Success in farming. A series of practical talks with farmers

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SUCCESS IN FARMING.

A SERIES OF

PRACTICAL TALKS

"WITH PAKMERS.

WALDO F. BROWN.

SECOND EDITION.

PUBLISHED BY
R. S. THOMPSON,

COPYRIGHT, 1881, BY R. S. THOMPSON.

DEDICATIOIS^.

To my friend, S. H. Ellis, who is not only a success-
ful farmer, but whose words and influence have stimu-
lated thousands of farmers in their efforts to achieve
true success, this book is respectfully^ dedicated.

WALDO F. BROWN.

^l^n

PUBLISHEK'S PREFACE.

It has given me pleasure to be able to present this
book to the Agriculturists of this country, I have seen
the great need of some practical book suited to practi-
cal farmers in our central and western states.

The majority of the agricultural books that have here-
tofore been published, have been designed for the few
who already have made the business a matter of scien-
tific study, rather than for the many who have been
deprived of these advantages.

In looking about for a man who should write this
book, which I intended should be the book for the
people, I could think of no person more suited for the
task than my friend and co-laborer, Waldo F. Brown.

He has had a long, practical experience on the farm.
Unaided t^' rich friends or college preparation, he has
had to fight his own way through life. He has met the
difficulties that beset the farmer, and has learned by ex-
perience just what are the needs of his brother farmers
and can talk to them in their own way.

Probably of all the agricultural writers of the country
there are none who have a higher reputation for plain,
practical writing, than Mr. Brown.

The manuscript of the book I have carefully read, and
in places have added as foot notes, points I thought had
been omitted, or on which I disagreed. I send the book
out to the world, hoping that it may lead many of our
people to not only greater success in farming, but also
to greater success in living.

R. S. Thompson, Publisher,

INTEODUCTIOSr.

For nine jGurs I have been constantly before the
public as a writer, having in that time written more than
a thousand articles for the Agricultural Press. The
kind reception which has been given to these articles,
whether appearing over my own name or any of those
with which I have at times concealed my identity, such
as "Waldo," "Odlaw," "Agricola," "Solomon Smith,"
"Squire Bung," &c., has led me to believe that some of
my thoughts and experiences, in more systematic order
and in a form better suited for preservation, would be
welcomed by man}'.

During seven j^ears past I have been much in the field
as an agricultural lecturer at fairs and farmers' picnics,
and have been gratified by learning from many of those
I met, that my articles have often proved helpful to them
in overcoming the difficulties that beset the farmers and
aiding them to greater success in the management of
their farms. All my mature life having been spent
upon the farm, and believing as I do that the life of a
farmer gives full scope for the best powers of the best
men, I have no higher ambition and ask no greater
reward, than to be able to help my co-laborers to attaint
" Success in Farming."

Waldo F. Brown,

East View Farm,

Oxford, Ohio*

COiSTTBi^TS.

CHAP. PAGE,

What Constitutes Success on the Farm i 9

Selection of the Farm ii 12

Management in 17

Farm Buildings iv 22

Fencing v 32

Drainage vi 42

Fertilization vii 54

Home-made Manures vii 55

Green Manuring . , vii 59

Commercial Manures vii 62

Pulverization vii 67

Rotation of Crops vii 70

My Own Experience vii 79

Hired Help viii 82

Farm Implements ix 87

Wheat X 93

Corn XI 110

Grasses xii 121

Clover XIII 128

Potatoes XIV 139

Sweet Potatoes xiv 144

Rye on the Farm xv 149

Special Crops xvi 152

Fruit on the Farm xvii 161

The Vegetable Garden xviii 169

Stock on the Farm xix 176

Hogs on the Farm xix 183

Dairying xix 197

Sheep Farming xix 205

Poultry for Profit xix 218

Timber Growing . xx 223

Country Homes xxi 229

Woman's Work on the Farm xxi 253

r

SUCCESS IN PARMIISra

CHAPTER I

WHAT CONSTITUTES SUCCESS UPON THB
FARM.

That Peter Poverty is a miserable failure as a farmer,
requires no argument to show, for a glance reveals it.
There is a general appearance of "run-down-ness" about
his premises. His buildings, stock and crops, show
that the expressive Yankee adjective "shiftless" fits
him. Let us be thankful that he is not as "numerous"
as formerly, and that his children are not likely to folloi^
his calling. We will pass him by after mentioning his
greatest value. He is a splendid example of " how not
to do it"

Let me next introduce you to Sam Skinsoil. He is an
enterprising man with a strong head of steam, and as
much business to the square inch as a railroad contrac-
tor. He has made money, too, but he has taken the
cream off from a half score of farms during a third of a
century. His plan has been to rent a farm for two or
three years, plow every available foot of it, get all he

10 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

could from the soil and return nothing. Or he would
buy a farm, cut off all the timber, reduce its fertility ,
and then sell and move on. He can be tracked as easily
as a hurricane. He, likewise, is not a success, and we
can pass on.

William Wealth}- is the next neighbor. He has six
hundred acres of land, all in a high state of cultivation,
his stock is well bred and well fed, his land productive,
and buildings commodious. This begins to look like
success, but before you pronounce it such let me give
you his history :

He is seventy years old, and although you can see at
a glance that there is no necessity for it, he works harder
than any day laborer in his employ. Money making
has become a passion with him. He has not been a hun-
dred miles away in twenty 3-ears. His home is destitute
of books, and he takes but one paper and that a violent
partizan sheet, the organ of his party. Agricultural
books and papers he despises. A flower is to him a
weed, and he is like Holland's "Old Daniel Gray," who
" could see naught but vanity in beaut^^ and only weak-
ness in a fond caress."

He has become merely an automaton, good only for the
money he can make. His wife is working as hard a&
himself, and has long since given up trying to cultivate
flowers, although there was a time when she loved and
admired them. They board the farm hands because it
is cheaper (?) than to hire men who board themselves.
If called upon to write his epitaph, and I wished to tell
the truth, it would be something like this:

" Here lies a man who toiled from morn till eve that he might
make money, with which to buy more land, on which he might
work to make more money to buy more land. As his acres
broadened his mind and soul narrowed, and the world was none
the better for his having lived."

WHAT CONSTITUTES SUCCESS UPON THE FARM. 11

I once heard an impressive sermon on the subject of
Lot pitching his tent towards Sodom. The farmer who
has no higher idea of life than to make money, may not
like Lot loose his property, but he will loose all that
makes life valuable.

I do not recommend idleness ; the farmer must be a
worker; his crops must be good, and the fertility of the
farm maintained or increased. He must be a business
man, able to give a reason for what he does ; he must
read and think and by intelligent forethought make
himself master of his farm and business and not become
its slave. He should also be public spirited and ready
to do his part in advancing the welfare of the community'.

To make a home for the family where they may be
happy and contented ; to rear the children to industry
and yet teach them that mind and soul, not dollars and
cents, give worth to man, and to so manage the farm
that it shall supply all their wants constitutes " success
in farming,"

CHAPTER II

SELECTION OF THE FARM.

There are many important matters to be considered
in the selection of the farm which is to furnish its owner
a livelihood and his family a home.

First of all the farm must he suited to his means.
Nothing more cramps and hinders a farmer than lack of
•capital or a debt hanging over him. My advice would
be to buy a smaller farm which, when paid for, would
leave some cash working capital, rather than a larger
one which involves the buyer heavily in debt.

The farmer who at the close of the year, after having
«old his crops has cash on hand to meet the expenses
of the coming year, works at an immense advantage over
the man who must use this money in meeting debts and
start empty handed on another year's labor.

I do not mean to say that a farmer is never, under any
circumstances, justified in going into debt, but what I
do say is that a farmer who can pay for a farm of one
hundred acres and have money enough left to stock and
operate it, is unwise to purchase a two hundred acre
farm and hav^ for years a debt hanging over him.

More farmers to-day are being made dissatisfied with
their calling, and hindered in their efforts at advance-
ment by the burden of debt, than by all other causes
•combined.

SIZE OF THE FARM.

Both large and small farms have their advantages, —
and which is more desirable in any particular case must

SELECTION OF THE FARM. 13

foe determined by two things: — the farmer's means, and
his business capacity.

A large farm will justify the purchase of more labor-
saving machinery, and enable the farmer to keep this
machinery more fully engaged, more help can be per-
manently employed and is thus at command when
needed in an emergency.

A large farm furnishes larger scope for business man-
agement and executive ability. The farmer is less de-
pendent for his profits on his individual labor and more
on his capacit}^ to wisely direct the labor of others. The
successful manager of a large farm really becomes the
executive head of a business establishment.

A large farm affords greater facilities for diversified
farming; for maintaining the fertility of the soil by ro-
tation of crops and green manuring, and is adapted to
stock raising, which is less laborious than where a large
proportion of the income must be derived from the cul-
tivation of the soil.

On a large farm the amount of fencing in projDortion
to the number of acres can be greatly reduced as larger
fields can be used, and thus one heavy item of invest-
ment and continued expense be lessened.

The man on a small farm can largely dispense with
hired labor, and thus avoid the trouble connected with
managing the labor of others.

His expenses being comparatively small, his risk of
loss from failure of crops or other causes is also smaller.

The number of acres being small, and every part of it
being directl}^ under his own eye, he can more readily
secure thorough cultivation — which means larger yield
per acre and less cost per bushel.

ADAPTATION TO PURPOSE DESIRED.

The farm should be adapted to that particular branch

14 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

of agriculture with which the farmer is most familiar,
and which he intends to follow — but as this will be dis-
cussed in another chapter I will not consider it further
here.

CONDITION OF SOIL.

Although a rich and productive soil is always desira-
ble, yet there are circumstances under which a run-down
farm ma}^ profitably be purchased.

In considering this matter, the first thing to be looked
at is the cause of tne want of fertility. If the farm is a
rolling one and the lack arises from washing ; or if the
soil is thin and leachy, there are no circumstances which
would justif}' a man in making the purchase.

There are however many run-down farms the fertility
of which can be restored and which can be bought at so
low a price that they will prove a better investment
than a fertile farm at the price at which it can be
obtained.

If the soil was originall}^ strong and retentive, espec-
ially if it were a heavy clay, and the fertility has been
exhausted simplj^ by excessive cropping without rotation
or manuring, a judicious system of rotation, green ma-
nures, the careful saving and applying of all home fer-
tilizers with perhaps a reasonable expenditure in com-
mercial fertilizers, will fuUj^ restore its fertility.

Of course due caution should be used in so important
a matter, but if one is sure that the fertility of the soil
can be fully restored, he can often obtain a good farm
in this manner at less cost, and will moreover be entitled
to be regarded as a public benefactor.

HEALTHFULNESS.

A healthy location is important. Many a farmer,
attracted by a fertile soil and low price, has settled on
the border of a swamp or in some region infected with

SELECTION OF THE FARM. 15

malaria, and has had all the energy shaken out of him
hy chills and fever, or his profits eaten up by doctor's
bills and quinine.

WATER.

Water supply both for family and stock should be
carefully considered. The suppl^^ should be wholesome,
unfailing and convenient. There are large districts
of level lands in many of our States, where in a wet
season the wells fill to the surface, and the water becomes
€ontaminated and unwholesome, while in a drj^ season
they fail entirely. Careful inquiry on this matter should
T)e made not only of the man from whom you expect to
purchase, but also from disinterested parties well ac-
quainted with the locality.

ROADS AND CONVENIENCES TO MARKET

Are important considerations, and on them both the
comfort and profit of the farmer largel}" depend.

The farmer on a good free pike, within two or three
miles of a railroad station, can with a good team take to
market from two hundred to three hundred bushels of
grain in a day. If ten miles away, on a hilly mud road
it is often a hard day's work to market forty bushels.
There will not be a day in the year in which the former
cannot go comfortably to postoffice or market, while the
latter will, in open winters, be mud-bound for weeks or
months.

SCHOOLS AND CHURCHES.

Convenience of the farm to these should also be con-
sidered, for if distant and difficult to re^ch, the wife and
children will often be deprived of privileges which are
of inestimable value.

COMMUNITY.

The character of the community should be carefully
considered before a man decides to become a member of

16 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

it. No consideration should induce him to settle in a
neighborhood where the Sabbath was disregarded or
the inhabitants known to be lawless and immoral.
There should also be a certain amount of public spirit
among the people so that highways will be kept in re-
pair and other measures for the public good supportedi.
All these considerations and others which may occur
to the reader, should be borne in mind in the " selectioiL
of the farm."

CHAPTER III.

MANAGEMENT.

Having bought the farm, next comes the question of
management; and here is where many fail. It does not
necessarily follow because your neighbor has made mon-
ey from some specialty in farming that you, on a differ-
ent farm, can successfully imitate him.

My own neighborhood will illustrate this question of
adaptation of crops or stock to the farm. One mile east
of me there is a tier of farms mainly rich bottom land.
The soil on these produces crops of corn with a rotation
which once in four or five years brings them into clover.
The farmers who have patiently followed producing hogs
and corn on these farms have grown rich, and at the
same time kept their lands fertile. On either side of
these is a tier of broken farms. The drainage from the
farms still further back has cut channels to the main
stream until at intervals varying from thirty to eighty
rods, are deep ravines coming down through these farms.
This makes them liable to wash, for the land has not
only a general slope to the main stream, but a lateral
slope towards these ravines. My farm is in the next
tier, and is back far enough so as not to be cut by the
ravines and is generally level although with fall enough
to drain it. A few miles west of where I live, is a strip
of rich black land which was originally swamp but
which has been thoroughly drained and improved. All
these farms call for different management, and yet many
of the farmers have not found it out, but because farmer

18 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

A on the bottom has made money by corn and hogs,
farmer B on the farm adjoining has run his ridges in
corn until he has soil scattered all the way to the Gulf
of Mexico.

These bottom farms are the place for hogs and Short-
Horn cattle. The farms adjoining them should be
stocked with sheep or run as dairy farms with small
cattle like the Jerse3^s. The next tier or two gives us
our best wheat land, and are well adapted to mixed
farming, as corn, grass and potatoes do well on them.
Over in the drained swamps is the profitable barley
land, and as barley land is also good corn land, here
again mixed farming is best.

These black lands, as well as the bottoms 'will grow
fine Early Rose or other early varieties of potatoes ; but
Peachblows and other late maturing varieties and sweet
potatoes are often a failure on them, while on a stiff cold
vlay the Peachblow and sweet potato produce — with a
little manure — good crops of fine quality. We have also
land that produces with certainty good crops of wheat
when plowed shallow or prepared by cultivating and
pulverizing three inches of the surface without breaking
but on which it often fails when deeply plowed.

Here and there are farms with a warm soil well suited
\o broom corn growing, and because their owners make
money on the crop, some one with a cold stiff clay at-
tempts to grow it, and with more than double labor pro-
duces a half crop of an inferior article.

I have spoken of these farms to illustrate an impor-
tant truth, namely, that success in farming depends
largely on intelligence in management, and in adapting
our products to the soil and circumstances surrounding
lis.

Numbers of farmers fail because they do not put

MANAGEMENT. 19

thought into their business ; they have no settled policy
and are not at all certain that the plan they are follow-
ing — if indeed they can be said to have a plan — is the
best for them. As Peter exhorts Christians to be always
ready to give "a reason for the hope in them," so should
every farmer be ready to give a reason for the plan he
is following.

There is nothing so essential on the farm as brains
and good judgment, and the farmer may cultivate and
develop these as well as corn or wheat.

Another very important thing in farm management is
to determine how much of the land to plow. There are
localities where the plow is the worst enemy of the farm-
er. By this I mean that many farmers keep themselves
and their lands poor by excessive cropping. The farm-
er should keep ever before him the fact that it is bush-
els not acres that gives the profit.

No man can by farming make anything above a mere
living who grows only average crops. Ohio is a good
agricultural State, one of the best in the Union, and the
<irop statistics for the last quarter of a century show,
of the two great staples, wheat and corn, an average per
acre, of about 12 bushels of the former and 33 of
the latter. Remember, these are the averages, and of
course there are thousands of farmers that fall below
this. Is it any wonder that many farmers are poor and
in debt growing such crops ?

In my judgment, there is no one thing that has con-
tributed so much to this as the keeping of too large a
proportion of the land under the plow, and the lack of
an intelligent rotation. The difference in the cost of a
bushel of w^heat grown on a field averaging ten, and one
averaging thirty bushels per acre is surprising, and the
same general rule holds good with other crops.

4
20 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

There are thousands of farmers owning farms varying^
in size from 100 to 150 acres who are poor and
likely to remain so just because they keep two teams
and plow sixty or eighty acres a j^ear and do not grow
any more grain than they could with one team and half
as much land under the plow. The ditference in the
profits of two farmers, one of whom cultivates what one
team can do, and the other on a similar farm of the same
-size who keeps two teams, will often be greatly in favor
of the former. Let us suppose that two farmers try
these respective plans for ten years. Number one, wha
keeps but one team saves three hundred dollars at the
start in horses and harness. He would require in the
ten years, extra plows, horse-shoeing and harness repair-
ing, one hundred dollars more. I think one dollar a
week as cheap as a work-horse can be kept, even on a
farm, and this would make $104 per year, or $1,040 for
ten years. Then there must be a hired hand eight
months in the year to drive the team, and he, at $15 sl
month, will cost $120 per annum more, or $1,200 for the
ten years. It is worth $2 per week to board a hand, or,
say, $70 for the eight months, making $700 for the ten
years. Bringing all these items together, we have
^3,340; but supposing the old horses and harness are
worth $100, we will call it $3,240 that the farmer with
two teams has expended more than the other.

But, says some critic, has he not had a fair return for
this expenditure?

In most cases, no.

The land left unplowed by the farmer with the one
team was not unproductive, but was yielding crops of
butter, meat, wool, or other animal products, and at the
same time storing up fertility for future crops of grain;
4and when again plowed, would give a largely increased

MANAGEMENT. 21

yield per acre over the fields which had been continuously
cropped. The result would be that with this manage-
ment the farm with the one team would sell more in tea
years than the other.

Here are two systems contrasted. All that the faraier
has to show for his $3,240 and the labor and worry con-
nected with its expenditure, is an exhausted soil. I
should expect ten years of the one management to result
in a discouraged farmer, whose sons would choose some
other calling in life; whose farm and home would pre-
sent a thriftless and cheerless appearance, and who him-
self would be complaining that farming don't pay, and
be talking of selling and "going west."

With the other management I should look confidently
for a happy and contented farmer, on a fertile and thrif-
ty farm, with a bright and attractive home, and a fami-
ly attached to the calling.

Success in farming can only be attained where there
is a plan carefully chosen, well arranged and faithfully
pursued.

CHAPTER IV

FARM BUILDINGS.

Much of the comfort of the farmer and his family, and
also of the stock, depends on the buildings found on the
farm ; and their arrangement and location is important,
both as regards appearances and economy of time and
labor.

Perhaps the first consideration should be, to have
them adapted to the farm, its productions, and the means
of the farmer. I would alwa3's advise the farmer to
build a small, comfortable house or barn, which he could
pay for, rather than to run in debt for large and expen-
sive buildings.

Occasionally, a farmer with a small and unproductive
farm will put up buildings out of proportion in size and
cost to the farm ; or a man with a large body of land
will put up one immense barn instead of two or three
smaller ones. This I do not think wise for several rea-
sons: 1st. It involves much loss of time in drawing in
the crops. If you are getting in a field of hay or grain
with rain threatening, it makes a great diflTerence
whether 3'ou have a hundred rods or a mile to go. 2nd.
It makes extra work also in drawing out manure, for
this will naturally be made at the barn. 3rd. In case
of fire the loss will be much greater both on building
and contents. And lastly, when the farmer dies, and
the property, according to our excellent American laws
is to be divided among the children, it makes a fair
division diflScult.

FARM BUILDINGS. 23

The finest barn I ever saw was built by a man owning
twelve hundred acres of land, and was burned without
insurance since I visited it in 1876. Although I ad-
mired this barn exceedingly, these objections occurred
to me. While I would recommend the best material,
and that buildings should be constructed with reference
to durability, I have seen so much of the evil of debt in
cramping the farmer and causing self denial to himself
and family that I would recommend temporary buildings
for his stock and crops rather than to see him burdened
with debt for expensive ones.

THE BARN.

A very cheap barn, and one that will last for many
years, can be made by setting locust posts in the ground
for the outer walls and spiking or bolting the nail ties
to them. The inside rows of posts can stand on stones
and there need not be a mortise or tennon about the
building. A barn thirty feet wide and of any desired
length may be put up in this way, and as every board
and nail tie in it is a brace, it will be firm and substan-
tial. In building in this manner I would always use
hard wood for the frame. I would not recommend a
board roof under any circumstances, as I have never
seen one that gave satisfaction.*

The farmer who has the liieans should put up no cheap
temporary buildings, but the fact that there are many
who dread a burden of debt and badly need barn room
leads me to speak of this method.

In building a barn one should take plenty of time to
study his plan, and should make ever}^ possible arrange-

*In some of our timber regions, boards are so much cheaper
than shingles, that many will continue to use them. My west-
ern experience has convinced me that a board roof made ol
good boards, well sapped, seasoned, and properly put on, will
last many years and give excellent satisfaction. ^ k. s. t.

24 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

ment for saving steps and labor. During a large part
of the year the farmer attends to his stock when wearied
by field work, and every step saved is important. I be
lieve it is easy to so arrange a barn that fifteen minute'/
time can be saved each day, and in addition the labor
lightened; and this will pay for quite an amount of
planning.

Where a barn is built for cattle feeding, the most
<:'onvenient arrangement I have ever seen is to have
your stables enough lower than the barn fioor so
that the cattle can eat their hay and fodder directly
from the floor. This saves the expense of mangers, and
also saves room, for the stables can be made narrower
by the space the manger would occupy. It makes the
lofts easier of access also as the upper floors can be
dropped to correspond with the stable floors; that is, if
3'Our cattle stand three feet below the level of the barn
floor, the loft floors need be but four feet above instead
of seven as would be necessary if the cattle stood on a
level with the floor. The stables can be arranged on
three sides of the floor, and if the barn is thirty feet
wide and the floor twenty, there will be ample room for
nineteen head of cattle: seven on each side and five at
the end, and it will be the work of a moment to give hay
or fodder to all of them.

Another thing which I have found very convenient is
to so arrange the wagon- shed if connected with the barn
that as you drive through it the barn floor will be just
on a level with the bottom of the bed. This makes it
very convenient in loading or unloading barrels, or sacks
of grain, and where corn which has been cut up is hauled
in to be husked in the barn, it will save one hand in
unloading, as no one will be needed on the wagon to
hand it down.

FARM BUILDINGS. 25

The bins for meal and bran, and the cribs for corn
should be arranged with reference to saving steps, and
every detail should be made a matter of study.

There is a point in which many farmers could make
an improvement on the approaches to the barn, and that
is by so arranging their fences that they need not pass
through the barn-yard to enter the barn. Where this
must be done it is almost impossible to do the work
without getting the boots smeared with manure, to the
great injury of the boots and to the great detriment of
the good wife's carpet and floors, and the farmer is likeh^
to advertise his business by an unsavory odor. It is so
easy to arrange the barn-j^ard so that the barn can be
entered without passing through it that I wonder every
farmer does not do so. Even the barn-yard into which
the cows are turned may be made a few feet from the
stable door so as to leave a passage which can easily be
kept clean, for if the cows can get to the stable door
they are sure to stand there and drop their manure and
in a wet time tramp it into mud. Instead of having the
I)arn form the fence for one side of the barn-yard, set
your fence ten feet from it, have this passage way raised
•above the level of the barn-yard and well graveled, and
you will have no difficulty in keeping it clean and the
«tock can easily be turned across it into the barn-yard.

The location of the barn is a matter of considerable
importance. It should not be so near the house as to
T3e offensive, nor so far as to make it laborious to travel
back and forth. It is a moderate estimate that a farmer
and his help will make an average of ten trips a day
from house to barn, and if the latter is Mty 3'ards farther
away than necessary it involves something more than
one hundred miles unnecessary travel each j^ear. A
barn can be located within fifty j^ards of a house and so

26 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

managed as to offend neither eye or nose. Another im-
portant thing is that a well drained spot if possible be
chosen for the barn. I do not mean that it should be
built, as I have often seen, on a steep hillside sloping to
a brook, so that every rain carries the soluble part of
the manure away; but on the other hand, it should not
be on low ground into which water from adjoining fields
can flow, and the barn-yard especially should be so ar-
ranged that the water could neither flow into nor out
of it.

HOG HOUSES.

One or more pig pens or hog houses are indispensable
on farms where swine are kept; they are needed to con-
fine breeding animals, and to shut up young pigs at
weaning time. I have made quite a study of hog-houses,
having built six in the last twenty years, and I have
never seen a plan which, for convenience and econom3^
was better than mine. I build eight feet wide, and
twelve, fourteen or sixteen long — one of the latter size
being large enough to fatten ten hogs weighing three
hundred pounds each, and the smaller one makes com-
fortable quarters for two sows with litters. For a foun-
dation, locust posts or large boulders may be used, or
pillars of stone, or brick masonry. Two sills, eight feet
long and six by eight inches square, are placed on the
foundation at the ends, aiid from one of these to the
other place joists two by ten inches, and the length your
house is to be. Bridge your joists so that the weight will
come on all alike, and then lay the floor of inch lumber,
double, so as to have no cracks go through. I have
tried two-inch stuff for this, and find that it does not
last any better, and costs more, as the lining of the floor
may be of cheap lumber, and even if strips four inches
wide are used at the cracks, it will answer. After the

FARM BUILDINGS.

2T

floor is laid, cut your corner-posts of four by four stud-
ding— hard wood is best — and place them at the cor-
ners. As the roof is only to slope one way, the rear
posts need onl}^ be four feet high, and the front ones
seven, unlesss you want a loft over head, in which case
the rear posts should be eight feet high, and the front
ones eleven. Spike a two by two inch studding on the
top of your posts at front and rear, for a plate ; fit in
another for a nail-tie in the front, or two in front and
one at the rear, if you want a loft, and let the rear tie
and the upper front one be the right hight for the upper

HOG-HOUSE.

floor. You will need one or two nail-ties at each end^
according to the hight, and your first pair of rafters must
stand flush with the sills and nail-ties. Board it up
and down, and as the front and rear boards will be
nailed at the bottom to a joist, and the end boards to the
sills at the bottom and the rafters at the top, 3^ou will
find your building firm and substantial when finished^
although there is not a mortise or a tenon about it.
Two hands can complete such a building in less than
two days' work, and one thousand feet of lumber and a

28 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

thousand shingles will be about a fair estimate for a
building of this size. It will require a little more lum-
ber if it is made high enough for a loft, but this will
give storage for a hundred bushels of corn.

No hog-house is complete without a floored 3^ard of
equal size attached to it. The floor of the 3- ard should
be a foot or more lower than that of the pen, and may
be of cheap lumber, or stone. It is impossible to keep
hogs confined on an earth floor without having a por-
ridge hole, breeding foul odors ; but with a floor, and a
supply of any good absorbent, such as chaff, cornstalks,
straw, or sawdust, the pen can be kept comparatively
sweet, and a large amount of valuable manure saved.

It is well to have a movable partition to put in the
pens when they are used for brood sows. The boards
should be made to slip between pieces nailed up and
down just far enough apart to receive them, and then
fastened down with a pin or key. Where sows are to be
kept at farrowing time, there should be no cracks in the
partitions. A rack should be made up next to the raf-
ters to receive these partition boards when not in use.
In pens used for breeding sows, it is a good plan to nail
a two b}^ four studding six inches above the floor, to
prevent the mother from overlaying her pigs. This
should be nailed so that the four inches would project
into the pen.

OTHER OUTBUILDINGS.

I have but two suggestions about the privy, one of
which is, that it should be protected from observation by
vines or trees ; and the other, that it should never have
a vault under it. A shallow box, raised high enough so
that it can never be flooded by surface water, and into
which dry earth is thrown often enough to disinfect it,
will not only prevent danger of contaminating the well,

FARM BUILDINGS. 29

but abate a nuisance, and furnish several dollars' worth
of excellent fertilizer each year. No better disinfectant
was ever found than dry earth ; and a privy, by its use,
may be kept perfectly free from odor.

Every farm should have a poultry -house, and the ma-
nure from two dozen fowls will pa}^ for it in a few years,
if it is built economically. It makes little difference in
what shape it is built; but there should be a tight floor
under the roosts, and it will be a saving of space if this
floor slopes so that the manure will roll down on to a
narrow floor, or into a box, where it can be easily taken
up. The space under this floor can be used for nest
boxes. The poultry-house should face the south, and on
this side have a large window; but the glass must be
protected with a wire screen, or strips of lath, as the
hens will break them. Where large, heav}^ fowls are
kept, the roosts should be low, and in no case should
the roosts be made one above another, as the fowls will
always strive for the highest roosts.

There should be a wood-shed on ever}^ farm, and this
should be near the house. It may be large or small, but
should hold at least a month's stock of wood; and there
should be a bin for kindlings ; but it is better that it
should be large enough to hold a stock for a year.
Buildings that must be prominent, should be finished
with some regard to appearance, and a little money will
be well spent in making the wood-shed neat and tasty.

Although not strictl}^ to be classed as a farm build-
ing, the ice-house should be found on many farms.
Where there is an unfailing supply of very cold water,
it can be dispensed with ; but where this is wanting,
there are months in which first-class butter cannot be
made, and milk, fresh meat, and many articles of food,
cannot be kept twenty-four hours without the aid of ice.

20 SUCCESS IX FAKMIX(i.

A good supply of ice will enable the farmers wife to
make good butter in dog-days, and to save much that
would otherwise be lost; besides, ice is indispensable in
many forms of sickness.

There is an idea amcmg most farmers that an ice-house
must be an expensive building, with double walls, or
sunk in the ground. There is no purpose for which a
building is needed, where so plain and cheap a structure
will answer, as for an ice-house. All that is necessar}^
is, to have a roof, and walls that will keep the sawdust
in its place. I have seen at one of the cheese factories
on the Western Reserve in Ohio, an ice-house that would
hold one hundred tons, made, roof and all, of cheap,
refuse lumber, and that probabl}^ did not cost over thirty
dollars. All that is necessar}^ for ice to keep is, that
there should be good drainage, to insure which throw in
a foot of broken stone, or, if more convenient, wood or
old rails will answer, and cover with six inches of saw-
dust; that there should be sufficient bulk; that it should
be well packed; that there should be at least twelve
inches of sawdust at the sides, tighth^ packed in, and
eighteen inches above it, and a roof above, to keep the
rain off. The gables need not be boarded up, or, if they
are, it is best to have windows open for ventilation.
The farmer who can make a pond on his farm, from
which to cut ice, or, who is convenient to some good source
of supply, can, in addition to furnishing his own family,
often make a handsome profit from the sale of ice. In
estimating how large to build, j^ou will allow fort}''
cubic feet for a ton. I do not think less than 25 tons of
ice will keep through the summer, and the proportionate
waste will be much less with a larger bulk. The ice-
house should be visited every day, as soon as spring
opens ; for even before the weather is very warm, during

FARM BUILDINGS. 31

the winds of March, the ice will shrink and waste to
some extent, and if an air-hole is formed, it will waste
rapidly. Tramp over the top at every visit, and level
the sawdust so as to fill up an}^ holes which are begin-
ning to form.

TOOL-HOUSE.

A tool-house, which may be a separate building, or a
shed attached to the barn or one of the other buildings,
is one of the most important out-buildings of the farm.
Without it, the plows, harrows, rakes, reapers, etc., etc.,
will often be left exposed to the weather, and doubtless
the loss in a few years to these implements is, on many
farms, enough to build a shelter for them.

INSURANCE,

When the farmer has provided the necessary build-
ings, there is one point more to be attended to, and that
is, to keep them insured. The rates for isolated farm
buildings are always low, and no farmer should take the
risk of fire, when it can be so cheaply guarded against.

CHAPTER V

FENCING.

A heavy item of expense on the farm is, building and
keeping In repair the fences. In most timbered coun-
tries, a few years ago, the fences were nearly all made
of rails. On a large majority of farms there is no rail
timber left, and something else must take the place of
the old Virginia fences as they disappear.

Hedges have been extensively planted, but there are
serious objections to them, and those who have had the
most experience with them are the least satisfied. There
is but one plant used for this purpose to any great
extent, and that is the Osage Orange; and while a
good fence can be made of it, it is very seldom
that we find one. The plant makes such a vigorous-
growth, that nothing less than three trimmings a season
will keep it in shape, and this work must be done at the
busy season of the year, when everything else is pushing.

If, as some do, we adopt the plan of trimming once a
year, in winter, the hedge grows out of shape early in
the summer, and soon becomes so tall as to hide the
fields from view, and injure the crops, both by its shade
and by drawing moisture and nourishment from the
adjoining soil. The division fences of a farm should be
moved occasionally, and this is an objection to using
hedge for anything but line fences. The fact that not
one line of hedge out of a hundred is so cared for as to
give satisfaction, and that two or three weeks neg-
lect at the growing season, will make it a difficult

FENCING. 33

and laborious job to get it into good shape, leads
me, after an experience in the care of hedges of thirty
years, to advise farmers to plant but little of it. The
only circumstances under which I would plant hedge,
would be to border some permanent pasture away from
the road, where I could allow it to grow without trim-
ming, after it was thick enough at the bottom to turn,
stock. On many farms there could be a line of hedge
managed in this way, so that it would not disfigure the
farm, and would afford a good wind-break, and make a
cheap and satisfactory fence.

For general fencing, it seems pretty well settled now,
post and board, or post and barbed wire, will be the
main dependence. In many sections, a good stock law,
well enforced, is being made a substitute for outside
fences, and doubtless will become more general as the
country becomes more thickly settled. It certainly is
greatly cheaper to fence cattle in than to fence them out.

POST-AND-BOARD FENCES.

In putting up a fence of this character, it does not pay
to do a poor job of work. The posts should be of locust,
cedar, or some other durable wood, well set in the ground.

To prevent heaving by the frost, a deep notch may be
cut into each side of the post near the bottom, and a flat
stone crowded into it, so that the post cannot be lifted
without raising the stones.

Various plans have been tried for the preservation of
posts. I haA^e found that the selection of good posts, of
durable timber, is one of the most effectual, and, in the
long run, the cheapest. Painting the part of the post
that goes into the ground, or for that matter, the whole
post, with coal tar, is inexpensive and quite effectual.

I have tried on Eastview farm the plan of growing the
posts where they stand; that is, I have planted a row of

3

34 SUCCESS IN FARmNG-

trees where I intend the fence to be, set the right dis-
tance apart for fence posts. As soon as large enough,
I shall stand against them panels of board fence, secur-
ing them at the top with tarred twine, or wire, tied
loosely, so as not to injure the trees, and fastened at
the bottom with a stake. The trees can thus do duty
while growing into valuable timber.

A fence along the highway, in front of the farm, should
be neat and attractive, and some expense should be
allowed merely for looks. But for other fences, some-
thing in looks might be sacrificed to economy and ser-
vice. In such cases, I would recommend nailing the
boards to both sides of the post; that is, nail the boards
at one end of the panel to one side of the post, and the
boards for the next panel to the other side of the same
post. Thus, in a fence running east and west, I would
nail the boards of the first panel to the north side of the
first post and south side of the second post; the next
panel to the north side of the second post and south side
of the the third post, and so on. The advantages of
this plan are that you save all sawing and fitting of
boards — if a board is a little long, it projects that much.
The fence is much stronger, as you do not have to nail
so close to the ends of the boards, and the nails will
therefore hold better. You can also use all your infer-
ior posts for the centers of the panels, as j^ou will nail
only to one side of that post, and the ends of the boards
will not come against it at all.

In setting the posts for such a fence as this, set first
the posts for the ends of the panels in an exact line,
then lay a board across from post to post angling, the
way it will be when nailed on, and set your mid-panel
post by that, as it will not be exactly in a line with the
others. For a very cheap fence the mid-panel posts

FENCING. 35

might be quite small ones sharpened and driven in with
41 maul or sledge.

On level ground a three-board fence may be so made
as to turn any stock.

Leave a space of one foot beneath the first board, five
inches between that and the second, and ten between the
second and third. This will make the fence three feet
nine inches high. Next plow a couple of furrows on
«ach side throwing the earth towards the fence, and with
the shovel shape it up into a round ridge with the cen-
ter immediately under the fence. This ridge should, of
course, be immediately seeded down in grass.

If you plow nine inches deep, the top of the fence will
be four feet six inches above the bottom of the ditch,
and cattle with their fore feet in the ditch, and hind feet
on the level, could not possibly jump it; while if they
<'ame up so as to get their hind feet in the ditch, they
would be too close to jump.

I think it a good plan to have fencing sawed eleven
feet long — as then three panels would make exactly two
Tods, and furnish a convenient land measure — and a
sharpened stake is then sufficient for the center of the
panel.

In every line of board fence, even when it divides two
farms, a movable panel is a convenient thing. To make
this, select light, strong boards, and nail them to light
uprights, and stay the panel with a brace or two of one
by three inch material. Let the top board of the panel
be six inches longer than the others, so as to project
three inches at each end. Saw down six inches into the
top of your posts two cuts an inch and a quarter apart,
iind with an augur bore this piece off at the bottom ;,
this makes a slot to receive the projecting end of your
top board ; a pair of small stakes can be driven close

36 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

to the posts at each end, to prevent the bottom of the
panel from being blown or crowded out. When you
wish to pass through, this can easily be lifted out and
put back, and yet there is no danger of its being blown
down or opened by stock.

BARBED WIRE.

This is very rapidly coming into use, and in the prai-
rie sections of the West is taking precedence of
all other fencing material. It is certainly cheaper than
board, as the wire will practically last forever, and it re-
quires fewer posts. I have seen large herds of cattle
grazing alongside of a corn field, from which they were
separated only by a barbed wire fence, with the posts
fifty feet apart. This is wider than I would recom-
mend ; but a good post every thirty feet, with a stake
driven midway to stay the wire, will make a good fence ;
and this constitutes a lawful fence in several of the
Western States. I think a good cattle fence can be
made for less than fifty cents a rod, using three wires.

One great advantage of barbed wire is, that in level
countries it does not occasion snow-drifts, and is not as
liable to be blown down as either rails or post and boards.
The only disadvantage connected with this fence is,
that cattle and horses will sometimes run against the
wires, receiving dangerous, or even fatal wounds. I
have seen a combined board and wire fence, that seemed
less liable to this objection. Two boards are placed at
the bottom, and two barbed wires stretched above these.
Every fourth post is the full hight, the remaining three
l)eing only eighteen inches above the the ground.

In building a wire fence, the end and corner posts-
must be well braced by a heavy piece of timber from
the top of the end post to the foot of the next one, and
the wires must be tightly strained. I do not give fur-

FENCING. 37

ther particulars here, as the manufacturers of barbed
wire usually furnish full instructions to those who pur-
chase the wire.

AN IMPROVED POST-AND-RAIL FENCE.

Where there is still some good rail timber left, an ex-
•cellent and durable fence may be make by setting posts
ten feet apart, splitting the rails quite thin and flat, and
nailing them on to the posts with good, heavy nails.
This fence requires fewer posts than a board fence, uses
about one-third as many rails as a worm fence, and as
the rails are lighter, saves fully three-fourths of the tim-
ber, and the rails will last longer than boards.

PORTABLE FENCE.

A fence easily set up and taken down is greatly to be
desired, and I have given the matter much thought.
Four years ago I invented a fence, which I called a Self-
supporting Truss Fence. The principle of this fence is,
to make one panel support another, by leaning them
against each other. The uprights, which take the place
of posts, should be of hard wood, two inches square.
These uprights are beveled at the top, so as to exactly
fit when the bottoms of the panels are three feet apart.
The three short boards, which you can see at the right
of the cut, are nailed to the uprights as the panels are
set up, and close the space and support the fence.
There is no need of nailing the tops of the uprights to-
gether, as these boards hold them to their place per-
fectly. I wish I could truthfully say that this fence
would never blow down. I had it in use three years be-
fore a panel of it did; but a gale finally tipped over
some twenty rods of it. An expense of one dollar will,
however, fix forty rods of it so that nothing short of a
hurricane will blow it down. There are two ways of
doing this : One is to drive a short stake in the ground.

38

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

flat against the brace boards at the end of the panel, and
drive a single nail through it into the upright. These
stakes should be high enough to reach to the second
board, and the nails should be long enough to go through
both stake and board,
and hold in the oak
upright. These short
stakes should be driv-
en on opposite sides,
alternately. The oth-
er way to make it se-
cure would be to drive
a stake in the ground
at every third or
fourth panel, in the
notch formed at the
ends of the panels,
and let the stake come
up as high as the top
of the fence. The
fence might stand for
years without this
precaution, but it will
cost so little to attend
to it, that I would
advise that it be done.
When the tall stakes
are used, it would not
be necessary to nail
the fence to them.

While this fence cannot strictly be called a portable
one, it can be moved by simply loosening the three short
brace-boards, and a given amount of it can be taken
down and put up in less than half the time required to-

FENCING. 39

move a rail fence of the same length. One great
advantage of this fence is, that it can be made un-
der cover, in wet weather, and during the winter,
while ordinary board fence can only be made when the
weather is good and the land di*^. In making this
fence, you need three strong trestles, made of timber
heavy enough so that you can nail on them. After you
get one panel made just right, with the boards spaced to
suit and the ends sQuare, j^ou will always keep it on the
trestle for a pattern, and by laying the uprights and
boards directly over those on this panel, you will get
your panels right. I do not find five boards necessary,
although there are five in the cut ; for the fact of the
panels leaning makes the base broader, and stock are
less likely to jump it than if it stood perpendicularly.
A sixteen-foot panel is too long, as it will sag a little in
the middle, and I prefer to make them eleven or twelve
feet long. If you wish to make it eleven feet, buy part
of your fencing twelve feet, and part fourteen feet long,
and then you can cut the top brace-board from the twelve-
foot lumber, and the other two from the fourteen.

That this is a cheap fence is easily seen. If the up-
rights are made of two by two inch stuff", it takes but
three feet of lumber for them. It will not cost for the
labor, more than five cents a panel to make it, and two
cents to set it up; while to make a post-and- board fence
costs twenty-five cents a panel for labor, and two posts,
which, if good locust is used, will cost twent^^-five cents
each.

A three-board fence of this kind will turn cattle. A
flat stone, or piece of board, can be placed under each of
the uprights of this fence, so as to prevent all contact
with the earth, and keep them from rotting. I would
not do this until the fence was built, as it will be easier

40 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

to put them under then than when setting up the panels.
I feel confident that if this fence is given a fair trial, it
will come largely into use for the division fences of the
farm. All the fence except the uprights should be of
pine, or light lumber. When made of heavy lumber, it
is more liable to sag.

LESS FENCING.

There is one important point in connection with the
fence question, to which I wish to call especial atten-
tion, and that is, that farmers build too much fence. I
see no reason why forty, sixty, or eighty acres of the best
plow land on the farm should not be thrown into one
field, and so managed as to turn no stock on it. I have
practiced this for fifteen j^ears on my own farm, and am
much pleased with it. I find that a crop of clover al-
lowed to grow and develop fully, so as to be cut for hay
and seed, or the second growth turned under, helps the
land more than when pastured off, and I believe that
clay lands are often as much damaged by the tramping
of the stock as they are benefitted by the clover. With
our modern implements for saving the crops, we need
not leave grain on the fields for the stock to glean, and
we can make as great a profit, and keep the land up
better, by farming our best land without fences. If
there is land not well suited for tillage, it can be kept
in permanent pasture. If all the farm can be culti-
vated, it might have one permanent fence dividing
it through the middle; and the self-supporting fence
described can be moved to fence off any particular part
you wish to pasture. The exercise of thought and judg-
ment in the matter of fencing tlie farm, using the best
material where a permanent fence is needed, and dis-
pensing with all unnecessary fences, by increasing the
size of fields, and using the portable fence where it can

FENCING. 41

l)e used to advantage, will enable many farmers to re-
duce the expense of fencing their farms at least one-half*

GATES,

If I wish to get a pretty close estimate of the charac-
ter of a man, I go and look at his gates. If I find them
secure, well hung, well fastened and easy to open and
easy to shut, moving almost with a touch of the finger,
I conclude he is a thrifty, careful man, and is having
success in farming. If, on the other hand, J find them
hung by one broken hinge, or on a sagging post, so that
they have to be dragged around through the mud, and
become nearly blockaded with every snow, with latches
or hooks out of order — or altogether wanting — and the
gate propped up with a pole or rail, I judge that in all
his work and all his business, he is as shiftless and
careless as he is with his gates, and that his success in
farming will be so small that the less business dealings
I have with him the more profitable it will be for me.

From the number of dragging gates one sees in the
country, it might be imagined that the hanging of a
gate so it will not sag or drag, is one of the unsolved
problems of the day ; but, in point of fact, only three
things are needed:

First. Common sense.

Second. A well built gate.

Third. A well set post.

The lack of the first, displayed in many gates and
gate-posts, is really astonishing.

The lack of the second is found in gates made out of
soft lumber, badly braced, and often twice as heavy as
need be.

The lack of the third is seen in poor, spindling gate-
posts, which look as if they had grov^n in a dry summer,
set in the ground so short a distance that every frost

42 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

throws them out of position, and which, as soon as the
ground becomes thoroughly softened with rain, yield to
the side draft of the gate.

Now that bolts are so cheap, a good gate ma}^ be
made without a mortise. It should be made of hard,
lasting wood, except the slats, which should be no larger
than necessary, as lightness is very desirable. At the
hinge end, a strip, one by four inches, is put up on each
side of the slats, and securely bolted through. The
same is done at the latch end, but the uprights may be
lighter. Two three inch slats — which need not be more
than three-fourths of an inch thick — extend from the
bottom of the gate at the hinge end to the top at the
latch end, and a bolt put through at each slat, passing
through both braces and slat. An extra strip may be
put on to each side of the top slat at the hinge end, and
the hinge, which should be a long strap one, securely
bolted through. A, gate thus built may rot down, but
will never sag. When finished it should have two good
coats of paint, and the lumber of which it is made
should be thoroughly primed before the gate is put to-
gether. Every gate on the farm should be long enough
to allow the reaper to pass through.

The post on which the gate hangs, should be at least
eight inches square. The portion set in the ground
may well be left unsquared. Bear in mind that the
larger the piece of timber set in the ground, the greater
the force required to drag it over, as it exposes a greater
surface to the earth.

Forty inches is the least depth a post, intended to
support a heavy gate, should be set in the earth, and
four feet is better. A heavy sill, laid at the level of the
ground, and exactly fitting between the two gate-posts,
will not only make it impossible for pigs to root under

FENCIJiG. 4iJ

the gate, but will make it almost impossible for the post
to get out of perpendicular in that direction — and if
set as above directed, it is not liable to lean in any other
direction, unless the gate is left open a great deal.

The fastening of a gate may be either a latch, a hook^
or a peg. If the latter, the peg should be fastened to
the post by a strap, to prevent it from being lost or car-
ried away. When a gate is well built, as above de-
scribed, so as never to sag, there* is no reason why it
should not be fastened w4th a latch, that will need only
that the gate be pushed to.

The approaches to the gate on both sides should be
thoroughly graveled, so as to make a muddy gateway — -
one of the greatest abominations on the farm — an impos-
sibility. The young man who has, every time he comes
to a gate in wet weather, to get out of the wagon, wade
through deep mud, carry round one end of a heavy, drag-
ging gate, drive the team through, go back, drag the gate
to, prop it with a rail, and get back into the wagon with
wet feet, boots muddied to the top, and a temper sadly
ruffled, must either be deeply attached to the occupation
of agriculture, or else sadl}^ lacking in appreciation of
comfort in life, if he do not begin to look for some occu-
pation attended with less hard and disagreeable inci-
dents of work.

But some one objects that it will be an expensive job
to set a gate in this manner. Yes, it will cost some-
thing; but the time wasted in using such gates as we
often see, will amount to much more in a single year
than the entire cost of gate, post, labor and graveling.
Of course it would be folly to go to this expense for
gates in places where they will be used but seldom. In
such places a light lift-gate costs but little, and is prefer-
able to a poorly hung hinge-gate.

44 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

It should be made like the movable panel, before de-
scribed, except that the top board need not project, and
it should be made of good light lumber, well put together.
What would be the hinge-end stands between two stakes,
fastened together at the top, the one on the side towards
which the gate opens being a little more than its width
back of the other, so that the gate will not bind on them
when opened. One of the boards of the gate rests on a
piece of hard board with a rounded edge, nailed across
from one stake to the other. Of course, the bottom
board should clear the ground by two or three inches.
The latch-end goes in between two stakes. To open this
gate, 5^ou will slide it back enough to clear the stakes
at the latch-end, and then carry that end around.

One concluding point: In gates, as in fences, have as
few as possible; for every gate is an extra expense, and
even the best occasion, in the course of a year, a great
amount of lost time. The intelligent farmer can think
over this point and draw his own conclusions.

CHAPTER VI

DRAINAGE.

It is no part of the plan of the present work to furnish
an exhaustive treatise on drainage. Volumes have been
written on the subject, and doubtless more will be. The
man who has a large farm requiring extensive and syste-
matic drainage — in which he expects to spend hundreds
or thousands of dollars, will do well to invest a few dol-
lars in some of the complete and excellent works on the
subject that are now in existence, and secure the assist-
ance of a civil engineer.

The object of this book is to be an aid to the practical
farmer in the ordinary work of the farm, and the drain-
age of a field, or portion of a field, often becomes an im-
portant part of this ordinary work.

I would wish to relieve the average farmer of the idea
whicb is sometimes entertained, that it is hopeless to at-
tempt anything in the way of drainage unless he can
employ a civil engineer and have it done scientifically.
In the great majority of our western farms, the average
farmer, with the exercise of an average amount of com-
mon sense, can manage the entire matter.

I shall not in this article say aught concerning stone,
or board, or straw, or brush, or any of the other mater-
ials that have sometimes been used for drains, for prac-
tical experience has narrowed the matter to the use of
common round tiles, and we have no space to waste in
explaining methods that ought never to be used.

46 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

WHAT ADVANTAGE IS THERE IN UNDERDRAINING ?

It prevents the drowning out of crops in wet seasons.

It enables the farmer to work the soil earlier in the
spring and sooner after rains.

It prevents the souring of the soil caused by excessive
moisture.

It lessens the risk of freezing out in winter grain.

It lessens the risk of surface washing.

It keeps the ground moist and the crops growing in a
dry season.

It makes the ground warmer.

It permits a more thorough pulverization of the soil.

It increases the fertility of the soil.

To read this list of advantages may at first make one
think of the advertisements of some patent medicines
which are warranted to cure all and the most dissimilar
complaints, but there is not one of the above points but
w^hat has been demonstrated practically, and can be ex-
plained scientifically.

HOW DRAINAGE IS BENEFICIAL.

To comprehend this we must consider as briefly as
possible some of the characteristics of the soil, and the
requirements of successful plant growth.

No soil can produce useful crops when it is perma-
nently saturated with water. — Such a soil may grow
reeds and rushes, but not crops of wheat or corn.

The best condition of soil for successful plant groAvth
is found when the particles of the soil are moist, but
when there is no standing water between these particles.

Whatever means will bring about this condition, will
accomplish all the results just stated as being accom-
plished by underdrainage.

In wet seasons, if no adequate means are provided for
removing the excess of moisture that falls upon the soil.

DRAINAGE. 47

it will be continually saturated and the crops will be
drowned out. Underdrainage, by furnishing means for
the escape of the surplus water prevents this.

It needs no argument to prove that underdraining en-
ables the ground to be worked earlier in the spring and
sooner after rains, but farmers should consider the ad-
vantage connected with this. The success or failure of
a crop may often be determined by the time when the
ground for them can be prepared.

Water standing in the soil causes the vegetable mat-
ter to undergo what chemistry calls the acetic fermenta-
tion, thus rendering the soil sour and unfit for cultiva-
tion; of course underdrainage removes this evil by remov-
ing the cause.

The " freezing out " of winter grain is not occasioned
by the excessive cold, but by the formation of ice in the
upper part of the soil, which throws out the plant and
leaves it to perish. If the soil is underdrained the water
passes off through the drains instead of remaining in the
surface soil and this injury is avoided.

If the soil is full of water, that which falls upon it in
a rain must flow off over the surface, carrying with it
much of the best and finest of the soil, and often doing
much damage. — Underdraining leaves the pores of the
soil empty, so that the water falling upon it sinks directly
in, to be ultimately carried off by the drains. As an
illustration of this may be noted that even steep hill
sides in some of the north-eastern counties of Ohio, where
the subsoil is gravel, which forms a natural underdrain-
age, do not wash at all, while comparatively level fields
in sections resting on tough clay or hard pan, are contin-
ually being gullied out by the surface water.

All these points are reasonably clear, but we now come
to a claim that at first seems paradoxical : — How can

48

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

draining land keep it moist and the crops growing in a
dry season ?

First. By enabling the farmer to thoroughly pulver-
ize the soil, and I shall show in discussing pulverization,
how that fits the soil for drawing up moisture from
below.

Second. By preventing the soil from becoming baked
and cloddy. When a soil is saturated with water, and
becomes dry simply by evaporation, it hardens and
bakes so that it is incapable of receiving moisture either
from the air above or the earth below.

Third. By causing the plants to send their roots
deeper into the soil. When a plant begins to grow in
the spring in an undrained soil, the roots will not
penetrate into the cold lower soil filled with stagnant
water, but run along through the few inches of drier sur-
face. When the dry weather comes the sun completely
dries this out, and the plant having no other source of
supply, perishes. On land that has been underdrained,
the soil is left in the condition described as most favor-
able for plant growth : moist, but with no standing water
between the particles, and the plant sends its roots far
and deep. When the sun of summer dries the surface of
the ground, the plant has communication with the cool
moist soil far below.

The past season, 1881, has demonstrated the truth of
this claim beyond a question. The best crops were grown
on the well drained fields.

Underdrainage makes the ground warmer:

First. By admitting the warm air into the soil. As
fast as the water is drawn off from below, the warm air
follows, penetrating and warming the soil.

Second. Because a dry soil can be warmed more read-
ily than a wet one.

DRAINAGE. 49

Third. Because evaporation is avoided. Every one
who has ever been caught in a shower of rain, and stood
with his wet clothes on, knows how the evaporation of
the water chills him. Science teaches us that the evap-
oration of one pound of water requires four times as
much heat as would be required to raise the same amount
from the freezing to the boiling point. We see therefore
that if the water that falls upon the soil remains until
removed by evaporation, all the heat which should be
making the soil warm is being wasted in evaporating the
water.

Everybody knows that if a jug of water is wrapped up
in a wet flannel, the water in the jug will not get warm
as long as the flannel is kept soaked with water. Just
so with the soil. It will not get warm as long as the
surface is full of water.

Experiment has demonstrated the truth of theory in
this matter. One experimenter made a number of tests
in two adjoining fields, one drained, the other undrained.
The average temperature of the soil in the field that had
been drained was 6^ degrees higher than in the other.
Further experiments have fully confirmed these.

And this adds another to the reasons why drainage
enables the earlier cultivation of a field and lengthens the
season : the ground becomes warmer so much earlier in
the spring and remains warm later in the fall.

Drainage increases the fertility of the soil in exactly
the same way as pulverizing does — by enabling the soil
to absorb fertility from the atmosphere. I describe in
the article on pulverization the absorptive power of dry
earth; but soil saturated with water not only cannot be
penetrated by the air, but also is incapable of absorbing
any fertility from it. Therefore, thorough drainage adds
greatly to the fertility of the soil.

50 • SUCCESS IN FARMING.

WILL IT PAY TO DR.VIN.

This is certainly one of the most important questions
connected with the whole subject. No matter how scien-
tific the theory or desirable the results — if the cost is
greater than the accruing profits, the man who would
have success in farming will wisely leave drainage for
the amateur who farms for love and not for profit.

Sometimes, in our western states, land may be found
that is utterly worthless, but which would yield unfail-
ing crops if thoroughly and systematically drained. Here
the reader will say, is certainly a place where drainage
will pay. — But wait, perhaps it will cost $50 per acre to
reclaim this land, while equally good land can be bought
for $15 or $20 per acre, that needs no drainage. In this,
as in everything else on the farm, common sense is the
necessary guide.

In many sections an expenditure of from $10 to $20 per
acre will accomplish the desired result, and where corn
brings 40 cents, and wheat $1 per bushel, the increased
3ield, even in the favorable years, will far more than pay
the interest on the investment, and in exceptionally wet
or dry seasons, the drained land will often produce a
good crop, while the undrained will produce none — and
this single crop more than pay the whole original cost.
An excellent illustration of this will be lound in the
chapter on wheat.

HOW DOES THE WATER ENTER THE TILE?

This question is often asked, and is of some impor-
tance, as some persons get the idea that it is necessary
to leave spaces between the tiles to admit the water —
which spaces admit stones and dirt, and sometimes oc-
casion the stoppage of the drain.

The water enters partly through the spaces between
the tiles, which, even when they are laid as closely as

DRAINAGE. 51

possible, are far more than sufficient for this purpose.
The true plan in laying tile is to make the joints fit as
closely as possible, and no uneasiness need be expe-
rienced lest the water will not find its way in.

HOW TO DRAIN.

Before beginning the work of draining, the farmer
should decide what he intends to do. There are many
farms where nothing more is needed than to put in here
^nd there a short line of tile to bring some low or springy
spot into cultivation and the fields into good shape, and
here the matter of draining is quite easy. Even on
farms where a larger amount of draining is needed, the
slope of the land may be such as to give a uniform fall,
and to indicate plainly how the drains should be laid
out. What I would caution the farmer against who lacks
experience in this matter, is making a wrong start where
the fall is but slight, and a general system of drains is
required. On such a farm it may be necessary to ex-
pend a much larger sum than the farmer feels that he
i-an spare at once, and if he begins with one or two hun-
dred dollars a work that will require a thousand to com-
plete, it is important that the money be spent in putting
in main drains, with tile of sufficient size, so that at some
future time laterals can be cut and arranged to dis-
<charge into the mains. It is a good plan always to so
lay out the drains that there will be no difficulty in
knowing exactly where to dig to tap them ; and this is
especially important in such cases as the above. Lay-
out the drains by line if possible, and make a plot of
them in your account book, giving land-marks and meas-
urements.

The most important part of your drain is the outlet.
Make sure of a good fall, so that the water will flow
readily from it, and see that it is protected from stock.

52 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

If the shape of the land is such that a strong stream of
water is likely to run over the surface in a heavy rain,
divide it if possible a few rods above the mouth of the
drain, and cause part to flow on each side at a little dis-
tance from the drain. Always begin digging a ditch at
the lowest point, and see that it is graded properly before
beginning to lay the tile, and then begin laying the tile at
the upper end, and fill as you go. The grade should be
uniform, and the best way to level the bottom of a ditch,
particularly if one is inexperienced, is to have the water
flowing through it, as this will enable you to detect at
once any inequality. There must be no low places in
the bottom of the ditch, for if there are, the drain will
inevitably fill up. As to depth and distance apart to lay
tile, there can no general rule be given, as to answer this^
question one must understand the soil and circum-
stances. Many writers recommend a uniform depth of
four feet; but, although drains act in proportion to their
depth, there are soils in which it would be cheaper to-
lay two drains two feet deep and as many rods apart,
than half the number four feet deep and four rods apart.
The drains on my farm are none of them over two feet
deep, and in some places we struck the limestone at
twenty inches, and yet the}^ do good service and drain ta
a greater distance than we are usually led to believe
drains will act. As a proof how far a drain two feet deep
will act, I will give a fact in my own experience. There
is a neighbor whose farm joins mine, and I own the land
both south and west of him. About an acre of his land
in this corner was so wet that for many 3^ears no crops-
could be grown on it, and often in the spring there would
be water standing on it, when twenty rods away the land
was in good condition to plow. On the south of this, at
a distance of forty feet from the line, I put down a lat-

DRAINAGE. 53

eral drain, and two others at the distance of forty and
-eightj^ feet from the first, running them parallel with the
line till they entered my main drain, the water in which
flows to the south-east. At a distance of about sixteen
rods from my neighbor's west line is the head of a drain
which runs north-west on my north farm. These drains
of mine have so thoroughly drained this land of my
neighbor's that he now grows good crops on it; and al-
though this is a heavy clay soil, these drains show their
effect for at least twenty rods.

SIZE OF TILE

Is another question which requires the exercise of judg-
ment. Where the fall is such as to give a strong cur-
rent, a tile of given size will carry much more water than
w^here there is little fall and a sluggish current. The
length of the drain must also be taken into account, and
if long, it will often be necessary to use a larger tile to-
"wards the mouth than at the head, to carry the accumu-
lation of water. I have found a three-inch tile large
-enough for all single lines where the distance was not
great, and use larger for main lines into which to run lat-
<erals. I would not advise the use of tile less than two
inches in the clear under any circumstances.

There is often much unnecessary labor in digging a
ditch, in digging too wide and thus removing unneces-
sary earth. Buy suitable tools, and be careful to lay out
the ditch straight and as narrow as you can work in, and
this will be avoided. Do not put in defective tiles.
See that each will ring, and reject all that fail to do so.

CHAPTEK VII.

FERTILIZATION.

A vital question to the modern farmer is how to main-
tain the fertility of the soil, or, what is still more diffi-
cult, restore fertility to soils that have been impover-
ished.

The American farmer, from the fact that land ha&
been cheap and abundant, has been exceedingly prodigal
of its fertilit}^ Until quite a recent period, there was sa
much virgin soil to be cleared, that the farmer, as he
found his fields declining in productiveness, had only
with ax and torch to conquer from the wilderness another
field, rich with the plant food which had slowly accumu-
lated for ages. And even when the limit was reached in
our Central States, the great West, with its countless
acres of the richest soil, was waiting to welcome him.
Under these conditions, our system of farming grew to
be a wasteful one, and for many ^^ears the ^deld of crops
declined on much of the land that had been long under
cultivation.

For some years past, there has been a gradual change
for the better in our sj^stem of farming. Farmers are
beginning to ask earnestly : " How can we maintain or
increase the fertility of our lands?" and many old fields
have been brought back to a yield which equals that of
the days of their virgin fertility. I think there are farm-
ers who honestly believe that the legitimate and inevita-
ble result of farming is to exhaust the soil, and that a

HOME-MADE MANURES. 55

farm, like a piece of machinery, will wear out and be-
come worthless. The problem we are called to solve is,
to restore fertility to lands already impoverished, and to
so manage our farms as to maintain or increase their
productiveness.

In doing this, we are to make use of:

Home-made manures;

Green manures;

Rotation of crops ;

Pulverization ;

Commercial manures.

I have arranged these somewhat in the order of their
importance and value to the farmer, although it is a
little difficult to give each one its relative position.
They are all of exceeding importance, and largely de-
pendent upon one another, and may all be combined in
farm management. The first four certainly cannot well
be separated. I have put commercial manures last, be-
cause I believe that home resources should be utilized
before money is spent to purchase plant food.

HOME-MADE MANURES.

How shall we get the most?

How shall we manage it so as to have it in the best
condition?

How and to what crops shall we apply it?

Under the system of farming generally practiced, a
very large part of the manure is wasted. The barn-yard
is not aiTanged with reference to saving manure. It
should, while large enough to accommodate the stock,
be small enough so that it could be deeply covered with
straw, or the waste of the corn fodder, so as to retain the

56 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

liquid, and should be so shaped that water could neithev;
enter it from the adjoining land, or flow from it. To
this barn-yard should be brought all the straw and corn
stalks on the farm, and instead of allowing the cattle to
tramp over the fields pasturing off the stalks through the
winter, they should (when not in the stables) be kept in
here from the time grass fails in the fall until turned on
pasture in the spring.

The farmer growing an average of forty or fifty acres
of corn and wheat each year, and who has followed the
old plan of stacking his straw in the woods, and pastur-
ing his stalk fields, will be astonished at the bulk of good
manure he can save in a year if this plan is followed.

I would recommend that the stable floors be made
water-tight, and enough bedding used to save all the
liquid, and that the manure from the stables be wheeled
out and spread evenly over the barn-yard, so as to be
mixed with the coarser material. This barn-yard is to
be the farmer's chemical laboratory, where the waste ma-
terial of the farm, and that which is offensive is trans-
muted into gold.

While the barn-j^ard is the main, it is not the only,
source of fertilizers on the farm. Both the poultry-
house and privy supply a fertilizer nearly or quite equal
in value to the commercial fertilizers for which we pay
$30 to $40 per ton. Either of these may be prepared for
use so that they will be as pleasant to handle as dust
from the road, and make a powerful and valuable ma-
nure. I think that the manure from a dozen fowls will
amount to a barrel or more a 3^ear, and in an experiment
I made two years ago on wheat land, one barrel of hen
manure, finely pulverized and drilled in with the wheat
on an acre, gave as heavy a crop as the adjoining acre
with twelve loads of stable manure. The contents of the

HOME-MADE MANURES. 57

"box under the privy and the droppings from the hen-
roost should be taken up every week and thrown in a
. bin prepared for the purpose, under cover, and enough
dry earth scattered over it to prevent any escape of
ammonia, and four weeks before it is wanted for use, it
should be moistened with the strongest manure water
you can get, so as to cause fermentation. If it is partly
decomposed, so that it will not ferment readily, add one-
fourth its bulk of wheat bran — which is of itself a cheap
and good fertilizer — and a violent fermentation will at
once take place. When you wish an active fermentation
with manure of any kind, pile it up in a conical heap.
As soon as this is thorough^ hot, level it down to six or
eight inches deep, scatter a little plaster over it and turn
it every day, beating it with the shovel so as to make it
.fine. In a week or so, sift it through a mason's sieve,
and if there is much that will not pass through, mix a
little more bran with it, wet up and heat, and go through
the same process again. This makes an exceedingly
valuable manure, especially to use in the garden, or in
the hill for melons, and when dry it is oderless. It also
feeds through the fertilizer drill as readily as bone meal.
What I have said above about stable manure relates
mainl}^ to quantity. I wish to recommend the thorough
.fining of manure, that its quality and availability may be
improved. We should recollect that manure can only be
assimilated by the plant when soluble, and that decom-
position is much more rapid in the compost heap than in
the soil. Many farmers object to the labor of turning
and handling manure in the barn-yard; but as manure
is valuable, not for its bulk, but for the available plant
food it contains, I am convinced that by turning and
fining we can so reduce the bulk and increase its availa-
bility as to more than pay for the labor. Manure,

58 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

tramped down in the stable or barn-j^ard is impervious
to air, and fermentation is suspended, and when we wish
to prepare it for use, we fork it up, so as to admit the air
and start fermentation. It is best always to do this af-
ter a heavy rain, as moisture is necessary.

If the manure is wanted for a hot-bed, or we want the
quickest fermentation we can get, make the heap conical
and six or eight feet high, but it must not be left many
days in this shape, or it will fire-fang. The best plan,
where a slow decomposition is wanted, is to make the
heap four feet high and perfectly flat. In from ten to
twenty da} s this manure may be turned again, and these
handlings will reduce its bulk at least one-half — if it was
coarse and strawy — and will make it of uniform quality,
and quickly available to the plant.

During many years' s experience as a gardener, I have
had occasion to test this matter of thoroughly decompos-
ing and fining manure, and I believe that a load of good
stable manure, so finely pulverized that it could be sifted,
applied to a half acre, would produce a heavier growth,,
particularly of small grain or grass, than four loads of
equally good manure, spread on as it is ordinarily ap-
plied.

After considerable observation and experiment with
manure, I have come to the conclusion that I get a better
return from it when applied at the surface, and that it
pays better when applied to wheat than to other field
crops. Manured wheat is rarely a failure. Fly, frost,
rust, chinch bug, and other enemies soon overcome a
wheat plant which already lacks vitality and vigor, but
rarely a vigorous one grown on a well manured soil ; and
this is to be taken into account in estimating the value
of manure. Another reason why I like surface manur-
ing for wheat is that the 3'oung plant may immediately

GREEN MANURING. 59

feel its benefit and make a good start for winter. When
the manure is plowed under deeply, the wheat gets
but little benefit from it the first autumn, just when it
most needs it. Still another reason for using manure
on wheat and as a top dressing is, that it assists us to
grow a clover crop at the same time the wheat crop is
growing, and this clover crop is a grand pulverizer and
fertilizer. There is little difficulty in bringing run-down
land to a high state of productiveness if we can get clo-
ver to grow on it, and a light dressing of manure at the
surface makes a capital seed bed for the clover. The
farmer who follows a system of rotation of crops, uses all
his manure on wheat, and alwaj^s sows clover with his
wheat, will not need manure on his corn crop, and will
rarely if ever fail to be paid for his manure from the
first wheat crop.

GREEN MANURING.

If asked which I considered the most important to the
farmer, stable manure or green manures, I should an-
swer, " This ought ye to have done, and not have left the
other undone." I should not be willing to farm without
either.

There is this in favor of green manuring, that there is
very little labor about it, and we avoid the dirt and dis-
agreeable odors which stable manures always have. I
have experimented enough with clover to lead me to de-
termine that the second growth, plowed under in July,
after the first crop has been either cut for hay or pas-
tured, is worth to the succeeding wheat crop as much as
a dressing of ten loads of manure per acre. The differ-
ence in the cost of fertilizing by these two methods is
great. Clover seed must be unusuallyhigh if the cost of

60

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

seeding is over $1 per acre, while the cost of hauling and
spreading ten loads of manure, even if on the farm,
would be about three times this, and the actual cost of
manure applied to the field, will rarely fall short of $1
per load, and often exceed it. One of the fairest tests I
•ever made of the comparative value of stable manure and
clover was on some impoverished land on which I have
been experimenting for some years. As I shall devote
a short section to this land, I will not give the details
here. I recollect a remarkable yield of corn from clover
manuring about 1861. I owned a field of cold clay land
on which I found it difficult to grow paying crops. Corn
rarely made over twent3^-five bushels to the acre; but
one year, when wheat was nearly a failure, I had a
splendid growth of clover. I did not pasture it in the
fall or the following spring, and by the first week in May
it was six inches high. I turned it under and had fifty
"bushels of excellent corn to the acre, which, knowing the
quality of the land, was a surprise to me. As I think
over my experience with clover as a fertilizer, I can say
I have never been disappointed with it. Some fail to
get much benefit from it because they pasture it the
first season while it is young and tender, or turn on it
in spring, and feed it oft' so short that it never makes
growth enough to shade the soil or develop its roots
properly. I shall devote a chapter to cloVer, in which I
shall more fully discuss its value and proper manage-
ment. My practice has been ever since I began farm-
ing, and my advice to all is to sow clover with every
acre of small grain. It is the cheapest and best fertil-
izer in America.

Another valuable plant for green manuring is rye. It
can be grown between two crops of corn, and so costs
nothing for rent of land. It will attain its full growth

GREEN MANURING. 61

SO that it can be plowed under from the first to the
twentieth of May, according as the season is early or
late. I have found the corn crop largely increased the
second year after I had plowed in d crops of rye, and its
mechanical effects are very marked and beneficial. As-
I intend to devote one chapter to " Rye on the Farm," I
will leave it for the present.

Another crop which is worthy of careful experiment
for the purpose of green manuring is corn. A very
heavy growth can be made in a few weeks ; and when,
clover fails, the wheat stubble ma}^ be plowed and corn
sown, which will attain a heavy growth before frost. I
have grown twenty tons, green, per acre when sown July
23rd. A neighbor two j^ears ago tried this experiment,
plowing the crop under as soon as the frost killed it, and
was much pleased with the result, the corn on the field
next year showing to a row by its rank growth, where
the green crop was plowed under.

Buckwheat makes an exceedingly rapid growth, and
has an excellent effect in pulverizing stubborn soils. It
has been claimed by experimenters and scientific men
that buckwheat, when plowed under, destroj^s insects in
the soil. This is a matter worthy of consideration and
careful experiment.

I would recommend the following experiment in green
manuring on exhausted land: Seed heavily with rye in
autumn; plow this under when in bloom and seed with
buckwheat, and as soon as this was large enough plow
it down and sow four bushels of corn to the acre and
plow the latter under as soon as killed by frost.

There are millions of acres of land cultivated from
year to year that do not yield a cent of profit — many of
them at an actual loss — and for which it is impossible
to get manure; and if they can be renovated by green

62 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

manurino*, it is time farmers knew it. I doubt if one
farmer in ten thousand can tell whether it would pay to
give a field the treatment I suggest; and yet how easy it
would be to experiment with a single acre and settle the
question.

The benefit from green manures seems to be more than
the actual plant food they furnish, for their mechanical
Meet opens the soil* to atmospheric influences, and in
some way which I cannot explan, the simple shading of the
soil enriches it. Harlan, in his book on Farming with
Green Manures, alludes to this, and tells of an English
farmer who, leaving a door lying on a fallow field for
several months, found that for several years the crops
were heavier on that spot, as though some rich manure
had been applied. The great benefit of clover is sup-
posed to be partly due to the dense shade it gives to the
soil. Whatever is the cause of the increased fertilitj',
whether actual plant food, chemical action of the de-
caying plants in the soil, the mechanical effect, shade, or
all combined, the fact remains that green manuring of-
fers a cheap and satisfactory method of increasing the
fertility of the soil, and especially of restoring worn-out
lands, and the wise farmer will push his investigations
in this direction.

With all that has been said in favor of green manur-
ing, I would not give the impression that fhe farmer who
follows this system would thereby be justified in allow-
ing the manure from the barn-yard and other sources to
be wasted ; but the best results will come from a combi-
nation of the two, using the stable manure with refer-
ence to growing a fertilizing crop.

COMMERCIAL MANURES.
It is only within a few years that these have been used

COMMERCIAL MANURES. 63

to an}' extent on Western farms, and it is doubtful if
one farmer in twenty has used them at all. In most
localities they have now gained a foothold, and their sale
is rapidly increasing. I wish first to correct a misappre-
hension concerning them which I find prevalent among
farmers, namely, that the}' are only stimulants and that
their use, while it will produce increased crops for a
while, will ultimately impoverish the soil. This is a
mistake, for commercial fertilizers furnish plant food,
and cause an increase of crops in the same way as stable
manure. The error of supposing that they are only
stimulants has probabl}' arisen from the fact that they
do not, like stable manures, furnish all the necessary ele-
ments of plant food. By the continued and exclusive
use of a commercial fertilizer containing some particular
element of plant food and deficient in others, heavy crops
may be grown which will ultimately exhaust the soil of
those elements wanting in the fertilizer. The remedj'
for this trouble is to change the fertilizer, selecting one
rich in those ingredients which were wanting in the pre-
ceding one.

Commercial manures are not intended to take the place
of stable manure, but rather, to supplement it; and the
farmer should save and apply all the home-produced ma-
nures before spending mone}^ for others. Again, I would
not advise an^^ farmer to invest largely in commercial
manures until he has tested them on his own land, for
they are not as uniform and certain in their action as
stable manure.

No farmer should purchase commercial fertilizers with
his eyes shut, but should consider carefully: Is this
fertilizer the one my soil needs? Is it adapted to the
crop I am growing? Is it worth the price charged for it?

The valuable constituents in all these fertilizers are

64 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash. A convention
of agricultural chemists has considered this question,
and agreed upon a standard valuation of these articles,
so that any farmer knowing the amount of each of these
in any given fertilizer, can arrive at a reasonably cor-
rect knowledge of its value to him.

One great advantage of using commercial manures —
on soils w^here they give good results — is, the ease with
which they are applied. With a drill with fertilizer at-
tachment it does not cost anj^thing to apply the manure,
for you can drill as many acres of wheat a day as you
could if not using the fertilizer. At present a fertilizer
drill costs about $25 or $30 more than an ordinary one,
but a manufacturer of my acquaintance has just patented
an improvement which he thinks will enable him to offer
a first-class drill with fertilizer attachment at a few dol-
lars above the cost of an ordinary drill. This drill will
be tested before this book goes to press, and if it proves
satisfactory, it will probably be advertised in the last
pages of the book. With the rapidly increasing use of
bone meal and other commercial fertilizers, and the ex-
cellent results from their use in many cases the wise
farmer who is purchasing a drill, will get one with fertil-
izer attachment, so that he will be prepared to use these
fertilizers if he finds them profitable. Poultry manure
can be easily prepared as I described in a former chap-
ter, so as to be drilled in. I have recently been in cor-
respondence with a manufacturer who is getting up a
hand mill for grinding bones, who claims that he can
furnish a cheap mill with which a man can grind from
50 to 100 pounds of bone an hour and with which dry
manure of any kind can be reduced to powder. If this
can be done, such a machine will certainly be exceedingly
valuable. Bone meal is rich in phosphoric acid which is

COMMERCIAL MANURES. 65

the element most needed for wheat and is the most last-
ing in character, and will benefit the succeeding crop,
particularh^ grass or clover more than the superphos-
phates, but the latter are usually more soluble and
quicker in their action and will give the wheat a quicker
start in the fall, which is an advantage in getting it well
rooted for winter. I know there are localities where the
wheat crop has been doubled by the use of these fertil-
izers, and every dollar expended for them has returned
two or three. My advice to every farmer is, to experi-
ment with them, and if 3^ou cannot get a fertilizer drill
use them broadcast and harrowed into a mellow surface.
This was the way I first tried bone meal, and I found as
good effects from it as when drilled in with the wheat.

Although bone meal and superphosphates are the prin-
cipal commercial fertilizers, there are others which may
often be used with profit. In soils in which lime is de-
ficient, it can often be used to great advantage. All
plants contain it, some of them in large quantities, it
being found in straw, hay, leaves of fruit trees, peas, tur-
nips, etc., and constituting more than one-third of the
ash of red clover.

Lime has other uses besides furnishing the plant what
it needs.

It counteracts sourness in the soil. It aids the decom-
position of vegetable and animal matter. It breaks down
the mineral particles, and by these means prepares dif-
ferent parts of the soil for the use of plants. It is said
to exhaust the soil, but it only does it by producing
larger crops, as explained elsewhere in connection with
other commercial fertilizers, and the remedy is the same.
Lime is an alkali and corrects the acidity in soils by
uniting with and neutralizing the acids. Lime hastens
the rotting of organic matter in the soil, but should never

66 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

be used in the compost heap, as it liberates the ammonia
and allows it to escape. Lime varies somewhat in its
composition, and as a rule, that which makes the best
wall plaster is best for the soil. One other fact in con-
nection with the use of lime is, that it has a tendencj^ to
sink in the soil, and should alwaj^s be applied at the
surface.

Salt. — This article is valuable as a fertilizer on some
crops and soils. It furnishes some portion of plant food
and by chemical action in some soils renders materials
already present available. One benefit from its use is
that it stiffens the straw by rendering soluble the silica
in the soil, and thus enables a crop of small grain to
stand and ripen which without it would lodge. It may be
sown on wheat in the spring at the rate of three or' four
bushels to the acre, and is also valuable in the compost
heap at the rate of a peck to the cord, as it will hasten
decomposition and destro}^ both weed seeds and insects.
Salt for fertilizing purposes may be had at a small cost
from packing houses or tanneries, and it is more valuable
than the fresh article.

One other commercial fertilizer is gypsum, or land
plaster. It is a constituent of many plants, and is an ex-
cellent absorbent of ammonia and useful to sprinkle in
stables, poultry houses, privies, etc., where it absorbs the
escaping gases, saving them for fertilizers and purifying
the air. When used as a fertilizer it should be applied
to growing crops and in small quantities, one hundred
pounds to the acre being a sufficient dressing. It is best
to sow it when the dew is on the grass or on a damp day
so that it will adhere to the leaves. The most notable
advantage in plaster is obtained in its use on the clover
crop. Sown on this it not only largely increases the crop
but increases its value as a fertilizer. An interesting

PULVERIZATION. 67

statement was made by a farmer at an agricultural meet-
ing which I attended, which was, that an application of
a mixture of two parts of plaster to one of salt, at the
rate of a barrel to eight acres saved his corn from the
out- worm and largely increased the yield. The corn was
on sod and the cutworms kept it eaten to the ground
before the application and continued to work on a part
of the field on which the mixture was not applied, but
in twenty-four hours had entirely disappeared from the
part treated.

PULVERIZATION.

There is an adage that tillage is manure; but it is
onlj' of late years that the value and importance of thor-
ough pulverization of the soil has begun to be appre-
ciated.

There are two ways in which pulverization increases
the crop : First, by enabling the plant to readily obtain
from the soil the material it contains. Second, by actu-
ally increasing the amount of plant food in the soil.
The latter is the one we have to do with in this chapter,
and there are two scientific principles that must be un-
derstood before this matter can be made clear.

Certain solid bodies possess the propert}^ of absorbing
or taking up great quantities of gases and retaining
them. Dry earth possesses this power in a remarkable
degree, and the extent of it is in direct proportion to the
minuteness of its division. The best possible disinfec-
tant is now known to be dry earth, reduced to an im-
palpable powder; in this form it completely destroys
poisonous odors and gases by absorbing and retaining
them in an innocuous form. Earth, in hard lumps, doe»

68 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

not possess this property in an}^ perceptible degree, and
a handful of dust is of more value as a disinfectant than
a bushel of clods.

The next principle is what is called capillary attrac-
tion. This is the power that porous bodies have of not
only absorbing but of drawing up liquids. It is the
principle that causes the oil to rise in the wick of a lamp.
The power of porous bodies to thus elevate liquids is ex-
actly in proportion to the fineness of the pores. Hang a
piece of coarse twine and a piece of very close, fine twine
with the end of each dipping into a vessel of water, and
it will be found that the water will rise much higher in
the latter than in the former.

A porous soil possesses this power of capillary attrac-
tion, and hence can, during a dry season, draw up water
from the moist subsoil below, exactly as a wick draws
up the oil from the lamp, and its power to thus draw up
moisture will be in exact proportion to the number and
fiineness of the pores it contains. It can be seen in a
moment that the more thoroughly the soil is pulverized,,
the. more pores there will be through it and the smaller
they will be. A field of large clods will have compara-
tively few openings to the subsoil below, and these open-
ings so large that they have no power to draw up the
lower moisture. A field of finely pulverized soil, on the
other hand, will contain myriads of extremely minute
pores, that will act like so many pumps.

Now let us see how these two principles of "Absorp-
tion" and "Capillar}^ Attraction" combine to fertilize
the well pulverized soil, and make true the statement
that " tillage is manure."

There are two great original sources of fertility, and
from these, at some time, all fertility must come — the
air above and the soil beneath. Ammonia, and other

PULVERIZATION. 69

substances essential to plant life, are constantly present
in the atmosphere. The proportion is minute, but fully
sufficient, if secured, to make rich and productive fields,
Now, under the principle first laid down, of the power
possessed by finely pulverized earth to absorb and retain
gaseous matters, it will be seen that a field, the surface
of which is constantly kept fineh' pulverized, will be as
constantly drinking up fertility from this unfailing-
source, and that tillage will thus be continually increas-
ing the amount of plant food in the soil.

But we consider the other permanent source of fer-
tilit}" — the subsoil. In this, decomposition is slowly
but surely progressing, and plant food is being set free
in an available form ; the moisture of the subsoil is con-
stantly charged with useful salts. If we can but draw
these up within the reach of the crops, we shall again
increase the supph^ of food in the surface soil.

Thorough pulverization of the soil, by bringing into
play the principle of capillary attraction, will draw up
this moisture, with its fertilizing salts, and thereby en-
rich the surface soil.

To test this matter, take two boxes, spread in the bot-
tom of each a couple of inches of w^et earth; then in the
one put about three inches of small hard clods, and in the
other three inches of finely pulverized, dry, mellow soil.
In but a short time, the. earth in the latter box will be
found moist to the top, while the clods will scarcely be
aff^ected.

Pulverization acts as a fertilizer in 3^et another way:
Chemical decompositions are constantly taking place in
the soil, by reason of which material that has previously
been valueless, is made available as plant food. The
more finely the soil is pulverized, the more rapidly and
thoroughly will these changes take place.

70 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

We find, then, that "tillage is manure/' becauser

The finel}' pulverized soil absorbs valuable elements
of fertility from the atmosphere ;

Because it draws up fertilizing material from the sub-
soil below; and

Because it makes available, material already existing,
in the soil.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

This may at first be thought to belong to the matter
of cultivation, but a closer examination of the subject
will soon demonstrate the fact that rotation, as well as
pulverization, is a real method for increasing the fer-
tility of the soil, and therefore may properly be consid-
ered under the head of " Fertilization."

Every farmer knows that if a certain crop is grown
year after year on the same field without change, rest, or
the addition of fertilizers, that the yield will continually
decrease until the soil will at last refuse to produce thi»
crop at all.

It is also known that if, after a soil has been thus in-
jured, it be allowed to lie idle for one season, a portion;
of its fertility will return, and the same crop will grow
again. From this arose the plan of allowing a field to lie
"fallow."

But it has also been found that after a field has been:
exhausted by continuous cultivation of one crop until it
will produce that crop no more, a different crop may be
successfully grown. The reason for this latter fact is
very simple and easy to be understood. Each plant
draws from the soil certain elements of fertility — ele-
ments which, though absolutely essential to plant-life.

ROTATION OF CROPS. 71

form but a comparatively mimite portion of the soil.
Continuous cropping with one crop may, therefore, so
completely exhaust the soil of those elements necessary
for that crop that no more can be grown. But different
crops differ in their needs, and after a soil has been ex-
hausted of the elements necessary for the growth of
some one crop, it may still contain the elements needed
by another. This explains why a crop may be grown
on a soil that has been exhausted by another; but it
does not yet explain how it is that after the second crop
has been grown for some j^ears — even without the addi-
tion of manures by the farmer — the soil will be found to
have regained, in a measure, its capability for produc-
ing the first crop.

The reason is that Nature is continual^ laboring to
restore the ravages produced by the hand of reckless man.
Locked in the soil, and especially in the subsoil, are al-
most inexhaustible sources of fertility, which, by the
forces of chemical decomposition continually going on,
are slowly but surely being unlocked and prepared for
future use. The rains and dews bring needed elements
from the air above, and the absorptive power of the
earth is continually gathering them. Thus, even while
one crop is growing, Kature is preparing the soil for an-
other. Thus we see that rotation is a real though slow
process of fertilization. It is, in fact, the method by
which the farmer may avail himself of Nature's recuper-
ative powers.

If, in addition to this, the rotation is accompanied by
the application of barn-^^ard or commercial manures,
and includes every few years a crop like clover, that is
especially adapted to draw from the air above and the
earth beneath, food needed for other plants, we see how
rotation can be made one of the most useful means of

72 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

fertilization which the judicious farmer can control.

What constitutes a good system of rotation?

This must vary with every locality and every soil.
What would be the best rotation in one place might be
totally inapplicable in another. Over a large section of
our Western country rotation will usually include corn,
wheat, oats, clover and, probably, grass.

Let us suppose the farmer has a soil well adapted to
diA'crsified farming, as in the larger portion of our West-
ern land. He can make a good rotation as follows :

First year, corn ;

Second year, corn ;

Third 3'ear, oats, flax, or spring barle}^ followed by
wheat in the fall ;

Fourth year, sow clover on the wheat in the spring;
harvest the wheat and leave the clover to grow ;

Fifth year, either pasture or mow the clover, allowing
a good growth to form and ripen in the fall, ready to be
plowed under the
. Sixth year, for corn, when the rotation begins again.

This rotation may be shortened, by seeding down to
wheat among the corn, in the fall of the second j^ear,
and omitting the crop of flax or spring grain. But, as
in some sections of the country wheat on corn land is
less certain and less productive than on stubble ground,
it is best in such localities, if the spring crops can profit-
ably be grown, to include them in the rotation.

There are some farms specially adapted to wheat-
growing, and on which it is the most profitable crop.
On such farms, the wise cultivator will of course ar-
range his rotation so as to bring in wheat as often in a
given number of years as possible, without injury to the
soil. The rotation should include but a single crop of
corn, which, if in a section where it can be done, should

ROTATION OF CROrS. 73

"be seeded to wheat in the fall, and hy the use of barn-
yard or commercial fertilizers, the course may consist of
four years — one crop of corn, two of wheat and one of
clover.

The rotation can be lengthened by sowing timothy
with the wheat in the fall, following with clover in the
spring, cutting two crops of mixed clover and timothy,
pasturing one year, and then breaking for corn again.

One most excellent farmer of my acquaintance, who
has a large tract of land specially adapted to corn, has
pursued the following rotation, with the result of
largely increasing the productiveness of the land, and
at the same time securing heavy crops : Two crops of
corn are grown ; the second fall the corn is cut up, and
the land seeded in wheat; clover is sown on the wheat
the next spring and left to grow after harvest. The fol-
lowing summer, after the clover has attained a good
growth, hogs are turned on and kept on it all summer.
In the fall he feeds the hogs on the field, having the corn
scatterered in a different place each day, and the cobs
and droppings of the pigs are thus spread evenly over
the field. The following spring he breaks again for corn,
grows two crops and follows with wheat, clover, hogs, a^
before.

At what point of the rotation should the manure be
applied?

This is an important question, and one which each
farmer must answer for himself by the use of thought,
observation and common sense. There is no place where
empiricism is more ruinous than on the farm. Farmer
A. plows his manure under for corn, and succeeds, and
Farmer B., with a totally different soil, very illogically
concludes that the same plan will be successful with
him. Farmers who would have success in farming.

74 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

must learn to study the reasons for certain actions.

The opinion of many of our best farmers is, that the
"best place in the rotation for the application of manure
is on the wheat crop, used as a top dressing shortly be-
fore seeding. The reasons for this are given in other
sections of this chapter. In some cases, as where the
soil is naturally rank — as in some of our bottom farms
— such application may prove actually injurious, caus-
ing the wheat to grow too sappy and succulent, and
lodge. In such cases it is often best to use the barn-
yard manure as a top dressing to the corn crop, and use
bone meal, or super-phosphate, drilled in with the
wheat.

There are cases — in heavy, cold, retentive soils —
where the coarse manure may profitably be spread on
the field during winter and plowed under for corn. Its
mechanical action loosens the soil, while the retentive
character of the land prevents undue waste. On light,
and especially on leachy soils, the plowing under of
coarse manure is undoubtedly a wasteful and unprofita-
ble practice.

Land plaster (gypsum) when attainable at a reason-
able price, may almost always be profitably applied to
the clover crop. Sown broadcast in the spring, it deep-
ens the color, increases the growth, and usually has a
marked beneficial eft'ect on the succeeding crop of corn.

EXPERIMENTS WITH MANURE.

Before leaving the subject of fertilization, I wish to
suggest some experiments easily tried, and mention
some which I have tried. It is a matter of interest to
know what a load of manure is worth on the difl'erent

experimj:nts with manure. 75

crops, and one or more experiments each year in this
line will be profitable. Manure, like certain funds once
used in Congress, should be placed where it will do the
most good. Calling a half cord of rotted, well compost-
ed manure a load, apply it to a tenth of an acre of each
of the different crops, and then compare with an equal
unmanured plot and see what the increase is. It might
be well, on such crops as potatoes and corn, to try ap-
plying it broadcast and in the hill, making that used in
the hill cover more land. Another experiment, and one
especially to be tried with wheat crops, is plowing un-
der the manure on one part, and using it as a top dress-
ing on an adjoining one.

The fining of manure is another thing that should be
made a matter of experiment. Put a load of manure in
the usual condition on a tenth acre, as a top dressing"
for wheat, and then pulverize as fine as possible an equal
amount and apply to just double the amount of land.
If you get the manure almost fine enough to screen^ I
think you will find a larger ^deld of wheat from half the
amount of manure when finely pulverized.

Another experiment to show whether it will pay to
have sheds for our manure, would be valuable. Take a
load of manure from a stable, where it has been allowed
to accumulate, and which contains the liquid as well as-
the solid, and apply it alongside of a plot manured with
that from the barn-yard. It is often a question with
the farmer who has a ten-acre wheat field to sow, and
fifty loads of manure for it, whether it is better to ma-
nure one-half and leave the remainder unmanured, or
to give a light coating to the whole field. This is a
very important matter, and one that should be fully set-
tled by repeated experiment.

Every farmer should know what effect bone-meal,

76 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

«uper-phosphate, and other commercial fertilizers at his
command will have upon his soil, and this he cannot
know except by actual test. If $3 worth of bone will
give $5 to $10 worth of extra wheat on an acre, as without
doubt it does on some soils, he can then afford to apply
his home supply of manure to less land, and use ground
bone on the reipiainder.

In estimating the value of manure, we are to take into
consideration: First, the increased yield of the crop to
which it is applied. Second, its effect in enabling a crop
to resist enemies. Third, the increased earliness of the
crop, and its greater value on this account. Fourth, the
length of time that the manure will act on crops, either
directly or through a fertilizing crop which it enables
us to grow. In order to test the first, we should always
leave a strip without manure to compare with. The second
item is of greater importance than many imagine, for
the extra vitality which manure gives will enable a plant
to successfully resist what would be fatal to a weak,
sickly one. We often see this in a wheat field on im-
poA^erished soil, where one part of the field has been ma-
nured. While the unmanured part is winter-killed, or
destroyed by the fly, or eaten up by chinch bug, or
blighted by rust, the part manured resists each and all
these malign. influences, and makes a good crop. The
same thing may be seen in growing potatoes. I have
never seen the Colorado beetles injure materially the
crop on highly manured land. When the season was
good and they were well cultivated, the vines would
grow right away from the bugs ; but let the soil be poor, or
cultivation neglected, and the Colorados soon have the
mastery. The advantage of manure in hastening the
maturity of crops is of greater imjiortance to the gar-
dener than to the farmer, as the prices of his products

EXPERIMENTS WITH MANURE. 77

are largely determined by their earliness, two or three
days' difference in the maturity of the crop sometimes
making a difference of one-half in the price. It would
be an interesting experiment, particularly on our strong,
clay, limestone soils, to ascertain how long the effects of
manure could be noticed on the crops, and thus ta
be able to give a better idea of the value of manure.
This could be easily found out, at least approximately,
by growing crops on a manured plot, and by the side of
it on an unmanured one, and following it up, weighing
the product of each as long as they showed any differ-
ence. You would at the same time be finding out the
value of your load of manure. These experiments should
include nightsoil, poultry manure, land plaster, or any-
thing available, which promises to furnish directly or
indirectly, food for the plant. Tanbark can be burned,
and an ash, rich in phosphoric acid, formed. Sawdust
can be carbonized by burning in pits, like charcoal, and
may be exceedingly valuable on some soils. Those living
near elevators, where thousands of bushels of corn-cobs
accumulate, can experiment with them by composting or
burning. And if we keep our eyes open, we shall find in.
almost any locality waste products which we may utilize.
I have been much interested in burning straw or stub-
ble on the surface, especiall}^ where land is to be pre-
pared for wheat. I have experimented to some extenty
and am convinced that all straw that can be spared cart
be used profitably by spreading it on the surface and
burning. It should be spread thickly enough so as to
burn the soil a little. I shall give an account of some
experiments with various manures in a chapter on ex-
periments with wheat.*

*Burning straw spread on the ground is certainly an immense
improvement on the custom adopted in some parts of the West

7S SUCCESS IX FARMING.

I tried an interesting experiment with wheat bran as
a manure two years ago. I mixed fifty pounds of bran
wdth an equal bulk of rich mould, and wet it with leach-
ings from the manure pile. As soon as it had heated, I
leveled off the pile and stirred occasionally until the
heat had subsided, and in a few weeks it was thoroughly
decomposed. I planted a half acre of Peach-blow pota-
toes on a poor clay knob, on which corn did not make
over fifteen bushels per acre the previous season. I ma-
nured alternate rows with a single handful of this pre-
pared bran to the hill, using at the rate of five hundred
pounds of the bran to the acre, and as bran cost but $10
per ton, the cost, besides the labor, would have been but
$2.50 per acre. By the time the potatoes had been
planted a month, the rows treated with the bran were
six inches taller, and of a better color, and all through
the growing season the difference in the rows was plainly
discernable. At digging time I took a pair of steel-
yards to the field, and would dig down a manured row
till I got a basket full and then weigh and empty them,
and dig back on the unmanured row. I cannot now re-
fer to the record which I made of this experiment; but
I remember that several times the manured row gave

of burning it in the stack, or of thrashins: on the bank of a
stream and allowing the straw to be floated away. The most
valuable constituent of straw is the mineral portion, which, of
course, is left in the ash, and when the straw is burned on the
surface of the field this is left in a very available form. But all
this is secured when the straw is rotted in the manure pile, and
much nitrogenous matter is also saved that is inevitably lost
when the straw is burned. It is therefore chemically certain
that a ton of straw has a greater manurial value when rotted in
the manure pile, than when burned. And when we consider
the incidental value of straw in absorbing and retaining the
liquid portion of the manure, I think it will be seen that it must
be under very exceptional circumstance, and on farms where
the amount of stock kept is very small, when it will pay to burn
straw. K. s. T.

31Y OWN EXPERIENCE. 79

double, and in no case less than a half more, while the
quality was very superior. The extra potatoes produced
in the rows on which the bran mixture was used did not
€ost eight cents a bushel.

This question of experimenting with manures is one
of great interest, and every intelligent farmer should do
something in this line each year. A record of such ex-
periments becomes exceedingly valuable to refer to.

Farm experiments are valuable in their influence on
the man, in making him more accurate and observing
and familiar with the mysterious works of nature. They
are also absolutely necessary to the proper understand-
ing of what is best to do on his own farm, as soils and
conditions vary to such an extent that the experiments
of another, under different conditions, may not be bene-
ficial to him.

MY OWN EXPERIENCE.

BmNGING UP A RUN-DOWN FIELD.

As I know farmers like to see theory put to a practi-
cal test, I will give an item of m}" own experience in the
matter of restoring lost fertilit}^ In the year 1877, I
bought at a low price fifty acres of worn land. I had
lived adjoining it for nearly thirty ^^ears, and had seen
every crop grown on it in that time, and, as nearly as I
can recollect, it had not once produced over twelve bush-
els of wheat or twenty-five of corn to the acre. It had
received little or no manure, and when seeded to grass
or clover was usually so overstocked as to receive no
benefit. Twenty-five acres of it was level enough for
good plow land, but was divided diagonally by two wet

80 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

strips which could not be plowed. When I bought it, it
was rented for the season, and every available foot of it
plowed for corn so I did not get possession till the fall
of 1877. The crop on it for that year was like all I had
seen before, very poor, the corn making about twenty
bushels to the acre, and as the season was a wet one the
ground was covered with a heav}^ growth of foxtail. We-
sowed seven acres in wheat where the corn had been cut
up, and, on accout of the foxtail, got it in badly, and the
result was but four and a half bushels to the acre of in-
ferior grain, but a good stand of clover. In the spring
of 1878 we sowed fifteen acres in oats, and put the re-
mainder in corn, potatoes, and beans, but the only
encouraging feature of this 3'ear was that on the oats
and wheat ground we got a good stand of clover and
grass. That fall I laid eighty rods of tile and sowed
eleven acres of wheat where beans, potatoes and corn
had grown. We manured one half of it with barn-yard
manure, used a little bone meal, and put it in as well as
we could, and our wheat from this field was 241 bushels
or about 22 bushels to the acre. We got a fair crop of
clover hay on ten acres of the land where the poor wheat
and oats had grown; laid fifty rods more of tile in the
last wet strip, and in July plowed up twenty one acres
for wheat. Eleven acres of this was the same that had
yielded the twenty-two bushels of wheat to the acre, and
the balance was clover stubble and included the seven
acres of land that grew the poor wheat crop in 1877. I
should not have plowed the eleven acres but on account
of a dry spring we failed to get a stand of clover. We
hauled out manure and top-dressed the part of the eleven
acres that had not been manured the preceding year.
Our wheat crop was good, averaging over twenty bush-
els per acre, but that on the clover stubble was very

MY OWN EXPERIENCE. , 81

much heavier than that on the wheat stubble where the
manure had been applied, and we had a fine stand of
clover on the entire field.

The fifty acres of land is now divided into two fields.
The broken part, which has never-failing springs, is
seeded down for permanent pasture, and we have this
fall, 1881, sown twenty-five acres of wheat on the level
part, and it promises well for a crop. I think I have
fully doubled the value of the plow land, and notwith-
standing the first crops grown were so poor, the land
has paid a fair interest on capital invested. It will thus
be seen that in the short space of four years, a piece of
land so worn as to be of little value, has, by tileing, ro-
tation, a moderate use of manure, commercial fertilizers
and clover, been brought to a condition of reasonable
fertility, and at the same time has yielded crops that
have paid the cost of the improvement.

CHAPTEK VIII.

HIRED HELP.

With all modern improvements there is still enough
work to do on the farm to make the " hired help " prob-
lem one not easy to solve. If the farmer determines to
do without hired help, he is pretty sure to overwork and
neglect many things that are necessary. One man on a
farm of any size is not enough, for there are so many
jobs to be done around the house and barn, in the gar-
den, repairing fences, making errands to town, etc., that
the team must stand idle much of the time or these nec-
essary things be neglected. The farmer who attempts
to do all his farm work and care for his stock, will have
no time or heart for anything else. He will be too
wearied to read or even to converse when night comes;
and life will have little meaning to him. His lot will be
harder than that of a day laborer, for in addition to his
work he will have the care and responsibility of the farm
resting upon him.

There is still another view of this subject. The world
is full of people who can never rise above the condition
of laborers, and who are dependent for support upon the
labor of their hands, and it is wiser and better than
charity, to give employment to such. Every man who
gives to another employment at a fair compensation, is
a public benefactor, and has a right to make a profit
from the labor so employed.

No one can hope to acquire much propert}^ simply by

HIRED HELP. 83

his own manual labor. It is only as he has the capacity
to employ and direct the labor of others that he can ex-
pect to realize a competency.

I believe the Bible clearh^ teaches the duty of making
money. It is taught in the parable of the talents, and
when we are exhorted to be "diligent in business," it
becomes both a duty and a privilege to use our ability
in making money. The more labor we can profitably
-employ on our farms, then, the better it is for our fami-
lies and the communit3\

But there is another side to this question, and that
is the care and labor which must often come upon the
wife from bringing hired help into the house to board,
and thus increasing the size of her famil}^ No success in
farming, or increase in wealth, will pay the man for
working his wife into the grave, or breaking down her
health. It is better that the farmer should hire married
men who will board themselves, if his wife is not able
to do the work; and this can often be done as cheapl}^
as hiring single men, if you can furnish the man a house
find garden.

In any case, I believe that it is best to pay fair wages.
I doubt if anything is made in hiring a man by jewing
him down to the lowest point. The man who feels that
he has been treated badh' in the bargain made, will not
be likely to work with much enthusiasm.

While I would advise that a memorandum be made,
covering all the points of contract, experience has taught
me that it is not wise to make a contract for a given
time. I do not want to be obliged to keep a hand that
proves dishonest, immoral or inefficient; and I do not
want a hand bound to me who is dissatisfied. I think
it better to have it so the relation can be severed by
either part}^ at any time. I like, however, the plan of a.

S4 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

bonus in case a hand is trusty and faithful ; but it should
be a bonus and not wages which he can claim.

Suppose that a hand is hired for eight months at $16-
a month, with a memorandum that either may terminate
the engagement on a week's notice. After the bargain
is made, you say to him: "If I find you faithful and
obliging, I shall pay you ten cents a day extra for every
day you work. If I do not find jou so, I shall not keep-
you; so if you work for me until the eight months are
expired, you will get this amount." By doing this, you
are giving him a motive to do his best. The extra ten
cents a day will amount to quite a sum in the eight
months — enough to buy a good suit of clothes.

It is wise to have a frank and full understanding with
a work-hand at the start, as to what you expect of him ;
and what must, and must not, be done. For example^
some hands are cruel to horses. It is better to tell a
hand at the start that your team is not to be whipped.
Some 3^oung men think they have a right to go to town
every night, and come into the house at midnight, dis-
turbing the family, or get back at breakfast-time in the
morning, after the chores are done. If you do not choose
to permit these things, it should be so understood in the
beginning. Where two or more hands are kept on the
farm, there is often trouble and jealousy as to who shall
drive the team, or as to what particular work shall be
done by each. All these matters should be talked over
in the beginning, and put in the memorandum.

If you expect a farm-hand to do any uncommon work,
such as ditching, well-digging, or quarrying stone, it
should be talked over and fully understood, or else he
should have extra pay for it.

It would be well to say that in haying, or harvest, or
occasionally when some job was pressing, you should

HIRED HELP.

85

Trant extra hours work, but that jon would always make
them up by stopping work early on special occasions.
The first thing necessar^^ to get along pleasantly with
hired help, is a perfect understanding between the par-
ties, and all that is necessary afterwards is, to keep in
mind the " Golden Rule."

A good employer goes far towards making a good hired
hand.

On a farm where but one team is kept, b}^ keeping a
hired hand, the husband can have leisure to do much to
relieve the wife. He can draw the water, carry in the
wood, gather the vegetables, and do many things which
w^ill save the extra steps which wear out the wife and
break her constitution. When extra work is caused by
the hired man, unless good help can be found for the
wife, the husband should consider it his duty to help her.

There is a great advantage in having a hired man on
the farm, so that in an emergency you can do extra
work. There often comes a week of wet weather, so
that the ground cannot be stirred in the growing season.
When the weather becomes settled and the land ready
to work, ever3thing is pushing. The weeds have started,
^nd every foot of land under cultivation needs imme-
diate attention. Perhaps a field of clover or wheat is
almost ready to cut. Under such circumstances, a day's
ivork is often worth five dollars, and as others are pushed
as well, you may not be able to get help, unless you have
it permanently.

There is one way of getting along without hired help,
and that is by renting a part or all the fields for grain
rent. I make a broad distinction between renting the
farm and renting the fields. With human nature what
it is, it is almost impossible to find a tenant who will
keep a farm in good condition if left in sole possession.

S6 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

The farmer who remains on his farm and rents out fields^
"whether for grain or money rent, keeps control of the
land, and is on the farm to see that everything goes
right. I like the plan of renting on the thirds, the land-
lord furnishing team, tools and seed, and the tenant the
labor. This gives a young man a better chance for a
start in life, and as he has an interest in the crop,
he will naturally be more energetic and pushing than if
hired. The farmer who wishes to try the experiment of
renting, does not need to sell off his teams if he rents in
this way, and if he is not pleased with it, can take the
farm back under his own management without being-
obliged to buy teams and implements again. The farmer
may not make quite so much money who- manages his-
farm in this way as if he worked it all himself, but he
will enjo}^ more of life and will be likely to keep hi&
farm in better condition; and if he reserves ten or fif-
teen acres of his richest land on which he will do his
best to grow heavy crops, he will not be in danger of
falling into habits of idleness, and will probably find hi&
profits as great at the end of the year as when he had
the worry and care of the entire farm.

On a good farm I think an energetic }■ oung man can
Tisuall}^ farming on ihe thirds, make double what he can
working by the month, and he will be more independent.
Many of our wealthy and successful farmers began life
in this way.

This matter of hired help or renting out our lands, is
one of great importance, and one in which the farmer
should always counsel with his wife, for her interest and
comfort are often more concerned in the matter than his,
and I believe that in a majority of cases her judgment
would be better.

CHAPTEK IX

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

I doubt whether the young farmers of to-day appreci-
ate what progress has been made in agricultural imple-
ments. They of course understand how perfect and well
adapted to the work are the numberless inventions which
make the term "farm drudgery" almost a thing of the
past ; but they can scarcely realize that only a generation
ago it was common for a large farm to be managed with
so few implements that twenty-five dollars would be an
extravagant price for the lot.

Good crops were grown on the virgin soil when a
shovel plow and clumsy iron tooth harrow were the only
implements used, if we except a ponderous hoe made by
the blacksmith, with which the sprouts around the
stumps were cut down. Even when inventive genius
first turned attention to the wants of the farmer, success
was only partial, for the first reapers were clumsy horse-
killing affairs requiring four horses and two men to do
less work less perfectly than the self-raker of to-day does
with two horses and one man, not to speak of the self-
binder. The first corn-planter hardly foreshadowed
those that were to come, and when in ransacking some
barn-loft we find one of these old implements hidden
away, they need to be labeled to enable one who has
never seen them to know what they were designed for.

While with the improvement in agricultural imple-
ments more capital is required to manage the farm, bet-

88 StJCCESS IN FARMING.

ter culture for the farm, and I may add for the farmer
and his famil}^, is made possible. The life of the farmer
need no longer be that unvarying round of drudgery it
was a generation ago, for more can now be accomplished
in one day than could be then in two, and certainly it is
the farmer's own fault if he do not take time to cultivate
his mind.

One thing seems to be settled, and that is, that all the
demands of the farmer can be met by the inventive
genius of the age, and there is no operation of the farm
but what can be done, or at least assisted, by machinery.
The prophec}^ of to-day becomes the reality of to-morrow;
the progress of the past generation is more than that of
the five thousand j^ears preceding it. The farmer has
Ibut to make known a want and it is met.

I cannot attempt to catalogue the implements in use
on the farm ; doubtless there are man}^ which I have
never seen, and it is not the design of this article to de-
scribe them in detail. I wish simply to give a few prac-
tical hints on the matter.

Although it requires quite an amount of capital to buy
farm implements, there is one great saving connected
with their use. One man and team can do as much work
and do it better, than two men and teams could without
them, and, as the extra man and team must be boarded,
this goes far to compensate for the cost of the machinery.

In bu^^ing farm implements we must keep in mind
several qualifications: such as strength, durability,
adaptation to our farms and the work we wish to
accomplish. Good implements will be found cheapest
in the long run and although the reader has noticed
that I have advised economy, and held up debt as a
monster evil to be shunned, I believe that it would
be wise to borrow money if necessary and bu}^ good

FARM IMPLEMENTS. 89

new implements rather than farm with poor second-hand.

Be sure you need an implement before you buy it.
There are farmers who allow oily tongued agents to ca-
jole tliem into purchasing every new thing that comes
along, until they have on hand machinery for which they
have no use and which is a disadvantage to them.

There is a fine field for co-operation in the ownership
or use of agricultural machinery. Many implements
will answer for two neighboring farmers as well as for
■one, and by a mutual agreement they may effect quite a
saving. In most cases it would be better that each
should own a part of the implements, and exchange
rather than to have a joint ownership in each implement.
For example: if one buys a reaper, the other can buy a
wheat drill, horse rake, and corn-planter which will cost
a like sum. One can buy the roller, and the other a
disc or some other one of the improved harrows.

Any one of these implements is sufficient for two
farmers if they have less than one hundred and fifty
acres of land each, and with a fair understanding and
agreement, there need not be any trouble in their co-
operative use.

A practical point in which many farmers fail is the
care of tools. If expensive implements are left exposed
to the weather the loss and deterioration from this cause
will be much greater than from use. There should be a
place for them, and they stored in it when out of use.
It is better usually to build a shed for this purpose,
than to to keep them in the barn, but whatever place is
assigned them see that they are kept there. I would
recommend painting with crude petroleum ail the wood
of farm implements, it costs but a trifle, and wood work
thoroughly saturated with it will be uninjured b}^ ex-
posure to the weather, and as all our implements must

90 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

Ije exposed to some extent this painting will be found
profitable.

One piece of machinery I think many farmers might
profitably own, is a small thrashing machine. There are
now made excellent two-horse thrashers, the cost of
which is comparatively small, and with which a farmer
can — with the regular help of the farm, and in the bad
weather of winter, thrash his own grain. He can thus
save the worry, haste and hard work of "thrashing day"
— and remove one of the greatest terrors of woman's
work upon the farm — feeding an army of thrashermen.
When a farm is too small to justify the purchase of a
machine, a suitable arrangement could often be made
and two or three farmers hold one in partnership.

The light of the present time shows that co-operation
or mutual help, is to be one of the great means for in-
creasing the profits of the farm, and relieving the bur-
dens connected with farm life.

It might seem almost unnecessary work to call the
attention of farmers to the importance of having imple-
ments and machinery in condition to do their best work,,
but unfortunately the number of farmers who ma}^ be
daily seen wasting their strength and the strength of
their teams and work hands with machines that work
hard for lack of a little oil or adjustment, or with tools
that need the grindstone, shows the necessity of consid-
ering the matter.

Solomon said : " If the iron be blunt, and he do not
whet the edge, then must he put to more strength," but
some farmers — principally of the class, I suppose, who
expect to make their way through the world by muscu-
lar strength rather than by the exercise of thought, seem
to prefer " putting to more strength " rather than put
the tool or machine in order.

FAKM IMPLEMENTS. 91

No labor pays a larger profit than that expended in
putting machinery in order and getting tools sharp.
A good grindstone well hung, and set in some place
where it will be protected from the weather and can be
readily used should be regarded as indispensable on the
farm. Axes, hoes, mower knives, scythes, and all cut-
ting tools should be kept with keen edges. No man can
earn his wages working with a dull tool. Plows should
be sharpened whenever they require it, and the time so
spent will be time saved. One suggestion here: On
farms where it is not thought worth while to keep more
than one breaking plow, it will be well to buy the sec-
ond before the first is entirely worn out. — Then in pressing
seasons the old plow can be called into service while the
other is being sent to the shop to be sharpened.

Mowers, reapers, drills, wagons, fanning mills, cutting
boxes, buggies, and even the wheel barrow, one of the
most necessary and useful implements on the farm^
should never be allowed to suffer from lack of oil. Not
only is machine grease cheaper than " elbow grease "
but a machine will wear more in a day's work when need-
ing oil, than in a week if properly lubricated. Use the
best oil; — for most machinery and for buggy and wagon
spindles, castor oil is the cheapest and best. Do not buy
this of your druggist at 50 cents a pint, a second grade
can be purchased wholesale at from 50 to 80 cents a gal-
lon which is as good as the best for a lubricant.

An occasional going over a machine with a wrench,
tightening all nuts that have become loose, will add
greatly to its longevit}^ Whenever a piece of machinery
begins to rattle, destructive wear is going on with great
rapidity. As a rule, the more silently any piece of ma-
chinery works the better work it is doing.*

*This rule is applicable to men as to machinery, b. S. t.

52

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

"When a nut shows a disposition to constantly come
loose, a leather washer should be placed under it, and the
nut screwed tight home on that, and as a final resort, for
a badly fitting nut, or in an emergenc}^ a piece of twine
may be wrapped several times around the bolt beyond
the nut and tightly tied.

Implements when about to be put away for the season
should be carefully cleaned and overhauled. Don't stand
them away with all the dirt of service on them. It is
also a good plan before you need any particular imple-
ment to go and examine it and see it is all ready. This
may save you serious delay and loss in the working
season.

Implements used in the soil, such as plows, hoes,
spades, etc., should never be left standing, even for a
night, with the soil adhering to them. It rapidly causes
them to become rough and rusty — making them difficult
to work with or to clean.

The man who would have success in farming, should
take as much pride in the condition of his implements as
in the condition of his stock.

CHAPTEE X

WHEAT.

In large areas of our country wheat is the most im-
portant crop to the farmer. It is easil}^ stored, with but
little risk of damage if he wish to hold it for an advance^
and is always in demand and brings the cash in market.
It is not as bulky as corn, and as its averagg price is
more than twice as much per bushel, a team will draw
to market about four times as many dollars' worth of
wheat as of corn in a given time.

Wheat can be grown successfully on rolling lands
which would soon be ruined by washing if kept in corn,
and we can grow a clover crop with it to enrich the land.
All these considerations make wheat a popular and im-
portant crop to the farmer.

Probably there is no crop which gives as good returns
for manure and thorough preparation of the soil as this.
There has been great improvement in the preparation of
seed bed among the farmers of Ohio during the past few
years, and it has resulted m a large increase in the yield
per acre. I have examined the statistics of Ohio, as it
is one of the best winter wheat States, and I see that for
eight 3^ears, beginning with 1858, there was a succession
of poor crops and a great falling off in the yield per acre.
Then for five years there was a large gain, there being a
series of favorable 3-ears. From 1872 to 1876 we had a
series of unfavorable seasons, the crop of 1876 in Ohio
aggregating, in round numbers, but 15,000,000 bushels.

94 HUCCESS IX FARMING.

with an average of 10 bushels per acre. In 1877, we
grew 27,000,000, with an average per acre of nearly 16
bushels. 1879 gave us 35,000,000, with an average per
acre of 16 bushels. I have referred to these statistics
simply to illustrate one fact, which is this: A series of
good years leads to the sowing of a lai'ge acreage of
wheat, and much is badly put in and on poor land; and
when an unfavorable year comes, the average 3deld per
acre is cut down largely by the crops on these poor,
badl}' prepared fields. On the other hand, a series of
poor crops not only causes a falling off in acreage, but
leads to a more careful preparation of the soil. There is
no crop *rown on the farm that pays so well for extra
work as this, and it is encouraging to know there are
farmers who grow paying crops through bad as well as
good 3'ears.

How can we insure uniform and profitable wheat crops?
There are several points to be attended to, one of the
most important of which is drainage. If the land can
be thoroughly under-drained it will be best: but where
this cannot be done, we must accomplish what we can
by surface drainage. B\' plowing properly and opening-
furrows in the right direction, heavy crops may be grown
on land which would not give a crop worth harvesting
where this was neolected. Lav it down as a rule, that a
profitable wheat crop cannot be grown on land where the
water will stand. Dr. Townshend, in a lecture before
the Ohio State Board of Agriculture, in 1879, said:

'' I have often harvested over thirt)' bushels of wheat to the
acre on nearly flat clay soils by rounding the lands and opening
the furrows. If any one objects to these furrows as a nuisance,
I will answer that the greatest of all nuisances is a poor crop."

He further states :

" I one year underdrained a part of a field at a cost of $22.50
per acre, and at harvest it yielded twentv bushels more per
acre than the undrained part of the field, and as the crop

WHEAT. 95

brought $1.25 per bushel, the extra yield paid all the expense
of draining, and left me a little in pocket."

The next point in growing uniform and profitable
wheat crops is

PREPARATION OF SEED-BED,

And there is no more important point connected with the
crop. The maxim, " Tillage is manure," holds good here
if anywhere. The best seed-bed for wheat is one that is
compact below and fine and mellovv at the surface; and
to get this, it is essential that we plow early, and culti-
vate frequently. I believe it would often be economy to
pay five dollars an acre to have a wheat field plowed in
Jul}^, rather than to have it done for nothing the middle
of September. The farmer who has land to break should
so arrange his work that everything else could wait if
the land is fit to plow early. After a heavy rain in July
or August, it is quite often the case that there will follow
a cool, cloudy spell of weather, when everything is favor-
able for plowing. The land being moist and the weather
cool, a team can plow twelve, or even fourteen, hours a
day easier than they can ten a few days later, when the
weather has become hot and the land dry. The wise
farmer will improve such an opportunity to the utmost.
Another important thing in preparing the seed-bed
Is to roll as soon as plowed, and I would always advise
this unless the season was very wet and we were likely
to have heav}^ rains to settle the land. If a good roller
follow the plow each half day^, the land can be pulver-
ized and packed down as long as there is moisture
enough to plow. If it is allowed to dry after plowing
and before rolling, it is often weeks before there is rain
enough so that it can be put in good condition ; but if
rolled at once, a light rain will make it fit for seeding.
The farmer rarely, if ever, errs b}^ putting too much

96 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

work on his wheat land ; and as with most of the imple-
ments we use, we can go over a large surface in a day, it
is not expensive. I have gone over a wheat field with
harrow, roller and plank drag as many as seven times
between plowing and seeding time, and been well paid
for my labor. I have seen instances where a field was
partly plowed and pulverized in July, and then on ac-
count of dry weather the remainder left until September,
and the diff"erence in favor of the early plowed and pul-
verized part was more than ten bushels per acre.

When the season is such — as is sometimes the case —
that you must plow late and sow immediately, I would
always recommend shallow plowing, for the land will not
have time to settle so as to make a solid seed-bed, and
you will not be as likely to pulverize eight inches well as
you will four. There are two reasons why wheat does
not do well on a deep, loose seed-bed: One, that it is
likely to be covered too deepl}^, and the other, that it
is more likely to freeze out, partly because the loose earth
holds more water, and partty because the roots have not
a firm hold in the loose soil.

Where wheat follows corn, I would not, under any cir-
cumstances, break the land up, because the plowing un-
der of the corn butts would prevent getting the land
l^acked sufficiently. I have seen many failures of the
wheat crop from this cause. If obliged to plow late, b}^
all means remove the clover or weeds from the land be-
fore plowing. A heavy growth of either msiy be plowed
under in Jul}^, for if you manage the land well they will
decay and allow it to settle; but this will not be the case
if not plowed until September, and the\' will greatly dam-
age, and often ruin, the crop. In m}^ judgment, it would
and be better to be a week later in getting the wheat sown
have the weeds or clover removed, than to plow them under.

^\HEAT. 97

, 1 haTe never found an implement which gave better
satisfaction in preparing the land for wheat than the disc
harrow. This consists of a number of steel rolling cut-
ters, dished a little, so as to turn a small furrow, and set
at an angle in the frame. They cut and pulverize the
surface completely; and unless it is very clodd}^, if this
harrow is passed over the field both ways and followed
by the plank drag, it will give a perfect seed-bed. In
very clodd}^ fields the roller should be used once or twice
in addition. I do not like the old-fashioned tooth har-
row for stirring the surface. The double corn plow,
with small shovels, does this well, but the disc harrow
does it better and more rapidlj^

DEPTH OF PLANTING.

Some very careful experiments have been made at the
Agricultural College at Lansing, Michigan, concerning
the best depth for planting, the result of which I give in
the table below. The first column shows the depth the
seed was sown; second column the number of daj^s be-
fore it came up; third column the proportion of seed
that grew:

Depth. Days. Grew.

3^2 ii^ch , 11 days %

1 inch 12 " all

2 inches 18 " %

3 inches 20 '' %

4 inches 21 '' %

5 inches 22 "■ >J

6 inches 23 '' ig

A plant from a seed sown too deep, and which comes
up slowly, lacks the vigor and vitality of one planted at
the proper depth. The best farmers of the present day
recommend a depth of about an inch and a half.

VARIETIES.

Something ought to be said about varieties in this ar-
ticle, and yet I know^ that I cannot recommend any par-

7

98 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

ticnlar variety that would suit all. Varieties often run
out and become unprofitable, and the introduction of a
new variety often increases the yield five, and sometimes
ten, bushels to the acre. The introduction of the Fultz
Wheat to Southern Ohio was worth an incalculable sum
to our farmers, as it largely increased the yield. It has
proved the most profitable wheat grown for the last six
years, and is still holding its place. This matter of va-
riety is of so much importance that I would recommend
all large wheat-growers to experiment with one or two
new varieties each year, if they can hear of those which
promise well; but I would confine the experiment to a
single acre. If it does well, it gives you enough seed for
the coming year for quite a breadth, and if poorly, it is
surely enough. I never discard a tried variety for a new
one until the latter has been well tested. A single bushel
of wheat, with expressage from a distance, is often ex-
pensive; but if 3^ou get a really good variety that your
neighbors will want for seed, it will pa}^ you largely.

EARLY AND LATE SEEDING.

I have referred to the time of seeding when speaking
of the preparation of ground. Some of the most success-
ful wheat-growers of my acquaintance sow the last week
in August and the first of September, and aside from
the fact that there is more danger from the Hessian fly
to this early sowing, it is to be commended. The fly,
however, rarely injures wheat that is strong and vigor-
ous. I should always, if possible, have my land in con-
dition to sow by the first of September, and be governed
by the weather whether to sow at that time or wait a
little. In looking over the record in my diary of mj^
wheat crops for the last seven ^^ears, I find my best crop
was sown the. first v/eek in September. But while in
general I would advise early j^lanting, I would not com-

WHEAT. 99

mend it at the expense of a well prepared seed-bed.
Plant earl}' if you can plant early and well; but plant
late well, rather than earl}^ and badly. My heaviest crop
•of wheat in 1880 — over thirty bushels to the acre — was
on a field sown October 8tli; and a neighbor of mine, a
few years ago, harvested thirty-eight bushels per acre
from a field sown after the middle of October. I do not
quote these instances to encourage late seeding but to show
that when, for any reason, early sowing is impossible,
very good returns ma}^ be obtained by observing the
rules for such cases in the preceding sections, namety:
Remove, by burning or raking, weeds and clover before
plowing; plow shallow and pulverize thoroughly.

I have for some j^ears sown one bushel or less of
seed to the acre, and feel quite sure that with the Fultz
variety from three pecks to one bushel will produce all
the land can support. When we remember that an av-
erage head of wheat contains from thirty to forty grains,
^nd that everj^ grain that grows must produce one head
if anything, and may produce several, it is evident that
when we sow a bushel and a half and reap but fifteen,
that two-thirds of our seed has been wasted, for even at
the smallest number of grains in a head, and but one
head to a plant, the yield would be thirty fold. I speak
further on this topic under the head of Experiments
with Wheat.

WHEAT ON CORX LAND.

In all localities where corn is a leading crop, and
where, as in Southern Ohio, oats are rarely profitable, it
is usually necessary, in order to bring about a proper
rotation, to sow wheat on corn land. There are many
who consider this a slovenly method of farming, and I
confess that, as often practiced, it is both slovenly and
unprofitable. I know, however, from long experience

100 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

and from observing others, that as good wheat can he-
grown on corn land as on stubble, and the expense of
preparing the seed-bed will be ordinaril^^ less. Two
things are necessary if you expect to grow a good crop :
You must keep your corn land free from weeds, and 3'ou
must cut up the corn. If these two rules are observed,^
you can prepare an excellent seed-bed at a little expense

I do not wish to be understood as sa3'ing that a good
crop of wheat can never be grown on a corn field that
has been allowed to become weedy and grassy, or when
sown in standing corn, for occasionally there may be,
but more often it will fail. What I do mean to say is,
that a clean corn field, with the corn cut off, gives as
good a chance for a wheat crop as an}^ seed-bed we can
make. Some years since, Mr. L. N. Bonham, agricultu-
ral editor of the Cincinnati Commercial^ sowed a field of
bottom land in wheat. On a part of it the corn was cut
up, and the remainder was drilled in among the standing
corn. The result was, fourteen bushels to the acre on
that sown in the corn, and twenty-nine bushels to the
acre where the corn was cut up. The quality of the land
was the same, and in both cases it was well put in.

As I have already said, I would not, under any cir-
cumstances, break corn land. If the corn is tall and
heavy, I cut high, and then cut the butts at the ground;
but if the corn is light or short, it may be cut close
enough to the ground so that the butts will not interfere
with the drilling. If the butts are long, it will pay to
take them off, for they will interfere with drilling, and
also be in the way if joii wish to glean the stubble. The
sulky rake will gather up the larger part of them, and
the remainder can be picked up by hand. After the corn
is off, I would advise that the land be worked both ways.
If you have a harrow that will do the job well, such as

WHEAT. 101"

the disc or spring-tooth, you can get over ten acres a
da}', and thej^ will, if followed by roller or plank drag,
put the land in the best possible condition. The next
l)est implement is the double corn plow with small shov-
els, and with this 3'ou can get over six or eight acres a
day. It may be gone over once with this, and then cross-
harrowed with a common harrow; but I would always
use the roller or drag before drilling. It is advisable
to plant an early variety of corn where j^ou are intending
to seed to wheat.

To show what success I have had growing wheat on.
corn land, I will make a few extracts from my diary:

" Sept. 22, 1877. Sowed six acres of wheat where corn,
liad been cut up/' This field averaged twentj^-six bush-
els per acre.

' " Sept. 19, 1878. Sowed four acres of wheat on corn land
at home, and six acres on north farm." The first made an.
average of thirty bushels per acre, and the last twenty-two»

" Oct. 8, 1879. Sowed four acres of wheat where com
was cut up. The corn was very light, as the land is cold
and thin. Manured each acre diff'erently." This wheat
was not threshed separately, but there were one hundred
and seventy-eight shocks, large bind. My entire crop of
seven hundred shocks, threshed four hundred and sev-
enty-two bushels, and this would show an average of
thirty bushels per acre for these four acres.

*' Sept. 24, 1880. Sowed twelve acres of wheat on corn
land on home farm." This wheat averaged fifteen bush-
els to the acre, but it will be remembered the crop cut in
1881 was a very light one generally, and this wheat was
very much better than ten acres grown on wheat stub-
ble. We have sown this fall — 1881 — twelve acres of
■wheat on corn land, which is looking as well as I could
Tvish. It was sown September 17th.

102 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

I have given these extracts from my diary, to show
the dates at which I have been able to sow for several-
years, and the success I have had. The average for the
four years is over twenty-two bushels per acre; and leav-
ing out- the last year, which was an exceptionally bad one,,
the average is over twenty-six bushels.

The principal objection urged against seeding on corn
land is the trouble and expense of cutting up the corn,
but as I shall speak of that in the chapter on corn, I
will pass it for the present.

THE COST OF WHEAT-GROWING

Is an interesting question, and as it is but little trouble^
I advise every farmer to keep a debit and credit account
with each wheat field. By so doing, he will soon learn that
the cost per bushel decreases as the yield per acre in-
creases, and I believe that many farmers would thus be
led to grow fewer acres and more bushels.

In keeping an account with my wheat crops, I put.
down the rent of land at eight per cent on the valuation
of the particular field, and allow nothing for taxes, as I
consider the rent includes this ; I do not include hauling
and threshing, for I believe the straw to be worth
enough to cover this. When I use manure on the field,,
I charge the wheat crop with fifty cents per load, for al-
though it is worth more, and often costs over $1, a part
of this should be charged to succeeding crops. When I
use commercial manures, I charge the actual cost to the
wheat crop. I charge $1 per day for each man and
horse. For harvesting I charge the usual price per acre
for the machine, and actual cost, including board, for
help employed. I have each field on my farm valued, so
as to know at once what rent to charge it. I shall explain
this more fully in the chapter on Farm Accounts. I be-
^an keeping an account with my wheat crops in 1877,.

WHEAT. 103

and have a detailed account with each crop grown since,
so that I can at a glance tell the cost, profit or loss on
the crop.

To show what it has cost me to grow wheat, I will
copy from my book the account with some of my crops.
I will begin with a six-acre field, two acres of which was
wheat stubble and the rest corn land:

ACCOUNT WITH SIX- ACRE WHEAT FIELD.

*' July, 1877. Breaking two acres $3 00

Working four acres twice with double corn plow 4 00

Harrowino^ and roUino^ 6 00

Cutting and picking off* corn butts 5 00

4^ bushels of seed at $1 4 50

Drilling 2 40

June 24, 1878. Harvesting 9 60

Board of harvest hands 2 50

Rent of land 36 00

Total, $73 00

The crop on this field was one hundred and eighty
bushels, and sold for 95 cents per bushel, making $171.
Deducting cost of growing, leaves $98, net profit. This
makes $16.33^ net profit per acre, and shows the cost of
growing per acre, including rent, to be $12.16f. The
profit, after allowing 8 per cent on a valuation of $75 per
acre, was nearly 22 per cent. The cost per bushel was
40^ cents.

In 1878, I sowed eleven acres of wheat on my north
farm. This was on the fifty acres of thin land referred
to in a former chapter. This land cost me but $20 per
acre, but as this field was the best part of it, I have val-
ued it at $30 per acre. My account stands as follows:

" July 31, 1878. Preparing seed-bed $22 00

Sept. 25. Seed wheat, 10 bushels, 9 50

Carried forward $31 50

104 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

Amount brought over $31 50

Drilling 4 00

Fifty loads of manure at 50 cents 25 00

One barrel bone meal 6 00

June 23, 1879, Cutting, at 60 cents per acre 6 60

Five hands at $1.50 per day 7 50

• Board of help 3 00

Eent of land at 8 per cent on valuation of $30 ... 26 40

Total $110 00

The field produced 241 bushels, which was sold from
the machine for 95 cents, making $228.95. Deducting
cost, leaves $118.95 as profit. Cost per bushel a fraction
over 45 cents. Profit on value of land, a fraction over
36 per cent.

Ten acres of the same field was sown in wheat in
1879, and the account as copied from my book, stands

thus:

"July, 1879. Breaking $15 00

Rolling 3 00

August 4. Thirty-eight loads manure 19 00

" 21. Stirring with corn plow 4 00

" 24. Harrowing and rolling 6 00

Sept. 8. Nine bushels seed wheat 9 00

" Eioht hundred lbs ground bone 12 00

Drilling 4 00

" Rent of land 24 00

June 16, 1880, Cutting at 60 cents per acre 6 00

" Four hands, at $2 per day 8 00

" Board of hands 2 50

Total, $112 50

The crop made an average of fifteen bushels per acre,
and sold for $1.05 per bushel from the machine, making
$157.50. Deducting cost leaves a profit of $45 ; cost ot
wheat per bushel 75 cents; profit on land 15 per cent.

Lest some one should criticise these figures where
they notice that in 1878 there is but $22.00 charged for

WHEAT. 105

preparing seed-bed on eleven acres, and $28,00 the fol-
lowing 3^ear for ten acres of the same land, I wish to
give a word of explanation. In the first named year the
field was about half in corn and the balance in sorgo,
beans, oats, and potatoes, and required less labor than
if it had needed to be broken up. The next year I
allowed $1.50 per acre for breaking, which many will ob-
ject to as being too little. In reply I answer that we
had a fine rain followed by cool, cloudy weather which
enabled us to plow two acres a day. I have in all these
accounts charged actual cost where it could be ascer-
tained, and allowed one dollar a day for each man or
thi-ee dollars a day for a man and team. When our reg-
ular farm hands or myself helped at harvesting, I have
charged harvest wages, and I have charged twenty-five
cents per meal for each man boarded in harvest.

VALUE OF STRAW TO THE FARMER.

The reader will notice that in all m}^ estimates of the
€Ost of wheat growing, I have stopped when the wheat
was in the shock. This is because I believe the straw to*
be worth to the farmer who knows how to properly man-
age it enough to pay for hauling and thrashing the cropJ

The proportion of wheat to straw will vary with difi'er-
ent seasons and varieties of wheat, but as a general rule
we shall have about two pounds of straw to one of grain.
This would give six tons of straw for one hundred bush-
els of wheat. As the machines charge from four to five
cents per bushel for thrashing, I think it a fair estimate
to call the entire expense ten cents a bushel; I think the
hauling to the machine could be done for less than $3,
but we will call it that, which would make our six tons
of straw cost $13. I am willing to call it $2.50 a ton, and
this would allow $2 on each hundred bushels for taking-
the wheat to market, and with the railroad facilities we

106 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

now have this will often coA^er the cost. It would seem
unnecessary to enter into an argument to prove that
straw is worth $2.50 per ton to the farmer. Whether we
look at it from the scientific standpoint comparing its
chemical analysis with that of hay and fodder, or from
the practical side, it is certainly worth much more than
this.

I have no hesitation in saying that if farmers took as
good care of their wheat straw as they do of their hay,
that it is worth for stock, half as much. I will make
the further statement, that fifteen hundred pounds of
"bright wheat straw fed in connection with 250 pounds
of wheat bran and 250 pounds of corn meal mixed, will
be worth, for horses or cattle, as much or more than one
ton of the best hay. Even when straw is stacked in the
barn-yard and the cattle allowed to run to it and help
themselves, it is worth for food, shelter, and manure
more than $2.50 per ton.

Straw is worth for manure much more than a chemi-
cal anal3^sis shows, for it is to most farmers the cheapest
and most convenient absorbent the^^ can use, and with-
out it on many farms most of the liquid and soluble
parts of the animal manure would be lost.

EXPERIMENTS W ITH WHEAT.

During the last few years I have tried some experi-
ments with wheat, which while not conclusive in their
results, have been of great interest.

In 1877 I sowed two adjoining acres with wheat, using
one half bushel of seed on one acre, and one bushel on
the other. The land was strong and in good condition,
and although the wheat where the half bushel was sown
looked quite thin at first, before winter set in it had
stooled so that little if any difi'erence could be seen. At
harvest I had a neighbor to cut it for me, and I told him.

WHEAT. 107

and the binders how the wheat was sown, but did not
tell them which acre had the light seeding, and not one
of them could tell. I shocked the grain, and found fifty-
two shocks on one acre and fifty-one on the other.
The two acres thrashed seventy bushels. The next year
I sowed six acres using three pecks of seed to the acre,
and harvested 180 bushels, an average of 30 bushels to
the acre.

My first experiment with bone meal was in 1878, when
I used a single barrel, and as I could not get a fertilizer
drill I sowed it broadcast. On either side of it I used
stable manure, and through the center left a strip twelve
feet wide unmanured. The land was heavy clay and
badly worn. The stable manure gave the wheat a
good start in the fall so that it covered the ground
quite well, but up to the time winter set in I saw na
benefit whatever from the bone meal. As soon as spring
opened the wheat where the bone was sown grew luxuri-
antly and showed a dark green, and the strip left with-
out any fertilizers was so poor that it was easv to trace
it when standing eighty rods away. At harvest the
wheat where the bone was used was nearly as good as
where heavily manured with stable manure, and was a
foot taller than on the unfertilized strip. I did not cut
and thrash separately, but estimated that every dollar's
worth of bone gave from two to three dollar's worth of
wheat, besides improving the quality. This experiment,
not only showed that I could use bone meal profitably
but that it was best to use with it some quicker-acting'
manure to give the wheat a start in the fall.

Superphosphate is quicker in its action, and when the
farmer depends on commercial manures I think it would
be wise to use half of this and half ground bone, or if he
has a ten acre field on which he intends to use Mtj loads

108 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

of manure and a half ton of bone meal, it would be wis^
to scatter the manure over the entire field and pnt onp
hundred pounds of bone on an acre, than to put twC
hundred pounds of the latter on five acres and the ma
nure on the other five.

In the fall of 1879 I sowed four acres of wheat the 8th
of October on a piece of land where we had cut off a verr
light crop of corn. We had plowed the corn late and
then gone through with hoes, so that the land was per-
fectly clean, and we had no difficulty in making an ex-
-cellent seed-bed. I divided the piece into four equal
strips, and on No. 1, I drilled one barrel of sifted hen
manure. On No. 2, I put twelve loads of good rotten
stable manure. On No. 3, 1 drilled two hundred pounds
of bone meal, and on No. 4, 1 drilled two hundred pounds
of ammoniated flour of bone, which is quicker in its ac-
tion than the ground bone. I left strips ten or twelve
feet wide without fertilizer of any kind between these
plots. They were not cut separately, but I exam-
ined them yery carefull}^ comparing one with another
:and with the unmanured strips, and reached these con-
<?lusions: That the entire crop was doubled by the fer-
tilizers. That the stable manure gave a little the heav-
iest crop. That there was no perceptible difi'erence in
the plots where the hen manure and bone meal were used,
A comparison with the unmanured strips left no doubt
that the stable manure gave more tha^ an extra bushel
of wheat for every load used, and that the other fertili-
zers gave three to five bushels of increase for each dol-
lar's worth used.

I can give no better advice to wheat growers than
that they try some experiments each year. I would
suggest that those of which I have spoken be repeated.
If j^ou have not a fertilizer drill the commercial manure

WHEAT. 109

can be applied by hand. Learn what bone meal, night-
soil, hen manure, etc., are worth to you on your own soil.
Always leave an unmanured plot adjoining with which
to compare, and if possible cut separately and weigh the
product of each. Try also, extra pulverization. After
you have your field in what you call good condition, put
an extra dollar's worth of work on one acre of it, and see
if it does not pay. Try burning straw on a plot in jour
field, and see what efi'ect it will have on the soil. Plow
a plot four inches deep and another eight, and give them
the same treatment after, and note the diflTerence, if an}^
Plow under the manure on one plot, and top-dress the
adjoining one. Harrow thoroughly a strip of wheat
through the field in the spring. If you are afraid of in-
juring it you need only try a rod wide, but go over it till
the surface is thoroughly mellowed, doing it, of course^
when the land is dry enough to pulverize. All these ex-
periments are interesting and valuable. There are many
questions which cannot be answered for you by another,
but a little care in experimenting will enable you to an-
swer them for 3^ourself for all time.*

*Mr. Brown is fond of experimenting, and these suggestions
'■ — like all he makes, are good. But the farmer should bear in.
mind that experiments are valuable only for results, and unless
a careful record of experiments is kept they will be valueless.
I would recommend the progressive farmer to keep a sepa-
rate book for experiments rather than to enter them in his
diary where they are liable to be lost sight of among other
matter. Do not crowd the book. Head a page with the name
of the experiment, and then fill in the details as they occur.
Make your experiments as conclusive as possible. One exper-
iment carried through to a conclusion, is worth a dozen half
completed. Many experimenters spend their labor for naught,
fromlack of care in particulars. As far as possible, measure and
weigh results, and record the measurements. An experiment in
which you guess at the amount of land and at the quantity of
seed and at the results, may be very interesting to you, but no
fact of value was ever so determined. The experimental farm-
er must cultivate business care and accuracy. e. s. t.

CHAPTER XI

CORN.

The statistics of Ohio from 1850 to 1880 inchisive,
show that the amount of corn ground in the State in 1850
was one and a half million acres.

There has been a steady increase in the acreage, until
several times in the last few years it has exceeded three
million acres.

The smallest yield during this time was 1858 — fifty
million bushels. In 1872, for the first time, the crop
reached one hundred million bushels, and since that
time it has but three times fallen below that amount,
while in 1878 it reached the highest, one hundred and
fourteen million bushels.

In all this time the average 3neld per acre for the State
has but once exceeded 40 bushels, and the average for
the whole time is a little less than 34 bushels to the acre.

As Ohio is a good corn State, and though not produc-
ing quite as large quantities as some of the Western
states, yet j^ields as much to the acre, we can well take
these figures as the ordinary results obtained b}' farmers
throughout the Union.

So much for the actual yield, now let us take a look at
the possible yield.

In 1877, while editing the agricultural department of
the Weekly Enquirer, I offered a number of premiums
i"© r the largest yields of corn on one acre.

^Nineteen sent in reports, the land having been

CORN. Ill

•measured and the product weighed by disinterested par-
ties. For convenience I arrange these reports in tabu-
lar form:

BUSHELS ON
LOCATION.

THE ACRE.

No. 1, McLean county, Illinois, 118

2, Tipton count}', Indiana, 110

3, Pickaway count}-, Ohio, 110

4, Clinton county, "^ " 106

5, Montgomery county," 105

6, Sandusky county, " 104

7, Wayne county, Indiana, 104

8, Madison county, " 103

9, Delaware count}^ " 102

10, McLean county, Illinois, 101

11, Belmont county, Ohio, 100

12, Blackford county, Indiana, 98

13, Scott " ' " 91

14, Shelby " " 91

15, Decatur " " 88

16, Shelby " " 88

17, Coles county, Illinois, 82

18, Stark county, Ohio, 78

19, Fairfield count}-, " 68

The average yield per acre of these nineteen trials

ivas ninety-seven and four-nineteenths bushels.

WHERE THE PROFIT COMES IN.

The actual cost of labor in growing an acre of corn
cannot well be reduced below $6.50. Add to this $5.00
per acre for interest on investment and taxes, makes
$11.50, and taking the Ohio average for the past thirty
years of 34 bushels per acre, would make the corn cost 31
cents a bushel to those who grew average crops. A high
cost, considering the usual market price, and one that
leaves but little profit to those who grow but average crops.

It necessarily follows that those who grow less than,
average crops lose money at the business.

112 SUCCESS IN FAKMING.

The parties who grew the above premium crops re-
ported the costs of doing- so, which averaged, for labor
alone, $8.90 per acre. Adding as before $5.00 per acre
for taxes and interest on investment will leave the cost
of their crops $13.90 per acre, which divided by the
average 3ield gives a cost of about 14^ cents a bushel.

The conclusion is obvious: — The profit in corn grow-
ing comes in the big crops, and that if by increasing the
cost for labor one-half, we can double the yield, we have
made a ver}^ profitable investment.

In nearly every case the growers of these premium crops
report an extra amount of labor in getting the soil ready.
A number reported $1 per acre expended in harrowing,
rolling or dragging — an amount sufficient to bring it to
a very fine condition of tilth.

Nearh' all of these, crops were grown on sod land, and
"without manure.

SAVING SEED CORN.

The first necessity for a good corn crop is good seed.
The loss sustained by our farmers from lack in this
matter is enormous, while the cost of selecting and
caring for corn that could be depended on for certain
germination is but a mere trifle. While it is true that
perhaps three years out of four the farmer can go
to his crib and pick out corn that will grow; yet it is
also true that sometimes it will not, and heav}^ loss is
the consequence.

Seed corn should be carefully selected in early au-
tumn, and placed where it will be thoroughly dried be-
fore hard frost Freezing does not injure well matured
and well dried corn, but corn that is immature,
or is caught b}' frost before it is entirely dry is liable to
liave the germ destroyed.

It should be stored in a dry, airy place. Many farm-

COKX. 113

ers folio ^^' the plan of stripping the hu.sk back and hang-
ing the eorn up in an airy loft.

Another plan highly recommended is to hang the corn
in the smoke-house and allow it to be thoroughly
smoked with the meat. Not only is this a good and
sure way of keeping it, but it is said the grain becomes
80 thoroughly impregnated with the smoke that insects
will trouble neither the grain nor the young plant.

But there is more in this matter of selecting seed corn
than merely to get that which will grow. I like Dr.
SturdcA'anf s idea of ''pedigree seed corn'' and have no
doubt that by a careful and persistent selection of seed,
the yield may be very materially increased. All careful
experiments in this matter of "breeding" corn show
that much can be done. I established a new and valu-
able variety of sweet corn from a " sj)ort," but it took
live 3X^ars of careful selection to do it.

PLANTING AND CULTIVATION.

The improvements in methods of cultivation in corn
have kept pace with other matters of farm management.
I remember, when a boy, that the land was marked off
and the crop tended with a single shovel plow. It was
dropped b}' hand and covered with a hoe, and no pains
were taken to keep the field clear of weeds during the
latter part of the season. On the rich, Whitewater bot-
toms, where my boyliood was spent, the field would be-
come a wilderness of Spanish needles and cockleburs,
and the first work I can remember was riding the horse
that drao-o-ed a brush between the rows in order to rattle
off the needles and burs so that they might not impede
the buskers, and the weeds were often so tall, that sitting
on the horse I would be covered with the needles.

The farmer in this latitude should if possible finish
breaking his land in April, which will give him abund-

8

114 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

ant time to get it in good order before planting.
Judgment must be exercised in preparing the land. If
the spring is drj^ there is no danger of too much pulveriza-
tion, but in a wet spring it will be better to leave the
general surface of the field rather rough, and draw a log
along the furrow to pulverize enough soil to give the
corn a start. The remainder of the field can then be
made fine and level before the corn comes up, so that at
the first working j^ou can get close to it without cover-
ing it.

Time of Planting. — i like reasonably early planting,
and am certain that in most cases it gives better results,
but there is no nse in planting until the weather and
ground gets warm, no matter what the time of year may
be. Corn will not grow when the ground is still cold
from the winter frosts, and seed planted before there is
sufficient warmth to cause it to germinate will rot in the
ground, and the farmer will often blame the seed when
lie should have blamed his lack of knowledge of the sim-
l)le principle that a certain amount of warmth is neces-
sary to cause the corn to germinate.

Hill ok Drill. — This has been a question on which
much time has been spent. Both methods have their
ardent advocates. I think it is pretty well established
that where the land is clean, and the farmer has the
right kind of implements for thorough cultivation, and
knows how to use them, more can be grown on the acre
in drills than in hills, but as it is much more difficult to
keep drilled corn clean, I would always advise that where
the land is foul, or where the cultivation has to be main-
ly left to hired help, the hill plan should be adopted.

Depth of Planting. — There is an interesting scien-
tific fact connected Avith this — the deca^ang grain must
furnish all the food to the j^oung plant until the leaves

CORN. 115

reach tlie surface and expand in the light and air. Con-
sequently if too deeply buried, the nutriment in the
grain is exhausted before the young plant is able
to draw food from the soil, and it becomes enfeebled.
Careful experiment shows that with the land in good or-
der one and one-half inch is about the best depth for
•covering corn.

Culture. — If the spring is backward, the nights cold,
iind the corn inclined to be unthrift}^, take the bar plow
xand run it as close to the row as joii can, using a fender
or rolling cutter on your plow, and turn the soil ^rowi.
the row, running the plow about five inches deep.
If your corn is planted as straight as it ought to be this
ridge on which the corn is left standing need not be
more than five inches wide, and the sun soon warms this
^nd starts the corn into a vigorous growth. I have had
frequent opportunity to compare adjoining rows, one
plowed as I recommend, and the other worked from the
start with a cultivator, and the difference in favor of the
I)arshare plow was very perceptible. In warm, pleasant
springs of course working with the cultivator from the
:start does equally well.

Within a few 3^ears the double barshare plow has been
introduced and gives good satisfaction. It consists of
two light bar plows with one handle each, attached to
each other by an adjustable wooden bar front and rear.
For small corn a rolling cutter is used on each plow, sa
iis to entirely protect the young corn, and in drilled corn
where the rows are straight it can be set so that not over
three inches of earth is left unstirred; and with well
planted hill corn the work can be done almost as
effectually.

It is often a question how much and how long com
should be cultivated. I am confident that increased

116 SUCCESS IN FAlfMlXG.

cultivation gives an increased .yield, and as an extra
bushel per acre will about pay for an extra plowing, 1
think it will pay to cultivate oftener and longer than is
usually done. An opinion has been prevalent that plow-
ing corn after the tassel has begun to show is injuri-
ous. It undoubtedly is if the corn has been neglected
till the ground has become compact and set with weeds;
l>ut the experience of our best farmers has shown that if
the cultivation is continuous it may be kept up till late
in the season, not onl}^ without detriment, but with great
advantage to the crop. Mr. L. N. Bonham, a corn-
grower of great experience and success, says he plows
liis corn till the ])ollen chokes him, and finds it pays.

The drought of the past summer (1881) has shown
the importance of thorough preparation of the soil and
constant cultivation. Wherever corn was planted in
lumpy soil, or allowed to become weedv. the crop is well
nigh a failure; but on adjoining fields, with no better
soil, where pulverization and tillage was thorough, there
has been a profitable crop.

When the corn land is to be seeded in wheat, a double
advantage is gained b}^ late culture. In fact, it is both
difficult and expensive to properly put in a crop of wheat
<m corn land where the cultivation has been discontinued
early in the season, and the ground become filled with
■weeds.*

*Mr. Browai has omitted mention of one implement which
jnaiiy of our best farmers prize very highly in the cultivation of
ctorn, namely, the harrow. Some of our best corn growers be-
^in their cultivation by harrowing the corn just before it comes
up, and then again as soon as it is fairly above ground paying
Tio attention to the rows. Although it looks as though the har-
row was destroying all the corn, yet in a few days every plant
will show itself again all the better for the struggle. It is get-
ting to be generally conceded that corn cannot be cultivated
too early, and that often the most valuable cultivation it re-
ceives is the first. r. s. t.

CORN. IIT

INSECT ENEMIES.

Corn is troubled with these less than most other crops
but occasionally cut- worms injure it badly, The smok-
ing of the seed-corn is said to be a preventive of this.
It is also said that the application of salt and land
plaster mixed in the proportion of one part of the former
to two of the latter, and a pinch applied to each hill
will entirely stop their ravages. A barrel of the mixture
is sufficient for eight acres.

FERTILIZERS FOR CORN.

Clover is the cheapest and best fertilizer for this crop,
and the farmer who uses all his manure on the wheat
•crop and sows clover with the wheat, will grow heavier
-crops of both wheat and corn than if the manure was
used on the corn land. A clover sod gives a clean and
mellow seed-bed for corn, and it is easier and pleasanter
to draw manure over the solid land in July and August,
than over the soft miry earth in March or April.

VALUE OF CORN FODDER.

In the nineteen corn reports referred to in the begin-
ning of this chapter, but one of them allowed anything'
for the fodder and then onl}' one dollar an acre, and as
managed by a large proport-ion of western farmers they
do not realize this amount from it, and often injure the
land by tramping when wet more than all they get is
i\'orth. The farmers of the New England states put a
ver}' high value on corn fodder, often more than would
buy a heavy crop of corn at the West. I know that com
fodder in New England is worth more than in the West,
for twu reasons : Their small varieties of corn make
better fodder than our coarser growing kinds and it is
much pleasanter to handle, and ha}^ brings a much high-
«er price with them than with us.

I know that corn fodder is so valuable with us that ife

118 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

is wasteful to leave it in the field, and that a handsome
profit above the cost of saving can be made on it.

What is an average acre of corn fodder worth, and
what does it cost? I answer to the first question, it is
worth as much as a ton of good hay, and this estimate
is based on twenty years' experience in the use of fod-
der, and I have during that time fed hay enough to en-
able me to compare the two. I have kept from eight to
twenty head of horses and cattle each winter, and three-
fourths of the time I have not cut a pound of ha^^ a year
but depended on corn fodder for work teams, milk cows,,
and stock cattle. I have been confirmed in this estimate
of the value of corn fodder by many farmers of large ex-
perience in its use. As to its being palatable to stock
and their thriving well on it, I find that it takes the very
best hay to equal it. The great objection to it on the
part of many farmers is, the amount of waste and the
butts in the manure pile. The waste of corn fodder i&
less than many suppose. Some years since I conducted
a series of careful experiments to ascertain what the ac-
tual waste was. I was at that time milking seven cows-
and selling butter to a hotel. For several days I weighed
the fodder for the cows and after each feed weighed the
waste, and I found that they ate just two-thirds of the
fodder. I also found that a ton of the fodder would feed
a cow three months. We were feeding in addition ten
pounds a day of bran and corn meal mixed equal parts,.
and on this diet they kept up a full flow of milk, and the
same ration fed to dry cows soon made them ready for
beef. I know that the part of the fodder the cattle eat
is worth as much as the same weight of the best hay, or
in other words, three tons of fodder is worth as much
as two tons of hay. Now let us estimate the cost. I
liave hired all my corn cut up for years, and it has cost

CORN. 119

me about $1.25 per acre. The price for some 3'ears was
five cents for shocks containing 100 hills, but of late
years I get 141 hills — or shocks 12 hills square — cut for
this, and m}' hands make over $2 a da^^ at this price;
some of my neighbors paid but four cents for shocks of
this size. As we usually plant, this would give about
twent}^ shocks to the acre. It costs but little more to
get the corn husked from the shock than from the stand-
ing corn. I have never paid above eight cents a shock
and this includes binding the fodder in bundles. We
use rye straw for this purpose, and unless we are ready
to draw the fodder to the barn or stack the same day,
the husker sets the bundles up in shock and ties a band
round the top to hold them together. After deducting
what it would cost to husk the corn if it was not cut
up, less than $3 will cover the entire expense of cut-
ting up and securing in barn or stack an acre of corn
fodder if let out by the job, I have spoken of stacking
fodder ; there is no product of the farm more easil}^
stacked. All that is necessary is to make the stack nar-
row so as to keep the middle three or four feet higher
than the edges, which gives a good slope to the bundles.
It will shed the rain and keep perfectly. I prefer to
build rather small stacks containing from sixty to one
hundred shocks each, or if a larger one is wanted make
it long and narrow so that it can be put up and taken
down in sections. Whatever else may be neglected,
shocked corn should be husked and the fodder hauled
before winter sets in. When the ground freezes the fod-
der freezes down to the ground, and when a thaw comes
the fields are so muddy that it is exceedingly disagree-
able to handle the fodder, and if the field has been sown
to wheat this crop will be seriously damaged. If the
corn is left out till spring the injury to grain and fodder

120 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

is often more than the cost of husking. The wise farmer
will secure help enough to finish up this work during
the pleasant weather.

There are two ways of managing- the waste: One is
to clean out the mangers every day and scatter the con-
tents over the barn-yard. The cattle soon tramp them
into tlie common mass of straw and manure, and they
give no trouble. In four weeks after forking up the ma-
nure in the spring in a small barn-yard in which I had
thrown the butts from twenty acres of heavy corn, it was
fine enough to use on the garden. The other and the
best way is to cut up the fodder and use the waste for
bedding. This may be done by catting it fine in a cut-
ter of some kind, or if but little stock is kept it can be
cut into six-inch lengths on a block with a cleaver, and
even cut this length the waste will make good bedding.*

I have found corn fodder the best bedding material
for hogs confined in pens during winter. It keeps cleaner
and lasts much lono^er than straw, and the hosjs need
some bulky food and they will eat the blades and part
of the husks

There is one more point connected with corn, and that
is, that when fed entire grain, husk and blade, it fur-
nishes a perfect ration, just the right proportion of flesh
and fat formers, and this fact stated by scientific inves-
tigators is confirmed from the fact that shock corn fed
to cattle keeps them in fine condition, and gives a large
gain both in flesh and fat. I shall speak of fodder corn
in the chapter on "Special Crops."

*Soine persons claim that feeding corn fodder cut up makes
the mouths of the cattle sore. r. s. t.

CHAPTEE XII.

GRASSES.

VALUE OP THE CKOP.

The importance of this crop is often underestimaterT.
Ohio statistics for 1879 show the wheat crop of the State
as worth fifty-one million dollars, and the ha}^ croj) at
only nineteen million; but hay does not represent the
entire value of the grass crop, as a large proportion of
the grass is pastured and not cut.

The grass crop, also, when properh' used, tends rather
to renovate than to wear out land, and the wise farmer^
in regions where grass is a successful crop, can greatly
increase his profits, diminish his labor and expenses^
and improve the fertility of his farm, by keeping a con-
siderable portion of his land in grass.

It is true that in some portions of North-eastern Ohio,
where the land has been kept in grass from the earliest
settlement of the country, and the products carried off
in milk and cheese and meat, the land has suftered dete-
rioration as surely as, though more slowly than, under
continuous grain cropping; but where grass is made a
part of a rotation, it always has a beneficial influence on
the land, and where the dairy business is not exten-
sively followed, and the pastures stocked with grown
cattle, or especially, sheep, the land ma^^ be kept in grass
indefinitely without deterioration.

There are mam^ broken farms in the hilly sections of
-the country, which are cultivated in corn and wheat year

IfH -SUCCESS IS FAKMIXO.

after year, not only at a loss to the farmer, but the total
and irremediable destruction <A' the farm by washings
which, if Heeded down in fx^rinanent pasture and stocked
with sheep, would maintain their fertility, or even show
a gain, and brin^ their owner a steady income. The
lyeni illustration of this I have ever seen is on the hiirh
blutf» of the Miami river, near its mouth. On one farm
von will nee the hill» clothed in blue-gras» from base
to Hummit, taking on a dense gre^'u with the first open
weather c>f spring, and often coven-d with flrnks, making
a gcxxl living on thewi by the first of April, and again in
?fovem>>er and December. On an a/ljoining farm, whifli
has be^'U c«jltiv{it«'<l in grain, the hills are seamed and
gullic^l until almost valueless.

In many sex-tions of the country where clover df>es not
•ucc*M'<l well, grass entirely takes its plaee in a rotation.
One great advantaj/e conne^-Ujd with grass as a stanrlanl
crop, is the light <'xpense an<l labor. When pastured,.
the exjXfTjse of harvesting is naught, and even when cut
itjr hay, the exi>en»e is light cx>mpare<l with most other
crojw.

V A mKrn va to (motrnz.

In this matter the faniwr must be governed by hiK
Uxrality, nature of soil an<l pur[>ose he has in view. There
are certain varieties of gran** which fiouri^h on certain
geological formations anfl will not grow on otherfi. Home
are excellent for jjasture and r>f but little value for hay;
an'J othi'rs again, make the >x*f»t hay, but do not make
goo<l jx'rmanent pasture. Some varieties will grr>w on
very wet land that coubl not otherwis*^ be utilised with-
out underdraining. Others would wint^'rkill cm nueh
land.

For permanent pasture we have thriM^ excellent p'SLHftent
all of which fiourish on a large area of our Wcst^frn

UUA8SK», 1 -'5

Statos. Tlu'so arc Muo ^rasH, orchard jfra^ss and rv\\ top.

Hm^k (Iuass belongs OHpoeiall}' to a liiuostoiio country,
<lm^^ best oti dry, rolling landn, and yet llouriHlu^ on
many sintions of tlu> Wo.^torn prairioH wlion once it ^otx
;i hold. It forms a close, tongh Hod, that savci* hillsides
troni wasldtig, aiid will cndnro during the ojHm wmitlicr
ofwinttM-or rarly spring an ainonnt of tiantpitij^: that
would !>(' ruinous to sonic other varieties. It in »w(vt
ni.l tintiition», making the best of beef and milk, and isi
relished by stock of all kinds. Tt starts into vigorous
growth with the hrst open went hi r ol'spring, anilcotitiu
nm gi*(Hm and fn^»h late in ' t' i ill. and in m\m^ WHytiotm
rurnishcs good picking all through the winter, when t!ic
ground is not covered with snow.

It does not .tiIhi.' hvni nm\ drought w.II, nm\ hi tt
sununer like thai <>\ l>^>sl, tails eiitirrlv. hui it conicw
forth with WDntirifiil \i!M)i- and iVrshm-ss with llienrst
fall rains

It is slow to laki- hoKl oi lUv grv)und, and ?*houUi never
be »owu except for perntanent i)ai4ture.

Kor the same reason, in starting a t)lue grass pasture,
the seed shordd alwa\ s be sown with some other grafts.
1 prefer to »ow with nmoihy.aH this will not shade it too
much, and about the tinu? tln^ tijnothy runs otn, tlwtduc
grass will be ready to occupy the lantl.

He careful to ktjow I hat you hav(> good, fresh Hwni, aj*
there is probat)ly no grass seed sold that is nn>re oft<Mi
worthh>ss. Sow late in the fall or early in th(^ winter,
using one buslul of seed to the acre, and use as inucit
timothy seed as if you had sown no t>lue grass, for it
will nmkc but little show the Orst year or two.

Never sow 1)1 uc grass with red clover, as it will nni
succeed.

It is said that if the n(m\ h »eattered ov.i th.- fianl

124 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

surface of an old pasture, it will take root and do as well
as on mellow ground. Wherever it does once get a foot-
hold, it will ultimately crowd out everything else.

I have tried the plan of getting a set of hlue grass hy
"grafting," which proved successful. I cut sod one and
a half or two inches thick, and cut this into pieces two
inches square, and on a field that had just been sown to
oats dropped these pieces, about two feet and a half
apart each way, and stepped on them to press them into
the mellow ground. Every piece grew and the grass is
spreading from them rapidly. On a large scale, the
pieces might be scattered from a wagon with a shovel or
manure fork, and pressed into the ground with a roller.*

Blue grass flourishes well in the shade, and enables us
to make profitable wood pastures. Near my farm are
several plantations of locust timber, where the trees
stand so close it would be difficult to drive between them
with, a wagon, and yet the land is heavily set in blue
grass, and carries nearly as many cattle to the acre as
land that is fully exposed to the sun. By a little care,
wood lots may be set in this grass and pay a fair inter-
•est on capital invested.

Red Top does well on almost all soils, but will thrive
-on soil so wet as to be unfit for other purposes. Like
blue grass, it bears tramping well, and on rich soil will
produce a heavy crop of very fair hay, which though not
quite equal to timothy hay, can be produced on land not
fitted for that crop. For pasture, it is fully as accepta-
ble to stock as the average of grasses.

Red top should be sown on a mellow and level surface.

*Where tor any reason there is difficulty in geting a start of
blue grass from the seed, this plan may prove valuable ; but in
ordinary cases I should imagine that the labor would cost more
than the seed. R. s. t.

GKASSES. 12^

as it is a delicate seed, and will need no covering, as the
rains will wash it in sufficienth". It niaj^ be sown at the
time wheat is put in, and if sown alone, two bnshels of
seed is none too much; but as, like blue grass, it is per-
manent and will spread, it is better to seed with one
bushel (fourteen pounds) of red top and six quarts of
timothy.

Orchard Grass. — Though coarse, tlds grass makes
good ha}' and better pasture. Cattle are very fond of it,
and chemical anal3^sis shows it to be richer in flesh-pro-
ducing elements than timothy, and nearlj^ as rich lu. fat-
producers.

It is a good grass to sow in connection with red clover,
as it ripens earl}-, j^revents the clover from lodging, and
makes it easier to cure. It thrives best on a ricli, wari»
soil, and seems specially adapted to creek bottouis.

Orchard grass may be sown in either fall or spring;
should be sown on a well prepared surface and covered
lightly. The fertilizer attachment to the wheat drill
will sow it evenly and well, if not in use for fertilizer>s.
To prevent the forming of stools, heavy seeding is re-
quired, and it will pay to apply two and a half bushels
to the acre.

In seeding down land to permanent pasture, the best
results are obtained from a mixture of blue grass, red
top and orchard grass. Stock thus gets a varietj of
food; and on broken lands, which are the kind that
should be chosen for this purpose, there is nsnallv a
large variet}' of soil, and if one kind fails on any partic-
ular portion of the field, one of the other varieties will
succeed and prevent a barren spot.

There is much pasture land which yields no profit to
the owner, and which loses, rather than gains, fertilitj,
on account of too early pasturing in spring and over

126 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

stocking. A plant continually kept cropped close to the
ground, can develop but little root, and the roots are the
source not only of a heavy growth, but also of fertilit3\
Better sow a field of rye for early feed than turn stock
on pastures before the grass has fairly started.

Timothy. — For the regular hay crop, no grass has ever
been found superior to this. It usually brings a higher
price in market than any other. It is not suitable for
permanent pasture, as it usually runs out in two or three
years; but it makes an excellent part in a rotation, and
leaves the land in good order for corn or wheat.

Timothy is usually sown with wheat or oats, and most
•drllLs are now provided with grass seeders. I would sow
not less than a peck to the acre. This is rather more
than is commonly used, but I am satisfied that a heavier
«tand of grass can be obtained, and as the statistics
show that the average hay crop of Ohio is but one and
■one-sixth tons, it is evident that something needs to be
•done in the matter.

Bone dust is an excellent fertilizer for grass, and it
will be well to use about two hundred pounds to the
acre in sowing wheat with timothy. The occasional ap-
plication of the same amount as a top dressing to mead-
ows, will doubtless be found beneficial in most localities,
and it will pay each farmer to determine by experiment
what its efi'ect will be on his farm.

MAKING HAY.

The question of the time to cut hay has been debated in
granges and farmers' clubs till it has grown monotonous.
A few simple principles, however, will settle the gen-
eralities of the question, and after that each farmer can
determine the details for himself.

Immature plants do not contain as much nutritive mat-
ter as those that have nearlj^ arrived at maturity, nor are

GRASSES. 12T

the}^ eas}^ to cure. When the seed is allowed to ripen in
the plant, a large portion of the nutritive matter in the
plant goes into the seed, and the plant itself remains^
little more than a mass of woody fiber.

The time to cut hay, then, would seem to be just after
the blossom has fallen and before the seed has ripened.
Some persons cut while in bloom. This makes very
dusty hay.

Some claim that a timothy meadow will not run out
so soon if not cut until the seed ripens. This is true,
but only so because in harvesting a large amount of
the seed shatters out, and the ground is practicall}^ re-
seeded. This is seeding the ground, however, at the ex-
pense of the value of the crop of ha\\

ANNUAL GRASSES.

Some of these are of considerable importance to the
farmer, especially wlien, from any reason, the meadows
are short, as they can be sown late and usually yield
heavy crops of hay — not quite equal in value to timothy,
but very useful in its place.

Hunoarian o^rass and German millet are the best
known. They should not be sown until the ground is
quite warm, usually the first of June, though in some
sections they can be grown successfully when sown in„
July. Good crops have been grown on land from which,
a crop of wheat had just been cut.

Work the ground thoroughl}^ and seed heavily — three
or four pecks to the acre — as with thinner seeding the
plant will be coarse. Cover with a plank drag, which,
will press the seed into the earth and insure quick
germination, and also leave a smooth surface for the
mower to run on.

CHAPTEE XIII

CLOVER.

ITS A'ALUE ON THE FARM.

In estimating the value of a crop of any kind, many
items have to be taken into consideration. These in-
clude not only the money value of the crop after it is
produced, but the cost of its production and the effect
npon the soil. To the cost of seed and labor used in
growing a crop of wheat or corn must be added a cer-
tain amount to cover fertilizing elements that have been
taken from the soil, and which must be replaced if the
land is to continue productive.

I estimate the cost of growing and harvesting an acre
of corn or wheat at $8. Of course this will vary with
varying circumstances, T)ut in most cases this will prob-
ably not be too high an estimate.

There is much more difficulty in determining the value
of the fertility taken from the soil l)y a crop of grain,
but I should say that $2 per acre would be about a fair
charge. By this I mean that it would cost that much to
restore it, either by barn-yard manure or commercial
fertilizers. This would allow $12 worth of manure spread
nver an acre of land once in six j^ears. This would cer-
tainly not be any more than sufficient to maintain its
fertility under continued cropping with grain, and my
estimate of $2 per acre for plant food removed by a crop
of grain is therefore certainl}^ not too high.

This will make the cost of orowing an acre of corn or

CLOVER. \21

v.iieat $10. Allowing tliat twenty bushels an acre, at $1
11 bushel would be a fair average yield and price for
wheat, and fifty bushels an acre and 40 cents a fair av-
erage yield and price for corn, the money value of the
crop on an acre would be, in either case, $20, allowing a
profit of $10 per acre on a crop of grain.

Now, we will compare this with the profit on an acre
of clover. The cost of seed and growing will not exceed
$1 per acre. A l)ushel of seed is sufficient for eight or
ten acres of land, and 10 cents per acre will cover tho
cost of sowing. Preparation of seed-bed costs nothing,
for ordinarily it is sown on wheat or oats and covered by
the action of frost and rains. Even if we harrow the
wheat field to give the clover a better chance, one-half
the cost should be charged to the wheat, which will be
greatly benefitted by the treatment.

Next, as to the removal of elements of fertility from
the soil : Instead of — as in the case of corn or wheat —
having to charge the clover with $2 an acre on this score,
we can actually give it a credit of $8 ])er acre for ele-
ments of fertility added to the soil. How this is done
will be discussed further on; the fact is sutficient for my
present purpose. To prove that this is a reasonable esti-
mate, it is sufficient to say that exi)erience has abun-
dantl}^ demonstrated that a crop of clo\^er will restore to
the soil as much fertility as is taken away by four years
cropping with grain. Now, as we demonstrated that it
would take at least barn-yard manure to the A^alue of $8
to do this, then this is the lowest estimate we can place
on the manurial value of this crop.

Next, as to the market value of a crop of clover; for it
must be kept in mind that the above estimate of its ma-
nurial value is made with the supposition that the crop
is pastured or utilized as a meadow. Mr. Colburn, in
9

130 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

his book on Swine Husbandry, estimates that six tons
of green clover can be grown on an acre, and fifteen
pounds will make a pound of pork. Valuing the pork at
4 cents a pound, would give the value of an acre of clover
when pastured at $32. This is undoubtedly^ an extrav-
agant estimate.

L. N. Bonham, who has made this matter a careful
study for years, estimates the value of an acre of clover,
when pastured to cattle or hogs, at $9, and this is prob-
ably a fair estimate; and if, instead of pasturing, it is
cut twice — once for hay and once for seed — the net value
of an acre, after deducting the cost of harvesting, will
certainly not be less than this.

We have now the data from which to reckon the value
to the farmer of an acre of clover :

Net market value of crop $ 9 00

Value of fertilizing elements returned to soil .... 8 00

Total, $17 00

Less cost of seed and cultivation 1 00

Net profit per acre $16 00

For facilit}^ in comparison, I now repeat the estimate
on an acre of grain :

Net market value of crop $20 00

Less cost of cultivation $8 00

" fertility removed from soil 2 00 — 10 00

Net profit $10 00

Which shows $6 more profit on an acre of clover than on
an acre of grain. To this might be added that the clover
stubble is loose and mellow and free from weeds.

While of course clover cannot take the place of crops
of grain, yet this estimate shows very clearl}' its value
to the farmer, and the important place it occupies among
the crops of the farm.

CLOVER. 131

HOW CLOVER ADDS TO THE FERTILITY Ol*' THE SOIL=

^lany persons are greatly puzzled to understand how-
it can be that a crop of clover can be grown, and yield a
<;'rop of hay and crop of seed to be carried away, and still
add fertility to the soil. A little thought will, I think,
make it clear. I have already, in other chapters, alluded
to the influence of shade on the soil, in causing the de-
posit of nitrogen; and perhaps there is no crop grown
on the farm which produces so dense a shade as clover.
Its abundant foliage takes in carbonic acid from the at-
mosphere, and the large roots penetrate deeply into the
Tsubsoil, bringing up and making available the valuable
mineral elements needed for our grain crops.

Clover is rich in valuable ash. A careful anal3^sis of
this ash gives the following result:

Phosphoric acid 7.5

Sulphuric acid 4.3

Carbonic acid 18

Silica 3

Lime 30

3Iagnesia , 8.5

Potash , . „ 20

Soda, chlorine and iron 8.7

Total, 100.0

The reader will understand that the above is an aver-
age of several different anal3^ses, as different samples
will vary according to the soil on which the}^ are grown.
The roots are still richer in ash than the tops, and
consequently, in the mineral elements needed, and when
we find out the proportion of root to top, we shall begin,
to understand wh}- the clover crop enriches the land,
even when cut for ha}^ and for seed. Carefully conducted
experiments have shown that the weight of roots is much
greater than of tops. Dr Voelcker, of the Roj^al Society

132 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

of England, selected an average square yard in a field of
clover that had been cut twice — once for ha}^ and once
for seed — and found that in the first six inches of the
soil the clover roots, after being washed and dried,
weighed one pound, ten and one-half ounces. This
would give, in round numbers, three and one-half tons
of clover roots in the first six inches of the soil, and, as
fully one-third of the roots lie l^elow this, we can esti-
mate over five tons of clover roots in the soil of a single
jicre. These experiments also showed that tlie weight of
the clover roots doul)led between the time the crop was
cut for hay and when it was cut for seed.

It has puzzled many farmers to understand how clover,
■which contains so large a per cent of the same valuable
elements which wheat does, could enrich the soil and
benefit the wheat crop as they find by practical experi-
jnent that it does. The fact of the large quantity' of
roots left in the soil, and that the clover gets its nutriment
so largel}^ from the atmosphere and the subsoil makes
clear what seemed mysterious.

There may be enough fertilizing elements for hun-
dreds of crops, lying in the soil, either out of reach of
the roots of plants, or in a form not available; and clover
i-eaches down and brings them up and renders them
available; just as there might be scattered over the
ground bones containing enough rich fertilizing mate-
rial for several heavy crops of wheat, but which the
plants could not use. If these bones are ground to a
powder and incorporated with the soil, they would then
be available to the plants.

So there are in the subsoil and air almost inexhausti-
l3le supplies of plant food, but which, like the unground
l)ones, are not available to the ordinary plant. The clover
seizes these elements and makes them available.

CLOVER. 133

In the beginning of this article I made an estimate of
the fertilizing yalue of an acre of clover from the prac-
tical standpoint Now let us see what the value would b«
from a chemical standpoint. The value of potash, am-
monia and phosphoric acid as contained in commercial
fertilizers, is usually estimated to be:

Ammonia 171 cents sP ft>.

Potash 6^ "

Phosphoric acid 6 " "

From a careful comparison of a number of tables, I
estimate that the roots of an acre of good clover will
<.'i>ntain :

Ammonia 145 lbs. @ 17^ cents, $25 37

Potash, 140 lbs. @: 6^ cents, 8 40

Phosphoric acid, 42 ibs. @ 6 cents, 2 52

$36 21>
This shows that m^- estimate from a practical stand-
point was not extravagant. It must be borne in mind^
howcA-^er, that a part of this value retained in the roots,
must be allowed to replace what was carried off in the tops,
and that of course a portion was gathered from the sur-
face soil. The real fertilizing profit is in that portion
that is drawn from the air and subsoil.

There is one other benefit of clover, dififlcult, perhaps,
to estimate, but which farmers are not slow to appreciate,
iind that is its mechanical effect ; and this does more
than make the land w^ork easily, for it also enables
the roots of other plants to traverse the soil and find
food, which they otherwise would be unable to reach.
Clover is also a cleansing crop, by which I mean that it
so fully occupies the land that it does not allow any
other plants to grow, and the seeds of many troublesome
plants will sprout and then be smothered by the dens(?
growth of clover, and perish.

134 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

GETTING A STAND.

If all said above is true of clover — and those who have-
liad the most experience with it, will testify to these
facts — farmers cannot well sow too much of it, and it
becomes a matter of moment to know how to insure a
stand. I believe that moderately early sowing will gen-
•erally be found the safest; but localities and seasons
vaiy so that no date can be given. It should be sown
early enough so as to l)e covered by the action of frost,
and 3-et not so early as to be in danger of heavy frost
after it comes up, as it is sometimes killed. If sown late,
after the probability of frost is over, it is best to harrow
the wheat, as this will give a better seed-bed for the
clover, and at the same time be of benefit to the wheat.
Many farmers are afraid of injuring the wheat in this
way, but I have used a heav}', sharp harrow without
injury. Perhaps it would be better to use the Thomas,
or some other slope-tooth harrow, and go over it both
ways; but I should use a common tooth harrow if I had
no other. It is of such vital importance to the farmer
to get a stand of clover, in order that his rotation may
not be broken up, that it will be profitable to take much
pains in sowing clover, and I think it will pay to sow
early and cross sow a little later, using, of course, but
half the seed at each seeding. Ordinaril}- both sowings
<;ome up and do well, but if the first sowing should be
killed by a late freeze, the second would be likely to do
well, and should the weather come on dry and hot, the
early seeding would be out of danger.

When the farmer saves his own seed and sows in the
chaff, as is often done, I would always recommend early
sowing, as the seed will be slower in germinating, and
the hull will also be a protection to the young plant.

The quantity of seed to the acre must vary some-

CLOVER. 135

what with the soil and condition of seed-bed ; but under
favorable circumstances a bushel will seed ten acres
well, and this is the amount of seed most commonly
sown. I prefer g-enerally to seed heavier, and I notice
that those who follow thrashing clover seed report the
heaviest yield from lieav}^ seeding, and some of them
recommend ten pounds to the acre.

SAVING CLOVER SEED.

I have no hesitation in advising farmers who can to
save their own seed. It is not only economical, but also
safe; for mau}^ farmers, by buying seed, have introduced
troublesome weeds, to the great detriment of their farms.
Much seed that is old and worthless, or that is adulter-
ated, is put upon the market, and doubtless man}^ farm-
ers who fail to get a stand, attribute it to the season, when
it is reall}^ caused by poor seed.

Clover seed is usually a profitable crop to grow for
sale, as good clover ought to average two bushels of seed
to the acre, and double this has often been grown; but
even when not grown for sale, the farmer can grow
enough for his own use, and sow it in the chaff, and
I think that when sown early in this way it is surer than
the clean seed. When a crop of seed is wanted, the
first crop should be cut early in June ; the second will
then be ready the last of August or first of September,
which will be Ixuown by three-fourths of the heads hav-
ing turned brown. It should be left by the reaper in
bunches large enough for a good sized fork full. Do
not let it stand till too ripe, or try to handle it much, or
vou will lose much of the seed. It is best to thrash
from the field in a dry time, as it is difficult to stack so
as to keep out the water, and it is too dusty to be pleas-
ant in the barn. The waste will be valuable in the
compost heap, or will make an excellent mulch for

136 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

the wheat or an3'thing to which joii wish to apply it-

CLOVEK HAY,

Is excellent feed, especially for milk cows, but may be
greatl}' injured, either by too much drying or too much
wet. If dried too much, the leaves crumble, and the
best part of it is wasted; or if left out in the rain, or
put in the mow so green as to mould, it is unwholesome
and unpalatable. After clover is fairly wilted, it should
be cured in small cocks. It may be put in the barn
quite green, if you have dry, old hay, or straw, or corn
fodder to put between the layers, as they will absorb the
moisture. If clover is cut green, it cannot be safely put
in the barn with one day's curing without an absorbent.

VARIETIES OF CLOVER.

For general purposes, the common red is the best va-
riety; but my experience with the Mammoth has been
favorable, and I recc)mmend farmers to experiment with
it. It makes a larger growth of top and of course of
root, and when the crop is grown with reference to its
value for manure, it will certainly furnish a greater bulk
than the common red. When the season is dry, it makes
excellent hay, but in a wet season is apt to grow coarse
and woody, and so rank as to lodge and be badly injured.
I have cut three tons of it to the acre, cured, and the
hay was equal to any clover. Where a little clover is
wanted with timothy, it is best to sow this varietj^ as it
ripens about with that grass. One and a half or two
pounds of seed to the acre is enough when sown with
timothy, as, if vou get on much more than this, it will
smother it.

Alsike clover is a medium variety, finer than the com-
mon red, with heads half way in size between that and
white clover. It makes line hay, and will cut a fair
swath, and furnishes, like the white, good bee pasture.

CLOVER. 137

The seed sells at about 25 cents a pound, but it is so
:fine that much less seed than of red clover will sow an
acre. White clover is very seldom sown, but 1 think
farmers would find it profitable to sow on poor spots
where it is difficult to get a stand of grasses, or on
washy places on hillsides, as it is tenacious and seldom
killed out when it gets a foothold.

. The reader will notice that I have not recommended
plowing under the crop for enriching the land. It may
be profitable under some circumstances, but ordinarily
it will be worth more for other purposes, and as has been
^ilready shown, we get the mechanical eff'ect and a full
development of the roots, which are the most valuable
part when we utilize the crop both for hay and seed. I
would not, under any circumstances, plow under a heavy
growth of clover late in the season on land that w^as i4>
be sown in wheat. I have known in several instances a
total failure of crop from so doing. A moderate growth,
especially if plowed under early, is not objectionable;
but if a great mass is turned under late in the season, it
is impossible to get a proper seed-bed. If I wanted to
utilize the entire crop for the benefit of the land, I should
rather let it stand all the season, without either cutting
or pasturing, and if it was dry enough, so that it could
be burned off" by the last of August, I should burn it if
I intended to sow in wheat, and then mellow three or
four inches of the surface and sow the Avheat. The
largest crop of wheat I have ever heard of being grown in
Ohio, and which averaged over sixt3^ bushels to the
iicre, was where a field of Mammoth clover was burned.
I think I should burn this crop also in the spring, if I
were intending to follow with corn. Another way highly
xecommended, when the entire crop is to be utilized for
fertilizing purposes, is to cut the first crop and leave it

138 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

as it falls, allowing the second crop to grow up through it.

When pastured, clover should not be turned on too
f^arly or too heaA^ih' stocked, as if too closely cropped we
lose the benefit of shade and development of root, and
consequently its value as a fertilizer is greatl}' reduced.

One other point connected with the pasturing of clover
is, that it sometimes causes bloat or hoven in cattle, so
as to produce fatal results. Fortunately, I have had no
experience with it on my farm, but I remember when a
boy, my father lost a valuable cow, and I have known
cases where a farmer has lost several head in a season.
It is not prudent to turn hungry cattle into a clover field
the first time in the spring, when the dew is on in the
morning. I have talked with many farmers on this
subject, and find that I can never hear of a case of
,bloat when the pasture contains a strip of blue grass or
timothy, and as my pastures have alwa3^s contained other
grasses as well as clover, this may be the reason I have^
escaped it. Another preventive, which many farmers
consider infallible, is to have a straw stack in the fields
to which the cows can have access.

CHAPTEK XIY

POTATOES.

While potatoes should find a place on eveiy farm, there
iire serious drawbacks to growing them largely as a field
crop. The}^ cannot, like grain, be kept over a year or
more; but must be sold, whether the price gives a profit
or not. It is a risky crop, also, more easily affected by
drought, and often entirelj^ ruined by continued wet
weather; and as potatoes must be wintered in the cellar
or in pits, they are far more expensive to handle than
grain.

Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the crop is a
profitable one to the farmer who understands its proper
management, and who follows growing it persistently,
not allowing himself to be frightened into abandoning it
by a failure or unprofitable season. It is certainly a safe
estimate that two bushels of potatoes can be grown on
the same land which would produce one of corn, and at an
average price of 40 cents per bushel, the farmer would
find them profitable.

There seems to be a tendenc}^ to degeneration in the
potato, which results, where a variety is planted for
many years on the same soil, in " running out." But by
^election and h3^bridizing, new and more valuable va
rieties are as constantly being produced, which replace
those which have to be abandoned.

It would be useless for me to give a list of varieties,
for not only is their name legion, but each neighborhood

140 SUCCESS TN FAKMIN(r.

has its favorites, and the variety tliat does the best in
one locality may not succeed in anotlier. The farmer
who would succeed with potatoes, sliould test some of
the newer and more promisino- varieties each 3'ear, and
while he is thus ''proving ail things" should also "hold
fast that which is good." A single pound of seed will,
if properly managed, produce a busliel or more, and en-
iible him to test the ([uality and grow enough the second
year to plant a field.

The first rec^uisite for growing a profitalde potato crop
is a rich soil, and as the principal mineral element wanted
is potash, and clover not only furnishes it, but also
gives just the mechanical condition of soil wanted, a
<;lover sod makes an excellent potato patch. The earliei-
the variety of potato the richer the land should be, for
the less time a plant has in which to gather its food,
the more concentrated and readily jivailable that food
must be. A variety of potato, which, like the Peach-
blow, does not mature till late in the fall, will produce
paying crops on poor land, on which an early variety
would scarcely produce a crop worth digging.

I believe in deep planting of the potato, and always
use, for laying off potato land, a shovel plow with a long
point, which not only makes a deep furrow, but leaves
loose earth in the bottom of it. I then step on the seed,
pressing it down to the bottom of the furrow, cover with
the plow, and before the potatoes come up, cross harrow.
This kills the weeds which are starting, and loosens the
soil, and if it does not make it sufficiently level and
smooth, we put on the roller, for as soon as the potatoes
can be seen in the row, we want to work as close to them
us possil)le.

For early ]»otatoes, I prefer to plow in the fall and ma-
nure at the surface, and in the spring work this manure

POTATOES. 141

into the soil liefore planting.* The best remedy I have
ever found for the Colorado Beetle is a thrifty plant; and
I have never had the crop materially injured if the
ground was rich, the cultivation thorouofh, and the sea-
son o^ood. If the weather is drv, so as to check the
growth, it may be necessary to use Paris green, and I
very much j^refer to use in water. A single application
made in this way, using less than two pounds to the
acre, during the dry summer of 1881, saved my crop, as
was proven by the fact that the adjoining rows, left
without this application, were entirely ruined.

I believe that as a rule, farmers use too much seed.
One piece with two good eyes in a liill is suthcient. I be-
lieve the best way to save seed is to select each year verr
carefully, a bushel of '' stock seed." They should be
fair, large tubers, as near perfect as can be found; from
these select tubers grow your seed for the coming 3^ear,
and from their product again select your '' stock seed.'^

I have conducted some xavy careful experiments,
which prove that a fine crop of large potatoes can be
grown from ver}' small seed, and while 1 recommend the
plan given above for selecting seed, I do not hesitate
when potatoes are scarce and liigh, to plant ver}- small
seed.

M}^ first experiment was in 1857. I had grown a yery
fine crop the previous year, and did not sell till springs
and when marketing in April, I selected one bushel of
the most perfect potatoes I could pick out of one hun-
dred bushels. I rejected any potato that weighed less
than a pound, or that had a blemish or rough place on

*0m' most successful potato-growers are very particnlar
about having the soil as rich as possible, and consider it a crop
that not only can scarcely be manured too much, but that ie^
crops pay better for being mtmured. k. s. i»

142 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

it I then selected a half peck of the meanest little po-
tatoes I could find. Not one of them would have weighed
an ounce, and where I could I broke off the protuberances
from the rough, knobby potatoes. I planted five rows
side by side from each kind of seed, gave them the same;
cultivation, and when I dug them put them in two piles
side by side, and called four men who were building a
barn near, to examine them, telling them of the selection
of the seed, but not which pile grew from the large or
:sraalL The three journeymen said they could see no
difference in quality or quantity, but the boss carpenter
made a careful comparison and decided that the north
pile was of the best quality-, which I then told him grew
from the small seed.

In the spring of 1860 potatoes were high and I found
that I had not seed to finish what I wished to plant, and
I used as seed some veiy small potatoes, which I had
put in the cellar to cook for the pigs. I planted about
lialf an acre.from this seed. The crop grown from them
was an excellent one, both in yield and quality. Somt^
j^ears later I planted a row of Early Rose potatoes from
seed so small that it took ten to weigh an ounce, and the
adjoining row from good sized seed, and found no differ-
ence in the 3'ield.

I consider it important that the seed should be fresii
and plump. I do not like a sliriveled potato for seed ;
it does not start the plant with vigor; and I think it
much better to winter seed potatoes in pits than in
the cellar. If the soil is dry, or slopes so as to giv(i
good surface drainage, there is no trouble in wintering
in pits, and there is much less labor about it than in
carrying them into and out of the cellar. Much time
can be saved in handling potatoes by assorting as they
are dug. Let the men who follow the diggers pick up

POTATOES.

143

only the mercluintable potatoes and pour them into sacks,
only one bushel to the sack. When 3^ou are ready to
haul them to the pit, two men can load or unload a
wagon in loss than t.ii minutes, and the potatoes will
not be so l'-:.'ly to be bruised. I am particular about
haying but one bushel in a sack, for then they will not
need to be tied, and it v.ill not take as long to load and
unload as it would to tie and untie the sacks, and thej'
can be handled with much greater ease. *

In pitting potatoes, I prefer to put no straw next to
them. If I have a supply of good coarse manure, I cover
simply with eighteen inches of mellow earth, and as soon
as the ground freezes so as to bear a team, put a foot of
manure over them. If I do not use manure, I cover with
six or eight inche of earth and then a coat of straw and
eighteen inches of earth over that. I consider this safer
than to have the straw next the potatoes, for if the straw-
gets damp, as it is likely to, and the frost reaches it,
it is pretty sure to go through it, but is not likely to pene-
trate the second covering of earth.

As there is both labor and risk in wintering potatoes,
■and it is impossible to know what the price will be in
spring, I think it safest to sell in the fall — at least half
the crop, if a pacing price can be had. I once wintered
four hundred bushels of potatoes that I was offered 80
cents a bushels for, and in the spring I could not get an
offer, and was obliged to feed them to stock. This ex-
perience made me cautious and I have never held over all
of a crop since. *

*A plan of growing potatoes much in use in some section-
is planting them under straw. The potatoes are planted shals
low and a foot of straw spread over the field. Another plan is
to simply lay the potatoes on top of the freshly plowed land
and cover with straw as before, though I have less seldom seen
this plan successful. The advantages are that the straw keeps

144 SUCCKSS IN FAKMIXG.

SWEET POTATOES.

I liave foTind sweet potatoes a uuifoniily profitable
i'l-o}).

Although the usual instructions are to plant on sandy
land, I have had the best success on a rather stitf clay,
and can alwa3^s confidently^ expect both a good 3^ield
and quality, even on thin land, if I have fine j'otted ma-
nure to give it a moderate dressing. The most success-
tul sweet potato-grower of my acquaintance does not
break his land, but ridges it. leaving the land hard un-
derneath. I should do this if it was not troublesome to
get the land fine and mellow when in this shape; but I
jjrefer to plow shallow — not over four inches — and stir
and roll until the soil is perfectly pulverized and tlie ma-
nure thoroughly mixed. I then nuike small ridges ]»y
throwing two furrows together with a one-horse plow,
and leave a little strip of earth between the ridges, as we
tshall want it to dress the plants with when we come to
lioe them.

Most sweet potato-growers plant in a row on thi.s
ridge, and it saves time, for you can get the soil in such
excellent order that you will not need to touch it with a
hoe. I am convinced, however, from repeated compari-
son of hills and drills, that it will pay to make small
hills. A hand will make from twelve to fifteen hundred
in a day, and I find the potatoes are larger and the yield
greater in hills than in drills. I make the hills about
three feet apart each way, a little more between the rows,

down the weeds, saves cultivation, and undoubtedly enriches
the land. In Southern Illinois where I have tried the x^lan
year after year the straw would always be so fully rotted at the
end of the season, that it gaxe no tr(nil)le. In the drier atmos-
phere of Ohio I find this is not always the case. The plan usu-
ally gives a rather smaller crop than when cultivated, but
more goo<l potatoes. k. s. t.

SWEET POTATOES. 145

and a little less in the row, and this gives nearly five
thousand hills to the acre, and a pound of merchantable
potatoes to the hill makes over eighty bushels to the acre.

We have several objects in view in this shallow plow-
ing and small hills : First, they warm through better,
and the sweet potato being a tropical plant, cannot flour-
ish in a cold soil. The weather is rarely too hot or too
dry for this crop. Second, we want the potatoes to grow
thick instead of long, and when they reach the hard soil
underneath, it checks the lateral growth and gives a bet-
ter shaped tuber ; and, third, in growing thick instead of
long, they crack and loosen the hill, and this keeps it in
good condition after the vines haA^e spread so that cul-
tivation is impossible.

I think it pays to keep the vines on half the ground,
keeping every other space clear. This gives the hills
more sun, and it is much easier to dig the potatoes, and
enables you to bury all the vines as you dig. We use
the potato hook in digging, and one stroke to a hill will
generally do the work. In digging, take two rows at a
time, walk on the vines and draw the hills towards you
from each side, and by a little trouble you can bury
every leaf.

KEEPING SWEET POTATOES.

I have found that if sweet potatoes are mature and
thoroughly" dried, there is no trouble in keeping them
in a dry cellar nearly all winter, but they should be
handled as carefully as eggs, for if bruised they are
sure to rot. The potatoes which I intend to keep
for winter use I spread out singly in the hottest sun-
shine for two or three days, and then pack in barrels,
with dry sawdust between the layers. Immature sweet
potatoes are not wholesome, but when thoroughly ripened
they are an excellent article of diet.

- 10

146 .SUCCESS IX yAK3iiN(;.

SPROUTING SWEET POTATO I :s.

If you intend to grow sweet potatoes iii any quantity,
you should always grow your own plants. With even
fair success, it will be much cheaper than buying them,
but even if it cost more I would recommend it, as better
plants can be grown, and then j^ou can take advantage
of morning and evening or a damp day to transplant,
and the plants will always be fresh. Most of those who
grow plants for sale crowd them in the bed until they
are spindled and weak; but in growing for yourself j^ou
can regard quality rather than quantity, and give them
plenty of room.

It took me ten years to learn to sprout sweet potatoes,
during which time I lost a part or all my seed nearly every
year. For man}" years I have been uniformly success-
ful, and I believe I can give instructions which will ena-
ble the novice to be successful from the start. I think
nine times out of ten when sweet potatoes rot in the bed,
it is from an excess of heat, and if you have as much
bottom heat as you need, and allow the sun to heat up
the bed from above, it is almost certain to result in
scalded potatoes. I have never lost the potatoes or failed
to get a good sprout since I adopted the plan of covering
the bed with straw or corn fodder. This enables me to
control the temperature, and also keeps the bed moist,
so that it will need no water until the plants begin to
come up, when we remove the covering and do not re-
])lace it; l)ut if there is danger of frost, cover the bed
with boards. If at any time you find the bed lacks heat,
take olf the straw at nine or ten o'clock on a bright,
sunny day, and sometime ]>etween twelve and two, when
you find it warmed up, replace it. I make a sweet po-
tato bed flat, and put hot manure one foot deep, and two
feet wider and longer than my frame which I put OQ

SWEET POTATOES. 147

the manure. If you put the manure in the frame, the
«outer edges of the bed are likely to be cold . The ma-
nure must be thoroughly shaken up, so as to have na
lumi^s, and must be well packed, but instead of tramp-
ing it, take two short pieces of board, and moving one
<Mliead of the other alternately, pass from end to end*
si)ringing up and down on the boards. This will pack
it evenly. For a frame use inch boards one foot Tvide.
A convenient size for the bed is six by sixteen feet,
Avhich will hold, as ordinarily put in, one barrel of pota-
toes. There should be four inches of earth between the
potatoes and the manure, and three inches above themy
and the seed should never be put in the bed until it is
al>out blood heat. Water copiously when the plants are
voming up, but it will harden them to withhold water
when they are large enough to set out; but the bed should
l)e well soaked a few hours before the plants are drawn.
If you do not break the roots of the potatoes in taking
up the plants, you will have a second drawing in about-
two weeks.

The usual time for putting the seed in the hot bed is
the middle of April ; but if early potatoes are wanted, a
few should be started in March and transplanted into
small pots, and these plunged in a fresh bed, b}^ which
means some weeks can be gained. Sweet potatoes bear
transplanting w^ell, and if the land is in good condition
iind plants properly set, nearly all will grow. In setting
out the plants, puddling is much better than watering,
besides being less trouble. In making the puddle use
fresh cow dung and enough clayey soil so that ii will
adhere to the roots. Stir and thicken until it is of a
consistency to coat the roots thickh' wdien dipped into
it. Put one plant in a hill; set it deep and crowd the
earth so tio^ht at the roots that if vou take hold of a leat*

148 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

and give a quick jerk, a piece of the leaf will break out
instead of the plant coming up by the roots, then with
hands on each side of the hill, draw up the mellow earth
so as to leave but an inch or so of the plant above ground,
and almost every plant will grow. In cultivating, alt
that is necessary, if you have followed my directions, is
to keep down the weeds, for the potatoes, when they
grow, will crack the hill and make it loose.

CHAPTEK XV.

RYE ON THE FARM.

ITS VALUE AND USES.

I do not consider lye a profitable crop to grow for
grain, and usually prefer to hiij my seed rather thap. to
raise it, and 3'et as a crop I value it highly.

It is hardy, useful for a great man}" purposes, and can
be grown at but little expense.

I have already spoken of it as a green manure and of
the fact that it can be grown for this purpose between
two crops of corn without losing the use of the land a
season. The straw brings in our cit}" markets nearly as
much as the best timothy hay, and the market is ncA^er
-overstocked with it.

The railroads refuse to carry rye straw unless baled,
but the farmer who lives near a city so that he can
wagon it to market will find it a ver}^ profitable crop.

Rye is of great value for pasture, and stock can be
turned on it two weeks before any other pasture is ready
and it will furnish a large amount of feed. Sometimes,
on account of a dry spring, we fail to get a stand of grass
or clover, and this is a great disadvantage, as our rota-
tion calls for the pasture field of one year for the corn
field of the next. Rye helps us out of the difficulty. We
can- plow the stubble field and seed with rye and timo-
thy, or take the stubble field for corn or wheat, and seed
a corn field with rye and timothy for the pasture. The
rje will furnish early feed, and the timothy will not be

U50 SUCCESS IN FAinilXG.

damaged }>y the tramping, and by the time the lye is too
<oM, will furnish good food.

l^ye is useful in preventing washing. If a gully has
started in a pasture, rye ean be scattered on the bottom
and sides, and when it starts to grow it will protect the
young grass and hold the soil until a sod forms.

Rye straw makes the best possible material for l>ind-
tng corn fodder.

Early cut rye straw is an excellent food for horses,
when cut up. It is soft, bright, free from dust, nutri-
tious, and makes a good substitute for sheaf oats.

I have seen a statement of two crops of r3'e grown in Mas-
sachusetts, that produced over four tons of straw to the-
acre. This was the result of liberal manuring and heavy
seeding.

CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

The cultivation of lye is extremeh' simple. It should
be sown at the same time of year as wheat, but the exact
date of planting is of much less importance. It can be
sown among corn immediately after the last plowing, if
the cultivation has been continued late, and left to take
care of itself; and I have made a good crop when sown
so late in the fall that it did not come up till the ground
thawed the following spring. It will grow even though
only scattered on the surface of the land and left uncov-
ered, though of course it is better to treat it with more
care.

I have seen the statement, though I could not vouch for
its truth, that rye scattered broadcast on a tough
prairie sod will grow, and so completely root out the
jprairie grass that the land can be readily plowed the
following year. Land must be poor, indeed, on which
Tje -will not grow; but of course when grown as a fertil-
izing crop, the more barn-3'ard manure can be applied a^

RYP. ON THE FARM. 151

a top dressing at seeding, the greater will be the im-
provement of the land. When sown for grain, I would
sow from three to four pecks to the acre; for straw or
pasture, somewhat heavier, and for fertilizer, as much as
three or four bushels to the acre.

I always cut rye when in blossom, which, in my lati-
tude, is from the middle to the last of May. The straw
is tougher and more pliable if cut then than if the grain
is allowed to ripen; and moreover, in using the straw for
bands in tying fodder, a^ou will not get the corn field
seeded down to rye, which is a great drawback if you
sow wheat on your corn land. I never could get rye
straw thrashed so clean that it would not scatter seed
afterward, if the grain had been allowed to ripen.

If clover is sown witli therj^e, the early cutting I have
recommended gives the clover a long summer in which
to develop, and it will make quite a crop to turn under
for corn the next year.

I should expect land to steadily improve, growing a
crop of corn and a crop of rye straw alternate years, pro-
vided clover was sown with the rye.

CIIAPTEE Xyi

SPECIAL CROPS.

There are quite a number of crops, whicli, though not
grown on every farm, are nevertheless in many cases
profitable.

BARLEY.

The same rules laid down for wheat will be applica-
ble for barley.

OATS.

. Like wheat, oats require a compact seed-bed, and on
corn land it is best not to plow, but simply to cultivate
the soil with some of the improved harrows or pulver-
izers, until the surface- is thoroughly mellow. Even on
stubble land some of the best crops have been grown by
simph' cultivating with the double corn plow, or harrow-
ing and cross harrowing with the Randall Harrow, or
some similar implement. The great ix)int is a compact
seed-bed with a well pulverized surface.

Sow as earh" as the ground can be worked. I once
sowed in February on a piece of flat clay land, and the
month following was so excessively wet that the land
was like mortar, and the weather then turned cold, snow
fell, and thermometer went down to eight degrees above
zero, and yet I got a good crop.

FODDER CORN

Can be made a crop of much greater value and impor-
tance than some farmers are inclined to believe. There
should be at least a small patch grown on every farm, so

SPECIAL CKOPS. 153

•as to furnish the cows feed in case of a dry spell and
consequent short pastures. I believe that an acre of
land will produce more food in this crop than in any
other that can be grown on it.

But by fodder corn I do not mean sowed corn, which
I consider ver}^ poor food for stock. Sowed corn has to
be cut while immature, and therefore innutritions, and
is Aery troublesome to cure.

Fodder corn, planted as I shall recommend, will de-
velop so as to make sweet, nutritious food, and in fa-
vorable years will mature small ears, which will greatly
add to its value.

George Waring, in his experience with dairy stock on

Ogden Farm, was so pleased with it that he wrote :

" Corn for grain, never ;
Corn for fodder foreA'er ! "

Fodder corn may be planted quite late. I have grown
heaA-y crops on land from which the early potatoes had
been dug; but June is about the best time. It is most
easily planted with a drill; and with a force-feed wheat
drill from two to three roAvs can be planted at a time.
The rows should be three feet apart, so as to admit of
C'ultivation. Do not get it too thick in the rows

Blount's Prolific is the most profitable A^ariety for fod-
der, as it produces several small ears to the stalk and a
large quantity of blades. Stowell Evergreen is excel-
lent, but any field variety' will do.

As soon as fully grown, and the ears beginning to
harden, fodder corn can be cut up and shocked as other
^orn, and when cured can be stacked or hauled into the
barn.

BROOM CORN.

This crop requires a large amount of labor, but is
£>ften verA' profitable. The man with a small farm will

154 SUCCESS IN FAKMIXG.

sometimes find emplojanent for winter and largely in-
crease his profits by growing this crop and manufac-
turing it himself The machinery for manufacturing
costs but a few dollars, and the business is easil}^ and
quickl}^ learned.

Broom corn requires a warm, rich soil. The best corn
and barley land is suited to it, and it is ver}' imtxjrtant
that the field be clean, as the plant comes up small and
weak and starts rather slowly.

Be sure to have good seed. I would put it in water,_
and reject all that would not sink, even though it took
ten bushels of seed from which to get one.

Do not plant till the weather is settled and the ground
warm. I prefer to plant by hand, in rows three feet
apart, making a hill every two feet in the row, with from
six to ten stalks in the hill. This gives much more la-
bor than drilling, but you save the subsequent labor
of thinning, and it is easier to cultivate and "table."

Cultivation should be thorough, and no weeds be per-
mitted to grow. If your land is clean and 3 ou have fen-
ders to your plow so as to enable 3'ou to get close to )X
while young, a crop can be grown without hoeing; but
it is better to hoe than to allow it to become weedy.

As soon as it is fuU^^ grown it is ready to cut, and the
brush will be worth nearly double what it will be If the
seed is allowed to ripen. Before cutting, it is "tabled"^
— by which we mean that two rows are broken about two
feet from the ground, so that the stalks fall diagonally
across each other and the brush projects into the inter-
vening spaces. When the brush is cut it is laid on these
'' tables," which form an excellent place for it to cure, as
the air can circulate through it and the water run ofl:'.
As soon as possible after cutting, it should be scraped and
cured in sheds on racks, as this makes it tough and pliable.

SPECIAL CKOPS.

loS'

A suppl}' of these racks must be kept on hand, and it
therefore does not paj' to grow broom corn unless you
expect to follow it regularly. These racks should be
moveable, so that the sheds can be used for storing fod-
der or other purposes, when not in use for the broom
corn.

An average crop is about five hudred pounds of cured
brush per acre ; but on good land this is sometimes dou-
bled. The price fluctuates greatl}'. I have known it ta
sell for three hundred dollars a ton, and as low as forty;
but it usuall}^ brings a paying price and can be easily
stored and held over when the price is too low.

NAVY BEANS

May often be grown at a profit, and leave the ground in
excellent condition for wheat. After the bean crop has
been harvested, the ground needs onh^ a thorough har-
rowing, and wall produce as heav}' a crop of wheat as
can be grown on it.

The land should be plowed early and Avorked occa-
sionally, to kill the weeds and get it in good condition.
I usually plant about the tenth of June, using the wheat
drill, stopping enough hoes to make the rows about two
feet apart. From three to four pecks of seed are re-
quired for an acre.

The crop should not be allowed to become weedy, but
will need little cultivation, as it will soon so shade the
ground that nothing else will grow. The beans usually
ripen about the first of September, but sometimes will
keep green a w^eek or two later. In this case they may be
pulled while the pods are yet green, and cured in the
barn, or stacked and cured in the field. To stack it,
set up a stake in the ground, sharp at the top. Arrange
some sticks of wood around the stake to keep the beans
off the ground, or put two long pins through it in oppo-

156 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

site directions, about a foot from the ground ; then slide
the beans down over the point of the stake till it is full
to the top. Unless the weather is exceedingly bad, they
will cure perfectly.

PUMPKINS.

I have found this a profitable crop for fall feeding.
They come in at a time when pasture is usually short,
and are a valuable feed for both cattle and hogs. Fed
to cows, they increase the flow of the milk, improve the
quality and the color of butter. There is a preva-
lent opinion that the seeds must be removed in
feeding to milk cows, or they will check the ftow of
milk, and there is considerable evidence to this effect;
but in a long experience I have not found this to be the
case.

For hogs they are not only highly fattening, but supply
the need for variety, enabling them to relish other food
better.

They are nsualh' grown in the corn field, a little* seed
being mixed with the corn in the hopper of planter or
drill ; but I prefer to grow alone, and as, with moderate
■care, they are wonderfully productive, a very small piece
of land ma\^ be made to produce all any farmer can use,
and the trouble of having them among the corn avoided.
By the use of manure in the hill, they can be grown on
•quite poor land.

Plant in hills eight feet apart each way, manuring lib-
erally^ in the hill if you wish a heav^^ crop. Use plenty
of seed, as it is cheap and not always certain. When
the plants are thoroughly established, thin to three in a
hill, which will be sufficient to cover the land. Do not
plant till the weather is quite warm and settled, my
best crops have been planted the last of May or first of
June.

SPECIAL CROPS. 15T

For variety, I prefer the yellow-ribbed, known as the
''Yankee Pumpkin," it is more productive than the va-
riety usually grown at the West, and the flesh being thin-
ner and less firm, cattle can eat them without chopping.*

ROOT CROPS.

More of these would be profitable on manj^ farms, and
are excellent food for dairy cattle; in fact, for stock of
almost ever}^ kind.

Mangolds, or sugar beets, are the best and most pro-
lific of all, and do not impart any objectionable flavor to
th3 milk of cows fed on them. Five hundred bushels to
the acre is a moderate yield, and more than double this
has been grown. The Yellow Globe Mangold is the best
on most soils ; but I would advise the beginner to try
different varieties and see which suits his particular soil
the best. It is well to begin any new crop on a small
scale, and increase as you gain experience.

They require rich land, and give a liberal return for
liberal manuring. Plow in fall into beds twelve to twenty
feet wide, and so arranged that the water will run ofi".
If 3"our manure is coarse, plow it under in fall, but if
fine and well rotted, save it and appl}^ as a top dressing
in the spring.

As early in the spring as the ground can be worked
nicely, mellow your beds and put in the seed in rows two
and a half feet apart. Plant just as early as the weather
will permit. I alwaj^s get them planted in March or

*We are surprised that Mr. Brown, with his Yankee extrac-
tion, should have failed to mention one of the great uses of the
pumpkin, namely, pumpkin pie. The great problem is, how
to keep them, so that this delicious article be not restricted to
Thanksgiving and Christmas. If a few choice sound pump-
kins be laid on a shelf in a dry cellar, safe from frost, and each
be turned over every day, they can in many cases be kept for
many months. The rotting of the pumpkin is caused by the
water in the flesh settling to one side. b. s. t»

35S SUCCESS IN FAKMINO.

April if possible. The frost will not injure them.

As soon as the plants are large enough, thin to one
foot apart in the rows, and if any vacancies are found,
fill them by tninsplanting. This early thinning is im-
portant, as the crop will be greatly damaged if not
thinned at the proper time.

Keep the land clean.

The distances I have recommended will give over sev-
enteen thousand plants to the acre, and at an average of
two pounds each, would furnish nearly six hundred
bushels.

The crop may be stored in the cellar, or pitted, like po-
tatoes. The best time to use them is the latter part of
winter, as they go through a ripening process which im-
proves them, and cattle are more in need of a loosening
feed at that time.

Turnips. — The common flat turnip is the easiest grown
of all the root crops, and I have sold single crops for
Jiiore than the land on which they w^ere grown was w^orth.
I have grown five hundred bushels to the acre, and often
two hundred and fifty and three hundred. When the
i'rop can be sold for anything over 20 cents a bushel, it
is very profitable, and I have sold them by the car load
lit 33 cents, and by the wagon load at 60 cents per bushel.
The crop can be grown so cheaply that if you get a fair
price once in three years and feed to cattle the other
years, it will pay to grow them.

The actual cost of growing and pitting when you get
u good yield, will not exceed 5 cents a bushel.

Mau}^ persons fail in growing turnips from lack of a
knowledge of the requisites of success. The essentials
are that the ground should be moderately rich, well com-
pacted, and mellow on the surface, and that the turnips
should come up quickly and get the start of the weeds.

SrECIAL CHOPS. 159

It is useless to sow turnips on the surface of a freshly-
plowed field. The more hard, beating rains it has after
plowing the better, but it must be free from weeds.

It was the practice in New England half a century
ago, to plow the turnip land in the spring, fold the sheep
on it all summer, and then merely loosen the surface
with a harrow sufficient to enable the seed to be covered.
This secured — the packing of the land by the tramping
of the sheep, its fertilization by their droppings, and
also protection from the turnip ilea, as the oil from the
wool destroys them.

I recentl}^ heard of this plan being tried in Ohio: A
piece of stubble land was plowed in Jul}', and the sheep
turned on it each night till planting time. Part of the
land being a little muddy, the sheep avoided it, and lay
every night on one side of the field. On that side a heavy
crop was grown, while on the side avoided by the sheep
the crop was entirely destroyed by the flea.

I like to plant on a clover sod, from which a crop of
clover has been cut. This should be plowed in June,
and repeatedly rolled and harrowed, for the double pur-
pose of getting a compact bed and destroying weeds. If
you can also fold sheep on it part of the time, as above
suo-wsted, of course so much the better. If the land
is poor, it should have, before planting, a light dressing
of well fined manure, or about two hundred pounds of
superphosphate per acre.

The best time in this latitude for sowing turnips is
the first week in August, but if the weather is favorable,
it will do to sow a week earlier or later. In a favorable
fall they will bottom if sown the first of September.

When the time for sowing has come, wait for a rain,
and as soon after the rain as the ground can be worked
without packing, sow, and cover by drawing a plank

160 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

over the land. This smoothes the surface, presses the
soil against the seed and insures quick germination. If
you are planting several acres, a horse can be hitched to-
each end of a sixteen-foot plank and a quick job made of
it. Many persons prefer planting just before a rain, so-
as to let the rain wash the seed into the soil. This saves
the labor of covering, but often loses the crop. The rain
forms a crust which prevents the plants from making a
thrifty start, and destruction by the fl}^ is often the con-
sequence; and if the plants do grow, the weeds get the
start with them. When sown as I direct, after a rain^
the plants come up thrifty and strong and get the start
of the weeds.

Turnips can be pitted in exactly the same manner a&
directed for potatoes.

They form an excellent feed for cattle, but in many
cases it is found that when fed to milk cows they im-
part a disagreeable flavor to the milk. It is claimed by
some that this can be avoided by onl}^ feeding them im^-
mediately after milking.

CHAPTER XVII

FRUIT ON THE FARM. '

THE VALUE OF FRUIT.

Every farmer can secure from fruit not only enjoyment,
but health and profit, and it has been a surprise to me
that so many of our farms are destitute of this luxurj-.

I see many farms on which an inventor}^ of the fruit
trees ■would show nothing but a neglected apple orchard
— which probably was planted before the owner was born
— a few sour cherries, surounded by a wilderness of
sprouts, and possibh^ a few seedling peaches, either in
the calf pasture, or allowed to grow in the fence corners,
where they will not take up room that could be used for
corn and potatoes.

Not only is an abundant supph^ of fruit a great luxury,
but it forms a cheap and healthful article of diet, and
one that can be enjoyed the whole year through, for a
constant succession may easily be secured from the time
we gather the first strawberries till the last clusters of
grapes are eaten, and then we can have the closets stored
with canned fruit, and the cellars filled with winter
apples.

The health of our people would be better if more fruit
was annuall}^ consumed.

Nor is it a difficult matter. The same care and com-
mon sense needed to produce a crop of corn will insure
success in the production of a crop of fruit.

In addition to the apple orchard, there should be a

162 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

fruit lot on every farm, containing cherries, pears, plums,
quinces and peaches. Raspberries, currants and straw-
berries should have their place, and grape vines should
cover the outbuildings, or run on trellises along the walks
and drives.

I have on my farm such a plat, containing less than
an acre, and for the past five ^ears it has not only sup-
plied all the fruit we could use in the family, and al-
lowed us to put up each 3^ear a liberal amount of canned
fruit, but we have also sold an average of over $60 worth
of fruit a year.

A curious fact connected with this last item is that most
of this fruit has been sold to farmers who could have
bought the trees and set out a fruit lot the same size as
mine for less than what they pay me each year.

FRUIT FOR PROFIT.

There is always a market for realh' fine fruit, and
fruit-growing is a business I would recommend to the
3'oung man of enterprise, if he is within reach of a good
market and will take the pains to make himself ac-
quainted with the business. A small amount of land
will bring a large income in good seasons, and if it con-
tain a general variety of fruit, some will be sure to pro-
duce every year.

Before planting largely, visit and consult with the
fruit-growers of your neighborhood. Even farmers who
grow little fruit may be able to give you valuable ad-
vice on the varieties to plant. It would be folly to plant
blackberries extensively where the rust prevailed, or
plums where there was black knot, or pears where
blight was destructive.

Were I going into the business, and had ten acres of
suitable land to plant, I would set one acre (160 trees)
in Early Richmond cherries, one acre (160 trees) in

FRUIT OX THE FARM. 163

f^hropsliire Damson plums, one acre (302 trees) in
<]ninces, one acre in grapes in variet}', setting the rows
north and south, and planting strawberries between.
One acre I would reserve for garden and experimenting
with new varieties of strawberries, and five acres I would
[>lant in winter apples and in peaches, giving 200 trees
of the former and 600 of the latter. I should not attempt
to set out all these in one yenv, nor in two; but should
put out each year what I could do well and take care of.
My reason for the proportion given is, that I know
how these trees succeed in my locality and the prices
they command in the markets I h^'e access to. Here
peaches bear fully half the years, grapes and quinces
nine years out of ten, cherries of the varieties named
four years out of five, and the Damson plums are reliable
bearers, though no other variety can be depended on.
Of course, in some other locality all this would be differ-
ent ; hence my advice to the beginner to carefully study
the peculiarities of his own location and market before
•commencing his orchard.

LOCATION OF THE ORCHARD.

■ A northern or eastern exposure is better than one to
the south. Hilly land, unfitted for cultivation, often
makes excellent land for fruit. The best land is a roll-
ing clay, with good natural drainage; the worst, for
most varieties of fruit, is a rich black loam or alluvial
soil.

Of course, when possible, the orchard should be near
the house, both for convenience of the famil}- and pro-
tection of the fruit.

SELECTION OF TREES.

The first need in tree planting is to get healthy young
trees, true to name. Be sure and buy of responsible
men. I would as soon trust a " three-card-monte" man.

164 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

as a fruit tree agent of whom I knew nothing. Thous-
ands of dollars are paid out every year for worse than
worthless stock, and at prices double what the best
stock could have been purchased for from responsible
men. And yet those who allow themselves to be thus
swindled seem to be shrewd business men in other trans-
actions.

After an experience of twenty-five years, during which
time I have set out and fruited over a thousand trees, I
can fully indorse the following advice, which I copy from
the catalogue of an experienced nurseryman :

PLANT YOUNG TREES.

They cost less at the nursery, in freight charges, also in
handling and planting.

They are surer to grow, having more and better roots in
proportion to the size of their tops. Large trees lose in moving
more of their fibrous roots.

Having less top and almost perfect roots, the small trees
become established sooner, and grow vigorously at once.

Making most of their growth on the ground where they
are to stand, the small trees soon ))ecome adapted to the soil
and location, and the planter can train them to such shape as
he desires.

If you give these young trees good care, you will not lose
any time, but will get a liandsomer and more valuable orchard.

We find that the most experienced and successful tree
planters will not buy large trees, but invariably prefer one-
and two-year old trees.

CHOICE OF VARIETIES.

I am indebted for the following list to my brother, B..
H. Brown, who, as a nurseryman and fruit-grower, has
made a careful study of the matter, and has tested every
variety named, as well as many which he has discarded.
This list is what he would recommend for family use;
but the beginner must remember what has already been
said about consulting the needs of his own locality.

Apples. — Early : Early Harvest, Benoni, Red Astra-
chan. Fall : Maiden Blush, Porter, Bellmont, Fall Wine,
Fall Pippin, Jersey Sweet. Winter : Yellow Bellflower,

FKUIT ON THE FARM. 165

Baldwin, Smith Cider, Rambo, White Pippin, Wine Sap,
Oolden Russet, Ben Davis, Rome Beauty, Rawles Janette,
Wagoner.

Peaches. — Troth's Early, Early Amsden, Crawford's
Early, Craw^ford's Late, Smock, Stump the World, Old
Mixon, Switzerland, Oxford Late, Heath Cling, Salway.

Pears. — Bartlett, Osband's Summer, Sheldon, Tyson,
Seckle, Clapp's Favorite, Lawrence. Duchess, Bloodgood,

Cherries. — Earl}^ Richmond, May Duke, Early Pur-
ple Quigne, Bowman's May, Elton, Black Tartarian, and
■Governor Wood.

Currants. — ^White Grape, Red Dutch, Versailes.

Raspberries. — Black: Gregg, Mammoth Cluster. Red:
Turner, Cuthbert.

Strawberries. — Cumberland Triumph, Sharpless,
Crescent Seedling, Charles Downing, Kentuck}^

Blackberries. — Lawton, Kittatinny, Snyder.

Grapes. — Hartford Prolific, Concord, Martha, Lady,
Catawba.

Plums. — Shropshire Damson.

Quince. — Orange.

The following list is for a large orchard, and gives the
number of each variety recommended for an orchard of
one thousand apple. Smith Cider 300, Wine Sap 200, Ben
Davis 200, Rome Beauty 100, White Pippin 100, Rawles
■Janette 100.

Of one thousand peaches, set Switzerland 200, Old
Mixon 150, Stump the World 150, Smock 150, Oxford
Late 100, Ward's Late 50, Gudgeon's Late 50, Troth's
Early 50, Salway 50, Heath Cling 50.

For one hundred pears, plant Bartlett 25, Duchess 20,
Beurre Clairgean 15, Clapp's Favorite 10, Flemish
Beauty 10, Seckle 5, Tyson 5.

For one hundred cherries, plant Early Richmond 50,

166 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

Elton 20, Black Tartarian 10, May Duke 10, Governor
Wood 10.

DISTANCES IN PLANTING,

Apples ma3^ be planted tliirt}^ three feet apart each
way; pears sixteen to twenty feet; peaches and plums
sixteen feet; small A'arieties, of cherries, such as Early
Richmond and Morello, sixteen feet; large heart cherries
twenty feet; quinces twelve feet.

In all cases, where the width of planting is less than
twent^^ feet, it is well to leave every fifth space twenty
feet, so as to enable you to drive through with the wagon
to haul in manure and haul out the fruit.

Where an apple orchard is to be planted, and you
wisli to grow peaches at the same time, the apples may
be set thirty-three feet apart each way, and peaches set
between, thus — the stars representing the apples and the
x's the peaches:

This w411 give on an acre 120 peach trees and 40 apple
trees, and by the time the apples spread so as to need
the room, the peaches will be out of the wa3\ In 1858 I
set an orchard of four hundred trees in this way, and was-
very successful with both peaches and apples.

FRUIT ON THE FARM. 167

PLANTING, CULTURE AND FRUNTLNG.

In planting, I dig a liole two spades deep, putting the
top soil on one side and the subsoil on the other. The
width must exceed the greatest spread of the roots.
When read}^ to set the tree, cut down the sides of the
hole so as to fill the bottom with fine and mellow top
soil until there is enough to make the tree stand at the
proper depth ; then fill in the surface soil, which has been
laid on one side of the hole for this purpose, carefully
sifting it among the roots, so as to leave no cavities, and
treading it down firml3\ When all the surface soil has
been put in, top out with the subsoil.

Cultivation. — For at least three years after planting,
cultivate j^our trees as well as }- ou do your corn. Thous-
ands of j^oung fruit trees are ruined every year for lack
of cultivation. Do not allow your small grain or tall
corn to grow among them, but plant beans, pumpkins,
potatoes, or some small variety of sweet corn. Especially
avoid small grain, but if you must plant wheat or oats
in your j^oung orchard, mulch lieaA'ily around the trees
for at least four feet each way from the tree.

After the trees are grown, all orchards still need cul-
tivation to some extent, excepting, perhaps, pears; and
some of our most successful growers of this fruit think
it is more likel3' to blight when the ground is cultivated
than when kept in grass.

The apple orchard should be plowed once in every
three or four years, but never deep enough to break large
roots. Mulching with old straw or coarse manure may
take the place of cultiA ation.

Quinces and pears I would keep cultivated every year
as long as they are kept bearing, but cultivation should
be shallow, and I would not attempt to grow any crop
among them after the third year. If three inches of the

168 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

soil is stirred, and no weeds and grass allowed to grow,
it is all that is necessary.

I think the cultivation can be done best with one
horse and a single shovel plow first, and then across
with one horse and a double shovel plow. Use a short
single-tree and let the chains be wrapped with thick
woolen rags. If the trees have branched out low, do not
drive too closely to them ; but after you have finished
plowing, take a light mattock and loosen the soil left un-
j)lowed next the trees. It will not be difficult if done
soon after a rain, when the ground is soft.

Pruning. — This should be attended to while the trees
are young. Always have a reason for every cut you
make. Keep in mind that your object is to produce an
open, symetrical top, well balanced and open to sun and
air, with branches that will not chafe each other. The
ideal for the underside of a fruit tree is an inverted um-
brella.

In the latter part of this book will be found a conve-
nient table, giving the number of trees or plants in an
acre.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

A well managed garden of a quarter of an acre can be
made to produce each season what would cost in market
a hundred dollars — and besides its money value, will be
a great addition to the farmer's table, relieving it of mo-
notony and adding to the health of his famih^

In view of these facts, it is strange how many farms
w^e see on which there is either no garden at all or else
where the garden is badly located, badly arranged and
badly cared for ; often allowed to grow up to weeds after
crops have been gathered till it becomes the worst spot
on the farm on which to grow crops requiring clean,
culture.

Every farmer ought to have a garden, and to have one
there are certain things absolutely necessary:

The soil must be warm and easily worked.

It must be rich.

It must be well drained.

It must be free from weeds.

And in addition to these it certainly ought to be con-
venient to the house.

If the soil is a heavy clay it will pay to draw sand
and black loam on to it. If on the other hand you have
to deal with a leachy sand the addition of clay will be a
benefit.

If starting on a new spot, I would spread on a quarter
acre ten loads of good manure in the fall and plow under

170 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

and add half as much more as a top dressing in the
spring. After this, a light coating of manure should be
given every year.

The garden spot must be well drained. In chapter
six you will find described the influence of under-
draining on land, and for the garden one of the most
A^aluable points is that it enables us to work the soil
earlier. In this, earliness is of paramount importance.

In addition to thorough underdraining, it is well in
the fall to plow into beds twelve or sixteen feet wide and
open the furrows so as to carry off all surface water. By
attention to these two points you will have your garden
ready for planting some weeks earlier in the spring.

To keep a garden free from weeds requires vigilance.
Cultivate thoroughly. Stir the soil as soon after a rain
as it is in fit condition, and destroy the weeds before
they get above the, surface. N'ever allow a iveed to go to
seed, and in a few years the labor of cultivation will be
reduced one- half.

Protection. — Drainage and fall plowing will assist
you in getting the garden planted early, but something
more is sometimes needed. The north and west winds
of spring are often cold, and a protection on these two
sides is a great advantage. Either a liigh tight board
fence, or a thick evergreen hedge will accomplish the
work , but if you do not care to be at the expense of a
fence, or wait for a hedge to grow, a very good and cheap
wind-break can be made with corn stalks. Set a row of
posts, and three or four feet from the ground nail a
cheap board on each side directly opposite each other.
Then set large strong corn stalks between these boards,
crowding them tightly between the space.

ARRANGEMENT AND CULTIVATION.

To economize space, and permit the use of the horse

THE YEGETAULE GARDEN. 171

or hand plow, plant everything in rows running the full
length of the garden. If of any vegetable an entire row
would give you too much, j^ou can plant one half
way and finish with something else.

With a garden laid out in this way, you can with a
hand plow — of which there are a great variety in use —
stir the whole quarter acre in an hour, while to hoe it
would require the greater part of a day.

For the appearance, and also to enable j^ou to get as
close as possible to the rows with the plow, use a garden
line and make your rows as straight as possible. With
a narrow shovel on your plow A'OU can mark out your
rows easily and rapidl}^, and with the line as a guide can
get them straight.

Planting and Rotation. — The planting season in the
garden in this latitude begins in February or March
and ends with early September. There are many plants
which on a well-drained soil will bear a veiy low temper-
ature without injuiy. I have often planted peas, beets,
radishes, spinach, onions and lettuce in February, and
had them do well though March was cold and bluster-
ing. Occasionally the beets and radishes will be killed,
but I have known them to escape though the ground was
frozen hard enough to bear up a wagon, and I have never
known the others injured b}^ cold though the mercury
has stood at only eight above zero.

Vegetables ought to follow each other in rapid succes-
sion, and as soon as one is done with, another should
take its place. Much of the garden may be made to
produce more than one crop a season. For example:
Cucumbers for pickles may follow peas, and turnips be
sown among the cucumbers. I have grown these crops
by the acre in this way and realized a full yield from
each. Melons, either w^ater or musk, may be grown on

172 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

the pea ground by leaving spaces for the hills, or start-
ing them in pots and transplanting when the peas are
past use. I usually grow Hubbard squashes on the
early potato patch, and succeed better with them than
when planted early. In beginning to dig the potatoes I
take up hills where I want the squash hills to be and
plant the squashes, and by the time the squash vines
get fairly to running, the potatoes can all be dug.

Winter cabbage can follow the earl}^ beans, and late
beans occupy the spot where the lettuce and spinach
stood. On the onion bed 3^ou can grow radishes, and
turnips can follow the sweet corn. Indeed, by a little
planning nearl}' the whole garden spot can be made to
grow more than one crop a year, and thus not onlv the
ground be made to pay liberally, but by the constant
cultivation secured the growth of weeds will be pre-
vented. In order to keep the land thus fully occupied,
and so give the weeds no chance it will be well if you
have a vacant spot and nothing to plant, to drill it in
sweet corn or even held corn to cut up and feed to the cows.

Keep the fruit garden separate from the vegetable
garden, and m it set out currants, raspberries, rhubarb,
grapes, etc. These have no place among the vegetablcvS
■and if placed there will very likel}^ be neglected and
weeds be allowed to grow around them to seed the re-
mainder of the garden.

The quarter of an acre of which I have spoken is suf-
ficient for vegetables only. When possible, it is well to
drain and fertilize an acre or more and thus have the
fruit garden and truck patch adjoining the vegetables.

I would not plant in the fruit garden anj'thing larger
than a quince bush, and would have the rows of rasp-
berries, currants, etc., eight feet apart, so as to allow of
(horse cultivation.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 173

With a plat of this size, sweet potatoes, sweet corn,
melons, cucumbers, squashes, and potatoes in quaatitjr
can be grown.

VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES.

These vary so much with locality and fancy that it
would be folly to attempt to lay down any positive rule,
but I will mention some which I have found superior.

Peas, — For the earliest plant Tom Thumb, Blue Peter
and McLean's Little Gem. The last is the best flavored
but the others earlier and very good if cooked when
young. They are all dwarfs, needing no supports. At
the same time plant Champion of England. This is a
tall variety and of the very best flavor.

This first planting, if made as soon as the land can be
worked will, in my latitude, give the first picking from
the 20th of May to 1st of June according to the season,
and will furnish a succession for about a month. A sec-
ond planting early m April, and a third two weeks later
will keep up an unbroken succession.

Many persons prefer to bush tall peas. I do not, and
get fair returns and they are grown in large quantities
for market garden in the same way. They fall over
when two or three feet high, and then turn up and grow
two or three feet more and bear good crops. I find it
cheaper to grow two hundred feet of row without bush-
ing than one hundred with, and get more than a half
crop.*

Dwarf varieties of peas may be planted in rows

*I think difference in climate must be taken into the count
in this matter. I am quite confident that tall peas in the warm,
moist climate of Southern Illinois would not produce any crop
at all if grown as Mr. Brown recommends, but would simply
mould and rot. Where a man takes a pride in the looks of his
garden, I think he will bush all peas that need it, even in cli-
mates where they could be grown without. r. s. t^

174 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

eighteen inches apart. The tall peas, if not bushed, may
be planted in double rows two feet apart, so as to sup-
port each other. When bushed the rows shou^ld be four
feet apart.

Lettuce. — Plant (Juried Silesia for the earliest, and
some time in April plant Prize Head for summer use.
This last named is the best I have ever grown.

Beets. — Earh^ Egyptian for earliest, with Improved
Tilood Turnip for main crop. All beets do best with
early planting.

Beans. — Black Wax for snaps, they are hardy, prolific
tender, of excellent flavor, and perfectly stringless. They
may be planted last of April or first of May, and every
two weeks thereafter till the first of August, for a suc-
cession. The Small Lima — also called Sieva or Butter,
are full}- equal to the Large Lima in flavor, are easier to
shell, three weeks earlier and twice as productive.
Dreer's Improved Lima is large, and the best flavored
I have ever seen, but I have found it a shy bearer and
quite late. It is worthy a place in the garden notwith-
standing these faults.

Tomato. — The finest I have ever grown is the Acme.
It is perfect in form, of a beautiful glossy red, and ripens
all over and through at the same time.

Sweet Corn. — I consider the Early Boynton the best
extra early variety. It bears very close planting, and
has two or more ears to the stalk. Stowell Evergreen
has never been superceded for the main crop. It is
very productive, of good flavor, and continues in good
condition for several weeks.

Onions. — I prefer the Yellow Globe Danvers for the
family garden. White Portugal is best for pickles.
Onions can be grown from seed with larger yield and
finer quality than from sets. By early planting and

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 175

thorough cultivation three or four bushels can be grown,
on a square rod. i^or very early onions, small bulbs
may be planted in fall or as early in spring as the
ground can be worked.*

*There is one i>oint in garden management Mr. Brown has
not mentioned — namely, the iniportance in planting of j)ress'
ing the ground tirmly down on the seed. A good roller will do
this, or when planting small amounts in rows, the row may be
walked on after covering, putting one foot exactly in front of
the other. Of course the amount of pressure will vary with
different soils, but where a garden is well drained, and culti-
vated and manured as it ought to be, the soil is apt to be very
loose. I have found that where the soil was firmly pressed
about the seed, that not only did the seed germinate in half the
time, but the young plant was stronger and more vigorous.

R. s. T.

CHAPTER XIX.

STOCK ON THE FAKM.

CHOICE OF STOCK.

In stocking the farm care and judgment must be used^
as has been indicated, the character of the farm con-
sidered and stock selected that will be adapted to the
farm and locality. Whether sheep, or hogs, or cattle
shall be the principal stock must be determined in this
manner. In some cases all three may be kept; in more
instances it will be found profitable to make a specialty
of some one, though perhaps a few of the others may be
also kept.

For broken, hilly farms there is no stock so profitable
as the Merino sheep. They can climb over the hillsides
and gain a living for themselves and owner on land that
the plow could not turn, and on which no reaper could
gather a crop. Where a small number of sheep only are
kept, and mutton rather than wool is the object, the
larger breeds will be found more profitable.

On rich bottom or prairie land where corn can be
largely grown some of the larger breeds of hogs, such as
Poland-Chinas, Chester Whites, Jersey Reds, will give
the best returns for the feed. On other farms where
grazing is more followed than corn raising, some of the
smaller, finer-boned breeds will do well.

In determining the breed of cattle, consider the end in
view. If you desire to make a specialty of " gilt-edged "
"butter, keep Jerseys. If you desire quantity of milk,

STOCK ON THE FARM. 177

the Ayrshires or a milking strain of Short-horns crossed
on a native will meet your wants. For a ''general pur-
pose" animal, good for both milk and beef, the Holsteins
are rapidly coming into favor. A cross of Short-horn on
our native stock, also produces some of our most valua-
ble "general purpose" stock.*

Grades or Thoroughbreds.— I would hardly advise
the young farmer in stocking his farm to begin with
thoroughbred stock, unless he intends to go into the
business of raising and selling thoroughbreds for breed-
ing purposes; and it is not ever3^one who can success-
fully do this. In raising for milk or the butcher, good
grades are sometimes even more profitable than thor-
oughbreds.

But I would impress upon the 3'oung farmer the impor-
tance of using thoroughbred males and continually grad-
ing up his stock. It is claimed by man}- experienced
farmers that the ofl^spring of a thoroughbred Short- horn
sire on a native cow will bring more mone}^ at three
years old than a native will at four, and this makes a
male Short-horn very valuable, as he can put his impress
on a large amount of stock.

In grading up, keep in mind your end in view, and
aim steadily at that in your selection of crosses, whether
you desire increase in size, perfect form, weight of flesh,
or milk. Remember that there is a constant danger of
deterioration, which can onl}- be avoided by care and

*It should be borne in mind that in the matter of milk thei-e
is almost as much diiference in different families of the same
breed, as in the different breeds. Some Short-horns are al-
most worthless as milkers, giving an inconsiderable amount
and poor in quality ; w^hile on the other hand I have drank
Short-horn milk that I could not tell from Jersey milk, as it
equalled it both in richness and flavor. As a general rule,
however, the animal best adapted for milk will be least adapted
ior producing beef, and vice versa. k. s. x.

178 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

vigilance, and that there is abundant encouragement for
the careful breeder.

CARE OF STOCK.

If asked to give in one sentence full directions for the
care of stock, I should sa}^: 3Iake them comfortable.
This covers all. For an animal to be comfortable must
be well fed, have an abundant supply of pure water,
must have shade during the heat of summer and protec-
tion from the storms of winter; when stabled they must
have good bedding and be kept clean.

WATER FOR STOCK.

A suppl}^ of good water is necessary, both for the com-
fort and health of stock. There are many farms on
which there are no springs or permanent streams, and
on which the supply Irom wells is either uncertain or
difficult to raise on account of depth.

On such farms resort may be had to cisterns and ponds.
A cistern may be located anywhere that is most conve-
nient for watering the stock, and filled with surface wa-
ter or the drainage of the soil. They should never be
dug in a run, or where there is so much fall as to cause
the soil to wash, as they will then be liable to be filled
with mud. But in any place w^here there is sufficient
fall to enable you to gather into them the water from an
acre, there will be no trouble in keeping them filled.

I have two of these cisterns that have furnished me
an unfailing supply for seven years. The first one I
filled from the surface and allowed the water to run in
when veiy muddv, but found it soon settled and became
as clear as spring water.

But I have found it is unnecessary to use surface wa-
ter. A few rods of ordinary draining tile can be laid,
crossing the natural flow of the water diagonally, and en-
tering the cistern at a sufficient depth to be safe from

STOCK ON THE FARM. 179

frost, If the ground is very level, a couple of furrows
jiia}" be turned, starting from the cistern and diverging
in the form a letter y, to turn the flow of the surface wa-
ter over the tile.

By this arrangement any rain which makes the land
too wet to plow, will till the cistern, and the water being
clear, it will not deposit mud. From such a cistern the
water is easily pumped, as the depth is but small.

Do not dig over ten feet deep, as it is cheaper to make
them long and shallow. A cistern ten feet deep and the
same in diameter will hold about one hundred and fifty
Ibarrels, and one of mine of this size has but twice been
dry in seven years, though the horses have been wa-
tered from it constant^, and in dry seasons several head
of stock.

If a cistern of much greater capacity than this is
needed, it is better to dig it oval, as it is difficult to turn
an arch if the width much exceeds ten feet.

The cost of these cisterns will vary in different locali-
ties and soils. Mine cost me $30, but were expensive to
dig, as I had to blast through rock half the depth. This,
jiowever, saved expense in walling.*

Ponds often are successful on tough clay soils. They
should be located where there is but little fall, to avoid
their being filled with wash. They should be dug long
and narrow — the length being east and west. All the
work of digging, except shaping the sides and ends, can
be done with the plow and scraper.

As soon as the pond is made, a dense row of quick-
growing trees should be set out on the south and west,

*There are some tough clay soils in which a cistern can be
dug, the sides sloping somewhat, and the cement applied di-
rectly to the clay walls, saving the expense of bricks or stones
entirely. In other soils the cistern must not only be walled,
but the walls cemented to make them hold water. k. s. t.

180 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

SO as to shade it thorouglily, and it should be secureljr
fenced, the fence crossing the pond a few feet from the
east end, so as to allow the cattle to drink. This end —
-which will need no shade — should be graded to a gentle
slope and the bank be covered with broken stone or clean
gravel, this protection extending into the pond as far as
the cattle are allowed to go, that the}^ cannot b}^ their
tramping make it muddy.*

Such a pond would last a lifetime, and furnish an abun-
dant supply of good water; but no one of the points
Diientioned can be neglected. A pond exposed to the
sun, and into which the cattle are allowed to wade and
drop their dung, and hogs to wallow, becomes merely a
cesspool of impurities, and will not furnish water fit for
stock of any kind.

Bad water for stock causes disease among them, and
often tjq^hoid fever among those who drink their milk.

To secure an unfailing supply of good Avater is often
an expensive matter, but costs far less than the trouble
and loss in a single dry season, when the cattle have to
be driven a mile or more for water, and sometimes suffer-
severely from neglect.

HOW TO MAKE CHEAP BEEF.

I have been led to give considerable attention to this
matter from the fact that I for some jenvs fed cattle at
:i loss, or very small profit, and have found that this has
been the experience of man}^ others. I think if a care-
ful account was kept, a majorit}^ of those who attempt
winter-feeding of cattle lose money, and not one in ten
really makes a fair profit. There are several reasons for

*There are many soils in which it is not possible to make a
pond hold water. In any case, where the fanner can aff'ord it,
a good well, with an unfailing supply, and a wind-pump, by
W'iiich a reservoir can be kept constantly filled, is one of the
Ijreatest comforts ever placed on a farm. k. s. t»

STOCK ON THE FARM. 18l

this. For example, l3eginiiiiig to feed at the wrong sea-
son of the year, feeding too heavily at the start, feeding-
too long, irregular feeding, etc., etc. I am confident
that I can give advice which if followed will result
in a good profit in every case, unless accident or dis-
ease should occasion loss. I have been in correspon-
dence for some years with a large cattle-feeder of Illi-
nois, whose experience was the same as mine until he
adopted the plan of spring and earh- summer feeding,
since which his profits have been uniform!}' large.
Spring is the season of growth with animals as well as
plants. . All the conditions are favorable ; the weather is
pleasant, the grass abundant and succulent; .there are
no flies to torment the cattle, and the water is pure and
;abundant. In addition, the long winter on/ dry feed
has brought the animal into such a h3'gienic condi-
tion as to enable it to assimilate a large amount of
food, and I believe that ordinarily cattle gain more in
May and June than the}' do in all the rest of the sum-
mer, and this often means the 3^ear, for the majority of
•cattle go on to pasture in the spring lighter than they
came ofi" of it the preceding autumn. M}- Illinois friend
claims — and my own experience confirms it — that cattle
can be bought the first of March and marketed in June
so as to get as great a gain and advantage in June as if
they were fed from the time grass failed the previous
fall. To get this great gain the cattle must be fed long-
enough before turning on pasture to begin to gain rap-
idly, and I recommend that light grain feeding be given
through March and stronger feed in April. If 3'ou are
feeding large cattle — such as will sell as shippers, and
these will give the greatest profit — I would keep up the
grain feed on pasture till they are sold; but if your cat-
tle are two-year old steers, or heifers, or dry cows, in-

182 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

tended for a home market, the grain may }3e discontin-
ued as soon as the pastures are good. There are several
advantages in feeding cattle at this season of the year:
First, if you buy the cattle they will ordinarily cost less-
the first of March than in the fall, for by this time they
will weigh less, having got what the butchers call the
"gross" out of them, and the}^ will be in a better condi-
tion to begin to gain at once. I think cattle can usually
be bought as low the first of March as in the autumn,,
for there are always farmers who try to winter more
stock than they have feed for, and so must put them on
the market; but even if a little more be paid it is really
cheaper. Second, by beginning to feed at this season,
and having your cattle well started when turned on grass^
they will be ready for market before grass-fed cattle, and
when the demand is greatest of the entire year, and
prices usually the highest. A few weeks at this season
will often make a dollar a hundred diff'erence in the
price. Third, the pastures can be stocked fully twice
as heavily if the cattle are to be sold in June as they
could if they are to be kept on them all summer, for this
is a season of the greatest growth for grass, and by this,
plan enough profit can be made from the pastures so that
you can afford to let them rest the balance of the season,
which will insure a growth sufficient to protect the roots-
and give 3^ou earlier pasture the next year. To show^
what has been done by this management, my Illinois
friend reports that fifty fine steers fed from February
17th to June 22d, made an average gain of four hundred
and nineteen pounds each one spring; and a net profit,
after deducting what the corn was worth, of over $17 a
head on sixty-four head another spring. I have fed only
on a small scale, but have never failed to realize a hand-
some profit on cattle managed in this way.

HOGS ON THE FARM. 183

HORSES AND MULES.

One question of considerable importance in making a
start on the farm is, shall you use mules or horses for
farm work? Twelve years' experience in their use leads
me to heartily recommend mules for several reasons :
First, the}' are much hardier than horses, especially en-
during heat better; they are less liable to lameness or
disease, and recover much quicker when anything is
wrong with them. Second, as a rule, thc}^ are better
pullers than horses and not so likely to be spoiled by a
X)Oor driver. Third, they are much easier kept and quite
a saving can be made here, as they require but little
grain when not at work. Fourth, they are much longer
lived and will do several years more labor than horses.

I think it will pay the farmer well to raise his own
mules and horses, for he can do it cheaper than he can
buy really good stock, and a poor horse is dear at any
price. There are mau}^ mules and colts raised every
season from unsound mares, and although they may
have a fair appearance when young, they break down
soon under hard work. The farmer who keeps strong,
health}^ mares and selects good sires, can be sure of rais-
ing sound and valuable horses.

HOGS ON THE FARM.

My experience with hogs dates back some forty years^
at which time hog cholera was unknown, and the loco-
motive powers of the brute were sufficient to carry him
to a distant market. In 1847 I gained my first expe-
rience as a drover, helping drive three hundred and
fifty hogs from Union count}^, Indiana, to Cincinnati, a
distance of over fifty miles. We made the trip in a little

184 SUCCESS IN FARMIXG.

over five claj's, and but one hog gave out on the way.
In December of the same 3^ ear m}' father drove from Mad-
ison county, Indiana, to the same market, a distance
of over one hundred miles. The hogs at that day were
raised and wintered in the woods, and largely fattened
by •' hoggin' off the corn/' as it was called, by which was
meant turning them into the field and allowing them to
help themselves. There was scarcely any effort made at
that time to improve the breed of hogs, and it was hardly
desirable to do so, for the chief qualifications wanted
were hardiness and power to transport his carcass to
market, and these they possessed. It would have been
next to an impossibility to have improved the breed:
first, for want of transportation, there being no way to
ship improved stock without great trouble and expense;
and second, bieeawse-the^^ woods were full of boars, many
of them •' elm peelers''- several years old, who would jum])
over, root under, or l)ore throughan}' fence ever invented.
At the time I speak of summer packing was unknown,
and nearly all the iVusiness of the countr}^ was done on
credit, and as there was very little market for grain, and
then only when it was wagoned over bad roads to a dis-
tant city. The hog was the product of the farm that
brought the only large amount of cash the farmer ever
handled, and so the packing season ushered in an era of
universal prosperity, for the farmer paid his bills, and
the blacksmith and shoemaker were then able to pay
theirs, the country merchant paid for his goods in Cin-
cinnati, enabling the wholesale merchant to pay his
New York bills ; and so the dj'ing squeal of the porkei
verified the words of the poet:

" From lowly woe springs lordl}' joy,

From humbler good diviner ;
The greater life must aye destroy

And drink the minor!"

HOGS OX THE FARM. 185

I could tell stories of hog-driving that would read like a
romance; but as this book deals with practical ques-
tions of to-day, I pass on to the question of

SUCCESSFUL HOG-RAISING.

First, the farm on which hogs are to be made the lead-
ing product, must be one well adapted to corn, and this
crop will not thrive on cold, Avet land, and the growing
of it will ruin a rolling, washy soil. Our best corn lands
are. almost without exception, good for wheat, and I
Avould recommend a four-3^ears rotation on a hog farm —
two years corn, one A^ear wheat, and one 3 ear clover.
This would give a clover field on which to pasture hogs
in summer and to feed them in the fall, and this man-
agement would keep up the fertility of the soil. It is
not my purpose to recommend any one breed of hogs
.above all others, neither to enumerate the multiplied
breeds now to be found in this countr}-. Probably nine-
tentlis of our Western farmers will breed Poland-Ghina,
Berkshire, or some of their_crosses; and either of these
breeds is good, and nian}^ practical farmers of large ex-
perience consider a cross of the two — using a Berkshire
inale — as the best and most profitable butcher hog in
existence. I have tried both breeds pure, and their
crosses for several years, and if I were on a corn farm
iind making hogs my leading interest, I should always
use Poland-China sows for breeders, but should, when
pork was what I wanted, cross with the Berkshire, but
would breed my best sows to a Poland-China boar, to
raise brood sows. My reasons for this are that the Berk-
shire hog is more active, less likely to break down Ir
transportation to market, and certainly not inferior in
constitution to the Poland-China. The cross which I
recommend gives good size, hardiness, early maturity,
and, indeed, about all the desirable qualities of both.

186 ' SUCCESS IN FARMING.

breeds. I live in the county where the Poland-China
hog originated, and an average of more than one thous-
and pigs of this breed are shipped for breeding purposes
from my station eveiy year, so I have been familiar with
the breed from its origin. Some years ago I examined
the Assessor's returns in every county in Ohio, with a
view of ascertaining if the hogs in Butler and Warren
counties — where nearlj^ all are either pure or high grade
Poland-Chinas — were valued higher per head than in
other parts of the State. I found that in but one county
of the State was the valuation as high, and that was
Lake county, where very few hogs were kept, and fed
largely I presume on milk and small potatoes, as dairy-
ing and potato -growing are the leading interests of that
county. The value per head in the two counties named
was more than three times as great as in some counties
where no attempts had been made to improve the hogs.
The same j^ear I found that the hogs packed in Cincin-
nati— which were largely Poland-China — averaged sixty
pounds per head above those packed at Chicago. Look-
ing upon the hog as a machine for manufacturing a less
bulky and more valuable article out of corn, thus saving-
expenses of transportation, I should name the following-
points as desirable: First, constitution; second, power
to assimilate food; third, early maturit}^ Keeping in
mind these points, and taking it for granted that the
farmer has good stock, I will begin with

THE sow AND HER PIGS.

And first, I would recommend mature mothers. I have
little doubt that one of the causes of disease so prevalent
among swine is, that the constitution Avas impaired by
the almost universal custom which prevailed for many
years, of breeding sows at eight months old. There are
many points in favor of mature mothers : They are bet-

HOGS OX THE FARM. IST

ter milkers, and consequent!}^ give the pigs a better and
quicker start. The}^ bring forth stronger pigs, and are
able to suckle larger litters than 3^oung sows. They are
much more certain to save their pigs, especiallj^ when.
bred for early spring farrowing. In my own experience
for twent^^-five years past, during which time I have bred
hundreds of sows, I estimate the loss of pigs at farrow-
ing time from young sow^s, at three to one when I have
bred from mature sows.

There is another point in favor of allowing the sow to
mature before subjecting her to the tax of maternity,,
wdiich is that she will develop much better. I have taken_
two sows from the same litter that I could detect no dif-
ference in, and bred one to come in at a year old, and
kept the other over till the next season without breeding,
and found the latter one hundred and fifty pounds the
heaviest, and of much the finest form.

When j^oung sows are to be bred I would not couple
before January, so that settled, warm weather might be
expected before the pigs come, and the sows could get
some green food. In fact, if the pigs are to be wintered
and not fattened until eighteen or twenty months old, I
think it best to breed all sows at this date, as the risk
of loss is much less than with March pigs. If the
farmer is raising pigs to sell for breeders, or intends to
fatten at from eight to ten months old, it will pay to-
take the risk of having them come in March. When
bred always make a record of it, and it is well to enter
at the same time the date at which the litter is expected.
The period of gestation in swine is one hundred and
twelve days, and I have never known them to exceed
this more than three or four days, and rarely to fall
much below it ; but as there are cases on record where
young sows have farrowed in from one hundred to one

188

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

hundred and six days, I would advise that the sows be
separated and put where you want them to farrow two
weeks ahead of date. I woukl make the entr}^ in this
way: "Spotted sow, Bess, bred Jan. 9th; look for pigs
May 1st."

I think the practice of allowing the boar to run with,
the herd an abominable one, as he will fret and worr}^
jind is likely to become unmanageable. Keep him in a
strong, close pen, and turn the sow to him, and as soon
iis served remove her.

PORTABLE HOG-PEN.

This portable pen, if for large sows, should be made
•six by seven feet. The short slope of roof in front is in-
tended for glass when it is used for early pigs. The pen
is the invention of Mr. L. N. Bonham, of Oxford, Ohio,
who kindly loaned us the cut. We have used these pens
on our own farm, and are much pleased with them. By
3iailing a board across at each end, allowing it to project
far enough for a handle — which should be rounded ofl'
like the boards of a gravel-bed — four men can easily
<'arry one of these pens, or it may be loaded on a low
sled when you wish to move it far.

On farms where hogs are the leading product and

HOGS ON THE FARM. 189

March pigs are desired, I believe it to be practica-
ble to arrange a breeding house with a stove, and
that in the long run it would pay. 1 saw some
years since, on the farm of Mr. Wm. Greer, an old
tenant house divided up into pens to accommodate a
number of sows, and was assured by him that the plan
worked satisfactorily. A house sixteen by twenty feet
could be arranged thus : Make four pens five by six

feet in size, on each side of a hall four feet wide. The
stove should stand in the center, and there would be
room for a swill barrel and a few barrels or sacks of meal.
I would make the ceiling low, so as to economize heatr
and the loft could be used for corn. I would arrange iu
each of these compartments a guard — such as is de-
scribed in the chapter on Buildings — to prevent the sow
from overlaying the pigs. Make the floor of the build-
ing rather low, and have a door large enough for the sow
to enter, open from the outside to each separate pen.
When the sows are to farrow later, or when these have
been turned out on pasture after the pigs are large
enough to follow the sow, I prefer the portable pen. I

190 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

cio not believe in hot-house treatment of pigs, and it is
not probable that any litter of March pigs would need
fire for more than three or four days, often less; but
3'oung pigs are very delicate at first and easily chilled,
and where A'aluable sows are kept this arrangement
might be profitable, especially as the partitions could all
be made movable, and the building used for other pur-
poses eleven months of the year.

As few farmers will find it profitable to use fire, the
next best thing is to make the pen as warm as possible
without it, and for this purpose corn fodder is excellent.
A single crack, half an inch wide, on the windward side
of a hog-house in a blasting March day, may admit
enough cold to chill to death a pig just born, but by set-
ting a few bundles of corn fodder against the outside,
and securing them in place by putting some rails against
them, every breath of wind can be kept out.

Next to neglect in providing a suitable place for the
sow to bring forth her j^oung, injudicious feeding is the
_gTeatest cause of loss. The sow will be shut up where
she cannot exercise, perhaps two or three weeks before
farrowing, and fed on dry corn, and when she brings
forth, the same heavy feed is continued. The result
often is that fever ensues, the sow loses her appetite, her
milk dries up and the pigs starve to death. Again, the
want of exercise and the dry, rich food causes constipa-
tion, and the sow becomes ravenous and eats up her
litter. From the day the sow is shut up give a varied
diet : wheat bran, potatoes or some other roots, charcoal,
rotten wood, and grass if possible, or bright clover hay,
or corn fodder, 'and for some days after farrowing, feed
lightly and very little corn. I wish to emphasize this
last sentence.

Young pigs need exercise, and thousands die every

HOGS ON THE FARM. 191

year before they are a month old from being kept in
close pens. They get too fat and begin to wheeze or
cough, and take the thumps and die. The sow should,
if possible, be turned out in a pasture lot and the pigs
allowed to follow her by the time they are two weeks
old. The secret of a profitable hog is to keep it thrifty
and growing from the start, and as soon as you notice
the pigs begin to eat corn, provide a pen which the
mother cannot enter, and feed soaked corn and slop to
them, taking pains to feed only what they will eat clean.
If 3'ou wish to breed the sows for a second litter, you
will be able to wean the pigs much younger for thus
teaching them to eat early. It is quite an expense to
keep a large sow a year, and we have found it profitable
to breed twice a year. With proper care, there is no
trouble in keeping fall pigs thrifty and growing all win-
ter, and thej^ may be marketed in spring for pig pork, or
pastured and fattened in the fall. September pigs well
cared for will give as much profit as spring pigs, and
can be in good condition for market and should weigh
two hundred pounds by the May following.

One great cause of unthrifty hogs, and a potent cause
of the diseases which have caused such losses to hog-
breeders, is the continual feeding of a concentrated,
heating, fat-producing diet ; and to keep a hog in health
he requires some bulky food. This fact is what makes
clover so valuable to the pork-producer, for clover is worth
much more than the weight of pork it will produce, for
a hog that has pastured on it through the summer has
built up bone and muscle and had his stomach distend-
ed, and the system thoroughly prepared for assimilating
food, and a very rapid gain when corn-feeding begins.
Pasture and green food are of such importance that we
would recommend a rye field for early pasturing, unless

192 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

you have early blue grass, and an abundant supply of
pumpkins for fall feeding, and have no doubt that the
risk of loss by disease would be lessened and the cost of
pork reduced a cent or more a pound b^^ this manage-
ment. Experiments in the use of clover were made by the
editor of the Live Stock Journal with the Ibllowino- re-
suit : A litter of six pigs were taken at weaning time and
divided into two lots. One was fed on corn-meal and
w^ater alone, all they would eat; the other lot on t he-
same mixed with clover cut fine. The lot whose feed
was mixed with clover kept a good appetite all the-
time, w^hile the other lot were frequentty "off their feed.''^
At the end of five months those fed on meal alone
weighed one hundred and fifty pounds each, and those-
fed on meal and clover two hundred and ten pounds
each. To further test the matter, the same gentleman
put up in winter two lots of hogs averaging one hundred
and fifty pounds each, and fed corn-meal slop to one lot^
and the same mixed with cut clover ha}- to the other.
The experiment continued one hundred and twentA"
days, when the lot fed on meal were found to have gained
<me hundred and ten pounds each, and the other lot one
hundred and forty-three pounds each.

In pasturing clover, it is best not to turn on it until
it begins to blossom, for we want a full development of
the plant, both for the benefit of the stock and the land.
The roots of the clover can never reach down into the
subsoil if the top is not allowed to develop. We advise
that fattening begin earl}^ Numberless experiments
have settled the question that a given amount of food
will make double the amount of gain in the mild, pleas-
ant weather of autumn than it will amid the cold and
snow of December. If, as we recommend, you feed on a
clover sod, the cattle must be kept out, particularly if

HOGS OX THE FARM. 193

you feed cut up corn at first. We litive known eaotle
killed hy eating the ends of husk which the hogs drop
after chewing. We would, during the first few weeks of
feeding, try to get the hogs to eat all the bulky food
possible, and this will be easy if 3^ou do not give too
much corn. Keep a supply of salt, and ashes, or char-
coal where they can have access to it at all times. Feed
<:)n a new spot ever}' day, so as to enrich as much of the
field as possible. The best crib to feed from is an old
wagon, and one which will last for years can often be
bought at a sale for a few dollars.

Many experiments have been made to ascertain how
much pork can be made from a bushel of corn. We
have, before us the results of several of these experiments^
showing from nine and three-fourths to twelve pounds.
One large lot. fed for forty-three davs, made an average
of ten pounds for each bushel of corn, and we are in-
clined to believe that it will require good hogs and good
w^eather and the best of care to give this result. With-
out all these points the average Avill be much less.

An important question is whether to fatten at nine or
•ten months old. The farmer must determine for him-
self which plan to adopt. We believe that cheaper
pork can be made from the young hog. The risk of dis-
ease is of course much reduced, and there is a quicker
return for the capital invested. It is easy, with good
stock, to make an average weight of two hundred and fifty
pounds at nine months, and the same hogs, if kept ten
or twelve months longer, would probably not weigh over
four hundred pounds. Where pigs are to be fattened at
this age, we would recommend that they be allowed to
run on grass and fed enough to keep them gaining rap-
idly till seven months old, and then shut up and fed all^
they will eat till read}- for market.

13

194 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

WINTERING HOGS.

There are a few simple rules in wintering hogs, the
observance or neglect of which will make all the difference
between a thrifty hog that will gain regularly all winter,
and a stunted, enfeeblad one that will fall an easy prey to
disease. These rules are: First, not too many hogs to-
gether. Second, each lot to be composed of hogs as
nearly the same size as possible. Third, a dry, warm,
clean bed. Fourth, some variety in diet, and for fall
pigs warm drink. We have often seen on a farm forty
or lifty hogs of all sizes, including half dozen sows two
or three 3^ears old, twenty or thirty spring pigs, and a
dozen or more fall pigs. On a sharp, frosty morning,
when called up to be fed, these small pigs w^ll come out
steaming as though just out of a warm bath, and are
almost sure to take cold ; besides, they are fought and
driven off so that they cannot get half their share of
food, and if they live through the winter at all — which is
doubtful — they will gain little if any in weight. We
like corn fodder for a bed for hogs much better than
straw, and find that the}' eat all the blades, thus supply-
ing themselves with the bulky food needed.

When cattle are fed for beef during the winter, and
there are stock hogs to follow them, we would advise
heavy feeding of the cattle with whole corn, as the hogs
will eat all that passes the cattle undigested, and thrive
well on it.

COOKING FOOD FOR HOGS.

Will it pay to cook feed for hogs? is a question often
asked, and often answered in the negative at a heavy ex-
pense for apparatus bought. I advocated it ardently
when a much 3'ounger man than I am now, and can show
stowed away as useless lumber, several double, back-ac-
tion patent steamers and cookers. I can sa}' emphati-

HOGS ON THE FAUM. 190

(•ally that / never could make it pay. Besides, I know
of scores of farmei's wlio began cooking feed for their
hogs with great enthusiasm, and yet I do not know
of one of them who has kept it up more than a year or
two at the farthest. I do not deny that cooked food is
better than raw, but I am sure that it is not enough bet-
ter to pay for the trouble and expense with the amount
of hogs kept on the ordinary farm. Further, we say that
ground food is worth just as much soured as cooked, and
there is very little trouble or expense to do this at any sea-
son of the 3'ear. In the summer 3'ou must guard against
excessive acidty, and in the winter against freezing ; and
for either you will need two barrels. A swill barrel in
summer that stands for days without emptying, often be-
comes as sour as vinegar, but by having two barrels, anci
emptying one every other day, the excess of acidity can
be avoided. In the winter, fermentation is slower, and
two barrels are needed, so as to give more time. For
winter, the barrels must be packed in chy sawdust to
prevent freezing, and if not under a roof, there should be
a sloping lid, hung with a hinge, to close so as to keep
the sawdust dry. Have the box eight inches wider ev-
ery way than the barrel. If forty-gallon barrels are used,
the box will need to be about five and a half by three
and a half feet, and will take, without a lid, about fift}^
feet of lumber. vSet the barrels in the box quite close
to each other, and fill around them with dry sawdust,
cover th€ top with two thicknesses of old carpet, and
]30ur into each a tea-kettleful of boiling water each
da}', and the winter must be severe if an}^ ice forms.
Let one barrel sour while you are using from the other,
and you need never be wanting warm slop, equal in
every respect to that which is cooked.

There is an opinion prevalent that corn and hog pro-

196 SUCCESS IN FAKMIXCr.

duction is exhaustive to the soil. If the rotation and'
plan of feeding recommended in this chapter is followedr
it certainly is not. The hog is also a valuable manure-
maker if rightly managed. A half score of active young;
hogs in such a hog-house as is illustrated in the chapter
on farm buildings, if furnished in the outside floored
pen with all the straAV they will work up, will half pay
for their feed in manure; and when there is an old
straw stack or a few tons of corn butts to be worked,
over into manure, a hog will more than pay for his food^

DISEASES OF HOGS.

I wish I could offer an infallible preventive, or a spe-
cific remedy for the epidemic diseases which have occa-
sioned such loss to the farmers of the West. Expe-
rience proves, however, that with the best of care and
under the most careful sanitary regulations, it will oc-
casionally break out in so malignant a form as to almost
annihilate the hogs of a farm or neighborhood. I have
never lost a hog from epidemic disease, and a few years
ago prided myself that my own good management was
the cause of my exemption. I have seen, however, on^
the farms of neighbors, where fine breeding stock was
kept, and far better sanitary precautions enforced than
on my own, entire herds carried off in a few da^^s. In
one case this could be traced to the infection being
brought by hogs from a neighboring farm that were run-
ning at large, contrary to law. The law against stock
running at large ought to be rigidly enforced against
hogs, and if this is done, one source of danger will be
avoided. One cannot too carefully attend to all the
points which will help keep his hogs healthy, and if this-
is done the risk of loss will be greatly reduced.

DAIRYING. 197

DAIRYING.

In many localities, and especially where a large pro-
portion of the land is unsuited to grain, dairying is aa
important interest. It has also this advantage ; that it
does not, like grain croping, exhaust the soil, and it
gives a regular cash income. It comes in well in a sys-
tem of mixed farming, as the cows will consume the
<iorn fodder, hay and straw, and furnish manure to ap-
ply to the wheat fields. Doubtless the most profitable
'disposition of dairy products is te sell the milk to con-
sumers by the quart, but as few farmers can own a milk
Toute I shall not speak of this further. The least
troublesome way is to sell to the factories, but there are
large sections where there are no factories. What I
shall say in this chapter, therefore, will apply more di-
rectly to the farm dairy where the profits are to come
from butter, and my own experience has been with a
dairy of this kind. I wish to say in the beginning that
there can be nothing made from a butter dairy if a
-common article is made and sold at the usual market
price; and unless sure you can make an extra good
:article, and 3'ou can get a j^early contract for it at a
remunerative price, you would better let the calves run
with your cows and save expense and labor.

SELECTION OP DAIRY STOCK.

From my own experience in bujdng cows I would ad-
vise that 3^ou buy thrifty young cows that can be had at
ii moderate price, rather than to attempt to buy cows
that are highly recommended and for which fancy prices
lire asked. Buy your cows largely with reference to get-
ting your money back in beef, if they prove poor milkers
or unprofitable for butter; and then if they do not suit
jouj keep them but a single season. I know this 13

108 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

contrary to the advice usually given, but as 1 look back-
over my own experience, I have rarely bought a cow at a
high price that has given satisfaction. If up to the
standard for milk or butter, she often had some little ac-
complishment which her owner forgot to mention^ such
as an ugly temper, a supreme indifference to fences, or a
too free use of her horns; and often she failed in the
first named qualities. During the time I ran a butter
dairy, out of some forty cows that I bought, the best
two and the onl}' ones I kept when I quit making butter
for sale, cost me $30.00 each. I bought among this
number several cows, the owners of which gave them a
great reputation, paying fifty dollars and upward for
them; but I failed to make the transaction profitable in
any instance. I see by looking at my account book,
that in the summer of 1877 I sold for $156.00 four cows,
which I had milked all summer, and for $122.00 replaced
them with as many that were fresh. 1 do not wish to
l)e understood as recommending the keeping of poor or
ordinary cows, for the diff'erence in the cost of keeping a
cow that will make seven pounds of butter a week for
the best six months of the year, and one that will make-
but four, is small; but at thirty cents a pound there
would be over twenty-three dollars in favor of the
best cow. I do believe, however, that it will be cheaper
and more satisfactory to buy good average cows at
moderate prices, hold on to the extra good ones and dis-
pose of the others and try again, than to pay extrava-
gant prices, and then often be disappointed. I should -
advise that you breed to a male of a good milking family
and raise the heifer calves, and your eftbrts should be
continually to grade up and improve your stock.

HOW TO MAKE GOOD BUTTEK.

I have said there is no profit in a common or poor arti-

DAIRYING. 199

cle of butter. Three things are necessary to make a
first class article. Good food, cleanliness, and a siiita-
])le and uniform temperature for the milk. Taking
these up in the order named, I recommend mixed
grasses for pasture, and the more varieties the better.
If you can have blue grass, orchard grass, timothy, red
top, and red and white clover in the pasture, it will be
better than any one or two of them. As we are subject
to drought and consequent short pastures, the dairy-
man should always grow some soiling crops to use when
needed, and Stowell or mammoth sweet corn is perhaps
the best, although Blount's prolific will yield more feed
to the acre, and common field corn will answer for
winter. I have found nothing to equal bran and corn
meal mixed, weight for weight, which will give about
two bulks of bran to one of corn meal.

I like in connection with this to feed a little whole
corn, as the cows are exceedingly fond of it and it gives
variety. For rough feed I find bright corn-fodder excel-
lent, and cheaper than any other; and I alwa3^s feed it
as long as it lasts, which, with me, is usually all winter.
Clover hay, if bright and sweet, is perhaps better, but
not so cheap. I see by reference to my account book,
that when I was milking eight cows in winter, I fed per
week, three hundred and fifty pounds of the bran and
jneal mixed, three bushels of small corn, and a half ton
of fodder, which was from corn cut up at the ground,
and Avas one third waste. This made, calling the corn
fifty-six pounds to the bushel, a daily ration of twenty-
one pounds for each cow ; and as corn at that time was
25 cents a bushel, and bran $9 a ton, and the fodder did
not cost more than $3 a ton; so the gross cost of keep-
ing my cows was small. The corn and bran averaged
just nine pounds to a cow, per da}', costing, allowing a

200 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

little for draj'ing the corn to and from the mill, 5 cents
a day for each cow, while the cost of fodder was a little
less than 3 cents a day per head. I have found by re-
peated experiments that this ration, nine pounds of meal
and grain, and twelve net of corn fodder or good clover
hay, is a full ration for an averaged sized cow, and will
keep up a full flow of milk or fatten her if dry. Every
dairy-man should \i\y in liis stock of bran in the sum-
mer. I have never failed to buy at the lowest figures in
July or August. The demand is less then and the
Millers want to clean their bins so as to be read}^ for the
new crop of wheat, and there can be enough saved in
buying then to justify borrowing monej" at a high per
cent., if necessary.

The second point in making good butter, " cleanli-
ness," needs no argument. It must begin in the stable
and include the milker and all the vessels used about
the milk, and its surroundings.

The third point, ••temperature/' is as important as
any, for good butter cannot be made in hot weather
without this can be controlled. There aretwowa3^s; one
by an unlimited supply of cold spring or well water,
and the other by ice. I should always prefer the former
if it could be had. Whichever way the milk is to be
cooled, I advise deep setting. I have practised it for
six years, aud could not be induced to go back to th6
old plan of shallow jars. I use cans eight inches in
diameter and twenty inches deep. If we cool with water
we sink to tlie top in a box through which water from a
spring flows, or if it must be pumped, we arrange it so
as to draw off the water when the milk is partially cool-
ed, and then pump a fresh supply. For ice, use a large
chest with side doors to slide in the cans, and a slatted
floor above on which to lay the ice, through a door In

DAIRYING. 201

the top. This upper space shouhl be over a foot deep,
so that there will be room to set meat, butter, etc. on the
cakes of ice. In the hottest weather 3^ou will need to
set a cake of ice on edge between the cans below as well
as to have it melting and dripping over the cans from
-above. Managed in this way I have marketed as solid,
fragrant butter in dog-days as in May or October. My
Urst knowledge of the plan of deep setting of milk was
gained from a dairy-man at Elgin, Illinois, who kept
sixty cows, and sold the milk to a factory which did not
take the Sunday milking. By putting this milk in deep
■cans and sinking it in a spring, he kept it sweet all the
week, and raised his calves on it. Two articles not
usually found in the dairy I would recommend; a test
glass and milking tubes. The first is a glass arranged
with a graduated scale, so that by filling it to the top
and setting it away for the cream to raise, you can tell
exactly the per cent, of cream. The milking tubes I
would not use except in case of sore teats or an accident
of some kind. A cow will sometimes get a teat cut or
badly scratched with briars, so that every time you milk
the sore will be opened, and it is almost impossible t©
heal it. By the use of the tubes you can draw off the
mi'lk and the teat soon gets well. I always keep in my
stable something to use on the teats at the first sign of
cracking. Glycerine is good, and I have recommended
it for many years ; but I have recently used vaseline
and find it much better. I believe that if a little of this
is applied at the first appearance of roughness, that it
will be found a certain preventative, and as there are
many cows that sufl'er both spring and fall, for weeks,
with cracked teats so that it is almost impossible to
milk them, this remedy should be generally known.
Although not connected with dairying, I will say here

202 SUCCESS IN FAKMIXG.

that I have found Neatsfoot oil as useful in tlie horse
stable as vaseline for cows. If the collars are kept clean
and a little of this oil rubbed on them every day, and
at the first appearance of galling it is applied to the
shoulders or sides of the horses, I think that they
will never be disabled from this cause.

The arrangement of the cow stable is of great im-
portance to the dairy-man. First of all it should be so
arranged that you can keep the cows clean, and I have
never seen this done except wdiere there was a manure
ditch. The floor on wdiich the cows stand should be not
more than five and a half feet long; considerably less if
the cows are confined in stanchions. The manure ditcli
should be eight inches deep and not more than thirty
inches wide, for you want it so that you can easily step
across it. You can keep the cows as clean, easil}^, by
having the floor on which they stand raised eight or ten
inches, but the manure will be scattered and the urine
flow back, so that you are almost certain to soil your
boots if managed in this way; but with the manuie
ditch you always know where to step, and will rarely
carry the odor of the stable awa}' with you.

This manure ditch should be made water tight, and
I would advise that the sides be made of two inch oak
plank not less than a foot wide; fill the bottom witli
tough clay, pounded in, or if you cannot get clay suit-
able, use coarse gravel and then a coat of cement; but
on top of the cla}' or cement la}^ a floor of good inch
boards.

I have never found any bedding that suited me as
well as sawdust; it keeps the cows clean and takes up
the liquid better than any other material. I do not
make stalls in the cow stable but allow each cow four
feet of space, which I find ample, and make a short par-

DAIRYING. 203^

tition to keep them from trying to get eacn others feecL
Two feet is as far back as it need extend, and then it is
not in the way in milking. I have tried several kinds
of ties, and prefer the ring and snap to all others. By
this I mean that we tie a strong piece of rope around
each cows horns, with a ring on the rope, and leave it
there permanently. We then have a short rope, not
over two feet, tied securely in front, with a strong snap
on it. The manger is wide enough so that we walk
through it in front of the cows in t^ing or untying-
them, and it is the work of a moment to fasten or loosen
a long row of cattle. If I was keeping a large dairy I
would arrange the stable so that T could drive through
with a w^agon to remove the manure, having the manure
ditches far enough apart to let the w^agon between them ;
but where a few cows are kept it can be wheeled out.

An important factor in the profits of the butter dairjr
is the skim-milk, and how to make the most from it^
If the farmer is raising thoroughbred pigs to sell for
breeders, I think he will find it more profitable to feed it
to them, as no other food gives so good a start or makes
such showy pigs; but by judicious management as good
calves can be raised on skim-milk as b}' letting them
suck the cow. To do this it will be necessary, to add ta
the milk enough oil meal or flaxseed to make up the loss
of the cream. Caution should be exercised in changing
from new to skim-milk, for the calf should always be fed
on new milk for a few days, or until you can see it begin
to grow. Begin by adding to the milk a tablespoonful
of the seed, steeped in hot water, or double the amount
of the meal, and increase graduall}^ At five weeks old
begin to feed the calf shelled corn, and as soon as it will
eat a half pint at a feed jou can decrease the flaxseed or
meal. If 3^ou feed regularh' you can make the calf fit

:204 SUCCESS in fakming.

for veal in this way and grow a healthy, well developed
animal.

I have often found it more profitable to milk a cow for
two, and sometimes even three years, without breeding.
There are many cows that will, if well fed and kept from
breeding, give a profitable flow of milk for a long time,
iind the milk will be richer the second year after calving
than it was the first. This is an important fact to the
man who keeps but one cow, as if bred every year she
must go dry several weeks.

As the proof of the value of a good cow I will close
this chapter with a statement of an account which a
friend of mine kept with his cows for nine years.. But
one cow was kept at a time but he bought. and sold so
that several difterent cows are included in the account.
The cow was charged $2.50 per month for pasture, and
market price for hay, bran and meal consumed. She
was credited with milk and butter sold and the market
price for milk and butter consumed in the family, the
same as if it had been sold. The account kept with
this cow for one year is as follows:

Cow. Dr,

Six months pasture at .$2.50 per month, $15.00.

Hay, bran, etc., 30.00.

Total, $45.00.

Cr.

Milk sold, .$20.00.

Butter sold and used, 48.00.

Four quarts of milk used j^er day, 55.00.

Total, $123.00.

Deduct cost of keeping, ^ 45.00.

Xeaves profit, $78.00.

SHEEP FARMING. 205

Three years out of the nine the cow yielded a profit of
over $100 after paying for her keeping. It is perhaps
needless to add that the cow was well fed and cared for
in every respect.

In 1878 I milked eight cows and sold the butter at 28
cents, and my account with the cows stands as follows :
Account with dairy. Cr.

778 pounds of butter sold, $217.84..

One calf sold, . 7.80.

Milk sold, 10.00.

Three calves raised, 59.00..

Profit on cows sold, 16.00.

Total, .$301.64..

In addition to what was sold a family of nine persons
were supplied w^ith milk, butter and cream, and this,
with what milk was fed to the pigs would, I think, pay
for the pasturing of the cows. During the winter they
consumed about six tons of bran and meal, seventy-five
bushels of corn, and twelve tons of corn-fodder; and as
the bran cost about $9 per ton and the corn but 25 cents
per bushel and fodder but $3 per ton, it will be seen
that I had a fair profit. If, however, the prices of food
had been doubled, as they sometimes are, I should have
made but a small profit at the price received.

To make a butter dairy profitable will require careful
attention to all the details, and it will not do to trust
too much to hired help.

SHEEP FARMING.

Waldo F. Brown, Sir: — You wish me to write a brief
article on Sheep, in such fashion that it shall be the
"best guide to success." I know no better way than to

506 SUCCESS IX FAIIMIXG.

i^ivemy own methods, which are based on long experience.

Stephen Powers.

SOILS AND breeds.

All shec]) do best on a dr}', limestone soil; bnt they
will do well on any soil, provided it is dry. The Merino
loves the high hills, and is less tolerant of moisture
than the English long-wools. But for anj^ breed of
sheep, if the soil is not dry, it should be made so, or else
l)ut to other uses, for it is a losing business to attempt
to breed sheep on low, damp ground. Every breed of
sheep does w^ell in every climate within the temperate
zone, provided the process of acclimation is conducted
slowh\ The Merino does equally well in the rigorous
ivinter of Vermont and under the torrid sun of the Dar-
ling Downs of Australia. The Chiviots of Scotland
could doubtless be transported to Brazil and flourish ;
T)ut the removal might have to be made by so man}-
short steps as to occupy a century.

The American Merino, for a general-purpose sheep,
probably stands without a peer. The idea that the av-
erage full-grown sheep of any one of the improved breeds
yields better mutton than the average full-grown sheej)
of any other, is fallacious. The special superiority of
the British long- wools as mutton-producers, is this:
They do not 34eld better mutton than the Merino at the
^ame age, but they bring it into market so much earlier.
The young of all animals whose flesh is used for food, are
esteemed by the gourmets of great cities far above those
of more mature age. A Cots wold or an Improved Ken-
tucky will rear a lamb weighing seventy-five or a hun-
dred pounds inside of six months, and the flesh of that
lamb is worth in the city twice or thrice as much per

SHEEF FARMING. 207

pound as the flesh ot a 3'earling, because of its tender
age. It is no better eating than the Merino lamb, but is
more profitable near a great city, simply because of its
precocity' The remarks in this paper refer to the
American Merino, but they will be equally applicable to
the English long wools by observing the following rule:
Whenevei the number of sheep in a flock is given, di-
vide by two, wherever the ration per head is given, mul-
tiply two.

CHOICE OF BREEDERS.

A well wooled ram may be a poor stock-getter. The
latter quality will have to be determined b}^ trial. A
quality especially desirable is pre-potenc^^, that is, the
power to mark his progeny strongly after himself. In
selecting a ram whose stock-getting qualities are un-
known, the purchaser should observe the following
points : A keen, bright, prominent e3^e ; bright pink skin ;
thick spermatic cords; arched nose, deeply furrowed be-
low the eyes, short, broad head; short, thick, heavy
neck ; broad, deep chest ; broad on top of the withers ;
straight, strong, wide back: broad loin and rump; thick
between stifle joints, large, round barrel, ribs well
sprung out; well down in the flanks; short, straight legs,
well spread apart, straight from the rump to the ground ;
profusely covered from a point two inches below the eyes
to the hoofs with a long, dense fleece of buff'-colored
wool, finel}^ crimped to the end of the fiber and free from
gare, (hair), on the neck and hips, of a dark color on the
outside which will not bleach in the storms; growing
three inches long in a year; cheek, leg and belly wool
(especially the latter) to be of good length and dense;
scrotum Avell covered; wool around the eyes not obstruct-
ing the sight ; plent}' of smallish folds on the neck, some
on the body and across the stifles, one low down on each

208 SUCCESS IX FARMING.

flank, and one shaped like a horseshoe on the rump, the-
heavier here the better. Most of the above points should
be sought for in the ewe; })ut for a good breeder, she-
should be especially heavy in the hind-quarters. The
"ewe-neck," with the droop just in front of the withers,
is to be avoided ; it indicates lack of constitution. The
first, second, and third points in a good sheep are — con-
stitution.

BREEDING.

In determining the time of lambing, the owner must
consider the size of his flock, the quality and amount of
spring feed, etc. A small flock well housed, well fed on
])ran, roots, clover hay and fodder, and thoroughl}' looked
after, may be lambed to advantage in March, or even
earlier. It is imperative that the ewes sliould have daily
as much exercise as the^- would get in walking, sa}^, two-
miles, constant access to salt, clear water at least once
ti day, and enough of the above feed to make a generous
flow of milk. If these cannot be guaranteed, lambing
liad better be deferred until grass grows. A ewe fed on hay
and corn may be fat and yean a large lamb, yet have na
milk, and consequenth' disown it; and then a year's
work is lost. Milk must be had at all costs. Never
lamb on green rye, but when the lamb is a week old, the
ewe may be turned on it with advantage, if other green
feed is scarce. Of all cultivated grasses, I like orchard
grass best for sheep-pasture; it grows so early in the-
spring and so late in the fall. Not over 150 ewes should
be kept in a flock, and each should have a.t least ten
square feet in the shed, with access to a 3^ard or lot by
da}^ As long as grass remains dead in the winter, they
may run on it with considerable freedom; but as soon
as it sprouts in the spring they should not be allowed to
graze on it at all until about a week before such time as-

SHEEP FARMING. 209

it will do to turn them out altogether. First let them
out a half hour a da3% then an hour, and so on. Con-
tinue the feed of grain until the grass gets heart. One
hundred ewes should have, during lambing, a bushel of
"shipstufF" or two bushels of bran; feed in flat-bot-
tomed troughs to prevent " hogging."'

During lambing look over the flock every hour. If a
ewe goes apart and remains alone but does not brin^
forth, examine her; thrust in the hand carefull}^ to as-
certain if there is not constriction or growing-up of the
uterus — a complaint to which the Merino ewe is liable.
Take nothing for granted respecting a 3'oung lamb until
you actuall^^ see him suck and know that he gets his
milk. But be careful not to interfere with a 3'oung ewe
until 3'ou are certain that she needs help, or has aban-
doned her lamb. If she has disowned it put her up with
it in a small pen and whip her occasionally; I have
known a ewe to stand out a month, and yet own it at
last.

MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS.

They should be docked and castrated before flies get
about, and a little fish oil smeared on the tail to keep
away such as may be fl3^ing around. Keep a roofed
trough in the field with salt in it, to teach them to eat
from a trough. Wean them early in August; turn the
ewes on the driest pasture, and the lambs on the green-
est and freshest. But above all, the lambs should not
be put into a field where there are stagnant springs
trickling down through the grass. These breed the par-
asites which cause "paper-skin" — that many-formed
and the most fatal malady which American sheep have
to contend with. The dampest and foggiest river-bot-
tom, with clear running water to drink, is better than
the cleanest and driest hill-pasture, if the latter has n@

14

210 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

water but a drooling spring. After the sheep is a year
old, the liability to this disease is substantially passed.
Beginning gradually, one hundred lambs will soon eat a
bushel of bran a day. If they are late lambs they should
have all the bran they will eat, to push them forward
rapidly for winter. Add a little oats when frost falls,
and corn when the snow flies. By New Years feed a
bushel a day to one hundred — half bran, and a quarter
each of oats and corn. Lambs will winter excellently on
this ration and bright corn fodder. When they are first
taken up from grass, keep them up abou two days with
no coarse feed before them except fodder, (increasing the
grain feed while they are being broken in), then let them
out an hour or two on some good rowen. Persevere in
this about ten days, letting them out two or three times
on grass meantime; b}^ this time the}' will eat fodder
nicely; then they may have hay at night and fodder in
the morning. If they learn to eat hay first, it is more
difficult to break them to eat fodder. They may grow a
little gaunt before they come to their fodder; but there
is no occasion for concern, they will be all right in two
weeks. The same caution applies to them as to ewes re-
specting grass after it has sprouted in the spring. Green
grass and hay will not splice; the transition must be
cflected in a very few days, and it is the grain ration
which must be depended on to let the sheep down easy
from one to the other, either way.

TAGGING AND WASHING.

Before they are turned on grass in the spring, all the
wool about the vent and hind legs that the dung could
touch, should be closely cut away to prevent fouling.
This is especially important with breeding ewes; if they
are handled carefully it may be done with perfect safety.
To neglect this is little less than infamous ; the maggots

SHEEP FARMING. 211

get in and cause untold trouble to the shepherd and
miserable suffering to the sheep. Even in the summer,
say about weaning time, all the ewe lambs should be
tagged carefully, (they are most liable to foul), to pre-
Tent the lodgment of that abominable pest, the maggot
A iamb attaclied by them soon succumbs, and after ihej
have had free course for two or three daj's, it is almost
impossible to save its life. As to washing, it is idle to
cry out against it, so long as manufacturers continue to
buy unwashed wool at a dockage of one-third. No wool-
grower can submit to that unless he houses his sheep
the year round, thus retaining all the yolk in the fleece^
Washing is an evil in man}- ways, but it is one which
must be faced. The only rational course for the farmer
is to seek to mitigate it as much as possible by employ-
ing careful men, giving his personal attention to everj
detail, and sternly repressing all cruelty or unnecessarj
roughness with the sheep. Wash them early on a bright,
calm day, and turn them on a clean pasture to dry,
where there is no wind; it will not damage them to anj
considerable extent.

SHEARING, MARKING, ETC.

It is legitimate to let the flock run after washing until
the yolk flows to the extremit}^ of the fiber again, saj
two weeks. But it is not legitimate to shear sheep when
they are in the least degree moist with dew or rain ; the
greatest pains must be taken to keep them dr^^ before
shearing, else the fleeces will mold. Neither is it legiti-
mate to pile the fleeces in a damp room, near the ground,
nor to do up dead wool in them. But it is legitimate to
put into them the tags sheared ofl* early in the springy
after subjecting them to one careful washing in clears,
cold water, such as the sheep were washed in, A com-
mon grocer's scale should be kept standing near on a.

212 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

hox, adjusted to a certain weight, (the standard to
which the flock is bred), and every fleece should be
thrown on it by the shearer. If it comes up to the
standard, well and good; if not, let the sheep (which has
been retained meantime by a strap buckled around be-
hind its fore-legs and attached to a rope suspended
from above), be marked for sale. Even if the fleece is
"weight," if the sheep shows failing teeth, let it be
condemned, too. Let all sheep beyond middle age be
weeded out inexorably, especial^ if the flock is a large
one. After shearing is over, put all these culls in a lot
by themselves ; give them every advantage of the pas-
ture, get them fat if possible, and sell them for what
they will fetch. Do not mix them with good sheep;
keep the latter separate and demand the highest market
price for them ; they will find a buyer. Do not be in
any hurry about selling wool. Four times out of five it
will sell higher in three or six months after shearing
than it will at shearing. Borrow what money is needed
for immediate use, and let the" clip lie in the wool-room
until the " bear" movement is passed.

PASTURAGE, ETC.

One acre of fair upland pasture ought to support three
grown sheep; it is safe to calculate on this basis. Keep
the flocks moving about. It is a good rule to move them
every week, if possible; at least every two weeks.
It is better to keep a large number of sheep in a certain
pasture a short time than to keep a small number there
a long time. Sheep are fond of change, CA^en if they can
do no better than to occupy a field from which another
flock has just been taken. They ought to be turned on
to grass early enough in the spring to prevent it from
growing up too rank. It is sheer waste to let June grass>
for instance, or blue grass, go to seed ; it should be kept

SHEEP FARMING. Zl.>

■SO depastured that it will throw up a seed-stalk only
here and there, and that only a few inches in height.
Sheep will do no good in a field of grass which has gone
to seed. They should be taken off in the fall early
enough to allow the grass to cover its roots with some
matting as a protection in the winter. It is better to
take them off earl}- in autumn and put them back early
in the spring than to be late in the fall and late in the
spring. About the middle of November, if the flocks
begin to show signs of falling off, it is well to take a
small ration of shelled corn out every day, and sow it
broadcast on a clean short sod. This gives all an equal
chance and keeps them in good heart until they are
ready to go into winter quarters.

WINTER CARE.

Sheep ought to be yarded, except for an hour or two
€ach da}', when the}' may be allowed to run on an old
sod or in the woods. If nothing better offers, turn them
into a corn stubble; thev will take much satisfaction and
needed exercise in browsing the stubs. Their yard must
be in a dry place, with a good wind-break on the ex-
posed sides, and a shed open on the east or south side,
furnished with sets of sliding doors, so that it can be
thrown open if desired, or shut up tight with the flock
inside in a severe storm. A dry flock should have a
shed large enough to allow eight or ten square feet per
Tiead, and they should not be compelled to occupy even
that, except during storms. Sheep desire a variety in
their ration, and to this end the sheep-houses on the
farm should be clustered as nearl}^ together as good ven-
tilation will permit, and all the different kinds of feed so
disposed in stacks or graneries that some of each can be
•given out to every flock. Fodder should be fed in an
open yard — a space sixty feet square will suffice for one

-14 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

hundred and fifty sheep — so that the stalks may receive
the rains of the next summer, and be reduced to the con-
dition of manure by fall. It is not well to allow hogs to
follow sheep with the view of triturating the stalks more
rapidly; they foul the feeding ground so that sheep will
not eat up their feed clean. Ha3^ should be given in the
ordinary slatted boxes under cover — as much as they
will eat clean and no more, which can be ascertained in
a few days by careful observation. A good rotation isr
fodder in the morning, corn at noon, hay at night. Stock
«heep should be wintered mostly on coarse feed, with
only enough grain to keep them in good heart, say half
a pound of corn or oats per head per day. It is more
profitable to give a little grain than to keep a flock en-
tirely on coarse feed. With straw of any kind a pound
a, day should be given. The sheep-house should be lit-
tered with the orts and cleaned out once a month ; if left
longer than that the ammonia arising impairs the ani-
mals' health, and forces them to stay out in storms when
they would otherwise seek shelter. When sheep be-
gin to scratch their briskets it is a sure sign the ma-
nure ought to be removed. All gi'ain should be fed in.
flat-bottomed troughs, in a clean yard devoted to this
purpose, with the troughs so arranged that the sheep will
run in lengthwise of them. The fashion of the hay-box
does not matter so much as the kind of feed put into it.
If the hay is bright and sweet the^^ will stand still and
eat it, and not waste it by pulling out their heads and'
running about. All kinds of grass for sheep- feed ought
to be cut when in bloom, or even earlier.

FEEDING FOR MARKET.

Sheep intended for feeding, should be in good order
when put into winter quarters, and pains must be taken
not to allow them to fall off from the start. Whatever

SHEEP FARMING. 215

grain is given, must be given with tiie utmost regularity
— no cliange, for instance, from shelled corn to the ear.
They should have their grain twice or thrice a day, and
at every feed the eye of the master himself should watch
them carefull}^; if, after the bulk of the flock have fin-
ished, there is still a little grain left, and a few linger
and keep on eating, they should be driven from the pen
wdth the others, and the pen closed, or the remnant of
feed removed. Sheep should not have grain lying by
them, like fatting hogs. The fattening process ought to
be pushed to completion, so far as the profit is concerned,
in five or six weeks. Merinoes will not do the best that
is in them until they are three or four 3^ears old. Some
feeders consider it the most profitable way to give only
enough grain through the winter to keep the flock in ns
good condition as thev were in fall; at the last push
them for about three or four weeks ; then turn on grass
for a month ; wash, shear and sell wool and carcass sep-
arate.

FULL- BLOODS AXD GRADES.

For years I shared in the popular belief that full-
bloods are not as hardy as grades ; but I am now satis-
fied, and record it as my opinion, that if full-blood
American Merinoes are taken from a stud-flock near by,
and graduall}^ wonted to an open-air life in the summer,
they will soon learn to endure it as well as the grades.
But if full-bloods are brought from a stud-flock in a dis-
tant and difterent climate, they must become acclimated
before an attempt is made to depart from the system of
housing to which they have been accustomed.

PAPER-SKIN.

This one name covers a disease of several forms, all
of them caused by parasites in difl^erent viscera. Only
lambs are subject to it to any extent. All medicining is

216

SUCCESS m FARMING.

more or less unsatisfactory; the best remedy is, to give
once a day a teaspoonful composed of equal parts of tur-
pentine and linseed oil. If the parasites are in the
stomach and intestines, it is well to give pumpkins, split
in halves and laid flat side up in flat-bottomed troughs
divided into small compartments. The seeds are thought
to be the most efficacious part. Prevention is far more
important than cure; and this must be accomplished by
generous feeding, keeping the lamb strong and thrifty
;all summer, until it is taken off" grass; keeping it away
from foul sju-ings, and away from pastures on which
paper-skin sheep have lately run. The external indica^
tions of this disease are a very pale, bloodless, bluish
skin, lassitude, and extreme lightness in weight. If the
parasites are in the lungs, the animal coughs; if in the
kidneys, it urinates frequently.

FOOT-ROT AND SCALD-FOOT.

These ailments ought to be kept carefully distinct from
each other. The first is contagious; the second not.
Both begin in the cleft of the hoof — a galled appearance
— and for the first two or three weeks not one shepherd
in a hundred can distinguish between them. If it is
foot-rot it will now begin to spread in the flock, and it
will go rapidly from bad to worse until the foot is sub-
stantialh^ destroyed; if it is scald-foot, it may remain
stationary for weeks or months, no other sheep taking it,
(though in hot weather maggots may get into the feet),
or it may get well of itself. Scald-foot is nothing to be
feared, but, lest it should be the rot, it is well to treat
it as such. Sprinkle finely-powdered blue vitriol in the
cleft of the foot, working it well in. If it is the foot-rot,
well-seated, the vitriol must be applied in a warm solu-
tion, setting the foot down in it, all the lurking-places of
the disease having been previousl}^ laid bare by an un-

SHEEP FARMING. 217

sparing use of the knife. Turn the sheep on a dry sod,
4ind repeat in a week.

GRUB IN THE HEAD.

When a sheep seems to have A^ertigo, goes about in a
circle, twisting its head around, or makes sudden, erratic
dashes, the chances are ten to one that it has grub in
the head. Turn it on its back, thrust a strong wheat
straw carefully up the nostril, (it will go up five or six
inches), withdraw the straw, suck it full of turpentine,
put it up the nostril again and blow out the turpentine.
Let the sheep up a minute, then repeat in the other
nostril.

OTHER DISEASES.

For colic or stretches, caused by a too abrupt change
from grass to hay, dose freely with salt. For any kind
of vegetable poison, drench a grown sheep with a half
pint of whisky, a younger one with less. For diarrhea
give two tablespoonfuls of linseed oil. For maggots,
shear the wool off" close to the skin, and smear on fresh,
thin tar until it reaches the skin everywhere. For ticks,
give constant access to a box containing three parts salt
and two of sulphur, and keep the sheep out of the rain.
For scab, dose with sulphur and linseed oil.

These are really about all the diseases which, in the
simple and elementar}^ regimen under which sheep-farm-
ing is as 3^et conducted, the American shepherd has to
treat. The books are burdened with lists of maladies
which trouble the English flock-master, with his more
complicated methods and high fed flocks ; but they need
not give us much concern at present.

218 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

POULTRY FOR PROFIT.

WRITTEN BY MISS M. BROWN, OXFORD, OHIO.

All over our country there is a general waking up to
the interests of agriculture, and among our best farmers
the feeling is growing that success can be reached by
careful attention to little things — the developing of the
resources within the grasp of every farmer and his wife.

Every one will admit the expedienc}^ of keeping foAvls-
on a farm, that his own table may be supplied with
fresh eggs and that the butcher's bill may be reduced^
throughout the season. But much more than this may
be attained with but little outlay, and attended by much
pleasure and profit. The old way of getting a lot of
hens and two or three cocks of no distinct breed, of
letting them look after themselves through the summer
and roost in the trees all winter, must by abandoned; for
during such a winter as that of '81, some farmers who-
kept a hundred hens, were without eggs for their own
use during most of the winter. The age of the hens
should be accurately kept, and they should be made to
do service in the dinner pot before they have ceased to-
"be profitable for eggs. I find that it is safest, especially
with the larger breeds of chickens, never to keep a hen
over two 3'ears, and new blood should be introduced
through the cocks each year. If you want to loose your
young chickens with the gaps, and contend with all the-
diseases chicken flesh is heir to, keep your own cocks^
from year to year, until the relationship between mother
and ofispring shall be as intricate as a Chinese puzzle.

How shall poultry raising be made profitable to thfr
average farmer? is a question worth stud^'ing, and I
gladly give you my experience, gained by actual practice
for a number of years.

POULTRY FOR PROFIT. 211>

In the first place do not try to keep too many hens.
From twenty-five to fifty at the most, through the
winter, but give this number the proper care and j'ou
will be surprised at the handsome profit.

First, select a suitable place for your chicken house,
well drained, with a southern exposure, and sheltered
by buildings on the north and west, if possible.
Whether you have this shelter or not, by buildings,
plant an evergreen hedge on one or both of these sides ;
arbor vitse is my choice : Trees two feet high can be had
for a few cents each, and if set three or four feet apart,
will soon grow into a dense hedge. My own, set nine
years ago, is now twenty feet high, and is a comfort to
the chickens every day in the year. This hedge is their
"city of refuge." They run to it for protection against
wind, rain and snow storms ; they hide under it by day
to escape the hawks; and all through the hot months of
summer climb among its branches at night to be out of
the reach of skunks and weasels. During the terrible
heat of the past summer, 1881, this hedge was the chief
source of consolation to the 3^oung chickens. They
would crawl under and among the close branches for
shelter until on close inspection, sometimes, it looked
like a tree bearing chickens for fruit. Plant this hedge
by all means; and then build your chicken house
within its sheltering protection and 3^ou have gone a
long way toward making poultr^^ raising a success.

A house fourteen feet long and six wide can accomo-
date comfortabl}^, fifty chickens through the winter.
My own is built against the barn, seven feet high at the
back, with a slope of two feet for the roof; half of the
front is of glass to let the sunshine in, and this half is
always kept supplied with fresh chip-dirt. To look in
here some bright winter day would make 3^ou believe

:220 . SUCCESS in farming.

•chicken happiness was a cheap thing. There is a board
three inches high to separate the dusting place and the
part over whicli the chickens roost. It is all boarded
over the floor with two inch oak planks, so that not even
a weasel or mouse can get in when the door is closed.
Dry dirt is kept over the floor to absorb the droppings,
and during the summer months is scraped into a barrel
once every two weeks. Every spring this house is
whitewashed, inside and out, and occasionally kerosene
oil is applied to the roosts and turned into the cracks.

I have never found it best in a small chicken house
like this to have the laying boxes connected with it, but
have a small slide door through into the barn, and there
have boxes and kegs arranged in a suitable number.
The objection I have to the nests being so close to-
gether is that in cold weather, when closely confined,
.for the lack of other modes of exercise they scratch their
.nests to pieces, break, and often learn to eat their eggs.
During the summer months most of the hens vacate the
house at night, but as soon as the weather begins to get
rough, can, by a little coaxing, all be gathered in; and
before this time I try to sell oft' and reduce my stock to
the number that can be comfortably wintered. When
the ground is covered with snow I feed liberally every
morning with what is called ship-stuff" — a mixture of
bran and shorts — wet with scalding water and then cool-
ed with skim-milk; also feed scraps from the table, occa-
sionally sunflower seeds, and cayenne peppers mixed with
the bran ; and at noon give a light feed of some kind of
whole grain. Let the amount be regulated by the
"weather. Chickens do much better when made to for
.nge for themselves, and the}- destroy a vast amount of
weed seed and insects of every description, the Colorado
beetle excepted. I always make my hens get down off

POULTRY FOR PROFIT. 221

the roosts and come out doors to get their feed, no mat-
ter what the weather is. During a snow storm we
always clear away the snow for quite a space around
the house so they can get at the gravel and come out for
fresh air and exercise. An iron kettle holding a couple
of gallons of water, is sunk within two inches of the top
in earth and is kept full of water. During the summer
cobble stones are thrown into the kettle so the little
chickens are in no danger of drowning. During very
cold weather the water must be hot to melt the ice, and
as soon as it cools sufficiently the chickens will gather-
and drink until the water is lowered several inches, and
thus leave space for the next watering. A trough long
enough for all the chickens to gather around is best for
receiving the feed.

One of the main points in poultry raising is to secure
early pullets, and this can be done b}^ a little care and
pains. Some time in February or the fore part of
March select the very roundest eggs, gathered on warm
days when there is no danger of their getting chilled,,
and if possible set three hens at a time and if they
should not hatch well give the chicks to two hens. Take
extra pains with the nests and do not give the hens over
thirteen eggs each. A good body of earth in the bottom
of the hatching boxes insures steady warmth, and is.
always an advantage. Remove a part of one side of the
box and have it so arranged that the hen can walk-
directly on the nest and is not obliged to jump down on
the eggs. When the time nears for the eggs to hatcli.
prepare some coops that can be perfectly closed at
night, and have a little yard about the coop for the
chicks and hen to run in through the day. The coops
should be located just south of the arbor vitse hedge..
Eeed the young chickens with the bran-mash and corui

222

SUCCESS IN FARMING,

bread, but do not give them clear, raw corn meal dough.

Plymouth Rock and other hard}^ varieties of chickens^
with these few simple arrangements will thrive through
iiny weather our climate can produce during the early
spring months. Pullets hatched in March or the first of
Aj)ril, will mature and begin laying in September, and
w^ill pay for themselves before Thanksgiving. I have a
pullet hatched during the terrible snow storm last
spring, that has at this date, November 1st, laid twenty-
live eggs, and shows no signs of sitting yet.

During the hot weather look out for vermin, and
grease your sitting hens under the wings with a mix-
ture ot lard and kerosene. If you have not many hens
condense your broods of little chickens through the hot
weather. I had two hens this summer that raised
twenty-five each.

The care of the poultry ought to be given to some
member of the family and let an accurate account be
kept of all outlay, and also of the amount sold. There
is no better way to teach a child strict business habits
and to teach it self-help and econom}-, than by giving it
an interest and share in the profits,

A small piece of ground planted in sun flowers,
Dhoura corn and ca3^enne peppers will go a long waj
toward feeding the chickens through the winter. The
demand for poultry and eggs is on the increase, and it
is the part of wisdom for the farmer to meet this grow-
ing demand and benefit not only himself, but the con-
sumer.

CHAPTER XX.

TIMBER GROWING.

The number of farms on which timber planting should
at once be begun is large and constantly increasing.
Even in localities like my own, where less than thirty
years ago the question was how to get rid of the timber,
and deadening and burning was resorted to for clearing
the land, there are now many farms without fire- wood and
very few on which there is any rail timber left. On all
these farms timber plantations should be started at
once; and even on many which still have a supply of
timber, it has passed its prime and there should be new
plantings made. As a rule, the least valuable lands
should be planted in timber; that which is too rolling
to cultivate, and even lands which have been reduced in
fertilit}^ by long cropping, will grow trees well.

The profits of timber on such land will often exceed
many times, all that could have been made from them if
cultivated ; and when planted in Locust it renews itself
after being cut, and the second crop grows in two-thirds
the time required by the first, and will yield a regular
Income for several years. I have had ten years experi-
ence in growing timbers, but for thirty-one years have
lived in sight of several groves of locust, and so what I
state in this chapter is fact, and not theory. My ex-
perience extends to but three varieties of timber. Locust,
Catalpa and Soft Maple, and of these, in all localities
where they will thrive, I should expect the greatest

2M

SUCCESS IN FARMING.

profit from the Locust. If fire-wood, or a quick growing-
wind-break is the object sought, I would advise the
planting of Soft Maple. I cut a half cord of wood last
spring trom eighteen trees of Soft Maple occupying a
single row fift}^ feet long, which had been growing nine
years; This was at the rate of over twenty-five cords
to the acre with the rows one rod apart. I have trees
of this timber eighteen years old which measure from
three and a half to four feet in circumference, and I esti-
mate they wdll make over a half cord each. Near my
farm is a plantation of two acres of Locust which was
started m 1850, the seed being planted in hills like corn.
This was cut off and marketed in 1868, and I know that
it brought several hundred dollars per acre; but as i1
has changed hands I have no way of ascertaining how
much. In 1879, eleven j^ears after it was cut off clean
the owner began cutting the second crop of posts, and 1
visited it and made a careful examination of it. When
planted in 1850 the trees were four feet apart each way;
but they were thinned out and sold for bean poles and
stakes, so that at the time it was cut off the trees stood
eight feet apart. When I visited it eleven years later, I
found that each stump had thrown out from three to
seven sprouts, and the largest of these were now large
enough for posts and cutting them out was a positive
advantage to the remainder, and as the stumps averaged
over four of these sprouts 1 found that over two thous-
and posts could be cut and still leave the original num-
ber of trees — 680. I have never known these posts to
sell for less than 20 cents each, so it will be seen that
this land would yield a good income on the second crop
of trees after they were eleven years old. For ten years
to come from the cuttings and in twenty years from the
iirst cutting, if the straightest and best trees were

TIMBER-GROWING. 225

allowed to stand, one to each stump, there would be 680
trees that would make several posts each. If allowed
to grow until each tree would make ten posts, at 20 cents
each they would bring $1,360.00, and the wood from the
branches would pay all the expense of cutting and split-
mg. There is on this farm from twelve to twent}^ acres
of Locust timber, most of it on hillsides, all of which
was planted, and there is growing on the land a heavy
crop of blue grass which pays a fair interest on the cost
of land and trees.

When I came to Ohio, in 1848, there was growing on
the farm I moved upon a double row of small Locust
trees, twent}^ rods long. T do not know how long they
had been planted but I could easily carry one of them,
and did dig up and carry on my shoulder several of
them to set around the house. In 1867 these trees were
cut — there were thirty-three of them — and tlie}^ aver-
aged twelve large posts each and half as many small
ones, which were used for fence stakes. Allowing one
rod of ground in width, which these trees occupied^
there was just one-eighth acre and the trees were scat-
tering, less than two to the square rod. The second
growth from them is over two hundred trees, tall and
straight ; many of them will make three and some four
post cuts to the tree, and there have been posts made
from this second growth for one or two years past. I
have seen a gate post that squared six inches made
from a Locust tree that grew from the seed in eight
years, and I now have on my farm a ten year old tree
that will split and make two posts. I know that in
some localities the bores injures the Locust trees, but I
think it is usually isolated trees that suffer most, and I
have never known a plantation seriously injured. I be-
lieve there is no investment that with perfect safety

15 -_

226 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

offers so large profits as the planting of Locust timber.
There are lands suitable for this purpose which can be
bought for $25 to $35 an acre, which, if planted in Locust
timber, in ten years would be worth from $300 to $500
per acre, and at the same time would be taxed for per-
haps less than $50 per acre. There is no danger of
overstocking the market, and those who begin planting
Locust timber will soon reap a rich reward.

The seed should be sown in nursery rows, in April or
May, and must be prepared by scalding. Put it in a
tight vessel and pour water nearly boiling hot over it
and let it stand until cool. You then find about one
seed in twelve swollen to three times the ordinar}^ size;
spread them in the sun till dry enough to handle and
then separate these swollen seeds, which, if the quantity
is small can be done by hand, or a sieve can be used
which will retain the swollen seed and let the remainder
pass through. The seed which does not swell must be
treated with the hot water repeatedly; each time a larger
proportion will swell, and from four to six applications
of the hot water will be necessary. Seed prepared in
this way will come up as quickly as corn, but if the
w^eather is not suitable for planting it may be kept in a
cool place for a week or more. If it must be kept, spread
it an inch or so in depth in some vessel, and set on the
cellar bottom and cover with a damp cloth. Sow in
shallow drills three feet apart, eight to twelve seeds to
the foot of drill, and cover an inch deep. Give good
culture and they will grow from three to five feet high
the first season. Always set out in the plantation atone
year old. The growth will be checked less than if al-
lowed to stand two years. In planting the trees you
want the land thoroughly prepared by plowing and har-
rowing; then lay off the rows with the two-horse plow

TIMBEK-GIIOWING. 227

5io as to have the 1 arrows deep enough for the roots;
stretch a line across, or if you prefer cross mark with a
small plow. You will need a boy to hold the trees and
two men with light shovels to put the earth to the roots.
Two men and a boy will plant about an acre a day in
this way. The trees will get well established and make
quite a growth the first year, but it is best to cut back
c-lose to the ground earl}' the next spring, as they will
make a strong vigorous growth this season and have
straighter trunks. The}- should be cultivated for two
summers after which they will occupy the land so that
the weeds will do them no harm. I advise planting
four by four feet, as the growth will be straighter when
planted close. At about four years after planting cut
out every other row. They will be large enough for
bean poles and occasionally one will do for a fence stake.
A few years later, when large enough for fence stakes or
A'ineyard poles, cut eveiy other one. This will leave
the trees eight feet apart each way, or 680 to the acre.
After the first row is cut out sow in grass and pasture
with sheep or young cattle.

In growing Soft Maple seedlings, 3'ou gather the seed
as soon as ripe in the spring, which is about the time
istrawberries ripen, and sow at once. It will come up as
readilv as beet seed and grow from three to five feet
high the first summer. In setting these in plantations,
unless I expected to get sale for a part of them for shade
trees, I would put the rows eight feet apart and the trees
four. A double row of these planted along the North
and West of exposed fields will afford protection to both
crops and cattle, and in prairie countries, it is said that
where one-sixth of the land is occupied by wind-breaks
the remainder will grow enough more grain to pay for
it. Where a wind-break is needed for the buildings, I

228 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

would advise the planting of evergreens. Cedar or Ar-
l3or Vitse are probably the best. They will be a great
comfort during the winds of winter and spring.

The Catalpa has been largely recommended as a tim-
ber tree for some years past, but my own experience witii
it shows that though it maj^ be a valuable timber it has
qualities which render it inferior to the Locust. I have
been growing it for four j^ears and I lind it to be of
much slower growth than the latter, and very much in-
clined to branch and grow scragg}'^, Out of several
hundred which I have growing not one in twenty are
even passably straight. The seed of Catalpa is light as
that of parsnip, and will not come up if sown deepl}^ or
on a stiff clay ; and as the young trees, when they are
four inches high, can be transplanted as easily as sweet
potatoes, I would recommend that the seed be sown in a
frame, in prepared soil, and where they can be pro-
tected.

There is one other timber which I have had no ex-
perience with, but which would undoubtedly b}^ profit-
able to grow, and that is Black Walnut. The seed
must be planted in the fall and it is well to plant w^here-
they are to grow, as the trees do not bear transplanting;
well.

CHAPTEK XXI

COUNTRY HOMES.

BY MRS. J. C. ALDRICH, OF FULTON COUNTY, OHIO.

As success in farming depends largely upon the ar-
rangement and management of the home, certainly a vol-
ume on this subject would be very incomplete without a
chapter specially devoted to the household. And even a
■chapter seems insufficient for mention of the various
topics connected with this department. - _

Home, in its widest sense, signifies " all that pertains
to a dwelling place." With" this broad heading for our
chapter, such a throng of subjects crowd to the front
and demand the first place in importance, that it is diffi-
cult to decide which shall have the preference; but en-
deavoring to forget for the moment the jostle and clamor
for pre-eminence of hygiene, order, cleanliness, adorn-
ment, etc., etc., we will go back of the home for our be-
ginning.

A farmer's possessions may stretch over a vast area
of country; his herds may feed on a thousand hills; he
maj enjoy the reputation of being a very rich man; yet,
the impressions made on his character by his home and
its surroundings, will unmistakably stamp his real worth
in society. It is therefore essential that he begins right
in life. We would by no means tarnish the holy senti-
ment of love by cold calculations in profit and loss; but
w^ould simply suggest that all mingle a little common
sense in matters of love. For instance, a man should

230 suocj:ss in farming.

love the woman he is capable of making happy; and a
woman should never imagine she loves the man whose
business she despises.

The young man who decides to be a farmer, should
select for his companion a woman every way fitted for a
farmer's wife. We do not mean b}- this a woman of the
greatest physical endurance and the least mental ca-
pacity; the largest capacity- for acquiring wealth and
the least desire for spending it on artistic tastes; noth-
ing of the kind. But a woman whose heart is filled with
a love for the country, who goes to her home like a queen-
to her throne, proud and happy and independent; one
who does not regard domestic life as degrading drudg-
ery, or the occupation of farming as an inferior one.
Such a woman would help to build up a home that would
be a blessing to its inmates and an honor to the farmer's
vocation.

But we have to admit that all farm homes are not
models of perfection, even where the husband and wife
are united in their love for the business. We see many
farmers with large farms living in homes destitute of
books, paintings, music, everything in fact, that will not
yield an interest in dollars and cents. In most cases of
this kind the proprietor has commenced life with limited
means, and found economy and retrenchment more easily
practiced in and around the house than am'where else
in farming. Certainly, underdraining must be exten-
sively done to insure the growth of crops ; long lines of
fences must be made to protect them, and large barns
must be built to secure them; for the crops of the farm
are the money-producing element, and must not be neg-
lected. Then the long list of farm implements and ma-
chinery necessary for carrying on modern farming must
be filled before any furniture for the house, beyond the

COUNTRY HOMES. 231

barest necessities can be afforded. B}^ the time pros-
perity becomes established, the enforcement of rigid fru-
gality in everything pertaining to the house has become
a habit so fixed in the nature of both husband and wife,
that long after the necessity for its practice has ceased,
we find them subjecting every proposed improvement to
their utilitarian test, and opposing any outlay for beau-
tifying their home as a needless expense.* What their
poverty once made an excusable economy, their present
circumstances render a very censurable parsimon}^ Very
often the surplus that should be expended in bringing-
cheer and comfort to the household, is deposited in the
bank, awaiting a favorable opportunity for investing in
more land.

It is a mistaken notion with some, that they must
wait until they have grown rich before the}" begin to
gather around them the enjoyments of life.

The little cabin in the clearing may contain all the
elements of refined living; the evidences' of intelligence
and culture sit as gracefully within its neatly white-
washed walls as in the mansions of the wealthy; ivies
and eglantines cling as lovingly to its rude logs as to
the stately columns of opulence; and the fragrance of
flowers floats in through its tin}^ windows as freely as

*Mrs. Aldrich has opened a truth, a secret to many, that the
disregard to taste and beauty in some farm homes is the natu-
ral result of long-continued necessary economy. But because
natural, it does not follow that it is right. It is a pitiful thing
to see a man and woman give all the strength and vigor of their
lives in the eff"ort to secure an "independence," and when they
have secured it find they have forgotten how to enjoy it. Yet
such a sight is to be found in thousands of farm homes to-day ;
and there are thousands and thousands of farmers who, hav-
ing acquired a "competence," still rise up early and work late,
and pinch and deny themselves and their families every lux-
ury, when they could not tell what they were saving the money
for. R. s. T.

232 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

through a plate-glass casement. There is such a wealth
of material around eveiy countiy home for creations of
beaut}'. The scraggy, gnarled sticks may be made into
rustic work; the stones lying around in the way, into
rockeries, the lichens into brackets and hanging baskets
to receive trailing or climbing plants ; even a great, ugly
stump in the yard may be made a thing of beauty by
hollowing out the top, filling with earth and planting
with trailing vines. There is no need of waiting for the
accumulation of riches to make a pleasant home. No
matter how humble your beginnings, take to your home
all the beauty and happiness within your reach, and by
the time you are ready to build the great farm-house
that has long been a castle in the air, 3' ou will find so
many bright memories inwoven with your life in the
dear little cottage, ^' so man}- precious things 3- ou can
never take awa}"," that, with regret you will move, "out
of the old house into the hew."*

IN AND AROUND THE NEW HOUSE.

The building of a farm house should be the subject of
serious consideration. You are not building for a renter
who can leave if dissatisfied when the first crop is har-
vested; but 3'ou are making a home for yourselves and

*The family, also, that has learned, during the days of hard-
ship and toil, to make much of every gleam of beauty, of every
opportunity for intellectual advancement, of everything that
leads to taste, refinement and culture, will find when the new
home is secured, that they have not in the making lost the
faculty for enjoyment, and that they will go into the "new
home" and all its improvements as though they had been all
their life long accustomed to its enjoyments. I have seen ele-
gant country residences, with all the attractions that money
could buy, in which the older members of the family spent
their time in the kitchen or back yard, because they "felt more
at home there." A melancholy confession that their former
home had been all kitchen and backyard, and that they felt ill
at ease in a home of refinement and beauty, because they had
never been accustomed to it. e. s. t.

COUNTRY HOMES. 233

perhaps your children after j^ou; therefore all the wis-
dom of the family should be brought to bear upon the
work.

The shape of the house should harmonize with the
site it is to occup}^, and the grounds about the house
must of course bear a relation to the size of the farm. If
the farm is large, consecrate a generous piece of land to
ornamental purposes. But whatever the shape or size of
farm, avoid that orthodox walk, straight, and narrow,
hedged in with shrubs, from the gate to the front door;
imd avoid that greater abomination, a narrow front yard.
Nothing helps a passer-by to form a more correct opin-
ion of the inmates than the surroundings of a farm
house. A farm with hundreds of broad acres stretching
-away in the distance, laden with the money-3d elding grain,
and a little seven-by-nine picketed j^ard in front is a sad
sight. One cannot but fear that the owner is a narrow-
:S0uled man, with narrow doctrines and narrow ideas of
ithe higher nature's demands. If 3'our farm is too small
to devote much ground to merely ornamental trees and
shrubs, grape arbors, cherry and pear trees, small fruits,
etc., can occupy space at the sides, and will not harm
the roses and lilacs if they are not separated from them
by a " paling." But leave the lawn in front of the house
smooth and unbroken b}^ trees of any kind. Have a
piece of ground to one side, plowed deep, and made rich
and mellow for the main flower garden. Beds — not too
many of these — may be cut in the lawn, round, oblong,
or any fanciful shape, and planted with dutch bulbs.
These make a gorgeous display in earl}^ spring. The
dullest observer will turn to look at a group of these
gry-colored flowers in their emerald setting of velvety
grass, and remember them long as a picture of beauty.
•Between the rows of bulbs, annuals or geraniums may

234 SUCCESS IN FAKMING,

l)e planted, that will keep up a show of flaming color until
snow falls.*

Plant plent}^ of hardy flowering shrubs and perennials;
these, when once planted, are little trouble, and aff'ord
much satisfaction. In making your selection, be care-
ful to get a large proportion of fragrant shrubs and
])lants. The very breath of heaven seems wafted to us
in the fragrance of flowers. If you have a fine old forest
tree near the house, spare it — for the love of beauty
spare it. You can supply its place with nothing half so
grand.

No special directions can be given for the approaches^
to the house, as the shape of the ground and the space
devoted to the yard must decide this in each individual
case. Many houses are built so near the road as to pre-
clude all possibility for anything but a straight drive at
the side. This is a great mistake; it gives the house
too much the semblance of the toll-gate or wayside inn;
while a fine drive, sweeping up under over-hanging shade
trees, always gives a spacious, villa-like appearance even
to an ordinary house. The walks need not not be straight
or rectangular, even in a small yard. An oblong bed in

* I confess I am not particularly in favor of the " piece of
jjround" for a flower garden. It has always seeme<l to me tliat
the growing of flowerw in afield, like corn, should be left to the
professional flower-grower, and that the flowers about tlie
home should have a "fitness" to the place where they are found..
I would as soon tliink of taking all the brackets, windoAV-ciu--
tains, pictures, mottoes, vases, shells, fancy work, etc. about
the house to one large room, and arrange them artistically
there, as put my flowers in one large " flower garden." Flow-
ers are the outward adornments of the home, as the articles I
have named are the inward adornments. A small, round Ited
here, an oval one there, some choice flowers under this win-
dow, a flowering slirubby that — a little edging of bloom, found
unexpectedly — would be my ideal. But Mrs. Aldrich's taste
is good, and she may have better judgment in this than I.

R. s. T.

\

COUNTRY HOMES. 235'

front of the house, set with foliage or flowering plants —
the path curving to the right and left of this, one going
to the front door, and the other passing round to the
sitting-room or kitchen, is very prett}^

Do not allow the back yard to become a A'er3^ Tophet
for the whole place. Allow no accumulations there not
directly connected with the conveniences of the house
The back walks, being matters of convenience, may con-
nect directl}' as possible with the various out-buildings.
Let them be built of plank, or some substantial material^
and safel}^ above "high water mark;" this will secure-
you against "stormy weather" in the house during a
muddy time.*

There are evidences of neglect about some country
homes worse, even, than the utter absence of all orna-
mentation. Among the most odious of these is the
stench from hog-pens, hen-houses, etc., that laden all the
atmosphere about the place with their disgusting odors^
This is inexcusable. Some attempt to apologize for the
negligence by saying that during the hot, busy season
they have no time for the necessary purifications. We
all understand that cleanliness is the best disinfectant in.

*Mrs. Aldrich lives in a timber country, and naturally sug-
gests plank ; but after a very extensive observation in all sec-
tions, I know of no better material to suggest. Gravel, even,
where it can be had, is liable to track into the house ; tan-bark
stains the carpets ; flag stones, unless much smoother than can
usually be obtained, hold water and mud in wet weather, and
are always unpleasant to walk on. Brick walks are expensive
to lay, and in muddy countries troublesome to keep in order.
Get 3 by 3 studdings, hard wood, lay them 213' feet apart from
out to out ; set them firmly on stones or brick ; get full inch
lumber, 6 or 8 inches wide", and sawed at the mill into 3-foot
lengths, and you can easily make a walk that will always be
clean and comfortable, and'^will last for years. In laying your
boards, if green, put close together; if seasoned, leave a quar-
ter-inch crack ; put two 8-penny nails in each end of a board ;;
and as soon as aboard breaksor gets loose, repair it. r. s. t.

^36 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

use; but a penny's worth of copperas sprinkled on and
iiround the unclean spot, will effectually neutralize its
loathsome exhalations, and any one may avail himself
of this escape from allowing his place to become a pub-
lic nuisance.

Another is having no means of reaching the house
with a team save through the barn-yard, which in such
'<cases is strewn with all kinds of farm implements, from
the new self-binding reaper, down through all conditions
*of dilapidation to the most absolutely worthless trash.
After a meandering route over, around and between
these, you are halted /it the kitchen door, where pigs,
ducks, etc., mix with their own filth that thrown from
the kitchen in the form of slops and refuse of all kinds.
Finding here their element, they grunt and waddle
about with perfect impunity, evidently considering them-
^selves part and parcel of the family. Holland saw a
great similaritr lietweeu hogs and human beings, but
we have no right to cultivate this similarity by such
-close association, and we have no right to disgust the
senses with such loathsome sights and scents about a
human dwelling. We would gladl}^ forget such places;
but they exist, and instead of turning from them in
^silence, we should point out their imperfections and en-
deavor to bring them up to higher ground.

The idea that farmers and their families have small ca-
pacity for enjoying the elegancies of life, and therefore
need little, has so long been popular among professional
men, that many farmers have come to believe it them-
selves; and the habit of being satisfied with the husks of
their labor while some one else receives the kernel, clings
to them like mildew to linen, and regarding themselves
as a kind of intermediate beings between the animals
the}' feed and the men they vote for, they imagine rude

COUNTRY HOMES. 237

living and coarse manners more in keeping with their
occupation than the comforts and refinements of a w.ell
arranged home. Siicli need missionaries sent among^
them to proclaim the gospel of the grange.*

Turning from these unpleasant phases of country life,
we will go back to the pleasant home where all love to
loiter under the pleasant shade trees, among the flowers,
and shrubs, and beautiful walks. But we go into the
house at once. We have a difficult task to perform,.
Those who have alwa}- s been making the old home pleas-
ant and beautiful, come into the new home with culti-
ted tastes and well informed judgment in all matters of
furnishing and arrangement; these will need no help of
ours ; we trust, however, such will be patient, and not
consider as useless detail our efforts to help those who
have been waiting to move into the "new house" before
they commenced a S3'stematic course of furnishing.

As it is the most common way of building in the coun-
try, we will suppose the house is an " upright-with-a-
wing" and an "L" extending back from the wing, (we
would suggest that the " L" be rather disproportionate
in length, or the proprietor ma^^ be required to build an
addition for a summer kitchen.) This furnishes conve-
nient space for a farm house, and though not as elegant in.

*It can hardly be thought strange that so many farmers
have low opinions of themselves and of their calling when we
remember that from time immemorial the farmer has been
supj)lied with literature prepared for him by those who look.
down upon him. His babies are supplied with story-books
which tell of the ''rough, ignorant, country boy ;" his boys are
fed on wonderful tales of how someone, though only a farmer's
boy, had gone to town and become a gentleman, and when
he gets to be a man he takes a political paper, edited and man-
aged by men who regard the farmers as so many " head" to be-
brought up to the polls and voted. Any wonder we find many
farmers who seem incapable of rising t"o a due appreciation of
their rights and of the dignity of their calling ? k. s. t..

238 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

iippearance as a square lioiise, it has the advantage of
<?osting less for brp.ckets, columns, etc., without which a
square house would bean unsightl}^ object.

With this style of house we usually dispense with the
convenience of a hall, but the sitting-room opens on a spa-
cious veranda, and all the glory of the front yard is con-
tinually spread before the famil}^ which we think pleas-
unter than having the sitting-room in the rear of the
parlor.

Let the veranda be one very paradise. First impres-
sions are most lasting, and while one is waiting here for
admission, 3'our home is being photographed in his
niemor}^ by these beautiful surroundings. How difter-
ent the picture will be from that which, if, by the "shut-
iip-go-to-the-back-door" look of things at the front, he is
compelled to go round to the kitchen to gain admission,
and work his way in between wash-tubs and through
the steam of boiling clothes, to a darkened sitting-room,
destitute of any object to engage his attention. We must
enter a protest against this shutting up of the whole
front of the house practiced by some.

Since the advent of screens, no excuse remains for fam-
ilies cloistering themselves in this perpetual shadow and
gloom. Screens are not expensive luxuries, and cer-
tainly for their price, no man would ;illow himself and
famil}^ to be tortured through the day with flies, and of
■evenings be bitten and stung by mosquitoes and all man-
ner of moths and beetles that swirl in and swoop down
^n unprotected victims. Let the house be provided with
screens, and throw open the doors and blinds and let in
the joy-giving sun-light and the fresh, pure air.*

* A dark house is seldom a clean house, and never a heal-
thy one. Sun-light and air are Nature's disinfectants and
tonics. If the light reveals dirt and dust, so much the more

COUNTRY HOMES. 239

Make the front door look so pleasantly in\4ting that
Tisitors will knovr they are expected to enter there. Let
an ivy arch the door-way with its rich, glossy green, or
place a Speciosa Fuchsia on a bracket, and train its long,
vine-like branches above the door, and it will gladden
j'ou all summer with its masses of drooping buds and
blossoms. If your porch is shady, plant the graceful
Adlumia; it is the ver3' lace work of all climbers, with
its long vines bearing such an abundance of fringy fol-
iage and delicate flowers 3^ou may festoon the entire

veranda.

Let the furnishing of the sitting-room be such as to

sustain the good impressions made by outside appear-
ances— tasteful, substantial, and for the use and happi-
ness of the family.

It is useless to attempt to give directions in reference
to styles of paper and carpets. The prevailing styles at
time of purchasing must be the guide. Now rich, dark
colors for both are sought, while a few years ago neutral
tints for paper were recommended by good authority,
and a soft, gray ground, scattered over with wreaths of
roses and delicate flowers, was a ladj^'s ideal of beaut}'
in a carpet. No one need regret having bought when
this style prevailed, for it is pretty and always will be.

The sitting-room carpet should be no flimsy, cheap af-
fair, and better a pretty, bright, rag-carpet than an in-
grain or brussels, if such a one would cause you to worry
about its being spoiled by every-day use. Make this
room especially bright and cheery. This is the hearth-
stone, the family altar, where all come at evening to gather
rest and strength and blessing. Let the table be fur-
need for the light. The farmer is learning that it is ruinous
to keep stock in dark stables ; but some have not yet found
out that the family is entitled to as much thoughtful care as
the letock. R. s. T,

240 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

nished with books and papers and magazines of sterling
worth, a stereoscope and views, suitable games ; in short,
whatever elevates, entertains and develops the mind,
should have a place here. Have plenty of easy-chairs — ■■
not necessarily expensive ones, but such as will give
comfort and ease to the occupant. These may be made
of old chairs bottomed with coffee- sacking and covered
with pretty red calico. It has been said that red is the
glor}^ of color. We would have red predominate in the
sitting-room. Everything looks bright and warm in its
glow. Let the table-spread be red, the couch and rug
be lighted up with it, and whatever hanging, fancy work,,
such as an air-castle or a balloon for this room, should
be trimmed with red; tidies for the chairs, and mats for
the table, should be white, as they require frequent,
washing, and would be prettier on the red than any
color.

Do not commit the blunder so often noticed, of carry-
ing all the famil}^ pictures and cheap chromos, in fact,
everything in the shape of ornament, to the parlor, leav-
ing the rest of the walls to stare at you in naked ugli-
ness, while the parlor presents a heterogeneous collec-
tion, varied and contrasting as the contents of a Yankee
peddler's wagon.

The famih^ pictures are of course dearer to the family
than any one else, and should therefore be appropriately
grouped in the sitting-room or family sleeping-rooms,
where their dear remembered faces will beam on those
who love them with such tenderness as to make them
<][uite forget the old-fashioned clothes and oddly combed
hair, which often prove very amusing to Adsitors.

There are some very pretty chromos — they are mostty
copies of historic paintings, and through them we may
g'ain some idea of the original — for this reason we gladly

COUNTRY HOMES. 241

give them place in the sitting-room. The best of these
may be taken to the parlor if 3^011 have no oil paintings
or steel engravings. Not many farm-houses are very
rich in works of art, but farmers' wives must make this
a part of their religion: to feel satisfied with things
within their reach — hut reach as far as you can in the
way of advancement.

In buving, do not select the flashy, high-colored, liarn-
3ard scenes so common. Nature furnishes for us better
l)ictures of this kind; but get something good of its class
that will bring a lesson with it.*

Nothing is more perplexing to the housewife in the
way of furnishing than the matter of curtains, for st^de is^
so vacillating and changeful in this item. If she at-
tempts to follow this fickle dame in this, as in many
other things, she will be kept on the rack much of the
time, besides finding on her hands a greater sup-
ply of curtains than her means will warrant in getting.
A better way is to decide that " a thing of beauty is a
joy forever" — get what she thinks pretty and be satis-
fied with it, no matter what Mrs. Grundy says. This
rule of course will not appl}^ to ladies' bonnets; but in
the matter of furnishing a farm-house is better than the
constant worry about things getting out of style.

We think for the sitting-room lace is prettier than
" cheese-cloth'' or cotton flannel. It gives a sweet, ^ivj
look to the room. Do not hang your curtains flat against
the window, but fasten to a cornice. If j^ou cannot af-

''•■ I sometimes see farm-houses in which the walls are al-
most hidden with a mass of cheap prints, costing little indi-
vidually, but enough collectively to pay for one or two really
handsome pictures in good frames The overdone mass of
cheap prints gives an idea of cheapness ; the one or two bet-
ter pictures give an im.pression of taste and refinement.

E. s. T.

16

242 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

ford to buy this, make one; make a shelf six inches
wide, round the outside corners, and fasten substantially
to the top of the casing; tack the curtain to this. Puff
lace with cambric (the color to match other fancy arti-
cles in the room) and sew on pasteboard the proper
length, six inches wide. Tack the lower edge of this to
the curtain and shelf. Behind this, on the shelf, 3'ou
may ^et a dish of tradescantia filled with water, and its
glossy leaves drooping down over the lace, is very pretty ;
or a long piece of Madeira vine may be broken off, the
end inserted in a bottle of water, which may be hung un-
der the edge of the curtain, and the vine carried up and
across the top, and trail down the other side, thus arch-
ing the window. Both these plants will keep bright and
beautiful as long as you keep up the supply of water —
will throw out new roots and grow, not seeming to miss
the parent roots.*

Set apart one room for a librarj^ — the one at the end
of the wing, usually occupied as a bed-room in this style
of house, is convenient. You may not be able to bestoiv
much on its furnishing at first — a book-case, table, chairs,
and supply of stationery will do for a beginning; but
being set apart, it becomes a sort of altar to the educa-
tional advancement of the family, and each member will
love to bring to it offerings of books, curiosities, speci-
mens of natural history, geology, entomolog^^ etc., and
.soon it will become a very treasure house, in which all

- Among the furniture of the sitting-room, in every family
where there is any taste for music, I should give the organ a
proiuinent place. iNothing so binds together a family, or
makes home so home-like, as music. When brothers, sis-
ters, father and mother can gather around the organ and
join their voices in tbe " social joys of song," it forms a won-
derful home tie, and awakens in every heart a love for
liome. K. s. T.

COUNTRY HOMES. 243

arc equally interested, and through which a vast im-
provement will come to the family.

The library may have a hay-window, and being con-
nected with the sitting-room by double doors, can be
<?asily warmed, and thus fitted to serve the double pur-
pose of library and conservatory on a small scale; and
this, too, would realize, in many cases, the wife's dream
of years — a place to keep her plants where she could en-
joy their fragrance and bloom while winter holds revel
without. (Too often the wife's wishes in these little mat-
ters are considered unimportant, and she is doomed to
await her entrance into the " home not made with hands"
to realize her visions of beauty.)*

As we have no hall, here must be a niche somewhere,
either in library or sitting-room, for a hat-rack.

THE PARLOR

We deem of secodary importance compared with the
sitting-room; secondary, because a family can get along
very nicely without a parlor, while they cannot without
a sitting-room. In parlor furnishings there is a greater
demand for money and less for ingenuity than elsewhere,
as home-made articles here seem rather out of place.

The different pieces of furniture must not war witk
each other in point of costliness; an expensive table with
poor chairs is in bad taste, and other things being good,
a shabby carpet may spoil the effect of all. A " parlor-
set" is necessary. Variety is pleasing in some places,
but indulged too far in the parlor suggests auction sales.

Let the books and pictures be well chosen, and good
as the finances ef the family will warrant. Do not look
so much to show in these articles as to intrinsic value.
No matter how costly the frame, a daub will only violate

* There is no place where fiowei*s do so well as in a room
a«.^oining one in which a constant fire is kept, e. s. t.

244: SUCCESS IN FARMING.

the cultivated taste that could enjoy an exquisite piece-
without any frame. Harmony, and a quiet, unobtrusive
elegance is more satisfying to the refined mind than glare
and ostentation.

THE DINING-ROOM,

if a separate apartment, needs little more than an ex-
tension table and chairs, with convenient connections
with china closet, pantry and kitchen. If the dining-
room 7nust be in connection with either sitting-room or
kitchen, and the latter is large, let it be there, in the
winter at least; and doubtless the parties most inter-
ested, the farmer's wives, would sa}- let it remain there
still through the summer, and let the cook-stove be
moved to a summer kitchen. This is a mooted question,
and one on which farmers and their wives more gener
ally differ than any other.

The theory that supplv follows demand — for instance,,
man's needs demanded a thumb, and therefore a thumb
grew — may be true in some things, but the masculine
patience has never A'et seemed to reach the demand for
moving stoves, and the veiy terror that over-shadows
him when he receives notice that such a task 4s before
him does not indicate very rapid development in that
direction.

We see no way out of the dilemma except that a
dining-room be made a permanent fixture in the house
in addition to the sitting-room, else the proprietor will
probabty be required to go on moving the stove out
ever}^ summer, until he completes his allotted three score
years and ten.

The converting of a sitting-room three times a day
into a dining-room, and as many times back to its origi-
nal state, implies a great deal of useless work, and labor-
saving in the house-work on a farm is important. But

COUNTRY HOMES 245

-while we would most earnestly advocate doing away with
unnecessary work, do not suppose we think it cf little
consequence where and how farmers are fed. The good
or ill breeding of a family is more plainl^^ marked at meal-
time than any other hour of the da}^, and we would b}"
no means under-value the influence of pains taking m
the dining-room. We would have the table laid with
care — with clean linen, shining dishes and cutler}^ — have
the food skillfully cooked and served in different dishes,
rand the different likes of the family properly regarded
that all might relish their meal. The room clean and
;sweet and free from flies. There is no reason why a
farmer's dinner table should not indicate refinement and_
culture in his familv; certainly there is nothino- in the
vocation that necessarily makes tlidse felil)wino: it coarse
iand nude * .^"-

It is the improper management of some farms and
farm households that disgust so many, persons with the
b u siness. The uncouth manners, disregard of personal
appeai'ence and inattention to intellectual improvements
sometimes found among farmers, is .accepted as natural
conditions of and inseparably connected with farm life.

"Those dirty farmers" that are such a terror to some
:are no dread to the systematic house-keeper When the
great dinner bell "calls them from labor to refresh
ment," she knows that they will enter the back porch
(or a room done off in the wood-house for the purpose,)
■^diere plenty of soft water, wash-basins, soap, towels,
<*ombs, ^brush and looking glass, are all conveniently ar-

*A separate dining-room is an excellent thing when made
•comfortable, but on a chilly day I would rather eat in the
kitchen in comfort, than be invited out to a stately dining-
room without fire, and shiver over your meal with the impres-
■sion that your host keeps the room cold for fear her guests
should linger too long at the table and eat too much. k. s. t.

246 succp:ss in farming.

ranged. A long case — not necessarily ornamental —
holding slippers for each, and dressing-gowns or clean
linen ulsters hanging above. Everything necessary for
making them tidy is ready for their use, and instead of
its being considered a trouble, a man very soon regards
it as a luxury to put off his soiled boots and rest his feet
in fresh stockings and slippers, and out of respect for
wife and daughters he gladly dons a garment that will
make him presentable at table, and feels more self-re-
spect for having done so. His example is "a law unto
his household," and his men follow it as a matter of
course

THE KITCHEN AND PANTKY

of the farm-house constitute a very important depart-
ment. By too man}' the kitchen is considered unim-
portant. Any kind of a room with any kind of furnish-
ing will do for the kitchen. But the kitchen is the
grand laboratory of the whole domestic economy of the
farm. A man's successful farming depends more on the
management of his kitchen than on the acreage of his
wheat. Lack of system here is felt iu every department
of the farm work. If half an hour is lost in the morn-
ing on account of inconvenient location of pantry, cel-
lar-way and wood-shed, (or w^orse, poor wood,) and want
of proper utensils for cooking, and there are four men^
that lost time is equivalent to two houi-s for one man.
For one 3^ear this makes a sum of sixty-two and a half
days. Allowing $1.25 per day for board and wages^
which is a low average for the year, Ave have an amount
that would go far in suppljing conveniences for the
kitchen; then multiply this by the years that this waste
goes on and all will be convinced that it is better to be-
gin right. Not the least thing to be considered in this
useless waste, is the youth, strength and health ofthe wife^

COUNTRY HOMES. 247

It is bad econom}' to do without anything that will
expedite or make easier the labors of this department.
Be satisfied with nothing but a good stove or range with
reservoir, and all the modern contrivances for cooking.
A good washing-machine, wringer, nickle-plated smooths
ing-irons and fluter are necessary for the laundr}^
Have the wood-box so arranged that it can be filled
from the wood-shed, which should always be supplied
with o^ood wood.* Let the well and cistern be con ven-
iently near, and on a level with the floor if practicable.
The pantry should be large enough to accomodate a
cooking table supplied with drawers for spices, rolling-
pin, pie-tins, etc. Near this should be kept the flour
and sugar boxes, that the baking may be all prepared
here, away from the stove and with as few steps as pos-
sible.

Let convenience be the ruling thought in all the ar-
rangements of the culinary department, and

LET PURITY BE THE LAW.

No amount of show and pretence in the front part of
the house can conceal bad house-keeping here. Mouldy
cupboards will send their little messengers on the air
to whisper the secret to visitors the moment they enter
the house. Sour or decaying a egetables may be out of
sight, but their presence is none the less certain when
their ofi'ensive smells are floating through ever}^ room.

The habit of boiling cabbage and turnips and pork,
and frying onions and burning the roast and a multi-
tude of other scent-distributing practices of the earless

*This latter is a very convenient arrangement and saves both
labor and dirt. The wood-shed must, of course, adjoin the
kitchen; a hole is cut through the wall, and. the wood-box
built in Mdth a portion extending into the wood-shed. A tight
lid over the part in the wood-shed prevents cold air from draw-
ing through. E. s.. T.

248 SL'CCESS IN FAKMING.

house-keeper, with the doors leading to the other rooms
jxll open, is perfectly incompatible with pure air in the
house. These scents gather strength by age, and on
entering some dwellings you arc met by a combination
of all in one disgusting odor. While the lady meets
you with a self-satisfied air perfectl}^ surprising to you.
You wonder she is not throwing open the windows and
scattering disnifectants. She has, in fact, become so
inured to breathing this vitiated atmosphere that she is
wholly unconscious of anything wrong. She does not
know that her curtains, her carpets — aye, the Yer3^ walls
about her, and her own clothing, are all saturated with
and giving of this compound effluvium.

Always have the cook-room well ventilated and the
doors closed between that and the rest of the housei *

While we are treating of this disagreeable subject of
uni)leasant odors, another prc'^seiits itself more inexcusa-
ble, more utterly loathsome and intolerable, than all
.other: — Personal uncleanliness.

Some say cleanliness is next to godliness. We think
godliness would have a better chance to work on the
heart of a clean man that a filthy one; therefore, we say
to the philanthropist — buy soap, and build plenty of
])ath-houses, and your work for the sins of men will be
blessed with a more abundant harvest.

The practice of wearing the same underclothing, night

*The organ of smell was given to us partly that we might en-
joy the fragrance of flowers, but largely as a protection. A
bad smell is always the sign of impurity, and impurity is the
advance guard of disease and death. The only proper smell
about home or person is no smell at all, and we should keep
our noses trained by pure associations so that they will be ever
ready to give warning of the impure. Pure air and plentj^ of
it and sunlight and cleanliness are the best disinfectants. If'
after a day spent in the pure air of the fields on entering the
house you notice a stale odor hanging to the rooms, be sure
there is something unclean there. k. s. t.

COUJJTKY HOMES. 249

and day, for two weeks, without giving the body a single
ablution in the time, must result in — to use the mildest
term — concentrated impurity. The body continually
throwing off through the pores the offensive exhalations
of the system, at the rate of a pound a day, is loading
the clothing with these fetid odors; and if thej^ are
given no chance to escape, hy change at night, the ac-
cumulation must be absorbed, exhaled and reabsorbed
until clothing and person become mutual contaminators,
and both an offence in the nostrils of good society.

The farm home should be the best home; therefore,
let every country home be provided with a bath-room,
and every child be taught, from baby-hood, that com-
mon decency demands personal cleanliness.

THE SLEEPING ROOMS

though last mentioned, are not less important m their
' oflit^es^and arrangement than those preceding them. As
tlie arrangement of one will apply to all in the main, we
will speak more particularly of the guest chamber. If
econom}^ must be exercised in the furnishing, a small
amount of money can be made to go farther in appear-
ances here, than anvwhere else in the home. So many
pretty things are quite inexpensive, and so many con-
veniences can be made that cost little more than one's
time, that bed-rooms need never be destitute of orna-
mental toilet articles and foamy draperies of lace or
mull, which are always lovel^^ in their purity if they are
cheap.

If there is abundant means, of course elegant bed-
room sets will take the place of the common articles, and
curtains and lambrequins will supplant the cheap
draperies; but in either case the most essential thing in
furnishing a guest chamber is to provide for eve?'y iws-
.^/6/e >iee(/ of Your ofuest.

250 SUCCESS IN FARMING.

Mrs. M. C. Hoi bridge, of La Salle Conuty, Illinois, in
an essay on the "Duties of Hostess on a Farm," says:

No matter how poor or how barren of luxury a home maybe,
a woman of taste and energy will manage to provide the neces-
sities of a bed chamber. She will make a toilet table of a dry
goods box and an old sheet. She will sell rags and buy a tin
wash-basin and an old pitcher to go with it. She Avill take in
washing or make shirts to get means to provide a twentv cent
looking-glass, a comb, brush, soap and towels.

Often a guest is conducted to a room with the single
provision for comfort — a bed — softened, however, by the
soothing assurance that when they get able they are
going to furnish the room nicely. Feeling that the dust
and cinders and general moil of travel are clinging to
her garments and person, she must violate her innate
sense of propriety by retiring unwashed; and in the
morning, with every nerve tingling at the outrage, she
must don her " other dress," with its soft delicate laces
to be soiled by the process, and go down to finish her
toilet as best she can at the back door, in presence ot"
the family, taking turns with them in washing, comb-
ing, etc. We speak plainly of this matter not that we
love the careless ones less but that we love their rank as
^'country people" more, and labor in all kindness to da
them good.*

ART IN house-kp:eping.

There is no department of labor where there is a
wider range for the display of artistic taste than in.
house-keeping. Some regard house-keeping as but a

*Mrs. Aldrich speaks of the guest chamber, but if the boys
and girls of country houses are to be brought up so a.s to ap-
preciate the comforts of refined living, the same conveniences
should be in their rooms. It is a mistake made by 'some
to imagine that home folks can get along any way. If you
want the " home folks " when growm up to feel at ease in the
houses of others you need to accustom them to such living at
home. li. s. T.

COUNTRY HOMES. 251/

monotonous and continuous round of drudgeiy. Such
never comprehend the great possibilities of enjoyment
in home life. Their hearts never feel the thrill of rap-
ture that comes from giving pleasure to others. If the
linen for the family is weekly prepared, the necessary
amount of cooking done to gratifj^ the demands of
nature, the regular scrubbing performed in a vigorous
manner, and all the other hard work that can be con-
jured up finished, they think that this is all there is of
life. If only we could rub the scales off such peoples
eyes, and get them to realize that God gives us all the
bright and beautiful things of creation with the blessed
privilege of combining them to make our own paradise \

If through all the worlds history each couple, as fast
as they were paired, had been placed in a garden of
Eden, the race would never have arrived at its present
state of perfection in the arts and sciences. There
would have been no incentive to develop the latent
powers of mind, and woman could never have enjoyed
her highest honor, that of making a home, for it is
really and truly a creation of hers.

We enter some homes where we feel that an air of
elegance prevades everything, and wonder how people of
their means can afford such extravagance, and begin
slyly to examine and analyze our surroundings; and
very often we find that what at first sight impressed us^
as the beauties of fairy land, are but the ingenious com-
binations and formations of an artistic taste aided by
very limited means. And often we enter houses of the
wealthy expecting to be blessed with the sight of rare
beauty and costly adornings ; but, instead, the nerves
are kept in a constant quiver by the shocking glare and
contrast of colors, and the entire inhai'mony of every ob-
ject with its neighbor.

:252 SUCCESS in farming.

Eveiy tiling in a house — the color of the wall paper,
the curtains, the carpets, the arrangement of every arti-
cle from the books on the table to the adjustment of the
furniture — conduce to please or discomfort the inmates.
We do not always realize how much little things have
to do with our happiness.

A just conception of the ''eternal fitness of things"
;gives a systematic whole that charms and pleases the
iDcholder. This may be found in the homes of the poor
.us well as those of the rich. It consists in the appro-
priating and harmonizing of the materials which are
tstrewn around every country home.

What a blessing to the toiling millions that all the
'beauty and happiness are not shut up in the parlors of
the wealthv.

The tired mother may say that she has not tima^to
study the artistic arrangement of things in reference to
shape, color etc:- rliet her set the little girls at the
lighter parts of work and they will veiy soon learn what
<'olors look i)rettiest together, when once their minds are
directed to the subject. Even a dish of fruit on^ the
table in the dining room ma}^ be arranged to be " a thing
of beauty." A white fringed doily laid on a bright
■spread, and the fruit dish set on this heaped with shiny
golden, red and green apples laid in with studied care
In reference to color, combined with other fruits in their
iseason, peaches, pears, and some luscious clusters of
grapes, make as nice an ornament as a costly basket of
wax fruits. But let the mind once turn to this matter
rand harmony will seem to come intuitively.

A small outlay in ivies adds a grace to windows and
tarched door-ways as nothing else can. The fragrance
•of a heliotrope, a bunch of sweet violets, or a box of
mignonette, gives to a room an ambrosial atmosphere

woman's work on thk fakm. 25.^

and charms the senses with their sweet odors. All these
and a thousand other little things are but atoms con-
sidered apart, but it is their sum that makes up the-
delightfully pleasant country home.

WOMAN'S WORK ON THE FARM.

BY A LADY FRIEND.

There is scarcel}^ any other occupation where the work
of husband and wife run so nearl}^ on the same line as in
that of the farmer, and there should be that oneness of
purpose that gives perfect harmony. Where such a
state of feeling exists, each will be anxious to lightcDi
the burdens of the other.

As it is the province of the farmer to look after the de-
tails of his farm, so should his " help-meet" look well to
the ways of her household, eating not the bread of idle
ness. He cultivates the ground, and from its abundant
fullness she is provided with the fine wheat and corn,,
his flocks arcl herds suppl}^ the meat, his well fed cows
the milk, his garden and orchard the vegetables and
fruits. It is hers to make such use of these luxuries
that her table shall be furnished with well cooked food,
and the surplus so carefully looked after that nothing'
shall be lost or wasted. It is quite an art to gather up
the remnants and present them in new form. B}^ rem-
nants we do not of course mean the bits left upon the
plates. The bones from a roast, cracked and boiled, will,
with the addition of vegetables and flavoring, make a de-
licious soup. ' The meat that can be trimmed off after it
it has done duty as a roast, may be hashed and heated
up, with gravy poured over toast, and 3^011 have a nice
"breakfast dish. Remnants of veal or chicken used in^

2r>4: SUCCESS IN FAKMING.

croquetts or salads are frequently more relished tlian
when first prepared for the tal)le. Every housekeeper
should study how she ean use to the best advantage all
the odds and ends, both of provisions and elothiny*.
The waste in some families wouhl make a liandsome liv-
ing for others.

As woman's domain is the home, her highest aim
should be to make it a home in the best sense of the
word, the place above all others that husband and chil-
dren will love and cherish. She may not have the skill
or the means to make it a bower of beauty, but by mak-
ing the best use of means at her command, she can make
it an abode of comfort. Her supervision should be from
garret to cellar; order and cleanliness should reign
throughout. She must see that each bed is provided
with comfortable clothing, and that all the rooms are
daily thrown open for the admission of heaven's free air
iind sweet sunshine. The clothing of the family- is an im-
portant consideration. Suitable changes for the seasons
must be provided, and they must be ready wdien needed.
The diet of the family^ should be most carefully studied.
A pleasing variety arranged for from day to day, and
such articles selected as are wholesome and best suited
to their varied needs. There is no one article so essen-
tial to the comfort of a family as good bread, and no
housekeeper should be satisfied until she has attained
the art of making it. The ability to make good butter
is another accomplishment that every farmer's wife
should possess, and in these days when so much Is writ-
ten on the subject, and there are so many opportunities
for learning how it is done, there can be no excuse for
ignorance in this branch of woman's work.

Perhaps there might come up the much discussed
question, Is it woman's work to milk? In general I

woman's avokk on the farm. 255

lyould say no. Her sphere is the house, and here she
can find employment for all her time.

While woman should study in every way to lighten
her burdens, she should try to do everything well.
*-Work well done is twice done" is a maxim the truth
of which is often verified in our own experience. A sys-
tematic arrangement of work, giving the most important
duties the first place on the list, is a great help; and
there is perhaps no better way to make our burdens easy
to bear that to cultivate a spirit of cheerfulness. The
moral influence of such a spirit in the household is of
priceless value, and if it entered into our every day-
duties how" much that we now count monotonous drud-
gery might become a source of positive pleasure.

In these days it is possible in most of our farming
communities to hire help, and it is mistaken economy
for the wife to overtax her strength by trying to do
everything herself. If means are wanting to pay the
added expense of a house-servant, let her try her inge-
nuity b}" devising some way of increasing the income.
The husband might add one or two cows to his herd,
the wife enlarge her flock of poultry and give it better
<iare, or cultivate some of the small fruits and sell in the
neighboring markets. In this way she may take recrea-
tion in the open air and add to her health and good
spirits as well as to the contents of her purse.

Perhaps the most important part of woman's work is
training the children. In infancy they are her especial
charge; as they develop into restless childhood they
must be carefully watched, that evil does not creep in.
Employment must be given, and that of a useful kind
is usually the most entertaining. A spirit of helpful-
ness should be early encouraged. For the present it
will doubtless seem easier for the mother to perform the

256

SUCCESS IN FARMINCr.

prescribed tasks, but in this slie is educating her child,
and the benefit to her will come perhaps after many
days. No matter how many servants are kept, she
should regard it as a religious duty to teach her daugh-
ters habits of industry and economy, and to train them
in all that pertains to good housewifery. The sons, too,
should be taught habits of order and a due consideration
for the comforts of others. In this way they will be
fitted for making pleasant homes of their own and saved
from the trials and disappointments that will come to
those who have not been thus fortunate in their train-
ing.

From the mother naturally comes the moral and re
fining influences, and her own words and conduct should
be so carefully guarded that the children shall lea'"n
from her example lessons of purity that shall enoblc
their characters, refine their manners, and tit them for
usefulness. "Then shall her children rise up and call
her blessed; her husband also, and he praiseth her."

NUMBER OF PLANTS TO AN Ai'BE.

2 byl .

.. 21,780

5 by 3 ...

. 2,904

14bvl4 ....

222-

2Jbyl ..

.. 17,424

5 by 4 ...

. 2,178

15 by 15 ....

193

2^ by 2 .

,. 8,712

5 by 5 ...

. 1,741

IB by 16 ....

170

8 by2 ..

.. 7,200

6 bye ...

. 1,220

]6U^yl6^....

160

3 by2* ..

.. 5,808

6Jby6J ...

. ],031

17 byl7 ....

150

3 by3 .

.. 4,840

7 by 7 ...

888

18by]8 ....

134

4 byl ..

.. 10,890

8 by 8 ...

. 680

]9bvl9 ....

120

4 by2 ..

.. 5,445

9 by 9 ...

537

20bv20 ....

108

4 by3 ..

.. 3,630

10 by 10 ...

436

25 by 25 ....

60

4 by4 .

.. 2,722

11 by 11 ...

360

30 by 30 ....

48

h byl ..

.. 8,712

12 by 12 ...

. 302

33 by 33 ....

40

6 by2 ..

.. 4,356

13 by 13 ...

. 257

FINIS.