Suggestions on landscape gardening

SB 471
.F64
Copy 1

SB 471
.F64
Copy 1
SUG GES TIONS

ON

LANDSCAPE GARDENING;

Be CHARLES POLLEN,

AEROHITECT AND LANDSCAPE GARDENER.

4

THOROUGH DRAINAGE;

Bry J. HERBERT SHEDD,

CIVIL HNGINBER.

BOSTON:
PHILLIPS, SAMPSON AND’ CO.;
13 WINTER STREET.
1859.

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LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING is a subject in which we are
all interested. It is not an abstruse art, shut up
between the covers of expensive books. “It is not
dependent on the caprice of individuals, nor on the
fashion of the day. Its laws, like other good laws,
are consistent with that every-day mathematics —
common sense. It does not follow, however, that
these laws are understood by every man of general
sound judgment. In fact, there is, perhaps, no sub-
ject on which sensible men act so irrationally, as the
treatment of their grounds. It is very easy to say
that the cause is ignorance. This is, in a sense, the
cause of all our imperfections, and mankind advances
mainly by augmenting its stock of knowledge. But
the kind of ignorance in this case, is not unacquaint-
ance with authors and systems, but misapprehension
as to the objects to be pursued. Some of these
objects we propose to point out, and we must first
notice some of the prevailing misappreheisions.

We will take first the mistake as tothe point of
view. Probably most people think that they arrange

4

their houses and grounds for their own satisfaction,
and it may seem paradoxical to assert that they do
no such thing. This is, however, apparently the fact.
Sometimes a man lays out his grounds without think-
ing at all of where he shall put his house. Usually,
however, he goes so far right as to fix upon a _build-
ing place. Now this place he selects mainly with
reference to the public road; and he then proceeds
to lay out his grounds also with reference to the said
road. In short, the whole place is made not to be
looked from, but to be looked at. It is astonishing
what incohveniences men, not otherwise remarkable
for their self-denial, will submit to, in order to present
what they consider a good appearance from the
street. Often the best aspect is occupied by the
kitchen-yard, the stable and out-houses, while the
family, from a forlorn, sunless drawing-room, perched
in the air, in order that the house may look imposing
to passers by, peer through their scattered trees over
the dusty road at their neighbors’ houses, built like
their own, in strict observance of this hideous archi-
tectural etiquette. Now if such a man would only
stop and think of how very, very little importance it
isto the rest of the world where or how he builds
his house and arranges his grounds, and, on the
other hand, how all important it is to himself, he
might avoid that fruitful source of irretrievable mis-
chief — the false point of view.

We may next consider the erroneous idea of com-
bating nature. A writer in the Aélantie Monthly

5

has admirably described the prevailing vice of our
domestic architecture. “The owner has built him-
self out of his house, and his house out of the land-
scape.” He not only builds in defiance of the nature
of the ground, but he conceives a prejudice against
whatever the place naturally affords, and prefers such
features as are difficult and costly. He will prefer
gravel to grass, and will ostentatiously parade an
enormous driveway on the lawn side of his house,
thus sacrificing beauty and privacy to a feeling which
he would himself, probably, find it difficult to explain.
He will prefer a stiff hedge to an informal shrubbery.
He not only choses plants whose culture involves
expense and difficulty, but he declares indiscriminate
war upon all the indigenous vegetation. Here again
the motive for the wrong steps seems altogether
inadequate, and they would, probably, in many cases
be avoided, if the owner would stop and think, not of
what the prevailing fashion demands, but of what
will give him real satisfaction.

Lastly, we must notice the delusive idea of obtain-
ing immediate effects. No one, perhaps, deliberately
thinks that his landscape is to be realized at once.
Yet many act wholly without reference to the future,
haste blinding their eyes. There are three ways in
which the mischief appears. First, men are in such
a hurry to plant, that the question whether the soil
is fit for plantations is quite disregarded. Hence
arise the starved and sickly specimens everywhere .
visible. Second, of all the characteristics of a tree,

6

that which would seem least liable to be overlooked,
is its tendency to grow. Yet trees are constantly so
placed that they must in time interfere with each
other and with other objects, so that eventually, just as
we become attached to them, we are forced to muti-
late or destroy them. Lastly, it is a general rule
that almost everything done in haste is badly done.
The operations of landscape gardening are sometimes
spoken of as expensive, yet men do not hesitate to
prosecute them with such precipitation, that they
are fortunate if they have to do the work no more
than twice.

Thus far we have spoken only of what to avoid ;
let us now look at the positive side of the subject, and
consider what to pursue; and, first of all, how to
begin. We must, at the outset, make ourselves well
acquainted with our land. Look first at the direction
of its inclinations. Southern slopes are among the
prime resources of an estate; and, in our country,
the West is, for several reasons, rather preferable to
the East. Next consider the views. These are to
be estimated not only for their intrinsic beauty, but
with reference to direction, to accessibility, to per-
manence, ete., etc. Small peaked hills, whence one
gets an extended prospect, are common enough, and
of comparatively little value; while a sheltered
South-western slope, commanding a valley or water
view, the objects of interest lying mainly on our
own ground, so that the prospect cannot be cut off
and may be indefinitely improved,—this is invalu-

7

able. We must also know our present resources in
trees and shrubs, though the vegetation, since almost
entirely in our own control, is of less moment than
the shape of the land. Lastly, the soil itself should
be.examined, and chiefly because this also is in our
power, at least to modify considerably.

Out of this general investigation must grow our
plan. The point on which all turns is the position
of the house. When we remember that nine-tenths
of the pleasure which we shall have in our grounds
will be got by looking from windows, piazzas, and
terraces, we shall take care that no minor considera-
tions deter us from selecting that spot whence most
may be quietly enjoyed; and, the position of the
house being settled, let us resolutely subordinate
other parts to this all important feature. It is evi-
dent now that the more definite plan we can have the
better, and that, if we could be sure just where every
tree ought to grow, it would be an advantage. But
it is equally certain that we cannot have at once this
desirable exactness. One sometimes sees plans, made
after a cursory view of the ground, finished with
very suspicious accuracy ; for every one who thinks
of the matter, must know that designs, to be of value,
must be founded on considerable acquaintance with
the place; and, even then, it is nearly impossible to
direct rightly on paper the position of every separate
tree. There are many of these positions which ought
to be determined by looking often from the given
point of view, some object, such as a pole or a circle

8

of stakes, being set up to represent the desired piece
of foliage, in the way so well described in the supple-
ment to the new edition of Downing’s work, by which
Mr. Sargent has enhanced the value of a book
already dear to all students of this subject. Never-
theless, when designs on paper truly represent well
understood and deliberately planned improvements,
they are of great service, and such ought by all
means to be made and carefully followed.

Meanwhile, though we move with deliberation, we
need not lose a moment. Simultaneously with our
planning we may begin our planting. If any part of
the land is fit for a nursery, we may stock it at once.
If not, we must prepare a piece as quickly as possible,
and then fill it with small trees and shrubs — the
general rule being that the nursery be rather too
large, rather too well prepared, and the number of
plants decidedly more than enough. This, like every
other right move in gardening, is a measure of
economy.

While the nursery is going on, and as soon as the
outline of our plan is settled, we must begin to im-
prove the soil. In every sense thorough draining
lies at the bottom of all. It is now proved that all
cultivable land is the better for it; and the only ques-
tion is, whether in certain soil, for certain purposes,
the benefit is worth the cost. Without attempting
here to decide these cases, it is enough for our pur-
pose to know that for nurseries, gardens, plantations
and lawns, drains are almost always indispensable.

9

Their chief benefits are warming, ventilating, and
deepening the soil; and our next care should be to
extend these effects by ploughing, subsoiling, and
judicious manuring. How much of these is worth
while, must be determined by the circumstances of
each case, but we may be sure that, to some extent,
they are absolutely necessary.

At length, when the soil is prepared, we may move
our trees, at the most favorable time, and from our
own nursery, to make our plantations. Our previous
measures having given us complete control over all
the circumstances, we proceed sure, not only of suc-
cess, but of rapid realization. It is astonishing to
those not familiar with such work, to see in how few
years beautiful landscapes can be obtained, provided
we have the courage and patience to move with
deliberate but constant energy.

Let us now consider some of the effects which it is
desirable to produce. The two most important ideas
to keep in mind are simplicity and concentration.
This need not interfere with that intricacy so effective
in large and highly finished grounds; but the
refinements must come gradually,—the broad _prin-
ciples first. We will suppose that, in building our
house, we have avoided some of the common errors,
and that we have placed the room where we are to
live, the windows where we really mean to sit, on the
side where we get our most desirable view. If an
ornamental terrace here connects us with our grounds,
so much the better; but we need not be dependent

10

on the existence of this feature. Better have no
vestige of it than the odious expanse of road which is
often made to take its place. We may consider the
view from our principal window as divided into fore-
ground and background, of which we can control the
first, and, by means of it, modify the second. The
foreground must be our lawn. Now, just as a sheet
of water depends for beauty on the broken and
varied lines of its shore, so does the lawn depend on
the outline of its enclosing plantations. It is most
important to keep this distinctly in mind. The
consequence of neglecting it is that common spotty
effect where lawn and plantations get thoroughly
mixed together, to the total sacrifice of the landscape.
To make this outline picturesque and beautiful our
materials are the various forms and colors of our
trees. We are not, however left to the exercise of
our unlimited fancy. A moment’s thought will show
us that the landscape will, like everything else, derive
beauty from its limitations. Looking at the unob-
structed view, we see at once that some portions of it
are much less attractive than others— probably that
some are highly objectionable. These our plantations
must conceal; and we shall find that, as part of the
prospect is shut out, the remainder will be enhanced.
In the composition of plantations, though it is clear
that true variety is highly desirable, yet it is also
certain that the nervous attempts to avoid monotony
are a common cause of failure. On the other hand,

few effects are more satisfactory, more unwearying

ala

than a continuous mass of evergreen deeply indented
by bright green lawn, and forming a background for
fine specimens of oak, maple, and tulip-trees, dressed
in their autumnal hues. Yet how few elements are
needed to produce this magnificent chord of color!
For most cases, the safe and general rule is to avoid
too many kinds of large trees, to keep similar foliage
together in grand, quiet masses, to reserve strong
effects of contrast for the outskirts of plantations, and
to admit more and more variety and mixture of
species as we use smaller trees and shrubs.

In conclusion, we would offer some suggestions as
to the proper office of a landscape gardener. Passing
over the clumsy name, which it is now difficult to
change and mend, let us consider how the person it
means to describe can make himself useful. First, it
is clear that he should act as a reformer of the
prevailing errors, some of which we noticed above.
This office, however, does not exclusively belong to
him. Any man of taste, leisure, and observation, is
perfectly capable of exposing such blunders. Next,
in preparing the soil and forming the nursery, the
landscape gardener can, as counsellor, be of great use.
It is by no means desirable, however, that he should
take the place of the surveyor, drainer, and agricultu-
rist. .If he does so, the result often is inferior work
at greater expense, while his attention is diverted
from his proper business. This is to study the
grounds, and, from this study, to design and to carry
out well-considered plans. It is evident, for reasons

12

arising from the nature of the case, as we have viewed
it, that landscape-gardening is closely connected with
architecture. The most unpleasant feature of our
buildings is their air of defiance of the nature about
them; and nothing can make a country house satisfac-
tory unless it be harmoniously connected with the
landscape of which it is the governing feature.

110 Tremont Srreer, April 11, 1859.

THOROUGH DRAINAGE.

Ir is now generally admitted that draining holds
the first place among mechanical methods for effecting
those changes upon the soil by which it is made more
productive. No soils can be injured by its judicious
application, but all may be benefited to a certain
extent. It is useful even in sandy soils, and where
the subsoil is light and porous; while in clay lands,
and in all cases where stagnant water rests near the
surface, it is very important if not indispensable. It
is a necessary preparation for other agricultural oper-
ations, and, when once thoroughly done, it constitutes
a most important, permanent, and yearly increasing
improvement, which can be fully produced by no
other available means.

A few of the many advantages that result from
this process, and which experience has fully proved,
are as follows: .

The drains not only take off all surplus water at
once,— which is an immediate and remunerative
benefit, — but they have also begun a process of
change and amelioration of the soil, which is gradually
deepened, until nearly on a level with the drains.

14

The stagnant water which had filled the pores of
the soil, (allowing, and aiding in some cases, deposits
of peroxide of iron, and in others, deposits of carbo-
nate of iron or of lime, any of which will cement the
earthy or stony particles together, forming hard pan,)
is removed, and its place is at once supplied by fresh
air from the surface, which air is in its turn driven
down into the drains by the falling of rain; and this
process is constantly repeated. The subsoil is thus
made more porous and friable while being mixed
with the surface soil, and the deposits which cemented
the particles of soil can no longer be made.

Experience has shown that these renewed acces-
sions of fresh air are very valuable in promoting the
healthy growth and the quality of all cultivated crops.

It will be noticed that for more readily admitting
fresh air, draining is necessary, even in the most por-
ous subsoil. Every new working of the ground
increases the efficiency of the drains, and extends that
action which gradually but surely improves the depth
and character of the soil.

The water of rains running over the surface
injuriously washes away the soil. This evil is averted
by drains, which allow the surplus water to pass read-
ily through the soil; while in filtering through, it im-
parts to the soil those substances useful to vegeta-
tion which rain water always contains, in more or less
abundance. When the water is thus readily carried
away, the soil becomes drier, sweeter, and more fri-
able; the hard lumps of clay lands crumble away

15

and disappear, the soil working easier and with much
more economy.

There is always moisture enough held in the soil
by capillary attraction, for all the purposes of vegeta-
tion, and which cannot be carried off by any number
of drains. ;

We have found by experiment that an ordinary soil
will hold in suspension nearly half its bulk of water;
which, in a soil three feet deep, would be equal to
nearly six months’ rain-fall. Water thus held in
suspension does not close the pores of the soil, but
still allows free passage of air, since the solid parti-
cles, in a friable soil, occupy much less space than
the pores between them.

Where the surface soil is porous and gives a ready
passage to the water, while the subsoil is compact and
impervious, then the roots of plants are compelled to
seek their nourishment in the surface soil only.

Air and warmth, as well as moisture, are indispen-
sable to growth, and where stagnant water stops out
the air and keeps the soil cold, there can be no vege-
tation. It is only on the lowering of the water table
or surface of stagnant water toa depth of three or
four feet from the surface, that roots are free to ex-
tend as deep as they may. Roots of wheat and of clover
have been traced to the depth of four feet or more,
on drained land; and in the streets of cities, roots of
shade trees sometimes extend to a depth of eight feet,
following the line of sewers. The action of the drains
is immediately to withdraw the noxious water ; and

16

the subsoil, which gradually acquires properties simi-
lar to the upper soil, becomes dry and porous to a
greater depth. Deeper ploughing, subsoiling, and
trenching are now practicable; the plants have a lar-
ger space through which to send their fibres in search
of food; the elements of a fertile soil are brought
into action; and the water in passing through the
soil is made of great benefit, instead of doing such
injury by remaining stagnant. The result is, that after
draining, the increase of produce is often enough to
pay the cost of this operation in two or three years.
It is obvious from these facts, that the deeper the
drains, provided the water has a ready escape, the
greater the depth of soil which is made available for
vegetable nutrition. Experience has shown that
water does find a ready escape into drains four feet
deep, and that these are generally more beneficial
than those laid nearer the surface. Both the depth
and the distance apart must, however, be to a certain
extent regulated by the circumstances of the case.

There are no strong and good soils in which the
water table naturally stands at a sufficient depth from
the surface. All such soils will be materially benefit-
ted by thorough draining, whatever their position
may be, or the inclination of their surface.

Thorough drainage prevents freezing out, or that
process of crystallization of the surface which draws
young plants from their beds.

A given quantity of manure will last longer and
do more service on drained than on undrained land.

17

The farmer who adopts this system is less at the
mercy of the fickle elements; for an efficient dramage
carries off the water so rapidly that his ground is fit
to work as soon as the rain has ceased, and he is not
obliged to “ wait for the land to dry.” He has also a
longer season for his work, since the ground is ready
for crops earlier in the spring, and can be worked
later in the fall.

Another great advantage which follows the prac-
tice of thorough draining, is the effect it has in raising
the temperature of the soil.

Heat will not pass downward in water, and, before
a soil can be warmed, the water must be removed.
Again, water escapes from retentive, undrained soils
by evaporation only,—a process which uses up a
great amount of heat; one pound of water in pass-
ing into a state of vapor absorbing and carrying away
972° of heat, which is rendered latent or insensible to
the thermometer. This amount of heat might have
raised the temperature of the soil, and materially assist-
ed the process of growth had it not been lost by evapo-
ration. Prof. Henry gives, in the last Patent Office
Report, a table by M. Schubler showing the max-
imum temperature of various earths exposed to
the sun, while the surrounding air was at about 78°.
One column exhibits the temperature of moist earth,
and the other that of dry earth. He remarks, that
“the differences of temperature exhibited by the two
columns are due to the heat expended in the evapo-

ration of a portion of the water in the moist earth.”
2

18

In six cases of different kinds of soils, the least
difference between the two columns is 13° (in
calcarious sand) ; and the greatest difference is 15.95°
(in garden earth, blackish gray). Taking the mean
of summer temperature, this difference is equal to a
removal from the latitude of Massachusetts to that of
South Carolina. The benefit of this increase in tem-
perature is felt in the spring, by bringing the land
into good condition to work two or three weeks ear-
lier; and also in the fall, by keeping off the frost two
or three weeks later. Crops may be planted earlier,
will have, on account of the higher temperature, a
more vigorous growth during the summer, and will
have ample time to mature in the fall before they
can be injured by frost.

Drains are peculiarly suited to our climate.

The objection is often made that, though draining
has been proved to be indispensable in Great Britain,
yet here, on account of our drier climate, it is less
needed. ‘This is a false view of the subject. In
England the fall, in a single day, of one inch vertical
depth of rain is considered remarkable ; while here
the fall of three or four inches is not uncommon, and’
a fall of nearly seven inches has been measured. We
need, then, provision for carrying away four times as
much surplus water as is provided for in England.
Beside this, the humidity of the English climate is
such that the evaporation is only about half what it
is here. We have seen how heat is lost by evapo-

19

ration ; so that on this account there is double the
necessity for draining here.

Our atmosphere absorbs moisture so rapidly that
the surface of retentive land is soon baked, and water
cannot rise from below by capillary attraction, so that
crops suffer from drought, an effect which we seek to
arrest by mulching. Drains will keep this soil pul-
verized, so that water will rise freely by capillary
attraction, in sufficient quantity for the use of the
crops.

It would be impossible, in our limited space, to enu-
merate the many important details of construction
that are necessary to insure an active and permanent
drainage.

Duties of the agricultural engmeer.

Any kind of work can be executed with greater
efficiency and economy by a person who has made a
careful study of the principles involved, and who has
a thorough knowledge of the details of practical con-
struction ; and especially in draining, the work of a
novice is often as expensive as itis clumsy. The
agricultural engineer should be familiar with all that
appertains to thorough draining; and it is his duty af-
ter being called upon by the proprietor, to examine
the ground, (digging trial holes or a trial drain if neces-
sary) in order to ascertain the character of the soil as
to compactness, dip of strata, etc., and also to find
whether the source of wetness is from beneath by
springs, or from retention of surface water. If it is
proposed to drain a large area, a careful topograph-

20

ical survey and plan should be made to aid in
establishing the system of drainage. This plan is also
useful both for farming purposes and for landscape-
gardening. Having decided upon the outfall for the
drain system, and the position of main, sub-main, and
minor drains, as to their direction, distance apart,
depth and grades, the whole should be staked out on
the ground. The work may be let out by contract
to be done under direction of the engineer; or men
may be employed by the day under a competent
overseer who attends to all details of the work, giving
grades, etc., and who is employer and pay-master
of the men. Much of the work on grounds of small
area may be done by farm hands, under general
direction of the engineer. Materials for the work
can usually be procured by the engineer at a lower
rate than by other parties. After the work is
completed, a careful plan of the whole should be
made, so that after the plough shall have obliterated
all traces of the drains from the surface, any point in

the system may still be easily found by means of the
plan.

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C. FOLLEN & G. 8. CURTIS,

ARCHITECTS

AND

LANDSCAPE GARDENERS,

110 TR MAO.N sd EET,

BOSTON.

UNDER-DEALN ING.

SHEDD & EDSON,

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS.

Have every facility for carrying on this department of Engineering, and they
will render any assistance or advice that may be required of them by persons
who are about executing a system of drainage either ona large or a small
scale.

Complete and accurate topographical plans made to show the area of land
and all its slopes or differences of level, upon which a system of drainage may

be so well shown in every particular, as to make them very valuable.
Draining Tile of all sizes furnished at the manufacturer’s prices.

Office in the Iron Building —

NO. 42 COURT STREET, BOSTON.

PRICES OF TILE AT THE MANUFACTORY :

SOLE TILE, (In form as No. 1.)

Mila D) INCHES, WEP UME sckeleisis js. ia:cie'e elec 018: see sieis\s sisis'sis oe eisie $10.00
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3 ce SCC PPV elle ialaleletevers aieieta.© s.eKeye sveseioieie.sie.elere 20.00
4 os SEP NCPR epee tas cha et olavehave: eyes) etches si sleleceieiel ele! 6.6) ste 32.00
i) ss CC CRMNUNIE Lacy Zc, dyleualatete\fo\iaiet get sxoreueleveieielleh eieveheNaiake 45.00

HORSE SHOE, (In form as No. 2.)

2 1-2 inches, per M.,.....eeeseeeee cece ccccecccccceecces $12.00
ele « CTU COMME AEH salsa erento) crctaxs, oe te vo! olore eho /efevs!« ‘s/s lexete 15.00
al-2 BOM ACO te) Oras ay cig ce clayot ents atelleteveNsi erele6 les: obi oisveie: stel's 30.00

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