dried fruits, shawls of inferior quality, and coarse
calico for the Russian and Turkish markets.
The trade with Europe is carried on almost entirely over the noi'th-
ern frontier, by way of Trebizonde and Georgia, through Tauris.
In the year 18G7, the imports and exports over this frontier were as
follows : —
Imports.
Value in
tomans
Value in
sterling
Cotton manufactures from England
Chests of tea
Cloth .
Silks .
Cotton yarns
Cochineal
Sugar .
Glass — crystal and miscellaneous
Sundry articles of small value
Total
3,000.000
84,600
225,000
240,000
12,000
5,120
160,000
707,600
7,416
4.441,736
£
1,200.000
33,840
90.000
96,000
4,800
2,048
64,000
283,040
2,966
1,776,694
Exports.
Articles
Value in
tomans
Value in
sterling
Raw cotton .......
Raw silk .......
Tobacco .......
j Gall-nuts .......
1 Coarse calicoes ......
Total
65,456
936,000
87,840
33.900
66,000
£
26,182
374,400
35,136
13,560
26,400
1,189,196 j 475.678
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 695
The greater part of the commerce of Persia centers at Tauris,
which is the chief emporium for the productions of Northern India,
Samarcand, Bokhara, Cabul, and Beloochistan. It is stated in a
French report, that the European imports into Tauris amounted, in
the year 1868, to 60,000,000 francs or 2,400,000/., whereas in 1840
they were only 40,000,000 or 1,600,000/. All the European mer-
chandise that reaches Tauris passes by Constantinople to Trebizonde,
whence it is forwarded by caravans. Most of this trade to Persia is in
the hands of Persian merchants residing at Tauris. There are also in
that city three European houses. The principal of these is the Russian
firm Ralli, which was founded in 1837. As this firm was long with-
out a rival, it had for a time almost a monopoly of the European
commerce in Persia.
The direct trade of Persia with Great Britain is of the smallest.
There were no exports from Persia to Great Britain in 1863 and
1864, while in 1865 they amounted to only 51 11. in value, in 1866
to 1/., in 1867 to 960/., and in 1868 to 20/. In the year 1869 there
were, again, no exports to the Untted Kingdom. The imports of
British produce into Persia direct were of the value of 530/. in
1864; of 16,243/. in 1865; of 25,906/. in 1866; of 14,069/. in 1867;
of 17,498/. in 1868 ; and of 16,985/. in 1869. The imports of 1869
consisted mainly of cottons and cotton yarn, valued at 5,459/., of
copper, 4,,780/., and of refined sugar, 3,092/. In 1867, the British
cotton imports amounted to 4,199/., and in 1868 to 4,711/.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Persia, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Reran = 1,000 Dinars, or 20 Shahis = Hid.
„ Toman = 10 Kerans . . = 9s. 3\d.
The gold coins of Persia, consisting of Tomans, five-Keran and
two-Keran pieces, contain no alloy.
Weights and Measures.
The Batman — 40 Sihrs, or 640 Miscals . = 13£ lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Collothun = 3| Cepichas, or 6£ Chenicas = 1-809 imperial gallon.
,, Artata = 8 Collothun . . . = 1*809 imperial bushel.
„ Zcr = 16 Gereks . . . . = 38 inches.
,, Fersakh, or Parasang . . . . = 4^ miles.
Besides the weights and measures here enumerated there exist
a great variety of local standards. In foreign commerce, Russian
weights and measures are largely used.
696
PERSIA.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia.
1. Official Publications.
Report, by Mr. Ronald F. Thomson, British Secretary of Legation, on the
Population, Revenue, Military Force, and Trade of Persia, dated Tehran,
April 20, 1868 ; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
8. No. 4. 1868.
Report by Mr. W. J. Dickson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Trade
and Industry of Persia, dated GuLaheh, July 3. 1865 ; in 'Reports of H. M's
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. XL 8. London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Abbott, British Consul at Resht, and Consul-General at
Tabreez, dated March 31, 1865, and April 30, 1866, on the Imports and
Exports of Persia ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office,
1865-66.' 8. London. 1866.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom. Imp.
4. London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Blaramberq (General), Statistical Survey of Persia, made in the years
1837-40. (In Russian.-)' 8. St. Petersburg, 1853.
Blau (Dr. Otto), Commerzielle Zustande Persiens. 8. Berlin, 1858.
Bruqsch (Dr. Heinr.), Reise der k. preussischeu Gesandtsehaft nach Persien,
1860 und 1861. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864.
Eastvjick (E. B.), Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Residence in
Persia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Kinneir (J. M.), Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire. 4. London,
1813.
Polalc (Dr. Jak. Ed.), Persien. Das Land und seine Bewohner. Ethno-
graphische Schilderungen. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Skeil (Lady), Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. 8. London, 1856.
Spiegel (Friedrich) Eran : das Land zwischen Indus und Tigris. 8. Berlin,
1863.
Ussher (John), Journey from London to Persepolis. including AVanderings
in Daghestan, Georgia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and Persia. 8.
London. 1866.
Wheeler (Rev. C. H.) Ten years on the Euphrates. 16. Boston, 1868.
697
SIAM.
(Schan. — Thai.)
Government, Revenue, and Army.
The form of government of Siam is feudal in character, and simi-
lar to that of Japan. The essence of political power rests with a
number of hereditary chieftains, owners of the land, while the
general legislative and executive authority is vested in two kings,
the first of whom is the real occupant of the throne. In recent times,
the two dignities have been frequently filled by father and son.
First King of Siam. — Chcm Fa Chula Longkorn, born 1823, eldest
son of the late First King, Somdel Phra Paramanda; succeeded to
the throne at the death of his father, October 1, 1868.
Second King of Siam. — Kromamum Baivarawichai Chan, born
1842, eldest son of the present First King ; succeeded as Second King
on the elevation of his father to the throne, October 1, 1868.
The Second King has a court, ministers, and also an army of his
own, and royal honours are paid to him on all occasions. He is also
exempt from the customary prostration before the First King, instead
of which he salutes him by raising hands in the air. But he cannot
draw from the royal treasury without permission of his colleague,
and, on thewholevis regarded as the chief subject of the First King.
The public revenue is estimated at about 3,145,000/. sterling a
year ; of which sum, the poll-tax and fines for non-service in the
army produce 2,500,000/. ; the land-tax, 287,000/. ; tax on fruit
trees, &c, 65,000/. ; on pepper, 50,000/. ; on spirits and gambling,
about 57,000/. each ; and the customs, 33,000/. The tax collectors
receive no salary, being remunerated by a tithe of the revenue
realised. The expenditure is stated to keej:> within the receipts.
There is no standing army, but a general armament of the people,
in the form of a militia. Every male inhabitant, from the age
of 21 upwards, is obliged to serve the State for four months
a year. The following individuals are, however, exempted : — mem-
bers of the priesthood, the Chinese settlers, who pay a commu-
tation tax, slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable
to service, and those who purchase exemption by a fine of from six
to eight ticals a month, or by furnishing a slave or some other
person not subject to the conscription, as a substitute. It is stated
that the Government possesses upwards of 80,000 stand of arms,
besides a considerable stock of cannon.
698 SI AM.
The fleet of war consists of numerous junks, galleys, and other
small vessels, built on the Chinese model, and mounting heavy guns,
manned by Chinese and other foreigners.
Population and Trade.
The limits of the kingdom of Siam have varied much at different
periods of its history ; and even now, with the exception of the
Western frontier, the lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced,
most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less inde-
pendent. As nearly as can be calculated, the country extends, at
present, from the 4th to the 20th degree of north latitude, and from
the 96th to the 102nd degree of east longitude, being a total area of
about 250,000 square miles. The numbers of the population are
still more imperfectly known than the extent of territory, and the
difficulty of any correct result is the greater on account of the
Oriental custom of numbering only the men. The last native
registers state the male population of the kingdom as follows, in
round numbers:— 2,000,000 Siamese; 1,500,000 Chinese; 1,000,000
Laotians; 1,000,000 Malays; 350,000 Cambodians; and 50,000
Peguans. Doubling these figures, to include the female sex, this
Avould give a total population for the kingdom of 11,800,000 inhabi-
tants, or 47 to the square mile.
The Siamese dominions are divided into 41 provinces, each pre-
sided over by a phaja, or governor. The native historians distinguish
two natural divisions of the country, called Monang-Nona, the region
of the north, and Monang-Tai, the southern region. Previous to
the fifteenth century, the former was the more populous part of the
country, but since the establishment of Bangkok as capital — with
from 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants — the south has taken the
lead in population. Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai', or
Monang-Thai, which means ' free,' or ' the kingdom of the free.'
The word Siam — quite unknown to the natives — is Malay, from
sajam, ' the brown race.'
The principal foreign trade of Siam was, until the year 1867, the
export of rice to China. This demand then in a great measure
ceased, either from exceptionally good crops in China or from the
effect of a decree allowing a free export from province to province
of that great empire, and new markets had to be sought for the. rice
of Siam. This change threw the export business into the hands of
the resident European merchants. In 1868 no less than 69 vessels
cleared with full cargoes for Europe, and others sailed for the Mauri-
tius, California, and Australia. Teak was exported from Siam in
considerable quantities to China in 1868 ; and the Burmese foresters,
who had hitherto been working for the Moulmein market, came
POriTLATION AND TRADE.
699
in numbers over to the Siamese side, where the Indian oak (Tectova
grandis) is much more abundant. It is stated that some of the
forests of Siam produce larger and better timber than those on
the Moulmein side. Teel seed, or ramtil, is grown in the northern
provinces of Siam. It yields a bland oil, resembling olive oil, of
which about 49,000 piculs were exported in each of the years 180(1
to 1869.
The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital. The
value of the total exports from Bangkok in 18G9 was 1,181,170/.,
of which British vessels took to the value of 408,990/., and Siamese
455,772/. The invoice of cargoes imported was 751,870/., of which
in British vessels 133,232/. and in Siamese 544,543/. In the year
1868, 346 vessels with an aggregate of 142,373 tons, entered
Bangkok, with cargoes of the value of 712,988/. ; and 317 ves-
sels of 133,655 tons cleared from Bangkok, with cargoes of the
value of 999,817/. A large proportion of the cargoes, especially
in the entries inwards, were in Siamese vessels. The entries inwards
included 103 British vessels of 47,237 tons, manned by crews
numbering 1,733, and bringing cargoes of the value of 64,266/.;
and the clearances included 96 British vessels of 44,360 tons, with
crews 1,863 in number, carrying cargoes of the value of 293,411/.
The direct commercial intercourse of Siam with the United King-
dom is inconsiderable, and of a fluctuating character. In the five years
1865 to 1869 the value of the exports from Siam to Great Britain,
and of the imports of British produce into Siam, was as follows : —
Exports from Siam
Imports of British
to Great Britain
Produce into Siam
£
£
1865
9,372
34,854
1866
14,490
4,036
1867
—
4,244
1S68
127,980
3,072
1869
417,030
25,846
The chief article of exports from Siam to Great Britain in the year
1869 was rice, of the declared value of 385,559/. Among the import?
of British produce into Siam, the chief article in 1869 was machinery,
of the value of 11,445/.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Siam, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Tkal, or Bat — 12,800 cowries, average rate of exchange, 2s. 6d.
,, Sjxmish Dollar ... „ „ 4*. 2d.
7-00 SIAM.
The legal money of Siam is the Tical, a silver coin, with the
device of an elephant impressed, weighing 236 grains troy. Spanish
dollars, largely in use, are accepted in payment at the rate -of 3
dollars for 5 Ticals.
Weights and Measures.
The Tael . . . . . = 1^- oz. avoirdupois.
„ Picul = 133 lbs.
„ Catty = l£ „ „
„ Chang . . . . . = 4 yards.
The basis of all measures of Aveights in Siam is the Niu, equal to
tS grains of husked rice ; Avhile the measures of length are taken
from the Kup, or Keub, that is, the length of the thumb to the
middle finger of a grown-up man, and the Sok, the length of the lower
part of the arm, from the end of the middle finger to the elbow.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
1. Official Publications.
Reports of Mr. Thos. Geo. Knox, Consul-General, on the Trade of Siam,
dated Bangkok, February 12, 1870; in 'Commercial Reports from H. M.'s
Consuls in China and Siam.' 8. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. J. M. Hood, U.S. Consul at Bangkok, dated January, 1868,
on the Trade and Social Condition of Siam, and the capital of Bangkok ; in
' Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8.
Washington, 1868.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom. 4.
London, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Alabaster (Henry) The Modern Buddhist; being the Views of a Siamese
Minister of State on His Own and other Religions. Translated. 8. London,
1870.
Bastian (Adolf), Die Volker des ostlichen Asiens. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig and
Jena, 1866-67.
Bowring (John), The Kingdom and People of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.
Grchan (A.) Le royaume de Siam. 8. Paris, 1868.
Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cam-
bodia and Laos, during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 186-1.
Palleqoix (D. J.), Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1854.
Spiess (Gust.), Die Preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wahrend der Jahre
1860-1862. Reise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der Indischen Insel-
welt. 8. Berlin, 1865.
701
IY. AUSTRALASIA.
3TEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of New South Wales, the oldest of the Austra-
lasian colonies, was proclaimed in 1855. It vests the legislative
power in a Parliament of two Houses, the first called the Legislative
Council, and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative
Council consists of not less than twenty-one members nominated
by the Crown, and the Assembly of seventy-two members, elected
in as many constituencies. To be eligible, a man must be of age,
a natural-born subject of the Queen, or, if an alien, then he must
have been natiiralised for five years, and resident for two years
before election. There is no property qualification for electors, and
the votes are taken by secret ballot. The executive is in the hands
of a governor nominated by the Crown.
Governor of New South Wales. — Earl of Belmore, born 1835, the
eldest son of the third Earl of Belmore, in the peerage of Ireland ;
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated
M.A. 1856 ; elected Representative Peer of Ireland, 1857; Under-
Secretary of State for the Home Department, July 1866 to August
1867 ; appointed Governor of New South Wales, August 19, 1867;
assumed government January 8, 1868.
The governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-in-
chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of 7,000/.
In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of seven
ministers, called respective!}', the Colonial Secretary, the Colonial
Treasurer, the Secretary for Public Works, the Secretary for Lands,
the Solicitor-General, the Postmaster-General, and the Representa-
tive of Government in the Legislative Council. The Colonial
Secretary has a salary of 2,000/., and the other ministers of 1,500/.,
1,000/., and 900/., with the exception of the last-named member of
the Cabinet, who has no allowance. The Cabinet is responsible for
its acts to the Legislative Assembly. The statute laws of Great
Britain are in force throughout New South Wales.
702
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The principal part of the public revenue, to the amount of nearly
one-half, is derived from customs duties, chief among them the
import duties on spirits. The other sources of income consist of
miscellaneous receipts, the most important of which are from land
sales and rents of land. Direct taxation does not exist.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony, including under the
first head loans, and under the latter sums disbursed tor public
works, was as follows in each of the five years 1864 to 18G8 : —
Years
Kevenue
Expenditure
&
£
1864
1,984,775
2,326,901
1865
2,237,234
2,314,794
1866
3,253,179
3,012,571
1867
2,569,456
2,935,633
1868
4,093,812
3,286,839
The income derived from customs amounted to 636.102/. in
1865, to 828,710/. in 1866, and to 783,338/. in 1867. The land
revenue amounted to 532,027/. in 1865, to 547,138/. in 1866, and
to 545,060/. in 1867. The revenue derived from gold during the
same period was 30,876/. in 1865, 27,410/. in 1866, and 25,331/.
in 1867. The public debt amounted to 3,830,230/. in 1860, to
6,418,030/. in 1866, to 6,917,630/. in 1867, and to 8,564,830/. at the
end of 1868. The debt was entirely incurred for railways and
public works. — (Communication of the Governor to the Statesman' 's
Year-booh.)
The revenue of the colony for the year 1867 was at the rate of
6/. 13s. 9cZ. per head of population, and the expenditure at the rate
of 5/. 0s. Id. per head.
Area and Population.
New South Wales was first colonised by convicts in 1788. In
May 1787, six transports and three store-ships, convoyed by a
frigate and an armed tender, sailed from England with 565 male
and 192 female convicts, under the command of Captain Phillip.
He arrived at Botany Bay on January 20, 1788, but, discovering
Port Jackson by accident, he removed his fleet to it. In 1788
the whole population, including the Government establishment and
convicts, amounted to 1,030, and in 1810 the population, free and
felon, had risen to 8,293. There were at the same period 97,637
acres of land granted, and there were in the colony 1,114 horses,
11,276 horned cattle, and 34,550 sheep. In 1821 the population
had increased to 29,783, and in 1828 to 27,611 males and 8,978
females: total 36,598. Of this number, 14,156 were male, and
AREA AND POPULATION. 703
1,513 female convicts; and 5,302 males, and 1,342 females, free
by servitude.
The number of immigrants who arrived in the colony in the
twelve years 1829 to 1840 amounted to 41,794. During the years
1841 and 1842 the number of immigrants was 30,224. The popula-
tion of Sydney, in 1833, was 16,233; and in 1836, 19,729. In
1840 it amounted to 29,973; and in 1845-46, to 38,358. The
colony was relieved from the transportation of criminals in 1840.
By the Act of 13 & 14 Vict. cap. 59, the district of Port Phillip
was formed into a separate colony, under the name of Victoria.
The area of New South Wales embraces 478,861 English square
miles, while the census of April 7, 1861, showed a total population
of 358,278, of whom 202,099 males and 156,179 females. In the
decennial period 1853-62 the number of immigrants into the colony
amounted to 164,923, of whom 106,508 males and 58.415 females.
A considerable number of these immigrants, namely 34,215 males and
34,827 females, was brought into the colony, either wholly or partly,
at the public expense, while the rest, 72,293 males and 23,588
females, came unassisted. It will be seen that, while the assisted
immigration was conducted with due regard to the equalisation of
the sexes, the voluntary immigration set at nought this important
social consideration. The number of immigrants introduced into the
colony in 18G5 at the public expense was 2,717, of whom 495 were
English, 155 Scotch, 2,041 Irish, and 26 of other countries. The
whole outlay on emigration during the year was 34,149/. lis. 10*7.,
being equal to 121. lis. 4|cZ. each. The number of emigrants who
arrived at their own expense was 641. The whole number of
immigrants, therefore, who reached the colony was 3,358. The
immigration of 1866 showed a great falling off, the total arrivals
sinking to 1,852. Of these 1,852 immigrants, but 648 came at
their own expense, while 1,204 were introduced at the public cost.
The latter comprised 190 English, 64 Scottish, and 950 Irish
persons, while as to religion, 3G9 were Protestants and 835 Poman
Catholics, mostly natives of Ireland.
The population of New South Wales on December 31, 1865,
was estimated at 411,388, showing an increase of 18,799 over
the previous year. On December 31, 1866, the number had
risen to 431,414, giving an increase of 20,026 within the twelve
months, and on December 31, 1867, it had risen to 447,^20, giving
an increase of 16,208 for the year. The number of births re-
gistered in 1869 was 18,485, while the deaths were 11,269, giving an
increase of population of 7,216. The sexes at the end of 1869 were in
the proportion of 55-8 per cent, males, to 44*2 per cent, females.
The educational state of the colony is shown in the subjoined
table, giving the number of public and private schools, and of the
attending scholars, in each of the years 1865, 1866, and 1867.
704
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Years
Schools
Scholars
Males
Females
Total
1865
1866
1867
1,069
1,155
1,180
27,867
31,183
32,971
25,586
28,411
30,212
53,453
59,554
63,183
The religious division of the inhabitants was as follows, accord-
ing to the census of 1851 and of 18G1 : —
Denominations
Numbers
Proportion
per 1,000
1851
1861
18S1
1861
Church of England
93,137
159,958
498
456
Presbyterians
18,156
34,692
97
99
Wesleyans .
.
10,008
23,682
53
67
Congregationalists
Other Protestants
1
6,472
f 5,411^
\ 9,863/
35
44
Roman Catholics
56,899
99,193
304
283
Hebrews
979
1,759
5
4
Mahometans and Asiatic cr
eeds .
852
12,909
4
37
All others .
740
3,393
4
10
The sums paid out of the State fnnds for religious purposes,
principally in salaries, were as follows in the year 18G7 : —
Church of England
Roman Catholics .
Presbyterians
Wesleyans
Total
There are in the colony, 270 churches and 447 chapels, or
buildings used as such, the average attendance at which was
135,263 during the year 1867.
£
s.
. 15,727
3
8,342
7
. 3,277
15
. 1,807
4
. 29,154
9
Trade and Industry.
The trade of New South Wales more than quintupled in the
period 1850-68 ; but the imports into the colony increased at a lesser
ratio than the exports. The total value of the imports in 1850
amounted to 2,078,338/., and in 1868 to 8,051,377/. The exports
in 1850 were valued at 1,038,340/., and in 1868 at 7,192,904/.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
705
The value of the total imports and exports seaward, including
bullion and specie, in each of the five years 1864 to 1808, was as
follows : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
£
&
1864 .
9.836,042
8,117,217
1865 .
9.928,595
8,191,170
1866 .
8,867,071
8,512,214
1867 .
6,599,804
6,880,715
1868 .
8,051,377
7,192,904
Rather more than one-half of the total imports into New South
Wales come from the United Kingdom, and about one- third of the
exports are shipped to it.. The rest of the trade is chiefly with
British Possessions. The commercial intercourse of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports from New South Wales
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British produce
and manufactures into New South Wales in each of the five years
1865 to 1869: —
Exports from New South
Imports of
Years
Wales to
British Home Produce into
Great Britain
New South Wales
1865
3,319,628
£
3,571,133
1866
3,162,615
2,917,577
1867
3,101,108
2,050.820
1868
3,222,417
2,889,970
1869
2,992,765
3,144,983
The staple article of exports from New South Wales to the United
Kingdom is wool, of the value of 2,152,964/. in 1865, of 2,782,034/.
in 1867, of 2,483,770/. in 1868, and of 2,385,347/. in 1869.
In the year 1850, about 70,000 acres of land were in cultivation
in New South Wales, and the colony had 5,660,829 sheep ; 952,852
horned cattle ; 63,890 horses; and 23,890 pigs. In 1859 the numbers
were : land in cultivation, 217,440 acres ; sheep, 7,736,323 ; horned
cattle, 2,110,600; horses, 200,700; and pigs, 92,800. In nine
years the number of acres of land in cultivation had been trebled ;
and above 2,000,000 sheep and more than 1,000,000 head of cattle
had been added to the stock. The extent of land alienated in the
colony, deprived, meanwhile, of the vast territories of Queensland
and Victoria, on March 31, 1866, was stated to be 7,900,360
acres ; of unalienated, 93,852,305 acres. The number of live
z z
706
NEW SOUTH' WALES.
stock in the colony on March 31, 1805, was 1,924,119 horned
cattle and 8,271,520 sheep; and 1,961,905 horned cattle and
8,132,511 sheep on March 31, 1866, showing an increase of
37,786 homed cattle and a decrease of 139,009 sheep. How-
ever, there was a, fresh increase of flocks after this period, and on
March 31, 1868., the agricultural statistics showed 280,201 horses,
1,728,427 horned cattle, and 13,909,574 sheep.
New South Wales is believed to be richer in coal than the other
territories of Australasia. In 1861, thei'e were 18 mines worked,
producing 342,068 tons of coal, valued at 218,821/., and in 1865,
there were 585,525 tons, valued at 274,304/., raised from 24 mines.
During the year 1866, there were 25 mines in activity, and the
quantity raised amounted to 774,238 tons, of the value of 324,049/.
Above half a million of tons of coal, valued at 300,588/., were ex-
ported in the year 1866 to the Australasian colonies and to foreign
countries, as follows : —
Exports to
Tons
Value
Victoria ...... ,
143,746
£
67,908
New Zealand
95.446
47,194
Queensland .
10,406
5,039
Tasmania .
13,203
6,095
South Australia
81,079
32,708
Singapore .
11,604
7,134
Hong Kong
15.512
13,412
Shanghai
63.593
-45,701
PetropauloTsH
11,984
10,382
United States
48,242
29,075
Java .
11,999
7,657
Valparaiso .
8,044
7,687
Twelve other places
26,047
20,596
Tot
al
540,905
300,588
At the end of 1867, there were 26 coal mines in activity, the
quantity raised during the year being 770,012 tons, valued at
342,655/. The total amount of coal, raised till the end of 1867, was
estimated at 5,000,000 tons, valued at 3,000,000/. The coalfields
north and south of the port of Sydney are reported to be all but
inexhaustible.
The gold mines of New South Wales cover a vast area, extending
chiefly over three districts, called the Western Field, the Northern
Fields, and the Southern Fields. Of these three districts, the
Western Field is the most important, furnishing about half the total
supply. The following table exhibits the quantity and value of the
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
707
gold found in the "Western Field and in the whole colony, in each
of the five years 1863 to 1867 : —
Years
Western Field
Total
Quantity Yalue
Quantity
Value
1863 .
1864 .
1865 .
1866 .
1867 .
Oz.
215,443
149,709
141,251
130,835
134,448
£
818,741
562,425
536,395
499,794
521,963
Oz.
423,407
316,429
280,810
241,489
222,715
£
1,629,049
1,211,169
1,077,905
928,275
863,797
New South "Wales likewise possesses valuable copper mines, the
average yield of which, during the years 1863 to 1867, was nearly
1,000 tons of ore. Of this, the exports to the United Kingdom, in
the year 1868, amounted to 1,490 tons of copper, valued at 106,204/.,
besides 1,370 tons of ore, of the value of 14,264/. Oil mines, be-
lieved to be of great extent and importance, were discovered in
1865 and 1866 in the colony.
New South Wales has four short lines of railway, called, respec-
tively, the Northern, the Southern, the Western, and the Richmond
line. They together conveyed 751,587 passengers in 1865, 668,330
in 1866, and 409,280 in 1867. The receipts from all sources were
166,032/. in 1865, 168,534/. in 1866, and 189,072/. in 1867. The
working expenses amounted to 117,324/. in 1867, and the total ex-
penditure exceeded the revenue by 615/. Of electric telegraphs
there were in the colony 3,567 miles of wire, at the end of lt>67,
constructed at a cost of 160,796/. The number of telegrams sent
during the year was 130.447, of which 41,049 from Sydney.
zz 2
708
NEW ZEALAND.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government for New Zealand was established
by statute 15 & 16 Vict. cap. 72. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in the Governor and a Parliament of
two Chambers, the first called the Legislative Council, and the
second the House of Representatives. The Legislative Council
consists at present of forty members, nominated by the Crown for
life, and the House of Representatives of seventy-six members,
elected by the people for five years. Every owner of a freehold
worth 50/., or tenant householder, in the country at 5/., in the
towns at 10/. a year rent, is qualified both to vote for, or to be a
member of, the House of Representatives. The executive is vested
in a governor, appointed by the Crown.
Governor of New Zealand. — Sir George Ferguson Boicen, born
1821 ; educated at the Charterhouse, and at Trinity College, Oxford ;
elected fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, 1844 ; admitted a
member of Lincoln's Inn, 1844 ; Chief Secretary to the Govern-
ment of the Ionian Islands, 1854; C.M.G., 1855, K.C.M.G., 1856,
and promoted toG.C.M.G., 1860; Governor of Queensland, 1859-67 ;
appointed Governor of New Zealand, Nov. 14, 1867.
The governor, who is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief
of all the troops in the colony, has a salary of 4,500/. and certain
alloAvances. He is assisted in the executive by a responsible
ministry of five members, the Colonial Secretary, the Colonial Trea-
surer, the Postmaster-General, the Minister for Colonial Defence,
and the Minister for Native Affairs. Each of these Ministers has a
salary of 1,000/. per annum.
The colony is divided into eight provinces, each of which is
governed by an elected Superintendent and a Provincial Council.
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of dealing
with questions of native government, were in 1863-64 transferred
from the imperial to the colonial Government.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The ordinary revenue and expenditure of the colony, during
each of the six years 1863 to 1868, were as follows : —
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
709
Years
Ee venue
Expenditure
&
£
1863
1,380,836
1,757,092
1864
1,608,841
1,860,980
1865
1,525,827
2,906,332
1866
1,978,711
3,293,250
1867
1,864,155
2,857,560
1868
1,195,512
2,470,243
The budget for the fiscal year 1869-70 was calculated upon an
ordinary revenue of 1,032,000/., and an expenditure of 969,587/.,
thus leaving a surplus of 62,413/. The following were the
estimates of 1 869-7 U: —
Revenue : — £
Customs 86,000
Bonded warehouses 15,000
Stamps 67,000
Post-office 48,000
Telegraph 25,000
Miscellaneous 72,000
Total 1,032,000
Expenditure : — £
Civil list 27,500
Permanent charges 274,089
Do., Provincial Account 157,416
Domains 2,480
Public departments . 40,890
Law and justice ....... 51,808
Post and telegraph 134,334
Customs 40,475
Native service ........ 21,407
Miscellaneous, special and temporary .... 31,516
Militia and Volunteers ...... 27,669
Armed constabulary ....... 118,000
Contingencies of defence ...... 32,000
Total 969,587
The estimated ordinary revenue of the fiscal year 1868-
1,000,500/., and the actual receipts 1,005,933/. The
expenditure was 1,436,259/., of which 266,931/. was for
purposes, and 697,608/. for interest and sinking fund.
A considerable portion of the receipts at the disposal
Government of New Zealand is territorial, derived from the
Crown lands, depasturing licences, and assessments. This
of income is not included in the ordinary revenue, but
separately in the financial accounts, as ' Territorial revenue
■69 was
actual
defence
of the
sale of
source
treated
.' The
710
NEW ZEALAND.
Years
£
1860 .
. 189,168
1861 .
. 260,863
1862 .
. 399,436
1863 .
. 592,050
1864 .
. 592,346
1865 .
. 730,008
1866 .
. 844,267
1867 .
. 843,997
1868 .
. 788,829
£
Per cent
ase of 20,852 .
.. 12-38
71,695 .
.. 37-90
138,573 .
.. 53-12
„ 192,614 .
.. 48-22
, 296 .
0-05
137,662
.. 23-24
„ 114,259
.. 1565
se of 270 .
003
55,168 .
.. 6-53
following table gives the comparative amounts realised by this
branch of the revenue during the nine years from 18G0 to 1868 : —
showing an increase of
showing a decrease of
The total ordinary revenue in 1868 amounted to 1,195,512/.,
against 1,225,5847. in 1867, being a decrease of 30,072, or 2 45 per
cent. The total -territorial revenue in 1868 amounted to 425,323/.,
against 561,730/. in' 1867, being 'a decrease of 136,407/., or 24*28
per cent. The territorial revenue in 1868 included 79,653/. duty on
gold exported, and 50,899/. for 'miners' rights', and 'gold field fees.'
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1856, amounted to
77,174^. in that year, and rose to594,044/. in 1860, to 1,289,750/.
in 1863, to 2,219,4qOZ. in 1864, to 4,368,682/. at the end of 1865,
to 5,435,729/. at rthe end of 1866, to 7,579,000/. at the end of 1867,
and to 7,178,143/. at the end of the year 1868. The liabilities of
New Zealand are officially divided into the debt of the General
Government, and the debts of the Provincial Governments, the
latter contracted for local purposes. The debt of the General
Government amounted to 4,260,543/. on the 31st of December,
1868, and was made up as follows on this date : —
Total amount
Debentures in
Rate of
Loans contracted under — '
authorised
circulation
interest
£
£
s.
d.
Ordinance of Legislative Council
316
0
0
8 y- cent.
' New Zealand Loan Act, 1856'
500,000
500,000
0
0
4 ■$>• cent.
' New Zealand Loan Act, 1860 ' -
150,000
95,500
0
0
6 f- cent.
f 568,200
0
0
5 f* cent.
500,000
0
0
4 -|i cent.
* New Zealand Loan Act, 1863 '
3,000,000
1 226,400
0
0
6 i» cent.
255,900
0
0
6 •$>• cent.
[_ 106,300
0
0
6 f cent.
' New Zealand Debentures Act,
i 1864,' and' Amendment Act,
1865,' £1,000,000
33,527
15
11
8 1>- cent.
' Treasury Bills Act, 1866 ' .
150,000
150,000
0
0
id. 1* cent,
per diem
' Treasury Bills Act, 1868 ' .
78,000
12,000
0
0
■ifd. f- cent,
per diem
'Consolidated Loan Act, 1867'
1,812,400
0
0
5 i>- cent.
Total Guneral Government .
4,260,543
15
11
AREA AND POPULATION.
711
In June, 1868, the greater part of the debt was converted, with the
assent of the holders, into a 5 per cent, debenture stock, issued at 97,
and secured by the consolidated revenues of the colony, while at the
same time there was established a sinking fund, the working of which
is to free the colony from all liabilities in the course of thirty-six years.
— (Communication of the Governor to the Statesman' s Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The colony of New Zealand, first visited by Captain Cook in
1769, consists of a group of three islands, known as the North,
Middle, and South, or Stewards Island. The whole group is nearly
1,000 miles long, and 200 miles broad ; its coast line extends over
1,000 leagues. The area of the country is estimated at 122,000
square miles, or nearly 80,000,000 acres, two-thirds of which
are fitted for agriculture and grazing. The North Island contains
about 31,000,000, and the Middle Island about 46,000,000 acres,
while Stewart's Island, uninhabited as yet, and partly unexplored,
contains about 1,000,000 acres.
The population of New Zealand, in 1851, when the first census
was taken, numbered 26,707, exclusive of aborigines. In 1858, the
number had risen to 59,413 — 33,679 males, and 25,734 females —
being an increase, in the seven years, of 122 per cent., and in 1861,
the total was 99,022 — 61,063 males, and 37,959 females — or an
increase of 40 per cent, in three years* The next triennial census
of 1864 showed a population of 172,158 — 106,580 males-, and 65,578
females — representing an increase of nearly 74 per cent, in 3 years;
while at the following and last enumeration, made December 19,
1867, the total number of inhabitants was found to be 218,668, being
an increase of about 27 per cent, since 1864, or 9 per cent, per annum.
The following table shows the population of European descent,
distinguishing the sexes, of each of the 9 provinces of New Zealand,
according to the last census, taken December 19, 1867 : —
Provinces
Males
Females
Total
North Island : —
Auckland ....
27,063
21,258
48,321
Taranaki ....
2,528
lr831
4,359
"Wellington ....
12.401
9,549
21.950
Hawke's Bay ...
3,197
2r086
5,283
Middle Island : —
Nelson ....
16,425
7,389
23,814
Marlborough
2,736
1,635
4,371
Canterbury ....
33,083
20,783
53,866
Otago .....
29,773
18,804
48,577
Southland ....
Total
4,600
3,343
7,943
131,806
86,678
218,484
7 12
NEW ZEALAND.
Not included in the above statement is the small population of the
outlying Chatham Islands, 184 at the date of the census, which brings
the total number of inhabitants of European descent, exclusive of
British troops and their families, to 218,688. The troops, in December,
18(37, comprised 918 officers and men, 148 women, and 389 children.
The total mtmber of inhabited houses and other dwellings found
at the census of December 19, 1867, in the colony was 54,015, or
four individuals to one dwelling. Of these, 38,844 were described
as constructed of wood; 1,182 of stone, or brick; 870 of 'Raupo';
and 8,524 of other materials ; while 4,595 were simple tents.
The number of aborigines, or so-called Maories, in New Zealand,
is only known through official estimates, which however, are believed
to be tolerably accurate. From these it appears that, at the com-
mencement of the year 1868, there were in the North Island,
37,107, and in the South Island 1,433 Maories, or a total of 38,540
in the whole colony. The native population of North Island comprised
14,897 men, 12,353 women, and 9,857 children; and that of South
Island 535 men, 427 women, and 471 children. According to all
accounts, the Maories, like the aborigines of other countries settled
by Europeans, are declining in numbers from year to year. The
result of a native census taken all over the colony between September
1857 and September 1858, was the enumeration of 55,970 Maories
— 31,667 males, and 24,303 females — so that, in the ten years from
1858 to 1868, the decline amounted to no less than 17,430 souls, or
above 30 per cent, of the total native population. With a continuation
of decay at this rate, the aborigines of New Zealand will have ceased
to exist in another generation.
The following table shows the native countries of the white popula-
tion of New Zealand, according to the census of December 19, 1867 : —
Countries of Birth
Males
Females
Total
New Zealand
England
Wales ....
Scotland
Ireland
Australia
Other British Colonies .
United States
Germany
France .
China ....
Other foreign Countries
At sea ....
Unspecified .
Total .
32,397
41,591
975
21.947
18,345
6,048
2,146
1.031
2,293
437
1,213
2,274
401
561
31,655
24.023
344
12,879
9,610
5,265
1,382
182
545
116
6
174
350
208
64,052
65,614
1,219
34,826
27,955
11,313
3,528
1,213
2,838
543
1,219
2,448
751
769
131,929
86,739
218,668
AREA AND POPULATION.
713
<The white population of New Zealand, composed, as will be seen from
the above table, to nearly one-half, of natives of the United Kingdom,
is scattered in small communities over the colony. The wide intervals
between these settlements are occupied by the aboriginal Maories,
who are well armed, skilful in the use of their rifles, and addicted
to war. They mostly avail themselves of the natural fastnesses
afforded by the country, and large armed bodies of them pass rapidly
from place to place, subsisting where European troops cannot live.
Won by the teaching of English missionaries, the natives' have almost
all embraced Christianity, and a great proportion of them are able
to read and write. The Maories not openly hostile to European
settlers are represented as being fond of agriculture, and the Govern-
ment has encouraged them in this taste, while they have been induced
also to construct mills, to acquire vessels, and to attend to the
breeding of cattle and horses, for which they have a great partiality.
The immigration into New Zealand in the year 18G8 amounted
to 8,723 persons, while 7,863 individuals emigrated from the
colony. By epitomising the net excess of immigration over emigra-
tion in the provinces, taken separately, it is found that the excess
was — in Otago, 1,432 ; in Wellington, 348 ; in Hawke's Bay, 22 ;
in Nelson, 162; in Marlborough, 1; in Canterbury, 716; in Auck-
land, 287 ; and in Southland, 171. In the province of Taranaki
and in the County of Westland the balance was on the other side,
the emigration ' having exceeded the immigration by 2,279 persons.
Of the immigrants arriving in 1868, there came 3,022 from the
United Kingdom, 5,079 from the Australian colonies, 60 from other
British ports, and 562 from foreign states.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of New Zealand increased more than twenty-fold in
the sixteen years from 1852 to 1868. The imports, which were of the
value of 359,444/. in 1852, amounted to 4,985,748/. in 1868 ; and the
exports, valued at 145,972/. in 1852, amounted to 4,429,198/. in 1868.
The following table exhibits the value of the total imports and
exports of the colony in each of the five years 1864 to 1868 : — ■
Tears
Total Imports
Total Exports
1866
1867
£
7,000,655
5,594,977
5,894,863
5,344,607
4,985,748
A
3,401,667
3,713,218
4,520,074
4,644,678
4,429,198
The quantities and value of the imports in each of the two years
1867 and 1868 were as follows : —
7*4
NEW ZEALAND.
Total Imports
1867
1868
Principal Articles.
Animals for stock
£
161,369
122,819
Apparel : — Boots and shoes .
f Packgs.
• \ £
10,982
163,922
8,793
193,981
Apparel and slops
f Packgs.
' { £
4,704
148,941
3,187
117,441
f Packgs.
' 1 £
4,123
1,398
146,047
49,557
f Packgs.
5,984
1,588
• I £
167,207
71,558
Drapery ....
f Packgs-
• \ £
9,085
503,317
11,113
557,754
Haberdashery
f Packgs.
' \ £
964
32,982
656
34,511
Millinery, silks, linens .
j Packgs.
• \ £
1,741
42,393
785
44,151
Iron, hardware, cutlery
£
356,427
313,890
Provisions : — Ale and beer .
£
160,447
85,263
Sugar — raw and refined .
f Tons
■ I £
6,470
311,401
293,094
Tea
f Lbs.
• 1 £
lr873,273
—
186,323
214,793
Spirits : — Brandy
£
108,662
118,461
Other kinds
£
86,885
106,259
Stationery and books .
£
86,532
69,639
Tobacco ....
£
70,874"
91,602
Wine .....
Total value of principal and o
£
her articles £
110,715
87,257
5,344,607
4,985,748
The quantities and value of the exports, in each of the two years
1867 and 1868, were as follows : —
Total Exports
1867
1868
Principal Articles.
Gold and gold dust . . . • \ £
686,753
2,724,276
637,474
2,492,721
T-r • f Tons
Kauri gum . . . . . . < #
2,685
77,491
2,689
72,493
Potatoes . . . . . . i „
418
1,812
362
1,257
Timber of all kinds .... £
16,105
15,846
Wool { Z*J
Total value of principal and other articles . £
27,152,966
28,875,163
1,580,608
1,516,548
4,644,678
4,429,198
The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
715
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of gold and specie — from New Zealand to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into New Zealand, in each of the five years 18G5 to 1689 : —
Years
Exports from New Zealand
to the United Kingdom
Imports of
British Home Produce
into New Zealand
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
1,186,085
1,713,062
1,210,500
1,474,561
1,554,128
£
1,593,844
2,177,174
1,506,496
1,702,453
1,864,988
The staple article of export from New Zealand to the United
Kingdom is wool, the value of which amounted to 1,205,072/. in
1865, and rose to 1,588,318*. in 1867, but sank to 1,344,868/. in
1869. The British imports comprise mainly textile fabrics.
Ship-building and the trade in timber are, next to wool-growing,
the chief elements of the industry of New Zealand. Among the
mineral productions are gold, copper, iron, and coal.
Large gold-fields were discovered in 1857. According to official
returns, the total export of gold from New Zealand between the 1st
of April, 1857, and the 31st of March, 1870, was as follows : —
Produce of Gold fields in
Quantity
Value
Oz.
£
Otago .....
2,568,447
10,006,522
Westland (County)
1,355,218
5,327,247
Nelson .....
925,442
3,654,092
Auckland ....
243,497
792,089
Marlborough
34,878
134,314
Southland ....
Totals.
27,813
109,954
5,155,295
20,024,218
Mineral stores of immense extent are believed to be in existence
not far below the soil in various parts of New Zealand.
716
QUEENSLAND.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland Avas esta-
blished December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South Wales.
The power of making laws, and imposing taxes, is vested in a Parlia-
ment of two Houses, the Legislative Council, and the Legislative
Assembly. The former consists of twenty-three members, ten
nominated by the Crown for five years, and thirteen nominated
for life. The House of Assembly comprises twenty-six deputies,
elected for five years by all natural-born or naturalised citizens, who
pay taxes, and have undergone no condemnation for any criminal
act. The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Queensland. — Major Samuel Wensley Blackall, for-
merly in the 85th Light Infantry, and commandant of the Longford
Militia ; represented the county of Longford in Parliament from
1847 to 1851 ; Lieutenant-governor of Dominica from 1851 to 1857 ;
Governor of Sierra Leone, 1862—67 ; appointed Governor of Queens-
land, November 1867.
The governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also bears
the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 4,000Z. per annum,
' and allowances.' In the exercise of the executive authority he is
assisted by an Executive Council, consisting of four members, the
Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Treasurer,
and the Secretary for Public Lands and Works. Each of these
ministers has a salary of 1,00(K. per annum. They are jointly and
individually responsible for their acts.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public income and expenditure of Queensland, during the
first nine years of its existence as a colony, were as follows : —
Years
Kevenue
Expenditure
&
£
1860 .
178,589
180,103
1861
238,239
299,606
1862
346,431
367,317
1863
390,823
404,402
1864
502,456
439,034
I860
631,432
613,161
1866
490,270
594,130
1867
669,041
719,967
1868
780,117
797,470
AREA AND POPULATION. 7 I 7
The greater part of the revenue of Queensland is produced by
customs duties, land sales, and rents of public lands; while the
chief expenditure is for works of general utility, and for aids to
immigration. The customs revenue for 18G8 amounted to 337,228/.,
exceeding that of 1867 by 50,935/. In 18G5, the customs yielded
195,540/., against 153,341/. for 1864, the increase being 42,199/.,
or at the rate of 27 per cent.
The public debt of the colony amounted, on December 31, 1868,
to the sum of 3,459,686/., of which sum 3,021,186/. was created by
loans, and 438,500/. under 'The Treasury Bills Act of 1866,' viz.,
30 Victoria, No. 8, and 30 Victoria, No. 10. The interest on the loans
amounted to 181,269/., and on the Treasury Bills to the sum of
43,850/. ; in all 225,119/., in the year 1868.
Area and Population.
The colony of Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern
portion of the Australian continent. It also includes, in the terms
of Her Majesty's Letters Patent, ' all and every the adjacent islands,
their members and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the
Gulf of Carpentaria.'
It appears from the statistical register of Queensland for 1861,
that the Surveyor-General has made a careful calculation of the
present area of the colony ; and the result is, in round numbers, as
follows : —
Area of Queensland,
Square miles
East of longitude 141° 560,000
Between 141° and 138° 118,600
Total 678,600
Occupied Country.
Square miles
Approxinrat-e area of country occupied by pastoral stations 195,000
The vast territory thus defined, equal in size to one-fifth of the
whole of Europe, formed a part of New South Wales until it was
erected into a separate eolony, under the name of Queensland, by an
order of Her Majesty in Council, which took effect on December 10,
1859, upon the arrival of the first governor, Sir G. F. Bowen.
The population amounted to 24,870 on December 31, 1859 ; to
29,074 on December 31,1860, to 34,367 at the same date in 1861,
and to 45,077 on December 31, 1862. The last enumeration of
December 31, 1868, showed that the colony had then a pojrulation
of 107,427, of whom 65,843 males, and 41,584 females.
7i8
QUEENSLAND.
The following table shows the centesimal rate of increase of the
population during the last five years, 1863-68 : — ■
Years
Males
Females
Persons
1863
33-37
32-76
33-13
1864
21-12
1853
20-11
1865
17-H
20-93
1568
1866
7-48
12-79
9-56
1867
4-41
2-88
3-79
1868
10-04
3-92
760
The number of immigrants, chiefly from the United Kingdom,
who arrived in the colony in 1868 was 4,287, of whom 4,135
males, and 152 females.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the
five years 1865 to 1869, is given in the following table: —
Tears
Imports
Exports
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
2,505,559
2,467,907
1,747,735
1,899,119
1,717,472
£
1,153,464
1,366,491
2,198,609
2,107,437
2,104,887
The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the
other Australian colonies, .and next to them with the United King-
dom. The subjoined tabular statement gives the value of the
exports, exclusive of gold, from Queensland to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Queensland in each of the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Tears
Export? from Queensland
to the United Kingdom
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Queensland
1865
1806
1867
1868
1869
£
177,548
341,362
459,215
420,082
547,584
£
595,851
533,914
298.638
409,303
433,726
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 719
The staple article of exports from Queensland to the United
Kingdom is wool, the value of which was 324,348/. in 1864 ;
126,256/. in 1865 ; 304,765/. in 1866 ; 424,946/. in 1867 ; 332,976/.
in 1868; and 405,145/. in 1869. Among the other articles of
export to Great Britain are tallow and raw cotton, the former
exported to the value of 43,052/. in 1869. Of raw cotton the
exports to the United Kingdom were: — 200 cwt., valued at 2,497/.,
in 1864; 985 cwt., valued at 11,544/., in 1865; 1,837 cwt.,
valued at 11,714/., in 1866 ; 855 cwt., valued at 3,351/., in 1867 ;
7,725 cwt., valued at 37,935/., in 1868 ; and 12,181 cwt., of the
value of 69,603/., in 1869. Among the imports of British produce
into Tasmania in the year 1869, the chief were iron, of the value
of 67,829/., and cotton goods, of the value of 38,866/.
There are several coal mines in the colony, producing about
18,000 tons of coal per annum. Great gold fields have hitherto
not been discovered, though the metal is believed to exist in large
quantities.
Most of the productions of both temperate and tropical countries
can be cultivated with success in Queensland. The climate is stated
to be particularly favourable to pastoral occupations. A bonus is
offered by the Government of ten acres of land for the production
and export of every bale of See Island cotton weighing 300 lbs.
The extent of land set aside for the cultivation of cotton amounted to
2,021 acres in 1863, to 8,194 acres in 1867, and to 11,454 acres in
1868. The cultivation of the sugar cane spread from 94 acres in
1864 to 3,396 acres in 1868.
720
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of South Australia bears date October 27, 1856.
It vests the legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people.
The Parliament consists of a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly. The former is composed of eighteen members, six of
whom retire every four years, their successors being then elected
for twelve years. The executive has no power to dissolve this
body. It is elected by the whole colony voting as one district.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Council are
that he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural-born or
naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the
electoral roll six months, besides having a freehold of 50/. value, or
a leasehold of 20/. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of
25/. annual value. The qualification for a member of Council is
merely that he must be thirty years of age, a natural-born or natural-
ised subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty-six members, elected
for three years by seventeen districts, but liable to dissolution by the
executive. The sole qualification for an elector is that of having
been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at
twenty-one years of age ; and the qualification for a member is the
same. The Speaker of the House of Assembly is chosen by the mem-
bers of a new House on its first meeting. Judges and ministers of
religion are ineligible for election as members, as well as aliens who
have not resided five years in the colony. The elections of members
of both Houses take place by ballot.
The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown
and a responsible Executive Council, the members of which must
have been elected deputies of either of the two Houses of Parliament.
Governor of South Australia. — Sir James Fergusson, born 1882,
eldest son of Sir J. Fergusson, Bart. ; educated at University College,
Oxford ; entered the army, and served as captain in the Grenadier
Guards during the Crimean War ; M.P. for Ayrshire, 1854-57, and
again 1859-68 ; appointed Governor of South Australia, Sept. 1868.
The governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of all
the troops, has a salary of 4,000/. per annum. The Cabinet, or Exe-
cutive Council, of which he is the president, consists of five members,
called the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the
Commissioner of Crown Lands, and the Commissioner of Public
Works. The Chief Secretary has a salary of 1,300/. per annum,
and each of the other members of the cabinet fcSOO/. The
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
"21
ministers are jointly and individually responsible to the Legislature
for all their official acts.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The total annual gross revenue and the total annual gross expendi-
ture of the colony of South Australia for each of the ten years
18G0-G9 were as follows, according to official returns : —
Years
Eevenue •
Expenditure
£
£
1860
504,045
543,025
1861
558,586
482,951
1862
659,870
615,114
1863
631,700
635,205
1864
766,635
612,078
1865
1,089,243
809,159
1866
975,180
1,084,709 .
1867
1,126,326
1,292,600
1868
1,361.803
1,353,189
1869
777.350
802,250
The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from
the sale of crown lands, and from customs duties, while the
main portion of the expenditure is on account of public works.
On the average of the three years 1867 to 1869, the customs duties
produced rather more than one-fourth, and the sale of Crown lands
rather less than one-fourth of the total annual revenue, the rest being
derived from a great number of sources, including railways, tele-
graphs, post-office, Adelaide water rates, and port and harbour dues.
About one-third of the net revenue is expended in administrative
charges, comprising a 'civil list' of 16,800/., salaries of officials to the
amount of 225,000/., and ' contingencies' averaging 230,000/. a-year.
Included in the revenue returns of the foregoing table were
receipts from loans, amounting to 65,218/. in 1860; to 16,989/. in
1861 ; to 19,000/. in 1862 ; to 33,044/. in 1863 ; to 33,648/. in
1864; to 113/. in 1865;. to. 25,406/. in 1866; to 410,031/.
in 1867 ; to 645,799Z. in 1868 ; and to 21,721/. in 1869.
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1854, amounted to
593,700/. in 1857, to 870,100/. in 1860, to 1,077,750/. in 1867,
and to 1,663,100/. at the end of 1868. This debt does not include
loans for reproductive public works.
3 A
•22
SOUTII AUSTRALIA.
Area and Population.
The original boundaries of the colony, according to the statutes
of 4 and 5 Wm. IV. cap. 95, were fixed between 132° and 141° E.
long, for the eastern and western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for
the northern limit, and for the south the Southern Ocean. The
boundaries of the colony were subsequently extended, under the
authority of Eoyal Letters Patent, dated July 6, 18G3, so as to
embrace all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude. The total
area of this territory is calculated at 383,328 English square
miles.
South Australia was first colonised in 183G by emigrants from Great
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the
South Australian Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained a
grant from the Imperial Government of the lands of the colony.
The conditions were that the land should not be sold at less than 11.
per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such lands should
be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers;
that the control of the company's affairs should be vested in a
body of commissioners approved by the Secretary of State for
the colonies, and that the governor should be nominated by the
Crown.
The total population of each sex, according to enumerations taken
in the years 1844, 184G, 1851, 1855, 1861, and 1866, was as
follow : —
Date of census
Males
Females
Total
February 26, 1844 .
9,526
7,670
17,366
26, 1846 .
12,670
9,650
22,390
January 1, 1851
35,302
27,737
63,700
March 31, 1855
43,720
41,469
85,821
April 8, 1861 ....
65,048
61,782
126,830
March 25, 1866 .
85,334
78,118
163,452
During the ten years from 1857 to the end of 18G6, immigration
brought 57,209 persons, while emigration carried off again 35,239,
leaving a balance of 21,970 in favour of the colony. The number
of immigrants conveyed at the public cost during this period was
23,795, or 1,825 more than the net gain by immigration.
The occupations of the population and their percentage pro-
portion were as follows, according to the census of April 8,
18G1 :—
AREA AND POPULATION.
723
Occupation
Number
Percentage
Agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural
23,135
1824
Commerce, trade, and manufactures
13,899
10-96
Domestic servants .....
5,617
4-43
Labourers (branch undefined)
3,306
260
Mining
1,908
1-50
Learned professions ....
1,320
1-05
General and local government
822
•65
Maintained at public cost
417
•33
Independent means
.229
•18
Miscellaneous pursuits .
170
■13
Residue, including females and children
Total
76,007
59-93
126,830
100 I
The following was the origin of the population according to the
census of April 8, 1861: —
Origin
Males
Females
Total
British Possessions : —
South Australia .
24,388
24,225
48,613
Victoria
353
334
687
New South Wales
253
254
507
Other British Possessions .
751
664
1,415
England and Wales
24,015
20,828
44,843
Scotland ....
3,971
3,678
7,649
Ireland ....
5,408
7,286
12,694
Foreign countries : —
France ....
78
45
123
Germany ....
4,879
3,984
8,863
China .....
39
1
40
Other foreign countries
562
163
725
Born at sea ....
281
281
562
Unspecified ....
Total
70
39
109
65,048
61,782
126,830
The following statement gives the religious division of the in-
habitants of the colony, according to a semi-official enumeration of
the year 1861 : —
Church of England
Roman Catholics .
Wesleyan Methodists
German Lutherans
Independents
Church of Scotland
Bible Christians .
Number
Percentage
43,587
36948
15,594
13-219
14,322
12141
11,235
9-524
6,268
5314
4,821
4086
4,216
3556
3 a2
724
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Number
Percentage
Free Church of Scotland
4,137
3-508
Primitive Methodists
3,672
3-129
Baptists ....
3,424
2-902
Christians ....
1,658
1-405
United Presbyterians
1,572
1-333
Other Christian Denominations
573
0-486
Unitarians ....
493
0-417
Hebrews ....
360 .
0-305
Moravians ....
217
0-183
New Church ....
192
0-163
Society of Friends
124
0-106
Mohammedans and Pagans ..
112
0-095
Not specified
1,390
1179
Total
126,830
There is a large and growing amount of pauperism in the colony.
During the year 1866, there were 1,144 persons receiving relief
from charitable institutions, to the maintenance of which, irrespective
of cost of building, the state contributed 32,026/., which was double
the amount expended in 1863. According to an official report of
the governor, there were, in 1866, no less than 1,007 destitute
children ' receiving support from the state,' and it is added that
' during the course of a single year the number has increased two-
fold.'
At the census of 1861, the total aboriginal population of South
Australia was 5,046, the males largely exceeding the females in
number. There were only 850 children, so that here, as elsewhere,
the original race is fast becoming extinct.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, inclu-
sive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in each
of the five years 1865 to 1869 was as follows : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
£
£
1865
2,927,596
3,129,846
1866
2,835,142
2,858,737
1867
2,506,394
3,164,622
1868
2,238,510
2,819,300
1869
2,323,309
2,154,587
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
725
The imports into the colony consist mainly of articles of general
consumption, textile manufactures, and colonial produce, the prin-
cipal article being drapery goods, of the average value of upwards
of 500,000^. per annum. The quantities and value of the total
imports of South Australia, in each of the years 1867 and 1868,
were as follows: —
Total Imports
1867
1868
Principal Articles
Apparel and slops .
£
3,789
4,615
Bags and sacks, corn and gunny
'(
Bales
£
5,381
80,226
2,821
38,954
Beer, porter, ale
;)
Gallons
£
307,284
48,974
360,899
56,037
Boots and shoes
£
47,950
86,996
Bullion and specie .
£
93,392
64.50S
Candles .....
1
Lbs.
726,626
506,304
£
28,092
20,324
Coals, coke, and other fuel
••!
Tons
76,711
67,109
£
87,562
81,635
Cutlery and hardware
£
23,809
34,641
Drapery .....
£
547,844
593,066
Groceries and oilman's stores .
£
40,612
30.241
Iron : bar, sheet, hoop, and rod
'{
Tons
£
1,151
13,646
2,364
26.51:;
„ manufactures
£
68,960
87,158
Implements ....
£
9,317
8,290
Machinery .....
£
16.354
4,901
Spirits: Brandy
■\
gallons
£
38,875
19,464
65,518
33,815
Gin ....
•{
Gallons
16,366
19,260
£
5,291
6,697
Sugar ......
■\
Cwts.
118,211
91,727
£
181,750
135,279
Tea
•f
Lbs.
1,292,126
1,498.284
£
106,106
93,220
Tobacco, manufactured .
•1
Lbs~.
333.741
361,042
£
19,107
21.874
W'n
r
lallons
3S.695
42.246
£
19,848
18,619
Wood, timber .....
•j
Loads
19,098
16,639
£
64,479
58,411
Wool
other )
Lbs.
5,832,350
1,611,446
Total value of principal and
£
425,846
92,957
articles ....
£
2,506,394
2,238.51n
726
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
The exports of the colony are made up chiefly of the two staple
articles, corn and wool, the first of the average value of 600,000/.,
and the second of 1,200,000/. per annum. The quantities and value
of the principal exports, in each of the two years 1867 and 1868,
Avere as follows : —
Total Exports
18C7
1868
Principal Articles.
Bullion and specie .....
£
325
49,221
r
Corn : Flour !
Tons
£
43,703
498,223
23,591
405,982
Wheat (
Qrs.
301,543
55,876
£
521,690
148,603
Metal, copper . . . . . . }
Cwts.
156,863
104,227
£
627,384
400,691
Tons
11,686
20,836
£
119,162
210,012
f
Lbs.
22,633,792
29,629,525
Wool {
Balis
66.395
86,913
I
Total value of principal and other "1
articles . . . . .J
£
£
1,144,341
1,346,323
3,164,622
2,819,300
The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South
Australia with the United Kingdom, giving the value of the total
exports, exclusive of gold, from tlie colony to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British produce into South Australia, in each of
the five years 1865 to 1869 : —
Exports from South Aus-
Imports of British Home
Years
tralia to the United
Produce into South
Kingdom
Australia
&
£
1865
1,223,895
1,506,514
1866
1,274,007
1,454,396
1867
1,665,870
906,720
1868
1,313,695
1,177.097
1869
1,278,639
1,375,681
The chief export article to the United Kingdom is wool, of the
value of 961,132/. in 1865; of 768,925/. in 1866; of 877,611/. in
1867; of 859,720/. m 1868, and of 774,002/. in 1869. The next
most important article of export to Great Britain is copper, part
wrought and part ore, of the total value of 226,847/. in 1869. The
British imports comprise mainly, textile fabrics and iron.
Mining operations are pursued on a very extensive scale in the
colony. The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
727
copper, but considerable quantities of lead are also raised. The
largest of the mines is the Burra-Burra copper mine, employing
about 1,000 persons. Most of the ores raised here are reduced to
fine copper before shipment. The increase in mining is shown by
the returns of the quantities of copper, lead, copper ore, and lead ore
exported during a period often years, as follows : —
Period
Copper
Lead popper Ore
Lead Ore
In the year 1857 ....
„ 1861 ....
1866 ....
Total in five years, 1857-61 .
1862-66 .
Average of five years, 1857-61
1862-66
Cwts.
56,893
61,047
129,272
287,910
545,434
57,582
109,087
Cwts.
1,256
1,351
4,341
2,193
868
438
Tons
8,036
7,817
16,824
36,953
49,104
7,390
9,821
Tons
1,422
15
648 1
i
2,620
1,849
524
370
The number of copper mines at work at the end of 1867 amounted
to 44. At the same date, the colony had 56 miles of railway open,
distributed over two short lines. The total number of passengers
conveyed on these lines was 405,502 in 1866, against 402,550 in
1865, and 359,035 in 1864. The railway revenue was 114,131/. in
1866, against 133,280/. in 1865, and 129,246/. in 1864, and the
expenditure 103,979/. in 1866, against 114,469/. in 1865, and
99,593/. in 1864.
The grape has been successfully cultivated in South Australia,-1
and in the year 1867, there were 6,361 acres planted as vineyards.
728
TASMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Tasmania was settled by the local Act of 18
Vict. No. 17. By this Act a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly are constituted, called the ' Parliament of Van Diemen's
Land.' The Legislative Council is composed of fifteen members,
elected by all natural born or naturalised subjects of the Crown
who possess either a 50/. freehold, or hold a commission in the army
or navy, or have a degree of some university, or are in holy orders.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty members, elected by 10/.
householders, or freeholders, and all subjects holding a commission,
or possessing a degree, or in holy orders. The legislative authority
rests in both Houses united ; while the executive power is vested in
a governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Tasmania. — Charles Du Cane, born 1825, the eldest
son of Captain C. Du Cane, P.N., educated at the Charterhouse and
at Exeter College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. 1847; M.P. for
Maldon, 1852-53 ; M.P. for Essex, 1857-68 ; Civil Lord of the
Admiralty, 1866-68. Appointed Governor of Tasmania, Sept. 1868.
The governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the troops in the colony ; he has a salary of 4,000/. per annum. He
is aided in the exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible
ministers, consisting at present of three members, the Colonial
Secretary, the Colonial Treasurer, and the Attorney-General. It is
in contemplation to create a fourth executive officer, in a Minister
of Lands and Public Works. The members of the cabinet must
have a seat in either of the two Houses of Parliament.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue is chiefly derived from customs duties, and
the sale and rent of State lands. The subjoined statement shows the
revenue and expenditure during the years 1862 to 1868 : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
&
1862
371,594
355,864
1863
328,670
329,760
1864
334,862
318,763
I860
338,076
353,456
I860
313,832
342,326
1867
374,917
355,443
1868
378,66o
348.564
The receipts arising from the sale and lease of public lands formed
about one-fourth of the revenue of 1868. The total grants of land
amounted to 100,115 acres in 1861, to 78,080 acres in 1863, and to
AREA AND POPULATION. 729
61,368 acres in 1866. The number of grants in 1860 was 255, of
which 237 for less than 100 acres, and 18 for grants of between 100
and 500 acres of land.
The public debt of Tasmania, on Dec. 31, 1869, amounted to
1,314,000/., which sum included a loan of 400,000/., raised, in the
spring of 1868, for the construction of a line of railway. The
whole bear interest at 6 per cent.
Area and Population.
Tasmania, once known as Van Diemen's Land — in honour of a
governor of the Dutch East Indies — was discovered by the navigator
Tasman in 1642 ; and afterwards partially explored by Captain
Cook. The first penal settlement formed here was in 1803; and
till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from Great Britain
and from New South Wales, of which colony it was a dependency.
Transportation to New South Wales having ceased in the year 1841,
Tasmania, to which had been annexed Norfolk Island, became the
only colony to which criminals from Great Britain were sent ; but
this ceased in 1853, when transportation to Tasmania was likewise
abolished.
The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles, or
16,778,000 acres, divided as follows: —
Acres!
Area of Tasmania, exclusive of islands and lakes . . 15, 571, '300
Islands in Bass's Straits, north-east group: —
110,000
20,000
27,000
North-west group : —
272,000
24,500
Three Hummock
19,000
18,400
1,700
All others ....
1,900
7,000
Maria's Island
24,(101)
Bruni Islands, north and south
90,000
All other islands ....
2,500
Lakes — discharging southerly
65.500
„ northerly
10,000
Total area of Tasmania .
16,778,000
Area of alienated land
3,413,810
13,365,810
Area of unalienated land, including lakes
13,468,971
The quantity of land under cultivation on January 1, 1865, was 252,164 acres.
730
TASMANIA.
The census of February 7,
Tasmania as follows : —
1870, showed the population of
Males
Females
Total
Total
Married
Single
52,853
46,475
15,665
15,498
37,188
30,977
99,328
31,163
68,165
The population of Tasmania at the preceding census, taken April
7, 18G1, was 89,977. Comparing the census of 1870 with that of
1861, there was an increase of 9,351 souls, or 10*39 per cent. The
difference between the number in the census of 31st March, 1857,
and that of 7th April, 1861, was 8,485, or 10*41 per cent., so that
the increase of population was only about half as rapid as it was at
the date of the previous census. On the 7th February, 1870, the
proportion of males to females was 113*72 to 100: on the 7th April,
1861, it was 122*80 to 100.
The following statement gives the trades and professions of the
population according to the census of February 7, 1870 : —
Per 1,000
Merchants and bankers
Legal profession ....
Medical profession
Clergymen .....
Army and navy ....
Proprietors and occupiers of sheep and cattle
Farmers, — proprietors and occupiers
In Government employ
Schoolmasters and mistresses
Retail dealers, including hawkers .
Artisans and mechanics
Domestic servants, male ' .
T . fFarm
Labourers < .-.,,
pother
Licensed victuallers
Seafaring persons
Unclassified ....
farms
3*24
2*25
2*57
4*09
5*37
18-87
15371
19-53
5*81
36-59
142*07
31*35
327*47
117*55
12-96
27*92
88-65
Distributed according to religious tenets, the population stood as
follows at the census of 1870 : —
Per cent.
. 53*41
. 22*24
. 6*69
2-43
. 3 96
Church of England
Church of Rome .
Church of Scotland
Free Church ditto.
Independents
At the census of 1861, the number of persons returned as
belonging to the Church of Engand was 54*72 per cent, of the whole
population ; to the Church of Koine 21*60 per cent. ; so that, while
Baptists
Wesleyan Methodists .
Jews .
Mahomedans or Pagans
Other Sects .
Per cent.
0*94
7*23
0*23
0*004
2*86
TIRADE AND INDUSTRY.
n1
the Church of England lost 1*31 per cent., the Church of Eome
gained 0-64 per cent. Similarly, the Church of Scotland lost 0"66
per cent.; the Free Church of Scotland, 0-21 per cent.; the Jews,
0.15 per cent. ; while the Independents gained 0'35 per cent. ; the
Baptists, 0*02 per cent. ; the Wesleyans, 0.38 per cent. ; and all
other denominations, 0-96 per cent.
The state of Education among the population was as follows
at the census of 1870 : —
Per cent.
Persons able to read and write ..... 56-32
Persons able to read only . . . . • .1404
Persons not able to read 29-64
At the date of the previous census, in 18G1, it was found that
only 42-62 percent, could read and write; that 14-60 per cent,
could read only ; and that 31 '7 5 per cent, were totally uneducated.
The population of Tasmania shows little tendency to increase
through immigration. In the year 18G8 there arrived 5,043 persons,
and there departed 4,320 ; while in 1869 the arrivals were 6,521,
and the departures 7,159 — a decrease of 638 by emigration.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of Tasmania has been decreasing of late years. The
total imports from all countries amounted to 1,328,612/. in 1858,
and had fallen to 982,940/. in 1863, to 942,107/. in 1867, and to
845,152/. in 1868. The total exports, which were of the value of
1,151,609/. in 1858, had fallen to 999,511/. in 1863, and to
834,606/. in 1867, but rose again to 920,820/. in 1868.
The total value of the exports from Tasmania to Great Britain,
and of the imports of British produce and manufactures into
Tasmania, in each of the five years 1865 to 1869, was as follows: —
Years
Exports from Tasmania
to Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Tasmania
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
&
403,559
400,980
406,430
373,911
313,883
&
231,436
245,669
216,850
190,322
250,023
The staple article of exports from Tasmania to the United King-
dom is wool. The value amounted to 422,969/. in 1»64, to 348,628/.
in 1867, to 300,492/., representing 4,871,591 pounds of wool, in
1868, and to 242,917/., representing 4,298,129 poundsofwool, in 1869.
73*
VICTORIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Victoria was established by an Act, passed by
the Legislature of the colony, in 1854, to which the assent of the
Crown was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the Act of
the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 55. This charter
vests the legislative authority in a Parliament of two Chambers ;
the Legislative Council, composed of thirty members, and the Legis-
lative Assembly, composed of sixty members. Originally a high
property qualification was required both for members and electors
of the Legislative Council, but the same was reduced recently, by
Colonial Statute, as regards members to the possession of an estate
rated at not less than 50/. a-year, and as to electors to the possession
or occupancy of property of the value of 50/., or 51. per annum. No
electoral property qualification is required for graduates of British
universities, matriculated students of the Melbourne university,
ministers of religion of all denominations, certificated schoolmasters,
lawyers, medical practitioners, and officers of the army and navy.
Six members, or a fifth of the Legislative Council, must retire every
two years, so that a total change is effected in ten years. The
members of the Legislative Assembly are elected by universal
suffrage. The duration of the Assembly was originally fixed at five
years, but the term has since been reduced to three. Clergymen of
any religious denomination, and persons convicted of felony, are
excluded from sitting in both the Legislative Council and the
Assembly. Members of the Legislature are not entitled at present
to any remuneration for their services.
The executive of the colony is vested in a governor appointed by
the Crown.
Governor of Victoria. — Hon. John H. T. Manners Sutton,
born 1810, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated
M. A., 1835 ; Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department
from Sept, 1841 to July 184G ; returned M.P. for the borough of
Cambridge, Sept. 1839, biit unseated on petition ; sat for the
borough of Cambridge from 1841 to 1847; Lieut.-governor of New
Brunswick, from June 1854 to Oct. 1861 ; Governor of Trinidad
from April 1864 to May 1866; appointed Governor of Victoria,
May 1866, and assumed office, Aug. 26, 1866.
The Governor, who is likewise commander-in-chief of all the
colonial troops, has a salary of 10,000/. a year. In the exercise of
the executive he is assisted by a cabinet of ten ministers, called the
Chief Secretary, the Minister of Justice, the Attorney-General, the
Treasurer, the President of Board of Land and Survey, the Com-
missioner of Public Works, the Commissioner of Railways, the Com-
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
733
missioner of Customs, the Minister of Mines, and the Postmaster-
General. At least four ministers must be members of either of the
Houses of Legislature, and they are individually and collectively
responsible for their acts to the colonial Parliament.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The total amount of the public revenue and expenditure of the
colony, in each of the years 1860 to 1868, was as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
&
£
1860
3,0S2,461
3,315,307
1861
2,952,101
3,092,021
1862
3,269,079
3,039,497
1863
2,774,686
2,882,937
1864
2,955.338
2.928,903
1865
3,076,885
2,983,777
1866
3,079,160
3,222,025
1867
3,216,317
3.241,818
1868
3,175,000
3,273,000
The figures for the year 1868 in the above table — furnished by
the Government of Victoria to the Statesman's Tear-book — are only
approximate, the financial accounts of the year not having been
closed at the date of the return.
The various branches of revenue and expenditure, in the year
1865, are shown in the subjoined table : —
Branches of Revenue .Gross amount! Branches of Expenditure
Customs
£
Import
duty on spirits
505,328
„
wine .
46,904
„
beer .
35,039
„
tobacco
131,773
„
cigars
13,620
„
coffee .
13,983
,,
sugar .
74,082
„
tea
84,230
,,
opium
19,071
,,
rice .
16,422
)!
dried fruits
150,973
,,
hops .
5,438
„
malt .
7,658
Registration fees
1,638
"Wharfage and har
bour rates
J
86,098
Total
Export duty on gold
Duty on spirits dis- I
tilled in the colony J
1,192,257
80,681
16,944
Houses of Legislature .
Chief secretary's de- J
partment . . J
Registrar general's )
department . S
Judicial department 1
and magistracy )
Treasury department .
Minister of mines
Commissioners of lands "1
and surveys . J
Public works
Railways
Roads and bridges
Trade and customs }
department . \
Postmaster general's )
department . J
Police ....
Gaols ....
Gross amount
£
13,688
6,628
17,925
164.094
240,167
31,742
93,810
260,957
314,922
57,576
85,768
165,026
210,577
33,009
734
VICTORIA.
Branches of Revenue
Gross amount
Branches of Expenditure
Gross amount
Gold: —
£
£
Business licenses
8,095
Penal establishments
43,192
Miners' rights .
25,826
Medical
7,249
Leases of auriferous ~|
Aborigines .
6,409
lands and quartz \
15,848
Public library
5,624
veins. . . J
Audit office .
5.988
Tonnage and pilotage ?
at outports . . \
17,515
Shorthand writer .
Education
2,374
122.875
Postage
134,956
Industrial schools
19.520
Fines and forfeitures :
Lunatic asylums .
41,707
Supreme court .
526
Electoral
9,720
County and general )
sessions courts . )
41
Magnetic survey .
—
Botanic and Zoological
1 6,365
Petty sessions .
7,523
Gardens .
Other
18,321
National Museum
3,700
Pees of civil offices : —
Steam sloop ' Victoria
4,81!
Supreme court .
17,535
Grants
5,935
County and general /
sessions courts J
4,361
Scab Act .
6,154
Special appropriations
Petty sessions .
11,157
Immigration
42,063
Courts of mines
675
Commissioners of
3,000
Other
55,768
Audit .
Lands : —
Under ' Constitution
I
Revenue .
750,055
Act,' Schedule D.,
V 91.801
Licenses : —
Parts 1 to 8 .
1
Auctioneers'
3,270
University of Mel-
11,250
Publicans'
17,137
bourne .
Spirit merchants' ~|
Interest on water
1
Brewers' . . >
7,861
and sewerage de-
[ 25,899
All other licenses J
bentures
J
Miscellaneous : —
Principal due on
Rents (exclusive of )
land) . . S
2,506
water and sewer-
51,200
age debentures
1
Sale of Government )
property . \
5,784
Pensions and retir-
ing allowances
8,803
Receipts fromGovern- ]
Interest on Mount
I
ment printing- I
5,482
Alexander rail-
} 3,385
office . . J
way debentures
1
Receipts from tele- 7
graph department \
35,662
Interest on railway
loan
| 492,239
Receipts from la- J
hour of prisoners \
3,825
Mining boards .
3,000
Costs of arbitration
i 458
Storage of gunpowder
1,077
Roads
176,063
Railway income
595,055
Liquidation of cor-
[ 35,000
Miscellaneous .
49,847
poration bonds
Steam postal com-
[ 40,123
munication .
Boroughs .
24,415
Total
Miscellaneous
Total
6,195
3,085,090
3,002,408
AREA AND POPULATION.
735
The chief sources of the revenue of Victoria, until the year 1862,
were customs duties and sales of public lands, which, with some
fluctuations, produced about one-half of the annual income. A new
source of revenue was more recently added in the receipts derived
from public works, including a great railway system, the manage-
ment of which remains in the hands of the Government.
The public debt of Victoria amounted, at the commencement of
July, 1869, to a total of 12,534,800/., the whole of which was
incurred for the construction of public works, particularly railways,
in the colony. The dates, rates of interest, and other particulars of
the various loans constituting the debt, are given in the following
statement, after official returns : —
Date of Loans Capkal"
Amount
repaid
Rate of
Interest
Objects of Loans
1855, 1857, 1858 800,000 j 200,000
1856 68,100 300
1853 8,000,000 —
1865 300,000 —
1866, 1867 850.000 1 —
1869 2,107,000 ! —
1869 610.0(1(1 _
Percent.
6
5
6
6
6
5
5
Melbourne water supply
Melbourne railway
Colonial railways
Colonial railways
Railways and defences
Colonial railway
Public works
Total . . 12,735,100 , 200,300
The payment of both principal and interest of all the above loans
are made primary charges upon the revenues of the colony, by Acts
18, 19, 21, 25, and 29 Victoria. The great railway loan of 1858 is
repayable to the amount of 7,000,000/. in London, and to the
amount of 1,000,0002. in Melbourne. — (Communication of the
Government of Victoria to the Statesman's Year-book.)
Area and Population.
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion of
New South Wales, bearing the name of the Port Philip district.
It was erected in 1851 — by Imperial Act of Parliament, 13 and 14
Victoria, cap. 59 — into a separate colony, and called Victoria. The
colony has an area of 86,831 square miles. Victoria is bounded on
the north and north-east by a straight line drawn from Cape Howe
to the nearest source of the river [Murray, thence by the course
of that river to the eastern boundary of South Australia, or 141°
E. long., thence, by that meridian, to the sea; on the south by the
sea, a distance of about 600 miles, to Cape Howe, including the
islands along the coast.
The growth of the population, as shown by the census of nine
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table: —
736
VICTORIA.
Number of
Dates of census
Males
Females
Total
females to
every 1 00
males
May -2o. 1836
142
35
177
24-6
November 8, 1836
1S6
38
224
20-4
September 12, 1S38
3,080
431
3,511
14-0
March 2, 1841
8.274
3.464
11,738
41-9
„ 2. 1S46
20,184
12,695
32,879
62-9
„ 2, 1851
46,202
31,143
77,345
67-4
April 26, 1S54
155,876
80,900
236,776
51-9
March 29, 1857
264,334
146,432
410,766
55-4
April 7, 1S61 .
328,651
211,671
540,322
64-4
On March 31, 1870, the total population of Victoria had grown,
according to the estimates of the Kegistrar- General of the colony,
to 715,600, of which number 401,316 were males, and 314,284
females.
The following were the birthplaces of the population of each sex,
according to the census of April 7, 1861 : —
Population
Birthplaces
Males
Females
Total
British : —
Victoria .....
69,389
68,686
138,075
Other Australian colonies and New
Zealand
10,336
9,500
19,386
England .....
108,037
61,549
169,586
Wales
4,333
1.722
6,055
Scotland .....
37,032
23,669
60.701
Ireland ......
47.176
39,984
87.160
British colonies (not Australian) .
2,575
915
3,490
India: British ....
437
217
654
„ Natives ....
188
16
204
Foreign : —
France ......
1,026
224
1,250
Germany .....
8,118
2,300
10,418
Other parts of Europe .
6,562
376
6,938
United States ....
2,209
345
2,554
China ......
24.724
8
24,732
Other countries
346
60
406
Born at sea
9S7
853
1,840
Unspecified (British names)
408
255
663
„ (Foreign) . _ .
31
9
40
(Names not mentioned) .
1,094
106
1,200
Of British parentage, out of British
possessions .....
770
409
1,179
Migratory (exclusive of Chinese)
Total .
2,873
468
3,341
328,651
211,671
540,322
AREA AND POPULATION. 73 f
It will be seen from the preceding table, that among the natives of
the colony the sexes are nearly equally balanced, while they are far
from being so among the immigrant population. Yet here, too,
exist enormous differences. The immigrants from Scotland and
Ireland seem more generally to be accompanied by their families
than those from England, while among the foreign immigrants the
disproportion in the sexes is very striking. The Germans alone
have any considerable number of females among them, and the rest
of foreigners are nearly all males. The disproportion is most un-
favourable among the Chinese settlers, consisting of more than
24,000 males, but only eight females. The enumeration of persons
born within the colony includes 1,004 aborigines, namely, 1,046
males and 648 females.
Being the most populous as well as the most progressive of the
colonies of Australasia, the mixture of races here has had already
notable results. According to a report of the Registrar-General, a
gradual change is taking place in the national type of the population
of Victoria. It is stated that, in consequence of the variance of nation-
ality, there is an important movement continually jroing on by the
process of marriage, and although this change has hitherto been little
heeded by those effecting it, yet it is one that must influence the
social and political development of the future life of the colony.
The distinctive characteristics of English, Irish, and Scotch emi-
grants are rapidly breaking down, and another national type is being
developed in the shape of an Australian people. In order to de-
termine the extent to which existing national types are being fused,
the Registrar-General refers to the nationality of the married popu-
lation. Out of 25,908 males who married in Victoria during the six
years from 1861 to the end of 1866, there were 12.664 Englishmen,
of whom 7.152, or 56 per cent., married English women. On the
other hand, out of 25,908 women who married in the same period,
0,718, or 37 per cent., were English, and of these 7,152, or nearly
74 per cent., married Englishmen. Again, as many as 3,065, or
nearly 10 per cent., of the Englishmen married Irish women ; as a
striking contrast to which, only 573, or less than 6 per cent., of the
English women married Irishmen. During the same period, 4,422
Irishmen married the same number of Irish women, the former
being 80 per cent, of the Irishmen, and the latter 48 per cent, of
the Irish women who married. Of 59 Chinese males who married,
28, or 47 per cent., married Irish women ; half that number, or 24
percent., married English women; 11, or 19 per cent., married
Australian-born women : 2, or 3 per cent., married Scotch women ;
and the same number and percentage married Welsh women and Ger-
man women. Out of every 100 marriages, 28 were between English
males and English females. 17 were between Irish males and Irish
3 B
738
VICTORIA.
females, and 9 were between Scottish males and females, showing
that the distinction of race was preserved among little more than
half of the total marriages.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages was as follows in
each of the three years 18G4-GG : —
1
Births
Deaths
Marriages
'
Males
Females
Males Females
■ 1864
1865
1866
13,241
13,265
12,670
12,439
12,650
12,340
5,202
6,158
7,016
3,685 i 4,554
4,303 4,497
5,270 4,253
The following were the occupations of the people according to the
census of 1861 : —
Nature of Occupation
I Government service, army and ivaxj
I Professional — clerical, medical, legal .
„ literature, fine arts, and sciences .
! Trading • • _ •
j Personal offices — entertaining, clothing, serving,
&c.
Manufacturing
i Gold-mining
| Agricultural and pastoral
| Carrying
; Dealers in food and drinks
| Miscellaneous — labourers, &c
Independent . . . .
Engaged in domestic offices or duties, and un-
specified .......
Maintained at public cost or by the oommunity .
Not specified and unemployed .
Total .
Total
Inclusive of
Cliinese and
Abori sines
3,774
3,149
4,227
15,594
30,442
33,780
83,120
52,801
12,245
12,380
11,299
1,364
254,503
4,559
11,085
540,322
Chinese and
Aborigines
1
80
11
1,046
372
150
21.161
642
49
310
115
74
189
2,224
26,426
It will be seen from this return, that the agricultural population
as yet is very small in the colony, being vastly outnumbered by the
gold miners.
The progress of population of the colony Avas greatly aided by the
encouragement of immigration on the part of the State. In the 31
years from 1838 to the end of 1868, nearly 155,000 immigrants
received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage
to the colony. The number of assisted immigrants of each sex in the
period of 1838 to 1855, and each subsequent year to 1868, was as
follows : —
T1UDE AND COMMERCE.
739
Tears
Males
Females
Total
1838-5.5
37,887
48,914
86,801
1856
1,763
2,916
4,679
1857
5,429
8,940
14,369
1858
2,320
3.539
5,859
1859
552
2,599
3,151
1860
185
1,551
1.736
1861
747
1,935
2,682
1862
1,710
3,018
4,728
1863
3,213
5,409
8,622
1864
2,673
3,958
6,631
1865
1,955
3,149
5,104
1866
1,686
2,508
4,194
1867
1,141
2,061
3,202
1868
Total
1,172
1,699
2,871
62,433
92,196
154,629
The total number of immigrants who arrived in the colony from
the first settlement, in 1835, to the end of the year 1868, was
925,069, while the number of persons who quitted was 499,821,
leaving a balance of 425,248. The largest immigration took place
in 1852, and the largest emigration in 1853. In 1861 and 1862,
the total departures exceeded the arrivals, while the departures of
males exceeded the arrivals not only in these two years, but also in
1863. On the other hand, the immigration of females during the
whole period of the existence of the colony was uniformly in excess
of the emigration. The total number of females who arrived from
1835 to the end of 1868 was 267,203, and the number departing
was 97,612, leaving a balance of 169,591, in favour of Victoria.
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, in the ten
years from 1860 to 1869, was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
£
£
1860
15,093,730
12,962,704
1861
13,532,452
13,828,606
1862
13,487,787
13,039,422
1863 •
14,118,727
13,566,296
1864
14,974,815
13,898,384 3
1865
13,257,537
13,150,748
1866
14,771,711
12,889,546
1867
11,674,080
12,724,427
1868
13,320,662
15,593,990
1869
13,908,990
13,464,354
3b 2
740
VICTORIA.
The quantities and value of the imports into the colony, from all
countries, in each of the years 18G7 and 1868, were as follows: —
Total Imports
1867
1868
Principal Articles.
Apparel and slops
f PacJcgs.
8.071
373,825
7,548
276,302
Beer and cider
J* Gallons
' I £
1,480,408
297,103
1,388,201
268,205
Boots and shoes .
J PacJcgs.
■ I £
15,145
256,524
30,475
413,225
Butter and cheese
r Tons
' \ £
587
64,286
477
48,631
Candles
f Tons
' \ £
1,990
203,821
1,969
200,206
Coals .
f Tons
' I £
115,523
135,225
145,075
178,900
Cottons
J PacJcgs.
' L £
8,463
458,644
12,847
522,346
Flour .
f Tons
' I £
2,924
43,078
1,932
40,276
Furniture
f PacJcgs.
■ I £
7,745
35,754
7,883
35,004
Grain of all kinds
(inc'
tiding
f Bush-els
< Tons
1,362,821
8,144
2,345,843
19,879
rice)
I £
509,725
802,170
Haberdashery and drapery
f Paclcgs.
1 £
6,006
274,862
5,992
240,506
Hardware and ironmongery
f PacJcgs.
L £
13,911
97,405
21.407
88,638
Iron and steel
f Tons
L £
25,629
317,901
32,775
368.785
Machinery .
f PacJcgs.
1 £
6,255
68,077
4,363
47,903
Oilmen's stores . <
f PacJcgs.
1 £
39,333
69,552
33,535
59,367
Potatoes ....
f Tons
I £
3,267
5,160
2,690
5,260
r PacJcgs.
5,435
3,340
Provisions ....
\ Tons
225
143
I £
96,007
44,922
Railway materials
£
16.636
8,819
f PacJcgs.
1 £
1.108
1,951
Silks
119.974
202,830
Specie
£
1,081,760
853,654
Stationery ....
( PacJcgs.
1 £
6,743
83,515
6,137
65,084
Sugar and molasses
f Cwts.
\ £
634,608
866,006
535,159
795,273
Spirits of nil kinds
f Gallons
I £
1,910,819
420,665
1,405,886
455,447 1
TKADli AND COMMERCE,
74*
Imports — Principal Articlos—
continued.
Total Imports
1867
1868
Principal Articles.
Tea
J" Lbs.
6,821,221
10,156,779
1 £
516,344
709,171
f No.
3,728,043
4,491,044
J Feet
11,952,940
13,117,413
' 1 Bundles
23,716
53,176
I £
217,744
207,764 :
r za*.
L £
4,356,921
3,965,800
297,480 •
246.888 !
Wine of all kinds . . . [ Gall°™
392,503
163,154
316,519 1
139,084 !
f Packgs,
1 £
ie of principal and other articles £
12,120
15,265 1
Total vali
948,548
1,012,464 j
11,674,080
13,320,662 1
The quantities and value of the exports from the colony, to all
countries, in each of the years 1867 and 1868, were as follows : —
Total Exports
1S67
1868
Principal Articles.
Gold (exclusive of specie) . . -!
£
1,433,687
5,738,993
1,960,713
7,843,197
Specie — Gold
£
671,936
507,662
Silver
£
1,082
4,310
Hides |
No.
40,897
25,962
£
26,775
23,121
Cattle |
No.
£
1,363
12,217
2.570
20,009
Horses j
No.
£
2,069
66,740
3.036
63,655
Sheep {
No.
£
25,178
20,542
20,735
15,723
(
No.
59,513
85,075
Skins \ Bundles
329
718
1
£
4,682
6,487
Tallow f
Tons |
£ 1
939
34,968
5,404
160,909
Tea |
Lbs.
2,291,826 j
2,404,976 j
£
185,515
174,661
Wool [
Total value of principal and other articl
Lbs.
51,166,729
68,010,591
£
es £
3,818,347
4,567,182 j
12,724,427
15,593,990 !
Wool, as will be seen from the above table, is the staple article of
export from the colony, settiDg aside gold. In 1850 the export of
742
VICTORIA.
wool had readied 18,091,207 lbs. ; and notwithstanding the attraction
of the gold fields, the exports had advanced in 1863 to 25,579,886 lbs.,
and in 1868 attained to 68,010,591 lbs.
Bather more than one-half of the total imports and exports of
Victoria come from, and are sent to, the United Kingdom.
The commercial intercourse of Victoria with the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of the
total exports of merchandize, exclusive of gold and bullion, from
Victoria to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures into Victoria in each of the ten
years 1860 to 1869 :—
Years
Exports from Victoria to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain.
Produce into Victoria
£
£
1860
2,867,445
5,377,740
1861
2,905,342
5,528,331
1862
2,870,715
5,731,566
1863
2,681,239
5,802,741
1864
4,043,813
5,316,844
1865
4,399,090
5,727,952
1866
4,983,541
6,203,857
1867
5,233,914
4,555,413
1868
5,674,720
5,598,618
1869
5,372,208
6,233,603
The most important article of export from Victoria to the United
Kingdom, is wool. The exports of wool to Great Britain amounted
to 37,368,805 lbs., of the value of 3,630,444/., in 1864; to
43,603,352 lbs., valued at 3,988,726/., in 1865 ; to 46,627,993 lbs.,
valued at 4,584,816/., in 1866 ; to 51,177,842 lbs., valued at
4,726,067/., in 1867 ; to 63,776,567 lbs., valued at 4,979,320/., in
1868 ; and to 64,031,242 lbs., of the value of 4,632,537/., in 1869.
Among the other articles of merchandise exported to the United
Kingdom, are tallow, of the value of 208,854/., hides, tanned and
untanned, of the value of 113,362/., copper, of the value of
137,611/., and corn, of the value of 18,368/., in 1869. The British
imports into Victoria embrace nearly all articles of home manu-
facture, chief among them woollen goods to the value of 959,915/., and
apparel and haberdashery, to the value of 870,243/. in the year 1869.
Since the discovery of gold mines, in 1851, large quantities of
gold have been exported from Victoria. The subjoined statement
gives, after the official returns of the Begistrar-General, the produce
of the Victoria gold-fields in each of the eighteen years 1851 to
1868:—
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
743
Number of
Declared
Years
ounces
Value
1851
145,137
£
438,777
1852
2,738,484
8,760,579 '
1853
3,150,021
11,090,643
1854
2,392,065
9,214,093
1855
2,793,065
11,070,270
1856
2,985,992
11,943,458
1857
2,762,461
10,987,591
1858
2,528,479
10,107,836
1859
2,280,950
9,122,037
1860
2,156,661
8,624,860
1861
1,967,420
7,869,758
1S62
1,658,285
6,685,192
1863
1,627,066
6,520,957
1864
1,545,450
6,206,237
1865
1,543,802
6,190,317
1866 .
1,479,195
5,909,987
1867 .
1,433,687
5,738,993
1868
1,657.498
6,629,465
The number of miners at work in the goldfields, on January 1,
1869, was 64,654, of whom 49,358 were Europeans and 15,296
Chinese. The total population of the seven gold-mining districts was
271,788 at the same date. The average number of gold miners
employed in Victoria in 1868 was 63,181, being a decrease of
2,676 upon the corresponding average for 1867. The average
earnings of each man in 1868 were 1047. 18s. 8c/., as compared with
87/. Is. Id. in 1867. There are 2,651 ascertained quartz reefs, and
886,228 tons of quartz were crushed in 1868. The average yield
of gold in 1868 was something over half an ounce to the ton, Avhile
the cost of crushing ranged from 2s. Gd. to 11. 10s. per ton. The
extent of auriferous land opened up by gold miners in Victoria is
882 square miles, and the value of the machinery and mining plant
employed was estimated at the end of 1868 at 2,150,432/. The total
area of the land held as claims was 100,942 acres, of which nearly
one-third was lying idle ; the computed value of the whole of the
claims was 8,869,504/. at the end of 1868. Twelve new gold-fields
were discovered, and 329 new companies, with a nominal capital of
3,719,198/., were registered during 1868. The aggregate value of
the gold exported from Victoria from 1851 to the close of 1868 was
147,342,767/.
Victoria has a more extensive system of railways than any other
of the Australasian colonies. The Victorian railways consist of two
finished main lines, one from Melbourne to Sandhurst. 101 miles in
length, and the other from Melbourne to Geelong and Ballarat, with a
744 VICTORIA.
.short branch to Williamstown, the port of Melbourne, of a length of
107 miles. The Geelong and Melbourne line was purchased by the
Government in 1860, and an extension from Sandhurst to the river
Murray atEchuca, of a length of 46 miles, has since been constructed.
A third main line, from Melbourne to Belvoir district, 186 miles in
length, was commenced in 1869. The whole of the railways of the
colony are state property, with the exception of a line, 17 miles
long, called the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay United, serving the
local traffic of the chief city of Victoria.
The following table shows the length, cost of construction, and traffic
of the railways of Victoria : —
Name of Railways
Length of
line opened
at
commence-
ment of
1869
Cost of construction
Number of
miles
travelled in
the year
1863
Total cost
Average
cost per
mile
Melbourne, Sandhurst,
and Echuca
1 Melbourne, Geelong,
and Ballarat
1 "Williamstown Branch .
Melbourne and Hob-
son's Bay United
Total .
Miles
}• 254
J
} "
£
10,855,760
850,297
&
42,739
50,017
1,138,128
400,836
271
11,706,057
43,196
1,538,964
The total gross revenue of the above railways, in the year 1868,
amounted to 712,765/., of which 282,931/. were derived from
passenger traffic.
The extent of land under cultivation in the colony was 507,798
acres in 1863; 479,463 acres in 1864; 530,196 acres in 1865;
592,915 acres in 1866 ; 631,207 acres in 1867 ; and 712,865 acres
in 1868. At the end of 1868, the number of acres in 'runs' Avas
28,505,344. The number of live stock in the colony, at the end of
March 1869, was to the amount of 143,943 horses ; 693,682 cattle ;
9,756,819 sheep; and 136,206 pigs. At the end of March 1865,
the number of sheep was 8,835,380, so that they increased at the
rate of nearly a million in four years. — (Communication of the
Governor of Victoria to the Statesman's Year-book.)
745
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
The administration of "Western Australia — the only colony to
■which convicts from Great Britain continue to be transported — is
under a Governor appointed by the Crown, who is assisted by an
Executive Council composed of certain office-holders, namely, the
senior officer in command of the forces, the Colonial Secretary,
the Comptroller-General of Convicts, the Surveyor- General, the
Attorney-General, and the Treasurer and Collector of Internal
Eevenue. There is also a Legislative Council, composed, including
the Governor, of six official and six unofficial members. The
official members are the Governor, the Commander of the Forces,
the Colonial Secretary, the Surveyor- General, the Attorney-General,
and the Treasurer and Collector of Internal Eevenue. The unofficial
members were formerly appointed by the Crown, on the recommen-
dation of the Governor, but are in future to be elected by the
inhabitants of the colony.
Governor of Western Axistralia. — Frederick Aloysius Weld, for-
merly Minister of Native Affairs, and Colonial Treasurer of New
Zealand ; appointed Governor of Western Australia April 7, 1869.
The Governor has a salary of 2,500/. per annum.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony during the six years
from 1863 to 1868 were as follows: —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1863
1864
1865
1366
1867
1868
£
71,708
71.911
77,942
89,383
90,430
99,495
&
71,073
70.715
74,985
84,652
89,501
89,726
746
TVESTEEN AUSTRALIA.
Rather more than one-third of the public income is derived from
customs duties, and the rest is made up by land revenue, various
small taxes, and an imperial grant in aid, amounting to 12,550Z.
per annum. The public debt of the colony amounted to 1,027,400/.
on the 1st of January, 1869. — (Communication of the Governor to
the Statesman'1 s Year-book.)
Population and Trade.
As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes all
that portion of New Holland situated to the westward of 190° E.
long. The greatest length of this territory is 1,280 miles from north
to south, and 800 miles from east to west. The occupied portion of
the colony is about 600 miles in length from north to south, by
about 150 miles in average breadth.
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years
made but little progress, owing, to a certain extent, to an absence of
water. In 1850, the colony had not more than 6,000 inhabitants,
while, at the census of 1861, there was a population of 15,691,
namely, 9,852 males and 5,839 females.
According to an enumeration made December 31, 1868, Western
Australia, at that period, contained 22,733 inhabitants, of whom
14,539 were males, and 8,194 females. Rather more than one-third of
the number lived in the towns of Fremantle and Perth ; the rest were
dispersed over an area of 560 miles by 130. They consist of farmers
who cultivate 100 acres, and run 1,000 to 20,000 sheep ; ' cockatoo
farmers,' who consume their produce, and carry on some trade ; and
pensioners, who do military duty, and have allotments. The live
stock of the colony, on the 31st December 1868, consisted of
599,756 sheep, 46,211 cattle, and 18,924 horses. No settled district
of any size will carry more than an average of one sheep to twenty
acres.
The total value of the imports and exports of Western Australia,
in the five years from 1864 to 1868, is shown in the subjoined state-
ment : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
£
£
1864
168,707
111,903
1865
168,414
179,147
1866
251,907
152,240
1867
204,613
174,080
1868
225,614
192,635
The value of the commercial intercourse of Western Australia with
Great Britain and Ireland in the five years from 1865 to 1869 is
shown in the following table : —
BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
747
Years
Exports from Western
Australia to Great Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into Western
Australia
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
£
73,951
75,439
84,984
92,087
88,094
£
112,511
110,739
78,802
107,847
108,508
The exports of the colony to Great Britain consist almost entirely
of wool, copper, and lead ore. The wool exports were of the value
of 67,377/. in 1866, of 66,755Z. in 1867, of 74,076*. in 1868, and
of 69,227*. in 1869. Of copper ore the exports to Great Britain
amounted to 5,569*., and of lead ore to 4,562*. in 1869. The soil
is believed to be rich in mineral ore, principally copper, and coal
has been found in small quantities. Gold is likewise supposed to
exist in Western Australia, and in 1869 a reward of 5,000*. was
offered by the Government ' for the discovery of a workable gold-
field in the colony.'
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Australasia.
1. Official Publications.
Keports showing the present state of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.
Presented to both Houses of Parliament. Despatches of the Governors of
New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western
Australia. Fol. London, 1869.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XIII. Fol. London, 1870.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year, from 1854 to 1868. No. VI. 8. London
1870.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the rear 1869. Imp. 4. London
1870.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, in each of the fifteen years from
1855 to 1869. No. XVI. 8. London, 1870.
Fourteenth Report of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Customs, on the
Customs. 8. London, 1870.
Thirtieth Report of the Emigration Commissioners. 8. London, 1870.
Papers relating to the Affairs of New Zealand. Presented to Parliament by
command. London, 1866.
Correspondence respecting the Non-enactment of the Appropriation Act in
Victoria. Presented to Parliament by command. London, 1866.
Further Correspondence relative to the non-enactment of the Appropriation
Act in Victoria, and the recall of Governor Sir C. Darling. London, 1868.
748
AUSTRALASIA.
Statistical Notes on the Progress of Victoria, from the foundation of the
Colony, By W. H. Archer, Registrar-General of Victoria. 4. Melbourne.
1862-70.
Statistics of New Zealand for 18G8. Compiled from Official Records. Fol.
Wellington, 1869.
Statistical Register of New South Wales for the year 1868. Fol. Sydney,
1869.
Statistical Register of Queensland for the year 1868. Fol. Brisbane, 1869.
Third census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 2nd March 1868.
Fol. Brisbane. 1869.
Statistics of the Colony of Tasmania for the year 1869. Fol. Holbart
Town, 1870.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boothby (Josiah), Adelaide Almanac: Town and Country Directory, and
Guide to South Australia, for 1870. 12. Adelaide, 1870.
Denison (Sir William), Varieties of Vice-Regal Life. 2 vols. 8. London,
1870.
Fox (Wm.), The War in New Zealand. 8. London, 1866.
Gorst (J. E.), The Maori King ; or, the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives
of New Zealand. 8. London, 1865.
Hardman (Wm.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in
Australia from 1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.
Hochstetter (Fr. von), Neu-Seeland. 8. Stuttgart, 1863.
Hochstetter (Fr. von) New Zealand : its Physical Geography, Geology, and
Natural History. 2 vols. 4. London, 1868.
Howitt (W.), History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
2 vols. 8. London, 1865.
Kennedy (E. B.), Four Years in Queensland. 16. London, 1870.
Lloyd (Geo. Thomas), Thirty-three years in Tasmania and Victoria. 8.
London, 1862.
Robiquct (A.), Renseignements sur la nouvelle Zelande. Public avec Valori-
sation de S. Exe. M. le ministre de la marine et des colonies. 8. Paris, 1867.
Smyth (R. Brough), Inter-Colonial Exhibition, 1866. Mining and Mineral
Statistics of Australia. 8. Melbourne, 1866.
Taylor (Rev. R.), The Past and Present of New Zealand. 8. London, 1868.
Westgarth (Wm.), The Colony of Victoria: its History, Commerce, and Gold-
mining; its Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 1864.
Wilkins (W.), The Geography of New South Wales : Physical, Industrial,
and Political. 18. Sydney, 1863.
Woods (Rev. J. E. Tenison), History of the Discovery and Exploration of
Australia ; or, an Account of the Progress of Geographical Discovery in that
Continent, from the Earliest Period to the Present Day. 2 vols. 8. London,
1866.
749
INDEX.
ABDUL-AZIZ, Sultan, 451
Alexander II., Emperor, 355
Alexandria, population, 615
Algeria, area and population, 602
— exports and imports, 603
— government and revenue, 601
Alsace, area and population, 105
Anhalt, population, 167
— reigning family, 166
Antigua, area and population, 274
— exports and imports, 276
Argentine Confederation, area, 483
army, 482
commerce, 484
government, 480
— — population, 483
railways, 484
Augsburg, population of, 137
Austria, area of, 21
— army, strength and organisation, 17
— budget for 1869, 14
— church organisation, 12
— commerce, 23
— commercial marine, 25
— constitution, 6
— debt, 15
— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 12
— education of the people, 12
— Emperors, list of, 5
— exports, value of, 23
to United Kingdom, 24
— government, 6
— imperial family, 3
— imports, value of, 23
from United Kingdom, 24
— iron-clads, list, 19
— nationalities in, 22
— navy, sh-ength and organisation, 19
Austria, nobility, 23
— population at last census, 22
— railways, 25
— religious division, 11
— revenue and expenditure, 14
— shipping, 25
— universities, 12
Azores, or "Western Islands, area and
population, 351
BADEN, army, 152
— constitution, 150
— debt, public, 152
— government, 151
— population, 153
— reigning family, 149
— revenue and expenditure, 151
— state railways, 152
Bahamas, area and population, 274
— exports and imports, 276
Baltic fleet, Russian, 377
Barbadoes, area and population, 274
— exports and imports, 276
Bavaria, army, 136
— constitution, 133
— debt, public, 136
— education, popular, 135
— population, 137
— railways, 136
— religious division, 134
— revenue and expenditure, 135
— ■ royal family, 131
Belgium, area, 36
— army, strength and organisation, 35
— budgets for 1869 and 1870, 34
— church organisation, 32
— constitution, 29
75°
INDEX.
Belgium, debt, 34
— deputies, number of, 30
— education of the people, 32
— exports, 38
— government, 31
— imports, 38
— increase of population, 37
— nationalities, 37
— population, 36
— railways, 39
— revenue and expenditure, 33
— royal family, 28
— trade and commerce, 37
Berlin, population, 127
Bermuda, area and population, 274
— exports and imports, 276
Bismarck, Count, 113
Bohemia, diet, 7
• — nobles, 23
— population, 22
Bolivia, area, 488
— constitution, 487
— exports and imports, 489
— population, 488
Bombay, population, 661
Bordeaux, population of, 70
Braganza, House of, 344
Brazil, area, 501
■ — army, 499
— church and education, 494
— commerce, 502
— constitution, 492
— debt, 498
— government, 493
— imperial family, 491
— navy, 500
— population, 501
— railways, 505
— revenue and expenditure, 495
— slaves, 502
Bremen, constitution, 183
— population, 163
— trade and commerce, 164
British Columbia, area, 516
exports to, 518
British Guiana, area and pop. 274
exports and imports, 276
Brunswick, government, 161
— population, 161
— sovereign, 160
Brunswick, New (see New Bruns-
wick)
Brussels, population, 37
Bukowina, diet, 7
— population, 22
CAIRO, population, 615
Calcutta, population, 660
Canada, area, 514
— army, 512
— church organisation, 510
— commerce, 517
— constitution, 508
— debt, 512
— education, 510
— exports and imports, 517
— government, 509
— immigration, 515
— population, 514
— revenue and expenditure, 511
Canton, imports and exports, 635
Cape of Good Hope, area, 608
commerce, 610
— government, 606
— — — revenue, 607
Carinthia, diet, 7
— population, 22
Cardinals, list of, 302
— origin, 303
Carl XV., King, 417
Carniola, diet, 7
— population, 22
Ceylon, area and population, 627
— constitution and government, 626
— exports and imports, 628
— revenue and expenditure, 626
Channel Islands, population, 239
Chili, area and population, 522
— army and navy, 523
— commerce, 523
— government, 521
— railways, 524
— revenue and expenditure, 522
China, area, 632
— army, 633
— commerce, 634
— exports to United Kingdom, 637
— government, 631
— imperial family, 630
— imports and exports, 635
— imports from United Kingdom, 637
— money, weights, and measures, 638
— population, 632
— revenue, 631
INDEX.
751
CHI
China, treaty ports, trade at, 635
Christiern IX., King, 42
Colombia, area, 527
— constitution, 526
— exports and imports, 528
— population, 527
— railway, 528
Costa Rica, area, 532
— constitution, 531
— exports and imports, 533
— revenue and expenditure. 531
Croatia and Slavonia, diet, 7
— population, 22
Cuba, area and population, 412
— government, 413
— productions, 413
DENMARK, agriculture, 51
— army, 49
— budget for 1869-70, 47
— church organisation, 45
— colonies, 53
— commerce, 52
— constitution, 44
— debt, 48
— education of the people, 46
— government, 45
— imports and exports, 58
— land, division, 51
— navy, 49
— population, 51
— revenue and expenditure, 46
— royal family, 42
— shipping, 53
ECUADOR, area, 536
— constitution, 535
— exports and imports, 536
— revenue and expenditure, 535
Egypt, area and population, 615
— army and navy, 614
— government, 613
— revenue and expenditure, 614
— rulers since 1811, 613
— rural population, 615
• — Suez Canal, traffic on, 617
— trade and commerce, 616
England, area, 241
— births and deaths, 244
FRA
England, church organisation, 280
— criminal statistics, 245
— education, 214
— electors, pari, number of, 201
— emigration, 253
— militia establishment, 232
— occupations of the people, 243
— pauperism, 245
— parliamentary representation, 203
— population, 241
— religious denominations, 210
— volunteer army, 228
— (see also Great Britain and [Ire-
land).
FINLAND, area, 379
— constitution, 361
— revenue and expenditure, 371
Florence, population, 319
France, area, 75
— army, organisation, 65
education, 59
— budgets for 1869 and 1870, 62
— church organisation, 56
— colonies, 88
— commerce, 80
— commercial marine, 86
— conscription, 66
— constitutions, 55
— debt, national, 64
— departments, 75
— division of land, 79
— education of the people, 58
— exports, value of, 81
— exports to Great Britain, 83
— governments, from 1791 to 1870,55
— imports, value of, 81
— imports from Great Britain, 84
— iron-clad navy, 70
— mortality, infant, 60
— national guard, 66
— navy, 69
— occupations of the people, 78
— population, at various periods, 78
classification of, 78
— property, distribution of, 79
— railways, 87
— religious denominations, 56
— revenue and expenditure, 60
— shipping, 86
75*
INDEX.
FEA
GRE
France, wars, recent, cost of, 78
Frankfort, population, 127
Franz Joseph I., Emperor, 3
G ALICIA, diet, 7
— nobles, 23
— population, 22
Gambia, area and population, 27 5
— imports and exports, 276
Georgios I., King, 279
Germany, area, 104
— army, 98
— budget for 1871, 97
— commerce of, 186
— constitution, 94
— Emperor, 93
— Emperors, list of, since 800, 94
— ironclads, 102
— navy, 100
— population, 104
— revenue, 97
— States of, 104
— Zollverein of, 186
Gibraltar, area and population, 275
— exports and imports, 276
Grant, Ulysses, President, 557
Greenland, population, 53
Guadaloupe, area and population, 93
Guiana, British (see British Guiana).
Guiana, French, area and pop., 93
Great Britain and Ireland, area, 239
army, 242
budget for 1870-71, 215
cabinet, 204
church organisation, 208
civil list of sovereign, 193
coal production, 270
colonies, 273
— commerce, 256
commenial marine, 263
Commons, House of, 188
constitution, 195
cotton trade, 268
— customs revenue, 262
debt, national, 222
education of the peopl . '213
elective franchise, 200
emigration, 254
established church, 208
— expenditure, national, from
1856 to 1870, 219
Great Britain and Ireland, exports,
from 1860 to 1869, 256
— — — division of, among various
na1 ions in 1868 and 1869,
258
government, members of,
205
imports, from 1860 to 1869,
256
distribution of, among
various nations in 1868
and 1869, 257
iron-clad navy, 236
— ■ — — legislature, 195
— ■ Lords, House of, 197
ministers in 1870, 205
ministries since the year
1715, 207
— — — uavy, 231
parliaments, list of, 203
parliamentary government,
195
population, 239
— — — privy council, 204
railways, 272
reform bill, 200
— — — religious denominations,
210
revenue, 215
Eoman Catholics, 210
royal family, 192
— — — shipping, 262
■ — — — sovereigns, list of, 195
taxation, 220
— textile industry, 267
volunteer army, 228
— (see also England, Ireland, and
Scotland).
Greece, area, 290
— army, 289
— church organisation, 285
— commerce, 292
— constitution, 284
— debt, 288
— education of the people, 286
— exports and imports, 292
— government, 284
— land, division of, 292
— navy, 289
— occupations of the people, 291
— population, 290
— revenue and expenditure, 286
— sovereign, 283
INDEX.
753
HAM
HAMBURG, area, 180
— commerce, 180
— constitution, 178
— debt, 180
— exports and imports, 181
— exports to Great Britain, 181
— population, 180
— revenue and expenditure, 179
— shipping, 181
Hanover, former kingdom of, popula-
tion, 126
— revenue and expenditure, 120
Hanse Towns, commerce, 188
judicial organisation, 182
Habsburg, House of, 5
Hesse, area, 157
— constitution, 156
— population, 157
— revenue and expenditure, 157
— reigning family, 156
Hohenzollern, House of, 105
— principality of, area, 125
Holland (see Netherlands)
Holstein, area and population, 124
Holstein-Gottorp, family of, 356
Honduras, area and population, 274
— exports and imports, 267
Hongkong, area and population, 642
— constitution and government, 641
— exports and imports, 643
— revenue and expenditure, 641
Hungary, budget for 1869, 16
— constitution, 9
— government, 10
— population, 22
— races of inhabitants, 23
ICELAND, government of, 45
— population, 53
India, area, 660
— army, 656
— budgets from 1869 to 1871, 649
- — constitution, 646
— currenev, 657
— debt, 6o7
— government, 647
— governors-general, list of, 646
— imports and exports, 665
— land-tax, assessment of and reve-
nue from, 652
— money, weights, and measures, 673
- opium monopoly, 655
ITA
India, population, 658
— postal communication, 670
— races and creeds, 661
— railways, 668
— religious divisions, 662
— revenue and expenditure, 649
— towns, inhabitants of, 662
Ionian Islands, population, 286
Ireland, area, 246
— agricultural statistics, 251
— births and deaths, 249
— church organisation, 212
— clergy, income of, 212
— criminal statistics, 252
— decrease of population, 248
— education, 214
— emigration, 249
— land, division of, 251
— occupations of the people, 248
— parliamentary representation, 203
— pauperism, 252
— population, 247
— religious denominations, 212
— union of, with England, 203
— (see also Great Britain and Ire-
land)
Italy, area, 315
— army, 312
— budgets for 1868 and 1869, 308
— church of Rome, 298
— church organisation, 305
— clergy, income of, 306
— commerce, 320
— commercial marine, 322
— constitution, 297
— debt, national, 311
— education of the people, 307
— exports and imports, 320
— government, 297
— iron-clad navy, 314
— land, division of, 318
— monasteries, number and revenue
305
— navy, 314
— pontiff, 299
— population in 1866, 316
of ancient divisions, 317
of largest towns, 319
— religious orders, 306
— revenue and expenditure, 308
— royal family, 295
— shipping, 322
— uni versifies, 308
3 C
754
INDEX.
JAM
NET
JAMAICA, population, 274
— exports and imports, 276
Japan, area and population, 676
— army, 675
— feudal princes, 675
— foreigners, number, 677
— government, 674
— imports and exports, 677
— money, weights, and measures, 679
— trade with United Kingdom, 677
Java, area and population, 685
— army and navy, 684
— commerce, 686
— culture system, 681
— government, 681
— money, weights, and measures, 687
— revenue and expenditure, 682
— trade with the Netherlands, 686
Jesuits, number of, 321
Jews, Austrian, number of, 11
— French, number of, 62
— Irish, number of, 212
— Prussian, number of, 111
— Russian, number of, 364
Johann I., King, 145
Juarez Benito, president, 538
TTHEDIVE, of Egypt, 613
L ABU AN, area and population, 275
— exports to Great Britain, 276
Lauenburg, area and population, 124
Leipzig, population and trade, 149
Liberia, area and population, 620
— government, 619
— revenue and trade, 620
Lippe-Detmold, population, 173
reigning family, 172
Lisbon, population, 351
Liverpool, commerce of, 262
Lloyd, Austrian, shipping of, 25
Lombardy, area and population, 306
London, commerce of, 262
— Lorraine, area and population, 105
Liibeck, constitution, 161
— population, 162
■ — ■ revenue and expenditure, 161
— trade, 159
Luis I., King, 343
Luxemburg, area and population, 337
Lyon, population, 79
MADRAS, population, 662
Madrid, population, 408
Malta, area and population, 275
■ — ■ exports and imports, 276
Marseille, population, 79
Martinique, area and population, 93
Mauritius, area and population, 275
— exports and imports, 276
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, area, 155
constitution, 155
reigning family, 154
revenue and expenditure, 155
Mecklenburg-Strelitz. population, 165
reigning family, 165
Messina, population, 319
Mexico, area and population, 541
— commerce, 542
— constitution, 538
— debt, 540
— government, 538
— mining industry, 543
— revenue and expenditure, 539
Milan, population, 319
Moldavia (see Roumania)
Montserrat, area and population, 274
— imports and exports, 276
Munich, population, 137
NAPLES, population, 319
Napoleon III., Emperor, 55
Natal, area and population, 618
— government, 617
— imports and exports, 619
— revenue and expenditure, 617
Neapolitan States, area, 317
Netherlands, area, 336
— army. 334
— budgets for 1868-69, 332
— church organisation, 329
— colonies, 339
— commerce, 338
— constitution, 328
— debt, 333
— education of the people, 329
— exports and imports, 337
— government, 328
INDEX.
755
Netherlands, navy, 335
— population, 336
— religious denominations, 329
— revenue and expenditure, 330
— royal family, 366
— shipping, 339
— States-general, 328
— trade and commerce, 337
New Brunswick, area and pop., 514
— — imports and exports, 517
Newfoundland, area and pop., 516
— imports and exports, 518
New Granada (see Colombia)
New Orleans, population, 579
New South Wales, area and pop., 702
— commerce, 704
— ■ — — education, 703
— government, 701
— — — immigration, 703
— — - — mines and minerals, 706
— — — religious creeds, 704
— — — revenue and exp., 702
New York, population, 579
New Zealand, area and pop., 711
— — commerce, 714
— — government, 708
native population, 712
— — revenue and expenditure, 709
— — wool exports, 715
Norway, area, 433
■ — army, 431
— budget for 1866-69, 431
— commerce, 434
— constitution, 429
— council of state, 430
— debt, 431
— exports and imports, 434
— navy. 432
— population, 433
— revenue and expenditure, 431
— Storthing, 429
Nova Scotia, area and population, 516
— — exports and imports, 517
OLDENBURG, area and population,
158
— constitution, 159
— reigning family, 158
— revenue and expenditure, 159
Oldenburg, House of, 43
Ontario (see Canada)
Oporto, population, 351
Orange, family of, 326
PANAMA, trade, 528
Papal States, area, 317
Church. 298
deputies, number of, 208
— — ecclesiastical administration,
303
— — population, 317
— — trade and commerce, 321
Paraguay, area and population, 547
— government, 546
— produce, 548
— revenue, 547
Paris, education of inhabitants, 59
— - population, 70
— religious division of inhabitants,
56
Patriarch of Constantinople, jurisdic-
tion of, 281
Patriarchates, number of, 318
Persia, area and population, 693
— commerce, 694
■ — revenue and expenditure, 691
— sovereign family, 689
Peru, area and population, 552
— commerce, 553
— debt, 551
— government, 550
— guano produce, 553
— revenue and expenditure, 551
Philadelphia, population, 579
Philippine Islands, commerce, 414
— popidation, 413
Pius IX., Sovereign-Pontiff, 299
Poland, area. 379
— constitution, 361
— population, 381
— railways, 388
— revenue and expenditure, 366
Pontiffs of Rome, list of, 300
Pope, mode of election of, 299
Porto Rico, area and population,
412
— commerce, 414
Portugal, area, 351
— army, 350
— budget for 1868-69, 348
— church organisation, 346
— colonies, 353
3 c 2
756
INDEX.
POR
RUS
Portugal, commerce, 352
— constitution, 345
— debt, 319
— education of the people, 347
— exports and imports, 352
— government, 346
— money, weights, and measures,
353
— navy, 350
— population, 351
— revenue and expenditure, 348
— royal family, 343
— trade and commerce, 351
Prince Edward Island, area and popu-
lation, 516
— imports and exports, 518
Prussia, area, 123
— army, 121
— budget for 1870, 117
— chamber of deputies, 112
— - church organisation, 114
— ■ coal production, 129
— commerce, 127
- — commercial marine, 128
— constitution, 110
— council of ministers, 113
— debt, public, 119
— division of land, 127
— education of the people, 115
— exports and imports, 127
— government, 113
— industries, 128
— landwehr, 121
— legislative body, 112
■ — ■ mines and minerals, 128
— population, 124
— ports of war, 103
— railways, 130
— religious denominations, 114
— revenue and expenditure, 117
-— royal family, 107
— shipping, 128
— sovereigns, list of, 108
Puerto-Rico (see Porto Rico)
QUEBEC, population, 516
Queensland, area and pop., 717
"\ eminent, 716
»— immigration, 718
— imports and exports, 718
— revenue and expenditure, 716
RATLSBON, population, 137
Reunion, area and population,
93
Reuss-Greiz, population, 177
reigning family, 176
Reuss-Schleiz, population, 175
— — reigning family, 174
Roman States (see Papal States)
Romanof, House of, 356
Rome, ancient diocese, 299
— last census of, 319
Roumania, area and population, 473
— constitution, 471
— commerce, 474
— government, 472
Russia, area, 379
— army, 372
— budget for 1869, 366
— church organisation, 362
— commerce, 385
— commercial marine, 387
— conscription, 373
— constitution, 357
— Cossacks, 376
— council of the empire, 358
— council of ministers, 359
— debt, national, 369
— education of the people, 364
— fleet of war, 377
— foreign loans, 368
— government, 359
— growth of empire, 381
— holy synod, 359
— imperial family, 355
— imports and exports, 386
— iron-clad navy, 378
— lands of foreign settlers, 383
— local administration, 360
— ■ manufactures, 389
— money, weights, and measures,
390
— navy, 377
— nobility, 384
— population, 379
— races, 382
— religious denominations, 363
— railways, 388
— revenue and expenditure, 365
— senate, 358
— serfs, emancipation, 382
— shipping, 387
— sovereigns, list of, 357
— universities, 365
INDEX.
757
SAR
SWE
SARDINIA, area and pop., 317
kj Saxe-Altenburg, population, 170
reigning family, 169
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, constitution, 168
population, 168
reigning family, 167
•Saxe-Meiningen, population, 165
■ — — reigning family, 164 .
Saxe- Weimar, area, 162
— — constitution, 162
population, 163
reigning family, 162
— — revenue and expenditure, 163
Saxony, area, 149
— constitution, 146
— debt, 148
— education, 147
— population, 149
— revenue and expenditure, 147
— royal family, 145
Schaumburg-Lippe, population, 176
— — reigning family, 175
Schleswig-Holstein, population, 126
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, area and
population, 173
— — reigning family, 172
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, area and
population, 174
reigning family, 173
Scotland, area, 244
— births and deaths, 245
— church organisation, 211
— criminal statistics, 246
— education, 214
— emigration, 253
— occupations of the people, 245
— pauperism, 246
— parliamentary representation, 203
— population, 2 14
— religious denominations, 211
— (see also Great Britainand Ireland)
Senegal, area and population. 93
Serfs, Russian, emancipation of, 382
Servia, army and population, 475
— commerce. 4 76
— government, 474
Shanghae, imports and exports, 635
Sicily, area and population, 317
Sierra Leone, area and population, 274
— — imports and exports, 274
Silesia, Austrian, diet, 7
• — population, 22
South Australia, area and pop., 722
722
•21
South Australia, commerce, 7-1
government, 720
— — mines, 726
— — occupations of the people,
— — railways, 727
— — religious denominations.
— — revenue and expenditure.
Spain, area, 405
— army, 403
— budget for 1868-69, 399
— church organisation, 396
— colonies, 412
— commerce, 409
— commercial navy, 411
— constitution, 394
— Cortes, 394
— council of ministers, 395
— debt, public, 401
— ecclesiastical property, 401
— education of the people, 397
— exports and imports, 409
— government, 395
— iron-clad navy, 404
— landed property, division of. 408
— mines and minerals, 409
— money, weights, and measures, 415
— navy, 404
— nobility, 408
— population, 405
— railways, 410
— revenue and expenditure, 399
— royal family, 393
— shipping, 411
— sovereigns, list of, 394
Styria, diet, 7
— population, 22
Suez canal, 617
— town, population. 615
Sweden, area, 425
■ — army, 423
— budget for 1868-69, 421
— commerce, 426
— commercial marine, 427
— constitution, 419
— council of ministers, 420
— debt, 422
— exports and imports, 426
— government, 420
— mines and minerals, 427
— navy, 424
— population, 425
— railways, 428
— revenue and expenditure, 42 J
75«
INDEX.
YAS
Sweden, royal family, 417
— sovereigns, list of, 418
Switzerland, area, 447
— army, 444
— budgets for 1867-68, 442
— church organisation, 440
— commerce, 448
— confederation, origin of, 446
— constitution, 438
— debt, public, 443
— education, 441
— exports and imports, 448
— federal assembly, 439
— national council, 438
— occupations of the people, 448
— population, 447
— railways, 449
— revenue and expenditure, 441
TASMANIA, area and pop., 729
— commerce, 731
— government, 728
— immigration, 730
— revenue and expenditure, 728
Tauris, population, 693
— trade, 69.)
Tehran, population, 693
Tobago, area and population, 274
— imports and exports, 276
Transylvania, diet, 7
— population, 22
Trinidad, area and population, 274
— imports and exports, 276
Turin, population, 319
Turkey, area, 465
— army, 461
— constitution, 452
— commeice, 469
— debt, national, 459
— education, 455
— exports and imports, 469
— government, 453
— iron-clad vessels, 464
— land, division of, 468
— money, weights, and measures, 476
— nationalities, 466
— navy, 464
— population, 466
— railways, 470
— religious division, 454
— revenue and expenditure, 457
— sovereigns, list of, 452
Tuscany, area and population, 306
- population in 1788, 308
Tyrol, diet, 7
— population, 22
UNITED KINGDOM (see Great
Britain and Ireland)
United States, area, 575
army, 568
budgets for 1870-71, 564
census of 1870, 576
— — commerce, 585
— — commercial progress, 586
— — congress, 559
— — constitution, 556
■ — — cotton, exports of, 586
— — debt, national, 566
— — exports and imports, 585
— — government, 558
— — immigration, 580
— — iron-clad navy, 571
land, sale of, 577
militia, 569
mines and minerals, 589
mortality of people, 584
— — naturalised citizens, number,
583
navy, 571
— — origin of immigrants, 582
pop. of principal towns, 579
— at various periods, 576
presidents of the republic, list
of, 557
progress of population, 576
— — railways, 589
— — real property, value of, 589
— — revenue and expenditure, 563
— — senate, 559
shipping, 591
slavery, origin of, 583
abolition of, by constitu-
tional amendment, 563
war of 1861-65, losses in, 569
wheat, exports of, 586
Uruguay, area and population, 595
— commerce, 596
— government, 594
VASA, Hou
Venice, i
[ouse of, 418
commerce, 321
— population, 319
INDEX.
759
Venezuela, area, 599
— constitution, 598
— exports and imports, 599
Victoria I., Queen, 192
Victoria, area and population, 735
— commerce, 739
— debt, 735
— gold mines, 742
— government, 732
— immigration, 736
— occupations of the people, 738
— railways, 7-13
— revenue and expenditure, 733
Virgin Islands, area and pop., 305
— imports and exports, 307
Vittorio Emanuele II., King, 295
WALDECK, population, 171
— reigning family, 170
Wallachia (see Eoumania)
Western Australia, area, 7-16
commerce, 747
Western Australia, government, 745
imports from Great Britain,
747
revenue and expenditure, 745
Wilhelm I., Emperor and King, 93
Wilhelmshaveu, war port, 102
Willem III., King, 326
Wiirtemberg, army, 144
— constitution, 146
— debt, 148
— education, 147
— emigration, 144
— population, 144
— revenue and expenditure, 147
— royal family, 139
ZOLLVEREIN, administration, 186
— customs receipts, 187
— legislation of, 186
— mining industry, 188
— origin of, 186
— trade with Great Britain, 188
lOTTDON: TTtTXTBT) BY
6P0TTISTVO0DB AND CO., NEW-STREET 8QUABB
AND PAKLIAMBNT 6TBEKT
Advertising Sheet. 761
MUTUAL LIFE ASSURANCE.
HEAD OFFICE— 6 ST. ANDREW SQUARE, EDINBURGH.
LONDON OFFICE— 18 KING WILLIAM STREET, E.C.
TRUSTEES
ALEXANDER MATHESON, Esq. of
Ardross, M.P.
CHARLES COWAN, Esq. of Logan
House, Edinburgh
JAS. A. CAMPBELL, Esq. Younger,
of Strathcathro, Glasgow.
CHARLES LAW SUN, Esq. of Borth-
wickhall, Edinburgh,
ELWARD S. GORDON, Esq. Advocate, Q.C., M.P.
THE SCOTTISH PROVIDENT INSTITUTION is the only Office which
combines the advantages of Mutual Assurance with Moderate Premiums.
Instead 01 charging rates admittedly higher than are necessary, and after-
wards returning the excess, or a portion of it, in the shape of periodical
Bonuses, it gives from the first as large an assurance as the Premiums will
with safety bear — reserving the Whole Surplus for those Members who have
lived long enough to secure the common fund from loss on account of their
individual Assurances.
A Policy for ±1,200 to £1,250 may thus at most ages be had for the
Premium elsewhere charged to assure ±1,000 only ; while the effect of
reserving the Surplus (instead of sharing it with all indiscriminately)
has been, that Policies originally for £1,000, which have shared at
three Septennial Investigations, have already been increased to ±1,400,
±1,600, and even to ±1,800.
FAMILY PROVISIONS ,-SrECIAL ADVANTAGES TO PROFESSIONAL MEN.
Its Terms are thus well calculated to meet the requirements of intending
Assurers. Tney are specially adapted to the case of Provisions under Pamily
Settlements or utherwise, where it is of importance to secure from the first, for
the smallest present outlay, a competent provision, of definite amount, in the
case of early death.
To Professional Men or others whose income depends on the continuance
of health, the system of Assurance is recommended by which the Premiums are
limited to a specified number. At age 40, the Premium, ceasing at age 60, is
for ±1,000, with profits, ±33 14s. 'Ad., being about the same as many offices
require during the whole of life. The Rates for other ages, or limited to other
periods (as 7 or 14), may be had on application.
The Administration has uniformly been liberal — as in relaxation of
restrictions, and in removal of grounds of challenge, etc. Members (not
seafaring) are free to reside in any part of the world (Asia excepted) to the
north ot 35J N. and to the south ot 30J S. When extra premium is charged
(as for India, etc.), its payment, under the distinctive system of the Office,
secures the important advantage of earlier participation in profits.
FINANCIAL POSITION,
The Realised Funds exceed ±1,750,000, having increased in last year by
£137,000. jN 01 withstanding the lowness of its rates, no office of the same age has
as large a Fund. According to statistics published by the ' Insurance Register,'
only one of the oldest offices shows as large an increase of Funds in the last
lour years ; and in no instance has there been as large a proportionate increase.
Copies of last Annual Report, with every information, will be furnished on application.
762
Advertising Sheet.
THE LONDON ASSURANCE CORPORATION
Jxrr Jfirt, pfe, writs |gl;trinc %&$mmt£&,
Incorporated by Royal Charter A.D. 1720.
OFFICE -No. 7 ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON, E.C.
EDWIN GOWEK, Esq., Governor.
DAVID POWELL, Esq., Sub-Governor.
KOBEBT GILLESPIE, Esq., Deputy-Governor.
DIRECTORS.
NATH. ALEXANDER. Esq.
J. A. ARBUTHNOT, ESQ.
JAMES BLYTH, Esq.
HARVEY BRAND, Esq.
EDWARD BUDD, Esq.
ALEREJ) D. CHAPMAN, Esq.
MARK W. COLLET, Esq.
SirF. CURRIE. Bart.
F. G. DALGETY, Esq.
BON AMY DOB REE, Esq.
JOHN ENTVV1SLE, Esq.
GEORGE L. M. GIBBS, Esq.
A. C. GUTHRIE, Esq.
JOHN A. HANKEY, Esq.
LOUIS HUTH, Esq.
HENRY J. B. KENDALL, E3Q.
CHARLES LYALL, Esq.
Capt. R. W. FELLY, R.N.
WILLIAM RENNIE, Esq.
P. P. ROBERTSON, Esq.
ROBERT RYRIE, Esq.
DAVID P. SELLAR, Esq.
LEWIS A. WALLACE, Esq.
WILLIAM B. WATSON, Esq.
The Share Capital of this Corporation is £896,550, of which one-half, or
£448,275, has been paid up. The total Funds on the 31st December 1869,
amounted to £2,515,629.
A printed abstract of the General Balance Sheet, together with particulars
of the Life Department, may be had on application at the Head Office. The
following items relating to the Life Business have been extracted therefrom.
Polices in force for ... ... ... ... £4,865,823
Annual Income from —
Premiums £161,381
Interest 58,324
£219,705
Accumulated Premiums ... ... ... ... £1,342,472
The Fire Duty having been abolished, Fire Insurances are now effected
without any charge beyond the Premium.
Marine Insurances can be effected at the Head Office, and at Calcutta,
Madras, Bombay, Mauritius, Hong Kong, and Shanghai.
JOHN P. LAUEENCE, Secretary.
Advertising Sheet. 763
ALLIANCE
BRITISH AND FOREIGN
LIFE AID EIRE ASSURANCE COMPANY.
Established in 1824.
CHIEF OFFICE :
BARTHOLOMEW li-A-OSTE, XiO^STUOUT, E.C.
BOARD OF DIRECTION.
President— Sir Moses Montefiore, Bart., F.R.S.
DIRECTORS.
Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bart.
Sampsmi Lucas, Esq. ( Lucas, Mictialls, & Co.)
Elliot Macnaghten, EzcL.(JIemberoftheIndian
Council).
Thomas Masterman, Esq. (Director of the
Bank of England) .
Joseph Mayer Montefiore, Esq. (Director of
the Provincial Bank of Ire/and).
Sir Anthony De Rothschild, Bart., New
Court. , ., , „_ _
Baron Lionel Nathan De Rothschild, M.P.
Thomas Charles Smith, Esq., Oxford Square,
Hyde Park.
James Alexander, Esq. (Alexander, Fletcher,
& Co.)
Charles George Barnett, Esq. (Barnetts,
Roares, Hanburys, <t- Lloyd).
George Henry Barnett, Esq., Glympton Park.
James Fletcher, Esq. (Alexander, Fletcher,
& Co.)
William Gladstone, Esq. (Thomson, Bonar,
& Co.)
Right Hon. George Joachim Goschen, M.P.
Samuel Gurney, Esq., Hanover Terrace,
Regent's Park.
James Helme, Esq. (Director of the Provincial
Bank of Ireland).
Auditors.
Lord Richard Grosvenor, M.P. Out of office I N. M. De Rothschild, Esq., M.P.
by rotation 1870—1871. I Hugh Colin Smith, Esq.
Richard Hoare, Esq.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.
Fire Bisks of an eligible character are accepted at current rates of Premium.
LIFE DEPARTMENT.
Life A ssuranees, in a variety of forms, are granted on moderate terms and liberal con-
ditions. Attention is specially directed to the Company's Endowment Assurance lables.
. under which the amount of the Policies becomes payable at a given age, or at death, it
it shall happen before the stipulated age is attained.
"Whole World Policies are granted on favourable terms.
Lives of Ettropeans proceeding to or resident in India are assured at a
moderate addition to the Home Rates of Premium. nt-sn nnn
The Subscribed Capital of the Company is £5,000,000, of which £550,000
has been paid up.
The Sums Assured under the Life Policies in force with the Company at the close of 18b8,
when the last actuarial investigation was made, amounted to £3,173,983, and the Lille
Reserve Fund to more than £943,000 {which sum is exclusive of. and in addition to,
the paid-up Capital and the Fire Reserve Fund), being equal to nearly 30 per cent, ot the
sums assured, or to more than 10* times the Annual Life Premium Income. Under the
Carlisle Table of Mortality, taking interest at 3 per cent., the estimated present value ot the
liabilities under the said policies was £762,953. .
The total Funds of the Company are over £1,600,000, and the investments are or
the safest description, yielding interest at an average rate exceeding 4} per cent, per annum.
In a Contract of the nature of Life Assurance, Security should obviously be the first
consideration, and it may be confidently asserted that the Policyholders in the Alliance
enjoy the highest degree of security: for, besides an ample Accumulated Beserve
Fund there is the additional guarantee of a Subscribed Capital of not less than
Five 'Millions Sterling, coupled with the responsibility of a numerous body of Wealthy
Proprietors.
While the Constitution of the Company has been framed so as to provide the most
undoubted Security, rendering it unquestionable that all engagements entered into
under the Policies i-sued'by the Company will be faithfully discharged, however remote may
be the event upon which the sums assured become payable, the Policy-holders under the
Participating Scheme are now entitled to Eighty per cent, of the declared divisible Life
Profits. , _ .
Under the Non-Participating Scale Policies are granted at reduced rates.
Detailed Prospectuses, Proposal Forms, Statement of Accounts, and other papers, may bal
had on application to
ROBERT LEWIS, Secretary.
764 Advertising Sheet.
LAW LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY.
FLEET STREET, T^OISTTDON-
TRUSTEES.
The Right Honourable BARON CHELMSFORD.
The Right Honourable BARON CAMPBELL.
The Hight Honourable GATHORNE HARDY, M.P.
EDMOND ROBT. TURNER, Esq.
DIRECTORS.
George Marten, Esq., Parkfield, Upper
Clapton.
Richard Nicholson, Esq., Spring Gardens.
John Swift, Esq., Great George Street,
Westminster.
E. Touipson, Esq., Stone Buildings, Lin-
coln's Inn.
Charles R. Turner, Esq. (Master of the
Court of Queen's Bench).
John E. Waiters, Esq., Ne*v Square, Lin-
coln's Inn.
William H. Walton, Esq. (Master of the
Court of Exchequer.)
Arnold W. White, Esq., Great Marlbo-
rough Street.
Basil Thomas WoOdd, Esq., Couyugham
Hall, Yorkshire.
John Young, Esq., Frederick's Place, Old
Jewry.
Biggs Andrews, Esq., Q.C., Middle
Temple.
Francis Thomas Bircham, Esq., Parlia-
ment Street.
The Hon. Hallyburton George Campbell.
Jonathan Henry Christie, Esq., Stanhope
Street, Hyde Park.
John Deedes, Esq., Inner Temple.
Oliver Wm. Farrer, Esq., Inner Temple.
The Right Hon. R. Gurney, Q.C., M.P.,
Recorder of London.
Sir Thomas Henry, Hanover Square.
William F. Higgins, Esq., Chester Place,
Belgrave Square.
Grosvenor Hodgkinson, Esq., M.P.,
Newark.
John James Johnson, Esq., Q.C., King's
Bench Walk, Temple.
R. B. Mar-ham, Esq., D.C.L., Warden of
Merton College, Oxford.
AUDITORS.
Harvey Drummond, Esq., Charing Cross. I C. Manley Smith, Esq. (Master of the
Henry Geiard Hoare, Esq., Fleet Street. | Court of Queen's Bench.)
Actuary— GRIFFITH DAVIES, Esq.
Physician— HENRY WM. FULLER, Esq., M.D., Manchester Square.
Bankers— Messrs. HOARE, Fleet Street.
Soncitor— J. S. BOCK.ETT, Esq., Lincoln's Inu Fields.
The ASSETS of this Society on 3ist December, 1869, exceeded
£5,469,000.
Its INCOME for 1869 amounted to £508,264.
ASSURANCES are granted upon the lives of any persons to the extent of
£10,000, either with participation in profits, or a lower rate of premium with-
out participation in profits.
FOUR-FIFTHS of the PROFITS made by this Society are, every Fifth
year, appropriated to the persons assured on the participating scale of pre-
miums who have been so assured for Two full years and upwards, prior to the
date of the Division.
At the Divisions of Profits hitherto, Bonuses amounting to £4,861,034
have been added to the several Policies.
Since the establishment of the Society the sum of £8,305,689 has been
paid in claims upon death, of which the sum of £1,913,678 has been in respect
of Bonus.
Prospectuses may be obtained, and Assurances effected, through any
Solicitor in town or country, or by application direct to the Actuary at the
Office in Loudon.
JS'ov. 1870. GRIFFITH DAVIES, Actuary.
Advertising Sheet. 765
ESTABLISHED 1807.
EABLE INSURANCE COMPANY
(FOR IIVE8 OaTJLX).
79 PALL MALL, LONDON, S.W.
DIRECTORS.
ROBERT A. GRAY, Esq., Chairman.
JOSHUA LOCKWOOD, Deputy-Chairman.
CHARLES BISCHOFF, Esq.
THOMAS BODDINGTON, Esq.
CHARLES CHATFIELD, Esq.
Sir J. BULLER EAST, Bart.,
DC.L.
WILLIAM AUGUSTUS GUY, M.D.
CHARLES JELLICOE, Esq.
The Right Hon. the LORD LISGAR,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
JAMES MURRAY, Esq., C.B.,
F.R.G.S
PHILIP ROSE. Esq.
GEORGE RUSSELL. Esq.
THOMAS GODFREY SAM-
BROOKE, Esq.
Admiral TINDAL.
AUDITORS.
THOMAS ALLEN, Esq. | HENRY ROSE, Esq.
MEDICAL OFFICERS.
J. W. OGLE, Esq., M.D. | GEORGE CURSHAM, M.D.
ACTUARY & SECRETARY.
GEORGE HUMPHREYS, Esq., M.A.
The Business of the Company comprises Assurances on lives and Survivor-
ships, Granting of Contingent Annuities, Loans of Money on Mortgage, &c.
The Annual Report for 1869-187(, circulated August 1870, showed that
the Income for the Year was : —
For Premiums £369,514 15 9
For Interest on Investments, and Balance of Profit
and Loss Account ... ... ... ... 158,864 2 4
£528,378 18 1
That the Expenses of Management were ... ... £15,710 16 1
(Or 3 per cent, on the total Income).
And that the Cash and Securities in hand
amounted to £3,247,686 17 6
(Bearing an average interest of £4 5s. per cent.)
Further Security. — A Subscribed Capital of ...£1,722.500 0 0
(Of which the original call of 10 per cent, only is paid up).
The Divisions of Surplus are Quinquennial, and the whole amount (less
20 per cent, only) is distributed amongst the Assured. The addition to the
Surplus Fund for the year 1870 is £118,234.
THE NEXT DIVISION OF SURPLUS WILL TAKE PLACE IN 1872.
^66 Advertising Sheet.
THE
LEGAL & GENERAL
LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY,
10 FLEET STREET, TEMPLE BAR,
(FOUNDED 1836,)
Has taken a leading part in freeing Life Assurance Contracts from
all needless restrictions.
The ' Proposal Form ' is most simple in its terms.
The Policies are ' Indisputable,' that is, free from future
challenge.
The Invested Funds bear an unusually high proportion
to the Liabilities.
The Trustees are : —
The Right Hon. the LORD CHANCELLOR.
The Right Hon. the LORD CAIRNS.
The Right Hon. Sir W. BOVILL, Lord Chief Justice C. P.
The Right Hon. Sir EDWARD VAUGHAN WILLIAMS.
The Hon. Sir GEORGE ROSE.
THOMAS WEBB GREENE, Esq., Q.C.
JOHN OSBORNE, Esq., Q.C.
EDWARD SMITH BIGG, Esq.
ROBERT BAYLY FOLLETT, Esq., Taxing Master in Chancery.
The Guaranteeing Share Capital of One Million (£100,000
paid up) is fully subscribed by 300 Members of the Legal
Profession.
Nine-tenths of the Profits belong to the Assured.
Annual Accounts have always been published in full detail.
Settlement Policies in favour of Wife and Children now granted
in terms of the Married Women's Property Act, 1870.
Unreserved information on all points, on application to
E. A. NEWTON, Actuary and Manager.
Advertising Sheet. 767
LONDON AND PROVINCIAL
LAW ASSURANCE SOCIETY,
21 FLEET STREET, LONDON.
DIRECTORS.
HOPE-SCOTT, JAMES ROBT., Esq., Q.C., Tempi-, Chairman.
LAW, HENRY SHEPHARD, Esq., Bush Lane, Deputy-Chairman.
Abbott. Charles James, Esq., 8 New Inn.
.Bennett, Rowland Nevitt, Esq., Lincoln's
Inn.
Bloxam, Charles John, Esq., Lincoln's
Inn Fields.
Bume, Henry H., Esq., Bath.
Cholmeley, Stephen, E>q., Lincoln's Inn
Fields.
Erie, Peter, Esq., Q.C., Park Crescent.
Fane, William Dashwood, Esq., Norwood
Hill, Southwell, Notts.
Gaselee, Mr. Serjeant. Serjeants' Inn.
Gwinnett, William Henry, Esq., Chelten-
ham.
Hedges, John Kirby, Esq., Wallingford.
Jay, Samuel, Esq., Lincoln's Inn.
Lake, George. Esq., Lincoln's Inn.
Lawrance, Edward, Esq., 14 Uld Jewry
Chambers.
Lefroy, George Bentinck, Esq., 5 Robert
Street, Adelphi.
Locke. John, Esq., Q.C., M.P., Temple.
Loftus, Thomas, Esq., New Inn.
Lucas, Charles Rose, E-q.. Lincoln's Inn.
Steward, Samuel, Esq., Lincoln's Inn
Fields.
Still, Robert, Esq., Lincoln's Inn.
Vizard, William, Esq.. Lincoln's Inn Fields.
Warter, Henry De Grey, Esq., Longden
Manor, near Shrewsbury.
AUDITORS.
Philip Roberts, Esq., 2 South Square, | James Wells Taylor, Esq., Great James
Gray's Inn. Mreet, Bedford Row.
Josiah T. Paul, Esq., Tetbury. | Sterling Westhorp, Esq., Ipswich.
Physician— H. Pitman, M.D., 28 Gordon Square.
Solicitor— R. H. Burne, Esq., 37 Lincoln's Inn Fields.
Bankers— Union Bank of London, Chancery Lane.
Actuary and Secretary— Rnlph Price Hardy.
Assistant Actuary— George William Berridge.
The Society commenced Business in the year 1846.
On Dec. 31, 1869— The Total Amount of Existing Assurances was £-2,753,000
The Society's Investments amounted to 551,403
The Annual Premium Income in 1869 was 83,747
The Total Income was 106.527
The Expenses of Management were 3,819
The Premiums on New Assurances were 10,849
Any person upon whose life a Policv depends may, in time of peace, travel to and
reside in any place distant not less than thirty-three degrees from the Equator, and in
Madeira and all the Australian Colonies, except Port Essington, without extra charge.
Policies for the whole period of life, upon which three premiums have been paid, will
be purchased upon liberal terms, ranging between 33 and 60 per cent, of the premiums
paid. Or, in consideration of the surrender of any such Policy, a new Policy will be
granted without any further premium for a stated sum payable at the decease of the
life assured.
FOUR-FIFTHS OF THE PROFITS divided amongst the Assured every Five Years-
Persons insured Two "Years, dying before the division, shar- in Profits.
The Reversionary Bonuses added to the Policies in this Society have amounted, on
the average, to Two per cent, per annum on the sum assured.
EALPH P. HAKDY, Actuary and Secretary.
y£8 Advertising Sheet.
CLERGY MUTUAL ASSURANCE SOCIETY.
ESTABLISHED IN 1829.
Office: No. 2 Broad Sanctuary, Westminster.
Trustees. r-*«
The Archbishop of Canterbury. Bishop Sumner.
The Archbishop of Dublin. The Archdeacon of Maidstone.
Chairman: The Venerable the Archdeacon of London.
Deputy Chairman : The Honourable Edward "W. Douglas.
Actuary : Stewart Helper. Esq.
Secretary : The Rev. John Hodgson, M.A.
Total Existing Assurances £4,473,023 n.s. M.
Total Annual Income 173.S45 9.5. Id.
Total Invested Capital 1,693.975 Is. M.
For the vear ended May 31, 1869, 31 5 Proposals, assuring £274,540, and yielding in \nnual
Premiums £9,383 16.«. 6rf., were complete! : and £80.482 13». Id. was (notwithstanding the
large reductions made by Bonus in every fifth year from 1831 to 1866, both inclusive), added
to the Fund accumulating for the purpose of meeting future claims.
Prospectuses, Accounts of Bonus, &c. &c. to be had at the Office, on application personally,
or by letter; also a Pamphlet by the Rev. J. Hodgson, called 'Notes on Life Assurance,'
containing explanations on various interesting points.
Clergymen and their Wives, and the relations of Clergymen and of their "Wives, are
invited to make Life Assurances in this Society.
OBSERVATIONS in REFERENCE to DURATION of LIFE AMONGST
CLERGYMEN. Established upon investigations made in the Case of Five Thousand
Incumbents of Livings, from the Midd'e of the Last Century to the Middle of the Present. By
the Rev. John Hodgson. M.A. . of Trinity College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Clergy Mutual
Assurance Society, and formerly Vicar of St. Peter's in the Isle of Thanet, and Rural Dean of
Westbere.
To which is added a Supplement, by Samuel Brown, E-~o.. President of the Institute of
Actuaries. C jpies may be had of Messrs. C. and E. Lay i on, Fleet Street. Price 2s. M. each.
HOSPITAL FOR DISEASES OF THE SKIN,
NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS.
ESTABLISHED 1841.
PATRONESS H.R.H. THE PRINCESS OF WALES.
One thousand of the suffering poor are every week relieved by this Charity, and every
addition to its Fund- would extend its advantages to a much lareer number. Donations
and Subscriptions are most earneat.lv entreated, and will be thankfully received by the
SECRETARY, or by Messrs. BARCLAY, BEVAN & CO.. Lombard Street.
Surgeons. Assiftrtnt-SwrgGOWt.
JAMES ST\RTIN. Esq.
JONATHAN HUTCHINSON, Esq.
GEORGE NAYLER, Esq.
P. M \NLY SIMS. Esq.
AVAREN TAY, Esq.
H. SOUTHWOOD SMITH, Secretary.
THE CALEDONIAN
FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY.
ESTABLISHED IKT 1805-
The benefits allocated to the assured in t^e Life Department of this Company have
at each Division of Profits been [X'REASED. Few Companies, if any, however large
their business, have accomplished this.
The Fifth. Investigation will be made as at 13th May, 1871-
LONDON : 39 Lothbury. E.C. Dublin : 31 Dame Street.
Edinburgh : 19 George Street (Head OlliceJ.
Advertising Sheet. 'jbq
GOKOMIC LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY,
6 New Bridge Street, Blackfriars, London, E.C.
Established 1823. Empowered by Act of Parliament, 3 William IV.
Birzttatg.
Henry Barxett, Esq., M.P., Chairman.
The Right Hon. E. Pleydell Bouverie, JLP.. Deputy-Chairman.
CirARLEB Arthur Barclay, Esq.
Michael Biddulph, Esq., M.P.
EDWARD Charringto.v. Esq.
Sir Alexander Duff Gordon, Bart
Charles Morris, Esq.
C. H. W. a Court Eepl\-c,to\-, Esq.
G-. Kettiley Richards, Esq.
Henry Roberts, Esq.
Augustus K. Stephenson, Esq.
Auditors— Alfred Buckley, Esq. ; John Howell, Esq. ; John Gilliam Stirwell, Esq. :
Richard Taylor, Esq.
Physician— William R. Basham, M.D., 17 Chester Street, Belgrave Square.
Sukgeox— George D. Tollock, Esq., F.R.C.S.. 36 Grosvenor Street, W.
Solicitor— Charles Waring Young, Esq., 12 Essex Street, Strand.
Secretary— John Ralph Grimes. Esq.
Actuary— Richard Charles Fisher, Esq.
ADVANTAGES OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY:—
The lowest rates of Premium on the .mutual system, with early participation in |
Table of Annual Premiums required for an. Assurance of £100 for the whole term of life, with
participation, in profits.
20 ....£1 14 7 30 ....£2 4 3 I 40 ....£2 10 9
25 .... 1 10 0 35 .... 2 10 11 I 45 .... 3 11 9-
SECtTRITY.
Invested Assets, upwards of £2,685
Annual Income 3 ;
BONUS.
The Society being on the mutual principle, the Assured share the whole of the pi
Assurances granted to the extent of £10,000 on a single life.
Prospectuses and full Particulars may be obtained on application to
JOHN RALPH GRIMES, Secretary.
Now Read//, in Crow,} Svo. with Map*. Price 7s. Get.
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PORTMANTEAU.
ALLEN'S NEW
DRESSING-BAG.
REGISTERED
DESPATCH BOX.
ALLEN'S PATENT
QUADRUPLE
PORTMANTEAU.
£10 10s. SILVER
DRESSING
BAG.
LADY'S WARDROBE
PORTMANTEAU.
PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED
FOR GENERAL EXCELLENCE.
782
Advertising Sheet.
PRGTEGllONlrRGWflRi:
D7\NGERdt& IMITATIONS
Advertising Sheet. 783
CENTRAL-FIRE aUffS_ AND RIFLES.
E. M. REILLY & CO.
Beg to acquaint gentlemen that they have always on hand, for Home and
Foreign use, a large assortment of their approved
DIRECT-ACTION CENTRAL-FIRE GUNS,
ranging from 15 to 35 Guineas. RIFLES on same principle for Large Game
in India, Africa, &c. ; adapted for round and shell bullets, with heavy charges
for low trajectory; accuracy guaranteed ; prices ranging from 30 to 50 Guineas.
PIN-CARTRIDGE GUNS AND RIFLES IN GREAT VARIETY.
BREECH-LOADING CAPSULE REVOLVERS, from 55*. to 130s. AIR CANES, &c.
ILLUSTRATED PRICE LISTS ON APPLICATION.
E. M. REILLY and CO.,
GUN MANUFACTURERS,
502 New Oxford Street, London.
BRANCH: 2 RUE SCRIBE, PARIS.
W H E LPTON'S
>^ *1 TRADE MARK TrECISTERED ) j vi ^
Are warranted not to contain a single particle of Mercury or any other
Mineral Substance, but to consist entirely of Medicinal Matters, Purely
Vegetable ; hence, they are easily digested by the Stomach, taken up by the
absorbent vessels, and carried into the blood ; and thus the whole system is
brought under their Purifying and Renovating Influence.
They have long since been used in one of the largest County Hospitals in
Great Britain, and received the commendation of several eminent Physicians
and Surgeons ; and have proved their value in thousands of instances in
diseases of the Head, Chest, Bowels, Liver and Kidneys; and in all Skin
Complaints are one of the best medicines known.
Prepared and sold wholesale and retail, in boxes price 7£d.. Is. l|d., and
2s. 9d. each, by G. "Whelpton & Sox, 3, Crane Court, Fleet Street, London ;
and may be had of all Chemists and Medicine Vendors. Sent free on receipt
of 8, 14, or 33 stamps.
Advertising Sheet.
ACCIDENTS CAUSE LOSS OE LIEE.
ACCIDENTS CAUSE LOSS OE THE.
ACCIDENTS CAUSE LOSS OE IONEY.
PROVIDE AGAINST
ACCIDENTS OF ALL KINDS,
BY INSURING WITH THE
Railway Passengers' Assurance Company.
An Annual Payment of £3 to £6 5s. insures
£1,000 at Death, or an allowance at the rate
of £6 per Week for Injury.
£565,000 has been Paid as Compensation,
OXE out of every 12 Annual Policy Holders becoming
a claimant Each Year.
A BONUS TO ALL POLICY HOLDERS OF 5 YEARS' STANDING
HAS BEEN DECLARED, PAYABLE IN AND AFTER 1871.
For particulars apply to tbe Clerks at the Railway Stations, to the Local
Agents, or at the Offices,
64 COMHILL, and 10 EEGENT STEEET, LONDOfl.
_ _
Chairman— JAMES CLAY, Esq., M.P.
Deputy-Chairman— -The Hon. A. KINNAIRD, M.P.
Setretai'}/— -WILLIAM J. VIAN.
4358
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