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LII3RAKV

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

OF"

Mrs. SARAH P. WALS WORTH.

Received October, 1894.
Accessions No.G ~~.

THE TEMPERANCE

BIBLE-COMMENTARY,

FIRST AMERICAN EDITION,

WITH A NEW PREFACE

BY TAYLER LEWIS, LL.D.,

ntoncssoR OF ORIENTAL LITERATURE, UNION COLLEGE, SCHBNECTADV.

" It is unique in its kind as a collection and fair presentation of everything in
Scripture that can possibly bear on the question. It sets before us the whole matter
— Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Chaldee.

" Regarded simply as a Biblical treatise, having no reference to a much dis-
puted moral question, it would be pronounced by scholars a work of high philo-
logical value." — Professor TAYLER "LEWIS, Union College.

"The more I look into this noble work, the more do I admire its breadth, depth,
and exhaustiveness. It is a truly grand contribution." — Professor GUTHRIE,
Glasgow.

"This work is exhaustive of the subject, and will have a permanent value. It
is no inconsiderable service to have rescued the Bible from the false glosses of
prejudice and ignorance." — The Northern Express, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

" No less than 638 passages of Holy Scripture are explained in the goodly vol-
ume."— The Methodist Recorder.

" We commend all parties to read this book, and involving as it does the question
of the frown or approbation of Holy Scripture on our social drinking usages, it
cannot be too gravely read or too devoutly pondered." — The Baptist Messenger,
England.

" I have now kept it on my table for several months. I found it of great use in
interpreting certain passages in the Lessons, and other portions of Holy Scripture,
which I had occasion to read privately and before my congregation. On the points
it more especially examines, it is more thorough and exhaustive than any com-
mentary I have ever met with. I don't wonder that our learned friend, Dr Tayler
Lewis, speaks of it so warmly, as a valuable addition to our sacred literature." —
W. PAYNE, D. D., Sckeneclady.

" THE BOOK OF BOOKS on this question. I trust steps will be taken by some
friend of truth and humanity in each church in this Union, to supply his own
pastor with a copy." — Hon. E. C. DELAVAN, Schenectady.

THE TEMPERANCE

BIBLE-COMMENTARY:

GIVING AT ONE VIEW

VERSION, CRITICISM, AND EXPOSITION,

IN REGARD TO

ALL PASSAGES OF HOLY vf Rl¥ BEARING ON < WINE ' AND

'STRONG DRINK,' OR ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLES

OF THE TEMPERANCE REFORMATION.

DR FREDERIC RICHARD LEES, F.S.A.

AND

REV. DAWSON BURNS, M.A.

" Rightly dividing the Word of Truth."

NEW YORK:
SHELDON & Co., 500 BROADWAY.

NATIONAL TEMPERANCE SOCIETY AND PUBLICATION HOUSE,

J. N. STEARNS, 172 WILLIAM STREET.

1870.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by

WEED, PARSONS & CO.,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Northern District of New York.

WEED, PARSONS AND COMPANY,

PRINTERS AND STBRBOTYPBRS,

ALBANY, NEW YORK.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PACK

xiv

xvi

xvii

1 7 No of Passages 3

I. — GENERAL PREFACES:

I. By the Authors

ii. By Professor Tayler Lewis

Preface to the Notes

Explanations of marks and abbreviations, etc. ...

II. — PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION

III. — NOTES ON THE BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (493 PASSAGES),

COMPRISING —

The Book of Genesis ....
The Book of Exodus ....

The Book of Leviticus ....
The Book of Numbers ....
The Book of Deuteronomy ...

The Book of Joshua

The Book of Judges ....

The Book of Ruth

The First Book of Samuel

The Second Book of Samuel ...

The First Book of Kings

The Second Book of Kings ...

The First Book of Chronicles

The Second Book of Chronicles

The Book of Ezra

The Book of Nehemiah ....
The Book of Esther ....

The Book of Job

The Book of Psalms ....

The Book of Proverbs ....

The Book of Ecclesiastes ...

The Book of Canticles (or Song of Solomon)

The Book of the Prophet Isaiah -

The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah

The Book of the Lamentations of Jeremiah

The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel

The Book of the Prophet Daniel

The Book of the Prophet Ilosea

The Book of the Prophet Joel

The Book of the Prophet Amos -

The Book of the Prophet Obadiah -

The Book of the Prophet Jonah ...

20
21

2
II

8
ii

6
ii

IS
ii

10
26
26

7
18

65
32

26
34

66
68
77

79
85
88

9i
96

98
101

103
108

"3
117
129

'47
150
156

184

202
205
211
217
22$
229
233
234

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGB

The Book of the Prophet Micah - - - 5 No of Passages 235

The Book of the Prophet Nahum - 2 " 238

The Book of the Prophet Habakkuk 4 " 239

The Book of the Prophet Zephaniah - 2 " 242

The Book of the Prophet Haggai ... 5 " 243

The Book of the Prophet Zechariah - 7 " 245

The Book of the Prophet Malachi I " 248

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE OLD TESTAMENT:

The Book of Genesis, i Supplemental Note .... 249
The Book of Exodus, I Supplemental Note, I New

Note I Passage 249

The Book of Numbers, i New Note - - I " 250

The Book of Deuteronomy, i Supplemental Note, ... %$&

The Book of Esther, i Supplemental Note .... 250

The Book of Proverbs, I Supplemental Note - - 251

The Book of Canticles, i Supplemental Note .... 251

IV. — CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS .... 253

V — NOTES ON THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT (144 PASSAGES),

COMPRISING —

The Gospel according to St Matthew - - 21 No of Passages 261

The Gospel according to St Mark - 6 " 289

The Gospel according to St Luke - - - 16 " 292

The Gospel according to St John 8 " 301

The Acts of the Apostles - - - - 9 " 312

The Epistle of St Paul to the Romans 12 " 320

The First Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians 19 " 328

The Second Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians 2 " 346

The Epistle of St Paul to the Galatians 6 " 348

The Epistle of St Paul to the Ephesians - i " 352

The Epistle of St Paul to the Philippians - 2 " 355

The Epistle of St Paul to the Colossians - 3 " 357

The First Epistle of St Paul to the Thessalonians 3 " 360

The First Epistle of St Paul to Timothy - 7 " 367

The Epistle of St Paul to Titus ... 4 " 377

The Epistle of St Paul to Philemon - i " 379

The General Epistle to the Hebrews - i " 380

The General Epistle of St James 3 " 381

The First General Epistle of St Peter 6 " 383

The Second General Epistle of St Peter i " 388

The Book of the Revelation of St John - 13 " 389

VI.— APPENDIX A: A SELECTION OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS, EXHIBITING
THE AUTHORIZED ENGLISH VERSION WITH SUGGESTED
EMENDATIONS.

1. The Old Testament 397

2. The New Testament 408

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii

fAGB

VII.— APPENDIX B, CONTAINING CLASSIFIED AND TRANSLATED LISTS
OP HEBREW AND GREEK WORDS IN THE OLD AND NEW
TESTAMENTS.

OLD TESTAMENT:

1. Hebrew Words translated Wine and Strong Drink - 412

2. Hebrew Words translated Vineyard, Vine, etc. - - 419

3. Hebrew Words translated Leaven, Vinegar, Unfermented

Bread, etc. ......... 421

4. Hebrew Words translated Drunken, Drunkenness and

Drunkard ........ 422

5. Hebrew Words descriptive of the Nature and Effects of

Intoxicating Drink 422

6. Other Hebrew Words explained in the Notes • « 423

NEW TESTAMENT :

1. Greek Words translated Wine, Strong Drink and Vinegar 425

2. Greek Words translated Vine, Vineyard, Fruit of the

Vine, Grapes, Clusters 426

3. Greek Words translated Leaven, Unleavened Bread,

Drunkenness, Drunkard, Drunk, Temperance, Sober - 427

4. Other New Testament Greek Words explained in the

Notes 428

VIII.— APPENDIX C : THE APPLICATION OF 'YAYIN* AND 'Omos' TO

THE UNFERMENTED JUICE OF THE GRAPE - - 431

IX — APPENDIX D: WINES, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

1. Original Authorities on Ancient Wines ... 434

2. Produce of Vineyards in the East ..... 441

3. Notice of Fallacies in the Bibliotheca Sacra - - 446

X— INDEX 447

GENERAL PREFACES.

CHRISTIANS everywhere unite in accepting the saying of St Paul that
all God-inspired Scripture is " profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for cor-
rection, for instruction in righteousness; that the man of God may be
perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works" (2 Tim. iii. 16, 17).
But the profit derived from Divine Truth will necessarily vary according
to the degree of teachableness and soundness of judgment brought to its
perusal. The Bible is not accountable for the multifarious errors and
abuses it has been employed to support ; yet it is occasion for lamentation
that on not a few great questions, both of Science and Morals, the Living
Oracles have been strangely misapprehended and misapplied. Not the
illiterate and vicious alone, but successive generations of scholars and
divines, have enunciated mischievous fallacies professedly extracted from
the Scriptures. In Physical Science, the fixity and recent creation of the
earth ; in Political Philosophy, the right of arbitrary government and
Negro slavery ; in Social Economy, the excellence of Polygamy ; in
Ecclesiastical ethics, the duty of persecuting heretics, and the obligation
of unlimited submission to the clergy : these and other baneful dogmas
have been zealously propounded, not as speculative theories, but as the
practical teachings of the Divine Word. That such conclusions are now
commonly discarded is not due to any change in the Record, but to a
marked improvement in the manner of reading it ; and to a perception
that there can be no real contradiction between one portion of Holy Scrip-
ture and another, or between the Revelation of God in Nature and in His
Written Will.

Not less obviously true is it, that social customs and personal habits of
diet and indulgence, continued from childhood upwards, may induce a
state of mind inconsistent with the unbiased interpretation of Holy Writ.
For example, let a man be accustomed to regard intoxicating liquor as a
necessity, or even a valuable auxiliary, of life, and as an innocent vehicle
of enjoyment and social entertainment ; let him remain ignorant of all
that can be said and has been proved to the contrary; let him consider the
intemperance arising from strong drink to be one of the inevitable forms
of natural depravity, and therefore to be classed in its origin as well as its
results with other sins of the flesh ; let him persuade himself that the ordi-
nary means of Christian evangelization are sufficient to eradicate this pro-
lific vice with its dismal progeny of social curses: let all this be done, and
it will no longer appear surprising that many of the allusions contained in
both the Old and New Testaments are construed in favor of the use of
such drink, and that other passages, clearly opposite in their tendency,
should be ignored or explained away. This may be done in perfect good
faith, and without any consciousness of the process by which the one-sided
exegesis is wrought out.

Accordingly, when the Temperance Reformation began, some of the

earliest arguments brought against it were borrowed (as was supposed)

from the armory of Scripture texts; and down to the present time many

who hold aloof from that cause, defend their estrangement by a similar

AUTHORS' PREFACE.

appeal to Scripture precedent and approval. Some even go the length of
charging abstainers with a conduct at variance not only with the privileges,
but with the duties of the Christian dispensation, and accuse them of seek-
ing to impose a code of asceticism contrary to the genial and liberal spirit
of the Gospel. In controverting what have been represented as the views
of Temperance writers upon the wines named in Scripture, some critics
have ignorantly attributed to them the most absurd positions — such as
that all those wines were unfermented and uninebriating — while they
themselves have neglected to distinguish between the various terms trans-
lated 'wine,' and have confounded the use of intoxicating liquor by men
of old, and the permission of such use, with the express sanction and
blessing of God.

To some friends of the Temperance movement a work of this character
may appear superfluous. Certain of them may be disposed to deny that
the question is one for Bible arbitration or reference at all ; while others
may be prepared to concede that Scripture permits and approves the use
of strong drink, though also permitting and approving of abstinence from
it. It is in vain, however, to expect that the Bible will cease to be quoted
as an authority on the subject of Temperance ; nor is it desirable that its
store of facts should be overlooked, or its testimony left unexamined and
disregarded. Those who contend that * liberty to abstain ' is all that is
needed as an argumentative basis for abstinence, will find themselves un-
deceived when they attempt to urge the practice upon others as a duty ;
for how can that be a duty, it will be asked, the opposite of which is sanc-
tioned by both the letter and the spirit of the Divine Word ? Besides,
even the argument from Christian expediency, to which such friends attach
a high (if not exclusive) importance, cannot be understood without an
appeal to passages of Scripture whose true meaning and legitimate bearing
have been warmly contested.

In replv to the inquiry, which may not be discourteously proposed,
whether tne authors of this Commentary can claim to be exempt from a
bias in favor of abstinence which may have inspired and controlled their
exposition? — they can but say that they have been fully sensible of their
liability to such an influence, and have therefore endeavored to counteract
its operation by carefully weighing all adverse arguments, and by placing
before the reader the materials by which he may form for himself an inde-
pendent judgment as to the correctness of the inferences drawn. They
have honestly sought, with trust in Divine aid, to discover the truth con-
tained in the passages successively discussed ; and, in consigning the fruit
of their labors to the press, they pray that the blessing of Heaven may
attend it so far as it is adapted to promote the faithful, intelligent study
of Scripture, and a more perfect sympathy with the spirit of the Psalmist,
"Teach me, O Lord, the way of Thy statutes ; and I shall keep it unto
the end. Give me understanding, and I shall keep Thy law; yea, I shall
observe it with my whole heart."

THE AUTHORS.

AMERICAN SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE. XI

II.

I have given to the book entitled The Temperance Bible Commen-
tary as close an examination as my poor health will allow. The result
has been a high opinion of its value. The preliminary dissertation is
able, clear, comprehensive ; above all, exhibiting that sound common
sense which, in the interpretation of the Scriptures, would avoid the
perversions of pedantry on the one hand, and all forced attempts to
make out a rigid conformity to modern science on the other. This is
very happily illustrated by the remark that " the Bible is not a book
of science, dictated in technical and scholastic language, but a book
of ///£, written in the language of daily life, of national history, of popu-
lar apologue." There has been committed on this topic (as is well
shown in the 'Introduction') the same error of interpretation that so
long perverted and confused the Slavery question. It was the error
of applying ancient words, and ancient ideas expressed by them, to
modern things, modern relations, and modern practices, which, though
covered by the same general language, had undergone a change so
great, as to amount to almost a radical difference. What a wide dis-
tance, for example, between the Abrahamic relation of chieftain and
follower, or the domestic service of the simple Jewish agricultural life,
to which the commercial ideas of sale and traffic were almost wholly
unknown, and the vile, mercenary, man-degrading slavery of a Bra-
zilian cotton and sugar plantation! The anti-temperance writers err
in the same way when they apply the artless language of Scripture
(as used of the comparatively harmless substances they often repre-
sent) to the vile and noxious compounds which, in modern times, pass
under similar names. The ordinary wine of Palestine, even if it did
contain a little alcohol, unknown to any science of the day — a ques-
tion which is hardly worth discussing — what a vast difference between
this and the fiery potations now manufactured for our hotels, our
drinking saloons, and alas! too often, it must be said, for our holy,
Christian communion tables. And yet these modern compounds are
also called ' wine,' and those who use them would shelter themselves
under the old appellations which, in the days of Noah and David,
were given to such widely different things. Anti-temperance critics
are fond of charging the zealous temperance advocate with perver-
sions of Scripture and strained interpretations. This is doubtless true
in some cases, but the fault is far more apt to be on the other side.
The whole scope and spirit of a precept is often overlooked by the

Xll AMERICAN PREFACE.

wine advocate, and some mere contrast or illustration (belonging, not
to the inspired heart of the passage, but to the necessarily imperfect
human language in which it is conveyed, and to the imperfect human
knowledge which is an inseparable accompaniment of such t language)
is elevated into all the dignity and authority of a precept^ commanding
us directly to drink wine, as though it were good per se — a duty, in
fact, the neglect of which would be a slighting of the Divine benefi-
cence. The much-talked-of sin per se of the other side, however
strained and harsh it may sometimes appear, is far more sound and
rational. Thus, for example, Proverbs xxxi: 6-7, is taken by some as
not only a perfect justification of wine-drinking as a common practice,
but even as a command to do so in certain cases. When we look,
however, at the whole passage, and study its spirit, we find it to be
one of the strongest abstinence texts in the whole Bible. " Not for
kings, not for kings" — it is twice repeated — "not for princes," not for
rulers, not for men who have charge of high interests, not for men in
health (as is the fair implication) who have responsible duties to per-
form— it is not for these, not at all for these, to drink wine. They
are not to touch it. This is the only meaning of language so repeated,
so intense, so emphatic.

The Bible writers may err in their manner of conceiving, and in
their mode of stating physical facts (as, for example, in the statement
that "the moon" may "smite by night"). Their true inspiration
belongs to a higher plane. In the knowledge, however, of spiritual
conditions, whether good or evil, our modern science gives us no
advantage over them. There is one evil state of soul condemned
throughout the Bible. It is that state to which we give the name
intoxication, or inebriation, but which, having no term corresponding
to it in the Hebrew, is described and most vividly set before us (see
Prov. xxiii : 29, 35) in its phenomena and effects. It was, on the part
of the Bible writers, simply the observation of a spiritual fact, requir-
ing no chemical analysis, or any scientific knowledge in respect to the
working or degree of alcohol. As a spiritual fact, it was as well
known to Jeremiah, Hosea, and the author of the book of Proverbs,
as it is to Faraday, Liebig, and Draper. It is the act of a person in
health, voluntarily, and without any other motive or reason than the
pleasurable stimulus, using any substance whatever, be it solid or liquid,
to produce an unnatural change in his healthy mental and bodily state,
either by way of exciting or quieting the nerves and brain, or quick-
ening the pulse. This was wrong — a spiritual wrong — a sin/<v se —

AMERICAN PREFACE. xiii

not a matter of excess merely, but wrong and evil in any, even the
smallest, measure or degree. Although there might be much igno-
rance in respect to its real internal causation, the outward substances
known to produce this effect — above all, which were used for the
very purpose of producing it (for here was the spiritual crime) — are
denounced as something which men are not to touch — not even "to
look at." The description may be scientifically correct or erroneous;
it may also be difficult to determine, precisely, what is meant by cer-
tain Hebrew phrases in this remarkable passage; but the general
sense, as well as the precise point intended, is unmistakably clear. It
is intoxicating drink that is meant — intoxicating in any degree —
drink sought for that very purpose of producing such unnatural change
in the healthy hitman system. There was to be no moderate drinking
(or desire) here. However gentle, exhilarating, convivial, or pleas-
antly soothing might be its first effects, at *the last " it biteth like a
serpent, and stingeth like an adder."

Such is the doctrine taught in the artless Scripture language, and
sometimes in passages quoted as in their favor. Nothing could be
better calculated to impress this great spiritual lesson than the array of
scriptural texts in the book before us. There may be dissent, just
dissent perhaps, from some of the writers' exegetical reasoning. This,
however, affects but little the great and real merit of the work. It is
unique in its kind, as a collection, and fair presentation, of everything
in Scripture that can possibly bear on either aspect of the temperance
question. We have it all here. It sets before us the whole matter.
There is given every passage from our common version. Added to
this, there is a faithful presentation of the Hebrew in Roman letters. We
have also copious and satisfactory citations from the ancient versions
— Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Chaldaic — together with a great deal of
most valuable ancient and modern commentary. It may be safely
said that, aside from its bearing on the temperance question, the book
is a very important contribution to Biblical knowledge in general.
Had it been the work of some German author, intended simply as
a Biblical aid to the understanding of an important department of
Hebrew words and Hebrew usages, it would have been well received
as a valuable addition to our sacred literature.

TAYLER LEWIS, LL. D.

UNION COLLEGE, SCHENECTADY, 1869.

PREFACE TO THE NOTES.

IN order to accurate Biblical exposition two conditions are indispensable — a correct
state of the Text, and a correct analysis of its terms. There will then remain
to be secured a proper apprehension of each passage in its entireness, in its
relation to the context, and in its application to the whole body of revealed Truth
and Duty.
I. The STATE of the Original Text is chiefly to be gathered,—

1. As to the Old Testament, from a comparison of the Received Hebrew Text

with, —

(1) The Hebrew Samaritan Text and the Samaritan Version, which are limited

to the Pentateuch.

(2) The Greek Versions, especially the Septuagint Version (executed in parts

between 270 and 170 B.C.),* as it exists in the Alexandrine and Vatican
Codices (marked A and B), with the Aldine and Complutensian
editions and the variations preserved in Origen's Hexapla; also the
Versions of Aquila (about 120 A.D.), Theodotion (executed about 130
A.D.), and Symmachus (about 200 A.D.), all of which have come down
to us in a fragmentary form.

(3) The Latin Vulgate, which consists of St Jerome's translation (390 A.D.)

except the Book of Psalms, which is in the old Italic Version. The
Vulgate is the Authorized Version of the Roman Catholic Church.

(4) The Targums (*. e. Interpretations) of Onkelos, Jonathan, Pseudo-

Jonathan, Jerusalem, etc. These Targums were executed subsequently
to the Christian era, except perhaps that of Onkelos, who is supposed
to have lived B.C. 50. They are written in the Aramaean or Western
dialect of the Chaldee.

(5) The Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic Versions.

2. As to the New Testament, the Original Text is to be gathered from a

comparison of the Received Greek Text, as fixed by Stephens (1550),
with,—

(1) The Alexandrine Codex, executed in the fourth or fifth century, which

wants Matthew i. — xxv. 5; John vi. 50— viii. 52; 2 Corinthians iv. 3 —
xii. 7.

(2) The Vatican Codex No. 1209, of about the same date, which wants

Hebrews from ix. 14, the Epistles to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon,
and the Apocalypse.

* This title, signifying ' the Version of the Seventy,' arose from an ancient but untenable tradition,
that seventy learned men were simultaneously engaged at Alexandria in the production of this par*
ticular translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek.

PREFACE TO THE NOTES. XV

(3) The Ephraem Codex, of about equal antiquity, which contains fragments

of all the books of the New Testament.

(4) The Sinaitic Codex, which rivals or excels the foregoing in age.

(5) The Beza or Cambridge Codex, referred to the fifth century, with the

exception of some occasional pages by a much later hand. This Codex,
which is partly in Greek and in Latin (the old Italic prior to St
Jerome), contains most of the Gospels and the Acts.

(6) The Claremont Codex, of the sixth or seventh century, furnishing St

Paul's Epistles, with the Hebrews by a later copyist.

(7) The Dublin Codex, of the sixth century, which gives St Matthew's

Gospel.

(8) The Basil ian Codex No. 105 (otherwise known as the Vatican Codex

No. 2066), which is referred to the eighth century, «.nd contains the
Apocalypse.

(9) The Latin Vulgate, Syriac, and other early Versions.

II. An ANALYSIS of the original terms employed by the Sacred Writers can only

be successfully prosecuted by a reference to the equivalent terms found in the
Versions, and the sense in which they are used by other writers. For example
Josephus and Philo — who, though Jews, wrote in Greek — put us in posses-
sion of the meaning attached in their day — the first century of the Christian
era — to various Hebrew and Greek phrases that occur in the Sacred writings.
The assistance afforded by Lexicons is in proportion to their apt citation.
from original authors, and the ability shown in tracing obscure words to
their probable roots, or in bringing comparative philology to illustrate their
generic significations. Historical researches into ancient arts and usages,
and a knowledge of existing Eastern customs, often throw light upon the
language of the Bible.

III. The CORRECT APPREHENSION AND APPLICATION of complete passages of

Holy Writ will mainly depend, after the preliminary critical researches, upon
candor, sound judgment, and spiritual insight. A regard to 'the analogy
of faith,' and the cardinal principles of all just interpretation, will tend to
preserve from erroneous views.

The Notes of this COMMENTARY upon each passage chiefly consist of two parts,
— the first part dealing with all the critical questions involved, the latter with the
literal sense and practical lessons of the passage reviewed. For the general
reader's convenience, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek words are printed in English
type.

All important quotations from other languages are given verbatim for the satis-
faction of scholars, but translations are always affixed that others may be enabled
to weigh the evidence adduced.

In the texts from the Authorized English Version the Italics are retained, and
indicate that the words so printed were supplied by the translators to complete the
sense. In other places italics are used to distinguish foreign words, or to draw
special attention to the thoughts expressed.

The MARKS OF ABBREVIATION EMPLOYED IN THE NOTES are as under :—

Lxx. for the Greek Septuagint Version.

A. V. for the Authorized English Version in common use.

V. for the Latin Vulgate Version.

T. and Ts. for Targum and Targums.

Codex A for the Greek Alexandrine Codex.

Codex B " " Vatican Codex, 1209.

Codex C " " Ephraem Codex.

Codex Aleph " Sinaitic Codex.

Codex D '* " Beza or Cambridge Codex.

Codex V " " Claremont Codex.

Codex Z " " Dublin Codex.

Codex Bb " " Basilian Codex 105, or Vatican Codex 2066.

Prel. Dis. for Preliminary Dissertation.

•B stands for 'equivalent to,' or 'that is.'

- over a letter signifies that it is to be pronounced long, as 'o ' in 'more.'
" " " " short, as 'e1 in 'met'

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

THE following COMMENTARY on certain passages of Holy Writ has
been undertaken for the elucidation and development of important
and practical, but long-neglected, portions of Divine truth. It is
desirable, at starting, that readers who, like the noble Beraeans, are
willing to search for the truth in the love of it, should understand the
special object of the inquiry, and the principles upon which we propose
to conduct it. We repudiate entirely every species of ' Authority,'
properly so called. Faith, indeed, must accept the facts of Revelation,
just as philosophy must accept the facts of Nature — using there,
however, all reasonable care in the examination ; — but, after that, no
mortal intellect can have a monopoly of judgment, or, without
presumption, pretend to an infallibility of interpretation. One only
rule will hold then, — " Prove all things : holdfast to that which is " true.

As we do not see with the eyes of other men, neither do we claim
that other men should see with ours. But what we do assert is, that
while the Divine objective Truth is one, not various, so the subjective
faculty of Reason is one, working by common laws to common and
invincible conclusions. This is the sole guarantee of truth being
either possible or actual ; and therefore eindence is everything, and bare
* opinion ' nothing. On that evidence alone we place our reliance :
if it is invalid our inference falls; if otherwise, it will stand; but no
imaginable amount of unbelief and dogmatic denial can disturb or
overturn it. As the acute Professor Mansel has observed, " it is of
little importance to what authority we appeal, so long as the evidence
itself will not bear criticism." Were a lawyer, in defending a client,
to decline putting facts and evidence before the jury, and content
himself with referring to a number of « learned opinions,' both judge
and jury would regard his defense either as imbecility calling for pity,
or as impudence meriting contempt. But criticism ought to be
governed by laws of evidence as strict and unbending as those which
are observed in our law courts ; and mere * opinion ' ought to be
held quite as cheap.

I. The first proposition to be established is one of a purely
philological *&& matter-of-/7r/ character, namely, — That there is nothing
in the nature and usage of the words for Wine, etc., in the Bible,
which at all teaches that the use of intoxicating drink is in harmony

XVlll PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

with the Divine will. This proposition will be proved just as con-
clusively on the hypothesis that the Bible is a book of simple history,
as on the conception of its containing a Divine revelation. The
following are the thirteen words of the Original Scriptures which,
unfortunately for the English reader, have all been commingled and
confused under the translation of the single term WINE, either with
or without an adjective of qualification, such as * new,' ' sweet,' * mixed,'
or 'strong,' — namely: — in Hebrew, Yayin, Khamar, Shakar, Mesek,
A/iszs, Soveh, Tiros/i, Ashishah, Shemarim ; in Greek, Oinos, Gleukos,
Oxos, and Akraton. There are, besides, closely associated with these
words, two others — the Hebrew adjective Khemer (foaming), and
Khometz, translated ' vinegar.' When persons attempt to argue, from
the Authorized Version, the merits of the wine question, no wonder
they fall into inextricable difficulties and pernicious delusions. Mr
De Quincey's observation, in his article on 'The Philosophy of
Herodotus,' is exceedingly apposite : — " How often do we hear
people commenting on the Scriptures, and raising up aerial edifices
of argument, in which every iota of the logic rests, unconsciously to
themselves, upon the accidental words of the English version, and
melts away when applied to the original text! so that, in fact, the
whole has no more strength than if it were built upon a pun or an
Equivoque" Nor is it the unlearned alone who are apt to fall into
this fallacy. Even so good a Hebraist as Professor Murphy, in
referring to Prov. iii. 10 and Joel ii. 24, has distorted the meaning
of yeqev and tirosh in order to accommodate their sense to the
English mistranslations ' burst-0/// and ' over/7<?zc/.' Long ago,
Dr S. Lee, Hebrew Professor at Cambridge, in the preface to his
* Hebrew Lexicon,' pointed out this teeming source of error : — " As to
Noldius — and the same may be said of lexicographers but too
generally, — his practice evinces no endeavor beyond that of offering
a signification — well suited, as he thought, to each place — which
eventually resolves itself into a system of mere conjecture, and one,
moreover, which takes for granted that the particular signification he
ascribed to every other word in such passage was above all suspicion
correct." Thus in the article ' Wine,' in Dr Smith's ' Dictionary of
the Bible,' the writer permits the supposed association of tirosh with
a liquid — in the famous triad, * corn, wine, and oil ' — to influence
his judgment as to the term translated 'wine,' when, in reality, the
proper word for ' oil ' (shemen) does not occur there as stated ; and,
moreover, the word translated 'oil' is clearly a ^translation, the
proper meaning of yitzhar being ' orchard-fruit,' if etymology, induc-
tion, and context are to have any weight in determining the meaning
of language. It is thus under the conjoint influence of prejudice,
carelessness, and false conjecture, that errors increase and multiply,
and one blunder is made the buttress and bulwark of another.

Mr John Stuart Mill, in his ' System of Logic,' has well laid down
an important law of speech : — " Language is the depository of the
accumulated experience to which all former ages have contributed
their part, and which is the inheritance of all yet to come. It may

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xix

be good to alter the meaning of a word, but it is bad to let any part
of the meaning drop. Whoever seeks to introduce a more correct
use of a term should be required to possess an accurate acquaintance
with the history of the particular word. . . . To be qualified
to define the name, we must know all that has ever been known of
the properties of the class of objects which are, or originally were,
denoted by it. ... A generic term is always liable to become
limited to a single species, if people have occasion to think and speak
of that species much oftener than of anything else contained in the
genus. . . . The tide of custom first drifts the word on the shore
of a particular meaning, then retires and leaves it there."

This species of fallacy would be seen through at once if it were used
in reference to matters not touching our appetites or interests. For
example, who would be deceived by the allegation that as " * Prevent '
now signifies to ' hinder ' or * oppose ', therefore it signifies the same
in the Collect, * Prevent us, O Lord, in all our doings, with Thy most
gracious favor ' " ? The answer would be, that, at the time the prayer
was published, 'prevent' had the etymological sense of going before ;
that a modern use has nothing necessarily to do with an ancient use
of a word; and that the later sense arose, as explained by Mr Mill,
from the fact that obstacles — things before us — are more frequently
' hindrances ' than ' helps.' Or should it be alleged that " villains
are foul rogues: but in the Middle Ages farm-laborers and peasants
were chiefly villains, therefore very bad men," — should we not laugh
in the face of the verbal trickster ? In what respect, however, does
this differ from the way in which, by the abuse of the word ' Wine,'
the same paralogism is attempted to be palmed upon us ? Men — and
sometimes people professing to be 'scholars' — go to a technical
dictionary of the eighteenth or nineteenth century, quote an exclusive
definition of wine as ' the fermented juice of the grape,' and ask us to
jump with them to the crooked conclusion, " Therefore wine, 2,000
years ago, never signified anything less or anything more " ! When
perversity has attained to this point it serves to illustrate the truth of a
remark once made by an ' Eclectic Reviewer,' that " the understand-
ing may be so blinded by circumstance, or by prejudipe, as to meet
with darkness in the daytime, and to grope at noonday as in night."
It is high time that such 'fallacies of the dictionary' should be
remitted to the nursery or the asylum. This very word, by the way,
is another illustration ; but should the day ever come when the
conventional sense of * house for lunatics ' shall have absorbed all
other senses, will that prove that during a series of ages it had not the
broader sense of ' refuge ' ?

When we speak of the various senses of such words as wine, man,
spirit, wife, angel, let us not be misunderstood. A word of this sort
is vaguely descriptive and broadly general. There is no single word
of this kind with any definite sense ; the special sense is derived from
the application, — i.e. from the context. If we say, 'In heaven there
are Angels] and also, ' In hell there are Angels] — while the word
'angel' is the same, the objects connoted are, in specific quality, as

XX PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

distinct as the opposing spheres. The 'fallacy of the lexicon' is-
very common, whereby the sense of the context is imported into the
innocent word. The figure 3 expresses a distinct relation as a
symbol, but it may be applied to plums or potatoes; still the
qualities of the things do not attach to the figure. So with words.
' Wine ' primarily expressed the relation of * liquid offspring to the
vine-cluster ' ; but it does not, never did, nor, in the nature of things,
ever can mark out the later, and for thousands of years obscure,
relationship of 'fermentation.' The Jewish rabbins, we are dis-
tinctly told, had a peculiar theory that * the juices of fruits did not
ferment] — so little did they know of the occult process that is now
assumed to have been the origin of the name for wine ! In fact, all
the ancients knew of the matter was, that grape-juice 'foamed' and
'boiled,' like the froth of the sea, boiling water, or bitumen; and
this idea is the sole one expressed by the words yavan and khamery
from which verbs the Hebrew and Chaldee words for wine are
usually derived.*

As ' angel ' denotes the relation of ' messenger ' to some sovereign
master, but cannot express the kind and quality of mastership or service,
whether of devil or Deity, so the word ' wine ' expresses the relation-
ship of ' the blood of the vine,' but cannot possibly signalize the special
state into which it has got — whether it is pure khemer, or mustum, or
soveh, or whether it is the juice transformed, by fermentation, into
intoxicating drink. In accordance with this principle are the facts of
Hebrew literature. When yayin became generic by usage, the Jews
had to resort in later time to specific words, such as ahsis and soveh ,
just as the Greeks with their gleukos and the Latins with their mustum,
when oinos and vinum respectively had become too vague and
general. As to the 'particular history' of the words for Wine, the
body of this work contains scores of illustrations of the fact, that in
Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Latin, and English, the
words for wine, in all these languages, are originally, and always
inclusively, applied to ' the blood of the grape ' in its primitive and
natural condition, — as well subsequently, as to that juice both boiled
and fermented. It is true that one or two jpw&tt-scientific writers,
such as Pliny in ancient times (A. D. 60), and Neumann in later
(1740), have endeavored to override the popular use of the word
'wine,' and to fabricate a technical definition of it. The attempt,
however, has not only been a total failure in itself, but it may be
alleged that, had it been ever so successful, it could not in the
slightest degree have affected the past historical use of the word in
the Bible, or in dead languages and obsolete idioms. Neither Pliny
nor Neumann, however, are consistent; for both concede that,
notwithstanding their closet definitions, unfcrmented preparations

* Hear the language of LIEBIG: — " Vegetable juices in general become turbid
when in contact -with the air, BEFORE FERMENTATION COMMENCES." {Chemistry
*f Agriculture, 3d Ed.) Thus, it appears, foam or turbidness (what the Hebrews
called khemer, and applied to the foaming 'blood of the grape') is no proof of
alcohol being present.

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxi

were "reckoned, not only among wines (n'/ta), but among sweets
(dulda) also ;" and that " several of the Italian wines of this sort are
called 77-w-cotto, or boiled wine." The objection, however, is alto-
gether impertinent for another reason — namely, that the Bible is not
a book of Science, dictated in technical and scholastic language, but
a BOOK OF LIFE, written for common and wayfaring persons, in the
language of daily life, of national history, of popular apologue, and
of glowing prophetic poetry. Its speech is the very antipodes of cut-
and-dried science; it is the speech of the people and the age, and can
only be correctly understood by being interpreted in the light of the
customs and facts by which both Instructors and Instructed —
prophets and people — were environed, and of the thoughts in which
they were alike immersed. On other topics the folly of this objection
can be seen plainly enough. Who, for example, cares for the Colenso
quibble, that, in order to generate a contradiction between Scripture
and Science, would force upon the Mosaic phrase applied to the
'hare' — chewing the cud (Lev. xi. 6) — the modern technical, anato-
mical definition ? Yet anti-Temperance critics, to serve their contro-
versial ends, harp upon the same discordant string.

In this connection we may note a kindred fallacy concerning 'the
proper use of terms.' The phrase is not felicitous. All terms, how-
ever applied, which convey the meaning of the writer to the person
addressed, are equally 'proper,' since to do that is the sole end of
speech. There may be degrees of clearness, certainly, but that is
all ; and this does not involve the question of the primary, secondary,
figurative, or poetical use of the word. The Bible, like any other
book, may have all these varied uses.

In the controversy on the Pentateuch, Dr Colenso asks his critic,
"With what pretense does Dr McCaul undertake to censure me as
being ignorant of Hebrew, for saying that the proper signification of
the word Sitccah is ' booths made of boughs and branches,' and that
when it is used of tents, etc., it is used improperly ? His language
would lead his readers to suppose that the word is used freely for all
kinds of habitations, lions' lairs, pavilions, tabernacles, etc. The real
fact is, that the word occurs twenty-three times in the sense of booth,
or inclosure made of boughs, five times metaphorically, and thrice only
for tents " (Notes, pp. 8, 9). A precisely parallel argument has been
formed as to yayin, with the view of narrowing its proper meaning to
intoxicating wine, — with this difference, that the alleged ' metaphorical '
uses are more numerous than the so-called ' proper ' ones ? But no
matter as to that : the point to be settled is, whether the element of
number of times a word is used can determine the proper sense of it
or not. Is it a fact to be settled by counting majorities? Now
Dr Kalisr.h, one of the 'authorities' quoted by the bishop on the
same page, distinctly goes against him, for he says, "The context
alone can decide whether that noun is used in its (narrow) original or
its wider sense." When it is said that the ark was in ' Succoth,' the
sense is clearly shown to be wider than ' booth ' or ' branch,' and this
has nothing to do with the number of times it is so used. The

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

original meaning of * candle-j/fcZ' ' is seen on the face of the phrase
itself; and when it was so used, for centuries, it properly meant * a
stick that holds a candle ' ; but now, for many ages, it has been used
in a wider sense, but still an equally proper sense, to signify * a candle-
holder,' whether the instrument be made of brass, pot, tin, silver,
gold, or wood. To assert that the Bible word ' golden-candlestick '
is a metaphorical term, would be the climax of silliness. On p. 15, how-
ever, Dr Colenso certainly corrects his critic, but virtually abandons
his other position. Dr McCaul had said that bechor meant ' firstborn '
of * both father and mother,' instead of * either,' leaving the meaning
a little ambiguous. Dr Colenso replies, " No doubt the word is
usually employed to express * firstborn son ' of the father ; but it
does not mean only this, but may be used when needed to express
either * firstborn ' of the mother, or * first-begotten ' of the father."
Both the critics here fall into a bog, for the word itself &QSS not, and
cannot, express anything about either father or mother. They are
importing the sense of the context into one of the terms ! Dr Kalisch,
immediately cited, puts the matter in the right light when he speaks of
" the generic appellation bechor. It occurs predominantly (i. e. oftenest)
in the sense (rather, application to) first-begotten of the father ; yet we
find 'firstborn of the handmaid' (Exod. xi. 5), 'firstborn which she
shall bear' (Deut. xxv. 6)." Surely no one will fancy that 'firstborn/
in these texts, is either ' metaphorical ' or ' improper,' because that
mode of use is in a minority. On the same page Dr Colenso again
corrects his critic, and confutes his own absurdity about * usual ' and
' proper use.' Dr McCaul having translated khaggim by ' periodical
feasts ' — thereby importing into the generic word a specific element, —
his opponent says, " Here, again, Dr McCaul is mistaken ; the
Hebrew word has no such RESTRICTED MEANING ; it expresses simply
* feast ' or ' festival ' ; and though it may of course be applied to either
of the three great feasts, it is used in Exod. x. 9 in the ordinary
sense before *$y periodical feast was instituted." This is very sound,
but then it has nothing to do with ' counting ' texts, nor with exclusive
meanings, nor with metaphors — but only with the context and the
nature of things gathered from it.* Let the same course be adopted
in regard to words for wine, and the bulk of critical defenses of
drinking will disperse into thinnest air.

The late Canon Stowell, in his sermon preached before the British
Association for the Promotion of Science, observes that " superficial
men create a seeming discord, and then find fault with God's work

* Curious to say, Dr Colenso is here arguing against 'the usual sense,' as he
calls it ; for khag is twice as often applied to sacred as to common feasts. Dean
Stanley, in Commentary on I Cor. xi. 21, has fallen into the same fallacy concerning
methnei. He says, " It need not be always taken of intoxication, but this is its
natural meaning in most passages." That a word for 'fulness' should have the
meaning of the effect of being full of one special kind of thing seems anything but
natural. Further, what has the meaning of ' most passages ' to do with its mean-
ing in a passage not included in the most ? When the word ' man ' is used in
Kaffirland, it is oftenest in connection with Kaffirs ; but does it, therefore, acquire
the ' natural meaning ' of ' black man ' ?

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxiii

instead of their own." This is particularly applicable to the question
under consideration, where the grossest absurdities have been adopted
as principles of interpretation. The initial and central fallacy is
this : — " The word wine is undeniably applied in the Bible to a drink
that intoxicated men : therefore the word always and necessarily
means intoxicating liquor"! We do not here enter into an elaborate
refutation of this absurd statement, but we must, in some measure,
remove it out of the way of the impartial consideration of the terms
for wine, awaiting inquiry; since the principle, if allowed, at once
begins and ends the whole matter. If there is but one kind of wine —
/. e. intoxicating, — criticism and argument are at an end, since the use
of wine of some sort is palpably sanctioned by God in the Bible, and
not merely permitted.* The fact that words are symbols of wide
and various application makes it chiefly the business of criticism to
ascertain what the sense or meaning is in particular passages. The
very word ' meaning ' refers to the idea which it is the medium of
reaching, and that is not always one object, or one quality, much less
one class of objects without specific differences. St Jerome, one of
the earliest of Christian critics, after explaining that bar, while it
signifies ' a son,' may also be used to designate « corn ' (barley), as
well as to denote 'pure,' adds, — "Wherein, then, have I erred, if I
have translated a term of ambiguous signification in two different
ways ? — showing my readers how variously a Hebrew word may be
translated." — ('Apologia adv. Ruff, tome i. col. 729.) The philoso-
pher Herschel, in his 'Discourse' (1830), says, "What is worst of
all, some, nay, most words have two or three meanings distinct from
each other, (so as) to make a proposition true in one sense and false
in another, or even false altogether" (p. 21). Alexander Carson, D.D.,
in his work on * Inspiration,' says, "A word may have two senses, or
more, in different situations, but not two senses in the same occur-
rence." Dr Davidson, in his « Text of the Old Testament ' (Ed. 1856,
p. 2 1 1 ), is even more explicit in contradicting the foolish canon of
the anti-Temperance critic : —

" The science of words has much uncertainty and vagueness, espe-
cially in relation to the languages of Scripture; for it must ever be
difficult to fix with precision a leading idea, abstract and complex as
it usually is. One might suppose that a Dictionary would render the
work very easy, inasmuch as it gives the signification of words.t But
all dictionaries are liable to error, and should be followed with dis-
crimination. Besides, they can only furnish the general signification,
whereas the Interpreter wants the precise sense, with its exact shade,
as determined by the particular position in which it stands."

Dr W. Freund, in his « Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache ' (1834),
gives an admirable illustration of the difference of context and etymo-

* "If we confound the sufferance of events with the Divine sanction of them,
i are guilty of teaching that God consecrates sin." — ( Dr Gumming: 'God in
istory,' p. 9. 1854.)
t Webster gives, for example, twenty-one meanings to the word 'spirit.'

XXIV PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

logy. " The substantive arena changes its sense in the four following
passages: — (i) Magnus congestus arenae, Liter. 6, 724; (2) Missum
in arenam aprum jaculis desuper petiit, Suet. Tibb. 72; (3) Vectio
Frisco, quantum plurimum potuero, pnestabo, prsesertim in arena
mea, hoc est, apud Centum veros, Plin. Ep. 6, 12, 2; (4) Quid
faces, CEnone? Quid arena semina mandas? Ovid. Her. 5, 115.
In the first passage it is actual sand ; in the second, the amphitheater ;
in the third, the sphere of one's calling ; in the fourth, a proverbial
expression for something unfruitful" — /. e. something in that respect
like sand. But it is evident, that while a lexicon-maker may arrange
these words in a certain order of mental relationship — as (i) literal
sand; (2) the sanded place of contest; (3) any place of contest or
activity ; (4) what is barren as sand — may give what four names he
pleases to the words — metonymy, trope, etc., — yet that will make
no difference as to the plain meaning and intention of the speaker in
' using ' these words. The mode in which they are formed does not
affect their ' meaning ' or use. When Bland, translating the lines of
Ibycus concerning oinanthides and oinareois, says, —

* And new-born clusters teem with wine
Beneath the shadowy foliage of the vine,'

the idea which ' wine ' conveys is as certainly that of ' grape-juice *
as if it had been expressed by that phrase. It is used ' proverbially/
and hence comes in the principle laid down by Freund, — "The
word arena, in the proverbial phrase — arena seminar* mandere,
'commit seed to the sand' — must always mean 'sand'; but in the
words of Vectio Frisco — -prcestabo in arena mea — cannot mean * in my
sand.' It must remain an indifferent thing for the judgment, what
verdict the lexicon gives on the word, so long as the whole thought,
through its application to something not of the nature of husbandry,
has deviated from the literal [or original] sense."

The power of the context operates in various ways to modify the
sense of a passage, or to limit the application of particular words.
The nature of the subject is part of the context. * Drink of the cup '
must be modified, by the nature of the case, into either ' Drink out
of the cup the liquor in it] or Cup must be understood as a ' figure '
for its contents ; as ' the sword ' or instrument is put for ' war ' itself.
But under the nature of the subject is really comprehended the
purpose of the writer or speaker — the special end he has in view in
his utterance, — and we cannot be justified in stretching his language
beyond that point as determined by all the circumstances. The phrase
occurring in i Cor. x., relative to meats offered to idols, supplies a
clear example: — 'Whatsoever is sold in the shambles, eat"* (ver. 25).
It would evidence mental disorder were this to be given as a literal
command to one's housekeeper in the purchase of beef or mutton in
the market. People are not to buy inferior or bad meat, still less are
they to consume what is unwholesome, or may disagree with them.
When the apostle adds, 'Asking no questions on account of conscience?
a limitation is put upon the command; since the purpose of the

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXV

instruction is opened out, — and that purpose does not concern the
qualities of physical things, and the consequent rules that regulate
their use or disuse, but the quality or state of the mind. To transfer
the text from the moral to the material sphere is plainly to pervert it.

We now proceed to give a summary exposition of the chief Hebrew
terms concerned in this inquiry, based upon a careful induction and
comparison of Text, Context, and Circumstance, allowing but a
secondary weight to the remote, vague, and uncertain element of
etymology.

i. ?"n, YAYIX, 'wine,' occurs 141 times in the Bible. Various

derivations have been sought for it, likely and unlikely. Some
lexicon-makers have referred it to an obsolete root signifying

* boiling,' and hence ' fermenting ' ; others to a kindred Arabic word,
yavan, in the sense of molle, ' soft ' ; others to yaven, ' mire,' « dirt,'
' obscurity ' ; others to another Arabic form of the word, denoting
'dullness.' As Dindorf, however, says, yavan and the kindred
Arabic denote ' boiling,' ' foaming,' ' spuming,' — and hence the
derivative yayin would fitly apply to the fresh-expressed and « foam-
ing ' blood of the grape. This is confirmed by the Chaldee term for
wine, khamar, being undoubtedly derived from khemer, ' froth' or

* foam,' which is applied equally to the froth of the sea, to boiling
bitumen, and to red fluids. It is certain that many vegetable juices
become red by boiling, as wine does by fermenting. The Penny Cyclo-
pcedia (Art. 'Wine') observes, "Vegetable juices in general become
turbid when in contact with air before fermentation commences."
New names, when first imposed, are always expressive of some simple.
and obvious appearance, never of latent properties or scientific re-
lations ; and hence, while the ' foaming ' appearance of grape-juice
accounts for the original application of the term yayin to it, it would
be absurd to suppose that the idea of * fermentation,' the nature of
which has only been understood during the last century as a
scientific process, formed any part of the original connotation of
the word. The Jewish Rabbins, in fact, were so ignorant on this
point, that they held a foolish theory to the effect that ' grape-juice
did not ferment' in the same sense as bread, whereas, in fact, the
principle and process, and the agents and materials concerned, are
identical. A word, however, like yayin, originally applied to foaming
grape-juice, would gradually become significant of the juice in the
subsequent conditions in which it was found, and, by a kind of
mental retrospection, to the wine confined in the grape. In Neh.
v. 1 8 we have the phrase 'all sorts of wine.' As a generic term.
therefore, wy/fl became applicable to wine of four species: —

(a) It is used sometimes in the sense of the vimun pendens of
the Latins. As Cato speaks of the ' hanging-wine ' (De Re Rustica.
cxlvii.), so Deut. xxviii. 39 refers to yayin as a thing to be gathered
by men or eaten by worms. In Isa. xvi. 10 and Jer. xlviii.
it is used for the grapes to be trodden in the vat (see Gesenius

XXVI PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

under "|H "}"!)• In Psa- c^v- I5 > Jer- x^- I0> I2> possibly in Isa. Iv. i ;

probably in Deut. xiv. 26, it is applied to * the grape in the cluster.'
The Rabbins have a similar use of the word. Baal Hatturim, in
Deut. xvi. ii, says, "At Pentecost, when corn is reaped, and wine is
now in the grapes." In wine countries, the common language
applied to the growing grapes is, * the wine-blooms.1 The grape-cure
is called the ' wein cur.' In Spain they say, una buena cosccha de
vino, 'a good gathering of wine.' — (Father Connelly's Diccionario
Nuevo, Madrid, 1798.) A traveler in the Pyrenees says, "Flocks of
sheep and goats enliven the hills ; corn and wine, flax and oil, hang on
the slopes." — (Collin's Voyages, 1796, p. 82.)

(b) Yayin as used very frequently for the ' foaming blood of the
grape' was, as we have said, probably applied to the expressed
juice because of its turbid appearance. Perhaps the claret-grape,
which has red juice, suggested the metaphor, " He washed his
garments in yayin, his clothes in the blood-of-grapes." (Compare
Gen. xlix. 12 with Isa. Ixiii. i — 3.) In Job xxxii. 19 the word
is applied to the must-wine, translated by the Septuagint gleukos.
Cant. v. i (compared with vii. 9) refers to a sweet, innocent yayin,
which might be drunk ' abundantly ' by young women. A peculiar
use of the corresponding Chaldee term, khamar, is occasionally found
in the Targums. ' Wine reserved in its grapes ' (Targum on Cant,
viii. 2). On Cant. i. 14 we fall back on the other sense: 'They
took clusters of grapes and pressed wine out of them.'

(c) In Prov. ix. 2, 5, yayin seems to point to a boiled-wine, or
syrup, the thickness of which made it needful to mingle water with
it before drinking: while, unmixed with fluid, it was probably con-
sumed with milk (Isa. Iv. i; compare vii. 22; Ezek. xxvii. 17).
" To the honey of raisins," says Baron Bode, " the Persians give
the name of shire" According to D'Herbelot (1680), the words
sirop, sherbet, etc., came from the Arabic shir-ab ['sweet water '],
applied to any kind of drink in general. — (Bibliothcque Orientale :
Art. Sirop.) In the East, sherab to this day includes 'ail sorts of
wine,' sherab-jee signifying * wine-seller' ; but the sense of sirop with
us undeniably proves the existence of a syrup-wine formerly. The
Mishna (Terumoth, xi.) shows that, anciently, wine so preserved was
used in the offerings. " Wine (yayin) of the heave-offering must not be
boiled, because it lessens it." Bartenora, in a note, says, " For people
drink less of it," which is true, since boiling renders it richer
and more cloying. The Mishna adds, " Rabbi Yehuda permits it,
because it improves it." Such a wine Wisdom prepares, and, on
the day of her feast, is aptly represented as mingling with water for
her guests.

(d ) There was also the yayin mixed with drugs, of various sorts :
the ' mixed-wine ' of the sensualist, spiced and inebriating ; a cup of
still stronger ingredients, used as the emblem of Divine judgments,
the 'cup of malediction' (Psa. Ixxv. 8) ; the 'turbid-wine,' full of
poison. As Dindorf (Lexicon et Comment., 1804) says, " Yayin khamar,
vinum fermentescit — calici vino turbido et venenato pleno, a cup full

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxvii

of wine, thick, foaming, and poisonous." Of Deut. xxxii. 33 he
says, "Khamath taana'un yaynahm, this wine is the poison of dragons
— venenum draconum ; sermo quo delectantur est noxious, pessimus."

(e) Yayin was also applied to every species of fermented grape-
juice. The characters of fermentation are well marked in Prov.
xxiii. 31, where it is described as 'red' and 'sparkling,' in which
condition we are forbidden even to look upon it with desire. Not
in one-half of the 141 texts, however, can it be shown that such
wine is the kind to which the word is applied, by anything in
the context. Yayin, then, being accepted as a general term, it
would follow that we should expect, as time went on, that specific
terms would be adopted to designate special kinds or states of
wine, and this is exactly what we find to be the case in the later
books.

2. Q^D?, a/isis, occurs in five texts, — Cant. viii. 2; Isa. xlix. 26;

Joel i. 5; iii. (Heb. iv.) 18; Amos ix. 13. The word is plainly con-
nected with a/isas, * to tread,' and denotes ' something trodden out.'
It is grape-juice purely; and never seems to have acquired the
ambiguous meaning of the Greek gleukos and the Latin mustum,
which were undoubtedly sometimes applied to the juice of grapes
in an initial state of fermentation. Joel iii. 18, 'the mountains
shall drop down new wine ' (a/isis), is not all a figure. Pallas says, in
1793, of the grapes in the Hungarian vintage, "In August they
ripen, burst, and begin to evacuate their juice. The Shirnoi contains
a rich juice, and bursts when ripe" — (Travels, i. p. 314.) Professor
Douglas rightly says that " the passage, ' they shall be drunken with
their own blood as with sweet-wine,' is no proof that must, which
is unintoxicating, cannot here be meant ; for neither is blood intoxi-
cating: but all the meaning that the verb conveys is, to drink till
one is satiated or cloyed. 'Ahris of the Pomegranate ' is an evidence
that the word was sometimes used in that width of meaning which
the etymology sanctioned." — (Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary,
p. 1097. Glasgow, 1866.)

or sobhe, from sabha, ' to drink to satiation,' occurs

but thrice. It is chiefly interesting as affording a link of connection
between classical wines and those of Judea, through an obviously
common name, being identical with the Greek hepsema, the Latin
sapa, and the modern Italian and French sabe, ' boiled grape-juice.'
The inspissated wines called defmtum and syrceum were, according
to Pliny (xiv. 9), a species of it : the last name singularly suggests
the instrument in which it was prepared — the syr or caldron
(Nahum i. 10). "The property of organic substances," says Liebig,
" to pass into a state of decay, is annihilated in all cases by heating
to the boiling-point." Columella tells us of the kind of degeneration
to which such preparations were subject. " Defrutum, however
carefully made, is liable to grow acid" (xii. 20). To this corre-
sponds the statement of Hos. iv. 8 — 'Their sove is sour' Such

xxviii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

preparations are made in great quantities in the East, in Calabria,
and in the south of France, to this day. (See Works of Dr Lees, ii.
p. 144.)

4. HDrj' khamar, is the Chaldee equivalent of the Hebrew yayin,

and occurs only in Ezra and Daniel. Its derivation is from the
Hebrew khemer (see Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Psa. Ixxv. 8), which may be
translated foaming, or turbid, or as we say in English, * yesty,' barmy,
scummy. It has, therefore, a very wide application, and its meaning
comprehends ' all sorts of wine,' without shutting us up to any in par-
ticular.

5. VDH' khometz, is simply ' sour-wine/ vinegar, ' sick-wine,' wine

* gone ' sour. It was, no doubt, chiefly applied to the thin sour drink
made from the last pressure of the grapes, with water added, and was,
like the Roman posca, something halfway between ginger-beer and
French vin-ordinaire. In the East, the term koumiss is applied to fer-
mented, sour mare's or camel-milk. The word had a somewhat broad
application to sour and fermented things.

6- £n*l"in> tirosh) is not 'wine' at all, but 'the fruit of the vine-
yard ' in its natural condition. The vine says, ' Shall I leave my
tirosh ? ' * They shall tread tirosh, but shall not drink yayin! Nothing
but a foregone conclusion, fostered by the mistranslation of ancient
and modern versions — versions which traditionally sustain and deceive
each other — could have hindered scholars from perceiving the true
sense of this word. Neither Versions nor Lexicons, however, have
been consistent. The Septuagint, the Chaldee Targums, the Syriac,
Arabic, Vulgate, etc., have, in one text or another, rendered the word
as ' berry,' * vines,' ' vintage,' 'fruit,' 'grapes,' etc. On Micah vi. 15,
Julius Bate, M. A., in his ' Critica Hebraea,' 1767, observes, "Hence
it is plain that tirosh is what is pressed, the grapes." Gesenius, in
three texts, renders it ' grapes,' and so others.

Tirosh is perhaps correctly derived from yarash, ' to possess, to
inherit,' just as Hierusalem is from yerash and salem = ' possession of
peace.' Drusius, in 1617, commenting on Gen. xxvii. 28, observes
that " the idea of ' possession ' is implied in tirosh, because amongst
those things which a man possessed by inheritance, vintage-produce was
the chief, and received this name by way of distinction."*

* The note in Kitto's 'Pictorial Bible' (Ed. 1847), objecting to our derivation,
alleges that "the grape could not be more important to the Jews than the goose-
berry to us " ! and further, that it is "unlikely that the solid products of the vine
should be so conspicuously placed beside corn " ! ! If the reader will peruse three
texts, selected at intervals, he will perceive how very far vinous prejudice will lead
critics to ignore the plainest facts. Numb. xvi. 14, " Given us inheritance of fields
and vineyards." Lev. xxvi. 4, 5, " The land shall yield its produce [o?r»], the
trees give their /ru it. Your threshing [of corn] shall reach unto your vintage"
Isa. xvi. 9, "Joy is taken out of the plentiful field; in the vineyards there shall be
no shouting." In Micah vi. 15, sowing seed of corn, and treading olives and grapes,
all occur together, side by side. What is the present condition of things in Bible
lands ? The Rev. Smylie Robson, missionary at Damascus, thus writes, after
noticing corn and olives : — "The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXIX

Those who give to the word the meaning of mustum, grape-juice,
and then add, by way of explanation, that it is " a strong wine which
gets possession of a man's head, and drives him out of himself," not
only invent a fiction and contradict demonstrable facts, but contra-
vene the clear context of every passage wherein the word occurs,
which in no instance whatever is connected with inebriety. Out of
thirty-eight texts in which tirosh is found, in thirty it is associated
with corn (not bread), in one (Micah vi. 15) with otives, in twenty-one
with ortJtard-frMit, and in twenty with both corn and fruit. It is
never once connected with shemen, ' oil,' though Smith's ' Bible
Dictionary ' erroneously states the contrary ; it is only thrice found in
the company of ' wine,' and then by way of distinction, as a different
thing ; and it is constantly associated with * dew,' * rain,' ' dryness/
and other conditions affecting natural « growth.' Within the compass
of philology there is hardly any word which, by the conjoint evidence
of etymology, context, and circumstance, is more clearly shown to be
a collective term expressive of a class of natural produce. The notion
that tirosh signifies the same as a/isis, or the alternative supposition,
that this latter should have been invented when the former was in
constant use for the same idea, is simply incredible.

That p"|, dahgan, denotes growing « corn ' in general, and not

some species of grain, as * wheat ' or « barley,' has never been ques-
tioned. That it denotes an artificial preparation like 'bread' or
1 cake ' has never been imagined. Yet this term is found in per-
petual association, under common natural conditions favoring or
opposing growth and increase, with tirosh. "")!""i^>n> yitzhar, is a
second term, twenty-one times used in connection with tirosh. It is
derived, as Dindorf, Gesenius, and others admit, from a root signifying
to ' shine,' ' glisten,' like the Spanish term azahar, ' orange-flower,'
and the Latin aitrantium, for the shining orange class of fruits. The
oliveyards also shine and glisten in the sun ; hence we have suggested
4 olive-and-orchard-h\i\\. ' as the English equivalent otyitzhar, completing
a beautiful triad of natural blessings — (i) Gvy/-fruit, (2) Vine-fr\i\t (3)
Orchard-fain ; or, in other words, the produce of field, vineyard, and
orchard. Agreeing with Professor Douglas, that " a common deriva-
tion of tirosh from the verb to * take possession,' because it intoxicates,
is too arbitrary to deserve serious refutation " (* Imperial Bible
Dictionary,' p. 1097), we accept the sense of 'vine-fruit' as that
demonstrated by induction, and giving a meaning which at once fits
every context and honors the Divine word. (For further evidence,
see « Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii.)

be said to form a substantial part of the food of the people. . . . From August
to December, bread and grapes are, substantially, the food of the people. . . .
It is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Grapes are dried in large
quantities. There is another form in which the fruit of the vine is preserved for
use. By pickling and beating, a substance called dibs \_debhash, artificial honey-
cake] is made out of the grapes. . . . It is only ignorance which would pare
away and attenuate scriptural expressions." — Missionary Herald of the Presby-
terian Church in Ireland, 1845. See this testimony more at length on page 93 of
the Notes.

XXX PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

7- *3T)\yeqev (Arab. 'UKEB, cavum esse), originally a ' cavity/ ' coop,

or vat in which grapes or olives were put for the purpose of being
trodden ; but perhaps, secondarily, by becoming generic for the whole
apparatus (tota macJdna], the lacus or cavity into which the wine and
oil flowed (in quern VINUM expressum deflui?}. So Dindorf, who cites
Hesychius — LEENOS hopou staphulee pateitai. Gesenius also accepts
the double sense of yeqev. J. D. Paxton, the American, says of
Bhadoom, " Several [fruit] houses seem to be common property,
where they express the juice of the grape. They have a row of large
vats, into which the grapes are thrown ; and beside these some stone
troughs, into which the juice flows. Men get into the vats, and tread
the grapes. . . . They take the juice from the troughs and put
it into large boilers, reduce it to one-half" (Travels, p. 215). Capt.
Colville Frankland says of Solima, "The grapes are trodden out
upon a kind of stone platform ; the juice, running off through a little
channel, is received in a basin cut in the rock, from whence it is carried
in buckets to the boiler, where it is skimmed, and allowed to cool. It
is boiled and cooled twice, and then put into great earthen jars, and
becomes a rich syrup" (Travels, ii. p. 10, 1827). Prof. Murphy of
Belfast, in order to prove the liquidity of tirosh, has narrowed the
sense of yeqev to that of the ' must-lake,' or hypoleenos, but without any
reason or even good authority. It occurs sixteen times, and in most
of the texts is more appropriately referred to the upper than the under
vat. In Numb, xviii. 27, 30; Deut. xv. 14; xvi. 13; 2 Kings vi. 27;
Hos. ix. 2, it is associated with ' corn ' and the ' threshing-floor.' In
Job xxiv. ii it is plainly the place of treading shriveled grapes that
yield no wine to quench thirst. In Isa. v. 2 it is used for the whole
of the apparatus, not for part of it — much less for the last part to the
exclusion of the first! In Isa. xvi. 10, to avoid giving to lyayin* its
natural contextual sense of grape, the translators are compelled to
insert 'out' and '/«/<?'! In Jer. xlviii. 33 there is no need to under-
stand liquid ' wine,' but ' gathered- wine,' of which the prophet speaks
in chap. xl. In Hos. ix. 2 it is associated with ' feeding.' In Joel
iii. 13 it is conjoined as a general term with ^J, gath, probably this
having reference to the oil (shemen = Gethsemene), and yeqev to
grape-fruit, which, in its abundance, is awaiting the 'treading.' In
Hag. ii. 1 6 it is associated with fiTC' poorah, and with 'heaps' of
corn and fruit. " When one came to the yeqev to take fifty (clusters),
the poorah, ( THE FRUIT-HOUSE,' had but twenty." A more baseless
assumption than that yeqev signifies either often or solely the wine-
trough, was never made in support of another baseless assumption —
viz., that tirosh was the liquid trodden out, and not the fruit * trodden.'
8. Tjnrs, mesek, ' a mixture,' is of course applicable to many mix-

tures; of wine with water, or with aromatics, or with drugs. The
verb is used in Prov. ix. 2, where ' Wisdom mingles her wine,' doubt-
less with water ; certainly not making that ' mixed-wine ' in relation to
which she pronounces * woe ' to those that ' seek ' it. In Cant. viii. 2
we find the kindred term mezeg, translated ' liquor ' ; and in Prov. xxiii.

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXI

30; Isa. Ixv. ii, we have mcmsach, respectively rendered ( mixture'
and (inferentially) ' drink-offering.'

9- riuT£'K> ashishah, perhaps from a root signifying 'fire,' denotes

a cake of dried grapes. " By universal consent," says Prof. Douglas,
" it is now understood to be some kind of cake, probably a cake of
dried fruit." It occurs in 2 Sam. vi. 19; i Chron. xvi. 3; Cant. i. 5;
Hos. iii. i ; and is unfortunately rendered ' flagons ' and ' flagons of
wine.'

10. i[^"")C&'» shcmanm, 'preserves,' from shamar, 'to preserve,' — as

sheminim, 'fat things,' from shemcn, 'fat' or oil. Our oldest trans-
lators rendered it better than the modern. Coverdale renders ' sweet
things'; the Bishop's Bible (1568), 'delicate things'; Forerius and
Grotius, ' a feast of vine-fruit ' (yindemid}. Preserves form an essential
part of Oriental feasts : ' They eat the fat (shemen) and drink the
sweet* (Neh. viii. 10).

11. ""Q£% shakar, 'saccharine drink,' is related to the word for

sugar in all the Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages, and is still
applied throughout the East, from India to Abyssinia, to the palm
sap, the zhaggcry made from it, to the date-juice and syrup, as well as
to sugar and ^o the fermented Palm wine. It has, by usage, grown
into a genericTerm for ' drinks,' including fresh juices and inebriating
liquors, other than those coming from the grape. [See ' Works ' of
Dr Lees, ii. 1853, Art. 'Strong drink,' Art. 'Wine,' etc., for abundant
illustrations, and for refutation of Fuerst's derivation.] Mr Palgrave,in
his * Arabia,' says, having bought for three farthings a handkerchief
full of ' delicious ' dates, " we hung it up from the roof-beam to pre-
serve the luscious fruit from the ants, and it continued to drop molten
sweetness into a sugary pool on the floor for three days together " (i.
p. 253). Such a beverage was rightly called shakar, and naturally and
necessarily produced that satisfaction and cloying fullness which is
well expressed by the cognate verb, and which has its parallel in
the history of the corresponding Greek words, mcthucin from methu,
* sweet wine,' ' mead,' etc.* The force of the prophet's words may be
understood from considering this, the etymological and primary sense
of shakar : —

'The sicftt dtink shall become bitter to them that drink it.'

II. Our second proposition assumes a more positive form — viz.,

that the Bible teaches, clearly and fully, by a series of continuous

and consistent testimonies, that intoxicating drink is an evil article ;

poisonous to the body, seductive to the soul, and corrupting to the

* The views taken of these words were generally adopted in Dr Eadie's Bible
Cyflo/xtdia, especially as to tirosh and yitzhar, and the generic sense of shakar
and yayin. They were all incorporated in Kitto's Cvclopitdia of Biblical Litfratnre
(1845), the first Edition, the only one truly called Kitto's; and they have been
entirely adopted and admirably sustained in Bastow's Bible Dictionary, and in
Dr Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary (1866).

XXX11 PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

circumstances of man : or, to put the idea in another shape, we hold
that the Bible vindicates its claim to Inspiration by having anticipated
on this point the fullest witness of Science, and having exhausted the
teachings of human History.

And here will naturally start up, in defense of palatable Error, all
the hydra forms of prejudice and convention ; for it is very hard for
the fleshly lusts and fashions of the world to bow before even Divine
truth. Yet — appealing to a World that at least ' professes ' to believe
in the fact that God has spoken in His word — why should our
proposition startle and convulse it ? What other branch of practical
morals is there on which it is more needful that God should have
instructed mankind, by precept, by warning, and by example ? Why,
then, are the people and the preachers so loth to receive the teach-
ings, or so bitter in their condemnation of the proposition itself, — so
ingenious in the invention of objections, yet withal so illogical in
their criticism and so intolerant of inquiry ? Dr Steudel, in his essay
on 'Inspiration,' puts a serious question: — "To appropriate the
Spirit, I must renounce my own inclinations, and give a real consent
to all the Word presents as true. Why refuse homage to just that
part of the Divine wisdom to which our own depravity cares not to
consent ? "

It is not enough, then, that we have ' the Scriptures to search ' ; we
must come to the search in a proper moral attitude. We must come>
not for confirmation of opinion, which is pride, but for purity of life,
which is true profit. Our aim must be both Truth and Good. It
may be asked here, therefore, without offense, whether he who seeks
to justify the use of alcoholic beverages by the Scripture, is not very
liable to a sensuous bias in his interpretation ? If God's works and
law — manifested in experience and science — cannot justify drinking,
is it not very wrong to rush to His Word ? May not the wish be
father to the thought? The objector is not merely defending his
own practices, and pleading for his own appetites; he is, even more
than the Abstainer, liable to the bias of Opinion. The difference is
this, that the drinker's opinion is an old and inherited one, sanctioned
by a life-time of custom ; ours, a newly acquired belief, the result of
inquiry and experience. Let us, then, in coming to this investigation,
strive honestly to desire to know the Divine will, and implore the
aid and purifying influence of ' the Spirit of Truth.' Let us seek
to place ourselves before the Word, so that its declarations may be
photographed upon the soul. In the language of Bishop Ellicott,
in ' Aids to Faith,' " Pray against that bias which, by importing its
own foregone conclusions into the Word of Scripture, and by refusing to
see, or to acknowledge, what makes against its own prejudices, has
proved the greatest known hindrance to all fair interpretation; and
has tended, more than anything else in the world, to check the free
course of Divine truth" (p. 421). Nothing has surprised us more, on
the part of professed Christians, than their reluctance to receive any
principle which would harmonize Science and Scripture on this subject,
and their extreme anxiety not to ascertain what appears to us the

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxiii

plain meaning of Scripture, but to discover some critical process
whereby it may be evaded.

Passing, however, from general prejudices, moral and intellectual,
let us enumerate and expose a few of the commonest, but most
operative, false assumptions and delusive principles of interpretation.

i. "The Church," says the Objector, "is against the Abstinence
theory. It has known all about the Scriptures, and it has universally
supposed that intoxicating wine is good, in moderation. That
abstainers should have found a new light is incredible. We cannot
suppose so many doctors of the Church, and such myriads of pious
Christians, to have been in error or sin."

In this series of assumptions, each particular is deceptive. There
always have been abstainers in the Christian Church, and we profess
to have found no new light, but to be illuminated by the old, old
lamp. Two questions are involved in this objection: (i) Is the
Bible an exhausted book? (2) Has the professmg Church ever erred
in its dogmas and practices ? To put the questions is to answer them,
but we will do more.

On the first point, there is a consensus of opinion, whatever that
may be worth. The Roman Catholic Church expressly claims the
power to decide on controverted points of Biblical Theology, and has
so decided recently on the Immaculate Conception. Amongst Theo-
logians of the English and Genevan Churches, and the Dissenting
bodies, take the following : —

ROBINSON, in Address to the Pilgrim Fathers, says — "If God reveal anything
to you by any other instrument of His, be as ready to receive it as ever you were
to receive any truth by my ministry; for I am verily persuaded — I am very confi-
dent— THE LORD HATH MORE TRUTH YET TO BREAK FORTH OUT OF 'iHtS

HOLY WORD."

The Hon. ROBERT BOYLE (1680) says: — "As the Bible was not wri.ttc:
any one particular time or people, ... so there are many passages very useful,
which will not be found so these many ages; being possibly reserved by the
phetic Spirit that indited them ... to quell some foreseen heresy, . .
resolve some yet unformed doubts, or confound some error that hath mot yet a
name."

BISHOP BUTLER, in his Analogy (1737), says: — "Nor is it at all .uicrcilihlc,
that a Book which has been so lo-.ig in the possession of mankind, shttinu yeT con-
tain many truths as yet undiscovered. For all the same phenomena 'and!'tJie> ' SAINC
faculties of investigation from which such great discoveries in nctfarnl -kwPWtedge
have been made in the present and last ace, were equally in the p<i>>se».siou uf upap-
kind several thousand years before. And possibly it might 'be ijn tended that
EVENTS, as they come to pass, should open and ascertain the'MttanWJfw Several
parts of Scripture."

The Interpreter (1862) says: — "A day is coming, when Scrtytuire, Ib

by traditional teaching, too frequently treated as an exatuteMne^i^t ^g^h
be recognized in its true character, as a field rich in H««#/^w'weaTti). and conse-
quently be searched afresh for its hidden treasures."

VINET, in his Lectures, says: — "Even now, after eighteen centuries of Chris-
tianity, we may be involved in some tremendous error, .fcfriwbich 'the- Christianity
of the future will make us ashamed."

DEAN STANLEY says :— " Each age of the Church has; ;<ik -it/wdife,. frirn«d:oTer a
new leaf in the Bible, and found a response to its owjf'waa|si Wefhovea leaf still
to turn — a leaf not the less new because it is so simple."

XXXIV PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

On the second point — that of Authority — take the following : —

The Church Article, XXL, on General Councils, says : — " They
may err, and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining to
God." While Art. XX., on Church Authority, says: — "It is not
lawful for the Church to ordain anything that is contrary to God's
word written ; neither may it so expound one place of Scripture that
it be repugnant to another." If, for example, the Church were to
decree that 'a wife of whoredom' (Hos. i. 2) was the same sort of
woman as 'the prudent wife from the Lord' (Prov. xix. 14), it would
"so expound one place of Scripture that it be repugnant to another;"
but how could it be more repugnant than to explain that 'the cup of
blessing ' contained that sort of wine which is a ' mocker,' a ' deceiver,'
a 'poison,' and which 'biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an
adder'? Dr Edward Williams, in his 'Equity and Sovereignty,'
observes that " the greatest of uninspired men have sometimes
deviated from the narrow path of truth, and all are liable to deviate,
through the remains of prejudice, and the want of closer search under
the teachings of celestial wisdom" (p. 397). Professor S. Lee, in his
' Hebrew Grammar,' points out that, " under the synthetical method
— /. e. the mere propounding of certain rules, which might be true
or false, and which in cases innumerable were not true — most men
eventually discover that they can pronounce with certainty on
scarcely anything connected with the letter of the Hebrew Bible.
The only foundation that can safely be relied on is, that of the
nature of things, considered in conjunction with real Oriental usage."
Bishop Ellicott, in 'Aids to Faith,' has an admission even more to
the purpose: — "Experience teaches us that there is a very large
residuum of less important passages in which interpreters break up
into groups, and in which the Expositor of the nineteenth century has
to yield to the guidance of principles perhaps but recently > recognized, yet
from their justice and truth, of an influence and authority that cannot
be gainsaid. There are, indeed, even a few cases, but confessedly
unimportant, where the modern interpreter has to oppose himself to
every early version and every patristic commentator, and where it is
almost certain he is right in so doing" (p. 390).

2. "When the word is the same, the thing is the same; if, there-
fore, 'wine' means intoxicating-wa& in the cases of Noah and Lot, it
must mean the same when used by David in the Psalms, and by the
Evangelist in the Gospel narrative of the changing of water into wine."*

Certainly not, we answer. Any lexicon or dictionary in any
language will refute the assumption in almost any page. See under
such words as Creation, Spirit, House, Angel, Gun, etc. Not, as we
have shown, that words have so many different meanings, but so
many different applications. Take a familiar Bible word — Ruakh,

* Singular to say, in the first learned sermon ever preached and printed against
abstinence, this was the argument ; and it is the staple of all others to this day.
The Rev. W. H. Medhurst, on January 3Oth, 1838, said: — "As Noah and others
got drunk with _jvy/« (wine), yayin MUST, in every text, mean a fermented liquor."
No advance has been made upon the logic and criticism of this position.

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXV

4 spirit,' in three texts: (i) "God made a ruakh to pass over the
earth;" (2) "Pharaoh's ruakh was troubled in the morning;" (3)
** A ruakh came forth and stood before the king " — Ahab. Here
one word is suggestive of three distinct things and ideas; and the
word has several other applications. As regards a general term, the
context only can show to what it is applied, and so suggest the
species intended. Wine, for example, is 'the juice of grapes' —
quite irrespective of the change that comes over it in fermentation;
just as the word 'doctor' means, in common usage, *a learned man,'
quite irrespective of his special diploma as physician, surgeon,
apothecary, or divine. As with the words 'man,' 'doctor,' 'spirit,'
'wife,' so with wine; it is not the word itself, but the context that
defines (if at all) what sort of man, doctor, spirit, wife, or wine it is
— good, bad, or indifferent. Theologians, writing against Colenso,
at once become sensible on this point, though they go back to the
false position as soon as the ' wine-bottle ' comes on to the board.
Professor J. L. Porter, of Belfast, thus expounds the fact and law : —
" The Hebrew word baith does not necessarily signify a ' house ' [as
in Beth-lekhem, the house of bread]. In Gen. xxvii. 15; Exod. xxiii.
19; i Kings xxiii. 7, etc., it means a 'tent.' At the present day the
IJjdawy Arab uniformly calls his 'tent' belt — i.e. a 'house,' — though
the proper Arabic word for ' tent ' is kheimeh [home] ; and he speaks
of the 'door' of his 'house,'" — which, with all due respect to Dr
Porter, shows that beit is also as correct a term for tent as any other.
This notion of 'proper use' is a crotchet of scholars, traditionally
adopted and repeated. 'Prevent' was as proper when used for
4 helping ' as it is now when used for ' hindering.'

It is not generally difficult to see the truth on questions when the
purse and the passions are not concerned. For example, the English
Church organ called the Record, for January Qth, 1861, had a long
review of Dr Cheever's book on 'The Guilt of Slavery,' which, on
that topic, argues on precisely the same principles that we have
applied, for thirty years, to the drink question. The Record thus
welcomes Dr Cheever's endeavor : —

" We have had occasion to observe the tendency among Biblical
commentators to traditional interpretation of Scripture. In the
present instance the result has been to obscure altogether, and, in fact,
to reverse the teaching of the Book. We must look behind the word
to see the nature of the thing. There is no word for ' slave ' to be
found in the whole Bible, either Hebrew or Greek, paradoxical as
this statement may appear to most of our readers; no word which
means, distinctively and only, what we mean by ' slave.' The Hebrew
word (obedh) includes service of every kind; and the condition of
service cannot be learned from the word itself."

In like manner, the Hebrew generic word for wine (yayin) includes
grape-juice in many states, and the special quality cannot be learned
from the word itself. There is no word for fermented wine in the
Bible, no word meaning only that; much less is there such a word
associated with God's approval, implicit or explicit. It is enough for

XXXVI PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

us that in no case where wine is named as a blessing does anything
occur in the context indicating alcoholic, quality, but in very many
cases the reverse; while, on the contrary, it is beyond denial that
Divine displeasure is very frequently associated with intoxicating
drink.

3. u~B\it good men used intoxicating wine, for they got drunk; there-
fore this is equivalent to God's sanctioning it"

This dogma is refuted by the stating of it. It would equally justify
polygamy and slavery, for both were permitted; nay even laws were
made, not to abolish, but to regulate them. Not only does this
criticism prove too much; we have the highest authority for rejecting
its principle, since He who spake as never man spake has declared
that the lust was suffered, not because it was good, but " because of
the hardness of the heart." The Divine light comes to men by dis-
creet degrees, as their mental vision is somewhat prepared for it — a
truth that refutes the next and kindred fallacy.

4. "What is not entirely prohibited is partially sanctioned"
According to this, the harmony of slavery with Christianity is indis-
putably proved from the Bible, inasmuch as St Paul, writing to-
Onesimus, a slave, never told him to run away ! *

This fallacy, however, appears in so many Protean forms, that it
will be useful to give various illustrations of its supreme absurdity.

(i) The law which declares that 'thou shalt not kill' does not
mean or imply that half killing is right. 'Thou shalt not commit
adultery,' interpreted by our Lord, does not mean that we shall
indulge in ' Platonic love,' but rather that the remotest desire leading
to the act shall be suppressed. He who says you shall not go to Z
certainly does not either assert or mean that you shall go to K or L.
(2) The universal usage of language, ancient and modern, sacred and
secular, refutes this distorted principle of interpretation. Alexis, in
his 'Fanatic' (in Athenseus), has this passage: — "I think some of
those I meet will blame me for being drunk so early in the day."
Will any one hence conclude that to be drunk later in the day was
not at all blameworthy in popular estimation? In Eccles. vii.
17, the command, 'Be not overmuch (rahvah} wicked,' cannot surely
be equivalent to 'Be moderately wicked.' If the reprobation of
'excess of riot* and '•superfluity of naughtiness' does not involve
eulogy on a ' little riot' and a '•little naughtiness,' why should a cau-
tion against 'excess of wine' mean or imply a commendation of 'a
little wine'Pf In 'The Last of the Barons,' by Bulwer (Lord Lytton),
we read the following prayer, put into the mouth of a knight: —
" From 0zw-gluttony, from 0z/<?r-winebibbing, may the saints ever keep

*The true meaning of Paul lies on the surface. [See the comment on the
Epistle to Philemon.] For further illustration of these fallacies, see Dr Lees'
'Refutation of Professor Murphy' (1868). See this 'Commentary,' p. 379.

t The celebrated Robinson, of Cambridge, in his 'Notes to Claude,' has wittily
and deservedly ridiculed the kind of criticism wo are confuting, in a passage sup-
posed to be addressed to a congregation of clerics : — "Reverend brethren! Let
me advise you to get drunk. You will perhaps think me doubly drunk in giving

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXVli

Raoul de Fulke and his sons!" (Chap, i.) None but the purblind
could thence infer that any * gluttony,' or any ' wine-bibbing,' was
right. (3) The application of this principle to other scriptural
injunctions would lead to absurdity and immorality. ' Despise not
thy mother when she is old' (Prov. xxiii. 22), would become a charter
for despising our mothers when young! 'Oppress not the afflicted
within thy gate* (Prov. xxii. 22), would be a license for wrong outside
our doors! Once, in a Scottish paper, we saw an advertisement
from a person to the effect that he wanted a second wife, though the
first was living; alleging that he was only a deacon, and therefore
the command to the bishop, * husband of one wife,' so far from
applying to him, implied that two might be the right thing for a non-
bishop ! Weisinger, the continuator of Olshausen's Commentary,
says expressly, " The qualification, ' husband of one wife,' professedly
implies a special reference to the bishop, for this is not required of
all." The morality of our age, the instincts of purity, fortunately
unite in repudiating this monstrous distortion of language. He adds,
"Abstinence, prudence, and modesty denote qualities such as especi-
ally befit a bishop." Very true, but the correct inference is not that
other people are exempt from the obligation and advantages of those
virtues because they are, for special reasons, imposed in the mandatory
shape on bishops.

5. "But," persist other objectors, "the fact that the apostles direct
deacons and deaconesses not to be given to much wine, certainly
implies that some intoxicating wine is permissible, if it does not pro-
nounce it to be good."

This is a treble mistake, — of history, of inference, and of criticism.
For (i) it assumes that, in fact, nothing but intoxicating wine was
abused or capable of abuse in antiquity, which is contrary to the
plainest testimony. When Cratinus in his ' Ulysseses,' quoted by
Athenaeus (iii. 56), says, —

"You were all day glutting yourselves with white milk";

and Solomon declares that * much honey is not good ' ; we must

assume at once the fact of abuse, and the non-alcoholic nature of the

substances abused. Amphis, in his 'Uranus,' says, —

" Sating herself till eve with every dainty,"

which is a phrase parallel to the well-known line of Isaiah, —
"Tarry till night, till wine inflame them,"

you such advice. But good men have got drunk. Noah was a good man ; Lot
was a good man ; yet they both got drunk. You tell me our Lord said, ' Be not
overcharged with drunkenness.' Mind, He did not say, Do not gel drunk, but 'be
not overcharged with it.' Now can't you get drunk without being dead drunk?
But, you reply, St Paul says, 'Be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess.'
Observe here, again, he does not say, 'Be not drunk? but 'be not excessircly
drunk.' Observe, too, he says, 'Be not drunk with wine? — he does not prohibit
spirits. So you may get drunk on beer, or brandy, even to excess, with-nt
violating this injunction." In the old English poem of Piers Plowman, in the ale-
house scene, the goodwife charges her daughter not to get drunk often, for that
would be a reproach to her. Is the modern inference just, that occasional crapu-
lence would be meritorious or innocent ?

XXXV111 PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

but conveying no idea of intoxicating quality. Fondness for gorging,
with sweets and dainties, was one of the vices of the ancient Greeks.
Damoxenus, in his 'Syntrophe' (Ath. iii. 61), says they —

"Who look most solemn in the promenades,
Know, for all that, the fish's daintiest part,
And make men marvel at their gluttony."

Hence (2) the inference falls to the ground, because the historic
premiss is a network too wide for the special fact ; and it is, moreover,
not valid in form. (3) The critical blunder is exposed in this COM-
MENTARY, p. 368.

There are also numerous assumptions, which we may designate
specially as false facts of interpretation, to which the tippling critics,
cling with an absurd tenacity. A few samples must here suffice : for
others we refer to the text of our COMMENTARY.

1. The Saturday Review ', in noticing a pamphlet by a provincial
physician, says : — " £/>/fermented wine is a myth ; the pure blood of
the grape is but a transient product of the vine — and, in the words of
Dr Barclay, ' quite impossible ' to preserve " !

Now we have not only preserved such wine, imported from
Florence, for sixteen years together, but we have induced an able
chemist to prepare such wine extensively for both medical and
sacramental uses ; hence, if Dr Barclay be right, so far from miracles
having ceased, their product can be purchased at 245. per dozen..
The * impossible ' has been achieved ; and in the Exhibition Book of
Prizes' this impossible wine actually received 'honorable mention.'*
For many years past such wine has also been made at a vineyard in
the neighborhood of Cincinnati. Inspissated wine has been spoken of
in all ages, and is amongst the commonest products of wine countries,
and is still called sabe. A respected minister amongst the Society of
Friends, Mr Robert Alsop, in a letter to ourselves, under the date of
1 86 1, thus writes: —

" The syrup of grape-juice is an article of domestic manufacture in
almost every house in the vine districts of the south of France. It is
simply the juice of the grape boiled down to the consistence of
treacle. This syrup is, in those parts, the common medium for
making family preserves ; and a great variety of fruit and other vege-
table products are so embalmed, such as fresh figs, almonds, peaches,
plums, melons, pumpkins, tomatoes, etc. As to the use of [ordinary]
wine, it is almost entirely confined to the men. It is proverbial that
if a young woman is known to be in the habit of using it, she is
unlikely to receive proposals of marriage."

2. It is frequently urged, "The old wine is better than the new,
and therefore owes its superiority to the process of fermentation."

* Dr Hassall's report in the Lancet contains the following passage: — "Mr F.
Wiight (of Kensington) exhibits what he calls Sacramental or Passover wine,
which consists of the un fermented juice of the grape, and is made to meet the views
of those ministers who believe that the wine used at the institution of the Sacra-
ment was unfermented, and consisted simply of the expressed juice of the grape^
It forms a very palatable beverage."

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxix

This is an inference from a solitary premiss, and therefore invalid.
The objector probably assumes that nothing but alcohol can give
superior flavor. This is a mistake, since ^//fermented wine also
improves by age, for a reason well known to chemists. In the
preparation of scents and other volatile principles, as well as in the
bottling of grape-juice, the sapid particles get too intimately mingled
with the bulk of the liquid to be detected so fully by the taste; but
by being kept, and kept quiet, they are again liberated, and impinge
more perceptibly upon the nerves of the palate. Mr Wright's old
passover wine is, therefore, sensibly better than the new. Moreover,
the flavors and aromas of wines, which determine their price, are not
in any ratio to their fermentation or their alcohol.

3. It is said, "The new skin-bottles of the ancients allowed the
clastic gases of the fermenting liquid to expand them, and therefore
they did not burst and spill the wine."

This is a delusion, for the strongest hide of hog or ox, formed into
a bottle and filled with grape-juice that had begun to ferment, would,
if closed up, be burst asunder as with imprisoned steam ; and if not
closed, then the old bottle would run no risk of rending.* A cubic
inch of sugar, transformed into carbonic acid gas, occupies a space of
probably forty times as much.

4. "There is but one kind of wine, because 'wine' is denned in the
dictionaries as the fermented juice of the grape."

This is not true of the oldest dictionaries, and the modern ones
cannot settle the usage of words in ancient times — but only induction
from the literature of antiquity, t A modern lexicon may define wine
as * the fermented juice of the grape,' but what said the greatest of the
logicians of the thirteenth century — Thomas Aquinas? Discoursing
(the original can be seen in Migne's Patrologice, 4th book, 74th sec.
5th art.) of the proper substance to be used in the eucharist, he says,
"Grape-juice (mustum) has the specific quality of wine" — speciem
rini. 1'he objector falls into the fallacy of excluding the 'mare' from
the genus 'horse'; for, though fermented-juice is 'wine,' it is so not
to the exclusion of the first form' of wine — namely, the unfermented
juice. That the 'Angelical Doctor' was right, usage will show: —
Hippocrates (B.C. 400), in his work on diet, says, —
" Glukus is less fitted to make the head heavy . . than OTHER WINE (oinodeos)."

Athenaeus, the Grammarian (A.D. 280), in his 'Banquet' (lib. i.
s. 54),—

* "The force of fermenting wine is very great, being able, if closely stopped up,
to burst through the strongest cask." — (Chambers's Cyclopedia, art. * Wine/ 1750.)
"The way to preserve NEW WINK in the state of must is to put it up in very strong
but small casks, firmly closed on all sides, by which means it will be kept from
fermenting. But if it should happen to fall into fermentation, the only way to stop
it is by tke fume of sulphur " — (Miller, Gardener's Dictionary, art. 'Wine,' 1748.)
See further, Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 158, and elsewhere.

t See translations from the ancient and classic authors, Greek and Roman,
p. 434. Also various portions of this COMMENTARY, showing the application ot
words for 'wine' in Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, Latin, etc., to 'grapes,'
•grape-juice,' 'boiled grape-juice,' etc.

Xl PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

"The Mitylenaeans have a sweet wine (ghikun OINON), what they cv\\ prodromes,
and others call it protropos."

And again (ii. 24), he says to the dyspeptic tippler, —

" Let him take sweet wine, either mixed with water or warmed, especially that
kind called protropos, the sweet Lesbian glukus, as being good for the stomach;
for sweet WINE (oinos} does not make the head heavy."

Dioscorides (A.D. 90), in his 'Materia Medica,' expressly ranks the
Roman SAPA, ' boiled wine' — Hebrew, sovai or sobai — under the
'genus VINI.'

Suidas, Lexiconist (950), defines sweet wine thus: —

" GLEUKOS — to apostalagma tees staphulees prin pateesthee — ' the droppings from
the grapes before being trodden.' "

Dr Avenarius, Hebrew Lexiconist (1588), defines —

"AHSis, mitstum, recently expressed and sweet. German sus : suss ur WEIN. "

Lord Bacon, in his 'Natural History' (1597), says, —

"As wines which at first pressing run gently, yield a more pleasant taste, . . .

so observations which flow from Scripture gently expressed and naturally expounded

are most wholesome and sweet."

Parkinson (1640), in the 'Theatrum Botanicum,' says, —

"The jnyce or liquor pressed out of the ripe grapes, is called VINUM, wine. —
Of it is made both SAPA and DEFRUTUM, in English Cute, that is to say BOILED
WINE, and both made of mustum, NEW WINE; the latter boyled to the halfe, the
former to the third part."

Lyttleton, in his 'Latine Dictionary' (Lond. 1678), says, —

" MUSTUM, sc. Vinum. Hebrew, matz, expressit. Muston, vinum cadis

recens inclusum. Gleukos, oinos neos, 'new wine.' Angl. 'Stum, i. e. NEW WINE

close shut up, and not suffered to work."

W. Robertson, M.A., Cambridge (1693), in ' Phraselogia Generalis,' —
"WiNE; Vinum, MERUM. — New WINE, Mustum. — New WINE that runs out

without pressing ; Mustum lixivium. — WiNE prest, VlNUM tortivum. — WlNE yet

on the tree ; VINUM pendens."

The Glossarwm of Carolo du Fresne (Tomus sextus, Paris, 1736), —

" VINUM COCTUM. Gallic, vin cuit. VINUM DE PURA GUTTA. Gall., Demere-

goutte [mother-drop]. VINUM protropum est vinum sponte defluens, ante-quam

uva calcatur. Mustum, VINUM PEDE PkESSUM. Quod pede tantum calcatur,

medium inter vinum sponte defluens," etc.

J. M. Gesner, the critic, in index to ' Scriptores Rei Rusticae veteres
Latini' (1730), says, —

"Once for all it must be observed, that the words vinum, vitis, uva, and
vinea, as kindred terms, are sometimes used synonymously. The Juice of apples,
pears, pomegranates [as in Cant. viii. 2], and sorbs, was called vinum." [Alfieri,
in his Dizionario (Venice, 1751), shows that this use is still preserved in part in
Italian, as it also is in German : — " VINO, a liquor well known, extracted from the
frtiit of the vine. ViNOSO, juicy, full of wine. Uva vinosa, grapes full of wine.
MOSTO, vin nuovo, must."]

E. Chambers, F.R.S., in his 'Cyclopaedia' (6th Ed. 1750), has the
following, a mere translation from an older French Dictionary : —

"WiNE, in France, is distinguished into — Mere-goutte, 'mother-drop'; which
is 'the VIRGIN-WINE,' — which runs of itself out of a tap in the vat. Must, stir-

must, or stum ; which is the WINE or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been
/ WINE, 'VIN de pressurage,"1 is that squeezed with a press out of the

trod. Pressed WINE,

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xli

grapes. Sweet WINE, ' VI N doiixj is that which has not yet fermented. Natural
WINE is such as comes from the grape, without mixture. Burnt WINE is that
boiled up with sugar. There is also a sort of Malmsey WINE, made by boiling of
Muscadine."

Dr Lueneman, in his ' Worterbuch ' (Leipzig, 1780), has —

" Mnstum i. n. der Most junge WEIN [new wine]. Vinea, fin WEINBERG,
^\i-.\^^jr(en.— yinolentus, zW/WEiN " [/«// of wine. Bottger's Worterbuch has
— " junger WEIN, new wine. WEiN-AW/tvw, to press grapes. WEIN-BEERE,
grape (wine-berry). WEiN-beer-saft (wine-berry juice). WEiN-^rw/t*, vine-har-
vest. WEi.\-/ra«^, grape-cluster."]

The 'London Encyclopaedia,' published in 1829, says, —

" Rhenish must is of two kinds. That made without boiling is only put up so
close that it cannot work; this is called stum ivine" — stum being evidently a con-
traction from mustum, like 'bus from omnibus.

Dr Webster, the American, in his great 'Dictionary' (1828), has—

"Must, new wine — wine pressed fiom the grape, but not fermented." [In this
definition he is only following Johnson, and others still older. B. Blount, in his
* Glossographia ' (1670), has "New wine, that first pressed out of the grape."
E. Phillips, in his ' World of Words ' (1671), has "Wine newly pressed from the
grape."]

Dr Ure, F.R.S., the chemist, in ' Dictionary of Arts' (1836), says, —

" Juice, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called must,
and in common language, SWEET WINE."

F. E. J. Valpy, M.A., in 'Etymological Dictionary' (1838), has—
" Mustus, new, fresh, young. Hence Mustum, i. e. VINUM, fresh WINE — as
Mcrum for Merutn ViNUM."

Baron Liebig, in ' Letters on Chemistry ' (2nd series, 1844), wrote, —

" If a flask be filled with grape-juice and made air-tight, and then kept for a few
hours in boiling water, . . . THE WINE does not ferment " (p. 198).
"The fermentation of WINE and of beer-wort are not isolated phenomena."
" The WINE is left to ferment. One of the \\\XK-growers of the Duchy," etc.

The Popular Cyclopaedia (1846), which is a translation from the
« German Conversation Lexicon,' has the following : —

" MUST, the juice of the grape. In wine countries this unfermented sweet must
is distinguished from the sour must, or unripe wine of a year old. It can be kept
in close vessels after the mucilage has been precipitated" — [or settled on its lees].

"WiNE. — There is only one species of wine \_protropos~\ made without beating,
treading, or pressing; this is what they call in Spain lagrima [tears]. The grapes,
melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches, and the wine is the produce of
the droppings. The juice of the grape, when newly expressed, and before it has
begun to ferment, is called MUST, and, in common language, sussur wein [SWEET
WINE]. It is turbid, has an agreeable and very saccharine taste."

Dr W. Freund, in his ' Wurterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache '
(Leipzig, 1845), has —

"Vwdemia [vino-demo, 'to draw wine from']; I. Vintage; II. Transf. (a)
Grapes, wine ; (b) pi. vintage-season; (c) harvest of similar things, as oil-olive,
honey, etc.

" VINUM, digammated from oinos, wine. Transf. (a) grapes ; (b) fruit-wine.

" MUSTUM, new or unfermentcd wine."

5. " Some classical scholars — whose scientific education, however,
has been neglected — have objected that " the juice of the grape con-

xlii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

tains alcohol by nature, and even grapes have been known to intoxi-
cate ; and so the whole theory of the abstainer gives way."

It is altogether erroneous to suppose that grapes, or grape-juice
freshly expressed, have any taint of alcohol. Many years ago a careful
chemist, at our solicitation, went through a very elaborate examina-
tion of the whole matter, and demonstrated that alcohol forms no
part of grapes. The experiments were published in the public
papers, and a reward of ^50 offered by the British Temperance
League " to any person who will extract any appreciable quantity of
alcohol from grapes, ripe or rotten, provided the fruit has not been
in any way meddled with by art." The intervention of man is always
necessary to the placing of fruit in a condition to permit of the vifious
fermentation. In the cases where bears, hogs, or men are inebriated
with grapes, it is the result of gorging, whereby they turn their
stomachs into a brewing vat ; the fruit fermenting instead of digest-
ing, and vapors, probably alcohol also, may be generated, which
affect the head.*

During 1867 some clergymen in Ulster were prematurely rejoicing
over the reputed discovery of ' a trace of alcohol ' in the passover
wine prepared by Mr Wright, using the supposed fact as a glad
reason for returning to the adulterated port which contains a maxi-
mum of spirit and only a trace of ' the fruit of the vine ' ! That
chemist, however, at once proceeded to Belfast, and in the presence
of the public experimentally demonstrated that his wine was not
proved to contain even 'a trace.' Professor Hodges, and Dr H.
Brown, who made the rash assertion, had deceived themselves. They
had assumed that the chromic acid test would reveal the presence of no
other substance besides alcohol in the wine, whereas the fruit aromas
give the same reaction. Dr Hodges, who is a respectable chemist,
admitted that an enormous quantity of the wine must be used in
order to find an exhibitable quantity of alcohol! This passage in
the history of controversy illustrates the justice of what Liebig
observes, that " from the moment the imagination is allowed to solve
questions left undecided by researches, investigation ceases — truth
remains unascertained; and there is not only this negative evil, but
in error we create a monster, envious, malignant, and obstinate—
which, when at length truth endeavors to make its way, crosses its
path, combats, and strives to annihilate it." In this case, happily,
the friends of light were stronger than the devotees of darkness, and
the appeal to common sense was more successful than that to
authority.

That alcohol is not a product of growth — i. e. of those natural pro-
cesses that perpetuate the forms of * created things ' — is a fact that at
once negatives the preceding objection. Even some imperfectly
informed abstainers have been too easy in their acceptance of pseudo-
scientific dogmas. Here is one specimen : —

* See Dr Lees' 'History of Alcohol,' 1846, and 'Text-Book of Temperance,' for
detail of experiments.

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xliii

6. "The new products which result from fermentation are attributa-
ble rather to the life than the death principle."

Now grape-sugar and albumen are plainly products resulting from
the life of the vine. But by decomposition, which only ensues when
these substances are parted from the vital organism, the albumen
becomes yeast, and thereafter the alimentary sugar is resolved into
the poison alcohol and carbonic acid. What ///^-principle produces
this? 'The poiuer of the living God!' True, but that power is as
much present in death as in resurrection; in decay as in growth; in
decomposing as in composing; in simple as in complex combinations;
and what is common to 'creation' and 'destruction' cannot destroy
the difference between them, which the objection attempts to do.
Unfortunately, we have to deal with a school of complacent critics
who have so much got the habit of teaching as to have forgotten that
of learning, who will argue about sciences they do not understand;
and it is almost impossible to excite in them a suspicion that they
may be wrong. Otherwise, we might have hope in reproducing such
language as the following from Professor Liebig: —

"It is contrary to all sober rules of research to regard the vital process of an
animal or a plant as the cause of fermentali )n. The opinion that they take any
share in the morbid process must be rejected a> an hypothesis destitute of all support.
In all fungi, analysis has detected the preseiue of sugar, which, during their vital
process, is Nor resolved into alcohol and carVmic acid; but after their death, from
the moment a change in their color and consistence is perceived, the vinous
fermentation sets in. It is the very reverse of the vital process to which this effect
must be ascribed.

" FERMENTATION, PUTREFACTION, AND DECAY. These are processes of
</<rcom position, and their ultimate results are to reconvert the elements of organic
bodies into that state in which they exist before they participate in the process of
Life, [whereby] complex organic atoms of the highest order are REDUCED into
combinations of a lower order, into that state of combination of elements from
which they sprang" {Letters on Chemistry, 2d series, 1845).

It is from this point of view that we are enabled to perceive the
symbolical fitness of the Biblical prohibitions of ferment, and its de-
generated products, in all such ceremonies and sacrifices as typified
Life, Purity, and Regeneration.

It has been very beautifully observed by Professor Fraser, of
Edinburgh, that —

"The Divine Ideas expressed in the laws of Nature are, through our physical
discoveries, becoming, in the form of similar ideas in ourselves, a part of the
experience of man. Every scientific discovery puts us more in sympathy with the
Divine meaning. The antagonism of Faith and Science disappears, as each
deepening insight into natural law is felt to bring our thoughts into nearer harmony
to those Divine thoughts of which our otherwise strange surroundings in this world
of sense are found to be the expression."

A little reflection would show that on a point of daily morals so
important as temperance and the use of inebriating beverages, one
which in so many forms crosses the path and confounds the purposes
of the Sacred Oracles, it is hardly credible that the most advanced
examples of inspired wisdom, in lawgivers, prophets, and apostles,
should antagonize alike the partial truth of the contemporary philo-
sophy of paganism, the experience of successive ages, and the con-

xliv PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

-elusions of modern Science forced upon the reluctant judgment of its
disobedient priesthood. Yet the fact is undeniable, that, in spite of
the opposition of the interested, the venality of the press, and the
despotism of fashion, Providence has, during the last thirty years,
compelled Science to lay her successive offerings upon the altar of
Temperance.

We can here only attempt an Epitome of the Evidence furnished
by Observation, Statistics, and Science, but it shall be an historical
consensus — drops, as it were, from 'a cloud of witnesses,' — in the
language of divines and dramatists, physicians and philosophers : —

"Wine deccivcth him that drinketh it." — THE VULGATE, Hab. ii. 5.

"How exceeding strong is wine! it causeth all men to err that drink it." —
I ESDRAS iii. 18.

" Water makes those who drink nothing else very ingenious, but wine obscures
and clouds the mind." — EUBULUS, B.C. 375.

" I admire those who desire no other beverage than water, avoiding wine as they
do fire. Hence arise irregular desires and licentious conduct. The circulation is
hastened. The body inflames the soul." — CLEMENT of Alexandria, A.D. 180.

" O thou invisible Spirit of Wine, if thou hast no other name to be known by,
I will call thee — Devil." — SHAKESPEARE.

" The fumes of the Wine left him nothing of his more refined nature. All that
was honorable or intellectual in his character had now completely ceded to all
that was base and animal." — WlLKlE COLLINS, ' Antonina, ,1851.

"Alcohol is a disturber of the system, and cannot be regarded as a food. . . .
Alcohol neither warms nor sustains the body. Alcohol should be prescribed medi-
cinally as carefully as any other poisonous agent." — Dr EDWARD SMITH, 1860.

"The influence of alcohol upon the nervous system, and particularly upon the
brain, is manifest by a progressive and constant series of symptoms, which, in
different degrees of intensity, are reproduced in all individuals. These constitute
a true poisoning ; and this morbid state is exhibited under three phases : — (i) sur-
excitation; (2) perturbation; (3) abolition of the cerebro-spinal functions." — Dr
MICHAEL LEVV, on 'Hygiene,' Paris, 1857.

"Facts establish, from a physiological point of view, a line of demarcation
between alcohol and foods. Alcohol is not a food. It acts in a feeble dose as
an irritant; in a larger as a stupefiant." — Professors LALLEMAND and PERRIN,
Paris, 1860.

" Alcohol does not act as food ; it does not nourish tissues. It cuts short the
life of rapidly-growing cells, or causes them to live more slowly. The stunting
which follows its exhibition to young animals is readily accounted for." — LIONEL
S. BEALE, M.D., F.R.S., of King's College Hospital, 1863.

" Experience and statistics, amongst operatives, soldiers, and middle-class
civilians, in England, America, Germany, and India, establish the truth that, under
the same circumstances, the percentage of sickness and mortality is twice as great
amongst moderate drinkers as abstainers, and four times as great among drink-
hards." — Dr LEES.

"Alcohol is a mere drug ; and although a constituent, is not the valuable one in
wine." — ROBERT DRUITT, M.D., Report on Wine, 1866.

" Finally, there are a number of substances, of which we are not able to prove
that they are either used for the repair of the tissues, or transformed in the body
so as to generate heat; in this class we place alcohol, chloroform, the aethers,
various alkaloids, strychnia, morphia, and the vegetables which contain them." —
F. E. ANSTIE, M.D., 1864.*

[For other testimonies see Note to Matt. iv. 7.]

* This author inconsistently contends, however, that alcohol is food, because it
arrests waste ! He begs his definition, which we entirely repudiate. Food is that
•which, first, acts innocently upon the body, and, secondly, acts usefully by making
blood. Alcohol does neither. Scientific men should scorn mere tricks of defini-
tion, and adhere to facts.

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xl\r

Now it seems to us, that so far from having, in any one particular,
contradicted these truths, the Bible has most singularly confirmed,
and, in words at least, anticipated them.

History says — " All nations who drank intoxicating wine, in all
conditions of climate and culture, have erred through its use, and
gone out of the way."

Scripture responds — " Israel, God's chosen nation — her priests,
her teachers, her princes and kings, drank wine in bowls, and
were swallowed up of wine, wherefore they were sent into cap-
tivity."

Experience says — " The common and social use of intoxicants,
alcoholic or otherwise, has a physical tendency to create an intem-
perate appetite, insatiate as the grave, making slaves of thousands."

Scripture answers — " Wine deceiveth a lofty man, and en-
largeth his desire as hell (Hab. ii. 5) ; it bringeth poverty and
pain, sorrow and remorse upon him, yet he crieth, '/ will seek it
yet again1" (Prov. xxiii. 35).

Morality teaches — " Wine is dangerous — it slowly but surely en-
snares and enslaves the Will. Terrible is the power of this tricksy
spirit to allure; it causeth all men, of whatever rank, to err."

Scripture re-echoes — " Wine is a mocker (latz) ; Wine is a de-
frauder (bogad). Woe to him that giveth his neighbor drink!"
(Hab. ii. 15).

Virtue exclaims — "Wine stimulates the sensual nature, and nar-
cotizes the moral and spiritual : whence arise irregular desires."

Scripture replies — " Look not upon it, lest thine eyes look
upon strange women, and thine heart go after perverse things."
Experiment proves that " alcohol is a disturber of the brain, and
decreases consciousness and the perception of light, and ' casts dark-
ness over the soul ' " (Eubulus).

Scripture correspondingly commands — that " God's priests, while
doing His work, shall drink no strong drink, lest they die " ; — and
it further declares, that " while the drinking Jews rebelled and
corrupted their ways, His Nazarites remained pure as snow."
Physiology announces — that " the maximum strength of man can
only be realized by abstinence from alcoholic wine, which cuts short
the life of growing cells, and stunts the growth of young animals."

Scripture records — that " when the strongest man was to be
reared, an angel from heaven imposed the practice of abstinence
upon both mother and child."

Science declares — that " intoxicating wine is not food ; that alcohol
is a mere drug; that it should be prescribed as carefully as any other
poisonous agent; that, as a poison^ it ranks with strychnine, opium, and
tobacco."

And Scripture finally anticipates all this, for, in text after text,
such wine is not only described as acting like the poison ' of the
serpent and the basilisk,' but actually called a POISON (Deut. xxxii.
33; Hos. vii. 5; Hab. ii. 15).

xlvi PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

When Christians are half as anxious to harmonize Bible teaching
with Temperance truth, as with geology or astronomy, they will find
ready to their hands a much ampler and far simpler apparatus of
conciliation. One final illustration must suffice. According to
Augustine, the Manicheans held that intoxicating wine (for they
used grapes) was Fel principiis tenebrarum — ' the gall of the Prince of
Darkness.' Now the Bible clearly speaks of a wine that is * the
poison of dragons,' and describes with the very signs of fermentation,
a wine that ' biteth like a serpent.' Thus the idea of wine being a
poison is not a mere modern notion. It can be shown, however, that
it is the express and literal language of Inspiration ; nay, more, that on
the supposition that it was the Divine purpose to teach us that wine
is poisonous by means of the Scripture, God has done so in the only
possible way, i. e. by the use of the proper Hebrew word for ' poison.'
If any one chooses to argue that the word has other possible mean-
ings, less true and applicable to the case, we can only protest against
eliminating the true and most fitting sense of the passage, and thus mak-
ing the Bible into a * nose of wax.'

In the A. Version there are only two words translated poison, and
one of these is so translated but once ; in the margin * a poisonful
herb.' The texts prove that this word (rosh) really signifies some
special herb of a bitter nature, like hyssop, hemlock, or the poppy.
The other word is khamah, — the Hebrew term for 'poison' in
general, connoting that inflaming property common to so many intoxi-
cants.* In the A. V., the word is actually translated .' poison ' in six
out of the eight instances in which it occurs as the name of a physical
substance or property : —

Deut. xxxii. 24. The poison of serpents of the dust.

Deut. xxxii. 33. Their wine is the poison of dragons.

Psalm Iviii. 4. Their poison is like the poison of a serpent.

Psalm cxl. 3. Adder's poison is under their lips.

Job vi. 4. The poison drinketh up my spirit.

It may be objected that the skin bottle Hagar carried with her is
called khameth, and that this is the same word. Even granting that
(of which there is no proof), no example occurs of the use of khameth
for 'bottle,' from the time of Moses to that of the minor prophets.
It was, then, quite obsolete in the days of the latter — had been so,
apparently, for eight centuries, — and, moreover, there were four other
words for ' bottle,' and four or five for cup, in regular use by the later
Hebrews. To depart from the current and continuous meaning of
khamah, as 'poison,' and identify it with a long obsolete word for
kidskin ' bottle,' is a simple whim.t Even then the idea returns, since

* There is another word (root, mar,) signifying in one passage 'gall-bladder' or
venom, but not ' poison ' in our broad sense.

t Dr McCaul, Professor of Hebrew in King's College, in his ' Examination of
Bishop Colenso's Difficulties,' has the following concerning the Hebrew khamu-
shim, to which the assailant of the Pentateuch, taking a leaf out of the book of
the assailants of Abstinence, persisted in assigning the exclusive meaning of

PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xlvii

'the bottle' could only mean, like 'the cup of the Lord's right hand,'
a vessel containing some destructive potion.

Hut kJiauiah had a 'figurative' use as well, and is the word so often
translated fury, anger, wrath, displeasure. As ' poison ' is that which
disturbs or destroys the body, so God's cup of wrath is that mental
poison which destroys the soul. Professor Nordheimer, in his ' Critical
Grammar,' translates hay -y ay in hak-khamah as the ' maddening wine '
(Jer. xxv. 15), because it is that punishment which makes mad.
" They shall drink, and be moved, and be mad." As yayin harekakh
(spiced wine) in Canticles literally means ' wine which (is) spice j so
yayin hakhamah literally is ' wine which (is) poison.'

We now direct attention to two plain texts where Tyndale seems to
have been thoughtlessly and implicitly followed, and so the word
'bottle/ under the unconscious influence of prejudice, displaced the
word for its poisonous contents. He who had so correctly translated
the word as ' poison ' before, could not do so here, simply because he
could not believe in the sense it gave. We who know how literally
true that sense is, why should we seek to obscure or ignore it ?

Hosea, vii. 5 : " The princes made him sick with khamah (poison)
of wine."

Habakkuk, ii. 15, 16: "Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor
drink, that puttest thy khamah (poison) to him! The cup of the
Lord's right hand shall be turned unto thee."

Lexicons and commentators cannot make this matter plainer than
does the context. Even our translators, in putting ' bottle,' say in the
margin, as did Tyndale, l heat through wine.' St Jerome's version
has fel, ' poison,' ' gall.' Montanus has venenum tuum, ' thy poison.'
Drusius cites others; so does Rabbi Jonah in Ben Melech. The
learned Dr John Gill says, "The word is by some translated 'thy
gall,' 'thy poison,' which fitly enough expresses the poisonous doc-
trines which men sensibly imbibe." Professor Pick translates, 'pouring
out his wrath' It is plain, beyond denial, that the prophets were not
speaking of wine-vessels at all (much less of princes handing skin-
vessels to the king), but of the causal-quality of the liquor drank. It
was the khamah which sickened and maddened; and the declaration
is, that God will pour His cup (elsewhere called khamah, fury) upon
the man that giveth his neighbor khamah to drink. If that drink
were not poisonous, where would be the foundation for the figure ?
The lexicons cannot deny the facts. Parkhurst defines khamah as
'an inflammatory poison'; Archbishop Newcome has 'gall, poison.'
The Arabic still retains the word in several forms, as k/mmat, shumum,
khemah, for 'POISON,' 'fever] etc. So we reach the old conclusion,
that whenever we are willing to credit the Biblical teaching, we shall find

'armed': — "The meaning 'armed' is not only doubtful, it is improbable; first,
because it does not suit the context of Exod. xiii. 1 8. Its suiting the three other
Ptacts where the word occurs cannot outweigh the fact that it does not suit here.
The testimony of the ancient versions is of no value, as the word does not occur
at all after the Book of Judges, and had therefore become obsolete long before the
time of the earliest of them, the Lxx. Their translation is a mere conjecture."

xlviii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION.

an exact accordance between Biblical language and physical truth.
If men are not willing, they will go on evading, quibbling, controvert-
ing, to the end, wresting the Bible to their own destruction, and con-
verting a volume which is the Directory of moral purity and life,
into an instrument of sensual depravity, social deception, and moral
death.

In Lessing's beautiful book, 'On the Education of the Human
Race,' after comparing the Jewish Bible to a primer, he refers to the
captivity under Cyrus, when the Jews were first made conscious of
the full meaning of their own Scriptures, and, through -the influence
of courtly fashion, first effectually taught sobriety : —

" Revelation had guided their reason, and now, all at once, reason
gave clearness to their revelation. The child, sent abroad, saw other
children who knew more — who lived more becomingly, — and asked
itself, in confusion, 'Why do 7 not know and do that too? Ought I
not to have been taught and admonished of all this in my father's
house?' Thereupon the child again sought its primer, which had
long been thrown into a dark corner, in order to throw off the blame
upon the primer. But, behold ! it discovers that the blame does not
rest upon the book : that the shame is solely its own, for not having
long ago known this very thing, and lived in this very way"

So the Christian Church has been sent abroad into the realms of
science, and it has there been taught a practical lesson of physiology
and dietetics, which it would never adopt on mere principles of self-
denial. Thereupon, partly in wonder, partly in doubt, and partly in
opposition, it has begun to consult its primer, to confirm, to question,
or to confute the truth of Science. We trust and hope, that when the
investigation is completed, the shame will be confessed to be its own,
for not having long ago known this very thing, and lived in this very
way. F. R. L.

THE BOOKS

OF THE

OLD TESTAMENT.

Great pains were taken in the Preliminary Dissertation to state what we regard as the true relation
of the Bible to the use of alcoholic drink, to anticipate mistakes of the issue, and to expose false
principles and facts of interpreta ..»n. It st ens, however, to be in vain, for one London paper (Tins
Athenaeum) has, in its notice of the first edition of this book, grossly misrepresented the object of it
as being to prove that Bible wines were mainly unfermented ! — and a second paper ( The Echo) has,
in reference to the notes on Gen. i. 29, published a criticism which shows that the writer had not
even read the second page of the Commentary ' He says : — " Of course this ingenious argument
depends upon the assumption that the benefits denved from the alcohol do not compensate the loss
of the sugar— this is the whole point in dispute, and must be settled upon other than scriptural
grounds." Yes, of course, and therefore the exposition proceeds to l\\& facts which relate to the prin-
ciple. When an apostle says, ' Do good as you have opportunity '—it is reason applied to facts that
must show wherein the good consists — in other words, how to fulfill the law. When the Saviour
says, 'Love your neighbor,' it is not the bare text that shows ivho is our neighbor; and hence the
very need of the exposition and of the parable. The Echo argues that because scripture-law and
words do not explain themselves, but want a commentary, therefore none should be given ! As the
law which says, ' Thou shall do no murder,' is to be interpreted by the judge who determines its
meaning : so the law which says for what purpose God gave fruit and grain to man, must be inter-
preted by the rational critic, and any system which the facts in evidence show to be inconsistent with
that purpose, or with the welfare of mankind, must be condemned.

THE BOOK OF GENESIS.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 29.

And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed,
which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is
the fruit of a tree yielding seed ; to you it shall be for meat.

EVERY HERB] Hebrew, kal asev. Asev, as full-grown herbage (including grain
of all kinds), is distinguished from deshch, young and tender grass, and from
thatzir, ripe grass, fit for mowing. The Lxx. renders asev by chorton, green
plants of every species ; but Aquila has chloee, young green corn or grass. The
Vulgate reads herbam.

EVERY TREE] Hebrew, kol hah-atz, i. e. every plant of woody fibre, in distinc-
tion from flexible sprouting plants. So the Lxx. pan xulon, every kind of wood
or timber; and the V. nniversa ligna, all sorts of wood-growth.

To YOU IT SHALL BE FOR MEAT] Lahkem yihyeh llahktlah, " to you it shall be
for eating "=that which is to be eaten. With this agrees the Targum of Onkelos,
— le-maikal. The Lxx., Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, all read eis brosin,
— for eating. The V. has in escamy — for food.

This Divine saying is a Charter at once concise and all-comprehensive. "What-
ever produce of the earth is Jit for food, it places at man's disposal. From dust
was the human body formed, and out of the dust comes its sustenance. He who
fashioned and animated the one, freely bestows the other. The animals that are
eaten derive from the vegetable world all that renders their flesh nutritious. Men
are not bound to eat everything that grows, but they can eat and assimilate nothing
which has not first grown up under the power of the Highest.

In regard to the food so bountifully provided, man's duty comprehends- I,
Thankfulness to his Divine Benefactor, which involves devotion ; 2, Co-operation
with the laws of Providence for the increase of this food, which involves industry ;
3, Appropriation of this food to the end designed, the health and vigor of man,
which involves frugality and temperance. All waste of food is condemnable; and
waste occurs when more food is consumed than can be made use of in the body: —
hence the glutton abuses both his body and the material fitted to nourish it. Waste
equally accrues when food is deprived of any of its nutritious properties ; still more
palpably, when food becomes transformed into any substance charged with evil to
mankind. Such waste is always and ina-itably connected -with the -vinous fermenta-
tion which converts grape-sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Sugar, the good
creature of God, and a real food, is destroyed, and, by new chemical affinities, its
elements are broken up, and fresh substances formed, of which it cannot be truly

GENESIS, I. 29.

said, "they shall be to you for food." The assertion that alcohol is in sugar, or in
any unfermented saccharine substance, can only be made in utter ignorance of the
alphabet of chemical science.* This waste of food has become all the greater
since — in order to produce intoxicating liquors in larger quantities than the fermented
juice of grapes could yield — grain, to the extent of about fifty million bushels
yearly, is employed in the United Kingdom alone for brewing and distillation.
By the malting process the starch of corn is converted into sugar, and this again
by fermentation into alcohol and carbonic acid. Distillation draws off the alcohol thus
formed, and the spirit so educed (not produced), being mixed with less water, more
readily exerts its specific effects. The solid food thus wasted would supply a fair
amount of aliment to some millions of persons every day all the year round. The
plea that the alcoholic fermentation is * a natural process ' cannot avail in extenuation
of this waste, since it is no more natural than those other processes of decay against
which food is assiduously guarded, nor would alcoholic liquors come ' naturally '
into existence at all, were they not designedly manufactured by man himself.
" God made man upright ; but he found out many inventions." As the sole end
sought by this waste of food is the production of an alcoholic beverage, it devolves
upon those who sanction the transformation to show that some compensating advan-
tage is thereby secured, (i) That alcohol is itself a food is an hypothesis desti-
tute of all scientific support ; for being destitute of nitrogen, it cannot make blood or
help to repair bodily waste. The theory at one time generally received, that its com-
bustion produces animal heat, is now abandoned as being proofless, while a series
of careful experiments by distinguished men of science in France and England have
furnished evidence that alcohol is in course of ejection, unchanged, thirty hours
after being swallowed. (2) Another theory, that alcohol serves as an equivalent
for food by diminishing the metamorphosis of tissue, is without weight, for experi-
ments have not justified the theory ; and were it otherwise, the use of alcohol to
diminish the normal waste of tissue would be open to censure, as a mischievous
interference with one of the vital processes on which the renewal of corporeal strength
depends. (3) Could it be shown that alcohol, when imbibed, is neutral as to
any sensible effect, its manufacture at the expense of the staff of life would be a vast
economic crime ; but the probability is that its operation on the healthy organism
is always in some degree deleterious, the measure of injury varying with the
quantity, strength, and frequency of the amount imbibed. In all works on toxi-
cology alcohol is classed among narcotico-acrid poisons, and like other poisons,
its action when not fatal, is yet demonstrably pernicious. Some of its evil
effects, though apparently trivial or even insensible at the moment — as, for
example, in impairing the redness of the blood-globules and the structure of the
blood-vessels — assume a serious importance when regarded as cumulative during a
succession of years. (4) No dispute, indeed, can arise on the point that, as ordi-
narily consumed (for its exciting property), alcohol occasions a large amount of
disease and premature death, apart altogether from the sin and misery of intoxica-
tion. (5) Along with these physical consequences due account should be taken of
its influence on the moral, social, and religious life of the countries where it is com-

* The old chemical formula of sugar is oxygen 3, hydrogen 3. carbon 3 ; the new is oxygen 3,
hydrogen 6, carbon 3 : but in the decomposition of sugar these elements recombine so as to generate
alcohol and carbonic acid ; thus :—

O H C O H C

r.,, ( Alcohol ... i 3 2 M , f Alcohol ... 162

ld \ Carbonic acid 201 e* { Carbonic acid . 201

Not only is the sugar of grain and fruit thus destroyed, but their albumen becomes converted into
yeast, and thus ceases to be food.

GENESIS, II. 1 6, I/.

monly consumed ; and were this done, the stupendous folly of converting a nation's
food into such an insinuating article would not fail to be recognized, deplored, and
denounced by the Christian world. (6) The assertion that man has a natural pre-
disposition or instinct for intoxicating articles, because he has always and everywhere
been known to use them, is untrue from first to last, (a) The reason is not a
correct statement of the facts, since many tribes have been discovered who were
ignorant of all intoxicants, and others have made systematic regulations for their
exclusion. (<£) Any argument in favor of intoxicating drinks from their prevalent
use would be equally available in favor of war, slavery, drunkenness itself, and
vice of every description, (c) Natural instinct, so called, might be depraved in-
stinct, the transmitted result of parental transgression of natural law. (</) But, in
reality, natural instinct (save where the drunkard's appetite runs in the blood) is
universally repugnant to the use of alcohol until it becomes perverted by persistent
consumption of alcoholic compounds. (7) The final conclusion is, that the manu-
facture and use of alcoholic beverages are opposed to the Divine charter which
assigns the produce of the earth to man for food. By the destruction of the sac-
charine and albuminous constituents of fruit and grain, ignorant or ungrateful man
virtually declares, "To me they shall not be for meat," thus seeking to nullify and
reverse the benevolent designs of his heavenly Father.

CHAPTER II. VERSES 16, 17.

16 And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of
the garden thou mayest freely eat: 17 But of the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou
eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.

It has been contended that the Divine procedure, in creating the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil, and permitting access to it by our first parents, is
reason for allowing the use of intoxicating liquors and the traffic in them as
beverages. Virtue, it is argued, is strengthened by exposure to temptation and
resistance of it. But the danger of such reasoning is apparent on reflection, for,
under the pretense of proving virtue and piety, and invigorating them by the
opposition evoked, the darkest spirits of evil may claim to be recognized as
angels of light and benefactors of our race. In like manner, the progress of
holiness, both in the individual and in humanity, may be exibited as a misfortune,
because diminishing the number and intensity of these trials of fidelity ! What we
are sure of as regards the Divine economy, in the Edenic as in every after age, is,
that God has never put His creatures to any proof involving an inducement to evil
doing, and that He has never needlessly exposed them to moral danger. "He
cannot be tempted of evil, neither tempteth He any man;" but "His tender
mercies are over all His works." Whatever is to be understood by the tree of
knowledge, and whatever construction, literal or allegorical, is put upon the
Mosaic narrative, we know that some external tests of men's spiritual obedience
were unavoidable, and that in the period of his innocence these tests did not
address themselves to any depraved proclivity or bias. To infer from thence that
men may now tempt themselves by using articles that originate a diseased appetite,
and that they may tempt others by engaging in a traffic in such articles, is surely a
lamentable wresting of the Divine Word. Temptation is unavoidable under the
present constitution of society, and when resisted, is, by Divine grace, converted
into a means of holiness; but so far from therefore encouraging temptation, and

GENESIS, III. 6.

occasions of it, we are taught to pray, "Lead us not into temptation;" and we are
warned that though 'offenses' — causes of stumbling — must needs come, through
human wickedness, woe is it to the man by whom they purposely come; and we
are solemnly warned against putting an occasion of falling in a brother's way.
Even were there any reality in the analogy suggested, it would only lead to this
conclusion — that strong drink may be manufactured and houses for its sale set up,
but that all indulgence and traffic in it must be prohibited — the virtue of men being
put to the proof in resisting the temptation to use and traffic in the prohibited
liquor. Would those who descant on the value of temptation care to have drink
and drinking-houses exhibited while all connection with them was put under moral
and legal ban ? Yet this is the only analogy to be gathered from this passage ; the
tree of knowledge of good and evil was, indeed, planted and placed within reach,
but the command given was not to eat of it, and the recompense of disobedience
was death !

CHAPTER III. VERSE 6.

And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and
that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make
one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto
her husband with her, and he did eat.

This verse sententiously describes the 'great transgression'; voluntarily com-
mitted, indeed, but occasioned, in no small measure, by the circumstances
preceding it. Eve was standing on dangerous ground, near to the forbidden tree,
which she should have avoided; she was found in dangerous company, that of
the subtle serpent, which she should have shunned; and she was engaged in
dangerous excercises which she should have disallowed, lending an ear to
deceptive counsel, and fixing an eye on a seductive substance. Is it strange that, so
situated and employed, she should have fallen? Would that her progeny had
taken warning from her want of true wisdom ! * How impressive the lesson —
that, whenever possible, both the sphere and occasions of evil, as well as its actual
operations, ought to be dreaded and excluded ! Those who see no sin in using a
little drink, or in occasional visits to the tavern, argue as Eve might have done
the moment before "she took of the fruit, and did eat." Though Adam's appa-
rently ready compliance with Eve's invitation to share the unhallowed feast is a
mystery, it is certain that he was powerfully influenced by affection for his spouse ;
and thus his act becomes an example of the influence for good or evil, which
women exercise on the other sex, and through them on the destiny of the world.
When that influence is directed against the fashionable and fatal dietetic use of
intoxicating drinks, it will bless mankind beyond measure.

Much ingenious but useless speculation has been wasted on curious questions
arising out of this text ; such as the period which elapsed between Adam's creation
and Eve's formation, and between their conjugal union and their common sin; the

*The leading journal of Britain has said, that if our Temperance doctrines are correct, " Paradise
was wrongly constructed" : but a calm review of the case will demonstrate the contrary. Eve fell,
not because evil was prohibited, but because she willfully tampered with duty, and courted tempta-
tion. The fall was the result of the wickedness of the Tempter, and the weak self-conn. lence of the
Tempted, teaching that we should not desire to be 'led into temptation,' much less place ourselves
within its charmed circle.

" Circumstance, that unspiritual God
And miscreator, makes and helps along
Our coming evils with a crutch-like rod." — CJtilde Harold, Canto iv.

GENESIS, III. 6.

nature of the serpent that acted the tempter's part ; and the character of the tree
and the fruit "whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our woe."*
An opinion has even been hazarded that alcohol was the forbidden fruit, by which
is perhaps meant that its juice was of an alcoholic quality. This is of course a
mere conjecture, and the assumption that alcohol existed ready formed in Eden,
and not elsewhere, is wholly gratuitous. No doubt it is possible to trace a
resemblance between the fascination ascribed to the fruit of this tree, and that
which is produced by intoxicating drink; for to those who have become accustomed
to it, the latter is 'pleasant to the eyes,' and excites sensuous desire; tending,
when drunk, to create in its admirers a conceit of superior wisdom, that ends in
folly and sows the seeds of bitter disappointment. Ancient tradition has attributed
to the eating of the forbidden fruit effects analogous to those of inebriating liquor ;
an idea which Milton, in his regal poem, has brought out with consummate skill.
He represents that Eve, on tasting ' those fair apples,' became the subject of an
unnatural appetite and exhilaration : —

" Greedily she engorged without restraint
And knew not eating death ; satiate at length,
And heighten'd as with wine, jocund and boon."

She thus describes her feelings to Adam : —

41 Opener mine eyes,
Dim erst, dilated spirits, ampler heart,
And growing up to godhead."

So she felt, yet the great poet exposes the delusion by an expressive touch : —

" But in her cheek distemper flushing glowed.
Adam, however, yields, and when the hapless pair sin together, —

" As with new wine intoxicated both,
They swim in mirth, and fancy that they feel
Divinity within them, breeding wings
Wherewith to scorn the earth ; but that false fruit
Far other operation first displayed,
Carnal desire inflaming." — Paradise Lost, be.

In this poetical description no probability is violated by the supposition that the
effect of the forbidden fruit was to stimulate the sensual tendencies and undutiful
ambition attending the outward act of transgression. Then came the revulsion
and shame related by the sacred historian (Gen. iii. 7).

The conception that an intoxicating influence proceeded from the 'alluring
fruit ' doubtless strengthened the belief that a continuance of man's original
innocence would have been accompanied by abstinence from all liquors capable of
producing such 'distemper' of body and mind. That Milton entertained this
opinion is plain from his picture of the entertainment provided by Eve for
Raphael, when —

" Fruit of all kinds, in coat

Rough or smooth rind, or bearded husk, or shell,
She gathers tribute large, and on the board
Heaps with unsparing liand ; for drink the grape
Slie crushes, inoffensive must, and meaths
From many a berry, and from sweet kernels press'd
She tempers dulcet creams."

It may be objected that the use of flesh-meat was as little sanctioned by primitive
man as the use of intoxicating liquors. But there is a radical distinction between
the cases. Animal food is composed of the same elements as other food ; while
alcoholic liquors are distinguished from other beverages by qualities believed by
many to make them very valuable and desirable, if not necessary to human health

• The vulgar opinion that the fatal fni
the Latin fioinmn and nuiiutn, as signify

The apple being the best known of Ergliih orchard fruits, has gained a qv
which it is likely to retain for long.

ital fruit was a species of apple originated in the twofold use o^
signifying round fruit in general, and the apple-fruit in particular,
i of EW.;ih orchard fruits, has gained a questionable distinction

8 GENESIS, VI. 5.

and longevity. Were this estimate correct, their use would have been specially
appropriate in the times of man's innocence ; and the moral danger now associated
with their consumption would then have been reduced to its lowest point.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 5.

And God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth,
and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil
continually.

The causes of this intense depravity of the antediluvians have been learnedly
discussed by legions of theologians, but the silence of Scripture offers ground for
nothing better than ingenious guesses. Whether it was associated with, and
promoted by, the use of inebriating drinks, is also a branch of the same inquiry
on which conjecture can cast but the faintest glimmer. If the fruits of the earth
were only eaten for food, or their juice drunk immediately after being expressed,
the terrible secret of vinous fermentation may have been reserved for a later age.
This happy ignorance— or the sagacious prudence which refused to apply the
discovery — may have prevailed among the ' sons of God,' in their integrity and
simplicity of heart. In his 'World before the Flood,' James Montgomery
represents the wife of Enoch "'midst fruits and flowers," as engaged —

" Plucking the purple clusters from the vine
To crown the cup of unfermented wine." — Canto 3.

As to the self-reprobated sinners on whom God's mercy waited in vain, it is scarcely
credible that they should have remained ignorant of the fermenting process, or that
if acquainted with it, they should have denied themselves so agreeable a medium of
adding a new zest to every vice, and depraving depravity itself. That they were
'eating and drinking' in a state of lawless revelry when the judgment of God
overtook them appears to be indicated by the Saviour's words (Luke xvii. 27); and
it is difficult to imagine that the ' insolence ' with which they were ' flushed ' had
not, like that of Sodom, wine to inflame it. If, on the other hand, it is thought
more likely that that awful wickedness was not aggravated by the intoxicating bowl,
this view of the depths of evil to which human nature can sink without the aid
of alcohol, is an unanswerable reason why such an artificial and potent agent of
demoralization should be utterly discarded from the Church and the world.

CHAPTER IX. VERSES 20 — 27.

20 And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vine-
yard : 21 And he drank of the wine, and was drunken ; and he was
uncovered within his tent. 22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the
nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without. 23 And
Shem and Japheth took a garment, and laid */ upon both their
shoulders, and went backward, and covered the nakedness of their
father ; and their faces were backward, and they saw not their father's
nakedness. 24 And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew what his
younger son had done unto him. 25 And he said, Cursed be Canaan ;
a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren. 26 And he said,
Blessed be the LORD God of Shem; and Canaan shall be his servant.
27 God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of
Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant.

GENESIS, IX. 20 — 2/.

V. 20. HUSBANDMAN] Literally, 'a man of the earth' (or 'red-soil'— adahmah.)
The Lxx. has gtdrgos gees — 'a cultivator of the earth.' The V. agricola, 'field-
cultivator.'

A VIXKYARD] AtrZm, a Hebrew term signifying a cultivated piece of land set
with fruit-trees. One of the principal of these was the vine, and hence kerem
became generally applied to a vineyard — tilled land devoted chiefly but not
exclusively to the culture of the vine. Noah's kerem probably included all kinds
of fruit-bearing plants. Some of the Rabbins held that though the vine had been
cultivated before, Noah was the first to conduct the cultivation methodically, and
to set the vines together as a vineyard. The Lxx. has kai ephuteuscn ampelona, and
the Vulgate et plantavit vineam, both meaning 'and he planted a vineyard.' The
Targum of Jonathan enlarges the Scripture narrative with a curious legend —
"And Noah began to be a cultivator of the earth, and he lighted upon a vine
which the flood had carried away out of the Garden of Eden, and he planted it in a
vineyard, and in that very day it blossomed, and its grapes ripened, which he
pressed out; and he drank from the wine, and was drunk."

V. 21. AND HE DRANK OF THE WINE, AND WAS DRUNKEN] Hebrew, VCiy-

yasht min hay-yayin vay-yishkar, "And he drank from the yayin" (wine) — i. e.
some of it — "and was filled (with it)." The Targum of Onkelos reads ushthai
min khamtah un>it "and he drank from the khamrah (wine), and was drunk"
(or drenched). The Lxx. has kai epien ek tou oinou, kai emeihusthee, "and he
drank from the wine, and was drunk" (or surcharged). The Vulgate, Bibensque
I'inum inebriatus esty "and drinking the wine he was inebriated" (or saturated).*
[On YAYIN, the generic term rendered 'Wine' in the A. V., see Prel. Dis.]
It can hardly be doubted that a name was given by the ancient Hebrews to the
expressed juice of grapes, and if that name was not yayin, what was it? But
that they should have selected a name having reference to the occult fermenting
process is an hypothesis highly improbable, for such a specific discrimination would
have peremptorily interdicted the application of the name to the juice of grapes in
an w«fermented state, whereas that it was so applied is absolutely certain. Let
the generic meaning be sought for in the juice yielded by manual or mechanical
pressure, and there will be no difficulty in accounting for the continued application
of the name to the grape-juice under any change to which it was spontaneously
exposed, or artificially subjected. It has been gravely alleged that YAYIN must
always be taken to signify inebriating grape-juice, because such is its signification.
the first time it occurs, viz., in this verse — a conclusion as ridiculous as would be
the statement that the Hebrew words riiakh, elohim, shahmaim, and eretz, invaria-
bly express, in all parts of Scripture, the meanings they respectively bear in the
first verse of the first chapter of Genesis — viz., 'spirit,' 'the True God,' 'the
visible firmament,' and 'the terraqueous earth.' It is notorious, on the contrary,
that other and very different uses of all these words are common in subsequent
parts of the Old Testament. Generic terms, as is well known, are sometimes
variously employed to convey opposite ideas; as from barak, 'to kneel,' come the
derivative meanings of ' to bless ' and 'to curse.' If it be asked how we know that
the yayin used by Noah was intoxicating, we reply, Not so much by the ambiguous

• " Ebrius, literally one who has drunk his fill ; drunk, intoxicated ; in general, abundantly filled.
Etymology dubious, usually derived from e and 6, root of bibo, ' I drink.' Inebrio, to make drunk,
inebriate ; to saturate, fill full." — Dr Smith's Latin-Eng. Diet. Pliny, in treating of the vine,
remarks (xiv. 3), Conduntur et miuto irvtr, if>saque vino suo intbriantur, " Grapes are preserved also
in mutt, and are themselves inebriated (soaked) in their own wine."

10 GENESIS, IX. 20 — 27.

word translated 'was drunken,' as by the condition into which the wine cast him.
Where the context does not decide the special use of a generic term, the broad sense
must be retained.

Vay-yiskkar, 'and was drunken? answers to the old English sense of the word
'filled with drink' — not necessarily with intoxicating drink. Shah-kar (whence
comes yishkar) is rendered by Gesenius, 'to drink to the full,' with an implied
reference to the saccharine quality of the liquid drunk.

V. 24. AND NOAH AWOKE FROM HIS WINE] Hebrew, vay-yiqetz Noakh miy-
yayno, ' And Noah awoke from his wine ' — leaving it, as it were, behind him.

[ Yah-qatz signifies to wake or rouse up. ] With this agree the Hebrew-Samaritan
text, the Samaritan Version, and the Targum of Onkelos. The Lxx. is expressive
— exeneepse de Noe apo toil oincu, "And Noah became sober from the wine"
[exeneepsc comes from ek in the sense of 'entirely,' and neephein 'not to drink' —
meaning he became perfectly sober] — and figuratively 'recovered his senses,'
'came to himself — a sense which the Arabic version preserves — "But when Noah
had recovered himself from his drunkenness."

Noah drinking copiously of grape-juice which had become fermented and intoxi-
cating (of which some have supposed he was not aware), himself became intoxicated,
and, as it would seem, so suddenly as to fall down uncovered in his tent; in that
condition he is found by his son Ham, perhaps also by his grandson Canaan, who
show their want of decency and filial piety by at once informing Shem and Japheth;
if, indeed, we may not understand that they related the fact with mockery or glee.
The latter at once proceed, with delicate alacrity, to cover their father's shame, and
when the patriarch recovers his consciousness he knows — by a peculiar intuition —
what has transpired, and is supernaturally prompted to pronounce a curse on
Canaan, and a blessing on Shem and Japheth. It has been supposed that the
YAYIN may have been purposely drugged by Ham or Canaan, but the form of the
narrative gives no countenance to such an aggravation of his son and grandson's
guilt. It is not probable that such an incident, if real, would have been unknown
to Moses, or left unrecorded if known. Whether this was Noah's first and only
act of intoxication is a question that may be reasonably answered in the affirmative :
how it should have been committed at all is a question to which a plausible answer
is more difficult. Can we suppose that he had lived for 600 years ignorant of the
vine? or that he had never before expressed its juice?* or that he had never pre-
viously allowed it to ferment before drinking it? Can we suppose him ignorant to
this time of the nature and use of fermented wine ? or was he induced by some
passing circumstance (of heat or thirst) to take a draft unusually large? On the
whole it may be inferred, from the absence of Divine reproof, that his intoxication
was neither intentional, nor the result of gratifying a morbid love of intoxicating
liquor.

Observation I. It is noticeable that the first time intoxicating liquor is named in
Holy Writ it is associated with intemperance — a presage of the same connection
from that period to the present. Caustically, but with saddest truth, does Butler,
the author of 'Hudibras,' say of this 'pleasant poison,' —

* Dr Pye Smith conjectures that the Vine, after the deluge, may have been finer and fuller of juice
than before, and that this circumstance suggested the idea of expressing its juice, which would become
intoxicating without the knowledge of the fact at first. The narrative, indeed, gives no intimation
of surprise at the effect produced, which would surely have been felt had it been a novel state : but,
on the other hand, it may be said that the burden of the reproof seems to rest upon the fact of reveal-
'ng the nakedness of the Patriarch, which his son might attribute to another cause than the one
issigned by the narrator.

GENKSIS, XIV. 15, 18. II

" Which since has overwhelmed and drowned
Far greater numbers on dry groin d
Of wretched mankind, one by one,
Thau e'er the flood before had done."

2. A good man was the first victim of this alcoholic spell. If he was not
cognizant of it, or was too confident of his ability to resist it, the warning is
equally clear and strong. Whether the danger of using intoxicating drink is
unsuspected or despised, it is imminent and real — even to the pious. The only
recorded sin of the Antediluvian preacher of righteousness was the sin of one act
of intoxication ; but who shall reckon up the number of such sins, and of the sins to
which this vice has led, which have befallen the noblest and purest natures by an
addition to intoxicants ? Abstinence alone is safe, and good for all.

3. The tendency of intemperance to entail, directly or indirectly, family misery
and misfortune, is illustrated by the curse brought upon Canaan. Those who take
pleasure in the intemperance of others, or delight in deriding it, are fitting themselves
for a wretched future. By its immediate effects, and reflex associations, strong drink
is a source of immeasurable woe. Fabricius relates as a Jewish legend, that when
Noah planted the vine he killed a sheep, a lion, an ape, and a sow, and having
mingled their blood, poured it upon the roots of the plant, so that the use of wine
(not, however, the fresh, but the fermented blood of the grape) has since been
attended, in succession, by the placidity of the sheep, the boldness of the lion, the
nonsensical noisiness of the ape, and the filthy brutishness of the sow. The legend
carries its moral on its face, but is only half the truth, since the domestic and social
influences of inebriating drink yet remain to be symbolized.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 15.

And he divided himself against them, he and his servants, by night,
and smote them, and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left
hand of Damascus.

That Abraham, with a comparatively small array, should have defeated and
scattered the hosts of the four confederate Assyrian kings, is not very surprising,
even apart from the special aid of the Most High ; their imaginary security laid them
open to a successful night assault ; and Josephus, who perhaps followed some local
tradition, adds that while some were asleep in bed, others machesthai de apo methee
ou duna tot, " were not able to fight on account of drunkenness." Amongst the spoils
may have been some of the 'wine of Sodom,' by which the victors were themselves
overcome. Secular history supplies parallel instances of similar indulgences and
similar results.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 18.

And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine:
and he was the priest of the most high God.

The Hebrew reads Ickhtm vah-yayin — ' bread and yayin ' / with which agree the
Hebrew-Samaritan Text and Samaritan version. Onkelos has lekhcm va-khamer*
1 bread and khamcr' The Lxx., artons kai oinon, ' loaves and wine.' The Vulgate,
pattern etvinnntt 'bread and wine.' A question may arise, whether the yayin of
this passage is not to be understood in the sense of grapes rather than their expressed
juice [as in Jer. xl. IO— "Gather ye yayin and summer fruits"] — seeing that bread
and grapes continue to be associated in the East as articles of daily food. If the

12 GENESIS, XIX. 3, 30 — 35.

common acceptation of grape-juice is preferred, the juice may have been recently
expressed. That it was fermented and intoxicating is a groundless conjecture.
Even the knowledge that it was so would not demand or justify the common use
of alcoholic liquors in the present day. Dr Kitto on this passage observes, that
"in the language of Scripture, 'bread and wine,' as the chief articles of meat
and drink, represent all kinds of food." Kalisch remarks, "He brought out to
Abraham bread and wine, not to refresh him or his men — for Abraham had, among
the booty of his enemies, seized their large stores of provisions also, — but to perform
a symbolical ceremony in which bread and wine have a typical meaning."

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 3.

And he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and
they did eat.

A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh ; Lxx., poton ; Vulgate, convivium. Mishtehis
derived from shah-thah, 'to drink.' In hot climates cool and acid fluids form a
desirable and important element in all social entertainments. The name would
thence be naturally applied to all the provision on such occasions. The English
Version properly renders it by 'feast' aud 'banquet.'

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew Matzolh, the plural of matzah, which is generally
derived from matzatz, ' to suck,' * to be sweet ' — hence matzoth, ' sweet things ' — /. e.
loaves or cakes not fermented; similar, no doubt, to the ' cakes ' (itgoth— circles of
kneaded dough) made ready by Abraham for the angels (Gen. xviii. 6). Dr A.
Clarke assigns to matzatz the secondary meaning of ' to compress ' — matzoth being
the name given to cakes made of dough compressed — heavy, or ' sad.' Matzoth is
contrasted with fermented matter (khahmatz} in Exod. xii. 15, 19, 20, 34, 39, etc.
In the fermentation of dough, its saccharine property is reduced, because partially
changed into alcohol, which is afterward expelled by the heat of baking. The
notion that there is ' spirit in bread ' is, therefore, a vulgar error. The Lxx. gives
azumous, and the Vulgate azuma, 'unleavened things.'

CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 30 — 35.

30 And Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt in the mountain, and his
two daughters with him; for he feared to dwell in Zoar; and he
dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters. 31 And the firstborn said
unto the younger, Our father is old, and there is not a man in the
earth to come in unto us after the manner of all the earth : 32 Come, let
us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may
preserve seed of our father. 33 And they made their father drink wine
that night : and the firstborn went in, and lay with her father ; and
he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose. 34 And it
came to pass on the morrow, that the firstborn said unto the younger,
Behold, I lay yesternight with my father: let us make him drink
wine this night also ; and go thou in, and lie with him, that we may
v preserve seed of our father. 35 And they made their father drink wine
that night also : and the younger arose, and lay with him ; and he
perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose.

Nashqeh (twice), rendered 'let us make drink,' does not imply any compulsion,
but simply 'let us give to drink.' Yayin occurs four times in this passage,

GENESIS, XIX. 30 — 35. 13

and in each case is translated 'wine.' Onkelos puts khamrah as the equivalent.
The Lxx. reads — -potisumcn ton patera hettnon oinon, "Let us cause our father to
drink wine." The Vulgate is stronger — inebriemus eum vino, "Let us inebriate
him with wine."

That this yayin was suffered to become intoxicating by fermentation is exceed-
ingly probable, though some explain its potency by the supposition that, whether
fermented or not, it had been mixed with powerful drugs. In the fourth book
of the 'Odyssey,' Helen is described as casting into the wine (oinon) prepared for
Telemachus, a drug {pharmakon) said to be "grief-assuaging, anger-allaying, and
causing oblivion of all ills " (nceptnthes facholon U kakon epileethon apanton). In
the tenth book, Homer tells of the use made by Circe of 'direful drugs ' (pharmaka
lugra). Milton turns this legend to a noble allegorical account in his 'Comus,'
where the son of Bacchus and Circe is depicted, and his

" Baneful cup

With many murmurs mixed, whose pleasing poison
The visage quite transforms of him that drinks."

That Circean arts were known and practised in Sodom is highly probable, and
that Lot's daughters became acquainted with the method of preparing the 'en-
chanted' potion is very likely. It is certainly hard to understand how, under
such solemn circumstances as those from which the righteous patriarch had just fled,
he should so suddenly, and, as it were, with his eyes open, have sunk into such
debasement. The Orientals, at the present day, have a knowledge of drugs, which
they use for similarly profligate purposes. The objection that Lot's daughters could
not have procured the drugs in their seclusion is of no force, for the wine may have
been brought from Sodom; and if not, the ingenuity which obtained the yayin
would be equal to its adulteration for their impure purpose. The words of Moses
(Deut. xxxii. 32, 33) — "Their vine is of the vine of Sodom, . . . their wine is
the poison of dragons," naturally construed, implies that the wine of Sodom had a
traditional reputation for the qualities which drugs are known to impart. The
silence of Scripture is not a strong objection; for the narratives of the Bible
generally leave much to be inferred. What is positively affirmed is, that the juice
of the grape was used ; and that it had became corrupted and corrupting in some
way, whether by fermentation or drugging, or both, is made certain by the effects.

Observation I. It may be inferred that Lot was not accustomed to drink wine,
or his daughters would not have plotted to entrap him into the partaking of it.
These deviations from his habitual abstinence were the cause of grievous sin to the
patriarch, who had kept himself pure in Sodom.

Where an article inherently dangerous is concerned, separation from it is the
only security even for the best of men ; and when perfect safety can be found, why
should good men reject it?

2. The tendency of intoxicants to inflame sensual propensities is graphically
pointed out in this transaction. Lot's daughters knew the quality of the instrument
they employed. The insensibility induced did not deprive the alcoholic wine of
its lustful influence (Prov. xxiii. 33). The excitement of the animal passions is
the first effect of all alcoholic liquors; hence they may be said to carry within
them the germs of all the excess to which they give rise. If the daughters of Lot
drank of the wine they pressed upon their father, they would do so from their
acquaintance with its libidinous influence. Female chastity is never more imperiled
than when plied with strong drink. For this and other reasons the ancient Romans
enjoined strict abstinence upon their women. Can indulgence, however moderately,
in such liquors, be an illustration of Christian temperance?

14 GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37.

3. The evils of drunkenness cannot be too seriously pondered in order to warn
against any connection with the drink by which it is caused. Excellent Matthew
Henry says on this passage, "Drunkenness is not only a great sin itself, but the
inlet of many sins; it may prove the inlet of the worst and most unnatural sins,
which may be a perpetual wound and dishonor. A man may do that without
reluctance, when drunken, which, when sober, he could not think of without
horror. . . . From the silence of Scripture concerning Lot, henceforward we
may learn that drunkenness, as it makes men forgetful, so it makes them forgotten,
and many a name, which otherwise might have been remembered with respect, is
buried by it in contempt and oblivion."

CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 14, 15, 19.

14 And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread,
and a bottle of water, and gave // unto Hagar, putting // on her
shoulder, and the child, and sent her away : and she departed and
wandered in the wilderness of Beer-sheba. i5And the water was
spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs.
. . . . 19 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of
water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the
lad drink.

It is clear that Abraham was attached to Hagar, and did not consent to dismiss
her except under a conviction that her safety and the boy's would be secured,
He provided for their principal and more urgent wants by furnishing them with
"bread and a bottle of water" — in the Hebrew, lekhem vekhtimath maim. Bread
was to be their solid, water their liquid, sustenance. In most Western countries
water is so abundant that the value placed upon it in the East seems exaggerated;
but a visit to Eastern lands would show that no estimate of this value can be too
great, and that in water is to be found the true elixir vita after which there has
been so much ingenious and useless search. The Oriental mind is scarcely capable
of the shameless ingratitude too common among us, and from which many pro-
fessing Christians are not free — of despising the only fluid which is ESSENTIAL to
animal existence and comfort.

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 25.

And Abraham reproved Abimelech because of a well of water,
which Abimelech's servants had violently taken away.

To a sheik or pastoral chief like Abraham, the possession of a 'well' was
exceedingly precious ; and both the value of this property, and his natural resent-
ment at the injustice committed, would dispose Abraham to remonstrate with a
prince even so powerful as Abimelech, against the violent usurpation of which
his servants were guilty.

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSES 22, 25, 28, 37.

22 And Jacob went near unto Isaac his father; and he felt him,
and said, The voice is Jacob's voice, but the hands are the hands of

GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37. 15

Esau 25 And he said, Bring // near to me, and I will

eat of my son's venison, that my soul may bless thee. And he
brought // near to him, and he did eat : and he brought him wine,

and he drank 2s Therefore God give thee of the dew

of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine.
. . . . 37 And Isaac answered and said unto Esau, Behold, .
with corn and wine have I sustained him.

V. 25. PIE BROUGHT HIM WINE, AND HE DRANK] The Hebrew is yayin,
the Targumists give khamrah, the Lxx. oinott, and the V. -uinnm. Whether the
yayin was fermented or not is not said ; nor, however prepared, would the inci-
dent form a rule of conduct to us. The Targum of Jonathan introduces into this
part of the narrative a legend which shows that the Chaldee khamar was appli-
cable to ' grape-juice ' in the unfermented state. The passage runs thus : — " Neither
had he (Jacob) wine with him, but an angel had prepared and brought to him some
of the wine which had been in its grapes from the beginning of the world ; and he
gave it into Jacob's hand, and Jacob carried it to his father, who drank it." Of
such wine (yayin or khamar) none need scruple to partake, even if some other than
an angel were the purveyor.

V. 28. CORN AND WINE] The 'dew of heaven' included all kinds of moisture
necessary to the ' fatness of the earth ' ; and this ' fatness ' is partially defined by the
concluding clause, " and (or even) plenty of corn and wine." The Hebrew is dahgan
vZ-tirosh — not corn made up into bread nor vine-fruit made into wine — but the
actual growth of the field. [On TIROSH, see Prel. Dis.] It is sufficient to remark
that the association here, and in many other passages, of tirosh with corn, as a pro-
duct of the soil, proves it to have been a solid substance, and not a liquid. Nor is
this conclusion invalidated in the least by the fact that the Targumists translate it
by khamar ; that the Lxx. version \s pleethos si ton kai oinon, * fullness of corn and
wine ' ; that the V. has alnndantiani fnitnenti et vitii, * abundance of corn and
wine ' ; and that other versions treat it as the liquid produce of the vine. After pas-
sages will show, however, that the Lxx., Vulgate, and other versions give render-
ings of tirosh that favor our argument, while the case of the Targumists simply
proves that, for some reason unknown, they ignored a distinction very clearly drawn
in the only authority, the Hebrew original. It is to be remarked, indeed, that in
almost every case where tirosh occurs in the Hebrew and Hebrew-Samaritan
texts, and where the Targumists render it by khamar, the learned compilers of
Bishop Walton's Polyglot give mnslitm (new, unfermented wine) as the equivalent ;
as likewise do all the Continental versions of the Bible — German, Italian, Spanish,
French, etc.

V. 37- WITH CORN AND WINE HAVE I SUSTAINED HIM] The Hebrew is —
dahgan ve-tirosh semaktiv — "Corn and Tirosh have I sustained him with." The
Lxx. has — "with corn and wine I have supported him" — situ kai oino cstecrisa
ait ton. The V. gives, " with corn and wine I have established him "—fnimento et
vino stabilivi enm.

Ols. It is God who bestows the 'fatness of the earth,' that man's heart may be
filled 'with food and gladness ' ; but enlightened piety will ever draw a distinction
between the Divine gifts and the misuses to which they are put. To conclude that
the two are identical, or that the first sanctifies the second, is an absurdity too gross

1 6 GENESIS, XL. 9—13, 21.

to deceive any, when plainly stated; yet the most ordinary form of objection to the
Temperance Reform is based on this very absurdity ; — as, for example, the inference
generally advanced, that alcoholic wine and beer are God's good gifts, because the
fruit and grain employed (and extensively destroyed) in making strong drink are
Divine gifts ! To honor and rightly use ' the fatness of the earth ' is to consume it
with as little alteration for the worse as possible. On the other hand, to convert
TIROSH into an intoxicating liquid is not to appropriate the fatness of the vine as
conferred by God, but is to abuse it in a manner that cannot be too soon repented
of and abandoned.

CHAPTER XXXV. VERSE 14.

And Jacob set up a pillar in the place where he talked with him,
even a pillar of stone; and he poured a drink-offering thereon, and
he poured oil thereon.

AND HE POURED A DRINK-OFFERING THEREON] Hebrew, vay-yassak aleihah
nesck, 'And he poured upon it a pouring '=that which was poured. What liquid it
was that was thus poured out is not stated. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40.

CHAPTER XL. VERSES 9 — 13, 21.

9 And the chief butler told his dream to Joseph, and said to him,
In my dream, behold, a vine was before me; ioAnd in the vine
were three branches; and it was as though it budded, and her
blossoms shot forth; and the clusters thereof brought forth ripe
grapes : n And Pharaoh's cup was in my hand : and I took the
grapes, and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the cup
into Pharaoh's hand. 12 And Joseph said unto him, This is the
interpretation of it: The three branches are three days. 13 Yet
within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thine head, and restore thee
unto thy place; and thou shalt deliver Pharaoh's cup into his hand,
after the former manner when thou wast his butler. ... 21 And
he [Pharaoh] restored the chief butler unto his butlership again ; and
he gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand.

V. 9. THE CHIEF BUTLER] The Hebrew is sar ham-mashqimt * chief of the
cup-bearers.' Mashqim is the plural of mashqeh, from shah-qah 'to drink,' the
Hiphil conjugation of which takes the sense of giving-to-drink, as in the case of
Lot's daughters ; so that the mashqeh was one who gave drink to another.

A VINE WAS BEFORE ME] This is the first place in which the term ' vine ' occurs.
The Hebrew is gephen, and denotes ' that which is bent — a twig ' ; hence ' a plant
that has twigs,' and hence 'a vine,' which is its usual signification in the Old
Testament. The Lxx. has ampdos, the Vulgate vitent.

V. 10. AND IT WAS AS THOUGH IT BUDDED] Bishop Horsley proposes to read,
"And it was upon the point of putting forth its blossoms."

AND THE CLUSTERS THEREOF BROUGHT FORTH RIPE GRAPES] 'Clusters'
is the translation of eshkeloth, which originally signified the ' stalks ' of the vine.
' Ripe grapes ' is the A. V. rendering of anahvim, the plural of anahv, ' a cluster, ' and

GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21. I/

usually 'a cluster of grapes.' The connection between eshkol (a stalk) and anahv
(a cluster) was thus very close, and not always distinguished; for the eshkol would
easily come to signify the stalk with the grape-clusters attached. ' Ripe ' is an
addition of our translators, but is partially supported by Kalisch, who takes eskeloth
to signify 'unripe clusters'; and viewing bah-shal, not as 'to bring forth,' but 'to
cook' or 'ripen,' he reads the clause thus: — "Its unripe cluster matured into ripe
grapes." The description is concise and vivid. As the chief cup-bearer slept he
saw first the bare form of a vine, then the vine with its buds just sprouting, next
the vine in full flower, and finally the stalks with their berries ripened into purpled
clusters.

V. ii. PHARAOH'S CUP] The Hebrew of 'cup' is kos, supposed to be a contrac-
tion of kones, 'a receptacle,' from kah-nasy 'to collect'

This narrative suggests several interesting questions : —

I. Was the -vine cultivated in Egypt? The text undoubtedly implies that it was>
and this is explicitly affirmed of the period of the Exodus. On the other hand, a
passage in Herodotus (book ii., ch. 77) states that the Egyptians "use wine pre-
pared from barley, because there are no vines in their country" — oino d'ek
kritheon pepoieemenv diachreeontai, ou gar sphi fist en tee chvree ampeloi. Sir
G. Wilkinson conjectures that Herodotus may refer only to the corn-growing
districts, which were not well adapted to the growth of the vine. Whatever may
be the explanation, and however credible the testimony of Herodotus as to the state
of things in his own age, his words cannot apply to Egyptian agriculture ten
centuries preceding his visit. The evidence of Scripture as to the cultivation of
the vine in Egypt has been corroborated by the paintings on the tombs of Thebes,
some of which, copied by Sir G. Wilkinson ('Ancient Egyptians,' vol. ii., pp. 141
— 151), strikingly show that the vine was extensively and scientifically cultivated
by the ancient Egyptians. Hellanicus even mentions a report that the first culti-
vators of the vine were the settlers round about Plinthina, an Egyptian city on the
Mediterranean. The time of vintage in Egypt was toward the end of June or
commencement of July. In one painting boys are represented guarding the ripened
clusters from the depredations of birds, and men are depicted plucking the grapes
and carrying them away in wicker baskets. For wine-making the Egyptians
sometimes used bags filled with grapes, which were squeezed by the turning of
two poles in opposite directions. They also built raised platforms where men trod
the clusters, whose juice flowed into a lower receptacle, and thence into vessels
ready to receive it. Athenoeus, who died A.D. 198, describes, in his 'Deipnoso-
phistai,' various kinds of Egyptian wine, one of which — the Mareotic — he says,
'does not affect the head' — kephalees ouk kathiknonmenos. Of the Taeniotic, he
states that "it has such a degree of richness [liparon ; literally, 'fatness'], that
when mixed with water it seems gradually to be diluted, much in the same way as
Attic honey well mixed." Of another species he remarks, that it is so thin and
digestible that "it can be given without harm to those suffering from fever" — bs
tots puretmousi didomenos mee bleptein. The sober would select such wines as
these, while the dissolute would seek after strongly fermented or drugged wines,
and failing them, would drink to satiety of the less intoxicating sorts. The wall
pictures prove that both men and women drank at feasts to intoxication, and some
of the artists seem to have taken a sarcastic pleasure in holding up the intem-
perance of their contemporaries to ridicule. At a later period, and possibly in the
earlier ages also, palm wine and beer were extensively drunk, the native name of

18 GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21.

the beer appearing in the Greek writers as zythus, but known also as 'barley
wine ' — oinos krithinos. Caution, however, is called for in pronouncing upon the
nature of ancient liquors and the manners of the people. The pictured excesses
may have been occasional, with long intervals of abstinence; and concerning the
articles used, the words of Sir G. Wilkinson are entitled to much weight: — "Con-
sidering how persistent the custom was among the ancients of altering the qualities
of wines by drugs and diverse processes, we may readily conceive the possibility
of the effects ascribed to them, and thus it happened that opposite properties were
frequently attributed to the same kinds." — (' Anc. Egypt.' ii. pp. 162-3.)

2. Plow far is the chief butler's dream to be understood as illustrative of actual
usage ? Josephus's version of the butler's speech is as follows : — " He said . . .
that by the king's permission he pressed the grapes into a goblet, and having
strained the sweet-wine, he gave it to the king to drink, and that he received it
graciously" — elege . . . toutotis autos apothlibein eis phialeen hupechontos ton
basileos, diatheesas te to GLEUKOS dounai to basileipiein, kakainon dexasthai kecharis-
menOs. Josephus here uses gleukos to designate the expressed juice of grapes
before fermentation could possibly commence. Whether the dream of the chief
cup-bearer represented his practice at court is doubted. The writer of the article
< Joseph,' in Smith's 'Dictionary of the Bible' (Yen. Arch. Lord Harvey, M.A.),
denies that any inference can be drawn from the dream as to the kind of wine
supplied to the kings of Egypt at this period, and he points out that all the events
(the growth of the vine, etc.) are described as transpiring with unnatural rapidity;
but it may be rejoined, that as the events were in themselves natural, the proper
conclusion is, that it was the custom of the chief cup-bearer to prepare the king's
wine by pressing the juice of grapes into a receiver, and offering it — not perhaps
instantly, but after straining it, while it was yet fresh and free from fermentation —
to the royal hands. That the style of the narration is calculated to convey this
impression can hardly be denied by any candid mind. Matthew Henry, the prince
of practical commentators, observes, "Probably it had been usual with them to
press the full ripe grapes immediately into Pharaoh's cup, the simplicity of that
age not being acquainted with the modern art of making the wine fine." Bishop
Lowth (on Isa. v. 2) observes, "See Gen. xl. II, by which it should seem that
they (the Egyptians) drank only the fresh juice pressed from the grape, which was
called oinos ampelinos, — Herodotus, ii. 37." But in the opinion of some critics the
phrase oinos ampelinos, 'wine of the vineyard,' is used simply to distinguish, not
one kind of grape-juice from another, but grape wine from palm wine, barley wine
(beer), etc. Sir G. Wilkinson, however, has obviously an eye to vineyard wine
freshly made, when he speaks of it as one of the offerings to the gods of Egypt,
and as "one of the most delicious beverages of a hot climate, and one which is
commonly used in Spain and other countries at the present day." — ('Anc. Egypt,'
v. p. 366.) As to palm wine, he remarks, "The modern name of it in Egypt is
lowbgeh. In flavor it resembles a very new light wine, and may be drunk in great
quantity when taken from the tree,* but as soon as fermentation has commenced
its intoxicating qualities have a powerful and speedy effect." — (Ibid., iii. p. 375-)
Dr Adam Clarke, in his note, is very decided: "From this we find that wine
.anciently was the mere expressed juice of the grape, without fermentation. The

*This recalls the lines in Thomson's ' Seasons ' (Summer),—

" Or stretched amid these orchards of the sun,
Give me to drain the coco's milky bowl,
And from the palm to draw \\sjreshening -wine,
More bounteous far than all the frantic juice
That Bacchus pours."

GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21. 19

saky, or cup-bearer, took the bunch, pressed the juice into the cup, and instantly
delivered it into the hands of his master. This was anciently the yayin of the
Hebrews, the oinos of the Greeks, and the nmstiim of the ancient Latins." In
his tract on the Sacrament he says vinttm in place of mustum.

3. Were the ancient kings of Egypt permitted to drink wine? and if 'so, of
what sort? Herodotus (B.C. 480), who traveled in Egypt, states that the kings,
like the priestly class of which they were members, had a portion of wine allotted
to them — a portion not large enough, indeed, to satisfy them all. To the same
effect, Hecatceus (B.C. 549) and Diodorus Siculus (B.C. 50) — whose history is in
the main a compilation from more ancient works — state that king Bocchoris, who
reigned B.C. 766, enacted "that the kings should take as much wine as would
refresh but not inebriate." On the contrary, Eudoxus, a learned Greek who had
visited Egypt, and who died B.C. 340, is cited by Plutarch as affirming, on the
authority of the priests, that until the reign of Psammetichus (B.C. 640) the kings
drank no wine. The priests may have meant that the ancient kings were forbidden
to use wine of an intoxicating quality. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who enters into this
question in his 'Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' and in his
Notes to ' Rawlinson's Herodotus,' refers to this narrative in Genesis as evidence
that "as early as the time of Joseph the Egyptian kings drank wine; " but a per-
mission to use wine prepared according to the dream might well have co-existed
with a prohibition to use such sorts as, according to Rosenmiiller, contained aliquid
pestiferum — ' something pestiferous.'

Dr Kalisch, in his ' Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament,'
after referring to the conjecture that the chief butler assumes the wine to have
passed through the fermenting process, significantly adds, " But it is as probable that
some temperate persons (as it was later ordained in the Koran)* abstained from fer-
mented wine on account of its more intoxicating power, and that at some period
the priests, who regulated the king's table as they controlled all his public and
private affairs, prohibited to him the fermented juice of the grape." The suggestion
is not without force that the injunction in Prov. xxxi. 4, 5, " It is not for kings to
drink wine, nor for princes strong drink," was a recognition of 'the wisdom of
Egypt,' and of the Egyptian kings. The king was the head of the priesthood ; and
as regards the priests and their temple rites, it seems, from Herodotus, that in his
day they were allowed " portions of wine, and that wine was offered in the temples,
and poured upon the altars." The sepulchral paintings confirm the latter statement ;
but Plutarch, in his ' Treatise on Osiris and Isis ' (sec. 6), furnishes an interesting
statement, which we quote entire: — "As to wine, they who wait upon the gods in
the City of the Sun [the 'On' of Genesis, where Joseph's father-in-law was a
priest, and the ' Heliopolis' of the Greeks] carry absolutely none into the temple,
as something not seemly to drink in daytime, the lord and king looking on ; but
the other priests use wine — a little, indeed — and they have many sacred solemnities
free from wine (aoinous hagneias\ when they spend the time in philosophizing, and
in acquiring and imparting instruction on divine things. Even the kings themselves,
being of the order of priests, have their wine given to them according to a certain
measure as prescribed in the sacred books, as Hecataeus informs us. They began
to drink (wine) from the time of Psammetichus, previous to which they drank no

* The law of the Koran was undoubtedly borrowed by Mohammed from a pre-existing and tradi-
tional morale and regimen. This idea of the possibility of the priests having been more strict at
one period than another is illustrated by the fact that many of the ancient monastic institutions of
Britain were founded (as their charters evince) on abstinence principles, from which, age by age,
they departed, — first through the hospital and medicinal use of wine, untij ' good cheer ' and inebri-
ation became the rule. Hence an argument founded on the assumed uniformity of practice in dif-
ferent ages must be viewed with suspicion.

20 GENESIS, XLIII. II.

wine at all (proteron d'ouk epinon oinon}; and if they made use of it in their liba-
tions to the gods, it was not because they looked upon it as in its own nature
acceptable, but as the blood of those enemies who formerly fought against them,
which, being mixed with the earth, produced the vine ; and hence they think that
drinking wine in quantities (to methueiri) makes men silly and mad (ekphronas kai
parapleegous}, being filled with the blood of their own ancestors. These things are
related by Eudoxus in the second book of the Tour, as he had them from the priests
themselves." The acknowledged fact that the use of wine was strictly forbidden to
priests during their more solemn purifications, is of no small significance when
compared with the similar interdict laid on the Jewish priests (Lev. x. 9).

In the Cambridge Essays (1858) there is a curious paper by Mr C. W. Good-
win, the Egyptologist, who furnishes translations of some writings of a supposed
very high antiquity. Several are believed to be as old as the time of Moses, and
in one of them, Amen-em-an, a steward of the royal house, writes to Pentaour, a
poet, in the language of reproof. Among other things he says, " If beer (kek —
which may signify palm wine, Mr Goodwin remarks) gets into a man it overcomes
the mind. Thou art like an oar started from its place, which is unmanageable
every way. Thou art like a shrine without its god ; like a house without its pro-
visions, whose walls are found shaky. If thou wieldest the rod of office (?), men
run away from thee. Thou knowest that wine is an abomination. Thou hast
taken an oath (pledge?) concerning strong drink, that thou wouldst not put it into
thee. Hast thou forgotten thy resolution? "

CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE u.

And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do
this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry
down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and
myrrh, nuts, and almonds.

AND A LITTLE HONEY] Hebrew, u-meat devash, 'and a little of honey.'
The Lxx. reads (v. 10), kai tou melitos, 'and (a gift) of honey.' The V. has et
mellis, 'and (a little) of honey.'

It is the opinion of not a few scholars that the Hebrew dtvash or dZbash was
commonly if not exclusively used to represent the luscious substance formed by
boiling down grape-juice to a jelly-like state. The note of Dr Adam Clarke upon
this text is as follows : — " Most translate ' honey,' others ' date-juice '; but neither of
these can be meant, as Egypt abounds in the best honey, and is rich in palm dates.
The opinion of Shaw [Dr T. Shaw, F.R.S., the eminent traveler] is most proba-
ble, that the Hebrew debash means a juice of the consistency of honey, prepared
from dried grapes, and called by the Arabs dibs, the same name. This, in our
day, is produced only in a tract of land about Hebron, and yearly sent to Egypt to
the amount of three hundred camel-loads. Kaempfer describes a similar juice. A
great part of the grapes is reduced by boiling to a syrup, which upon the tables of
the poor supplies the place of butter, and, with abstemious persons, of wine, being
mixed with water." Gesenius, in his lexicon, derives debash from a supposed verb
dabash — Greek depso, 'to work up a mass'; hence debash, "so called as being
soft like a kneaded mass ; " and having referred to several passages where he con-
siders 'the honey of bees' is intended, he observes, "(2) Honey of grapes, *'. e.
must or new wine boiled down to a third or half (Greek hepseema ; Latin, sapat

GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 21

defrutum ; Italian, musto cottd), which is now commonty carried into Egypt out of
Palestine, especially out of the district of Hebron (compare Russel's 'Natural His-
tory of Aleppo,' p. 20) — Gen. xliii. ii; Ezek. xxvii. 17."

CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE 34.
And they [the brethren] drank and were merry with him [Joseph].

The Hebrew runs, vay-yishtu vay-yishkeru immo, "And they drank and were
well-filled with him." Yishkeru is from shah-kar, 'to drink to the fill,' of sAa6ar,
'sweet drink,' extracted from the palm, etc. ; though shakarwas sometimes used of
any sweet or pleasant drink, such as the juice of ripe grapes. Where the 'sweet
drink' had been allowed to stand for a time and become fermented, copious
draughts would intoxicate ; but intoxication cannot logically be inferred unless the
circumstances (as in the case of Noah) indicate such a condition. The Hebrew
term rah-vah also signifies 'to drink largely,' 'to be filled with drink,' but it has
no allusion to the ' sweetness ' of the draught. The Samaritan version gives, ' And
they were heavy.' The Targums have v'rawi, which, like shah-kar, might include
repletion or inebriation; and Jonathan, in his Targum, adds by way of excuse or
explanation, the curious declaration, "Because, from the day in which they were
separated, they had not drunk wine (khamrah), neither he nor they, until that day."
The Lxx. reads, "Now they drank and were well-filled with him" — epion de, kai
tmethustheesan me? autou ; though methuo, like shah-kar, may be applied to both
an innocent and an evil drinking. The Vulgate seems to adopt the more damaging
alternative, 'And they drank and were inebriated with him' — biberuntque et ine-
bnati sunt cum eo, — unless inebriari is employed to express simple 'repletion.'
The English version, 'were merry,' is evidently designed to prevent the shock that
would be given to the devout reader by a statement implicating Joseph in an act of
excess and intemperance. Professor Stuart, of Andover, considers that what the
patriarchs drank was "not a fermented liquor, but the simple juice of the grape
(such as is described Gen. xl. n)"; and he adds, "That Joseph and his brethren
'were merry,' then, was not because they were intoxicated; and even if this were
the case, as their example is not spoken of with any approbation, we could not
deduce from it the conclusion that it is commended to our imitation." In truth,
however, there is no good reason for concluding that such a sin was committed by
them, or that it was approved and promoted by the pious Joseph.

CHAPTER XLIX. VERSES n, 12.

ii Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice
vine; he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood
of grapes, i* His eyes shall be red with wine, and his teeth white
with milk.

The Hebrew-Samaritan text reads as follows: — "His citizens being bound to a
vine, and the sons of his strength to a vine-branch, he washed his vestment in wine,
and his garment in the blood of grapes. He made him glad as to his eyes from
wine, and white as to his teeth from milk." With this the Samaritan version
coincides. The Lxx. Vatican Codex runs, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to the
helix [or vine-shoot] the foal of his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the

22 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12.

blood of grapes his garment. Cheering are his eyes above wine, and white are his
teeth [more] than milk" — Desmeuonpros ampelon tonpolon autou, kai tee heliki ton
polon tees onou autou, plunei en oino teen stoleen autou, kai en haimati staphulces
teen pcriboleen autou. Charopoioi oi ophthalmoi autou huper oinon, kai leukoi oi
odontes autou ee gala.

The Vulgate renders, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to a vine-branch, oh! my
son, his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the blood of grapes his cloak.
More beautiful are his eyes than wine, and whiter are his teeth than milk" —
Ligans ad vineam pullum suum, et ad vitem, 6 fili mi, asinam suam, lavabit in
vino stolam suam et in sanguine uva pallium suum. Pulchriores sunt oculi ejus
vino, et denies ejiis lacte candidiores.

The Syriac gives, "He will bind his colt to a vine, and the foal of his ass to a
vine-branch. He will cleanse his vestment in wine, and his garment in the blood
of grapes. His eyes are of a darker red than wine, and whiter are his teeth than
milk." So in substance read the Arabic and Persian versions. The Targums,
subsequently quoted, are too periphrastic to be cited here as translations.

V. ii. THE CHOICE VINE] The Hebrew is la-soraqah — the feminine form
of sorfy, 'a shoot* or 'tendril,' or 'a collection of branches,' from soraq, 'to
interweave.' Bishop Patrick understands a reference to the vine of the valley of
Sorek, adjoining Eshcol; and Bishop Lowth (Isa. v. 2), regarding 'Sorek' as a
proper name, proposes to read 'to his own Sorek.' The Sorek vine might pos-
sibly retain that name when transplanted. One conjecture identifies it with a
species known in Morocco as the serki, which yields a small but very sweet grape,
highly prized. In Fuerst's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, SORAQ is defined to
be a vine laden with grapes ' filled with a red and superior wine ' — vino, rubro ac
prastanti impletis. As to Sorek, comp. Judg. xvi. 4; Isa. v. 2; xvi. 8; Jer. ii. 21.

HE WASHED HIS GARMENTS IN WINE, AND HIS CLOTHES IN THE BLOOD OF

GRAPES] This is a striking example of the parallelism which formed one of the
features and beauties of Hebrew poetry — the two clauses differing in language but
corresponding in sense — 'garments' answering to 'clothes,' and 'wine' (yayin)
to 'the blood of grapes' (dam anahvim). 'Blood' is a poetical name for 'juice,'
and is evidence of the ancient signification of yayin as 'the juice of the grape,'
prior to fermentation. This juice, squeezed out, is yayin, and hence the juice in
the grape, and even the grape itself, might, by a natural figure, bear the same
name. [Compare Anacreon's poetical reference to oinos as 'confined in fruit upon
the branches ' — -pepedeemenon oporais epi kleematon (Ode 49), and the description
of the vintage-treaders 'letting loose the vine' — luontes oinon.~\ Whether dam
anahvim (blood of grapes) involves a reference to the color of blood is uncertain.
If it does, and if soraq yielded a red juice, the allusion to that kind of vine heightens
the poetical force of the passage. Grapes, purple as well as white, generally yield
a colorless juice; but the skins of the purple sort dye the juice when trodden in
the vat; and in this way, if in no other, the similitude would be sustained. [But
as to 'blood of grapes,' see note on Isa. Ixiii. 2, 3.]

V. 12. His EYES SHALL BE RED WITH WINE] This short clause has given rise
to much diversity of interpretation ; and it will be necessary, for proper considera-
tion, to divide it into parts : —

I. 'His eyes shall be red.' The Hebrew is khaklili ainaim, 'red (as to his)
eyes.' But what is the meaning of khaklili? The Targums use it descriptively of
the appearance of wine. The Lxx. (Codices A and B) has charopoioi, ' cheering »
or 'gladdening'; but Origen, in his 'Hexapla,' notices that copies of that version
were extant in his day (third century) with other meanings, viz., katharoi, 'pure';

GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 23

thermal, 'glowing'; diapuroi, 'flaming'; and phoberoi, 'terrible.' Aquila's version
gives katakoroi, 'satiated,' i. e. with color = 'deep-colored.' In the parallel pas-
sage (Prov. xxiii. 29) the Lxx. rendering of khakliloth is pelidnoi, 'dark blue.'
Symmachus there reads charopoi, 'gladsome'; and Aquila, katharoi, 'pure'; unless
(which is not impossible) the transcriber substituted for an unusual word, such as
katakori, one which he thought analogous and better understood. The Vulgate
has pulchriares, 'more beautiful.' Gesenius has an elaborate but undecided note
upon the word, which he inclines to render 'being dim,' without, however, rejecting
the idea of something bright and flashing. One scholar finds in it the origin of
al-cahal, the powder used by Eastern women to darken their eyebrows and deepen
their beauty, this name of « alcana!' being supposed to be the same which the
Arabian alchemists gave to the spirit they distilled from wine, the 'alcohol' of
modern science. To the same root are traced the Greek achluo, 'to darken,' and
achlus, 'darkness.' Professor Lee prefers 'refreshed.' Unless some color is
indicated no parallelism with the 'white' of the next clause is presented; it is also
clear that the color has some relation to 'wine'; but to determine this relation
requires an examination of the last two words.

2. 'With wine' — Hebrew, miy-yayin. The Hebrew min is a preposition, with
* very comprehensive range of use. Radically it implies separation, as in the text
before explained, ' Noah drank of the wine ' — min hay-yayin ; i. e. he drank some
of the yayin, which, by the act of drinking, was separated from the rest. Thus
arises the sense of 'out of,' 'from,' and causatively, 'by means of.' This is the
sense assigned to min in this passage by the English translators, who consider that
the "eyes of Judah were to be red with wine," i.e. by means of wine. In the
Targums on this passage, as will be seen below, min is several times employed
with this signification. On the other hand, min may be used as a term of com-
parison, in the sense of 'out of,' 'beyond,' 'more than'; and so construed the
clause would read, "His eyes are red (or bright) above wine," *. e. are of deeper
color and glow. It is curious to mark that Codex A, Lxx., reads, apo oinoit, * from
wine,' which partakes of the ambiguity of the Hebrew min ; while Codex B (quoted
above) has huper oinon, 'above wine,' and versions generally exhibit this reading.
The renderings of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus are lost. The external
evidence, so far as it has come down to us in ancient translations, is rather in favor
of giving a comparative power to min, "red [or dark] above wine, white above
milk;" but the internal evidence preponderates in favor of the causative sense,
"red [dark] with wine, white with milk." The nth verse predicts an abundance
of grape-juice, in which (speaking figuratively) the children of Judah should wash
their clothes, and we are naturally prepared for an allusion in the I2th verse to
some effect of that abundance, such as is indicated by the words, " His eyes shall
be red with wine." The other rendering introduces a contrast not in harmony
with the context, and which raises the question, Why should his eyes be described
as redder (or darker) than wine, and his teeth as whiter than milk? It may be
answered, indeed, that joy from the profusion of Divine mercies would cause the
eyes to sparkle; but this answer eliminates from khaklili the idea of color (for the
eye is neither red nor dark because it sparkles), and it fails to explain why the
teeth are said to be whiter than milk. Accepting, then, the English version as
correctly rendering ;;///* by 'with,' we have to inquire, What is intended by this
redness or darkness of eyes from an abundance of yayin? Some critics have
sanctioned the interpretation which connects this prophecy with the inflammatory
redness or darkness of eye produced by excessive drinking; 'red,' as indicating the
fierce flashing glances excited by alcoholic wine, or 'dark,' as denoting the dull,

24 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12.

lack-lustre expression of the inebriate's eye. It is true that 'redness of eyes' is
one feature in Solomon's portraiture of the drunkard; but this fact illustrates the
proposition that ' the letter, ' even of Scripture, may kill, if the spirit be overlooked.
Piety revolts at the suggestion that Jacob promised as a blessing that which
Solomon portrays as a curse. Professor Lee justly denounces this immoral exegesis ;
but when he substitutes for it the brightness of the eye ' refreshed ' by moderate
draughts of wine, he lays himself open to a triad of objections: First, that he
excludes from khaklili the idea of color ; secondly, that he makes this khaklili to
depend on a limitation of wine, and not, as the passage itself implies, on its profusion;
and thirdly, that the ' refreshing ' effect he associates with the moderate use of wine
is, physiologically, different in degree only from that which he condemns. When
the eyes are lighted up with wine, can the brain be said to be perfectly sober? Has
not the drinker then reached a stage of vinosity when he may regard himself as
* elevated,' but when calmer observers must look upon him as perceptibly lowered
in his rational and moral standing?

These expositions may all be considered faulty, as based on the assumption that
the phrase ' red as to his eyes ' has regard to an appearance of the organ of vision
itself; whereas nothing more may be intended than a dark red or deep-colored
appearance round about the eyes, such as would be produced by contact with ' the
blood of the grape.' Those who washed their very clothes in the flowing juice
might be appropriately described as carrying the marks of it on their faces ; or if
allusion is made to the crowded wine-press and the 'crushing swains,' what is more
natural than to suppose the juice dashing and coloring with its spray the eyes of
the gleeful treaders? The same usus loquendi is seen in 2 Kings ix. 30, 'And she
[Jezebel] painted her face' — vattasem bap-puk aini/ia; literally, 'And she put into
painting [or pigment] her eyes.' So Ezek. xxiii. 40, 'Thou paintedst thy eyes' —
kakhalt ainaik. Pliny says of the Roman ladies, that they were given to self-
decoration, 'that their eyes must be painted' (or dyed) — ut tinguantur oculi
quoque. In these and other instances the reference is not to the organ of sight
itself, but to the eyelid, eyebrow, or other parts of the face. The English idiom
furnishes parallel examples. In the familiar phrase, 'eyes red with weeping,' it is
the border of the eyes, the cheek contiguous, which is meant; and in the 'blackened
eye' some adjacent part. We conclude that khaklili indicates the color of the
expressed juice of the grape, which (unless the juice were itself red) would take
a purple hue from the coloring matter of the skin ; and this purple, being a rich
deep color, forms the best possible contrast to the whiteness of milk. The I2th
verse may, therefore, be rendered, "Empurpled are his eyes with grape-juice, and
white are his teeth with milk." Schumann explains the last clause, "as if milk
distilled from his teeth." The description is redolent of the field and the fold, at
once poetical and prefigurative, but yielding no approval, direct or indirect, to the
use of intoxicating drinks.

In these verses what is said of Judah is, in reality, predicted of his descendants,
whose future territory in the Promised Land was to be so prolific in vines, strong
and of the finest quality, that young animals could be everywhere tied to them;
while the vines should be so fruitful that, besides the quantities of grapes consumed
as solid fruit, the clusters should yield enough juice to form streams like water, in
which, if needful, the garments of the people could be bathed. The grape-treaders
would be stained with wine up to their eyes ; and being blessed with pastoral as well
as agricultural wealth, their teeth would seem as if made white by the milk they
should consume. This promised abundance of vine-fruit and milk may be under-

GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 25

stood as indicating the fertility of Judah's soil, and the fecundity of his flocks and
herds. Whether a typical allusion to Messianic times is included under this
description the reader must judge for himself. 'Judah 'has been regarded as
representative of the Redeemer, and also as collectively symbolizing the Christian
church. The Targumists connect these verses with the i8th verse, and construe
them exclusively of the Messiah and His warlike achievements. Even Onkelos,
who is generally concise, and keeps close to the Hebrew, here becomes diffuse,
though he is outdone both by Jonathan and the Jerusalem interpreter. Their three
paraphrases are translated in a foot-note, and prove how little the cultivated Jewish
mind could, of itself, and even with the aid of the prophets, have developed that
ideal of suffering yet triumphant Goodness, which the Gospels supply in the life
of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.*

* The Targum of ONKELOS reads — "Israel shall dwell in his city; the people shall build his
temple, and they shall be righteous in his city, and doers of the law according to his doctrine. The
finest crimson shall be his clothing, and his apparel shall be of silk dyed with scarlet and diverse
colors. His mountains shall be red with vineyards, and his hills shall flow with wine (ba-khamar) ;
his fields shall be white with com and flocks of sheep."

The Targum of JONATHAN runs: — "How beautiful is king Messiah, about to spring forth from
the house of Judah ! He shall gird His loins and descend to make ready the battle array against
His enemies, slaying kings with their nobles ; nor is there a king or noble who shall stand before
Him who reddens the mountains with the blood of the slain, and whose blood-stained clothes
resemble the skin of gjapes. Beautiful as wine (k'kha.mrah) are the eyes of king Messiah, nor is
He able to look upon impure connections and the effusion of innocent blood ; His teeth are pure
from milk, so that they shall not eat the spoil of rapine and violence ; and therefore His mountains
and winepresses shall be red with wine (min khamrah\ and His hills shall be white with (min) corn
and the wool of sheep."

The Jerusalem Tar-gum is pitched in the same allegorical strain : — " How beautiful is king
Messiah, about to spring forth from the house of Judah! He binds up his loins, and goes fortn
in battle array against those who hate Him, slaughtering kings with their nobles ; He dyes the vines
red with the blood of their slain, and turns the hills white with the fat of their mighty men. His gar-
ments are stained with blood, and He resembles one employed in treading grapes. How beautiful
in their appearance are the eyes of king Messiah from wine ! (min khamrah\ so that He cannot
behold impure connections and the shedding of innocent blood. His teeth are rather employed in
sacred rites than in eating the prey of robbery and violence ; His mountains are red with (min) vines,
and His winepresses with His wine (khamraJi} ; His hills are white with the abundance of corn and
flocks of sheep."

THE BOOK OF EXODUS.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 8.

And I am come down to deliver them out of the hand of the-
Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land unto a good land
and a large, unto a land flowing with milk and honey.

FLOWING WITH MILK AND HONEY] Hebrew, zahvath khahlav u-d'vash. ' Milk
and honey ' are used for the general produce of the land, and * flowing with ' is a
striking figure of abundance. Concerning debash, see note on Gen. xliii. II. The
phrase ' flowing with milk and honey ' has a proverbial iteration in the Pentateuch.
Besides the above passage, it occurs in Exod. iii. 1 7 ; xiii. 5 ; xxxiii. 3 ; Lev. xx.
24; Numb. xiii. 27; xiv. 8; xvi. 13, 14; Deut. vi. 3; xi. 9; xxvi. 9, 15; xxvii. 3;
xxxi. 20. Also in Josh. v. 6; Jer. xi. 5; xxxii. 22; Ezek. xx. 6, 15.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 24.

And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to
drink ; for they could not drink of the water of the river.

The Nile was emphatically the river of Egypt — its only river, — and, as rain
seldom fell, the main source of its water supply for irrigation and potable use.
The deliciousness of the Nile water passed into a proverb, and it was considered so
fattening that (according to a tradition preserved by Plutarch) the sacred bull
Apis was not allowed to drink of it. The modern Turks are said to excite their
thirst for it by the use of salt. That the water of their beloved river, to which
they paid divine honors, should have been made loathsome to them, was one of
the severest trials possible to the Egyptians, and one of the most forcible evidences
which the God of Israel could exhibit of His supremacy over the deities in which
they trusted.

CHAPTER XII. VERSES 8, 15, 17 — 20, 34, 39.

8 And they shall eat the flesh in that night, roasted with fire, and un-
leavened bread ; and with bitter herbs they shall eat it. ... 15 Seven
days shall ye eat unleavened bread ; even the first day ye shall put
away leaven out of your houses : for whosoever eateth leavened bread
from the first day until the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from
Israel. . . . 17 And ye shall observe the feast of unleavened bread.
. . . is In the first month t on the fourteenth day of the month at

EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, 17 — 20, 34, 39. 27

even, ye shall eat unleavened bread, until the one and twentieth day
of the month at even. 19 Seven days shall there be no leaven found
in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even
that soul shall be cut oft' from the congregation of Israel, whether he
be a stranger, or born in the land. 20 Ye shall eat nothing leavened;
in all your habitations shall ye eat unleavened bread. . . . 34 And the
people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs
being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders. ... 39 And
they baked unleavened cakes of the ' dough which they brought forth
out of Egypt, for it was not leavened ; because they were thrust out of
Egypt, and could not tarry, neither had they prepared for themselves
any victual.

V. 8, 15, 17, 18, 20, 39. UNLEAVENED BREAD] The Hebrew is matzoth,
'sweet things,' in all these passages. [On Matzoth, see Note on Gen. xix. 3.]
In ver. 8 the Lxx. reads azuma, 'unleavened things,' and the Vulgate azymos
panes, 'unleavened loaves.' In ver. 15 the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma.
In ver. 17 a singular variation occurs. The Hebrew-Samaritan text, which is
followed by the Samaritan version, has matz-cah, 'precept,' instead of matzoth ; so
that instead of " And ye shall observe [or attend to] the unleavened things," it
represents as the true reading, "And ye shall observe the precept." This reading
is followed by the Lxx., which has teen entoleen tauteen, 'this command.' But
the Vulgate follows our present Hebrew text, and reads azyma, ' unleavened
things ' ; and the same reading was evidently in the MSS. used by the Targumists.
Several Jewish rabbis regard the words as a command to watch the unleavened
cakes, lest they became accidentally leavened ; and one rabbi draws the spiritual
inference that care should be takan to keep the true doctrine from becoming
corrupted by error.* In ver. 18, 20, the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma.
In v. 39, ugoth matzoth, rendered in the A. V. 'unleavened cakes,' is literally
' cakes — unfermented ones '; in the Lxx. it is aznmous, 'unleavened ' \_artous, loaves,
being understood]; and in the Vulgate panes azymos, 'loaves unleavened.'

V. 15, 19. LEAVEN] The Hebrew is seor, Lxx. zumee, Vulgate fermentum.
Seor is supposed to be a derivative of soar, an unused root, related to shoar and
sir, 'to boil up,' 'bubble up.' Zed, from which comes the Greek zumee, and
ferveo, the root of the Latin fermentum, have similar significations. Seor may be
regarded as any substance capable of producing fermentation, — all yeasty or decaying
albuminous matter. Such a substance tenaciously adheres to vessels containing
fermented fluids, however carefully racked; and among a people possessed of
imperfect refining contrivances, the command to put away all seor out of their
houses and accustomed quarters during the passover feast, could never have been
rigidly carried out if fermented liquors had been retained upon their premises.
Seor occurs only in three other places — Exod. xiii. 7; Lev. ii. n; and Deut.
xvi. 4, — where it is rendered 'leavened bread.' Seor is supposed by some critics
to enter into the composition of mishereth [j being changed into sh~\, rendered in
the plural ' kneading-troughs ' (ver. 34). The word also occurs Exod. viii. 3,
and Deut. xxviii. 5, 17. Others prefer to derive it from shah-ar, 'to be left' or
'remain,' and understand by misheretk the remains of the dough left over from a

* This recalls Paul's comparison in i Cor. v. 6—8.

28 EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, I/ — 20, 34, 39.

previous baking; and to this construction the Lxx., Vulgate, and Targums
incline : but that the reference is to some portable vessels used in the preparation
of dough seems certain from the context in each of the places where the word
occurs. Sear is related to the word sour — being, in fact, the 'sourer,' — and hence
contrasts with matzah, 'the sweet' or 'fresh,' unspoilt.

V. 15. LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khahmatz ; Lxx. zumeen ; Vulgate fer-
mentatum. Khahmatz is generically any fermented substance — anything which
has been subject to the action of seor. It might seem superfluous to raise the
question whether khahmatz includes liquids as well as solids, since it is equivalent
to asking whether fermentation is itself or something different. The modern
Jews differ in their view of this question ; for though they generally include under
khahmatz fermented fluids made from corn, the majority of them do not include
under it fermented wine. This inconsistency is defended by a theory of the
mediaeval Rabbins, " that the juices of fruits, including grape-juice, do not ferment."
Now it must have been patent to all careful observers, first, that the juice of
crushed grapes did ferment — ' boil up ' or ' bubble ' — when left exposed to the
air for some hours, and without the adoption of preventive measures ; and secondly,
that the cause of this fermentation was the prior fermentation of something (gluten)
in the grape, which had thus become a powerful ferment, t. e. a seor. This seor
decomposes the sugar of the grape-juice (glucose), the elements of which, entering
into a new chemical relation, are changed into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. [See
Note on Gen. 29.]

V. 19. THAT WHICH is LEAVENED] In ver. 19 the Hebrew kal okal makhmetzeth
is literally " every one eating [or consuming] a fermented thing," — from khahmatz as
above. In ver. 19 and 20 the Lxx. has zumoton, the Vulgate fermentatum. In
ver. 20, "Ye shall eat nothing leavened," the Hebrew stands kal makhmetzeth
lo tokalu, "everything fermented ye shall not eat."

V. 34. BEFORE IT WAS LEAVENED] The Hebjew is terem yekhmatz ; the Lxx.,
pro tou zumotheenai ; the Vulgate, antequam fermentaretur.

V. 39. FOR IT WAS NOT LEAVENED] The Hebrew, ki lo khamatz ; Lxx., ougar
tzumothee / Vulgate, neque enim poterant fermentari.

The substance of this decree may be succinctly stated. From the I4th day of
the month Nisan, nothing that could cause fermentation, or that had undergone
fermentation, was to be found in the houses, or to be used as articles of food by
the Jewish people. The decree was strict, absolute, and universal, admitting of
no exception as to place or person during the period named. To guard against a
possible violation, the Rabbins afterward included the I4th day in the prohibited
term — so far, at least, as to make a diligent search that every particle of the pro-
scribed substance might be put away. The loss of civil and religious privileges
was to follow disobedience to this statute — that is, as we may suppose, where the
violation arose from willful carelessness or contempt, and not from involuntary
oversight. The rigor of the law was, doubtless, mitigated in its administration by
a regard to extenuating circumstances.

Observation I. The prohibition against the presence of ferment and the use of all
fermented articles is very explicit and emphatic, and the penalty for disobedience
reads exceedingly severe. That a capital penalty was intended is, however, too
probable, though some sentence resembling outlawry is involved.

2. That a prohibition so strongly declared and supported was not arbitrary in its
origin is unquestionable, unless the divine legation of Moses is wholly rejected.

EXODUS, XVII. 3, 5, 6. 29

A perpetuated remembrance of the embittered condition of their forefathers was
one object to be secured. But the principal reason must be sought in that asso-
ciation of ideas by which ferment and fermented things were regarded as symbolical
of moral corruption and disorder. [See Notes on Matt. xvi. 6, u, 12; I Cor. v.
7, 8.] Plutarch, in his 'Roman Questions' (109), and Gellius, in his 'Attic
Nights,' remark that the priests of Jupiter were not permitted to touch leaven,
because it was the product and producer of corruption.

3. No plea that would exempt fermented liquors from the sweep of this pro-
hibition can be sustained, without ignorantly assuming a difference that does not
exist, and ascribing the same ignorance to the lawgiver of Israel. The practice of
the modern Jews is not uniform, some using fermented wine during the passover,
and others an unfermented wine prepared from the maceration of raisins. But
were their practice uniformly in favor of fermented wine, it would but furnish
another and quite superfluous evidence of the Jewish tendency to "make void the
law of God by their traditions."

CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 6, 7.

6 Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and in the seventh
shall be a feast to the LORD. 7 Unleavened bread shall be eaten
seven days ; and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee,
neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quarters.

V. 6. UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth ; Lxx., azuma; Vulgate, azymis
and azyma.

V. 7. LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khahmatz, 'what is fermented'; Lxx.,
xumoton ; Vulgate, aliquid fcrmentatum.

LEAVEN] Hebrew, sear; Lxx., zumee. The Vulgate is without a word, 'fer-
mentatum ' or ' fermentum ' having to be supplied by the reader.

THY QUARTERS] That is, all their accustomed places, such as dwelling-rooms,
cellars, etc. The ferment was doubtless carried out from these to outhouses or
caves.

CHAPTER XVII. VERSES 3, 5, 6.

3 And the people thirsted there for water; and the people mur-
mured against Moses, and said, Wherefore is this that thou hast
brought us up out of Egypt, to kill us and our children, and our
cattle, with thirst ? . . . 5 And the LORD said unto Moses, Go
on before the people, and take with thee of the elders of Israel; and
thy rod, wherewith thou smotest the river, take in thine hand, and
go. 6 Behold, I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Horeb;
and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it,
that the people may drink. And Moses did so in the sight of the
elders of Israel.

The murmuring of the Israelites for water, and for no other beverage, while it
was a sad evidence of their unbelief, showed that while in Egypt they had little, if
any, acquaintance with other drinks. Had they formed an attachment to other
liquids, discontent at their absence would certainly have been expressed, as it was
at the absence of the familiar fish, fowl, onions, and leeks. To satisfy their reason*

3O EXODUS, xxii. 5, 29.

able desirfe for water (though unreasonably and irreverently manifested) the rock in
Horeb gave forth the stream which followed them in their subsequent desert
wanderings. No stronger draughts, for health and strength, were required by
them, their wives, and little ones, contrary to the opinion still prevalent which
associates intoxicating liquor with necessary diet and refreshment. On this point
ancient facts upset modern theory.

CHAPTER XXL VERSES 28, 29.

28 If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die ; then the ox
shall be surely stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten; but the
owner of the ox shall be quit. 29 But if the ox were wont to push
with his horn in time past, and it hath been testified to his owner,
and he hath not kept him in, but that he hath killed a man or
a woman; the ox shall be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to
death.

This Mosaic regulation was designed to impress the Jewish mind with the value
of human life, and the duty of preventing whatever might endanger it. The pas-
sage plainly teaches — the lesson is world-wide and for all time — that in the Divine
sight men are responsible for consequences which they may prevent, but do not;
and it is no justification to plead that the consequences were not inevitable, nor
designed, nor foreseen. Who can plead ignorance that the tendency of strong
drink is to create a diseased craving for itself, or that the common sale of it actu-
ally and extensively produces habits of intemperance ? And when these tendencies
and results are clearly declared and well understood, the personal duty of abstinence
from intoxicating liquor, and the national duty of legislative prohibition of traffic in
it, become abundantly plain. Such a duty may be described as 'expediency,' but
it is at any rate an expediency the neglect of which places the neglecters in no
enviable position. Ignorance and error may be innocent, but not when they result
from a voluntary rejection of knowledge. The existence of Temperance Societies
thus increases the responsibility of all classes.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 5.

If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to be eaten, and shall
put in his beast, and shall feed in another man's field; of the best of
his own field, and of the best of his own vineyard, shall he make
restitution.

VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem. To 'cause a field or vineyard to be eaten,' is an
elliptical mode of expression. Bah-ar signifies to eat or consume, and is here
used in the Piel conjugation to express the devastation which loose cattle would
make in a field or vineyard. That the owner of the cattle should compensate in
kind for the injury done was an equitable regulation. The Samaritan and Lxx.
versions extend the verse by inserting after 'man's field' the following : — "he shall
make restitution according to his produce; but if he has destroyed the whole field
[of another], of the best," etc.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 29.

Thou shalt not delay to offer the first of thy ripe fruits, and of thy
liquors.

EXODUS, XXIII. II, 15, 1 8. 31

THE FIRST OF THY RIPE FRUITS] The Hebrew is a single word, melaathkah,
literally 'thy fullness,' or 'abundance,' here used to signify the first fruits due to
the Giver of all good, and serving to remind the people that they were called upon
to render to His service out of the abundance of His beneficence to them. "Freely
ye have received, freely give."

AND OF THY LIQUORS] Hebrew, ve-dimakah, 'and of thy tear'; from dema,
' a tear,' an expressive metaphor of the gums and rich juices of trees and fruits that
spontaneously drop from them. The same idiom is presented in the Greek daknion
ton dendrun, and the Latin arborum lacrima, ' tears of trees. ' In Spain a wine
called lagrima is made from the droppings of muscatel grapes, which, " melting with
ripeness, are suspended in bunches" (Redding on Wines, p. 58); and the famous
Tokay wine, or Tokay Ausbruch, /. e. flowing forth, derives its name from
the juice which drops form the unpressed grapes grown in a single Hungarian
vineyard. These droppings form the ' essence of Tokay,' which, when mixed with
the juice of the vat in the proportion of 61 parts to 84 of the latter, compose the
'Tokay Ausbruch.' Quite different from these droppings are 'the tears of the
vine,' a limpid distillation of the sap at the time the plant is budding (Redding,

P- 50)-

The Lxx. renders the passage aparchas halonos kai leenoti seu, ' the fruits of the

threshing-floor and thy wine-press.' The Vulgate reads, decimas tuas et primitias
tuas, 'thy tenths and thy firstfruits.' Rosenmiiller states, "Some understand by
dZma the best and choicest part of anything, since the liquor or sweetness which
flows spontaneously from trees, vines, and shrubs, is their choicest produce."
Kalisch renders " from the abundance of thy corn and the choicest of thy wine."

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE n.

In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard, and with thy
oliveyard.

WITH THY VINEYARD] Ll-karmlkah. The soil was to be tilled and sown for
six years in succession ; on the seventh it was to lie fallow, and what it spontane-
ously produced was to be for the use, first of the poor, and then of the ' beasts of
the field.' This humane law was applicable both to vineyards and oliveyards.

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 15, 18.

is Thou shalt keep the feast of unleavened bread : (thou shalt eat
unleavened bread seven days, as I commanded thee, in the time
appointed of the month Abib ; for in it thou earnest out from Egypt ;
and none shall appear before me empty.) . . . 18 Thou shalt
not offer the blood of my sacrifices with leavened bread.

V. 15. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth khag ham-matzoth,
'the festival of unfermcnted things.' [See Note on Exod. xii J Lxx., azuma ;
Vulgate, azymonttn.

THE MONTH ABIB] Abib\s the same as Nizan, the first month of the ecclesi-
astical year, a.nd seventh of the civil year, the commencement of the Syrian spring-
time, corresponding to part of our March and April.

32 EXODUS, XXX. 9.

V. 18. WITH LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, al-khahmatz, 'with what is fer-
mented ' ; Lxx., epi zumee, ' with leaven ' ; Vulgate, super fermento, ' upon leaven.'

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 2.

And unleavened bread, and cakes unleavened tempered with oil,
and wafers unleavened anointed with oil; ^wheaten flour shalt thou
make them.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, lekhem matzoth, 'bread of unfermented mate-
rials,' i. f. a loaf made of unfermented dough.

AND CAKES UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, ve-khallath matzoth, 'and perforated
cakes of unfermented materials.'

AND WAFERS UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, 'and thin-cakes of
unfermented materials.'

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 23.

And one loaf of bread, and one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer
out of the basket of unleavened bread that is before the LORD.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, ham-matzotk, 'the unfermented articles,' ;. e.
those enumerated in ver. 2.

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 40.
And the fourth part of an hin of winej^r a drink-offering.

A HIN OF WINE] Hebrew, ha-hin yayin, 'the hin of YAYIN.' According to
Josephus, it was equal to two Attic choes, each choes equal to six English pints ; so
that the hin was twelve pints, and the fourth part was three pints, English.

FOR A DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, ve-nasek, 'and (as) a libation,' from nahsak,
'to pour out.' The A. V. tends to convey the mistaken idea of nasek as an offer-
ing to be drunk. The Lxx. reads, kai spondeen to tetraton tou em oinou, ' and for
a libation the fourth part of a hin of wine.' The Vulgate has et vinunt ad libandum
ejusdem mensura, ' and wine of the same measure for pouring out.'

It may be asked, How could this command be carried out in the wilderness ?

Of course, obedience to all or any of the Levitical ordinances was dependent on
the possession of adequate resources. Many of the prescriptions could not be
completely complied with till after the arrival of Israel in the promised land.
Some wine, however, was procurable during the desert sojourn, as appears from
Lev. x. 9. For one explanation, see the legend of the Targum, quoted in the
Note on Cant. i. 14.

CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 9.

Ye shall offer no strange incense thereon, nor burnt sacrifice, nor
meat-offering; neither shall ye pour drink-offering thereon.

DRINK-OFFERING] See Note above on chap. xxix. 40.

EXODUS, xxxiv. 1 8, 25. 33

CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSE 18.

The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou
shalt eat unleavened bread, as I commanded thee, in the time of the
month Abib : for in the month Abib thou earnest out from Egypt.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, ' unfermented cakes.'

CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSE 25.
Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven.

WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, al-khahmatz, 'with what is fermented'; Lxx., tpt tumee,
'with leaven'; Vulgate, super fermento, 'upon leaven.'

THE BOOK OF LEVITICUS.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 4.

And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering Laken in the oven,
it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, or unleavened
wafers anointed with oil.

UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated cakes, unfer-
mented.' [See Note on Exod. xxix. 2.]

AND UNLEAVENED WAFERS] Hebrew, n-rqlqai matzoth, 'and thin cakes unfer-
mented.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 5.

And if thy oblation be a meat offering baken in a pan, it shall be of
fine flour unleavened, mingled with oil.

UNLEAVENED] Hebrew, matzah, 'sweet' or 'fresh.' Observe that the con-
ventional word ' unleavened ' does not express the wide meaning of unfermented.

CHAPTER II. VERSE n.

No meat offering, which ye shall bring unto the LORD, shall be
made with leaven: for ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, in
any offering of the LORD made by fire.

SHALL BE MADE WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, ta-ahseh khahmcLtz, 'shall be made
with a fermented-substance.'

FOR YE SHALL BURN NO LEAVEN, NOR ANY HONEY] Hebrew, ki kahl-seorvtkahl-
devash lo taqtini, "for every [ = any] ferment and every [ = any] honey ye shall
not burn." No seor (yeast, or fermenting substance) was to be present. The
extension of this prohibition to honey (debash) has been referred to the readiness
with which honey ferments in contact with ferment. Others suppose that honey
was excluded because commonly used in heathen worship. Some find allegorical
reasons for the prohibition, as Baal Hatturim: — "Honey is forbidden because the
evil concupiscence is as sweet unto a man as honey." The question whether by
debash was here intended the honey of bees or of dates, or grape-juice reduced to a
honeyed consistence by boiling, or whether it included all kinds, cannot be satisfac-
torily settled. As in the next verse 'honey' is associated with the oblation of

LEVITICUS, VIII. 2, 26. 35

firstfruits, there may he reason for the note of Rabbi Solomon Jarchi, who under-
stands by it 'the firstfruits of figs and dates.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 16.

And the remainder thereof shall Aaron and his sons eat : with
unleavened bread shall it be eaten in the holy place ; in the court
of the tabernacle of the congregation they shall eat it.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzotht 'unfermented-cakes.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 17.

It shall not be baken with leaven. I have given it unto them for
their portion of my offerings made by fire ; it is most holy, as is the
sin-offering, and as the trespass-offering.

LEAVEN] Hebrew, khahm&k, 'fermented-matter.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 12.

If he offer it for a thanksgiving, then he shall offer with the sacrifice
of thanksgiving unleavened cakes mingled with oil, and unleavened
wafers anointed with oil, and cakes mingled with oil, of fine flour,
fried.

UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated unfermented-
cakes.'

AND UNLEAVENED WAFERS] Hebrew, u-riqiqai matzct/t, 'and thin unfermented.
cakes.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 13.

Besides the cakes, he shall offer for his offering leavened bread with
the sacrifice of thanksgiving of his peace offerings.

LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, lekhem Ma/unatz, 'bread fermented.'

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2.

Take Aaron and his sons with him, and the garments, and the
anointing oil, and a bullock for the sin offering, and two rams, and a
basket of unleavened bread.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzotht 'unfermented-cakes.1

CHAPTER VIII. VKRSE 26.

And out of the basket of unleavened bread, that was before the
LORD, he took one unleavened cake, and a cake of oiled bread, and
one wafer, and put them on the fat, and upon the right shoulder.

36 LEVITICUS, x. 8 — ii.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.'

UNLEAVENED CAKE] Hebrew, kallath matzah, 'perforated unfermented-cake.'

CHAPTER X. VERSES 8 — n.

s And the Lord spake unto Aaron, saying, 9 Do not drink wine
nor strong drink, thou, nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the
tabernacle of the congregation, lest ye die : it shall be a statute for
ever throughout your generations : 10 And that ye may put difference
between holy and unholy, and between unclean and clean ; n And
that ye may teach the children of Israel all the statutes which the
LORD hath spoken unto them by the hand of Moses.

Do NOT DRINK WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, yayin ve-shakar al-tasht,
'yayin and shakar thou shalt not drink.1 The Lxx. gives oinon kai sikera ou
piesthe, 'wine and sikera ye shall not drink.' The V. has vinum et omne quod
inebriare potest non bibetis, ' wine and whatever is able to inebriate ye shall not
drink.' On Shakar, which here occurs for the first time as a noun, see Pre-
liminary Dissertation. Whether the noun was derived from the verb — which
signifies 'to drink freely of the sweet,' — or whether the verb was formed from
the noun (the name of the thing — 'sweet juice' — being borrowed to describe its
copious consumption, /. e. to shakarize, to drink largely of shakar), there is nothing
that necessarily connects the word, as verb or noun, with intoxicating qualities.
Shakar may have originally denoted sweet juice of all kinds ; but when distin-
guished from yayin (as here), may be regarded as generically referable to any sweet
juice except the juice of the grape; just as yayin generically included the juice
of the grape, however expressed or prepared. When shakar in its fresh state was
mixed, either by accident or design, with a ferment, or time was allowed for its
own albumen to decay, it would itself become fermented, and if then freely drunk,
would intoxicate the drinker. But it is contrary to evidence and probability to
suppose that shakar was drunk in that state only, and that 'to shakarize1 was
always tantamount to excessive indulgence in a fermented liquor.

The Lxx. in this place merely gives shakar a Greek garb — sikera; yet sikera
was never a word current among classical Greek writers, or even in Hellenistic
Greek, — /. e. the language as modified by the idioms of the Jews who wrote and
spoke it. When, therefore, the lexicographers say that sikera signified ' all intoxi-
cating liquors except wine,' they mean that s/takarl\a.d that signification; but such
a definition is intrinsically defective. Judea was celebrated for its palms; and
palm-juice got by tapping the tree, or squeezing the date-fruit, may have first given
occasion to the name, which would extend its reference as the sweet juices of other
plants came into frequent use. Probably related to shakar was the Greek sakcharon,
applied to the juice of the sugar-cane; from this sprang the Latin sacchamm, from
•which the English household word ' sugar ' is circuitously derived. The rendering
of the Vulgate is periphrastic, and at the same time incorrect, if designed (as it
doubtless was by St Jerome) to cover the whole meaning of the Hebrew shakar.
The Targumists Onkelos and Jonathan in this place (and in this alone) render
shakar by the Chaldee marvai and rn'ravai, derived from ravah, 'to drink largely,'
'to drench,' and 'to make drunk' where the drink consumed was intoxicating, —

LEVITICUS, X. 8 — II. 37

thus taking a similar extension of meaning to skakar, except that in m'ravai the
idea of sweetness in the article used was not distinctly conveyed.

Observe — I. The matters of the prohibition — yayin and shakar. — If it be asked
why all kinds of yayin (grape-juice) and of shakar (sweet juice in general) were
prohibited, when the spirit of the interdict was limited to intoxicating species of
both, it may be replied either (i) that the avoidance of all juices of the grape and
other fruit when expressed was desirable in order to guard against mistake, where
mistake would be so baneful ; or (2) that the command was left to be interpreted
by its spirit, just as a prohibition in the present day against ' drink ' or ' liquor '
would be universally understood as not extending to all drink and all liquor, but
as applicable only to that of an intoxicating quality. The former view is confirmed
by the extension of the Naznrites' vow of abstinence even to vine-fruit. The Rev.
John Wesley, in his New Testament Notes, observes on the prohibition, " Nor
eat grapes — forbidden him for greater caution, to keep him at the further distance
from wine."

2. The occasion of the prohibition. — The Jewish rabbis, and most Christian com-
mentators, connect it with the sin of Nadab and Abihu, described in ver. I ; and
the ground of this connection they find in the supposed commission of their
sacrilege while under the influence of intoxicating drink. The Targum of Jonathan
contains the clause, " As did thy sons, who died by the burning of fire." Keil and
Delitzsch think that the only connection lay in the rashness of Aaron's sons, and
the tendency of strong drink to induce a smilar disposition; but this will not
account for the issue of such a prohibition immediately after such a sin. More
to the purpose is the language of Rev. J. J. Blunt, B.D. (in his 'Undesigned
Coincidences of Scripture'): — "Thus far, at least, it is clear that a grievous and
thoughtless insult is offered to God by two of His priests, for which they are cut
off; that without any direct allusion to their case, but still very shortly after it had
happened, a law is issued forbidding the priests the use of wine when about to
minister. I conclude, therefore, that there was a relation (though it is not asserted)
between the specific offense and the general law; the more so because the sin
against which that law is directed is just of a kind to have produced the rash and
inconsiderate act of which Aaron's sons were guilty." Sad thought! that while
the people generally, at that time, neither used nor craved for any intoxicating
drink, two of Aaron's sons and assistants should have indulged in it till they fell
into heinous guilt, and 'brought upon themselves swift destruction.' Thus early
had the priests begun to err through wine, and through strong drink to wander
from the way of obedience and safety.

3. The extent of the prohibition. — It had respect to all priests, through all
generations, during all the period of their sacred ministrations. It is a remarkable
proof of the tendency of the Rabbinical mind to make void the law of God, that
some of the Jewish doctors of the post-Christian period (such as Maimonides)
held that this statute was not broken if a small quantity was drunk, with a pause
of time between, or if mixed with water, etc. Ainsworth rejects these equivoca-
tions. To infer that the use of intoxicating liquor was sanctioned at other times,
or among other classes, is to overlook, —

4. The object of the prohibition. — This was to secure the sober, serious, and
effectual performance of the priestly offices, — those that related to God (the
discrimination of clean from unclean), and those which regarded the people
(their instruction in the divine law). "This is a strong reason," observes Dr
A. Clarke, "why they should drink no inebriating liquor."

38 LEVITICUS, x. 8 — ii.

5. The solemnity of the prohibition — 'lest ye die.' — The meaning is either "Do
not drink, lest ye die as the result of disobedience ; " or, " Do not drink, lest ye die
by imitating Nadab and Abihu's sin, and so incurring their capital penalty."
This proscription proclaims the concern of the Most High for His own glory,
for the purity of His worship, the integrity of His ministers, and the welfare of
His people.

As legitimate inferences from the whole passage, we may conclude (i) that God
regards the use of intoxicating liquor as pregnant with danger to His servants,
whatever their rank and attainments ; (2) that the avoidance of this danger, by
means of abstinence from such drink, having been a rule of His appointment, is
itill a course worthy of general imitation ; (3) that the adoption of this abstinence
as a habit of life is specially approved by Him in the case of those who are required
AS 'a holy priesthood' to offer up without ceasing "spiritual sacrifices, acceptable
to him by Jesus Christ." [See Note on Ezek. xliv. 21, where the continuance of
Ihis rule is affirmed, and its application to Christian times demanded, unless a
revival of the Aaronic priesthood and the Levitical service is to be expected.]
Philo Judoeus, the celebrated Alexandrian Jew and Platonist, who was contem-
porary with Christ, says in his treatise On Drunkenness (sect. 32) in reference to
this text, "It is almost the only occupation of the priests and ministers of God to
offer abstemious sacrifices, abstaining in the firmness of their minds from wine and
from every other cause of folly. But Aaron is the priest, and the interpretation
of his name is * mountainous ' ; reasoning occupying itself with sublime and
lofty objects. And no one who is so disposed will ever voluntarily touch
unmixed wine or any other drug (phannakon) of folly." [See also a quotation
from Philo in the Note on Ezek. xliv. 21.] Some such impression St Jerome
appears desirous of conveying in a passage in his letter to Nepotian concerning
the life to be led by the clergy and monks (de vita clericonim et monachonuti).
In the section on 'feasts to be avoided' (convivia fugienda) he writes: —
"The apostle condemns, and the old law forbids, vvinebibbing priests (Lev. x.).

Those who serve at the altar may not drink wine and sicera

Whatever inebriates and throws the mind off its balance, fly, in like manner
as if it were wine. Nor do I say this in order that a creature of God should
be condemned by us [Jerome, like many later theologians, confounds the cor-
iitption of the creature with the creature as formed by God], since, indeed, the
Lord is called a wine-drinker (Matt. xiv. ), and a small portion of wine was al-
lowed to Timothy when suffering as to his stomach (i Tim. v.); but in drinking
we strictly require that there should be a measure according to the age, and the
state of the health, and of the bodily members. So that if without wine I possess
the glow of youth, and my blood affords sufficient warmth, and my system is
vigorous and well strung, cheerfully will I abstain from the cup which is suspected
to contain a poison."*

If St Jerome, who flourished at the close of the fourth century, reflects in this
passage the fallacy which attributes salutary, or at least marked medicinal prop-
erties, to intoxicating liquor ; he no less clearly reflects the profound conviction of
the purest minds, that the influence of such drink is dangerous to the moral and

* Vinolentos sncerdotes Apostulu* ttimnat et vet»s lex prohibit. Qiti altnrio deserviunt vinum
et siceram non bibnnt. . . . Quidqnid inebriat et stntnm mentis evertit, fuge similiter ut
»:««;«. .Wee hoc dico q>nd D'ia n>'>.'s cre-itiiri di'itiiiur. Sufttutem et Djm;.nos vina botator
est cibpellatus, et Tintotlieo dolenti stomnchnm modicn vini sorbitio relnxata est, sed modtttn f>ro
atitis et valetndinis et corfiornm qualitate exlghnus in potnndo. Quod si absqne^ vino ardeo
adjfescentui, et injlammor calore sanguinis, et succuLnto valufoque sum corpore hbenter carebo
foculo in quo suspicio vcneni est.

LEVITICUS, xxin. 6, 13, 17. 39

religious well-being even of those who fill the most sacred offices in the church.
(4) Finally, if God in His wisdom enforced abstinence and prohibition as His pro-
phylactic against intemperance within the circle of the priesthood, who can regard
those measures as needless or extreme remedies for the same evil in general society
at the present day ?

CHAPTER X. VERSE 12.

And Moses spake unto Aaron, and unto Eleazar and unto Ithamar,
his sons that were left, Take the meat offering that remaineth of the
offerings of the LORD made by fire, and eat it without leaven beside
the altar : for it is most holy.

WITHOUT LEAVEN] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' 'Eat it with
sweet [fresh] cakes ' is therefore the proper translation of this clause; 'unleavened,'
by inference, as opposed to that which had fermented or corrupted.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 10.

And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather
every grape of thy vineyard ; thou shalt leave them for the poor and
stranger : I am the LORD your God.

The literal translation of the first two clauses is — ' And thy vineyard \vl-1tar-
mlkah] thou shalt not glean, and the scattering of [ii-phere(\ thy vineyard [kar-
mlkah~\ thou shalt not gather.' The grapes left after the first plucking or cutting,
whether left on the vine or scattered on the ground, should be for the gleaning of
the poor. [See Note on Deut. xxiv. 21.]

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 6.

And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of un-
leavened bread unto the LORD : seven days ye must eat unleavened
bread.

UNLEAVENED BREAD, twice'] Hebrew, matzot/t, 'unfermented-cakes.'

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 13.

And the meat offering thereof shall be two tenth deals of fine flour
mingled with oil, an offering made by fire unto the LORD for a sweet
savor: and the drink offering thereof shall be of wine, the fourth
part of an hin.

See NOTE on Exod. xxix. 40.

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 17.

Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth
deals : they shall be of fine flour ; they shall be baken with leaven ;
they are the firstfruits unto the LORD.

LEAVEN] Hebrew, khahmatz, 'fermented matter.1

40 LEVITICUS, XXVI. 5.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 3.

Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt prune
thy vineyard, and gather in the fruit thereof.

THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmekah, 'thy vineyard.'

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 4.

But in the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land, a
sabbath for the LORD : thou shalt neither sow thy field, nor prune thy
vineyard.

THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmekah, 'thy vineyard.'

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 5.

That which groweth of its own accord of thy harvest thou shalt not
reap, neither gather the grapes of thy vine undressed : for it is a year
of rest unto the land.

THE GRAPES OF THY VINE UNDRESSED] Hebrew, ve-eth-invai nezirekah lo
thivlzor, 'and the grapes of thy separated thou shalt not gather.' The vine is here
called nazir (separated or consecrated) because during the seventh year it was not
to be pruned or plucked.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 11.

A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you : ye shall not sow,
neither reap that which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the grapes in
it of thy vine undressed.

NOR GATHER THE GRAPES IN IT OF THY VINE UNDRESSED] Neither ' grapes '

nor * vine ' is in the original Hebrew, which reads, v%-lo thivtzeitt eth~neziraht
'and thou shalt not gather (or cut off) thy separated.' Each fiftieth year was
to be like every seventh — a year separated from the ordinary cultivation of the
soil, and this idea of separation from toil, and consecration to rest, was naturally
assigned to the whole produce of the land on these septennial and jubilee
festivals.

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 5.

And your threshing shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage
shall reach unto the sowing time : and ye shall eat your bread to the
full, and dwell in your land safely.

THE VINTAGE, tivice~\ Hebrew, batzir, 'the cutting off,' from bahtzar, 'to cut
off,' a name transferred to the season when the grapes were gathered, which was
generally done by cutting them away with a sharp instrument [mazmara, pruning-
hook], in order to avoid injury to the vine.

THE BOOK OF NUMBERS.

CHAPTER VI. VERSES i — 4.

i And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, x Speak unto the
children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman
shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate them-
selves unto the LORD : 3 He shall separate himself from wine and
strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong
drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes,
or dried. 4 All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that
is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.

V. 2. A XAZARITE] The Hebrew nakzir (from nahzar, 'to separate one's self1)
has been retained in the English A. V. The Lxx. reads, " Man or woman, who-
eve- shall specially vow a vow to separate or purify himself with purity to the Lord
{ftnttr t€ gttttft hos ean megalvs enxeetai eucheen apkagnisaslhai hagneian Auriu)."

V. 3. HE SHALL SEPARATE HIMSELF FROM WINE AND STRONG DRINK] The

Hebrew is miy-yayin vZ-shakar yatzir, ' from yayin and shakar he shall separate
himself.' The Lxx. has apo oinon kai sikera hagnistheesetai, 'from wine and
sicera he shall purify himself (or purely abstain).' The V. is d vino et omni quod
intbriare potest abstinebunt, ' from wine and whatever is inebriating they shall
abstain.' The T. of Onkelos has makkamar khadatk vl-aliq yivour, ' from wine,
new and old, he shall be separated.' Onkelos thus gives yayin the sense of 'new-
wine,' and shakar that of 'old wine,' which makes their difference to consist,
not in a difference of the juice, but in a difference of age between portions of the
same kind of juice, — that of the grape. A rabbinical tradition is mentioned by
Maimonides, that strong drink made of dates, or such like, was lawful for the
Nazarite, the kind forbidden here being strong drink made with mixture of wine!
Another of these traditions went so far as to state that "if a little wine be mingled
with honey, or the like, so that there be no taste of the wine, it is lawful for the
Nazarite to drink it." What law could survive such unprincipled glosses and
elastic interpretations?

AND SHALL DRINK NO VINEGAR OF WINE, OR VINEGAR OF STRONG DRINK] The
Hebrew is khontetz yayin vl-khometz shakar lo yishteh, ' fermcnted-liquor of winr
and fermented-liquor of shakar he shall not drink.' The Lxx. reads, kai oxos ex
oinoit kai oxos ex sicera <ni pietai, 'and vinegar (fermented liquor) from wine, and
vinegar from sicera, he shall not drink.' The T. of Onkelos gives "the vinegar
(khol) of wine new, and the vinegar of wine old." The V. has acrtum ex vino et

42 NUMBERS, VI. I — 4.

ex qualibet alia potione non bibent, * vinegar from wine and from any other liquor
they shall not drink. ' That the V. should have rendered shakar in this clause by
qualibet alia potio is worthy of note. The English A. V. renders khoinclz by
' vinegar ' in the six places where it occurs in the Old Testament, according to the
Masorite pointing, — Numb. vi. 3 (twice); Ruth ii. 14; Psa. Ixix. 21 ; Prov. x. 26;
xxv. 20. The Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, of this
passage are lost, but in Psa. Ixix. 21 and Prov. x. 26 they supply oinphax, 'an
unripe (or sour) grape,' which is defended by Michaelis. Dr A. Clarke observes,
" Khometz signifies fermented wine, and is probably used here to signify wine of a
strong body, or any highly intoxicating liquor." As the ancients did not scienti-
fically distinguish between the alcoholic and acetous fermentations, the generic word
signifying * fermented ' was used to describe both. In a hot climate, when yayht
and shakar passed into the alcoholic fermentation, it was difficult to prevent the
acetous following. It is the general complaint of winemakers on the Continent
that they cannot keep their wines, or transport them to any distance, without
mixing them with brandy — a contrivance not available to the ancients.

NEITHER SHALL HE DRINK ANY LIQUOR OF GRAPES] Hebrew, ve-kahl-mishrath
anahvim lo yishteh, 'and every (=any) maceration of grapes he shall not drink.'
Mishrath, from s/iara/i, 'to loosen' or 'macerate,' signifies 'drink made of
steeped grapes.' (So Gesenius.) Bishop Patrick understands " secondary wine,
which was made by maceration of grapes in water, after the juice had been pressed
out to make wine. " The Lxx. has kai hosa katergazetai ek staphulees oupietai, ' and
whatever is concocted (or elaborated) from the grape he shall not drink.' Aquila
and Symmachus have pasan apobrexin staphulees, ' every infusion of the grape ' ;
the V., et quidquid de uva exprimitur non bibent, 'and whatever from the grape
is expressed they shall not drink.' The Syriac gives 'maceration of grapes.'

NOR EAT MOIST GRAPES, OR DRIED] Hebrew, va-anahvim lakhim viv&shim

lo yokal, 'and grapes moist (= fresh) and dried he shall not eat.' The Lxx.,

kai staphuleen prosphaton kai staphida on phagetai, 'and the grape newly plucked,

.and the raisin, he shall not eat.' The V. has uvas recentes siccasque non comedent,

'grapes fresh and dried they shall not eat.' Onkelos has rattivin, 'green.'

V. 4. OF THE VINE TREE] Hebrew, mig-gephen ha-yayin, 'of (or from) the
vine of the wine,' a phrase intended to mark definitely the nature of gephen, which
might otherwise be taken to include every kind of flexile, twig-bearing tree.
Gephen ha-yayin is equivalent to ' wine-yielding plant,' a mode of expression
implying ft&Hyayin is the immediate produce of the vine, and that grape-juice does
not become yayin by a subsequent fermentation. The Lxx. gives ex ampelou oinont
'from the vine wine.'* The V. has ex vinea, 'what concerns the production of
wine,' a vineyard, or the vine generically considered.

FROM THE KERNELS EVEN TO THE HUSKS] Hebrew, m&kharzanim ve-ad zag,
'from the grapestones to the skin.' The Lxx. has apo stemphulfon heos gigartou,
'fiom the grapestones unto the husk.* The Vulgate reads, ab uva pass a usque ad
acinum, 'from the dried grape to the berry-stone.' Dr Gill remarks, "The
Jews are divided about the two words here used, which of them signifies the outer-

* The punctuation in Maia's splendid edition of Codex B makes the Lxx. to stand ex ampelou
binon apo stemphullon heos gigartmi, ' from the vine wine from the grapestones to the husk.' This
i ointing would make oinon identical with the grape or cluster. But oinou maybe a copyist's mistake
(aroirtt*. In the parallel case (Judg. xiii. 14) the Lxx. hasvjr ampelou tou oinm, ' from the vine of
the vine.'

NUMBERS, VI. 13 — 20. 43

most part of the grape and which the innermost. Von Gersom agrees with us, but
it matters not much who are in the right since both are forbidden."

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 13 — 20.

13 And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his
separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the
tabernacle of the congregation: 14 And he shall offer his offering
unto the LORD, one he-lamb of the first year without blemish for a
burnt-offering, and one ewe-lamb of the first year without blemish for
a sin-offering, and one ram without blemish for peace-offerings,
is And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled
with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their
meat-offering, and their drink-offerings. 16 And the priest shall bring
them before the LORD, and shall offer his sin-offering, and his burnt-
offering : 17 And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace-offer-
ings unto the LORD, with the basket of unleavened bread : the priest
shall offer also his meat-offering, and his drink-offering. 18 And the
Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the
tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head
of his separation, and put /'/ in the fire which is under the sacrifice of
the peace-offerings. 19 And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder
of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one
unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite
after tht hair of his separation is shaven : 20 And the priest shall
wave them for a wave-offering before the LORD: this is holy for the
priest, with the wave-breast and heave-shoulder : and after that the
Nazarite may drink wine.

V. 15. A BASKET OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, vt-sai matzoth, 'and a
wicker-basket of unfermented-cakes.'

WAFERS OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, 'and thin unfer-
mented-cakes.'

AND THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, vl-niskaihftn, 'and their libations.'
[See Note on Exod. xxix. 40.]

V. 17. WITH A BASKET OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, al sal ham-matzoth>
'with a basket of the unfermented-cakes.'

AND HIS DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, v%-eth nisko, 'and his libation.'

V. 19. ONE UNLEAVENED CAKE] Hebrew, vl-halklath matzah akhath, 'and
one perforated unfermented-cake.'

AND ONE UNLEAVENED WAFER] Hebrew, n-rqiq matzah tkhad, 'and one thin
unfermented-cake.'

V. 20. AM) AFTER THAT THE NAZARITE MAY DRINK WINE] Hebrew,

v^-akhar yisteh han-Nahzir yayin, 'and afterward the Nazarite may drink yayin.'
The ceremony of terminating the vow having been fulfilled, the principal condition
of Nazaritism would also cease, and with it all the other conditions. Ceasing to
be a Nazarite, the evidences of a Nazarite would no longer be binding; but no
obligation was imposed to Anvkyayin of any kind, much less was a sanction given
to the use of inebriating drinks.

44 NUMBERS, VI. 13 — 20.

Observation I. The rules of Nazaritism as explained in this chapter comprise
the three negatives — I, not to consume any produce of the vine; 2, not to cut
the hair ; 3, not to touch any dead body. Many speculations have been put forth
as to the reasons for these prohibitions. That each and all were suitably associ-
ated with their vow cannot be questioned, for to impute an irrational arbitrariness
to these regulations would be to impeach the divine wisdom. A Nazarite was,
by his voluntary vow, so consecrated to the divine service as to be separated from
the ordinary pursuits of men. This separation was according to the nature of the
vow ; and if the vow was for life, so was the separation — not otherwise. It is a
Jewish tradition that the vow could not be taken for less than thirty days. The
Nazarite was not to touch any dead body, which was typical of his separation from
things corruptible. He was not to cut his hair, the length of which signified his
subjection (i Cor. xi. 5) and visibly testified to his fidelity, and presented the
symbol of strength and abundant vitality. He was not to take the produce of the
vine, either liquid or solid, for this was an effectual safeguard not only against
danger from the use of intoxicating drinks, but also against temptation or mistake
should the inebriating article be substituted for the innocuous. "They were to
eat nothing that came of the vine, to teach us with the utmost care and caution
to avoid sin and everything that borders on it and leads to it, or may be a tempta-
tion to us." — Matthew Henry. " Everything which might have even a tend-
ency," says Professor Moses Stuart, "to inspire them with a taste for inebriating
liquor was to be most carefully avoided." That this abstinence was prescribed
as a means of moral protection is also clear from the conduct of those who gave
them wine to drink, 'and so,' says Matthew Henry, 'did the tempter's work.'
(Amos ii. 12.) Ainsworth remarks, "By this prohibition God taught the
Nazarites sanctification in mortifying the lusts of the flesh, for the drinking of
these endangereth men to 'forget the love of God,' to mock and to rage." No
value can be attached to the rabbinical notion, adopted by Lightfoot, that the
vine was forbidden to the Nazarites because it had been the forbidden tree
in Paradise. The leper, according to Lightfoot, was an emblem of the wretched
state of man since the fall, and the Nazarite the emblem of man in his state of
innocence. Some Jewish writers, with whom Dr Gill coincides, think that there
is a meaning in the law of the Nazarite following the law of ordeal concerning
women suspected of conjugal infidelity, "and as wine leads to adultery, as Jarchi
observes, abstinence from it, which the Nazarites were obliged to, and forbearance
of trimming and dressing the hair, and a being more strictly and closely dovoted to
the service of God, were very likely means of preserving from unchastity and any
suspicion of it."

2. Ancient Nazaritism was more comprehensive than teetotalism, so that no
argument against the latter can be founded upon the contrast between Jesus and
the Baptist [see Note on Matt. xi. 18, 19] ; whereas the remarkable health and
vigor of the Nazarites (Lam. iv. 7) was a standing refutation of the still prevalent
superstition which connects those physical blessings with some use of intoxicating
liquor.

3. The essential spirit of Nazaritism — self-consecration to God, religious willing-
hood — is incorporated with Christianity and identified with its highest develop-
ments of liberty and excellence. Abstinence from intoxicating liquors is, there-
fore, not less needful than in ancient times as a moral safeguard, unless it can be
shown that those liquors have ceased to exert the fourfold influence of stimulating
the animal propensities, weakening the reason, dulling the moral sensibilities, and
diminishing the will-power. In moderate drinking these influences may be only

NUMBERS, XIII. I/, 20, 23. 45

slightly felt, but the tendency cannot he mistaken ; and as the capacity of correctly
estimating the danger and warding it off is lowered in proportion to the effect of
the liquor consumed, the drinker is commonly the victim of self-deception until
some palpable transgression covers him with shame, or until habit has fostered an
appetite that eats into the soul as a canker. Both as a sanitary regimen and a
spiritual auxiliary, abstinence is commended to universal Christian adoption by the
conjoint statute and experience of the Nazarites. [Concerning Nazarites and
Nazaritism, see Notes on Judg. xiii. 5, 7; Lam. iv. 7; Amos ii. II, 12; Luke
i. 'SO

CHAPTER IX. VERSE n.

The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep
it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.

WITH UNLEAVENED BREAD AND BITTER HERBS] Hebrew, al-matzoth vm'rorim,
•with unfermented-cakes and bitter-herbs.'

CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 17, 20.

17 And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan.
(Now the time was the time of the first-ripe grapes.)

V. 20. FIRST-RIPE GRAPES] Hebrew, bikurai anahvim, 'the firstfruits of
grape-clusters.' The Lxx. has prodromal staphulecs, 'the forerunners of the
grape.' The V. gives quando jam pracoqua uva vesci possunt, 'when now the
premature (= earliest) grapes may be eaten.' This season was early in August.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 23.

And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from
tnence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between
two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the
figs.

THE BROOK OF ESHCOL] Hebrew, nakhal eshkol. The marginal rendering
in the A. V. is 'valley,' and the exact meaning of nakhal in this passage is
doubtful, since nakhal, though undoubtedly signifying a stream or torrent, was
applied to a watercourse which in summer would be perfectly dry. The
Lxx. has heos pharangos botruos, ' to the ravine of a grape-cluster ' ; but the
V. (with which most of the ancient versions agree) gives ad torrentem botri, 'to
the torrent of a grape-cluster.' It will be observed that the A. V. differs from the
Lxx. and V. in treating the Hebrew eshkol as a proper name ; and as the district
was the same as that where Abraham dwelt with Mamre, Eshcol, and Ancr
(Gen. xiv. 13), it is not improbable that the Israelites were accidentally reviving
the name it had formerly borne.

A BRANCH WITH ONE CLUSTER OF GRAPES] Hebrew, zlmorah v%-eshkol anahv-
im akhad, 'a branch (= vine-branch), even a stalk of grape-clusters.' [As to
Eshkol, see Note on Gen. xl. 10.] On this branch grew one immense bunch of

46 NUMBERS, XVIII. 12.

grapes, so heavy that it required to be suspended on a staff and carried by two
men. Clusters weighing from twenty to forty pounds and upwards are still seen
in various parts of Syria.* The Lxx. has kleenia kai botnm staphnUes hena epautout
'a branch, and one bunch of grapes with it.' The V. reads, palmitem cum uvo-
sua, 4a young branch with its own grape.'

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 24.

The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of
grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence.

So famous a grape-producing district might well receive an appropriate descrip-
tion. [See Note on xiii. 23.] The T. of Jonathan adds that wine (khamraJi) ran
from the branch as a torrent! Jonathan, however, does not go so far as some
modern rabbins, and affirm that the wine was fermented !

CHAPTER XV. VERSES 5, 7, 10.

s And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink-offering shalt
thou prepare with the burnt-offering or sacrifice, for one lamb. . . .
7 And for a drink-offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of
wine, for a sweet savor unto the LORD. . . . ioAnd thou shalt
bring for a drink-offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by
fire, of a sweet savor unto the LORD.

See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. In each verse the Hebrew for ' wine ' is yayin ;
the Lxx. has oinos, and the V. vinum.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 14.

Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with
milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards :
wilt thou put out the eyes of these men ? we will not come up.

AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vah-kahrem, 'and a vineyard.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 12.

All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the
wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them
have I given thee.

*"The grapes themselves must have been very large, if any inference can be drawn from the
size of those which modern travelers have observed in the country. Nau affirms (p. 458) that he
saw, in the neighborhood of Hebron, grapes as large as one's thumb. Dandini, although an
Italian, was astonished at the large size to which grapes attained in Lebanon, being, he says
(p. 79), as large as prunes. Mariti (3, 134) affirms that in different parts of Syria he had seen
grapes of such extraordinary size that a bunch of them would be a sufficient burden for one man.
Nei.chutz states he cou:d say with truth that in the mountains of Israel he saw, and had eaten from,
bunches of grapes that were half an ell long, and the grapes two joints of a finger in length. Even
in our own country a bunch of Svrian grapes was, some years ago, produced at Welbeck, and sent
as a present from the Duke of Portland to the Marquis of Kockingham, which weighed nineteen
pound';. It was conveyed to its destination — more than twenty miles distant — on a staff by four
laborers, two of whom bore it in rotation: thus affording a striking illustration of the proceeding
of the Israelites. The greatest diameter of this cluster was nineteen inches and a half, its circum-
fe-ence four feet and a half, and its length nearly twenty-three inches." — Tirosh Lo Yayin
(1841).

NUMBERS, XVIII. 2/, 30. 47

AND ALL THE BEST OF THE WINE] Hebrew, vt-kakl khalev tirosh, 'and all the
best (or choice part) of the vine-fruit.' Tiros/i is here again grouped with yitzhar
(olive and orchard fruit), and with dahgan (corn of all kinds), the t»io forming an
ascending scale — yitzhar, tirosh, dahgan — of the most valuable natural products of
the 'goodly land.' If any uncertainty existed as to these terms denoting the fruits
of the soil in their solid state, it would be removed by the expression ' the first-
fruits ' (rashithini), and by the language of verse 13, "Whatsoever is first ripe in
the land, which they shall bring unto the Lord, shall be thine: every one that is
clean in thine house shall eat of it." The Lxx. has kai pasa aparchee elaiou, kai
pasa aparchee oinou, sitoii, 'and all the firsts of oil, and all the firsts of wine, of
corn.' The V. gives omneni meditllam olei, et vini, ac frumcnti, 'and all the
choice part of oil, of wine, and of corn.' The Samaritan Version, instead of 'all the
best of wine and corn,' has the strange reading of 'every liquor of dry or old.1
The T. of Onkelos for tirosh has khamar. Jonathan gives ' every good of the
wine of the grape ' — khamar inbah. In Walton's Polyglot translation tirosh is
rendered by mustt, 'of unfermented wine.' With this also agrees the Arabic
Version, which commonly translates tirosh by ttzer. This is a case, as a reference
to the original will evince, in which the Jews of the Captivity seem to have lost the
true and certain sense of the words tirosh and yitzhar (vine and orchard fruit), and
to have narrowed their meaning down to that of a liquid prepared by man, and at
the same time to have confused lirosh with a species of yayin (as ahsis or khemer),
and yitzhar with shemen, the conventional and specific word for oil. [See Prel.
Dis.] The modern versions all follow in the traditional rut.

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 27.

And this your heave-offering shall be reckoned unto you as though
it were the corn of the threshing-floor, and as the fullness of the wine-
press.

AND AS THE FULLNESS OF THE WINEPRESS] Hebrew, vt-kamlaah min-hay-
yaJujm, 'and like the abundance of the vine-vat.' Yahqcv, as the vat or reservoir
into which the juice (lowed, is distinguished by some critics from gath, the recep-
tacle of the grapes, where they were trodden, = the wine-press ; but the soundness
of this distinction is doubtful. The Lxx. has aphairema apo leenoit, ' and produce
from the wine-press.' In the V. the whole sentence runs — Ut reputetur vobis in
oblationem prim itivontm tarn de areis qttam tie torcularibus, ' that it may be reckoned
to you as an oblation of firstfruits, as well from the threshing-floors as from the wine-
presses.' Ts. Onkelos and Jonathan have 'wine of fullness from the wine-press.'
The Arabic Version has 'the expressed juice (elzer) from the wine-press.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 30.

Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best
thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the in-
crease of the threshing-floor, and as the increase of the wine-press.

:> AS THE INCREASE OF THE WINK-PRESS] Hebrew, vt-klt/ivaut/t yahqcv,
'and as the produce of the wine- vat.' The Lxx. reads, hus geneema apo Uenoit,

48 NUMBERS, XXI. 1 6 — 1 8, 22.

'and as produce from the wine-press.' The Aldine edition of the Lxx. has a
Phairema apo lecnou, ' produce of the press.' The V. rendering is quasi de area et
torculari dcderitis primitias, ' as if yielding the firsts of the floor and the wine-press/
Onkelos gives 'as fruit of the wine-press.'

CHAPTER XX. VERSE 5.

And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring
us in unto this evil place ? it is no place of seed, or of figsj or of vines,
or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.

OR VINES] Hebrew, -ue-gephen, 'and vine.' This makes it clear that the Israel-
ites were accustomed to see, and probably to eat, the fruit of the vine, in Egypt.
In regard to liquids, it is not the absence of wine of which they complain, but the
want of water, and to supply this real necessity the miracle of the smitten rock is
performed (verse n).

CHAPTER XX. VERSE 17.

Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country; we will not pass
through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of
the water of the wells : we will go by the king's high way, we will not
turn to the right hand, nor to the left, until we have passed thy
borders.

OR THROUGH THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uv-keremt 'and through (or into) a
vineyard,' = land set with vines and fruit-trees.

CHAPTER XXL VERSES 16 — 18.

16 And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the
LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give
them water. 17 Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well ; sing
ye unto it : 18 The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people
digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves.

To BEER] Beer (or Baar) signifies 'well,' an etymology which throws light
upon this passage. The Song of the Tribes is a beautiful tribute to the priceless
value of water, an element most appreciated in 'a dry and thirsty land,' where
running streams are absent. How strange that 'a good creature of God' like this
should be despised by those who bestow the title emphatically on the products of
misapplied ingenuity ! — and, stranger still, that they should regard this preference
and characterization as a mark of superior wisdom !

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 22.

Let me pass through thy land : we will not turn into the fields, or
into the vineyards ; we will not drink of the waters of the well : but
we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders.

OR INTO THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uv-kerem, * and into (or through) a vine-
yard/

NUMBERS, XXVIII. /, 14. 49

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 29.

Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he
hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity
unto Sihon king of the Amorites.

CHEMOSH] Hebrew, A'SmosA. "Some," says Rosenmiiller, "think this the
same with the Greek Comus, the god of feasting (or guzzling), drinking, and all
lasciviousness and wantonness. Others think the word the same with kemus, the
Arabic for 'lice,' and that it was the image of one made with astrologic art to
extirpate lice. So the Acaronites worshipped Baal-zebul, 'the fly god.'" Gesenius
considers it to signify 'subduer,' 'conqueror.'

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 24.

But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall
being on this side, and a wall on that side.

IN A PATH OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, bt-mishol hak'ramim, 'in a narrow-
path of the vineyards,' — a road running through a district set with vines. These
paths were exceedingly narrow, and sometimes flanked, as in this case, with walls
made of the stones taken from the land.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 7.

And the drink-offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for
the one lamb : in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to
be poured unto the LORD for a drink-offering.

DRINK-OFFERING] Hebrew, nesek, 'a libation,' = that which is poured out.

AN HIN] Hebrew, hin. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40.

THE STRONG WINE] Hebrew, shakar, 'sweet drink.' The Lxx. has sikera ;
the V. vini, 'of wine.' The T. of Onkelos has 'a libation of old wine' (dakha-
mar attiq}. The Jerusalem T. renders khamar bekhir, 'a choice wine.' Jonathan
agrees with Onkelos, but adds, " If old wine cannot be found, let wine of forty days
be poured out before the Lord." This is the only place where the A. V. gives to
shakar the rendering of ' strong -wine'/ probably to make the passage agree with
verse 14, and with Exod. xxix. 40, where wine (yayin) alone is mentioned.
Shakar may here be taken in its most comprehensive sense, as including all sweet
drinks, even yayin in its sweet condition; or the injunction may be read as a per-
mission to use either shakar or yayin, as might be most convenient. [See Note on
Cant. viii. 2.]

It is not necessary to quote at length the other passages in this chapter where
the word nesek, 'drink-offering,' or better, 'libation,' occurs. A reference will
suffice to verses 9, 10, 14, 15, 24, 31.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 14.

And their drink-offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bul-
lock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an

50 NUMBERS, XXXII. 9.

hin unto a lamb : this is the burnt-offering of every month through-
out the months of the year.

OF WINE] Hebrew, yayin, 'wine'; the Lxx. oinou, and V. viniy 'of wine.'

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 17.

And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast : seven days shall
unleavened bread be eaten.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, * unfermented-cakes ' ; the Lxx.,
azuma, ' unfermented-things ' ; the V., azymis, 'with unfermented things.'

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 9.

For when they went up unto the valley of Eschol, and saw the land,
they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should
not go into the land which the LORD had given them.

UNTO THE VALLEY OF EsHCOL] Hebrew, ad nahkal Eshkol, ' to the valley of
Eshcol.' [See Note on Numb. xiii. 23.]

THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 24.

And they turned and went up into the mountain, and came unto
the valley of Eshcol, and searched it out.

THE VALLEY OF ESHCOL] See Notes on Numb. xiii. 23, 24.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 6.

Ye shall buy meat of them for money, that ye may eat ; and ye
shall also buy water of them for money, that ye may drink.

The value attached to water in the East is here brought strikingly before us ;
also the justice which characterized the policy of the Jewish lawgiver. The Edorn-
ites were in possession of the wells, and the fluid of life must be paid for, if money
would be accepted.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE n.

And houses full of all good things, which thou filledst not, and
wells digged, which thou diggedst not, vineyards and olive trees,
which thou plantedst not ; when thou shalt have eaten and be full.

VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 13.

And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee : he will
also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn,
and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of
thy sheep, in the land which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee.

:> THE FRUIT OF THY LAND] Hebrew, u-phri admahthekah, 'and the fruit of
thy >"H.' /W/, 'fruit,' is derived from pahrah, 'to bear,' and is here used com-
prehensively of the three principal productions of the Holy Land, dahgan, tirosh,
yitzhar — corn, vine-fruit, and orchard-fruit.

THY \VINF] The Hebrew is vl-tiro$hkah , 'and thy vine-fruit.' Onkelos has
;-<:/-, <and thy wine'; the Lxx., ton oinou sou, 'of thy wine.' So the

52 DEUTERONOMY, XI. 14.

Syriac. The Arabic has 'thy expressed juice.' The V., atque vindemicz, 'and of
(thy) vintage ' — showing that St Jerome recognized the solid character of the sub-
stance denoted by tirosh. We have here the advantage of consulting a fragment
of the Greek version of Aquila, which was held in high repute for its literal ren-
derings. He gives opdrismon sou, 'thy autumnal fruit, ' = the vine-fruit in its
maturity. This agrees with the various senses of 'to occupy,' or 'possess,' or 'to
expel,' borne by yahrash (the root of tirosh).

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 25.

The graven images of their gods shall ye burn with fire : thou shalt
not desire the silver or gold that is on them, nor take it unto thee,
lest thou be snared therein : for it is an abomination to the LORD thy
God.

The sin of idolatry was so heinous, and the danger of incurring it so great, that
not only were the objects of heathen worship to be burnt, but the idol ornaments
were to perish with them, lest their possession should be a snare. This command
clearly embodies the principle, that things intrinsically harmless, and even useful,
are to be put away when their association with things evil has made them a source
of moral peril. What intelligent reader can fail to discern the force with which
this principle applies, not only to the use of strong drinks, but also to every custom
encouraging their use ? Not merely should the alcoholic idols of Britain be for«
saken, but whatever tends to popularize and recommend them is to be studiously
renounced. .

CHAPTER VIII. VERSES 7, 8.

7 For the LORD thy God bringeth thee into a good land, a land of
brooks of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of valleys
and hills ; 8 A land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and
pomegranates ; a land of oil olive, and honey.

V. 8. AND VINES] Hebrew, v%-gephen, ' and the vine.'

AND HONEY] Hebrew, u-d'vask, 'and honey.'

The profusion of water in Canaan, supplied by rain, springs, and watercourses,
formed a striking contrast with the state of Egypt, where rain seldom fell, and
where the almost exclusive water supply was derived from the river Nile.

CHAPTER XI. VERSE 14.

That I will give you the rain of your land in his due season, the
first rain and the latter rain, that thou mayest gather in thy corn, and
thy wine, and thine oil.

THAT THOU MAYEST GATHER IN] Hebrew, vZ-ahsaphtah, from ahsaph, ' to scrape
together,' pointing to the collecting of the solid fruits of the earth.

AND THY WINE] Hebrew, vl-tiroshkah, ' and thy vine-fruit. ' The Lxx. gives
kai ton oinon sou, 'and thy wine'; the V. et vinum, 'and wine.' The Targum
of Onkelos has v'khamrah, ' and thy wine ' ; Jonathan's, khamraidon, ' your wines.'
The Syriac has ' wine,' and the Arabic ' expressed juice ' (etzer).

DEUTERONOMY, XIV. 23, 26. 53

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 17.

Thou mayest not eat within thy gates the tithe of thy com, or of
thy wine, or of thy oil, or the firstlings of thy herds or of thy flock,
nor any of thy vows which thou vowest, nor thy freewill offerings, or
heave-offering of thine hand.

Again we have tiros h as the second member of the triad (corn, vine-fruit, and
orchard-fruit). The Lxx. keeps to oinon ; the V. returns to vinum. Walton's
Polyglot Version gives, as usual, mustum (new, unfermented wine) as the Latin
equivalent of the Hebrew and Hebrew-Samaritan text; and with this the Arabic
Version agrees (etzer). The word 'eat' (ahkaf), applied to the natural triad,
confirms the theory of their solid character ; for though we may speak of ' eating '
a meal of which liquids form an unnamed part, we should never speak of ' eating '
three things, only one of which was a solid. Even ' eating ' toast-and-water would
be an absurd phrase.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 23.

And thou shalt eat before the LORD thy God, in the place which
he shall choose to place his name there, the tithe of thy corn, of thy
wine, and of thine oil, and the firstlings of thy herds and of thy flocks ;
that thou mayest learn to fear the LORD thy God always.

The triad here recurs, and tirosh again occupies the second place. The Lxx.
repeats its oinon, which anciently, however, had a wider sense than mere fluid wine.
(See Note on Jer. xl. 10, 12.) The V. follows with its vinum.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 26.

And thou shalt bestow that money for whatsoever thy soul lusteth
after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for strong drink, or for
whatsoever thy soul desireth : and thou shalt eat there before the LORD
thy God, and thou shalt rejoice, thou, and thine household.

OR FOR WINE OR FOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, u-vay-yayin, u-vash-shakar,
1 and for wine, and for sweet drink ' ; the Lxx. , ee epi oino, ee epi sikcra, ' or for
wine, or for sicera* The V. has vinum quoque et siceram, ' wine also and sicera.'
The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan read, uba-khamar khadath v'attiq, ' for
wine, new and old.' The Syriac has 'for wine and sicfra.' The Arabic has ' for
wine and expressed juice ' (etzer). Aquila's rendering of shakar is the only part
of the verse preserved — methusmati, which some render ' for an intoxicating drink ';
but he may have used methusma in the strict and original sense of its root mcthud,
'to drink largely of what is sweet.' [On SHAKAR, see Prel. Dis., and Note on
Lev. x. 8 — 15.]

AND THOU SHALT EAT THEM] Hebrew, vt-akaltak, 'and thou shalt eat.'
' Them ' is supplied by the English translators, being absent from the text, which
reads, 'and thou shalt eat there.' The V. has simply 'and thou shalt eat.'

Devout Israelites with their families going up from a distance to the House of
God would find it burdensome or impossible to take with them in substance the

54 DEUTERONOMY, XIV. 26.

tithes of the corn-field, the vineyard, and the orchard, and the firstlings of herd and
fold. They were, therefore, permitted to convert these tithes into money, and on
their arrival at the sacred capital to purchase with this money things corresponding
to those they could not conveniently convey from their homes. Instead of tirosh and
yitzhar, they might buy yayin (the juice of tirosh) and shakar (the juice of other
fruits), or 'whatever their soul lusted after' (*'. e. if desired in a good, not in an
evil sense, for this is here the meaning of avah), or whatever their soul 'desired,'
— literally, ' asked from itself, ' which is the marginal reading.* This comprehen-
sive permission was implicitly limited by two conditions, — ist, that the things so
purchased were good in themselves; 2d, that they were not prohibited by the
Levitical law. It has been held by some that this regulation sanctioned the use of
intoxicating drinks ; but, —

(1) Nothing is said of the inebriating quality of the drinks named; and the
permission would have been fully observed by the use of unfermented yayin and
shakar.

(2) It is true that the purchase and consumption of fermented yayin and shakar
are not prohibited; but, on the other hand, nothing is said against buying and
drinking them in an impure and drugged condition. It may surely be presumed
that the divine intention had respect to these liquids in their most innocent and
-well-known nutritious state ; and any departure from the spirit of this arrangement
— any abuse of the privilege — could not be chargeable on the Supreme Lawgiver,
but on the people themselves.

(3) The question why the use of intoxicating liquors was permitted, opens up
another and distinct line of inquiry, and is similar to many other questions ; such
as why polygamy, facility of divorce, slavery, etc., were allowed, and even made
the subjects of positive legislation. The words of the Lord (Matt. v. 31, 32;
xix. 7, 8) supply the general answer. The evil ' suffered ' was not sanctioned,
'commanded,' or blessed by God; and in regard to intoxicating drinks, intimations
were frequently given, by example and precept, from which the discerning might
profit, making clear the physical and moral benefits to be secured by abstinence.

(4) The vulgar notion that this verse embodies a divine prescription to the
Israelites to drink freely of intoxicating liquors, along with their households, till
their money was expended, though often faithfully carried out, is a dangerous
handling of the word of God. Such an interpretation, acted upon by the Jews,
must have converted these festivals into scenes of debauch. No man of ordinary
prudence and benevolence would now issue such an unguarded order. Who can
picture, without a strong moral revulsion, fathers, mothers, and children, of both
sexes and all ages, 'rejoicing' together over flagons of intoxicating fluids? The
Athenians eulogized Amphictyon, one of their kings who raised an altar to the
Upright Bacchus, because he taught them to mix their wine with water, and thus
diminished the vice of drunkenness ; but it is reserved for the modern advocates
of alcoholic liquor to affix to a merciful regulation, designed for the comfort of
pious Jews, a meaning which, if carried out, must have resulted in wide-spread
dissipation and demoralization, converting a sacred feast into a sottish revel. It

* On this text Calvin observes : — " A certain sect of heretics, called Manichees, that scorned God's
law and the prophets, alleged this present text (Deut. xiv. 26), and similar ones, to show that the God
of the Old Testament, as they blasphemously termed Him, was a God of disorder, and such a one as
kept no good rule. For, said they, He laid the bridle upon His people's neck, and bade them eat
•whatsoever they liked, and so His intention was to make them drunkards and gluttons, by encourag-
ing them to eat and drink after that fashion.

" It is a foul shame to allege this text as a placard for the setting of all lusts at liberty. The words
liking, longing, or listing, ought rather to be restrained to tfie things that are lawful, and which God
had given them leave to deal with." — Sermons on Deuteronomy.

DEUTERONOMY, XVI. 3, 4, 8, 13. 55

is possible that the permission was abused by some sensual or thoughtless persons
(as in later ages was the case with the feast of Purim, or lots) ; but they could not
plead that any abuse arose naturally and directly out of a compliance with the spirit
or letter of the law. If they used ' wine and strong drink ' like that which after-
ward made priests and prophets to err, the blunder and blame were theirs, and

theirs alone.

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 14.

Thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of thy
floor, and out of thy winepress : of that wherewith the Lord thy God
hath blessed thee thou shalt give unto him.

AND OUT OF THY WINEPRESS] The Hebrew is u-miy-yiqblkah, 'and from thy
winepress' (or vat). Cod. A of the Lxx. has apo tees leenou sou, 'from thy
press'; but Cod. B reads, apo tou oinou sou, 'from thy wine.' The Arabic has
•from thy expressed juice' (ftzer). The V. has et torculari tuo, 'and from thy
press.' The spirit of this command was 'Freely ye have received, freely give.'

XVI. VERSE 3.

Thou shalt eat no leavened bread with it; seven days shalt thou
eat unleavened bread therewith, even the bread of affliction (for thou
earnest forth out of the land of Egypt in haste) ; that thou mayest
remember the day when thou earnest forth out of the land of Egypt
all the days of thy life.

LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khamatz, literally, 'fermented thing.' The Lxx.
has zumeen, 'ferment'; the V. panem fermentatum, 'bread fermented.'

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' The Lxx. has
azuma, 'unleavened things ' ; the V., comedes absque fermento, ' thou shalt eat with-
out a ferment.' -

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 4, first clause.

And there shall be no leavened bread seen with thee in all thy
coast seven days.

LEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, seor, 'ferment' (or leaven); the Lxx., zumee,

'ferment'; the V.,fcnncntum, 'ferment.'

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 8.

Six days thou shalt eat unleavened bread : and on the seventh day
shall be a solemn assembly to the LORD thy God : thou shalt do no
work therein.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, 'fresh' or 'unfermented cakes'; the
Lxx. and V., azuma, ' unfermented things.'

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 13.

Thou shalt observe the feast of tabernacles seven days, after that
thou hast gathered in thy corn and thy wine.

56 DEUTERONOMY, XX. 6, 19, 2O.

AFTER THAT THOU HAST GATHERED IN THY CORN AND THY WINE] The
Hebrew is be-ahspekah mig-gamekah u-miy-yiqvekah, "in thy gathering from thy
level [threshing] floor, and from thy hollow place " [where grapes are trodden].
The Lxx. has en to sunagagein se ek tou halonos sou kai apo tees leenou sou, "in
thy gathering from thy threshing-floor, and from thy press;" the V., quando
collegeris de area et torculari fniges tuas, "when thou shalt gather thy fruits from
the floor and the press.

•
CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 16.

Three times in a year shall all thy males appear before the LORD
thy God in the place which he shall choose : in the feast of unleavened
bread, and in the feast of weeks, and in the feast of tabernacles : and
they shall not appear before the LORD empty.

IN THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, be-khag kam-matzoth, ' in the
feast of the unfermented-cakes.' The Lxx. reads t$n azumon, the V. azymorum,
' of unfermented things.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 4.

The firstfruit also of thy corn, of thy wine, and of thine oil, and the
first of the fleece of thy sheep, shalt thou give him.

OF THY WINE] Hebrew, tirosh-kah, 'thy vine-fruit.' The triad is here re-
peated,— corn, vine-fruit, orchard-fruit. The Lxx. has sitou, oinou, elaiou, 'of
corn, wine, oil'; the V.,frumenti, vini, olei, 'of corn, wine, oil.'

CHAPTER XX. VERSE 6.

And what man is he that hath planted a vineyard, and hath not yet
eaten of it ? let him also go and return unto his house, lest he die in
the battle, and another man eat of it.

A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem ; Lxx. ampelona ; V., vineam.
AND HATH NOT YET EATEN OF IT] Hebrew, v%-lo khellolo, ' and has not appro-
priated it ' (for common purposes).

CHAPTER XX. VERSES 19, 20.

19 When thou shalt besiege a city a long time, in making war against
it to take it, thou shalt not destroy the trees thereof by forcing an axe
against them : for thou mayest eat of them, and thou shalt not cut
them down (for the tree of the field is man's life) to employ them in
the siege : 20 Only the trees which thou knowest that they be not trees
for meat, thou shalt destroy and cut them down.

Our interpretation of the primeval law of food is strongly confirmed by this
passage, and the essential wickedness of destroying the sources of human sustenance
and comfort. The idea is that the tree which God planted is for all the children
of men who pass by or dwell near, and need its fruit for food — a permanent supply,

DEUTERONOMY, XXL 2O, 21. 57

which no temporary exigency must be suffered to destroy. The Mohammedans to
this day observe this law ; and a curious story is related of the Arabian prophet,
that when on one occasion in the siege of a fortress, prolonged by the access of the
besieged during night to the date palms outside its walls, he ordered some of his
personal followers secretly to cut down these palm trees, his soldiers next morning
remonstrated, so that Mohammed had to invent a special commission for the work,
which, however, he never afterwards repeated.

CHAPTER XXI. VERSES 20, 21.

»And they shall say unto the elders of his city, This our son is
stubborn and rebellious ; he will not obey our voice ; he is a glutton,
and a drunkard. 21 And all the men of his city shall stone him with
stones, that he die: so shalt thou put evil away from among you;
and all Israel shall hear, and fear.

A GLUTTON, AND A DRUNKARD] The Hebrew is zolal ve-sova, ' a profligate and
toper.' Zolal is from zahlal, ' to shake,' « to shake out ' ; hence one who lavishes
and wastes what should be husbanded with care. Sova, from sah-vah, ' to suck up, '
signifies one who soaks or topes. Though the drink (sobeh) would not be neces-
sarily intoxicating, dissolute men might be expected to prefer such kinds of sobeh
as would stimulate their baser nature. The Lxx. has sumbolokopon oinophlugei,
4 frequenting feasts he is wine-flooded ' ; but in Codex B the copyist first wrote
oinophrugci, 'wine-parched.' The V. reads, commissationibus vocat, et luxuria,
atque coni-iriis, 'he devotes himself to parties, and to luxury, and to feasts.'
Onkelos and Jonathan give ' he is a devourer of flesh and a bibber of wine.' Aquila
has sumfosiazt'i, ' he goes drinking with others.' The Syriac has ' he is immoderate
and drunken ' ; the Arabic, ' he is intemperate and devoted to illicit courses.' Dr
Gill notes that "according to the Misnah a glutton and a drunkard is one that
eats half a pound of flesh and drinks half a log of Italian wine — a quarter of a pint,
— which would be at this day reckoned very little by our grandsons of Bacchus, as
Schickard observes, but in an age of severer discipline, in the tender candidates of
temperance it was reckoned too much. The Jews seem to refer to this when they
charged Christ with being a glutton and a winebibber."

The laws of some ancient nations — as, for example, the Romans — gave to the
father the power of life and death over his children; but the Mosaic law, as
detailed above and in verses 18 and 19, gave the parent the right of simply subject-
ing a reprobate son to trial for a capital offense, after all ordinary plans of reclama-
tion had been tried in vain. As to this law — designed to prevent dishonor to
parents and the spread of dissoluteness in society — we have no means of knowing
whether it was often, or even ever, enforced. Its operation would certainly be
restricted to extreme cases of filial impiety and vice. Matthew Henry's note on
verses 20 and 21 is instructive: — "He (the impious son) is particularly supposed
to be a glutton or a drunkard. This intimates either (i) that his parents did in a
particular manner warn him against these sins, and therefore in these instances there
was plain evidence he did not obey their voice. Lemuel had this charge from his
mother, Prov. xxxi. 4. Note, in the education of children great care should be taken
to suppress all inclinations to drunkenness, and to keep them out of the way of
temptations to them ; in order hereunto they should be possessed betimes with a
8

58 DEUTERONOMY, XXII. 4, 8, 9.

dread and detestation of these beastly sins, and taught betimes to deny themselves.
Or (2) that being a glutton and a drunkard was the cause of his insolence and
obstinacy to his parents. Note, nothing draws men into all manner of wickedness,
and hardens them to it, more certainly and fatally than drunkenness does. When
men take to drink they forget the law (Prov. xxxi. 5), even that fundamental law
of honoring parents." As Keil and Delitzsch remark, "those last accusations
show the reason for the unmanageableness and refractoriness."

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 4.

Thou shalt not see thy brother's ass or his ox fall down by the way,
and hide thyself from them : thou shalt surely help him to lift them up
again.

A truly benevolent ordinance ; and a man is better (by how much who can cal-
culate ?) than an ass or ox. Even to help a brother to regain the services of his
beasts is a small thing compared with helping him to regain his health and good
name — perhaps his very soul ; and whoever helps the Temperance reformation is
thus assisting to rescue thousands fallen by the way, and ready to perish.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 8.

When thou buildest a new house, then thou shalt make a battle-
ment for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any
man fall from thence.

The battlement was to be erected, not because any person was sure to fall over
an unparapetted roof, but in order that the danger of this misfortune should be
averted. It was a provision against a form of accident that would otherwise have
been possible to all, probable to many, though absolutely certain to none. Such a
personal, domestic, and social battlement is the Temperance rule (of which ' the
pledge' is the simple definition and verbal expression), and in the complete
security it imparts against the disease, vice, sin, and crime of intemperance lies its
incomparable excellence over every other substitute proposed by the wit of man.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 9.

Thou shalt not sow thy vineyard with divers seeds : lest the fruit
of thy seed which thou hast sown, and the fruit of thy vineyard, be
defiled.

THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmekah, ' thy cultivated plot.'

WITH DIVERS SEEDS] Hebrew, kilaim, ' two separated things,' two things of
diverse sorts.

THE FRUIT OF THY SEED"] Hebrew, hamlaah haz-zera, 'the fulness of the
seed.'

That kerem is employed in this passage to designate any distinct portion of cul-
tivated land is apparent from the context. One kind of plant or grain, and one
only, was to grow in each kerem, — a prohibition designed to act as a practical
parable — a sermon in seeds — towards dissuading the Jewish people from those
adulterous connections that would expose them to the divine displeasure.

DEUTERONOMY, XXVIII. 30, 39. 59

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 24.

When them comest into thy neighbor's vineyard, then thou mayest
eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure ; but thou shalt not put any
in thy vessel.

GRAPES] Hebrew, anahvim, 'grape-clusters.'

The common road often passed through a vineyard or corn-field, and it was mer-
cifully permitted to the wayfarer that he might pluck and eat of the hanging cluster
or heavy ear of corn ; while, to guard against serious loss to the owner, a sickle for
cutting, and a ' vessel ' (Mi) for carrying away, the fruit of the field, were expressly
disallowed. Nevertheless the claim of present and pressing hunger to relief was
acknowledged.

CHAFFER XXIV. VERSE 21.

When thou gatherest the grapes of thy vineyard, thou shalt not
glean it afterward : it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and
for the widow.

WHEN THOU GATHEREST THE GRAPES OF THY VINEYARD] Hebrew, ki thivtzor
karmekah, 'when thou cuttest off thy vineyard,' referring to the custom of cutting
away the grapes from the vines and placing them in baskets at the time of vintage.

The benignity of this provision is upon the surface. After a proprietor had cut
off such clusters as he thought fit to take away, any he had allowed to remain, or
had overlooked, instead of being gleaned by him or his servants, were to be reserved
for the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow. To ' remember the poor ' was a
lesson legibly inscribed upon the Mosaic economy, though Christianity has given to
it a breadth and depth of application unknown before.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 30, last clause.
Thou shalt plant a vineyard, and shalt not gather the grapes thereof.

A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem ; Lxx., ampeluna ; V., vineam. The 'grapes*
are words interpolated by the English translators, the literal rendering being, "A
vineyard thou shalt plant, and shall not appropriate it," /'. e. use its produce.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 39.

Thou shalt plant vineyards, and dress t/iem, but shalt neither drink
0/"the wine, nor gather the grapes ; for the worms shall eat them.

VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kcrahmim, 'vineyards.' The Lxx. has ampelvna, the V.
rineam, both signifying 'a vineyferd.'

BUT SHALT NEITHER DRINK OF THE WINE] Hebrew, vt-yayin lo thishteh, 'and
the yayin thou shalt not drink.' The Lxx. reads kai oinon cm pitsai, the V. et
vinum nan bifas, 'and wine thou shalt not drink.'

6O DEUTERONOMY, XXIX. 6, 19.

NOR GATHER THE GRAPES] Hebrew, ve-lo theegor, ' and shalt not gather.' The
A. V. supplies the word 'grapes,' but the construction shows that 'it,' i. e. yayin,
ought to have been the word employed to complete the translation. By an easy
figure, as some suppose, the expressed juice (yayin) is put for the vine-fruit itself;
if, indeed, it had not originally that inclusive literal sense, like Cato's vinum, or
the command of Gedaliah, ' Gather ye yayin ' (Jer. xl. 10) ; so alien from the Hebrew
mind was the modern notion that grape-juice should not be called yayin until fer-
mented ! The Lxx. offers a different reading, oude euphrantheesee ex autou, ' nor be
gladdened by it,' i. e. the wine (oinon). The V. has nee collegis ex ea quippiam,
*nor shalt thou gather aught from it,' /. e. {vinea, ' vineyard,' understood).

FOR THE WORMS SHALL EAT THEM] Hebrew, hat-tolahath ; Lxx. skoleex ; V.,
•uermibus, 'by worms.' There is a species of worms peculiarly destructive to vines,
called by the Greeks ips or ix, and by the Romans convolvuli and voluces.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 51.

And he shall eat the fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy land,
until thou be destroyed : which also shall not leave thee either corn,
wine, or oil, or the increase of thy kine, or flocks of thy sheep, until
he have destroyed thee.

The triad recurs — dahgan, tirosh, yitzhar, corn, vine-fruit, olive-and-orchard fruit.
These products of the soil were all to be swept away by the invaders. For tirosh,
the Targums, Lxx., and V. have, as usual, respectively, khomrah, oinon, vinum.

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 6. . *

Ye have not eaten bread, neither have ye drunk wine or strong
drink : that ye might know that I am the LORD your God.

NEITHER HAVE YE DRUNK WINE OR STRONG DRINK] The Hebrew, v%-yayin,
v^-shakar lo shethithem. The Lxx. reads, oinon kai sikera otik epiete ; the V.,
vinum et siceram non bibistis. Aquila renders shakar\>y methusma, * strong drink.'
The T. of Onkelos reads, ' wine, new and old, ye did not drink ' ; but Jonathan's
gives ' wine and neat (undiluted wine), khamar u-marath, ye drank not. '

From this verse we learn that during their desert journeyings of forty years the
people of Israel abstained from all kinds of yayin and skakar, unfermented and fer-
mented, innocent and inebriating. Hence those ' do greatly err, not knowing the
Scriptures,' who either deride abstinence as a novelty, or condemn it as an imprac-
ticable or dangerous habit of life.

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 19.

And it come to pass, when he heareth the words of this curse, that
he bless himself in his heart, saying, I shall have peace, though I
walk in the imagination of mine heart, to add drunkenness to thirst.

To ADD] Hebrew, lemahn sepheth, 'with the intention to add,' denoting the
reckless purpose of the sensualist.

DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 14. 6l

DRUNKENNESS TO THIRST] Hebrew, hah-rahvah eth-hatz 'maah, ' the drunken
(or satiated) one with the thirsty.' So the margin of A. V. Bishop Patrick and
others prefer 'the thirsty with the drunken.' The V. reads, absumat ebria saticn-
km, ' the drunken may consume the thirsty ' ; but absumat is a correction of
assumat, 'add to,' of the earlier editions. The Lxx. makes God to interfere,
hina met sunapolesee ho hamartolos ton anamarteeton, "in order that the sinner
may not destroy the non-transgressor with him."

Taking these renderings in their order, (i) the meaning of the A. V. would be
that the profligate designs to indulge in drink in spite of, or perhaps in order to
allay, the thirst which previous debauches have induced, according to the proverb,
'Ever drunk, ever dry,' and then drink afresh because of the dryness — 'I will
seek it yet again.' (2) Cf the two literal translations the first implies that the
sinner, though drenched with liquor, would join himself to any one who was thirst-
ing after it; the second translation, ' The thirsty with the drunken,' expresses an
intention to connect the thirsty with the intemperate — to lead the sober astray.
3) The Vulgate version implies that the tippler vaunts that he shall consume all
thirst; "or it may be referred to the root of bitterness spoken of before, which,
being drunken with sin, may attract, and by that means consume such as thirst
after the like evils ; " or it may refer to the seduction successfully practised by the
evil on the good. [See the Douay Version, with Notes by Drs Haydock and
Husenbeth. ] (4) The Lxx. differs widely from all these renderings, and, without
any allusion to intemperance, intimates that the impious boaster should be the
subject of Divine punishment in order to prevent him involving the innocent in his
own destruction. The Jewish expositors give the passage a spiritual application.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 14.

Butter of kine, and milk of sheep, with fat of lambs, and rams of
the breed of Bashan, and goats, with the fat of kidneys of wheat ; and
thou didst drink the pure blood of the grape.

AND THOU DIDST DRINK THE PURE BLOOD OF THE GRAPE] The Hebrew is
•ut-dam anahv tishteh khamer, "and the blood of the grape-cluster thou shalt
drink — khamer (foaming)." [See Prel. Dis.] As the verb khamar signifies
'to foam' or 'boil,' khamer, in this passage, describes the foaming appearance
of the juice as it rushes, before fermentation, from the trodden clusters ; so the
cognate Chaldee, khamar and hhamrah — a sense perfectly consistent with the
application of the same word to the turbid and foaming liquor during fermentation.
Names do not change with the deterioration of things. The Lxx. rendering is kai
aima staphulees epien oinont 'and blood of grape he drank — wine.' The Com-
plutensian Edition gives epinon, ' they drank.' The V. is et sanguinem uvtz biberet
meracissimum, 'and he might drink the purest blood of the grape.' Aquila trans-
lates khamer by austecron, 'rough.' The T. of Onkelos is metaphorical — 'The
blood of their mightiest was poured out like water ' ; that of Jonathan is hyperbolical
"They shall draw out one kor [seventy-five gallons] of red wine (khamar swnaq)
from one grape-cluster " ! The Jerusalem T. is more moderate — " They shall drink
a cup (kos) of wine from one grape-cluster."

Among the blessings of the good land that the Israelites were ' to go up and
possess ' was the blood of the grape, which in its unfermented, uncorrupted state

62 DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 32, 33.

is proved, by chemical analysis, to constitute one of the most perfect of alimentary
substances — to be really food and drink in one, and therefore well worthy to
rank with the "butter of kine, milk of sheep, fat of lambs, and the fat of kidneys
of wheat."

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSES 32, 33.

32 For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of
Gomorrah : their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter :
33 Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps.

The Hebrew reads, ki mig-gephen Sedom gaphnahm, umish-shadmoth 'Amorah;
anahvaimo invai rosh ; ashkeloth meroroth lahmo ; khamalh tanninim yaynahm.
v'rosh pethahnim akzar: " for of the vine of Sodom (is) their vine, and of the fields
of Gomorrah ; their grape-bunches (are) grape-bunches of gall ; (their) clustered-
branches (are) bitter to them ; the inflaming-heat of serpents (is) their wine, and the
virulent gall of vipers." The Lxx. is as follows: — ek gar ampelou Sodomon hee
ampelos auton, kai hee kleemaits auton ek Gomotrhas. [Hee (Codex A)~\ staphulee
auton staphulee cholees, botrus pikrias autois. Thumos drakonton ho oinos autont
kai thumos aspidon anialos : "for from the vine of Sodom (is) their vine, and their
vine-branch from Gomorrah. Their grape (is) a grape of gall, a cluster of
bitterness theirs. Their wine (is) fierceness of dragons, and the incurable fierce-
ness of asps."

The versions of Symmachus and Theodotion have been lost, and all that remains
of Aquila's are the concluding words, kai kephalee basiliskon asplanchnos — 'and
the unpitying head of basilisks ' [a venomous species of reptile]. The V. runs
thus : — De vinea Sodomorum vinea eorum et de suburbanis Gomorrha ; uva eorum
uva fellis, et botri amarissimi. Fel draconum vinum eorum et venenum aspidum
insanabile — " Of the vineyard of Sodom is their vineyard, and of the district of
Gomorrah ; their grape (is) the grape of gall, and (their) clusters (are) most bitter.
The gall of dragons (is) their wine, and the incurable poison of asps." All the
Targumists give to the passage a figurative coloring. Onkelos has "even as the
punishments of the people of Sodom will be their punishments, and their overthrow
as (that) of the people of Gomorrah. Their torments (shall be) most grievous as
the heads of adders, and the retribution of their works as poison. As the gall of
dragons (shall be) the end of their revenge, and as the head of cruel asps." Jona-
than reads, " Because the works of this people are like the works of the people of
Sodom, and their counsels like the counsels of the people of Gomorrah — their
thoughts are as evil as the heads of basilisks, — therefore their retribution shall be
desolating, and with bitterness afflicting them. Behold, as the venom of serpents
when they go forth from their wine ; such shall be the bitter cup of malediction
which they shall drink in the day of their vengeance, and as the heads of cruel
basilisks." The Jerusalem T. reads, " Since the works of that people are like to
the works of the people of Sodom, and their thoughts like to the thoughts of the
people of Gomorrah, their works shall be made desolate, and with bitterness shall
they afflict them. Since the poison of that people is like to the poison of serpents
in the time when they drink wine, and their wrath is like the heads of cruel
asps." To understand the Targumists' versions we must recollect that according
to an ancient belief serpents were very fond of wine, the drinking of which rendered
their poison more intense.

DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 32, 33. 63

V. 32. THEIR VINE is OF THE VINE OF SODOM] The margin of the A. V. reads,
' or worse than the vine of Sodom ' ; and the Hebrew min readily takes either the
conjunctive sense 'of — 'their vine is of [derived from] the wine of Sodom,' — or
the disjunctive sense 'away from ' — ' their vine is away from [/'. e. worse than] the
vine of Sodom.' The former rendering seems more accordant with the succeeding
clause, —

AND OF THE FIELDS OF GOMORRAH] The Hebrew shedamah (plural shadmoth)
signifies land sown or planted. The rendering of the Lxx. kleema, ' offshoot ' or
' vine-branch,' does not well agree with the context in most other passages — 2 Kings
xix. 16; xxiii. 4; Isa. xvi. 8; xxxvii. 27; Jer. xxxi. 40; Hab. iii. 17.

GRAPES OF GALL] The Hebrew rosh is translated in the Lxx. and V. by
words denoting, specifically, 'gall,' and generically, 'poison.' Gesenius thinks it
meant the poppy, but the connection implies some poisonous berry of a bitter
taste.

V. 33. THEIR WINE is THE POISON OF DRAGONS] The Hebrew khamah, 'heat,'
obtains the force of ' poison, or that which burns the bowels ' (Gesenius). See
Notes on Psa. Iviii. 5, and Hos. vii. 5. Figuratively, khamah designates ardent
passion, such as 'rage,' 'fury,' 'wrath,' and is so applied in Gen. xxvii. 44;
Job xxi. 20; Isa. li. 17; Jer. vi. n, and xxv. 15. Tanninim, rendered 'dragons '
in the A. V., signifies any very lengthy animals = monsters, and here refers to
huge venomous reptiles common in arid countries.

THE CRUEL VENOM OF ASPS] Hebrew, rosh pethahnim akzar. It is hard to
say why rosh, in verse 32, should have been translated 'gall,' and in verse 33
' venom ' ; perhaps it was in deference to the same inconsistency in the Lxx., which
gives both choice (gall) and thumos (fierceness or rage); and in the V., which has
bothy1?/ (gall) and venenum (venom). What is more curious in authorities is (as
the reader may see by looking back), that Aquila and the Targumists understood
by rosh, in this place, not ' poison ' at all, but ' head ' — a translation which by no
means imparts clearness to their versions. Probably the poisonous substance here
called rosh received its name from the head (rosh) of the berry containing it; or
(as some think) because the poison of the serpent is secreted in its head. By
' asps ' are meant some species of deadly adder or viper, whose poison, because
quickly fatal, is described as akzar, 'fierce,' or 'virulent.' The Lxx. aniatos,
and V. insanabile, 'incurable,' represent the effect rather than the quality of the
poison. The A. V. ' cruel ' is emphatic, but too expressively moral to be applied
to a physical poison.

On the phrases 'vine of Sodom,' 'their vine,' and 'their wine,' it may be re-
marked,—

I. There is no historical record concerning the kind of vine cultivated around
Sodom and Gomorrah, but growing in such a bituminous soil it would probably
possess peculiar qualities, the memory of which was handed down by tradition
for ages. The vine of Sodom may even have survived the overthrow of the
cities of the plain.

ic commentators suppose a designed reference to the plant which bore the
fruit known as 'apples of Sodom,' and described by Josephus as of a beautiful
appearance, but crumbling to dust when plucked. Fruit of this sort, the inside of
•which an insect (tenthrado) reduces to dust, leaving the outside skin fair and attrac-
tive, has been found by modern travelers near the Dead Sea.

64 DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 37, 38, 42.

2. It is obvious that Moses, under the similitude of a Sodom-like vine, grapes of
gall, bitter clusters, wine like serpent-poison and deadly adder's gall, furnishes a
moral portraiture of Israel's rebellious state. The vine of Sodom marks their
degenerate character, its bitter and poisonous fruit their vicious tempers, and its
venomous wine their injurious conduct toward the saints and prophets of God; but
it is extremely unlikely that such images would have been borrowed from merely
traditional or fictitious objects. The entire passage appears to glance retrospect-
ively at the manufacture and use of powerfully intoxicating compounds familiar to
the people of Sodom, the knowledge of which may have been transmitted to much
later times. The figures themselves are a tacit but striking warning against
inflaming drinks ; no innocent substances, no good (dietetic) creatures, could have
furnished such symbols to the poet-prophet of Israel. As the passage is part of a
Hebrew poem, we may be permitted to convert it into English verse :

Their vine from Sodom draws its birth,
Reared in Gomorrah's putrid earth ;
Their clustered-grapes are nought but gall,
Their stalks are bitterness to all ;
Their wine huge-reptiles' poison makes,
And fiery gall of hooded snakes.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSES 37, 38.

37 And he shall say, Where are their gods, their rock in whom they
trusted; 38 Which did eat the fat of their sacrifices, and drank the
wine of their drink-offerings ? let them rise up and help you, and be
your protection.

AND DRANK THE WINE OF THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, yishtu yayn
nesikahm, 'and drank the wine of their libations.' So Lxx. and V.

The wine poured out before the heathen idols was figuratively supposed to be
drunk by them ; and Jehovah is represented as asking His faithless people what
had become of those gods who had eaten and drunk (/. e. accepted) their offerings,
and then deserted them in the hour of their need.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 42.

I will make mine arrows drunk with blood, and my sword shall
devour flesh ; and that with the blood of the slain and of the captives
from the beginning of revenges upon the enemy.

The Hebrew reads, ashkir khitzai mid-dahm, ' I will satiate (drench) my arrows
from blood ' ; the Lxx. methuso ta belee mou aptfhaimatos traumation, * I will
drench my darts from the blood of the wounded'; the V., inebriabo sagittas
meas sanguine, ' I will inebriate my arrows with blood.' The T. of Jonathan
gives ' I will drench my arrows in the blood of their slain.' The Hebrew ashkir
comes from shakar, 'to drink freely' of any sweet drink, and hence to be in-
toxicated if the drink is fermented. In this passage the figure is confined to the
idea of repletion, the Divine arrows being described as made to drink till they are
soaked with the blood of those who fell under them, so great should be the slaughter
of the guilty.

DEUTERONOMY, XXXIII. 28. 65

CHAPTER XXXIII. VERSE 28.

Israel then shall dwell in safety alone : the fountain of Jacob shall
be upon a land of corn and wine; also his heavens shall drop down
dew.

THE FOUNTAIN OF JACOB] Hebrew, ain Yaaqov, 'the fountain (or eye) of
Jacob.' As the same Hebrew word signifies 'eye' and 'fountain,' the versions
differ. The Targumists take it in the sense of overflowing 'benediction.'

UPON A LAND OF CORN AND WINE] Hebrew, el-eretz dahgan va-tirosh. This
and the previous clause are rendered by the Lxx. epi gees lakob, epi sito kai oinot
'upon the land of Jacob, upon corn and wine.' The V. has oculus Jacob in terra
frumenti et vini, 'the eye Jacob in a land of corn and wine.' The Syriac gives
the usual triad — 'the fountain Jacob in a land of corn, and wine, and oil.' The
Arabic reads, 'of expressed juice* (etzcr). By 'fountain' many commentators
understand ' offspring ' — his posterity spread like the waters of a fountain. If we
read 'eye,' then it io a figure of the patriarch gazing with delight on the fruitful
land prophetically stretched out before him.

THE BOOK OF JOSHUA.

CHAPTER V. VERSE n.

And they did eat of the old corn of the land on the morrow-
after the passover, unleavened cakes, and parched corn in the self-
same day.

UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.'

The phrase * selfsame day ' seems to indicate the eagerness with which the people,
sick of the manna, desired to eat the fruits of this long-promised land. It is
added, ' And the manna ceased ' ; teaching us that miracles of feeding are not works
of supererogation, but disappear when the ordinary supplies of Providence are
available. For the right use of these natural supplies men are as responsible as
for the miraculous gifts, and for their abuse (by changing them) as sinful as the
discontented Jews who loathed 'the bread from heaven.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 4.

They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been
ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses; and wine bottles,
old, and rent, and bound up.

AND WINE BOTTLES] Hebrew, va-nodoth yayin, 'and bottles pf wine'; Lxx.,
askous oinou, 'skin bottles of wine ' ; V., utres vinarios, ' wine-bags.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 13.

And these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold,
they be rent : and these our garments and our shoes are become old
by reason of the very long journey.

AND THESE BOTTLES OF WINE] Hebrew, v^-alleh nodoth hay-yayin, and these
bottles of the wine ' ; the Lxx., kai outoi oi askoi tou oinout ' and these skin bottle*
of the wine ' ; the V., utres vint, 'bags of wine.'

JOSHUA, XXIV. 13. 67

CHAPTER XV. VERSE n.

And the border went out unto the side of Ekron northward : and
the border was drawn to Shicron, and passed along to mount Baalah,
and went out unto Jabneel • and the goings out of the border were at
the sea.

SHICRON] Hebrew, Shikron, 'drinking' or 'drunkenness.' Shicron was a
town on the northern border of Judah. The reason of its name can only be
conjectured. It may have had some relation to the abundance of shakar, 'sweet
drink,' obtained from neighboring palm trees, or from the indulgence of the people
in shakar, when not always safe to be drunk [see Note on John iv. 5], or, possibly,
some famous drinker may have founded the city, whose name became a memorial
of his intemperance.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 13.

And I have given you a land for which ye did not labor, and cities
which ye built not, and ye dwell in them ; of the vineyards and olive-
yards which ye planted not do ye eat.

The Hebrew, kcrahmin vl-zaithim, signifies 'vineyards and olive trees.' The
Lxx. has ampelonai kai tlaidnas ; the V., vinetu et olivetas.

THE BOOK OF JUDGES.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 19.

And he said unto her, Give me, I pray thee, a little water to drink ;
for I am thirsty. And she opened a bottle of milk, and gave him
drink, and covered him.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 25.

He asked water, and she gave him milk; she brought forth butter
in a lordly dish.

MILK] Hebrew, khahlahv, 'milk'; the Lxx. ,£»/<*/ the V., lac.

BUTTER] Hebrew, khemah, 'butter-milk'; the Lxx., bouturon ; the V., butyrum.
It was the kind of milk best suited to assuage the warrior's thirst. Some critics
read 'cream,' or milk from which the cream was not separated. Some think that
both a fluid and a more solid form of milk were given to Sisera. Butter was not
used by the ancients, nor is it used by the Orientals of the present day except medi-
cinally. Utterly unsupported is the notion that Jael gave Sisera camel's milk which
had fermented, in order that he might be thrown into an intoxicated stupor. J. D.
Michaelis, who had referred to Niebuhr as a witness for the intoxicating property of
camel's milk, is contradicted by RosenmUller, who observes, " Dicit potius Nie-
buhrius lac camelinum Arabibus, salubre et refrigerans haberi " (Niebuhr rather says
that the milk of the Arabs' camel is healthy and refreshing). It is not always that
an erring Michaelis has a critical Rosenmuller on his track. It is not certain, or even
probable, that Jael resolved upon Sisera's death till he had fallen asleep. His re-
quest for no beverage but water, ' for I am thirsty,' is an example by which modern
soldiers might profit. "Some think," says Dr Gill, "he did not ask for wine
because he knew the Kenites did not drink any, and so of course kept none in
their tents ; but though this was the custom of the Rechabites, who were the same
with the Kenites (Jer. xxxv. 8), yet it is very probable the custom had not obtained
among them, since it was enjoined by Jonadab their father, who lived in the time of
Jehu (2 Kings x. 15) : ' She opened a bottle of milk, and gave him to drink,' which
she did rather out of courtesy, being a better liquor, or with design to throw him
into a sleep, which milk inclines to, making heavy, as all the Jewish commentators
observe ; though Josephus has no authority to say, as he does, that the milk she
gave him was bad and corrupt." Dr Gill is too hard on Josephus, who states
that the milk (gala) was diephthoros eedec, which Rosenmuller considers to mean
'acid already,' but not therefore bad to drink.

JUDGES, IX. 12, 13. 69

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 19.

And Gideon went in, and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes
of an ephah of flour : the flesh he put in a basket, and he put
the broth in a pot, and brought // out unto him under the oak, and
presented /'/.

UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, matzoih, ' unfermented cakes.' [The same
word occurs in verse 20, and twice in verse 21, and is correctly translated in each
case 'unleavened cakes,' and not 'unleavened bread,' as in most other places of
the A. V.]

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 25.

And they took two princes of the Midianites, Oreb and Zeeb; and
they slew Oreb upon the rock Oreb, and Zeeb they slew at the wine-
press of Zeeb, and pursued Midian, and brought the heads of Oreb
and Zeeb to Gideon on the other side Jordan. '

AT THE WINEPRESS OF ZEEB] Hebrew, vl-yeqev Zlab, 'in (or at) the wine-
press of Zeeb.' He may have taken refuge inside the press, hoping to be concealed
till the pursuit was relinquished.

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2.

And he said unto them, What have I done now in comparison of
you ? Is not the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim better than the
vintage of Abi-ezer ?

THE GLEANING OF THE GRAPES OF EPHRAIM] Hebrew, olloth Ephraim, «the
gleanings of Ephraim.' The words 'of the grapes' in the A. V. are not in the
Hebrew, but the sense is the same.

THE VINTAGE OF ABI-EZER] Hebrew, batzir Abiezer. Batzir, 'vintage,' from
bahtzar, ' to cut away ' ; hence the cutting off of grapes when ripe = the vintage.

The country of Ephraim was so prolific in grapes, that gleaning them after the
regular grape-gathering was more profitable than to pluck the vineyards possessed
by the descendants of Abi-ezer. This fact passed into a proverb to illustrate the
superiority of some men's small actions over the greatest actions of others.

CHAPTER IX. VERSES 12, 13.

uThen said the trees unto the vine, Come thou, and reign over
us. 13 And the vine said unto them, Should I leave my wine, which
cheereth God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees ?

V. 12. UNTO THE VINE] Hebrew, bag-gaphen, 'to the vine.'

V. 13. AND THE VINE SAID UNTO THEM] Hebrew, vat-tomtr lahhem hag-gephen,

' said to them the vine.'
SHOULD I LEAVE MY WINE, WHICH CHEERETH GOD AND MAN] Hebrew,

hekhadalti tth-tiroshi hamsammcuikh elohim va-anahshim, 'should I leave my

70 JUDGES, IX. 27.

tiros h (fruit), which gladdens gods and men ?' The Lxx. has mee apoleipsasa Ion
oinon mou ton euphrainonta theon kai anthropous, ' should I not be forsaking my
wine, which rejoices God and men ? ' The Aldine and Complutensian editions of
the Lxx. read, ton oinon [the Compl. ed., by a singular clerical error, has oikon,
'house'] mou teen euphrosuneen, ton theou kai ton anthropon, 'my wine the joy
of God and of men.' Codex A has apheisa ton oinon mou teen euphrosuneen
ton para tou theou kai ton anthropon, ' leaving my wine the joy of those with God
and men.' The V. has numquid possum desereri vinum meum quod Icztificat Dfum
et homines, ' how can I forsake my wine, which delights God and men ? ' The
Syriac and Arabic versions translate tiroshi, 'my fruit.' Jonathan has 'How
should I forsake my wine (khamri), from which the princes make their libations
before the Lord, and in which they take delight?"

GOD AND MAN] The Hebrew elohim and anahshim are both in the plural, and
it has been thought that as Jotham related the parable to idolaters he intended
by elohim the gods they worshiped. Others have suggested that by elohim and
anahshim a contrast is designed between men of rank and the common people, so
that the clause would then read, ' which cheers the high and low.'

In this parable, the most ancient on record, the vine is represented as refusing
to become king over the other trees; and, as in the case of the olive and the fig
tree, the refusal is based on the impropriety of renouncing its own natural produce
and function for the sake of mere supremacy and honor.

Better be useful than ambitious, is the moral of this apologue. The vine speaks
of what appertains to itself— its tirosh,— just as the olive had spoken of its ' fatness,'
and the fig tree of its 'sweetness.' From a Temperance point of view it is im-
material whether by tiros h be understood the solid fruit of the vine, or the delicious
juice contained in the ripening clusters, — the 'imprisoned wine ' {ho oinos pepedee-
menos), as Anacreon styles it. For reasons already assigned, ' vine-fruit ' is the best
English equivalent. The vulgar opinion that an intoxicating liquor is spoken of
because it is said to 'cheer God and man,' does violence to the passage. God can
only be pleased by the fruit of the vine as the work of His power and the gift of
His goodness ; and man is cheered, first by the sight, and afterwards by the use of
it as a part of his daily food. The supposition that nothing can ' cheer ' except it
be of an intoxicating quality is not more sensual than it is absurd. The very word
employed in this passage, samaakh, translated ' to cheer,' occurs as a noun in Psa.
iv. 7 — "Thou hast put gladness (simkhah) into my heart more than in the time
when their corn (deghanam) and their wine (tiros ham) increased." This verse at
once refutes the alcoholic gloss, and throws light upon the parable itself. The
increase of corn and tiros h cheers the husbandman, but the favor of God gives
greater cheer to the humble "and trustful soul.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 27.

And they went out into the fields, and gathered their vineyards,
and trode the grapes, and made merry, and went into the house
of their god, and did eat and drink, and 'cursed Abimelech.

AND GATHERED THEIR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vay-yivtzeru eth-karmaihem, ' and
cut off (stripped) their vineyards,' /. e. cut off the fruit from the vines.

JUDGES, XIII. 2—7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 71

AND TRODE THE GRAPES] Hebrew, vay-yiJrfku, 'and they trode' — the A. V.
properly printing the words ' the grapes ' in italics to denote that they are added to
complete the sense.

AND MADE MERRY] Hebrew, va-yadsu hillnlim, 'and they made songs' (so
the margin of the A. V. ), ;'. e. sang vintage songs. Gesenius suggests ' offered
public thanksgivings.' The Lxx. transfers the Hebrew word, kai epoieesan
Elloulim, ' and they made Elloulim.'* The V. has etfactis cantantium choris, ' and
companies of singers having been formed.'

AND DID EAT AND DRINK, AND CURSED ABIMELECH] Hebrew, vay-yokelu
vay-yishtu vayqallu eth-Abimelek, 'and they ate and drank, and cursed Abimelech.'
It is not distinctly intimated that this feasting was conducive to the cursing in which
the Shechemitas indulged, but the rendering of the V. is peculiar, — ft inter epulos
ft ponila mahdicebant Abimelech^ 'and between their feastings and cups they
cursed Abimelech. ' Probably excited by inebriating liquor, they rioted and boasted
with a foolish freedom that cost them dear.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSES 2 — 7, 13, 14, 24, 25.

» And there was a certain man of Zorah, of the family of the
Danites, whose name was Manoah; and his wife was barren, and
bare not. 3 And the angel of the LORD appeared unto the woman,
and said unto her, Behold now, thou art barren, and bearest not : but
thou shalt conceive, and bear a son. 4 Now therefore beware,
I pray thee, and drink not wine nor strong drink, and eat not
any unclean thing : 5 For, lo, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son :
and no razor shall come on his head : for the child shall be a Nazarite
unto God from the womb : and he shall begin to deliver Israel out of
the hand of the Philistines. 6 Then the woman came and told her
husband, saying, A man of God came unto me, and his countenance
was like the countenance of an angel of God, very terrible: but
I asked him not whence he was, neither told he me his name :
7 But he said unto me, Behold, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son ;
and now drink no wine nor strong drink, neither eat any unclean
thing: for the child shall be a Nazarite to God from the womb to the
day of his death. . . . 13 And the angel of the LORD said unto
Manoah, Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware. 14 She
may not eat of any thing that cometh of the vine, neither let her drink
wine or strong drink, nor eat any unclean thing: all that I com-
manded her let her observe 24 And the woman bare a

son, and called his name Samson : and the child grew, and the LORD
blessed him. 25 And the Spirit of the LORD began to move him at
times in the camp of Dan between Zorah and Eshtaol.

V. 4. DRINK NOT WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, vl-al-tishti yayin
vl-shakar, 'and thou shalt not drink wine and sweet drink.' So also in verses 7 and
14. The Lxx., Codex A, has oinon kai sikera in each place, but Codex B has
oinon kai niethusma, 'wine and strong drink.' The Complutensian edition has
sihrran. In each place the V. has vinttm ft siceram. The Targumists, as before,
render yayin by 'new wine,' and shakar\>y 'old wine.'

JUDGES, XIII. 2—7, 13, 14, 24, 25.

V. 14. OF ANY THING THAT COMETH OF THE VINE] Hebrew, mik-kol asher
yatza mig-gephen hay-yayin, * from all (anything) that comes forth from the vine
of the wine,' i. e. the wine-tree. The Lxx. has ex ampelou tou oinou> 'from the
vine of the wine.' The V. has simply ex vinea, ' from the vineyard.'

SAMSON] Hebrew, Shimshon, 'sun-like." Josephus incorrectly interprets this
name by ischuros, 'strong.' The Lxx. gives Sampson as the spelling, which has
been extensively followed.

I. The partial Nazaritism enjoined by the celestial messenger, with so much
emphasis and solemnity, upon the mother of Samson, 'Now therefore beware, I
pray thee ' (ver. 4) ; 'Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware ' (ver. 13),
is exceedingly noteworthy; for, passing by the other peculiarities of the Nazarite
code, the prohibitive injunction was limited to yayin, shakar, and the produce of
the vine, and to things unclean. Rejecting the idea of an elaborate whim, can it
be doubted that reasons of z. physiological Takwcz. dictated this command? Unless
on the hypothesis of some benefit to her babe, it is inexplicable that she should have
been subjected to the dietetic rule of the Nazarites. Modern medical inquiries have
made clear the fact, surmised by some ancient philosophers, of the powerful influence
of maternal regimen on the uterine condition and future health of children. It
seems, therefore, legitimate to conclude that the mother of Samson was stringently
guarded against all possible use of intoxicating liquors in order that her heroic son
might gain the full benefit, not of his own abstinence only, but of hers, from the
period of his conception to his birth. That indulgence in the use of strong drink
by expectant mothers would be injurious to their offspring, was known to the
learned and wise among the ancients. Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, etc., have
noticed the hereditary transmission of intemperate propensities, and the legislation
that imposed abstinence upon women had unquestionably in view the greater vigor
of offspring — the mens sana in corpore sano (healthy mind in a healthy body), — one
of the choicest inheritances of the human race. Matthew Henry aptly remarks,
"Women with child ought conscientiously to avoid whatever they have reason to
think will be in any way prejudicial to the health or good constitution of the fruit
of their body. And perhaps Samson's mother was to refrain from wine and strong
drink, not only because he was designed for a Nazarite, but because he was
designed for a man of strength, which his mother's temperance would con-
tribute to."

2. The Nazaritism of Samson was to be complete and lifelong. Nor is there
reason to doubt his fidelity to this part of his vow. In chapter xv. 18, 19, we
have an account of one great triumph at the close of which "he was sore athirst,
and called on the Lord," who "clave a hollow place that was in the jaw [or, in
Lehi], and there came water thereout ; and when he had drunk, his spirit came again
and he revived." [See Note upon this verse.] Would that lesser heroes had been
content to ' revive their spirits ' as innocently as did this scourge of the Philistines !
It is not pretended by any advocate of Temperance that Samson's abstinence was
the cause of his stupendous strength : that was supernatural ; yet it may be legiti-
mately inferred that this abstinence would not have been enjoined had intoxicating
liquors possessed that invigorating property which has been ascribed to them. The
Note in Bagster's 'Treasury Bible' (partially quoted under Numb. vi. 3) has
this reference: — "It maybe here observed that when God intended to raise up
Samson by his strength of body to scourge the enemies of Israel, He ordered that
from his infancy he should drink no wine, but live by the rule of the Nazarites,

JUDGES, XIII. 2 — 7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 73

because that would greatly contribute to make him strong and healthy, intending,
after Nature had done her utmost to form this extraordinary instrument of His pro-
vidence, to supply her defects by His own supernatural power." It is incredible
that the Most High should have deprived His ' chosen vessel ' of the class of articles
necessary, or peculiarly conducive, to the highest development of his constitution ;
and an intelligent perusal of this passage would have sufficed to nip in the bud that
most pestiferous of physical superstitions, which has associated human energy,
vitality, and longevity, with some use of alcoholic liquors. Classical literature is
not deficient in passages that may compare with the one under consideration. The
reader of the 'Iliad' will remember that Homer represents Hecuba as saying
to her son Hector, ' to a weary man wine imparts great strength ' — andri de
kekmeeoti menos mega oinos aexei ; but the hero, wiser on this point than the
anxious mother, answers, "Bring me not, honored mother, the wine, sweet as
honey to the soul, lest thou shouldst weaken my limbs, and I should be forgetful
of both strength and courage," —

Jlfee tttffi oinon, aeire meliphrona, f>otnia tneeter,
Mee mcatoguwsees, metios d'alkees te lathomai.

Iliad, Book VI., v. 265-6.

Pope's note on these lines is striking: — "This maxim of Hector's concerning wine
has a great deal of truth in it. It is a vulgar mistake to imagine the use of wine
either rouses the spirits or increases strength. The best physicians agree with
Homer on this point, whatever modern soldiers may object to this old heroic
regimen. We may take notice that Samson as well as Hector was a water-
drinker, for he was a Nazarite by vow, and as such was forbid the use of wine, —
to which Milton alludes in his ' Samson Agonistes.' " Pope proceeds to quote the
reply of Samson to the chorus ; but it is better to cite the whole of the lines relating
to Samson's abstinence, as they appear in Milton's noble drama.
Speaking to himself, the hero says, —

" Abstemious I grew up, and thrived amain."

The chorus speaks : —

" Desire of wine, and all delicious drinks,
Which many a famous warrior overturns,
Thou couldst repress: nor did the dancing ruby
Sparkling, outpoured, the flavor, or the smell,
Or taste that cheers the hearts of gods and men,
Allure thee from the cool crystalline stream."

To which Samson replies, —

'' Wherever fountain or fresh current flowed
Against the Kastern ray, translucent, pure,
With touch ethereal of heaven's fiery red,
I drank, from the clear milky juice allaying
Thirst, and refreshed ; nor envied them the grape
Whose heads that turbulent liquor fills with fumes."

The chorus then responds, —

" O madness ! to think use of strongest wines
And strongest drinks our chief support of health,
When God, with these forbidden, made choice to real
His mighty champion strong above compare.
Whose drink was only from the liquid brook." *

3. On verses 24 and 25 Matthew Henry remarks : — " Strong men think them-
selves greatly animated by wine (Psa. Ixxviii. 65), but Samson drank no wine, and
yet excelled in strength and courage, and everything bold and brave, for he had

• Milton used ' liquid ' in the Latin sense of liquidiu. clear, limpid.

74 JUDGES, xv. 5, 1 8, 19.

the Spirit of God moving him ; therefore, ' be not drunk with wine, but be filled
with the Spirit,' who will come to those that are sober and temperate." That
Samson's life was not perfect in a moral and spiritual sense is apparent from the
historic notices preserved to us. This fact, however, gives no support to the
popular plea that abstinence is no benefit, since Sepoys, Mohammedans, and other
abstainers, are both cruel and impure ; for man being so prone to evil from nature
(the inference is inevitably suggested), the greater is the reason why he should
sedulously guard against further perversion, by renouncing that which, in disturb-
ing his brain, augments his depravity. In spite of his abstinence from ' turbulent
liquors,' not because of it, Samson was beguiled; and while the value of abstinence
is not, on that account, lessened, we have clearly impressed upon us the necessity
of divine guidance and personal watchfulness in all things, to the well ordering of
the Christian life and the growth of the ' inner man ' in all the graces and virtues
of the Spirit.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 5.

Then went Samson down, and his father and his mother, to Tim-
nath, and came to the vineyards of Timnath : and, behold, a young
lion roared against him.

To THE VINEYARDS OF TiMNATH] Hebrew, ad karniai Thimnathah, ' to the
cultivated grounds of Timnath.'

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 5.

And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the
standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks, and
also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives.

WITH THE VINEYARDS AND OLIVES] Hebrew, vl-ad kerem zattA, 'and to the
kerem of the olive tree.' Here kerem is applied, not to a vineyard merely, but
generically to ' cultivated land ' ; and the meaning is that the fire kindled by the
foxes or jackals sent by Samson into the fields of standing corn, spread beyond the
limits of the corn district, and seized upon the plot devoted to the cultivation of
the olive.

CHAPTER XV. VERSES 18, 19.

is And he was sore athirst, and called on the LORD, and said, Thou
hast given this great deliverance into the hand of thy servant : and
now shall I die for thirst, and fall into the hand of the uncircum-
cised ? 19 But God clave an hollow place that was in the jaw, and
there came water thereout ; and when he had drunk, his spirit came
again, and he revived : wherefore he called the name thereof Enhak-
kore, which is in Lehi unto this day.

It is not necessary to believe that water came from a hollow place made in the
vss's jaw. The marginal reading is ' in Lehi ' ; and as the place where the victory
was gained was called Lehi [Lekhi, jaw-bone], the historian intimates that out of a

JUDGES, XIX. 19. 75

small rocky hollow God caused a spring to burst forth, by whose pure water the
spirit of Israel's 'mighty champion* was revived.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 4.

And it came to pass afterward, that he loved a woman in the valley
of Sorek, whose name was Delilah.

IN THE VALLEY OF SOREK] Hebrew, blnahkal Sorak, 'in the ravine of Sotek.*
The margin of A. V. has ' by the brook of Sorek ' ; and, as before noticed, many of
the ravines of Palestine, which are dry in summer, become the beds of deep torrents
in the rainy season. The ravine of Sorek was situated near the ravine of Eshcol,
both famous for the size and luscious quality of their grapes. The fame of this
Yalley is thought to have given a name to some particular kind of wine, or to a
wine of special excellence, as early as the days of Jacob. [See Notes on Gen.
xlix. II; Isa. v. 2; Jer. ii. 21.]

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 25.

And it came to pass, when their hearts were merry, that they
said, Call for Samson, that he may make us sport. And they called
for Samson out of the prison house ; and he made them sport : and
they set him between the pillars.

WHEN THEIR HEARTS WERE MERRY] Hebrew, k'yetov libahm, 'when it was
good to their hearts '==when their hearts felt light or cheerful. This is an idiomatic
expression, quite different from the phrase used of Joseph and his brethren (Gen.
xliii. 34), and from the other used of the Shechemites (Judg. ix. 27), and rendered
'merry.' That the mirth of the Philistines, however, on the occasion was stimu-
lated by indulgence in strong drink is highly probable. They had come ' to offer a
great sacrifice to Dagon,' and revelry was the general concomitant of idolatrous
rites. The expression here employed is in other places distinctly associated with
strong drink and drinking excesses. (See Notes on I Sam. xxv. 36; 2 Sam. xiii.
28; Est. i. 10.) Hence Milton may be acquitted of injustice to this Philistian
gathering when he puts into the mouth of the messenger the words, —

" The feast and noon grew high, and sacrifice
Had filled their hearts with mirth, high cheer, and wine,
When to their sports they turned."

To which the semichorus adds that they were —

" Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine."

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 19.

Yet there is both straw and provender for our asses ; and there is
bread and wine also for me, and for thy handmaid, and for the young
man which is with thy servants : there is no want of any thing.

76 JUDGES, XXI. 19 — 21.

BREAD AND WINE] Hebrew, lekhem vZ-yayin. The Lxx. has artoi kai oinos,
* loaves and wine'; the V., panem ac vinum, 'bread and wine.'

CHAPTER XXI. VERSES 19 — 21.

19 Then they said, Behold, there is a feast of the LORD in Shiloh
yearly in a place which is on the north side of Beth-el, on the east
side of the highway that goeth up from Beth-el to Shechem, and on
the south of Lebonah. 20 Therefore they commanded the children
of Benjamin, saying, Go and lie in wait in the vineyards; 21 And
see, and, behold, if the daughters of Shiloh come out to dance in
dances, then come ye out of the vineyards, and catch you every
man his wife of the daughters of Shiloh, and go to the land of
Benjamin.

V. 19. A FEAST OF THE LORD] Hebrew, khag- Yehovah, ' a festival of Jehovah,'
= a festival in honor of Jehovah. This word feast, as distinguished from mishteht
is derived from khahgagy 'to move in a circle,' and signifies the sacred dance per-
formed at appointed times. [For the use of khahgag'va. reference to excess, see Note
on Psa. cvii. 27.]

V. 20. IN THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, batfrahmim, 'in vineyards.'
V. 21. OUT OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, min-kak''rahmim, 'from the vine-
yards.' Note the use ofmtn as 'out' or 'from.'

THE BOOK OF RUTH.

CHAPTER II. VERSES 8, 9. 14.

s Then said Boaz unto Ruth, Hearest thou not, my daughter ?
Go not to glean in another field, neither go from hence, but abide
here fast by my maidens : 9 L€t thine eyes be on the field that they
do reap, and go thou after them: have I not charged the young
men that they shall not touch thee? and when thou art athirst, go
unto the vessels, and drink of that which the young men have drawn.
. . . 14 And Boaz said unto her, At meal-time come thou hither,
and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she
sat beside the reapers : and he reached her parched com, and she did
eat, and was sufficed, and left.

V. 9. DRINK OF THAT WHICH THE YOUNG MEN HAVE DRAWN] The Hebrew for
'have drawn ' is yishabun from shahav, ' to draw water.' The Lxx. has kai piesai
othen ean hudreuontai ta paidaria, 'and drink of that which the youths shall have
drawn of water.' The V. is et bibe aquas de quibus el pueri bibunt, ' and drink the
waters from which also the youths drink.' This wealthy Bethlehemite supplied
his reapers with water, and probably found his harvest work despatched more
quickly, and certainly more soberly, than the farmers of England get theirs executed
on cider and beer.

V. 14. IN THE VINEGAR] Hebrew, ba-khometz, 'in the fermented drink' — pro-
bably sour wine (vin-aigre = vinegar), similar to the posca served out to the Roman
legionaries. The Syriac adds she 'dipped the bread in milk,' and the Arabic has
'she poured milk upon it' (the bread). Dr Gill remarks, "Vinegar was used
because of the heat of the season, as Jarchi and Aben Ezra remark, for cooling
and refreshment ; and such virtues Pliny ascribes to vinegar as being refreshing to
the spirits, binding and bracing the nerves, and very corroborating and strengthen-
ing ; and it is at this day used in Italy, it is said, in harvest-time, when it is hot,
where they also used wine mixed with vinegar and water, as Lavater says ; and
who from a learned physician observes, that reapers instead of wine use vinegar
mixed with a great deal of water, which they call 'household wine,' allayed with
water ; to which if oil and bread be put it makes a cooling meal, good for work-
men and travelers in the heat of the sun ; and the Targum calls it pottage boiled
in vinegar. The Romans had an embamma or sauce made of vinegar, in which
they dipped their food, and Theocritus makes mention of vinegar as used by
reapers."

78 RUTH, III. 7.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 7.

And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he
went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn : and she came
softly, and uncovered his feet, and laid her down.

AND HIS HEART WAS MERRY] Hebrew, 'and he was good as to his heart1
[See Note on Judg. xvi. 25.] It is not said what Boaz ate and drank, hut that he
might be merry without partaking of intoxicants is well known to those who hare
made the experiment

THE FIRST BOOK OF SAMUEL.

CHAPTER I. VERSES 9 — 17.

9 So Hannah rose up after they had eaten in Shiloh, and after
they had drunk : (now Eli the priest sat upon a seat by a post of the
temple of the Lord :) 10 And she was in bitterness of soul, and prayed
unto the LORD, and wept sore. » And she vowed a vow, and said,
O LORD of hosts, if thou wilt indeed look on the affliction of thine
handmaid, and remember me, and not forget thine handmaid, but
wilt give unto thine handmaid a man child, then I will give him unto
the LORD all the days of his life, and there shall no razor come upon
his head. «And it came to pass, as she continued praying before
the LORD, that Eli marked her mouth. 13 Now Hannah, she spake
in her heart; only her lips moved, but her voice was not heard:
therefore Eli thought she had been drunken. 14 And Eli said unto
her, How long wilt thou be drunken : put away thy wine from thee.
15 And Hannah answered and said, No, my lord, I am a woman of a
sorrowful spirit : I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but have
poured out my soul before the LORD. 16 Count not thine handmaid
for a daughter of Belial : for out of the abundance of my complaint
and grief have I spoken hitherto. 17 Then Eli answered and said, Go
in peace : and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition that thou hast
asked of him.

V. 9. AFTER THEY HAD DRUNK] The Lxx. has meta to phagcin autous, ' after
they had eaten,' adding the words, not in our Hebrew text, 'and she stood before
the Lord.' Codex A and the Complutensian edition give also, 'and after they had
drunk,' and the Complut. ed. omits 'and she stood before the Lord.' The V.
has postquam comederat et biberat, 'after she had eaten and drunk.' So reads the
Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel.

V. II. I WILL GIVE HIM UNTO THE LORD ALL THE DAYS OF HIS LIFE] This

was in effect a dedication of her wished-for son to a life-long Nazaritism. The
Lxx. has a clause not found in the Hebrew text or V. version — kai oinon kai
methiisma ou pietai, 'and of wine and strong drink he shall not drink.' Philo
quotes this clause, and pointedly refers to Samuel as ' chief of kings and prophets,'
and as a Nazarite for life.
V. 13. THEREFORE ELI THOUGHT SHE HAD BEEN DRUNKEN] Hebrew, fcshikorah,

'for a drunken woman.' So the Lxx., eis methuousan ; and the V., temuUntiam

(from tcmctitm, the old Latin word for intoxicating wine).

80 I SAMUEL, I. 24.

V. 14. How LONG WILT THOU BE DRUNKEN?] Hebrew, ad-mathi tishtakkahrin;
Lxx., heds pote methtistheesee ; V., usquequb ebria eris?

PUT AWAY THY WINE FROM THEE] Hebrew, hahsiri eth-yaynak maahlaik ; the
Lxx., perielou ton oinon sou [Codex A adds aj>o sou~\ kaiporeuou ek prosopou kuriou,
* put away thy wine and depart from the presence of the Lord ' ; the V. has digere
paulisper vini quo mades, 'get rid quickly of the wine in which thou art steeped/

V. 15. I HAVE DRUNK NEITHER WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, VC-ydyin

•ve-shakar lo shathithi, 'wine and strong drink I have not drunk'; the Lxx., kai
oinon kai methusma ou pepoka, ' and wine and strong drink I have not drunk ' ;
the V., vinumque et omne quod inebriare potest non bibit 'and wine and whatever
is able to inebriate I have not drunk.' The Ts. read, 'new wine and old I have
not drunk.'

A devout Hebrew matron, sorrowful from want of offspring and the exultation of
a rival wife, goes up to the tabernacle to pour out her soul before God. Eli, the
high priest, observing that her lips moved, and that she was under deep excite-
ment, suspects her of intoxication, a suspicion which he bluntly expresses, jealous
no doubt for the honor of the holy place. She respectfully repudiates the charge,
and with so much evident sincerity that Eli not only credits her statement, but
bestows on her his pontifical benediction. It may be noted, —

1. That the readiness with which Eli concludes as to Hannah's inebriation in-
dicates a prevailing corruption of morals, which had taken this peculiar form, and
had deeply infected even the female population.

2. That Hannah's disclaimer was associated with a conclusive proof of her inno-
cence— 'I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink.' Where this statement can
be truly made, drunkenness, in all its degrees, is impossible. The importance of
being able to declare this is not small, for the speaker is then sure (as otherwise
he may not be) that he is entirely free from alcoholic excitement, which, if short
of intoxication, is injurious to body and soul. 'I am not excited by drink,' is a
conviction only attainable by abstinence, and not a little consoling under reproach.
Hannah, be it noted, did not resort to intoxicating liquor to drive out or drown her
sorrows — a striking contrast to the supposed permission in Prov. xxxi. 6, 7. (See
Note on that passage.) She sought comfort not in potations, but in prayer, — 'I
have poured out my soul unto the Lord,' — and she received her reward. Would
that all our women were like her !

3. When Hannah desired not to be counted ' a daughter of Belial ' — /. e. a
daughter of wickedness or destruction — she presented a vivid description of every
female drunkard, who is so corrupted by drink as to lose all womanly virtue,
and to be prepared for every shameful deed. Drunkenness in women is peculiarly
odious and horrible, and when it becomes confirmed is well-nigh incurable, except
by forcible deprivation of the raging liquor. In order to arrest the spread of this
corrosive vice among the women of Christendom, should Christians esteem absti-
nence from its physical cause too great a sacrifice to be volunteered ?

CHAPTER I. VERSE 24.

And when she had weaned him, she took him up with her, with
three bullocks, and one ephah of flour, and a bottle of wine, and
brought him unto the house of the LORD in Shiloh : and the child
was young.

I SAMUEL, XIV. 2. 8 1

AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, v%-nabel yayin, 'and a bottle of wine.' This
was as an offering, together with the flour and the three bullocks (or as the Lxx.
reads, ' one bullock of three years old '). The Lxx. retains the Hebrew word in kai
nebel oinou, ' and a nebel of wine.' The V. has et amphora vini, ' and an amphora
of wine.' The Roman amphora was a two-handled jar commonly holding seven
English gallons, but the word is here used without any intention of defining the
size of the Hebrew nebel.

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 14, 15.

i4 And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your olive-
yards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. 15 And
he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give
to his officers, and to his servants.

YOUR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, karmaikem, 'your vineyards.'

CHAPTER X. VERSE 3.

Then shalt thou go on forward from thence, and thou shalt come
to the plain of Tabor, and there shall meet thee three men going up
to God to Beth-el, one carrying three kids, and another carrying
three loaves of bread, and another carrying a bottle of wine.

A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, nabel yayin. The Lxx. gives askon oinou, ' skin-
bag of wine ' ; the V., lagenam vini, ' flagon of wine.'

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 2.

And Saul tarried in the uttermost part of Gibeah under a pome-
granate tree which is in Migron : and the people that were with him
were about six hundred men.

A POMEGRANATE TREE] Hebrew, Rimmon. The Lxx. has hupo teen rhoant
'under the pomegranate'; the V., sub malogranato, 'under the malegranate.*
But by Rimmon in this passage is probably meant a fortified place which had de-
rived its name from the growth of the pomegranate. Concerning this tree the
'Treasury Bible' observes, "It is, according to the Linnaean system, a genus of
the Icosandria Monogynia class of plants, and is a low tree growing very commonly
in Palestine and other parts of the East. It has several small angular boughs, very
thick and bushy, covered with a reddish bark, and some of them armed with sharp
thorns. Its blossoms are large, of an elegant red color inclining to purple, com-
posed of several stalks resembling a rose, in the hollow of the cup ; this cup is
oblong, hard, purple, having a figure somewhat like that of a bell. It is chiefly
valued for its fruit, which is exceedingly beautiful, of the form and size of a large
apple, with a reddish rind, and red within ; being full of small kernels, with red
grains, replenished with a generous liquor, of which, Sir John Chardin informs us
they still make considerable quantities of wine in the East, particularly in Persia."
[See Note on Song of Sol. viii. 2.]
11

82 I SAMUEL, XXV. II, 1 8, 36 — 38.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 20.

And Jesse took an ass laden with bread, and a bottle of wine, and
a kid, and sent them by David his son unto Saul.

AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, ve-nod yayin, 'and a bottle of wine.'

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 7.

Then Saul said unto his servants that stood about him, Hear now,
ye Benjamites ; will the son of Jesse give every one of you fields and
vineyards, and make you all captains of thousands, and captains of
hundreds ?

AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, u-krahmin, 'and vineyards.'

CHAPTER XXV. VERSES n, 18, 36 — 38.

ii Shall I then take my bread, and my water, und my flesh that I have
killed for my shearers, and give it unto men, whom I know not whence
they be? . . . 18 Then Abigail made haste, and took two hundred
loaves, and two bottles of wine, and five sheep ready dressed, and
five measures of parched corn, and an hundred clusters of raisins, and
two hundred cakes of figs, and laid them on asses. . . . 36 And Abi-
gail came to Nabal ; and, behold, he held a feast in his house, like the
feast of a king ; and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was
very drunken : wherefore she told him nothing, less or more, until the
morning light. 37 But it came to pass in the morning, when the wine
was gone out of Nabal, and his wife had told him these things, that
his heart died within him, and he became as a stone. 3sAnd it
came to pass about ten days after, that the LORD smote Nabal, so
that he died.

V. ii. AND MY WATER] Hebrew, ve-eth-mamai, 'and my waters' — a Hebrew
idiom which the V. preserves, et aquas meas. The Lxx. singularly reads, kai ton
oinon mou, 'and my wine.' Did the Lxx. translators think that Nabal, being a sot,
ironically or figuratively spoke of wine as ' my water ' ? Aquila gives amphoreis,
'jars.' The T. of Jonathan and the Arabic have ' my drink.'

V. 1 8. Two BOTTLES OF WINE] Hebrew, ushnaim nivlai yayin. The Lxx.
has duo angeia oinou, 'two vases (or vessels) of wine'; the V., duos utres vim,

* two leathern bags of wine.'

A HUNDRED CLUSTERS OF' RAISINS] Hebrew, umaah tzimmuqim, ' and a hun-
dred raisin-clusters' — from tzahmaq, 'to dry up.' The Lxx. reads, kai gomor hen
staphidon, ' and one homer of raisins ' ; but other copies have kai hekaton endes-
mous, ' and a hundred bunches. ' The V. gives et centum ligaturas uvce passes,

* and a hundred bunches of dried grapes.'

V. 36. A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh; the Lxx. potos ; the V., convivium.

His HEART WAS MERRY] The Hebrew has the idiomatic ' his heart was good
to him.' The Lxx. is literal, agathee, 'good'; the V., jocundum, 'jocund' 'or
gay.'

I SAMUEL, XXX. II, 12. 83

FDR HI: WAS VERY DRUNKEN] The Hebrew is shikkor ad rntod, 'drunken (or
drenched) with force ' — /. e. excessively ; the Lxx., kai autos met/man heos sphodra,
'and he was being drunk, even exceedingly'; the V., erat enim ebrius nimis, 'for
he \v.i> drunk very much.'

V. 37. WHEN THE WINE WAS GONE OUT OF NABAL] Hebrew, tftzath hay-
yayin min Nabal, 'in the going out of the wine from Nabal ' ; Lxx., hos
txeneepsen apo ton oinon Nabal, ' when Nabal had become sober from the
wine.' The phrase here employed for 'becoming sober' is remarkable; it lite-
rally signifies ' becoming as an abstainer' — as those are who drink not. The word
was often used by the Apostles in after times. [See Notes on the New Testa-
ment. ] The V. has here cum digessisset i-inum Nabal, ' when Najaal had digested
the wine.'

The phrase ' going out ' is singularly accurate, for though perhaps merely
intended to describe the subsidence of the intoxication produced by the wine, it
exactly accords with the most recent discoveries of science, that intoxication passes
off because the alcoholic spirit does go out of the body — being expelled from it by
all the excretory organs as an intruder into and disturber of the living house
which God has ' fearfully and wonderfully made.'

Nabal may have been prone to folly by his natural temperament and disposition,
but his habits of life made the folly chronic and incurable. Free drinking had not
disposed him to generosity or justice, and in the morning, after a debauch, having
learnt the danger he had incurred, his nervous system was too enfeebled to recover
from the shock it received, and so in ten days he died.

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE n.

The LORD forbid that I should stretch forth mine hand against the
LORD'S anointed : but, I pray thee, take thou now the spear that is at
his bolster, and the cruse of water, and let us go.

AND THE CRUSE OF WATER] Hebrew, vt-eth-tzappakhath ham-maim, 'and the
cruse of the waters ' =- the water-skin. The Lxx. has ton phakon tou hudatos, ' the
lentil-shaped vase of water.' Aquila has angos, 'a vase'; Symmachus, nuk-
iopotion, ' a night-drinking vessel' ; the V., scypJnim aqua, 'a goblet of water.'

The king of Israel did not disdain to carry with him a water-vessel on this
expedition, and the statement (ver. 12) that David took it from Saul's bolster,
proves the value attached to it by the royal traveler.

CHAPTER XXX. VERSES n, 12.

\nd they found an Egyptian in the field, and brought him to
David, and gave him bread, and he did eat; and they made him
drink water; 12 And they gave him a piece of a cake of figs, and two
clusters of raisins : and when he had eaten, his spirit came again to
him : for he had eaten no bread, nor drunk any water, three days and
three nights.

V. 12. AND TWO CLUSTERS OF RAISINS] Hebrew, ushnai tzimmnqim, 'and two
raisin clusters.' Codex B of the Lxx. omits this clause, but Codex A has kai

84 I SAMUEL, XXX. 16.

diakosious s-taphidas, ' and two hundred raisins.' Aquila gives kai duo staphidas,
•and two raisins'; Symmachus, endesmous staphidon, 'bunches of raisins'; the
V., et duas ligaturas uva passes, 'and two bunches of dried grapes.'

As David's men gave the fainting Egyptian water only, most probably they were
themselves provided with no other drink ; and upon it, with bread and fruit, he
was soon 'refreshed,' though for a period of almost seventy hours he had been
deprived of every kind of sustenance. If inebriating liquors were unknown, many
emergencies in which they are deemed essential for safety would be surmounted
successfully, nay, more easily without them.

CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 16.

And when he had brought him down, behold, they were spread
abroad upon all the earth, eating, and drinking, and dancing, because
of all the great spoil that they had taken out of the land of the Phi-
listines, and out of the land of Judah.

EATING, AND DRINKING, AND DANCING] Hebrew, oklint, veshothim, vlkhoggim.
The Lxx. has eslhiontes, kai pinontes, kai heortazontes, ' eating, drinking, and fes-
tival-keeping'; the V.; comedentes, et bibentes, el quasi festum celebrantus diem,
* eating and drinking, and celebrating as it were a feast day. '

These Amalekites were caught much in the same predicament as the troops of
the confederate kings when overtaken by Abraham. History has often repeated
itself in the surprise and rout of intemperate marauders.

THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 19.

And he dealt among all the people, even among the whole multi-
tude of Israel, as well to the women as men, to every one a cake of
bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. So all the
people departed every one to his house.

A FLAGON- OF WINE] Hebrew, ashishah, 'a raisin-cake.' The Lxx. has laga-
non apo teeganou, ' a cake-cooked-with-oil from the frying-pan ' =» a pancake or
fricassee. The rendering of the V. is similam frixam oleo, ' and fine flour fried
in oil,' this similam being, perhaps, related to simnellus whence the English
' sinnel,' a sweet cake. The T. of Jonathan gives ' one portion ' (manthah khadah).
The Syriac has a 'cake.' The English translators, seemingly puzzled with this
word, rendered it 'flagon,' a vessel for liquids, but thinking that a dry flagon
would be of little use, added in italics, 'of wine.' [On ASHISHAH see Prel. Dis.]
Gesenius, who derives ashish from an unused root signifying 'to press together,'
describes ashishim (the plural) as "//&z, cakes, specially suph as were made of
grapes, and dried and pressed into a certain form. They are mentioned as
dainties, with which those who were wearied with a journey and languid were
refreshed. This word differs from tzimmuq, i. e. dried grapes, but not pressed to-
gether into a cake. " Elsewhere he speaks of ashish as ' a cake of driedyf^V though
in distinguishing it in another place from debatim, cakes of dried figs, he refers to the
Mishna as explaining it to be 'cakes made of boiled len tiles.' [See Notes on the
parallel passage, I Chron. xvi. 3; and on Song of Sol. ii. 5, and Hos. iii. i.]

CHAPTER XI. VERSE 13.

And when David had called him, he did eat and drink before him ;
and he made him drunk : and at even he went out to lie on his bed
with the servants of his lord, but went not down to his house.

AND HE MADE HIM DRUNK] Hebrew, vayshakr&hu, 'and he made him drunk'
(or satiated with shakar). The Lxx. reads, kai emcthusen an ton ; the V., ft
inebriavit turn, 'and he inebriated him.'

No transaction of David's life reflects upon him so much disgrace as the one
portrayed in this narrative. When he sent for Uriah, in order to conceal the

86 2 SAMUEL, XVI. I, 2.

effect of his sinful intercourse with Bathsheba, he employed the drink that was a,
mocker to overcome the scruples of his valiant servant. Uriah yielded to the
liquor with which he was plied, but failing to do as the king desired, his death was
resolved upon, and brought about with great baseness. It is instructive to notice
what instrument was employed by the guilty monarch to excite merely animal con-
cupiscence in the hardy soldier ; nor is it irrelevant to suggest that ' the lust which
conceived and brought forth sin ' in the sweet singer of Israel may have been
stimulated by the same distempering draught.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 28.

Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now
when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you,
Smite Amnon ; then kill him, fear not : have not I commanded you ?
be courageous, and be valiant.

WHEN AMNON'S HEART is MERRY WITH WINE] Hebrew, k&ov la,v Amnon
bay-yayin, 'when good (is) the heart of Amnon with (or by) wine.' The Lxx.
gives idete hos an agathitnthee hee kardia Amnon en to oino, ' see when the heart
of Amnon shall become good with wine.' The V. has observate cum temulcntus
fuerit Amnon vino, 'mark when Amnon shall be intoxicated with wine.'

Absalom chose for the exaction of his revenge the period when his brother, by
means of the wine, was both thrown off his .guard and least able to defend himself.
That Amnon should have been ' given to wine ' is a trait in his character con-
sistent with the unbridled licentiousness that was bringing upon him his brother's
vengeance. We can hardly suppose the connection of the vices to have been one
of simple co-existence, though the silence of the history does not warrant a verj
positive opinion on the point.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSES i, 2.

i And when David was a little past the top of the hill, behold, Zit>*
the servant of Mephibosheth met him, with a couple of asses saddled,
and upon them two hundred loaves of bread, and an hundred buncnes
of raisins, and an hundred of summer fruits, and a bottle of wine.
2 And the king said unto Ziba, What meanest thou by these ? Ana
Ziba said, The asses be for the king's household to ride on j an<: the
bread and summer fruit for the young men to eat ; and the wine, that
such as be faint in the wilderness may drink.

V. I. AND A HUNDRED BUNCHES OF RAISINS] Hebrew, u-mdah tzimmuqim,
'and a hundred raisin-bunches.' The Lxx. has kai hekaton staphides, -and a
hundred raisins'; the V., et centum alllgaturis uvtz passes, 'and with a nundred
bunches of dried grapes.' The T. of Jonathan has 'a hundred stalks of grapes '
(with the grapes on).

AND A BOTTLE OF WINE] Hebrew, vZ-nav%l yayin. The Lxx. gives kat ncbel
oinou, ' and a nebel of wine ' ; the V., et utre vini, ' and (laden) with a skin-oag of
wine.'

V. 2. AND THE WINE] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine'; Lxx., oinos ;
the V., vinum.

2 SAMUEL, XXIII. 15 — I/. 87

The solid substances here enumerated were for food, the single bottle of yayin
for any who might faint. The wine might or might not be alcoholic. Were intoxi-
cating liquors now restricted to contingencies like the one described in this passage,
their use, whether necessary or not, would be strictly medicinal, and society would
be saved from the ravages of an endemic and ceaseless pest.

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 15 — 17.

15 And David longed, and said, Oh that one would give me drink
of the water of the well of Beth-lehem, which is by the gate ! 16 And
the three mighty men brake through the host of the Philistines, and
drew water out of the well of Beth-lehem, that was by the gate, and
took .*/, and brought it to David : nevertheless he would not drink
thereof, but poured it out unto the LORD. 17 And he said, Be it far
from me, O LORD, that I should do this : is not this the blood of the
men that went in jeopardy of their lives? therefore he would not
drink it. These things did these three mighty men.

It was natural that David should long for a draught of water from the well of
Bethlehem — a well dear to him, no doubt, from many early associations. Often
when a shepherd youth had it slaked his thirst and that of the flock he tended,
and now he sighs for a beaker of the cool clear beverage. Three of his noblest
captains watch the woods, and hasten to realize their monarch's wish. They pierce
through the Philistian lines, draw the water, and return. David's eye bespeaks his
pleasure and his gratitude, but before the liquid treasure is at his lips he pours it
out as a libation to the Lord, with words of dedication that must have solemnly
impressed all who stood around him. The bright water, as he looked upon it,
seemed to take a scarlet tinge when he thought of the lives that had been risked to
fetch it, 'therefore he would not drink it.' It had been obtained by courage and
affection inspired of God, and to Him it should be offered. David never was more
magnanimous than at this moment. Truly was he now the * man after God's own
heart,' and never dearer than at that time to his mighty men and faithful soldiers.
This deed was a psalm, sublime in its significance, and for ever sweet to all loving
hearts in its pure simplicity. Is the Christian world prepared to imitate as well as
to admire this act of David ? He had before him that which was endeared to him
by memory, useful in itself, and very desirable to him under the circumstances ;
but he 'would not drink of it,' because life had been risked, not lost, in its pro-
curement. Christians have before them drinks which can boast no such innocent
reminiscences — which are not necessary — of little or no use — nay, certainly of some
injury habitually consumed — which are not procurable without an enormous waste
of food and much needless labor on the Lord's day — drinks, the common sale and
use of which floods the kingdom with every species of vice, misery, want, sickness,
sin, and shame, slaying hecatombs year by year, till the number of victims baffles
computation. Shall Christians drink such liquors? If they will, can they claim
moral equality with the king of Israel ? and how do they vindicate their spiritual
relationship with David's Son and Lord, who poured out His own blood for the
ungodly ? To say the least, how must inferiority and inconsistency be confessed
when, in spite of reiterated teaching and appeal, intoxicating beverages are per-
sistently used by those who glory that they live under a dispensation greater, be-
cause more spiritual, than that which branched forth in the laws of Moses and
blossomed in the lyrics of the son of Jesse !

THE FIRST BOOK OF KINGS.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 20.

Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in
multitude, eating and drinking, and making merry.

EATING AND DRINKING, AND MAKING MERRY] Hebrew, oklim vt-shothim
usmakhim, 'eating and drinking, and rejoicing.' The confidence and peace
inspired by Solomon's government allowed the agricultural wealth of the people to
multiply, and with it their means of legitimate enjoyment.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 25.

And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and
under his fig tree, from Dan even to Beer-sheba, all the days of
Solomon.

EVERY MAN UNDER HIS OWN VINE] Hebrew, isk takhath gaphno, 'a man
under his vine.' This proverbial phrase, 'under his vine and fig tree,' though it
cannot be understood to imply that every man, or even every head of a family, had
a vine or fig tree as his own, is indicative of the extent to which both the vine and
fig tree were cultivated in the Holy Land for purposes of food. These were to the
Jewish peasant what his kitchen-garden or ' allotment ' is to the English laborer.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 7, 8.

7 And the king said unto the man of God, Come home with me,
and refresh thyself, and I will give thee a reward. 8 And the man of
God said unto the king, If thou wilt give me half thine house, I will
not go in with thee, neither will I eat bread nor drink water in this
place.

"To EAT BREAD AND DRINK WATER" appears to have been a colloquial
phrase, doubtless originating in the universal conviction of their value as the prime
necessaries of life. The worth of water is best known, because truly felt, in sultry
climes.

" Till taught by pain,
Men know not what good water's worth."

I KINGS, XX. 1 6. 89

CHAPTER XVI. VERSES 8, 9.

8 In the twenty and sixth year of Asa king of Judah began Elah
the son of Baasha to reign over Israel in Tirzah, two years. 9 And
his servant Zimri, captain of half his chariots, conspired against him,
as he was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza,
steward of his house in Tirzah.

V. 9. DRINKING HIMSELF DRUNK] Hebrew, shotheh shikhor, 'drinking (and)
being surcharged,' or shakarized. The Lxx. reads, peinon methuon, 'drinking,
being drunk ' ; the V., bibens et temulentus, ' drinking and drunk.'

CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 6.

And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and
bread and flesh in the evening ; and he drank of the brook.

The great prophet of Israel was supplied with food in his seclusion by the special
providence of Israel's God, but for his daily drink he was indebted to the running
stream, of which he partook gratefully, without envying ' the drunkards of Ephraim.'
Bread and flesh were more than hermit's fare ; u-min han~nahkal yishteh, 'and from
the brook he drank,' that which truly was to him what brandy has been falsely
designated, 'the water of life.' Some eminent commentators believe that Elijah
was a Nazarite, and it is exceedingly probable that this point of resemblance
between him and the forerunner of Christ was not absent.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 6.

And he looked, and, behold, there was a cake baken on the coals,
and a cruse of water at his head. And he did eat and drink, and laid
him down again.

The prophet's ' bread and water ' were insured. Twice was the cake and the
cruse ready to his hand when needed, and in the strength of what he had eaten and
drunk (verse 8) ' he went forty days unto Horeb the mount of God.'

CHAPTER XX. VERSE 16.

And they went out at noon. But Ben-hadad was drinking himself
drunk in the pavilions, he and the kings, the thirty and two kings that
helped him.

DRINKING HIMSELF DRUNK] Hebrew, shotheh shikkor. The Lxx. has pdnd
methuon ; the V. bibebat temulentus. [See Note on xvi. 8, 9.] The Syriac has
'drank old wine.'

It is said (ver. 12) that Benhadad was 'drinking' with his thirty-two confederate
petty kings or chiefs, and the drinking bout continued till the whole of them were
filled to the full. The liquor probably being in some degree intoxicating, he not
only neglects the duties of a general, but gives a boastful and ridiculous command
to take all the Israelites alive, whether they had sallied out for peace or war ; and
hence the besieged and lately despairing soldiers of Ahab obtained an easy victory.
12

QO I KINGS, XXI. I.

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE i.

And it came to pass after these things, that Naboth the Jezreelite
had a vineyard, which was in Jezreel, hard by the palace of Ahab
king of Samaria.

A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem, an enclosure of land cultivated and set with
vines and other plants. Roberts says, " People in England will scarcely be able
to appreciate the value which the Orientals place on a garden. The food of most
of them consists of vegetables, roots, and fruits ; their medicines, also, being
indigenous, are mostly produced in their gardens. Here they have their fine fruit-
trees, and their constant shade; and here they have their wells and places for
bathing."

Kerem also occurs, and is translated 'vineyard,' in verses 2, 3, 6, 7, 15, 16, 18.

THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 39.

And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild
vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his lap full, and came and
shred them into the pot of pottage : for they knew them not.

A WILD VINE] Hebrew, gephen sahdeh, 'a vine of the field.' The Lxx. has
ampelon en to agro, 'a vine in the field.' The V. reads, vitem sylvestrem, 'a vine
growing-in-the- woods.' Probably this was a plant resembling a vine, but entirely
different in nature.

WILD GOURDS] Hebrew, paqquoth sahdch, 'wild cucumbers, citcumeres asi-
«/'«/,' says Gesenius. The Lxx. has tolttfcen agrian, 'wild gourds'; the V.,
coloc vn th ides.

The fruit of the colocynth is of an attractive appearance, but the taste is nauseous,
and the effect very hurtful. Others suggest ' fox-grapes.'

1. The paqquoth^ plucked from the 'wild vine,' were put into the pot in
ignorance of their nature. Many foolish things are done through ignorance, but
as believing ignorance does not alter the quality, neither will it avert the physical
consequences, of noxious things.

2. The bitter taste of this pottage excited suspicion, and induced those who had
tasted to cry, ' Death is in the pot.' The taste of many poisons, but not of all, is
unpleasant. Anhydrous alcohol (alcohol so highly rectified as to be almost free from
water) is so acrid and pungent as not to be drinkable ; and articles of any perceptible
alcoholic strength are disagreeable to the unvitiated palate. Intoxicating liquors,
however, are often so elaborated as to be suggestive of no danger even while
exceedingly injurious. An eminent writer says of some highly prized French
wines, 'They fall like snow on the palate, but burn like fire in the veins.' When
the sentinels of nature are deceived the danger is all the greater. Happy would it
be if, warned by the voice of science and the facts of every-day life, our country-
men would exclaim, ' There is death in the pot of strong drink ' ; and happier
still will be the day when it can be added, ' And they would not drink thereof.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 26.

And he said unto him, Went not mine heart with thee, when the
man turned again from his chariot to meet thee ? Is it a time to
receive money, and to receive garments, and oliveyards, and vine-
yards, and sheep, and oxen, and menservants, and maidservants ?

AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, utfrahmim, 'vineyards.'

92 2 KINGS, XVIII. 4, 31.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 13.

And he burnt his burnt offering and his meat offering, and poured
his drink offering, and sprinkled the blood of his peace offerings,
upon the altar.

AND POURED HIS DRINK OFFERING] Hebrew, vay-yasak eth-nisko, 'and he
poured his pouring' (libation).

So verse 15, ' their drink offerings ' is in the Hebrew niskaihim, ' their libations.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 4.

He removed the high places, and brake the images, and cut down
the groves, and brake in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had
made : for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to
it : and he called it Nehushtan.

Hezekiah removed the external associations and incentives to idolatry, leaving
the spirit of idolatry to be acted upon by the force of tuition and example. He
broke in pieces even the brazen serpent, so memorable in the history of the Jews,
because it had been made an object of worship. Hence we perceive, I, that even
things intrinsically harmless should be abandoned when this is necessary to a work
of moral reformation ; 2, that such an abandonment will always be attended with
the blessing of God ; 3, that the common objection to abstinence from intoxicating
liquors — that the abuse of a thing is no reason against its use — can only be
sustained when it is shown (i) that their use is more useful than their abuse is
hurtful ; and (2) that the use can be disconnected from the abuse. If not — if the
abuse be a thousandfold more hurtful than the use is beneficial, and if no means of
separating the social use from the social abuse have been discovered, — if, indeed (as
is the case with alcohol), use is physiological abuse in itself, and tends to engender
abuses of the gravest character, — then wisdom has but one counsel to give, and
prudence and philanthropy have but one practice to pursue.

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 31.

Hearken not to Hezekiah : for thus saith the king of Assyria, Make
an agreement with me by a present, and come out to me, and then eat
ye every man of his own vine, and every one of his fig tree, and drink
ye every one the waters of his cistern.

AND EAT YE EVERY MAN OF His OWN VINE] Hebrew, ve-iklu ishgaphno, 'and
cat ye (each) man his vine,'=z. e. the produce of the vine. The Lxx. has pietai
aneer teen ampelon autou, '(each) man shall drink his vine' ; the V., et comedet
unusquisque de vinea sua, 'and every one shall consume of his own vineyard.'

THE WATER OF HIS OWN CISTERN] Hebrew, mai voro, 'waters of his cistern* or
'pit.' Cisterns are sometimes cut out of stone.

The speaker, Rabshakeh (whose name signifies 'chief cup-bearer,' perhaps
given to him on account of his office), appeals to the apparent and materialistic
interests of the people ; and when he represents his master, the king of Assyria, as

2 KINGS, XVIII. 32. 93

permitting the Jews, if they paid him tribute, to eat of their vines, we may be sure
that he adapted his appeal to their recognized mode of life. It is, in truth, a fact now,
as it was in the time of Hezekiah (B.C. 712), that the fruit of the vine is much more
used and valued as an article of diet than for the manufacture of wine of any sort.
The Rev. Smylie Robson, a missionary to the Jews in Syria, says in a letter from
Damascus, February, 1845 (published in the Irish Presbyterian Missionary Herald
of April and May, 1845), "It is well known that many parts of the mountains of
Lebanon are among the most thickly peopled and best cultivated districts of the land.
This is the part of the country in which I have traveled most. The food of the
inhabitants consists principally of fruit, milk, vegetables, bread made of the flour
of wheat and Indian corn. Wheat is everywhere cultivated, and the bread made
of it constitutes a large portion of the food of all classes. The most important
kinds of fruit are olives and grapes. Olives are eaten either raw or dressed in
various ways ; but they are chiefly valuable for the oil extracted from them. At
some seasons of the year a great part of the food of the people consists of vegetables
cooked in this oil, eaten sometimes with and sometimes without bread. This oil is
almost the only substance burnt for light. Olive trees are abundantly cultivated
throughout the whole country. The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which
can be said to form 'a substantial part of the food of the people.' Grapes come
into season in August, and continue in season about four months. During this
period they are used constantly, not as an agreeable dessert to stimulate and
gratify the appetite after it has been satisfied by a substantial meal, but as a
substantial part of the meal itself; so much so, that from August to December,
bread and grapes are substantially the food of the people. Very thin cakes of
bread made of flour, or of barley meal and flour mixed, and eaten with plenty of
grapes, form the meals of the inhabitants of Lebanon morning, noon, and night. 1
may add that it is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Here, too, as
in Europe, grapes are dried in large quantities, to preserve them as raisins ; and
in this form they supply an article of food to be used after the grape season. By
pickling and beating a substance called dibs is made out of the grapes. It is puri-
fied by means of lime, and is about the consistence of honey, and resembles it in
appearance. Bread and dibs is a very common meal in winter and spring. There
are two kinds, — one made from grapes, and the other from raisins. During the
greater part of the grape season the regular price of the most plentiful kind, purple
grapes, was about one farthing per pound, or fourpence per stone of fourteen
pounds. This is the kind that I liked best to eat. Another very plentiful kind,
the green grape, cost about sixpence per stone. A kind of very large red grapes
sold still higher, but they were not common. To a dense population, in a dry and
warm climate, the fruit of the vine must have been invaluable."

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 32.

Until I come and take you away to a land like your own land, a
land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil
olive and of honey, that ye may live, and not die : and hearken not
unto Hezekiah, when he persuaded you, saying, The LORD will deliver
us.

A LAND OF CORN AND WINE] Hebrew, eretz dahgan v2-tirosht ' a land of corn
and vine-fruit.' The Lxx. reads, gee sitou kai oinou, 'aland of corn and wine';
the V., terram fructiftram et ftrtilem vini, 'a fruitful land and prolific of wine.'

94 2 KINGS, XIX. 23, 24.

The Arabic reads vineyards. The preceding extract from Mr Robson shows how
literally accurate is the classification of 'corn, vine-fruit, and orchard-fruit,' for the
triad of natural productions.

A LAND OF BREAD AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, trctz lekhem ukrahmim, a land
of bread (or bread-corn = wheat) and of vineyards.' For this use of lekhem see
Isa. xxviii. 28.

A LAND OF OIL OLIVE AND OF HONEY] Hebrew, eretz zaith yitzhar ucfvash, 'a
land of the olive tree (or olive fruit), of orchard fruit, and of honey.' Had Rab-
shakeh meant to allude to olive oil he would not have used this construction, but
shemen zaith, 'the oil of the olive.' [See Exod. xxvii. 20; Lev. xxiv. 2.] Zaith
yitzhar seems designed to indicate that the olive was of or belonging to the class
of orchard fruits which formed so large a portion of the agricultural wealth, and it
may have been specially named as the most distinguished member of the class and
proper representative of it. Another admissible interpretation would be to take
yitzkar'm the sense of brightness or splendor (from tzahar, to shine), and read
* the olive of brightness (or splendor) '= the splendid or superlative olive. [As to
devash, see Note on Gen. xliii. n.]

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 23.

By thy messengers thou hast reproached the Lord, and hast said,
With the multitude of my chariots I am come up to the height of the
mountains, to the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar
trees thereof, and the choice fir trees thereof: and I will enter into
the lodgings of his borders, and into the forest of his Carmel.

THE FOREST OF HIS CARMEL] Hebrew, ydar Karmillo, 'the forest of his
garden, ' = its forest like a garden. So Gesenius, — 'the nursery of trees in the
recesses of Lebanon.' Karmel v?, from kerem, with the addition of el, which gives
it a diminutive force, as Gesenius thinks ; but certainly also an intensive force, as
in English ' darling '= little dear = very dear. Hence, as kerem signified generic-
ally a cultivated or fruitful place, and specifically a vineyard, karmel came to denote
also a spot peculiarly fruitful. Geres karmel ( grits of the garden) is used in Lev. ii.
14 to signify grits made from the early grain grown in the gardens. In Lev. xxiii.
14, and 2 Kings iv. 42 karmel occurs elliptically for the complete phrase. As a
proper name, Karmel is given to the fruitful mountainous promontory overlooking
the Mediterranean Sea, and also to a mountain and town in the south of Judea,
referred to I Sam. xv. 12; xxv. 5.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 24.

I have digged and drunk strange waters, and with the sole of my
feet have I dried up all the rivers of beseiged places.

I HAVE DIGGED AND DRUNK STRANGE WATERS] Hebrew, ani qarti ve-shah
thithi maim zahrim, 'I have digged and drunk foreign waters,' — a boast of Sen-
nacherib that his incursions and conquests were far extended ; but some think that
he alludes to the plan, often adopted, of diverting waters intended for the protec-

2 KINGS, XXV. 12. 95

tion of towns into channels dug for their reception. Others explain the words of
deep (artesian) wells, dug by his army, whence he took water never found before.
The only beverage which his troops required was water. It was on such a drink
that the Saracens, in later ages, swept over the East and penetrated Spain ; and so
well known was this habit of theirs, that when one body of imperial troops com-
plained that they were beaten because they were not allowed wine, their commander
caustically asked, " How comes it, then, that your conquerors drink nothing but
water?"

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 29.

And this shall be a sign unto thee, Ye shall eat this year such
things as grow of themselves, and in the second year that which
springeth of the same ; and in the third year sow ye, and reap, and
plant vineyards, and eat the fruits thereof.

AND PLANT VINEYARDS, AND EAT THE FRUITS THEREOF] Hebrew, vl-nitu

Vrahmim vZ-iklu pkiram, 'and plant vineyards and eat their fruit.' [See Note on
xviii. 31.]

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 9.

Nevertheless the priests of the high places came not up to the altar
of the LORD in Jerusalem, but they did eat of the unleavened bread
among their brethren.

UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, matzoth, ' unfermented cakes.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 12.

But the captain of the guard left of the poor of the land to be vine-
dressers and husbandmen.

VINEDRESSERS] Hebrew, ft-kormimt * as vinedressers,' from koramt 'a vineyard-
man.'

THE

FIRST BOOK OF CHRONICLES.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 29.

Some of them also were appointed to oversee the vessels, and all
the instruments of the sanctuary, and the fine flour, and the wine, and
the oil, and the frankincense, and the spices.

AND THE WINE] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine.' The Lxx. has kai
tou oinou, ' and of the wine ' ; the V., et vino, ' and with the wine.*

AND THE OIL] Hebrew, v%-hash-sh%m%n. Here yayin and shemen are conjoined
as liquids, — as tirosh and yitzhar, in numerous passages, are conjoined as solids.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 40.

Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto Issachar and Zebu-
lun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels, and on
mules, and on oxen, and meat, meal, cakes of figs, and bunches of
raisins, and wine, and oil, and oxen, and sheep abundantly : for there
was joy in Israel.

AND BUNCHES OF RAISINS] Hebrew, vZ-tzimmuqim, ' and raisin-clusters. ' The
Lxx. has staphidas, * raisins'; the V., uvam passam, 'dried grapes.'

AND WINE AND OIL] Hebrew, ve-yayin ve-sh$men. The Lxx. has oinon elaion,
'wine, olive-oil'; the V., vinum, oleum, 'wine, oil.' [See Note on ix. 29.]

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 3.

And he dealt to every one of Israel, both man and woman, to every
one a loaf of bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine.

AND A FLAGON OF WINE] Hebrew, va-ashishah, 'and a raisin-cake.' The
Lxx. reads, kai amoriteen, 'and a cake ' ; the V., etfrixam oleo similam, 'and fine
flour fried in oil.' [See Note on parallel passage, 2 Sam. vi. 19.]

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 29.

Both for the shewbread, and for the fine flour for meat-offering, and
for the unleavened cakes, and for that which is baked in the pan, and
for that which is fried, and for all manner of measure and size.

I CHRONICLES, XXIX. 21. 97

AND FOR THE UNLEAVENED CAKES] Hebrew, ham-matzoth, ' the unfermented
cakes.'

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 27.

And over the vineyards was Shimei the Ramathite: over the
increase of the vineyards for the wine cellars was Zabdi the
Shiphmite.

AND OVER THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vt al-hak-k'rahmim, 'and over the vine-
yards.' The Lxx. has kai epi ton choridn, 'and over the fields.' Another reading
is kai epi ton ampelonon, and over the vineyards.' The V. is vincarumque
nilloribus, 'and over the cultivators of the vines.'

OVER THE INCREASE OF THE VINEYARDS FOR THE WINE CELLARS] Hebrew,

t/2 al sheba.]? rahmim It-otzroth hay-yayin, 'and over the increase of the vineyards
for the stores of the wine.' The Lxx. has epi ton theesauron ton en tois choriois tou
oinou, 'over the treasures of wine in the fields'; the V., cellis vinariis, 'over the
wine-cellars.'

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 21.

And they sacrificed sacrifices unto the LORD, and offered burrit-
offerings unto the LORD, on the morrow after that day, even a thou-
sand bullocks, a thousand rams, and a thousand lambs, with their
drink-offerings, and sacrifices in abundance for all Israel.

WITH THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, vt-naiskihtn^ 'and their libations.'
So both Lxx. and V.

THE

SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 10.

And, behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber,
twenty Jhousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand
measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty
thousand baths of oil.

AND TWENTY THOUSAND BATHS OF WINE] Hebrew, ve-yayin batim Isrim
'and wine, baths, thousands twenty.' The bath* as a fluid measure, corresponded
with the ephah as a dry measure, and was equal to seven gallons four pints Eng-
lish. The Lxx. has oinott, the V. vini, * of wine.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 15.

Now therefore the wheat and the barley, the oil, and the wine,
which my lord hath spoken of, let him send unto his servants.

AND THE WINE] Hebrew, hay-yayin, 'the wine.' The LAA. reads ton oinon ;
the V., vinum.

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 13.

Even after a certain rate every day, offering according to the com-
mandment of Moses, on the sabbaths, and on the new moons, and
on the solemn feasts, three times in the year, even in the feast of
unleavened bread, and in the feast of weeks, and in the feast of
tabernacles.

IN THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, bl-khag hant-matzoth, 'in the
festival of unleavened cakes.'

CHAPTER XI. VERSE n.

And he fortified the strongholds, and put captains in them, and
store of victual, and of oil and wine.

AND OF OIL AND WINE] Hebrew, vt-shlntin vt-yayin, 'and of oil and wine.'
The Lxx. has kai elaioit kai oinou ; the V., et olei et vini.

2 CHRONICLES, XXX. 13. 99

CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 2, 3.

a And Jehu the son of Hanani the seer went out to meet him, and
said to king Jehoshaphat, Shouldst thou help the ungodly, and love
them that hate the LORD ? therefore is wrath upon thee from before
the LORD. 3 Nevertheless there are good things found in thee.

A principle of the broadest kind is here enunciated, which should be applied to
the practical life of professed Christians. The vice of Jehoshaphat was that of
moral weakness, his virtue that of ready repentance under the perception of truth.
A great brewer has truly said that the contest between church and school on the
one hand, and that of the beer-shop and gin-palace on the other, is bat one
development of the war continually waged between heaven and hell. It surely
would be wise in all persons of influence — especially ministers, magistrates, and
members of Parliament — to put to themselves this question of Jehu the seer, —
"Shouldest thou help the ungodly, and love them that hate the Lord?" Were
they honestly to do this, should we ever behold the moral anomaly of men in
authority presiding over the feasts of publicans, and giving toasts in honor of a
deadly and demoralizing trade ?

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 10.

Also he built towers in the desert, and digged many wells : for he
had much cattle, both in the low country, and in the plains : husband-
men a/se, and vinedressers in the mountains, and in Carmel : for he
loved husbandry.

AND VINEDRESSERS IN THE MOUNTAINS, AND IN CARMEL] Hebrew, vt-kormim
behahrim nvak-karmel, 'and vinedressers in the mountains and in the fruitful
place.' Margin of A. V., 'fruitful field.' [See Note on 2 Kings xix. 23.]

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 35.

And also the burnt offerings were in abundance, with the fat of the
peace-offerings, and of the drink-offerings for every burnt-offering. So
the service of the house of the LORD was set in order.

AND OF THE DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, uvan-nesakim, 'and with the liba-
tions.' The Lxx. has tdn sptindon, 'of the outpourings'; the V., ttbamina,
'libations.'

CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 13.

And there assembled at Jerusalem much people to keep the feast
of unleavened bread in the second month, a very great congregation.

THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth-khag ham-matzoth, 'the
festival of unfermented cakes.'

IOO 2 CHRONICLES, XXXII. 28.

CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 21.

And the children of Israel that were present at Jerusalem kept the
feast of unleavened bread seven days with great gladness : and the
Levites and the priests praised the LORD day by day, singing with
loud instruments unto the LORD.

THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, eth-khag ham-matzoth, 'the
festival of unfermented cakes/

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 5.

And as soon as the commandment came abroad, the children of
Israel brought in abundance the firstfruits of corn, wine, and oil, and
honey, and of all the increase of the field ; and the tithe of all things
brought they in abundantly.

THE FIRSTFRUITS OF CORN, WINE, AND OIL, AND HONEY] Hebrew, rashith,
dahgan, tirosh, ve-yitzhar, u-d'vash, ' the firsts of corn, vine-fruit, olive-and-orchard
fruit, and honey.' The margin of the A. V. gives ' dates ' as the alternative reading
for 'honey,' as it is not probable that the fruit of the palm tree was exempt from
this tithing. The Lxx. has aparcheen sitou, kai oinou, kai elaiou, kai mellitos,
'the first of corn, and wine, and oil, and honey.' The V. has primitias frumenti,
etvini, et olei, et mellis, 'the firsts of corn, and of wine, and of oil, and of honey.'

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 28.

Storehouses also for the increase of corn, and wine, and oil ; and
stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks.

OF CORN, AND WINE, AND OIL] Hebrew, dahgan, ve-tirosh, ve-yitzhar, ' (the
increase of) corn, and vine-fruit, and olive-and-orchard fruik' The Lxx. has sitou,
oinou, kai elaiou; the V., frumenti, vini, et olei, 'of corn, of wine, and of oil.'

THE BOOK OF EZRA.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 7.

They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters;
and meat, and drink, and oil, unto them of Zidon, and to them of
Tyre, to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea of Joppa, accord-
ing to the grant that they had of Cyrus king of Persia.

AND MEAT, AND DRINK, AND OIL] Hebrew, u-maakal, u-mishtekt
'and food, and drink, and oil.' The kind of mishteh is not stated. The Lxx.,
kai brvmalai kai pota, kai elaion, ' and meats, and drinks, and oil ' ; the V., cibum,
ttpotum, et oleum, ' victuals, and drink, and oil. '

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 9.

And that which they have need of, both young bullocks, and rams,
and lambs, for the burnt offerings of the God of heaven, wheat, salt,
wine, and oil, according to the appointment of the priests which are
at Jerusalem, let it be given them day by day without fail.

WINE AND OIL] This verse being part of a decree written in Chaldee, the original
is khamar — ' foaming juice,' corresponding to the Hebrew kh%m%r in Deut. xxxii. 14
— u-ntfshakht 'oil.' The Lxx. has oinon kai elaion ; the V., vinum et oleum.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 22.

And kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with joy : for
the LORD had made them joyful, and turned the heart of the king of
Assyria unto them, to strengthen their hands in the work of the house
of God, the God of Israel.

THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Hebrew, khag matzoth, 'festival of unfer-
mented-cakes.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 17.

That thou mayest buy speedily with this money bullocks, rams,
lambs, with their meat-offerings and their drink-offerings, and offer
them upon the altar of the house of your God which is in Jerusalem.

AND THEIR DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, v2-niskaihon, 'and their libations.'

102 EZRA, X. 6.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 22.

Unto an hundred talents of silver, and to an hundred measures of
wheat, and to an hundred baths of wine, and to an hundred baths of
oil, and salt without prescribing how much.

AND TO AN HUNDRED BATHS OF WINE] Chaldee, vl-ad khamar batin mtaht
'and to wine, baths a hundred.' The Lxx. gives kai heds oinou baton hekatont
'and even to a hundred measures of wine'; the V., et usque ad vini batos centum,
'and even to a hundred baths of wine.' [See Note on 2 Chron. ii. 10.]

WITHOUT PRESCRIBING HOW MUCH] Properly, without measure or stint —
according to pleasure or convenience.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 6.

Then Ezra rose up from before the house of God, and went into
the chamber of Johanan the son of Eliashib : and when he came
thither, he did eat no bread, nor drink water : for he mourned because
of the transgression of them that had been carried away.

NOR DRINK WATER] Hebrew, it-maim lo shahthah, 'and water he drank not.'
To abstain willingly from bread and water was Ezra's manner of expressing grief;
to be confined to bread and water would be to many persons one of the greatest
miseries of life. To control the appetite, not to pamper it, is the surest means of
promoting both health and rational enjoyment. Temperance, in fact, is never
reached until self-denial begins.

THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH.

CHAPTER I. VERSE n.

O Lord, I beseech thee, let now thine ear be attentive to the
prayer of thy servant, and to the prayer of thy servants, who desire
to fear thy name : and prosper, I pray thee, thy servant this day, and
grant him mercy in the sight of this man. For I was the king's cup-
bearer.

FOR I WAS THE KING'S CUPBEARER] Hebrew, va-ani hah-yithi mashqZh lam-
mWi, 'and I was cup-bearer to the king.' Mashqeh, the participle of shah-qah
•to drink,' signifies, beinj in the Hiphil conjugation, 'one who gives drink to
another '= a cup-bearer. The Lxx. has oinochoos, 'wine pourer'; the V.,
pinccrna, ' a cup-bearer.' Mashqeh is also translated 'butler' by the A. V. [Sec
Note on Gen. xl. 9. ]

CHAPTER II. VERSE i.

And it came to pass in the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of
Artaxerxes the king, that wine was before him : and I took up the
wine, and gave it unto the king. Now I had not been beforetimc sad
in his presence.

WINE WAS BEFORE HIM] Hebrew, yayin te-phaknahv, 'wine (was) before his
face.' The Lxx. gives kai ten ho oinos enopion emott, 'and the wine was before
me ' ; the V., ft vinum erat ante fttm, ' and wine was before him.'

AND I TOOK UP THE WINE] Hebrew, vah esah eth hay-yayin, 'and I lifted up
the wine.' The Lxx. has kai rlabon ton oinon, 'and I took the wine'; the V.,
levavi vinum, ' I raised the wine.'

The office of cup-bearer to an Eastern monarch was one of much importance,
from the frequent access it gave to his presence at a time when he would be most
inclined to unbend and grant favors ; but the constant dread of treason in which
such a despot perpetually lived, rendered him acutely observant of the slightest
change of demeanor in this attendant. Artaxerxes would, therefore, notice
Nehemiah's sadness, and be anxious as to its cause (chap. ii. 2). It has been sup-
posed that in his self-absorption Nehemiah had omitted the indispensable form of
pouring a little wine into his own hand and drinking it before presenting the cup
to the king; and this omission of the usual protection against poisoning would
naturally arouse the monarch's suspicion, and help us to understand why Nehemiah
was made ' very sore afraid ' by the king's interrogation.

104 NEHEMIAH, V. 3, II, 15, 1 8.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 14.

But the dung gate repaired Malchiah the son of Rechab, the ruler
of part of Beth-haccerem ; he built it, and set up the doors thereof,
the locks thereof, and the bars thereof.

BETH-HACCEREM] Hebrew, baith-hak-kakrem, ( the house of the vineyard '; also
a town referred to in Jer. vi. I, and situated, according to Jerome, on a mountain
between Jerusalem and Tekoa.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 3.

Some also there were that said, We have mortgaged our lands, vine-
yards, and houses, that we might buy corn, because of the dearth.

AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, u-k'rakmainu, 'and our vineyards.' See also in
verses 4, 5.

CHAPTER V. VERSE n.

Restore, I pray you, to them, even this day, their lands, their vine-
yards, their oliveyards, and their houses, also the hundredth part of
the money, and of the corn, the wine, and the oil, that ye exact of
them.

THEIR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, karmaihem, 'their vineyards.'
AND OF THE CORN, THE WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew, ve-kad-dakgan, hat-
tirosh, ve-hay-yitzhar, ' and the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive-and-orchard
fruit,'— obviously enumerated as the solid produce of the 'lands,' 'vineyards,' and
'oliveyards' just mentioned. The Lxx. has ton siton kal ton oinon kai to elaion,
* the corn, and the wine, and the oil ' ; the V., frumenti, vini, et old, ' of corn, of
wine, and of oil.' The Arabic for tirosh has the usual Stzer, 'expressed juice.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 15.

But the former governors that had been before me were chargeable
unto the people, and had taken of them bread and wine, beside forty
shekels of silver; yea, even their servants bare rule over the people;
but so did not I, because of the fear of God.

BREAD AND WINE] Hebrew, K-lekhetn vah-yayin, 'from bread and wine.' The
Lxx. has en artois kai en oino, * with loaves and with wine ' ; the V., in pane et vino,
'with bread and wine.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 18.

Now that which was prepared for me daily was one ox and six
choice sheep ; also fowls were prepared for me, and once in ten days
store of all sorts of wine : yet for all this required not I the bread of
the governor, because the bondage was heavy upon this people.

STORE OF ALT. SORTS OF WINE] Hebrew, bt-kahl yayln le-harba, ' with everj
(sort of) wine abundantly ' = a copious supply of all kinds of wine. The Lxx.

NEHEMIAH, VIII. IO, 12. IO5

has fn pasin oinos to pleethci, 'wine in all (kinds) in plenty ' ; the V., vina diversa,
'different wines.1

No fact is better established in regard to ancient times than the great diversity
of their vinous preparations, — a diversity extending not only to the modes of their
manufacture, but to their qualities and effects. Though Pliny cannot be quoted
as an illustrator of Oriental customs prevailing five hundred years before, yet when
he affirmed that a hundred and ninety-five varieties of wine existed in his time,*
and that these would be doubled if lesser differences were included, we may safely
conclude that the kahl yayin of Nehemiah is to be liberally construed. Some might
be new, some old; some pure, some mixed; some fresh from the vat, some boiled;
some watery, some thick ; some sweet as honey, others thin and tart. The modes
of manufacture would also differ in almost every district, and probably among
neighboring vine-growers. [See Virgil's poetic hyperbole in 'Georgics,' lib. iii.
103-8; and observation of Sir G. Wilkinson quoted in Note on Gen. xl. 9—11.]

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 10.

Then he said unto them, Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the
sweet, and send portions unto them for whom nothing is prepared :
for this day is holy unto our Lord : neither be ye sorry ; for the joy
of the LORD is your strength.

AND DRINK THE SWEET] Hebrew, ushthu mamtaqqim, 'and drink the sweet-
nesses ' = sweet drinks. The Lxx. has kai piete glukasmata, ' and drink ye sweet
things ' ; the V., ct bibite mulsurn, 'and drink ye the honey-sweet (article).' *

Some of the ancient wines were thick and luscious like jellies, and had to be
largely diluted before they could be drunk ; others, of the ordinary fluidity, were
mixed in the proportion of several measures of water to one of grape-juice, so that
even if fermented they were but slightly intoxicating unless consumed in large
quantities. The verbal root of mamtiqqim \smathaq, 'to suck,' 'to be sweet';
and, says the Rev. B. Parsons, "it is worthy of remark that the ancient Britons
had a sweet wine which the Welsh called meddyglyn, and the English metheglin.
The word metheglin comes from metteg or mettek, 'sweet,' and glyn, 'glutinous,'
and thus signifies what it really was, a sweet syrupy drink. Every one must here
see that metheg in Saxon, meddyg in Welsh, and mettek in Hebrew are the same
words. This term among the ancient Britons was applied to a drink made from
honey." To the same root may be referred methuo and methusko, ' to fill or drink
to the full' of (or with) any sweet thing; but meth in Egyptian also signified
1 full,' as in methfris, the mother God.

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12.

And all the people went their way to eat, and to drink, and to
send portions, and to make great mirth, because they had understood
the words that were declared unto them.

* See Appendix ' D ' for his exact words ; and also for description of mulsum.

106 NEHEMIAH, X. 37, 39.

AND TO DRINK] Hebrew, vl-leshtolh, 'and to drink.' The Lxx. has kai piein,
'and to drink'; the V., et biberet, 'and that (the people) Should drink.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 25.

And they took strong cities, and a fat land, and possessed houses
full of all goods, wells digged, vineyards, and oliveyards, and fruit
trees in abundance; so they did eat, and were filled, and became
fat, and delighted themselves in thy great goodness.

VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.'

CHAPTER X. VERSE 37.

And that we should bring the firstfruits of our dough, and our
offerings, and the fruit of all manner of trees, of wine and of oil,
unto the priests, to the chambers of the house of our God ; and the
tithes of our ground unto the Levites, that the same Levites might
have the tithes in all the cities of our tillage.

AND THE FRUIT OF ALL MANNER OF TREES] Hebrew, u-phri kahl atz, 'and
the fruit of every (kind of) tree.' The Lxx. reads, kai ton karpon pantos xulou,
* and the fruit of every tree ' ; the V., et poma omnis ligni, * and fruits of every tree.'

OF WINE AND OF OIL] Hebrew, tirosh v%-yitzhar, 'vine-fruit and olive and
orchard fruit.' The Lxx. has oinou kai elaiou, ' of wine and of oil'; the V.,
vindentia quoque et olei, 'of vintage fruit also and of oil.' This is the second
instance in which the Vulgate does justice to tirosh. [See Note on Deut. vii. 13.]
Walton's Polyglot gives musti. Tirosh and yitzhar are plainly mentioned by
Nehemiah as representatives of the ' fruit of all manner of trees ' brought to the
priests ; and this verse alone is sufficient to establish the meaning of these collective
terms, as designating the solid produce of the vineyard and the orchard.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 39.

For the children of Israel and the children of Levi shall bring the
offering of the corn, of the new wine, and the oil, unto the chambers,
where are the vessels of the sanctuary, and the priests that minister,
and the porters, and the singers : and we will not forsake the house
of our God.

OF THE CORN, OF THE NEW WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew, ha-dahgan, hat-
tirosh, vt-hay-yitzhar, ' the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive and orchard fruit.'
The Lxx. reads, tou sitou, kai ton oinou, kai tou elaiou, ' of the corn, and of the
wine, and of the oil.' The V. IMS frttmenti, vini, et olei, 'of corn, of wine, and of
oil,' — so soon had St Jerome unlearnt what he had practised in verse 37, where he
translates tirosh as vindemitz. The English translators add ' new ' to their usual
rendering of tirosh as 'wine.'

NEHEMIAII, XIII. 5, 12, 15.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 5.

And he had prepared for him a great chamber, where aforetime
they laid the meat offerings, the frankincense, and the vessels, and
the tithes of the corn, the new wine, and the oil, which was com-
manded to be given to the Levites, and the singers, and the porters ; and
the offerings of the priests.

AND THE TITHES OF THE CORN, THE NEW WINE, AND THE OIL] Hebrew,
v-rndasar had-dahgan hat-tirosh vl-hay-yitzhart 'and the tithe of the corn, the
vine-fruit, and the orchard fruit.' The Lxx. reads, kai teen dekateen tou sitou% kai
ton oinou, kai tou elaiou, ' and the tenth of the corn, and of the wine, and of the
oil'; the V., et decimatn frutnenti, vtn:t ft oleit 'and the tenth of corn, of wine,
and of oil.' The English translators again render tiros h by 'new wine,' following,
no doubt, the mustum of most Continental versions.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 12.

Then brought all Judah the tithe of the corn and the new wine and
the oil unto the treasuries.

THE TITHE OF THE CORN AND THE NEW WINE AND THE OIL] Hebrew, mdasar
had-dahgan, hat-tirosh, v' hay-yitzhar, ' the tithe of the corn, the vine-fruit, and
the orchard-fruit.' The Lxx. gives tou purou, kai tou oinout kai tou f/aiou, 'of
the wheat, and the wine, and the oil ' ; the V.,frumentit vini, et olei.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 15.

In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on the
sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as also wine,
grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into
Jerusalem on the sabbath day : and 1 testified against them in the day
wherein they sold victuals.

TREADING WINE PRESSES] Hebrew, dorkim gitoth, 'treading the wine-presses.'
The Lxx. \w-> patountas leenous ; the V., calcantes torcularia.

As ALSO WINE, GRAPES] Hebrew, vt-aph yayin anahvim, 'and also wine,
grapes.' The Lxx. has kai oinon kai staphuleen, 'and wine and grapes'; the
V., vinum et uvas, 'wine and grapes.'

THE BOOK OF ESTHER.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 7.

^ they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the vessels being

diverse one from another), and royal wine in abundance, according to
the state of the king.

The Hebrew is v^-hashqoth biklai zahahv, vt-kalim mikkalitn shonim, v$-yayn
malkuth rahv k^-yad ham-m%l$k, ' and they were providing drink in vessels of gold,
and the vessels (were) diverse from vessels, and wine of royalty (was) abundant,
according to the hand of the king.' The Syriac follows the Hebrew almost word
for word. The Lxx. reads, poteeria chrusa kai argura, kai anthrakinon kulikion
prokeimenon apo talanton trismurion ; oinos polus kai heedus hon autos ho basileus
fpinen, ' gold and silver drinking-cups (there were), and a small carbuncle goblet
was on view, valued at thirty thousand talents ; the wine (was) plentiful and sweet,
such as was drunk by the king himself.' The V. gives bibebant autem qui invitati
grant aureis poculis, et aliis vasis cibis inferebantur; vinum quoque ut niagni-
ficentia regid dignum erat, abundans, et pracipuum ponebatur, 'but they that
were invited drank in golden cups, and the meats were brought in different sets of
vessels ; wine also worthy of the royal magnificence was furnished in abundance,
and of the highest quality.'

The Targumist tells a strange story, how the vessels brought from Jerusalem
turned the king's vessels into the likeness of lead! — and adds, "And they drank
fresh wine (khamar-ahsis), fit for the drinking of a king, of a superior scent and
the most delicious flavor; and it was not used sparingly, but with the liberality of a
royal hand."

This was a splendid entertainment. The drinking-vessels were of gold, and of
different patterns, or perhaps variously chased ; the wine was 'wine of royalty,'
/. f. such as was usually drunk by the royal family ; and it was plentifully served
' according to the king's hand ' — with a profusion suitable to the hand of one whose
resources were so vast. The statement of the Lxx. that it was 'sweet,' throws
light upon the kind of wine preferred, if not in the Persian palace, yet in courtly
circles in the time when that translation was made — the third century before Christ.
Sweetness, not alcoholic potency, was the quality most relished, as it would appear,
in the wines then selected for the royal tables.

ESTHER, I. 8. 109

CHAPTER I. VERSE 8.

And the drinking was according to the law ; none did compel : for
so the king had appointed to all the officers of his house, that they
should do according to every man's pleasure.

The Hebrew reads, ve-hashthiah kad-dath, ain on&s, ki-kan yissad ham-melek al
kahl-rahv baitho ladshoth kirtzon ishvah-ish, 'and the drinking (was) according to
a decree — none compelling, for so the king commanded to every officer of his
house to fulfill the pleasures of man ' (= every man).

The Lxx. rendering is ho de potos outos ou kata prokeimenon nomon egeneto, onfos
de eetheleesen ho basileus, kai epetaxe tots oikonomois poieesai to theleema autoit kai
ton anthrdpun, ' now the drinking was not according to the established law, for so
the king wished ; and he instructed those of his household to do the will of himself
and of the men ' (his guests).

The V. has nee erat qui nolentes cogeret ad bibendum ; sed sicut rex statuerat,
prffponens mensis singulos de principibus suis ut sumeret unusquisque quod vellit,
4 nor did any one force the unwilling to drink, but as the king had arranged, who
set over each table one of his lords, that every one might partake of what he
pleased.'

The Targum has ' and the drinking wa.= regulated according to the bodily habit,
and there was no one who compelled (another to drink) ; for the king had so issued
an order binding upon every one connected with the royal house, that the drinking
shouM be according to the will of each, whether Israelites or of any other nation
and language.'

Josephus gives the following account : — ' And he enjoined upon his servants not
to compel them to drink by constantly presenting the drink to them, as was a
custom among the Persians, but to defer to them, and kindly attend to whatever
each of the guests should desire ' (kai pros ho boitletai ton katakeimenon hekaslos
philophrenesthai).

The apparent contradiction between the Hebrew text and the Lxx. version, will
disappear if we observe that the king, in fact, superseded pro tempore the common
convivial law by a special arrangement for the occasion ; but whether for the sake
of increasing or diminishing the drinking is not clear. Josephus implies the latter;
but while the abstemious would be protected by the freedom afforded, those of a
different disposition might make it the means of unbounded license. Among the
Greeks and Romans each banqueting party had its president (Greek, sumposi-
archees — chief of the feast ; Roman, arbiter sive rex bibendi — master or king of the
drinking), and all the persons present were bound to follow his directions in the
quaffing of cups in honor of gods and mortals. The rule was precise and per-
emptory— pithi ee apithi, 'drink or depart.' The Persians may have had a more
familiar custom of toasting one another. Herodotus, who lived not long after
Nehemiah, says of them, "They are very fond of wine, and drink it in large quan-
tities. It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when
they are drunk ; and then on the morrow, when they are sober, the decision to-
which they came the night previous is put before them by the master of the house in
which it was made : and if it is then approved of they act upon it; if not, they set

IIO ESTHER, II. 1 8.

it aside. Sometimes, however, they are sober at their first deliberations, but in
this case they always reconsider the matter under the influence of wine." — (Hook
i., c. 133.) The Germans, according to Tacitus, adopted the first and better half
of this curious method. They took counsel first when drunk, and then when sober.
And the historian adds, " They deliberate when unable to devise anything, they
decide when not able to go wrong."

CHAPTER I. VERSE 9.

Also Vashti the queen made a feast for the women in the royal
house which belonged to king Ahasuerus.

A FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh, 'a drinking '=a banquet. It is not to be sup-
posed that a mishteh comprised drinking only; it certainly included the more sub-
stantial delicacies of the season. Queen Vashti's mishtek would be composed of
refreshments adapted to I lie taste of her ladies, and let us hope that the drinks,
whatever else they were, were of a more innocent nature than those with which her
royal consort and his nobles were regaled.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 10, n.

10 On the seventh day, when the heart of the king was merry
with wine, he commanded Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, and
Abagtha, Zethar, and Carcas, the seven chamberlains that served in
the presence of Ahasuerus the king, » To bring Vashti the queen
before the king with the crown royal, to show the people and the
princes her beauty : for she was fair to look on.

WHEN THE HEART OF THE KING WAS MERRY WITH WINE] Hebrew, kl-tw lav
ham-melek hay-yayin> 'when good (was) the heart of the king with wine.' The
Lxx. reads, heedeos genomenos ho basUetis, ' the king having got into a sweet con-
dition ' = a mellow humor. The V. amplifies, cum rex esset hilarior et post
nimiam potationem incaluisset meto, ' when the king had become more jovial, and
after an excessive indulgence had become heated with unmixed (wine).' The
T. reads, ' when the king's heart was gladdened with wine, the Lord sent to him
the angel of confusion to confound their feast.'

Subsequent events make apparent — I, how little of good judgment is joined with
drinking-jollity ; 2, how soon the blandness of temper that seems associated with
the bottle turns to sourness when crossed by opposition. The free and easy spirits
that spring from drink resemble the paws of the tiger, which conceal under a
smooth and velvety fur the talons of violence and rapine. Where Bacchus rules,
mirth may turn at any moment into murderous strife.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 18.

Then the king made a great feast unto all his princes and his
servants, even Esther's feast ; and he made a release to the provinces,
and gave gifts, according to the state of the king.

ESTHER, VII. I, 2. m

A GREAT FEAST] Hebrew, mishteh gahdol, 'a great feast.'

EVEN ESTHER'S FEAST] Hebrew, eth-mishta, Estar, 'the feast of Esther* —
called Esther's because given in her honor, to signalize her elevation to the
queenly state and dignity.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 15.

The posts went out, being hastened by the king's commandment,
and the decree was given in Shushan the palace. And the king and
Hainan sat down to drink ; but the city Shushan was perplexed.

SAT DOWN TO DRINK] Hebrew, yahshvu lishtosh, ' sat down to drink.'

The Lxx. has ekuthunizonto. ' were drinking deep ' [from kot/wn, a Spartan

drinking-cup ; hence to k<jthunizein= to drink on and on]. The V. has celebrante

convivium, ' keeping a feast.'

We are almost compelled to think that Ahasuerus was drunk when he fell so
blindly into the snare laid for him by Haman. Matthew Henry remarks, " Hainan
was afraid lest the king's conscience should smite him; to prevent which he
engrossed him to himself, and kept him drinking : this cursed method many take
to drown their convictions and harden their own and others' hearts in sin."

CHAPTER V. VERSE 6.

And the king said unto Esther at the banquet of wine, What is thy
petition ? and it shall be granted thee : and what is thy request ? even
to the half of the kingdom it shall be performed.

AT THE BANQUET OF WINE] Hebrew, blmishta, hay-yayin, ' at the banquet of
the wine.'

[Afishtek occurs in verses 4, 5, 12, and 14, and is in each place rendered 'ban-
quct ' in the A. V. ]

CHAPTER VII. VERSE i.

So the king and Haman came to banquet with Esther the
queen.

CAME TO BANQUET] Hebrew, lishtoth, 'to drink.' So the margin of A. V.
The Lxx. has sumpiein, 'to drink with'; the V., ut biberent, 'that they might
drink.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 2.

And the king said again unto Esther on the second day at the
banquet of wine, What is thy petition, queen Esther ? and it shall be
granted thee : and what is thy request ? and it shall be performed,
wen to the half of the kingdom.

112 ESTHER, IX. 22.

AT THE BANQUET OF WINE] Hebrew, bt-mishta, hay-yayin, «at the drink-
ing ( = feast) of the wine.' The Lxx. has en to poto, 'at the drinking' ; the V.,
postquam vino incaluerat, 'after he was heated with wine.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 7.

And the king arising from the banquet of wine in his wrath went
into the palace garden : and Haman stood up to make request for his
life to Esther the queen ; for he saw that there was evil determined
against him by the king.

FROM THE BANQUET OF WINE] Hebrew, mim-mishta hay-yayin. The Lxx.
has apo tou sumposiou, 'from the banquet'; the V., de loco convivii, 'from the
place of feasting.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 22.

As the days wherein the Jews rested from their enemies, and the
month which was turned unto them from sorrow to joy, and from
mourning into a good day: that they should make them days of
feasting and joy, and of sending portions one to another, and gifts to
the poor.

OF FEASTING] Hebrew, mishteh. [So also in verses 17, 18, and 19, where it is
rendered ' feasting ' in A. V. ] If intoxicating liquors were freely used, the feast
of Purim would prove in its results to many families a time of sorrow rather than of
joy. The Jews both of the East and West have a general reputation for sobriety,
but that Purim is not always soberly celebrated, even in the Holy City, may be
gathered from an anecdote related by the teacher of the English school in Jerusalem,
to the effect that a girl who was asked why she would be absent on account of
Purim, as she alleged she must be, replied with much simplicity, 'We shall all
be drunk.' It would be a relief to hope that the error was purely grammatical,
and that the little Jewish maiden was confounding the active ' to drink ' with the
passive ' to be drunk ' ; but we can hardly please ourselves with this supposition
when we recollect the teaching and testimony of the ancient Rabbins — "A man's
duty with regard to this feast is that he should eat meat . . . and drink wine
until he be drunk, and fall asleep in his drunkenness " (Hilkhoth Megillah, c. ii.
5). In fol. 7 the Talmud is even more precise : — "A man is bound to get so
drunk with wine at Purim as not to know the difference between Cursed is Haman
and Blessed is Mordecai." A curious story is appended. " Rabba and Rabbi
Zira made their Purim entertainment together. When Rabba got drunk he
arose and killed Rabbi Zira. On the next day he prayed for mercy, and God
restored Zira to life. The following year Rabba again proposed to Rabbi Zira
to have their Purim entertainment together ; but he answered, * Miracles don't
happen every day.'" This is only one out of a multitude of instances demon-
strating the absurdity of Christian commentators and critics appealing to the
* opinions ' of the Rabbins ; only in matters of fact is their testimony of any
real value.

THE BOOK OF JOB.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 4.

And his sons went and feasted in their houses, every one his day ;
and sent and called for their three sisters to eat and to drink with
them.

AND FEASTED] Hebrew, v2-aksu mistek, 'and made a drinking '= feast. The
Lxx. has tpoiousan poton, ' they made a drinking ' ; the V., etfaciebant convivium,
'and they made a feast.'

AND TO DRINK] Hebrew, vl-lishtoth, 'and to drink.'

This 'drinking' or feast is not explained. The proceeding of the patriarch, as
described in ver. 5, who, when the days of his sons' feasting were over, " rose up
early, and offered burnt offerings according to the number of them all, lest they
should have sinned in their hearts," may suggest, but does not necessarily imply,
that their ' wine ' was of the class described by the Wise man as 'a mocker.' The
words, 'thus did Job continually,' show that the previous account relates to the
festivities which recurred on the birthday of each son and daughter.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 13.

And there was a day when his sons and his daughters were eating
and drinking wine in their eldest brother's house.

DRINKING WINE] Hebrew, shothim yayin, 'drinking wine.' The Lxx. has
tpinon oinon, 'they drank wine'; the V., bibcrent vinum, '(when) they might
drink wine.'

CHAPTER I. VERSE 18.

While he was yet speaking, there came also another, and said, Thy
sons and thy daughters were eating and drinking wine in their eldest
brother's house.

AND DRINKING WINE] Hebrew, vc-shothim yayin, 'and drinking wine.' The
Lxx. has pinontTm, 'drinking'; the V., bibenlibus vinum, 'when drinking wine.'
The Syriac omits all mention of wine in verses 13 and 18.
15

U4 JOB, xxiv. 6.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 25.

They grope in the dark without light, and he maketh them to
stagger like a drunken man.

AND HE MAKETH THEM TO STAGGER LIKE A DRUNKEN MAN] Hebrew, vay-
yatkam kish-shikkor, ' and causes them to stray like one drunk. ' The Lxx. has
planeetheieesan de hosper ho methuon, 'and they wander as one drunk.' Some
MSS. have planomenous, 'wandering.' The V. reads, et errare eos faciet quasi
f&rios, 'and he shall make them to wander as if drunk.' So the Syriac. The
idea is of going astray rather than of staggering — the mental confusion which mis-
leads, rather than the physical unsteadiness produced by indulgence in strong
liquor. For the latter condition the Hebrew is rahdL

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 33.

He shall shake off his unripe grape as the vine, and shall cast off
his flower as the olive.

HE SHALL SHAKE OFF HIS UNRIPE GRAPE AS THE VINE] Hebrew, yakhntOS
kag-gephen bisro, 'he shall shake off as the vine his sour bunch (of grapes)' — from
baser or baser, a collective noun used to describe 'sour grapes.' Lxx., trugee-
theiee de hos omphax pro horas, ' he shall be gathered as an unripe grape before (its)
hour.' V., ladetur quasi vinea in primo fiore botrus e/us, 'he shall be broken
(or blasted) as a vine in the first flower of its grape-cluster.'

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 7.

Thou hast not given water to the weary to drink, and thou hast
with-holden bread from the hungry.

To withhold water from the thirsty (Hebrew, ah-iph = languishing), was and is
regarded in the East as an act of monstrous inhumanity. It is one of the thirty-two
' charities ' of the Hindoos to have water ready for the weary traveler to drink.
Persons in England who give to the thirsty or weary workman beer, or other intoxi-
cating liquor, are unconsciously doing evil instead of good: first, by presenting
that which increases thirst ; and secondly, by creating a desire for stimulants which
leads to a waste of wages and to much domestic suffering. If other drinks besides
water are offered, let them be free from the power of injuring the recipient, either
in body or mind.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 6.

They reap every one his corn in the field : and they gather the
vintage of the wicked.

AND THEY GATHER THE VINTAGE OF THE WICKED] Hebrew,
rahshah yelaqqashu, ' and the vineyard of the wicked one they glean ' [or gather the
late fruits of]. The margin of the A. V. has ' the wicked gather the vintage.' The
Lxx. has adunatoi ampelonas asebun amislhi kai asiti eirgasanto, « the feeble cultivate

JOB, XXXII. 19. 115

unpaid and unfed, the vineyards of the unjust.' The V. reads, ft vineani ejus quetn
vi oppresserint, vindemiant, 'and they gather the vintage of his vineyard whom by
force they have oppressed.'

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE n.

Which make oil within their walls, and tread their winepresses, and
suffer thirst.

AND TREAD THEIR WINEPRESSES, AND SUFFER THIRST] HebniW, yikdhl'im.

dahrkn-vay-yitzmahii, 'and tread their wine-presses and thirst.' The Lxx. has
nothing resembling this verse. The V. rendering is intet acemos eorum meridiati
sunt, qui calcatis torcularibus sitiunt, ' among their heaps those who thirst take a
noonday rest, the wine-presses having been trodden.'*

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 18.

He is swift as the waters ; their portion is cursed in the earth : he
beholdeth not the way of the vineyards.

HE BEHOLDETH NOT THE WAY OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, lo yiphneh
dtrlk kerahmim, 'he turns not to [= looks not towards] the way of the vine-
yards.' The Lxx. strangely gives the whole verse thus: — "Swift is (their path)
upon the face of water ; accursed shall be their portion upon earth, and their fruits
upon the land (shall be) withered in their arm, for they have robbed orphans." t
The V. translates the last clause nee ambulet per viam vinearum, ' nor shall he
walk along the path of the vineyards'; the T., 'and he shall not look to the
footpath of the vineyards.' The Syriac and Arabic connect the last two clauses in
this form, — 'accursed will be their portion in the earth in the way of the vine-
yards.' Assuming the integrity of the Hebrew text, the meaning will be, either
that the rapacious will shun the publicity of the vineyard path, or (more likely)
disdain the honest labor of those who go to and from the vineyard as the sphere
of their daily toil.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 19.

Behold, my belly is as wine which hath no vent; it is ready to
burst like new bottles.

The Hebrew reads, hinna i>itni k^-yayin lo yip-pahthaakh ; kZ-ovoth khadahshim
yibbahqaa, 'behold, my belly like wine has no vent; like new bottles it is rent.'

•Prof. Renan translates,—

" Us expriment 1'huile dans les celliers de leur spoliateur,

En foulant le pressoir, ils out soif."
t Prof. Renan translates, —

" 11s sont comme un corps leper sur la surface de 1'eau,
Leur heritage est maudit sur la terre ;
Ils ne prennent jamais le chemin des vignes ;"

adding this note, — " That is to say, it always brings unhappiness to the life of populations that art
passing from the condition of Bedouin plunder to the state of agricultural and sedentary tribes."

u6 JOB, xxxii. 19.

The Lxx. has hee de gasteer mou husper askos gleukous zeon [Codex A, genwri]
dedemenos ; hee hosper phuseeteer chalkcos errheegos [Codex A, chalkeos dedemenos
kai katerrheegas~\, "but my belly (is) glowing [Codex A, loaded] as a fastened-up
skin-bottle of sweet wine; as the bellows of the brazier when it has burst [Codex
A, as the bellows of the brazier when it has been fastened up has burst]." Sym-
machus's version of the last clause is preserved — hus oinos neos adiapnettstos, ' as
new wine without ventilation.' The V. gives en venter metis quasi nntsttim absque
spiraculo quod lagunculas novas disnitnpit, 'behold, my belly is as new wine
without a vent, which bursts asunder new vessels.' The T. has 'behold, my
belly is as new wine \_khamar khadath] which has not a vent, and it is burst [as]
new vessels.'

The Hebrew yayin, here used for grape-juice while passing into fermentation, is
explained by the Lxx. as gleukos, by Symmachus as oinos neos, by the Targum as
khamar khadath, and by the V. as mustum. The passage illustrates the explosive
power of this juice when set fermenting.* This potency is due to the carbonic
acid gas generated by the act of fermentation, which will burst the strongest vessels
(whether skin, or wood iron-bound) in which it happens to be foolishly confined.
The analogy drawn is between agitation of mind and the fermentation of yayin ;
unless ' a vent ' is allowed, the safety of the body in the one case and of the bottle
in the other is endangered. ' He was bursting to speak,' is a phrase not un-
common to our vernacular. This text is often most erroneously compared with
Matt. ix. 17. Elihu refers to wine that had been put, after it had been partially
fermented, into new bottles made air-tight, through carelessness or from ignorance
of the state of the wine ; whereas Christ refers contrastively to wine put into new
bottles before fermentation, in order to prevent the wine from fermenting and the
bottle from being burst. The traditional interpretation makes the Saviour con-
tradict Elihu by affirming that wine could ferment in new bottles, closed up,
without endangering the bottles ! [See Note on Matt. ix. 17.]

* There is no commendation expressed, but the contrary. It is an abnormal-state compared with
an abnormal-process.

THE BOOK OF PSALMS.

PSALM IV. VERSE 7.

Thou hast put gladness in my heart, more than in the time that
their corn and their wine increased.

The Hebrew stands, nahthatah simkhah b^-libi madth d^gahnam v^-tirosham
rahbtt, "them has put gladness (or cheer) in my heart from [or, more than when]
their corn and their vine-fruit abounded." The Lxx. has edijkas cuphrosuneen. eis
teen kardian ; apo karpon sitou kai oinon kai elaiou autun eplcethuntheesan, "thou
hast put gladness into the heart ; by the fruit of their corn and wine and oil they
have been satisfied." So Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. The V., which
in the Book of Psalms follows the old Italic version, reads, dedisti latitiam in corde
meo ; a fmctu fntnienti, vini, ft olei sui multiplicati sitnf, "thou has given glad-
ness into my heart; by the fruit of their corn, wine, and oil they have been multi-
plied." The Lxx. and V. agree in adding 'oil' to the list of earthly blessings
which cheer the heart of man, and in separating the verse into two distinct clauses,
Origen puts a circle round ' oil ' in his Hexapla to indicate that it was not extant
in the Hebrew MSS. of his day. The compound particle madth (mtn, * from/ and
ath, 'with') is somewhat ambiguous, but the fact that all the Greek versions and
the Vulgate have 'by the fruit of,' makes it likely that their MSS. may have read
ma-abbai P3^£) instead of ma-ath (H^O)' Tne words as written in the
Hebrew characters bear, as will be seen, a close resemblance. In the Song of
Solomon, vi. u, ^^^ is translated in the A. V. 'the fruit of,' though Gesenius
suggests 'greenness of.' It is, however, conjectured (Migne's Cursus Patrologitz)
that apo Jkairou, ' from the time of,' became changed by the transcribers in mistake
into apo karpon t ' from the fruit of.' St Jerome has ' in the time their corn and their
wine were multiplied.' St Augustine has a tempore, 'from the time.' The sense
afforded by the A. V. is in harmony with the spirit of the context, which seeks to
enforce the supreme excellency of the Divine favor. The increase of corn and vine-
fruit is a subject of lawful congratulation with all men ; but while the ungodly derive
their chief enjoyment from these fruits of the earth, mellowed and multiplied by
the light of the sun, a richer treasure of felicity is the portion of the man, however
hose heart is the recipient of the light of God's countenance.

PSALM X. VERSES 9, 10.

9 He lieth in wait secretly as a lion in his den : he lieth in wait to
catch the poor : he doth catch the poor, when he draweth him into

Il8 PSALMS, XVI. 4, 5.

his net. 10 He croucheth, and humbleth himself, that the poor may
fall by his strong ones.

Language could scarcely be conceived more graphically descriptive of the course
pursued by those who carry on the traffic in intoxicating liquors, regardless of the
miseries produced. They may be acquitted of any malicious intention to murder
and rob ; but the knowledge of what is produced by their daily business, and the
artifices (including venal testimonies and advertisements) employed to extend it by
drawing the poor and thoughtless into its meshes, must leave them without excuse,
according to any standard of moral responsibility that can be applied to human
conduct. Very grievous is it that a sense of this responsibility should be deadened
through the license granted by the law to deal ' in the strong ones ' ; and the Chris-
tian patriot is bound to free himself from all complicity with such legislation, by
means of earnest protests against it, and by no less earnest efforts to confer power
upon the people to protect themselves against this system of wholesale destruction.
All men who take upon themselves the Christian name should see that their daily
practice and business will not bring them under Job's description — ' Those that
rebel against the light ' (xxiv. 13).

PSALM XVI. VERSE 4.

Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another god :
their drink offerings of blood will I not offer, nor take up their names
into my lips.

THEIR DRINK OFFERINGS OF BLOOD WILL I NOT OFFER] Hebrew, bal assik
niskaihem niid-dahnt, * I will not pour out their libations (outpourings) from
blood.' The Lxx. has mee stinagoga fas sunagogas autun ex kaitnaton, 'I will
by no means assemble their assemblies of blood (///. bloods).' The V. gives pre-
cisely the same sense, non congregabo conventicula eorutn de sanguinibus. The
Syriac is identical with the A. V. The T. represents God as the speaker — ' I will
not receive with satisfaction their libations, nor their offering of blood.'

One of the forms of that cruelty which filled ' the dark places of the earth ' con-
sisted in pouring out the blood of human victims to the gods who were adored ;
and such libations were sometimes converted into vows in times of personal or
public exigency. Similar customs characterize modern paganism. Dupuis men-
tions, in his 'Journey in Ashantee,' that he saw the king gather the blood of a
human victim into a vessel, drink one half, and offer the other to his idol.

PSALM XVI. VERSE 5.

The LORD is the portion of mine inheritance and of my cup : thou
maintainest my lot.

AND OF MY CUP] Hebrew, v%-kosiy ' and my cup.' [See Note on Gen. xl. II. J

PSALMS, LVIII. 4. 119

PSALM XXIII. VERSE 5.

Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies :
thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth over.

MY CUP RUNNETH OVER] Hebrew, kosi r&vahyah, 'my cup has fulness-of-
drink.' Revahyah is from rahvah. [See Note below on Psa. xxxvi. 8. ] The Lxx.
has to poteerion sou methuskon hus kratiston, 'thy cup satisfies as the best (wine).'
Methusko cannot here mean ' to intoxicate.' The V. reads, et calix meus inebrians
quam praclarus est, ' and my inebriating cup, how excellent it is '! St Jerome
gives ft calix meus inebrians. Sed et benignitas, 'and my cup (is) inebriating.
But also kindness. ' Here the first two words of ver. 6 — ak tov, * truly good,' — in
A. V. ' surely goodness ' — are joined to ver. 5. This likewise seems to have
been Origen's arrangement of the Hebrew. Symmachus has ' and thy good cup
fills me full with everything,' — methuskon me diolou. Aquilaand Theodotion have
4 my cup fills (me) full,' poteerion mou methuskon.

PSALM XXXVI. VERSE 8.

They shall be abundantly satisfied with the fatness of thy house;
and thou shalt make them drink of the river of thy pleasures.

THEY SHALL BE ABUNDANTLY SATISFIED] Hebrew, yirveyunt 'they shall be
satiated.' The margin of A. V. has 'watered.' Rah-vah, 'to drink largely, to be
satisfied with drink,' corresponds with sah-va, as applied to food. Here it is used
of fatness, ' which is drunk and sucked in, rather than eaten ' (Gesenius). The
Chaldee uses the cognate word to describe any kind of repletion from wine « to the
Hebrew shakar. The Lxx. has methustheesontai apo pioteetos tou oikou sou, ' they
shall be satiated with the fatness of thy house.' Here methito is clearly used, not
in the sense of ' to intoxicate,' but ' to fully satisfy.

PSALM XLVI. VERSE 3.

TJwugh the waters thereof roar and be troubled, though the moun-
tains shake with the swelling thereof. Selah.

BE TROUBLED] Hebrew, ylkhmlru, 'foam' — from khamar, 'to foam' or
' boil up ' ; hence kh$m$r designates the juice of the grape, either when foaming
under the treader's feet (Deut. xxxii. 14), or when bubbling up in a state of
fermentation (Psa. Ixxv. 8). The same word, we may observe, is applied to the
foam of the sea, and to boiling bitumen, etc., and has no exclusive connection with
the foam of the fermenting- vat, as Dr Laurie and others absurdly argue.

PSALM LVIII. VERSE 4.

Their poison is like the poison of a serpent : they are like the deaf
adder that stoppeth her ear.*

• Wine is also compared in like manner, Prov. xxiii. 32. See Prel. Diss.

I2O PSALMS, LXV. IO.

THEIR POISON is LIKE THE POISON OF A SERPENT] Hebrew, khamath lahmo
kidmuth khamath nahkash, 'the poison (that is) to them (is) after the likeness
of the poison of a serpent.' The Lxx. reads, thumos autois kata teen homoiosin
ton opheos, ' their rage ( = venom) is after the likeness of (the poison of) the serpent.'
The V. has furor illis secundiim similitudinem serpentis, ' their fury is according
to the likeness of (the fury of ) a serpent.' [See Notes on Deut. xxxii. 33, Psa.
cxl. 3, and Hos. vii. 5. ]

PSALM LX. VERSE 3.

Thou hast shewed thy people hard things: thou hast made us to
drink the wine of astonishment.

THOU HAST MADE US TO DRINK THE WINE OF ASTONISHMENT] Hebrew,
hishqithahnu yayin taralah, 'thou hast made us drink the wine of reeling,' or
trembling = that causes reeling or trembling. Taralah is from rahal^ 'to reel
or tremble.' The Lxx. has epotisas heemas oinon katanuxeos, 4 thou hast made us
drink wine of astonishment.' Aquila has oinon karuseosy 'wine of stupefaction ';
Symmachus, oinon salou, ' wine of agitation.' The V. reads, potasti nos vino com-
punctionis, ' thou hast made us drink from the wine of suffering ' ; St Jerome,
vino consopiente, 'from stupefying wine.' The Ethiopic has 'wine of stupor.'
The Syriac has 'feculent wine'; the Arabic, 'turbid wine.' The T. gives 'the
wine of malediction.'

By a striking metaphor the ' trembling ' caused by intoxicating yayin is viewed as
a property of the wine itself; and when the Almighty is described as administering
such wine, we are referred to the terrible visitations which He brings upon men, or
suffers to befall them. [For similar figurative language see Notes on Psa. Ixxv. 8;
Isa. li. 17, 22; Jer. xxv. 15; xlix. 12; li. 7; Lam. iv. 21 ; Ezek. xxiii. 31 — 34;
Hab. ii. 16; Zech. xii. 2; Rev. xvii. 24.] On this text Calvin observes of rahal,
"They were drunk with the wine of drowsiness or giddiness. Not even the
Hebrew interpreters agree about the word. For many translate it venom or
poison. But it is easy to gather that the prophet speaks specially of a poisoned
potion that bereaves men's minds of sense and understanding; for his purpose was
to set before their eyes the curse of God that had reigned."

PSALM LXV. VERSE 10.

Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly : thou settlest the
furrows thereof: thou makest it soft with showers : thou blessest the
springing thereof.

THOU WATEREST THE RIDGES THEREOF ABUNDANTLY] Hebrew, teiamiyah
rawa, 'its furrows thou givest to drink deeply, ' = plentifully dost irrigate.
Rawa is in the Piel conjugation, from rahvah. The Lxx. reads, tons anlakas
autees methuson, ' saturate her furrows ' ; the V., rivos ejus inebria ' to fill up her
channels.'

PSALMS, LXXI. 4. 121

PSALM LXVI. VERSE 12.

Thou hast caused men to ride over our heads; we went through
fire and through water: but thou broughtest us out into a wealthy
place.

INTO A WEALTHY PLACE] Hebrew, larvahiah (from rahvah), 'to a well-watered
place ' = to a place of great plenty. The Lxx. has eis anupsuc/uen, ' into [a place
of] refreshment ' ; the V., in refrigerium, ' to a cool place ' = a place of consolation.

PSALM LXIX. VERSE 12.

They that sit in the gate speak against me ; and I was the song of
the drunkards.

I WAS THE SONG OF THE DRUNKARDS] Hebrew, u-nlginoth shothai shakar,
' and songs the drinkers of shakar '= songs are made about me by the drinkers of
shakar. The Lxx. reads, kai eis enie epsnllon oi pinontes tou oinott, ' and they sang
about me who were drinking wine ' ; Aquila, « and the songs of those drinking
strong drink' — methiisma ; Symmachus, 'and those drinking strong drink
(nuthitsma) sang of me.' The V. has et in me psallebant qui bibebantvinum, ' and
those who drank wine sang about me'; St Jerome, 'and those drinking wine
were singing.'

The Lxx. regards shakar here as equivalent to yayin. The T. paraphrases
thus : — " And I shall be the song of those who go to drink strong drink (niaivath)
in the public-house (Wvaith qarqasvari)" — so that shakar is here rendered, not by
khamar attiq, 'old wine,' as in every place except one, but by marvath, as in Lev.
x. 8. See Note there.

The Psalmist intimates that he was the subject of satirical and ribald songs by
the votaries of shakar. It was no new thing, even in his day, for those who imbibed
freely the spirit of wine, to revile those who were filled with the 'spirit divine.'

PSALM LXIX. VERSE 21.

They gave me also gall for my meat ; and in my thirst they gave
me vinegar to drink.

THEY GAVE ME ALSO GALL FOR MY MEAT] Hebrew, vay-yitu vl-baruthi rosh,
'and they gave (as) my food, gall.' The Lxx. reads choleen, 'gall.' So Symma-
chus. The V. hasy^/. Rosh did not designate poison in general, but some special
bitter product.

AND IN MY THIRST THEY GAVE ME VINEGAR TO DRINK] Hebrew, vl-lizmai
yashquni khometz* ' and to me thirsting, they-gave-to-drink fermented liquor ' =
vinegar, the result of the acetous fermentation. The Lxx. has oxos, ' vinegar ' ;
the V., accto, 'with vinegar.'

PSALM LXXI. VERSE 4.

Deliver me, O my God, out of the hand of the wicked : out of the
hand of the unrighteous and cruel man.
16

122 PSALMS, LXXV. 8.

AND CRUEL MAN] Hebrew, v&-k/wmatz, 'and soured (one) '= the man whose
disposition resembles vinegar. The Lxx. has adikountos, 'of the unjust one.' So
the V., iniqiti. It may, however, carry the sense of ' corrupt,' as the idea of
ferment did with Paul (i Cor. v. 6 — 8). So Greenfield.

PSALM LXXIII. VERSE 21.
Thus my heart was grieved, and I was pricked in my reins.

THUS MY HEART WAS GRIEVED] Hebrew, ki yithkhahmm&tz tt-va/ivi, ' for
fermented was my heart,' /. e. it lost its sweetness, as if under the action of a
ferment, and became embittered = the phrase of Isaiah, 'The sweet-drink shall
become bitter.'

The Lxx. has strangely eeuphranthee, 'has rejoiced'; but the Aldine and Com-
plut. editions read exekauthee, ' inflamed ' ; Symmachus, sunestelleto, ' was drawn
together '; the V., quia inflammatum est cor meum, 'wherefore my heart was in-
flamed.' St Jerome has contractumy 'drawn together.'

PSALM LXXV. VERSE 8.

For in the hand of the LORD there is a cup, and the wine is red ; it
is full of mixture ; and he poureth out of the same : but the dregs
thereof, all the wicked of the earth shall wring them out, and drink
them.

A CUP] Hebrew, kos, ' a vessel ' = a goblet. The T. has ' a cup of malediction. '

AND THE WINE is RED] Hebrew, vtyayin khamar, 'and the wine foams,' from
the presence of some fermenting agent and potent drugs. The Lxx. reads, oinou
akratou, 'of wine unmixed.' Symmachus has kai oinos akratos, 'and the wine
is unmixed ' ; St Jerome, vino meraco, the V. vim' meri, ' of neat wine ' ; and the
T., khamar ashin, 'strong wine.' The fermented wine which was drunk undi-
luted with water was called by the Greeks akratos, by the Romans merum, and to
drink such wine was deemed the act of drunkards only. What would those pagans
have said of Christians who drink brandied wines — unmixed wine mingled with
fiery spirit ?

IT is FULL OF MIXTURE] Hebrew, mala meslk, 'full of mixture.' Mesek comes
from mahsak, to mix or mingle. The noun occurs in this place only ; the verb is
applied to a pleasant compound in Prov. ix. 2, 5, and to an injurious preparation
in Isa. v. 22. The analogous verb mezeg is used in Cant. vii. 3. The Lxx.
reads pleeres kerasmatos, and the V. plenus misto, ' full of mixture ' ; Symmachus
has pleeron ekchutheis, 'full, poured out.' The wine is unmixed, yet full of
mixture ; unmixed in the sense of undiluted, full of mixture because combined with
drugs. The characteristic of nearly all the various forms of intoxicating liquor
now retailed, is that they are both diluted and adulterated, with the sole object
of increasing the profits of the vender, whatever may happen to the buyer and
consumer. Large quantities of potent drugs, for which there is no other human
use, are annually imported into Britain and America.

AND HE POURETH OUT OF THE SAME] Hebrew, vay-yaggar mizzeh, 'and he
poureth out from this.' The Lxx. reads, kai eklinen ek toutou (is toutoy 'and
he turns (it) from this to this '= turns it from side to side, that the mingling may

PSALMS, LXXVIII. 47, 65. 123

be more complete. Symmachus has oste elkein ap'autoti, 'so as to take from it ' ;
the V., ft inciinavit tx hoc in hoc, ' and he has inclined (it) from this to this ' ; St
Jerome, ct propinabit exeot 'and he will give to drink from it.' The Hebrew'
implies that the mixed wine is poured out into the cups, giving a portion to each
godless people and person.

HUT nn-; DRKCS THKRKOF] Hebrew, ak shemariha, 'surely the dregs of it.'
Ak, abbreviated from akan, is clearly not used here as an adverb of limitation, but
of confirmation, as t\\ ice in Psa. Iviii. 12, where it is rendered in A. V. 'verily/
— " Verily there is a reward of the righteous ; verily there is a God that judgeth in
the earth." Shcmariha, ' its dregs,' here signifies the thicker (hence sedimentary)
part of the mixture, which had not been perfectly combined with the rest. Not
only was the fluid portion of the inesek to be poured out for the profane to drink,
but the still more stupefying part of it reserved at the bottom of the cup should be
served out to them. The Lxx. reads, pleen hotrugias autou, ' even the dregs of it ' ;
the V., vemmtamenfiex ejits, 'even thus its feculence.'

ALL THE WICKED OF THE EARTH SHALL WRING THEM OUT, AND DRINK
THEM] Hebrew, yimtzu yisktu kol rishai aretz, 'all the wicked of the earth shall
suck out (yinitzn) drink up (j'is/itu).' The Lxx. has ouk txekenothee piontai
pantees oi hamartoloi tees gets, ' have not been wholly poured out ; all the sinners of
the earth shall drink (them).' So also the V., non fst exinanita, bibent omnet
peccatores term, ' is not emptied out; all sinners of the earth shall drink (it).' St
Jerome has ' nevertheless, all the impious of the earth, drinking, will drain up its
dre^s.'

The retributive vengeance of the Supreme Judge is depicted under the image of
a cup which He holds in His hand, the wine whereof foams with the fermenting
mixtures with which it is filled ; from this cup He pours out to all the guilty their
just proportion, and assuredly the wicked of the earth shall receive it, till the last
contents of the cup have been drained and sucked up. This terrible and impressive
representation is surely calculated to inspire not only a fear of all sin, but of
all fermenting and inflaming mixtures which so vividly symbolize the consequences
of unpardoned guilt.

PSALM LXXVIII. VERSE 47.

He destroyed their vines with hail, and their sycamore trees with
frost.

HE DESTROYED THEIR VINES WITH HAIL] Hebrew, yakarog bab-baratl
gaphnam, ' he killed with hail their vines,' i. f. not every identical tree, but trees
throughout the land.

This statement is evidence, not only that vines existed in Egypt in the time of
Moses, but that the plague of hail extended 'throughout all the land of Egypt*
(Exod. ix. 25) as far as the vineyard districts. If gapknam be taken' in its general
sense of 'their trees with twigs,' the Psalmist's words coincide with those of the
historian, that the storm of hail 'brake every tree of the field.'

PSALM LXXVIII. VERSE 65.

Then the LORD awaked as one out of sleep, and like a mighty man
that shouteth by reason of wine.

124 PSALMS, LXXX.- 8 — 1 6.

LIKE A MIGHTY MAN THAT SHOUTETH BY REASON OF WINE] Hebrew, k&.
gibor methronan miy-yayin, ' as a mighty one recovering himself from wine.' The
Lxx. and Aquila have Ads dunatos kekraipaleekos ex oinou, ' as a mighty man
who has been debauched (or overcome) by wine.' Symmachus gives hus dunatos
dialulon ex oinou, 'as a mighty man speaking out from wine.' The V. has tanquam
potens crapulatus a vino, 'as a mighty (one) surfeited by wine.' The A. V.
derives methronan from ra/inan, f to utter a tremulous sound ' =*= ' to shout ' or
'to wail.' Gesenius, who derives it from run, 'to conquer, to overcome,' agrees
with the Lxx. and V. The Syriac gives 'as a man whom his wine sends forth.'
But since methronan is in the Hithpael conjugation, frequently used as reflective of
Piel, and, similarly to the Middle Voice in Greek, to describe the action of a person
upon himself, the passage may be translated, 'like a mighty one (=hero) over-
coming (or delivering) himself from wine.' The Ethiopic reads, 'as a mighty one
who has cast aside wine.' The T. is emphatic, — d'miWpeqath min k/iamar, ' as a
man having recovered himself from wine.' The allusion to 'sleep' in the first
clause is strongly confirmatory of this reading.

By a bold and powerful figure, the God of Israel is conceived as having been
insensible to the murderous triumph of His foes. Like a hero who has fallen
asleep from the effects of wine — sunk into the profoundest of all slumber, — but who,
having awoke, shakes himself free from the influences of his wine, and is ready to
reassert his natural prowess ; so He, the Almighty, casting aside His apparent
indifference, has smitten his enemies with resistless majesty. The A. V. brings
God before us as acting like a hero when under the maddening power of wine ; but
the interpretation now proposed restricts the likeness to the period when the hero,
becoming disengaged from his vinous thraldom, goes forth 'conquering, and to
conquer.'

PSALM LXXX. VERSES 8— 16.

s Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the
heathen, and planted it. 9 Thou preparedst room before it, and
didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. 10 The hills
were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like
the goodly cedars, n She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and
her branches unto the river. 12 Why hast thou then broken down
her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her ?
13 The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of
the field doth devour it. 14 Return, we beseech thee, O God of
hosts : look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine ;
is And the vineyard which thy right hand hath planted, and the
branch that thou madest strong for thyself. 16 // is burned with fire,
it is cut down : they perish at the rebuke of thy countenance.

V. 8. THOU HAST BROUGHT A VINE OUT OF EGYPT] Hebrew, gephen mini-
Mitzraim tasstah, 'a vine out of Mizraim (Egypt) thou broughtest.'

This sustained personification of Israel as a vine has been greatly admired on ac-
count of its elegance and poetical beauty. Doubtless, the image of a vine was chosen
by the Psalmist chiefly on account of its appropriateness to the ideas he desired to
express ; but the felicitousness of the figure is enhanced from the evidence supplied
by scriptural references and monumental pictures, showing that the vine was very

PSALMS, CIV. 14, IS- 12$

elaborately and scientifically cultivated in Egypt. To affirm that 'it filled the
land ' (ver. 9), and that ' the hills were covered with the shadow of it' (ver. 10),
was an allusion to the ancient custom of planting the vine on hill-sides, and
carrying it by festoons, stretching from tree to tree, almost to incredible distances.
In the language of Greek poetry, " the vine was 'the mistress of trees,' because
supporting herself on them as on the shoulders of domestics."

V. ii. HER BOUGHS — HER BRANCHES] Hebrew, qetziriha — yonqothiha, 'he»
bpughs — her suckers.'

V. 14. THIS VINE] Hebrew, gephen zoth, 'this vine.'
V. 15. AND THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, vl-kannah, 'and the plant.'
AND THE BRANCH] Hebrew, vt-al-ban, 'and upon the son,' poetically used fo»
'offshoot.' The Lxx. has 'upon the son of man.'

PSALM XCIV. VERSE 20.

Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship witji thee, which
frameth mischief by a law ?

Albert Barnes, in his discourse on this text, observes: "A 'throne of iniquity*
is a government founded on iniquity, or that sustains iniquity: such a throne
frames mischief by a law, when it protects and patronizes that which is evil, or
when those who practice evil may plead that what they do is legal, and may take
refuge under the laws of the land. Such a government can have no fellowship
with God. His throne is a throne of righteousness : he makes no law to protect
or regulate evil. His laws, in relation to all that is wrong, only prohibit and
condemn" If the licensed liquor-traffic be judged by its fearful fruits, the laws
which create and sanction it are palpably condemned by this passage. No Christian
or Jewish citizen should have part in voting into being, laws which are the most
prolific fountain of mischief, sin, and misrule, that the world has ever known.

PSALM CIV. VERSES 14, 15.

i4 He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the
service of man: that he may bring forth food out of the earth;
is And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his
face to shine, and bread which strengthened man's heart.

A more literal translation of the fourteenth verse would be, "Causing grass to
grow for the cattle, and grain for the cultivation of man, (so as) to bring forth
bread ( =food) from the earth."

V. 15. AND WINE THAT MAKETH GLAD THE HEART OF MAN] Hebrew,
vf-yayin y^-sammakh te-vav enosh, 'even wine (that) cheers the heart of man.'
The Lxx. reads, kai oinos enphrainei kardian anthrof>ottt ' and wine delights the
heart of man ' ; the V., ft vinum l&tificet cor hominis, 'and wine may cheer the
heart of man.' St Jerome has l<ttificatt ' cheers.'

AND OIL TO MAKE HIS FACE TO SHINE] The Hebrew is Wiatzhil penim min-
skemfn, 'to cause the face to shine from oil.' A question arises here, — Does the
Psalmist (as construed in the A. V.) refer to oil as the agent making the face to
thine? The arguments in favor of an affirmative are derived from (i) the
probability that in enumerating the produce of the earth, a reference would be made

126 PSALMS, CV. 33.

to shemen (oil) as well as to lekhem (bread) and yayin ; (2) the authority of the
Lxx., which reads 'delights the heart of man', tou hilanmai prosopon en elaid,
'making the face to be cheerful with oil ' ; also the V., ut exhilaret faciem in olco,
'that he may brighten his face with oil.' On behalf of the negative it may be
urged (i) that the construction would have been different had the Psalmist wished
to refer to oil as the agent, for he would have written, ' and oil makes the face to
shine ' ; (2) that the grammatical concord of the original does not admit of the
rendering given by the Lxx., the V., and the A. V. On this point even the
non-Hebrew scholar can form an intelligent judgment. "And wine to make
cheerful the heart of man, and to brighten (his) face from oil," is an arrangement
of words quite inconsistent with the opinion that it is the oil which brightens the
face. But a very excellent sense is certainly afforded by taking the particle min
(rendered ' from ') to signify ' more than ' : " And wine to make cheerful the heart
of man, and to brighten his face more than oil (does)." (3) The Eastern versions
resemble the Hebrew too closely in the peculiarity of their propositions to make
them conclusive witnesses in a case of this kind ; though the Syriac sustains the
rendering suggested. On the whole the weight of translation is with the A. V.,
but the weight of internal evidence with the proposed rendering.

AND BREAD WHICH STRENGTHENETH MAN'S HEART] Hebrew, vl-kkkem
te-vai' enosh yisad, 'and bread (food) to the heart of man gives support.' The
Lxx. reads, kai artos kardian anthropou steerizei, ' and bread makes firm the heart
of man'; the V., et panis cor hominis confirms t, 'and bread may strengthen the
heart of man.'

The Psalmist in this Song of Thanksgiving passes in review the provision
made by the bountiful Creator for the wants of His creatures ; and in the course of
this review he refers to the grass springing up for the cattle, and to all the grain-
bearing plants which offer themselves to the culture of man (and through that
culture) for his daily food. From the same source also comes 'wine,' that juice of
the grape which cheers the heart and makes the face to shine more than when
anointed with oil; and as this delights by its pleasantness, so food builds up the
body and enables man to labor for himself and others. Yayin may here stand
for tiros h (vine-fruit), to which a similar quality is ascribed (Judg. ix. 13, and
Psa. iv. 7), being, with corn, the chief of foods : but if it be held that a designed
contrast is presented between food as solid sustenance and wine as drink, it by no
means follows that the Psalmist referred to a power of giving pleasure by alcoholic
narcotism of the nerves. The ideas really contrasted are sustenance and sweetness ;
for it is well known that the love of sweet drinks is a passion among Orientals.
One thing is certain, — that the wine which is drunk as God has formed it in nature
must be the kind on which this blessing rests ; and if men find more delight in
wine or other fluids that have acquired an intoxicating character, they cannot
plead for their use either a Divine creation or commendation. The Psalmist,
beyond all controversy, regarded the wine to which he alluded as a creature of
God, the natural, uncorrupted product of his power, and to such wine the eulogy
pronounced upon it in this verse must be absolutely restricted. [See Note on
Gen. i. 29.]

PSALM CV. VERSE 33.

He smote their vines also and their fig trees ; and brake the trees
of their coasts.

PSALMS, CX. 7. 127

HE SMOTE THEIR VINES ALSO] Hebrew, vay-yak gaphnam, 'and he struck
their vines.'

PSALM CVII. VERSE 27.

They reel to and fro, and stagger like a drunken man, and are at
their wit's end.

THEY REEL TO AND FRO] Hebrew, yakhogu, ' they are giddy.' Khagag signi-
f.es ' to move in a circle,' hence to feel giddy or confused. Every one knows the
children's custom of running round — reeling — and the giddiness resulting. The
Lxx. has etarachtheesan, 'they were dismayed' ; the V., turbati suntt 'they were
confounded.' The Syriac and Targum give the idea of trembling.

AND STAGGER] Hebrew, v&yanuhu, 'and move to and fro.' The Lxx. has
tsalentheesan, ' they stagger ' ; the V., moti stint, ' they moved about.'

LIKE A DRUNKEN MAN] Hebrew, kash-shikkor, 'as a deep drinker.' The Lxx.
reads, ho; ho methnon, 'as he who drinks deeply' ; the V., sicut ebrius, 'as one
drunk.' So the other versions. The T. has ' the deep drinker of wine ' (ravyah
dakhamar).

AND ARE AT THEIR WIT'S END] Hebrew, vZ-kahl khakmatkam tithbalah, 'and
all their wisdom (or intelligence) is swallowed up.' The Lxx. has kai pasa hee
sophia ciutvn katepothff, 'and all their wisdom is drunk down.'* The V. reads,
tt omnis sapiftttia eontm devorata fst, 'and all their wisdom was devoured.' The
metaphor contained in 'tethbalah, 'swallowed-up,' is an obvious extension of the
comparison between the state to which drinkers of intoxicating shakar as well as
imperilled mariners are reduced. Not only does such drink make those who
indulge in it giddy and roll about, but it swallows up the wisdom of the user.
Can it be a mark of wisdom to imbibe any quantity of an article so voracious and
dangerous? (Solomon takes up the same figure, Prov. xxiii. 33.)

PSALM CVII. VERSE 37.

And sow the fields, and plant vineyards, which may yield fcuits of
increase.

AND PLANT VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vay-yithu kerahmim^ 'and plant vineyards.
So the Lxx. and V. read, 'have planted vineyards.'

PSALM CX. VERSE 7.

He shall drink of the brook in the way : therefore shall he lift up
the head.

HE SHALL DRINK OF THE BROOK IN THE WAY] Hebrew, min-nakhal bad-derck
' from the brook in the way he shall drink.'

This being a Messianic psalm, the allusion to ' drinking of the brook ' is alle-
gorical ; though it is no doubt true that the Saviour often refreshed Himself in His
journeys of mercy by drinking of the wayside stream not yet dried up by the
summer's heat. Some commentators conceive that the 'waters of affliction*

• Compare this phrase and idea with the same in i Pet. v. 8.

128 PSALMS, CXL. 3.

are here referred to, but the concluding clause, 'therefore shall he lift up the
head,' seems to point to the refreshing result of the draught received. The image
is drawn from the act of a pursuing leader, who, exhausted and with drooping
head, drinks of a neighboring brook, and by drinking 'lifts up his head,' /. t»
feels as if he had acquired new energy and life. In Eastern lands the full meaning
of living waters is well understood.

" Traverse the desert and then you can tell
What treasures exist in the cold, deep well ;
Sink in despair on the red, parched earth,
And then you can reckon what water's worth."

PSALM CXXVIII. VERSE 3.

Thy wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thine house : thy
children like olive plants round about thy table.

A FRUITFUL VINE] Hebrew, te-gephen. poriah, 'and a vine bearing-fruit';
the Lxx. hos ampelos eutheenousa, 'as a fruitful vine.' So the V., sicut vitis
abundans.

PSALM CXL. VERSE 3.

They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent : adders' poison
is under their lips. Selah.

THEY HAVE SHARPENED THEIR TONGUES LIKE A SERPENT] Hebrew, shannu
K-shonam ketno nakhash, ' they have sharpened ( = made ready for striking) their
tongues like as a serpent.' Some think the metaphor is drawn from resemblance
of motion between a serpent darting out his tongue and the action of a person
sharpening an instrument.

ADDERS' POISON is UNDER THEIR LIPS] Hebrew, khamath ak-skav takhath
sephathaimo, ' the heat ( = inflammatory poison) of an asp is under their lips.'
The Lxx. translates khamath by ios, ' dart '= poison ; the V. byvtnenum, ' venom,'
poison. [See Note on Psa. Iviii. 4.]

Obs. This is the word thrice applied to wine in the Bible, while in Prov. xxiii.
32, the above comparison — stinging like a serpent's fang — is also employed. Can
such language be rationally understood of a good thing ?

THE BOOK OF PROVERBS.

CHAPTER III. VERSES 9, 10.

9 Honor the LORD with thy substance, and with the nrstfruits of
all thine increase : 10 So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and
thy presses shall burst out with new wine.

V. 10. AND THY PRESSES SHALL BURST OUT WITH NEW WINE] Hebrew, vl-
tirosh yeqavikah yiphrotzu, 'and (as to) vine-fruit thy wine-presses shall break
down.' The Lxx. has oino de at leenoi sou ekbluzosin, ' and (so that) with wine
thy presses may burst forth ' ; one MS. has huper ekbluzdsin, ' overflow ' ; the V.,
ft vino torcitlaria tua redundabunt, ' and with wine thy presses shall abound. ' This
is one of the rare passages which (in the versions) can be cited as lending some
apparent countenance to the common notion of tirosh as the liquid (and not the
solid) fruit of the vine. The English translators as usual give ' new wine ' as the
meaning of the word, which would make it correspond to the Greek gleukos and the
Latin mustum ; but even supposing that yiphrotzu is rightly rendered by ' shall
burst out with,' it is clear that a liquid sense is not thereby assigned to tirosh. A
bag may figuratively be said to ' burst out with ' money, and a warehouse with dry
goods. When, however, we examine the verb phahratz we see that it gives no
support to the notion of tirosh as a fluid. The radical signification of phahratz is
to 'break' or 'break down,' and this sense well agrees with the context, "Thy
barns shall be filled with plenty, and thy wine-presses shall break down with vine-
fruit." If the secondary sense of ' increase' be preferred, there will be the same
compatibility of the phrase with tirosh as a solid : ' And with tirosh thy wine-presses
shall increase (or abound).' This rendering is selected by the V. and Syriac.
Gesenius justly objects to the translation 'shall burst with,' on the ground that
"neither can the vat of a wine-press, nor yet the wine-press itself, burst with
plenty of new wine; that, a cask or wine-skin alone can." He therefore suggests
'overflow with,' phraseology quite consistent with the solid nature of tirosh, since-
nothing is more common than the use of such figures of speech as ' an overflowing
assembly,' 'the streets overflowed with people,' etc. The connection of tirosh
with the wine-press has no doubt favored its conception as a liquid, but this
error arises from inattention. The writer is not speaking of what is done in the
wine-press, but of the fruit collected in it, just as in the first clause of the verse he
does not refer to threshing the corn, but to its being stored in the barn. The whole
passage may be thus expounded : — ' Let the Lord be honored with thy sub-
stance by a dedication to Him of the firstfruits of thy increase, and in return He
17

130 PROVERBS, VI. 2/, 28.

— —

will so reward thy industry that thy barns shall be crammed with the produce of
thy fields, and thy wine-presses shall teem (as if ready to break down) with the
produce of thy vines.'

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 17.

For they eat the bread of wickedness, and drink the wine of
violence.

AND DRINK THE WINE OF VIOLENCE] Hebrew, vl-yayn khamahsint yishtu,
'and the wine of violences they drink.' The Lxx. has oino de paronomo
methuskontai, 'and with lawless wine they are drunken.' Aquila and Symmachus
have 'they drink the wine of unjust persons ' (pinon adikion). The V. reads, et
vinum iniquitatis bibunt, 'and the wine of iniquity they drink.'

As *the bread of wickedness ' signifies the bread obtained by wicked conduct,
so this ' wine of violence ' is the wine violently stolen, or purchased by money
wrested from its lawful possessors.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 15.

Drink waters out of thine own cistern, and running waters out of
thine own well.

THINE OWN CISTERN] Hebrew, mib-borekah, 'from thy pit (or cistern).'
AND RUNNING WATERS OUT OF THINE OWN WELL] Hebrew, ve-nozlim mittok
bedrekah, ' and streams from the midst of thy well. '

Pure domestic pleasures are beautifully and attractively described in this verse.
The sensualist may seek forbidden waters and inflaming drinks, strange and illicit
loves, but the man who desires the truest satisfactions will find them under his own
roof, with the wife of his choice, whose affection and attentions are to be not only
like waters of a cistern, but like waters flowing up, ever fresh, from a perennial
spring.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 19.

Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe; let her breasts
satisfy thee at all times ; and be thou ravished always with her love.

SATISFY THEE] Hebrew, yerawukak, 'will satiate thee' — from ravah, 'to
drink to the full,' and several times in A. V. 'to be drunk.' The cognate Chaldee
term is used in the Targums as equivalent to shah-kar. Aquila has titthoi autees
methuskelosan se, 'her breasts may satisfy thee,' not intoxicate. The V. has nbera
tjus inebrient te, 'let her breasts inebriate thee.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 27, 28.

27 Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not be
burned ? 28 Can one go upon hot coals, and his feet not be burned ?

PROVERBS, IX. I, 2, 5. 131

These proverbs are capable of a broader application than the one they receive
from the Wise man. All objects adapted to excite evil in thought and action should
be avoided so far as possible, and to tamper with them is a violation of moral pru-
dence. Presumption slays its millions of souls, and in the almost insane self-
confidence with which men consume intoxicating drinks, with the lamentable
consequences everywhere and every day around them, we have a warning response
to the inquiries of Solomon. With ' fire-waters ' that are ever burning, not the
clothes only, but the very lives and hopes of multitudes, it must surely be best to
have nothing to do.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 18.

Come, let us take our fill of love until the morning : let us solace
ourselves with loves.

LET us TAKE OUR FILL OF LOVE] Hebrew, nirveh dodim, ' we shall be filled
{satiated) with loves'; from rava/i, 'to drink largely, or to repletion.' Aquila,
Symmachus and Theodotion, all read methusthvmcn, ' let us be filled (or satiated)' ;
the V., inebriemur, Met us be inebriated.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSES i, 2, 5.

i Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven
pillars: 2 She hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine;
she hath also furnished her table. . . . 5 Come, eat of my bread,
and drink of the wine which I have mingled.

V. 2. SHE HATH MINGLED HER WINE] Hebrew, mahskah yaynah, 'she has
mixed her wine.' The Lxx. gives ekerasen eis krateera ton heautees oinon, 'she
has mixed her wine in a mixing-bowl' ; the V., miscuit vinum, 'she has mixed
wine.'

V. 5. AND DRINK OF THE WINE WHICH I HAVE MINGLED] Hebrew, ushthu bl»
yayin mahsahkti, ' drink from the wine (that) I have mixed.' The Lxx. reads, kai
piete oinon hon ekerasa humin, ' and drink wine that I have mixed for you ' ; the
V., et bibite vinum quod miscui vobis, 'and drink ye the wine which I have mixed
for you.'

The mixed wine prepared by Wisdom for her friends must, it is clear, be
regarded as essentially different from the mixed wine prepared by God for His
enemies (Psa. Ixxv. 8); hence, without caution and discrimination in dealing
with the imagery of Scripture, violence will be done to every principle of
common sense and just interpretation. This passage may be accepted as ade-
quate proof that in the times of the writer the art of mixing wine with aromatic
spices was known and frequently practised, the object being not to fire the blood
with spirituous excitement, but to gratify the taste with delicate flavors that might
'cheer yet not inebriate.'

132 PROVERBS, XI, 25, 26.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 26.

As vinegar to the teeth, and as smoke to the eyes, so is the slug-
gard to them that send him.

As VINEGAR TO THE TEETH] Hebrew, ka-khomelz lash-shinnaim, ' as fermented
drink to the teeth.' Vinegar, formed by the acetous fermentation, causes, when
full and strong, pain to the teeth, and by softening the alkali of the enamel tends
to unfit them for their masticating function ; hence it forms, with the action of
smoke on the eyes, a suitable illustration of the sluggish messenger, whose delay
vexes the sender, and hinders him in his duty. The Lxx. has hosper omphax
odousi blaberon, 'as a sour grape is hurtful to the teeth ' ; the V., sicut acetum
dentibus, ' as vinegar to the teeth.'

CHAPTER XI. VERSE 25.

The liberal soul shall be made fat : and he that watereth shall be
watered also himself.

AND HE THAT WATERETH SHALL BE WATERED ALSO HIMSELF] Hebrew,

u-marveh gam-hu yoreh, ' and he that gives to drink-freely (or waters), even he
shall-be-supplied-freely-with-drink (or watered).' The force of ravah is here
clearly brought out. Symmachus has ' he who is drenched (methusos) will also
himself be drenched ' ; the V., et qui inebriat ipse quoque inebriabitur, ' and he who
inebriates will also himself be inebriated (amply supplied).' The Lxx. reads, 'but
a man who is wrathful is not becoming. '

CHAPTER XL VERSE 26.

He that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him : but bless-
ing shall be upon the head of him that selleth it.

In the light of this text what blessing can be imagined to rest upon the waste of
fifty million bushels of grain every year in the United Kingdom to supply its
inhabitants with intoxicating liquors ? This is the worst possible form of with-
holding corn, for it is a direct and absolute loss to the community ; it greatly
raises the market price of grain, and it results, not in a mere waste of the corn
withheld, but in the production of beverages that fill the land with want and woe,
vice and crime, disease and death. The simple truth is, that destruction by fire of
the same quantity of grain would be a comparative blessing.*

*The public journals of Great Britain occasionally render testimony to the truth of what is
alleged above. The Times newspaper, in a leading article in the December of 1853, when refer-
ring to a speech delivered by the King of Sweden, remarked, " It is a peculiarity of spirit-
drinking, that money spent upon it is, at the best, thrown away, and in general far worse than
thrown away. It neither supplies the natural wants of man nor offers an adequate substitute
for them. Indeed, it is far too favorable a view of the subject to treat the money spent on it as
if it were cast into the sea. A great portion of the harvest of Sweden and of many other coun-
tries is applied to a purpose compared with which it would have been better that the corn had
never grown, or that it had mildewed if the ear. No way so rapid to increase the
wealth of nations and the morality of society could be devised as the utter annihilation of the
•manufacture of ardent spirits, constituting as they do an infinite waste and an unmixed evil.
The man who shall invent a really efficient antidote to this system of voluntary and daily poisoning,
will deserve a high place among the benefactors of his species." Such an antidote does not need
' inventing ' ; personally, it is found in abstinence ; socially, in forbidding men to traffic in and get
j'ain from such a pernicious merchandise.

PROVERBS, XX. I. 133

CHAPTER XX. VERSE i.

Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging: and whosoever is de-
ceived thereby is not wise.

WINE is A MOCKER] Hebrew, latz hay-yayin, ' a mocker (is) the wine ' ; the
Lxx., akolaston oinos, ' an incorrigible (= a profligate, intemperate) thing (is) wine.'
One MS. reads, apaideusia oinos, ' an undisciplinable thing is wine ' ; Aquila and
Theodotion, chleuastees oinos, 'a derider (is) wine'; Symmachus, loimos oinos, 'a
pestilent thing (is) wine.' The V. has luxuriosa res vinum est, 'an immoderate
(or wanton) thing is wine ' ; the T., 'a mocking thing is wine.' The Hebrew latz
is the participle of lutz, 'to mock' or 'deride,' and is frequently applied (as in
Prov. ix. 7, 8; xiii. I ; xiv. 6; xv. 12; xix. 25) to men who scorn or contemn
that which is good. Here it denotes their character. As applied to the wine that
intoxicates (it applies to no other) this word symbolizes the effect of such wine
upon the drinker, either in inclining him to mock at serious things, or in the
mockery it may (by a figure) be said to make of the good resolutions he forms be-
fore partaking of it.

STRONG DRINK is RAGING] Hebrew, homeh shakar, 'raging (is) shakar* The
Lxx. gives kai hubristikon methee, 'and full of violence (is) strong drink.' The
V. has et tumultuosa ebrietas, 'and turbulent (is) inebriety.' The T. reads, 'and
sikrah fills to the full (or inebriates) ' — ravythah. The T. here alters the fonn of
the Hebrew shakar without translating it as elsewhere by khamar attiq, 'old wine,'
or mirvai, 'strong-drink.' It is also noticeable that the V. for the first time
renders shakar by ebrietas. [On SHAKAR see Prel. Dis.] Homeh, rendered
' raging,' comes from hahmah, ' to hum ' ; hence to make loud sounds and noises,
as of water, a riotous people, etc. The statement that ' strong drink is raging '
teaches that it causes disturbance internally to those who drink it — this is, to the
letter, physically true, — and, through them, externally to their families and society
at large. Nor are vocal signs of this disturbing agency often absent.

AND WHOSOEVER is DECEIVED THEREBY is NOT WISE] Hebrew, vt-kahl shogeh
bo lo yekhkam, 'and whosoever wanders (or goes astray) through it, is not wise.'
The Lxx. has pas de aphron toioutois sumpleketai, * and every fool is entangled
with them.' Codex A introduces before these words the following :—#as de ho
summenomenos ouk estai sophos, ' and every one who has become connected (with
them) shall not be wise,' etc. Another MS. has 'but every one seduced
(lumeinomenos) by it will not be wise.' The V. has quicumque his delectatur
non frit sapiens, 'whosoever with these is delighted shall not be wise.' The T.
has ' he who wanders through them shall not be wise. '

Obs. I. No teaching could be more definite than that conveyed in this pas-
sage on the inherent properties of intoxicating drinks. Wine 'mocks,' strong
drink ' rages ' ; and as these terms include all fermented liquors, it will not be
contended that ardent spirits are entitled to a milder description or to warmer
praise.

2. Possessed of such qualities, the effects arising from the common use of such
drinks might be predicated with certainty. Even in a community entirely well
educated, wise, and pious, causes of mischief so powerful would make themselves
felt, if admitted and trusted; but circulating as they ever have among the masses of
mankind, who are governed by appetite rather than by intelligence, their influence
has been terribly (though not to the moralist unexpectedly) severe.

134 PROVERBS, XXI. I/.

3. There is nothing to warrant the conjecture that the ordinary and habitual
use of these articles can, under any circumstances, be attended with less danger
and damage than heretofore. They sustain a fixed relation to the nervous system,
of man, and it would require a constant miracle to neutralize or avert the effects
natural to that relation.

4. The first principle of all moral philosophy can, therefore, prescribe no
remedy for the evil effects except the exclusion of the evil agents. To retain the
causes and endeavor to counteract their tendencies and consequences is a policy
that could only be justified were they either indispensable or inexcludable ; but
being neither one nor the other, voluntarily to add to all other labor the work of
counteracting their effects, is to do violence to common sense as much as if one
were to fill a sieve with water, and is at the same time to forego an immense amount
of service for God and man that might be usefully performed.

5. Modern teetotalism is nothing more than the formal expression, practical
embodiment, and organized propagation of the truths contained in this portion of
the Divine Word. Each true Christian should on this account rejoice in every
token that the wisdom of the Book is becoming translated into the wisdom of the
Life; nor is it wonderful that this lesson of wisdom, whenever duly digested,
should prepare the mind for recognizing that 'a greater than Solomon is here,'
and for becoming ' wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus ' our
Lord.

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 17.

He that loveth pleasure shall 'be a poor man : he that loveth wine
and oil shall not be rich.

The Hebrew of this verse reads, ish makhsor ohav simkhah, ohav yayin va-
shemen lo yaashir, ' a needy man, loving pleasure, loving wine and oil, shall not be
rich.' The Lxx. gives aneer endees agapa euphrosuneen phi Ion oinon kai elaion
(is plouton, 'a poor man loves pleasure, loving wine and oil in abundance.' But
Aquila and Symmachus agree with the Hebrew text and A. V., ou plouteesei, 'he
shall not be rich.' The V. has qui diligit epulas in egestate erit, qui amat vinum et
pinguid non ditabitur, ' he who is fond of feasts shall be in poverty, he who loves
wine and fat things shall not be rich.'

Self-indulgence is the high road to self-punishment. Luxury is expensive, and
to yield to it is to contract effeminate habits with penury as a servant. Articles of
luxury, however intrinsically harmless, have to be sparingly introduced, or they
will empty the purse while they enervate the faculties by which it must be re-
plenished. The yayin and shemen, in the eye of the writer, were probably the
costly kinds for which large sums were paid; but it may be still more forcibly
said of the intoxicating liquors of our day, that those who love them shall not
become rich if they are poor, though such as love them when rich may become
poor by taking pleasure in them. The injuries to health, character, and intellect
which strong drink produces, not only aggravate the curse of poverty which
attends the direct misappropriation of the financial resources, but rank among the
most frequent causes of failure in procuring the means of comfort attainable by
steady and intelligent industry.

PROVERBS, XXIII. 20, 21, 29 — 35. 135

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 20, 21.

30 Be not among winebibbers; among riotous eaters of flesh:
»i For the drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty : and
drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags.

V. 20. BE NOT AMONG WINEBIBBERS] Hebrew, al tthi bl-sovai-yayin, 'be not
among topers ( = soakers) of wine.' The Lxx. reads, mee isthi oinopotees, 'be not
a winebibber ' ; the V., noli esse in conviviis potatorum, 'desire thou not to be in
the feasts of drinkers.' [As to SOVAI see Prcl. Dis., and Note on Deut. xxi. 20.]

AMONG RIOTOUS EATERS OF FLESH] Hebrew, be-zollai vahsar lahmo, 'among
wasters of flesh to them ' ( = their flesh). The Lxx. reads, meede ekteinou sumbo-
lais, kreon te agorasmois, 'neither continue long at feasts, at purchases of flesh.'
Theodotion has 'with those who are given to feastings on flesh among them-
selves ' ; the V., ntc in commessationibus eorum qui carnes ad vesccndum conferunt,
'nor in the revellings of those who contribute flesh to eat.' Some conceive that
the allusion is not to wasting the flesh of animals by excessive feasting, but to such
a wasting of the prodigal's own flesh as revelling is apt to induce.

V. 21. FOR THE DRUNKARD AND THE GLUTTON] Hebrew, ki sova vt-zoHH, 'for
the toper and the waster ' ( = profligate). The Lxx. has pas gar methusos kai por-
nokopos, 'for every drunkard and fornicator (or profligate one).' Aquila, Sym-
machus, and Theodotion render zolal by sumbolokopos, 'one given to feasting.'
The V. reads, quia vacantes potibus et dantes symbola, ' because those who devote
themselves to drinkings and give feasts.'

SHALL COME TO POVERTY] Hebrew, yiwarash, 'shall be made poor.' The
Lxx. reads, ptocheusi, 'shall be poor'; the V., consumentur, 'shall be con-
sumed.'

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 29—35.

29 Who hath woe ? who hath sorrow ? who hath contentions ? who
hath babbling ? who hath wounds without cause ? who hath redness
of eyes ? 3o They that tarry long at the wine ; they that go to seek
mixed wine. 31 Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when
it giveth his color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright. 3a At
the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. 33 Thine
eyes shall behold strange women, and thine heart shall utter perverse
things. 34 Yea, thou shalt be as he that lieth down in the midst of
the sea, or as he that lieth upon the top of a mast. 3sThey have
stricken me, shalt thou say, and I was not sick : they have beaten
me, and I felt // not : when shall I awake ? I will seek it yet again.

V. 29. WHO HATH WOE? WHO HATH SORROW?] Hebrew, ll-mi oi ll-mi evoi,
4 to whom (is) lamentation ? to whom sorrow ? ' The Lxx. reads, tini ouai,
tint thorubos, ' to whom (is) woe ? to whom trouble ? ' The V. has cui va? cnjus
patri va ? ' to whom is woe ? to whose father is woe ? ' Some interpreters consider
both oi and aboi to represent sounds of grief; so that the sense would be, 'Who
are they that cry out, O me ! woe is me ? '

136 PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 — 35.

WHO HATH CONTENTIONS?] Hebrew, le-mi midvahnim, 'to whom (are) con-
tentions (or strifes) ?' The Lxx. reads, tint krisis, ' to whom (is) division ? ' the
V., cui rixa, ' to whom (are) contentions ? '

WHO HATH BABBLING?] Hebrew, le-mi siakh, ' to whom (is) brawling? ' The
Lxx. reads, tini de aeediai kai leschai, ' to whom (are) disgusts and disputes ? ' the
V., cuifovciz, ' to whom (are) pitfalls ? '

Siakh may here be considered as the confused noise accompanying the midvahnim
— drunken quarrels or contentions.

WHO HATH WOUNDS WITHOUT CAUSE?] Hebrew, te-mi petzahim khinnahm,
' to whom are wounds for nothing ? ' = needless wounds — wounds without any
reasonable ground, and without any useful result. The Lxx. reads, tini suntrimmata
diakenees, 'to whom (are) bruises without a cause ?' the V., cui sine causa vul-
nera ? ' to whom are wounds without cause ? '

WHO HATH REDNESS OF EYES?] Hebrew, le-mi khaklihtth ainaint, 'to whom is
lividness of eyes ? ' the Lxx., tinos pelidnoi oi ophthalmoi, ' whose eyes (are) livid? '
Aquila has katharoi, ' clear ' (unless this is an error of transcription for katakoroi,
used in Gen. xlix. 12: see Note); Symmachus, charopoi, 'bright' (or gleaming).
The V. reads, cui suffusio oculorum, ' to whom is suffusion of eyes ? ' = bloodshot
eyes. [As to khakliluth, see Note on Gen. xlix. 12. Jacob uses khaklili to
describe the external marks of the grape-juice staining the faces of the treaders;
Solomon employs it to describe the livid circles round about the eyes of the
tippler. ]

V. 30. THEY THAT TARRY LONG AT THE WINE] Hebrew, lamakharhn al hay-
yayin, 'to those tarrying (staying behind) at the wine.' The Lxx. has ou ton
enchronizonto nen oinois, 'are not (the eyes) of those staying long time among
wines?' The V. has nonne his, qui commorantur in vino? 'are not (these
things) to those who pass away their time with wine ? '

THEY THAT GO TO SEEK MIXED WINE] Hebrew, labahim lakhqor mimsak, ' to
those going to search out mixture,' /. e. fermented yayin made stronger by drugs,
the whole forming a highly intoxicating compound. The Lxx. has ou ton ichneu-
onton pou potoi ginontai, 'are not (the eyes) of those haunting (places) where
drinkings go on ? ' Theodotion has ou tois exerchomenois tou ereuneesai kerasmata,
' are not (the eyes) of those who go about to search after mixed drinks ? ' The V
reads, et student calicibus epotandis, ' and who apply themselves to drink off their
cups.'

V. 31. LOOK NOT THOU UPON THE WINE WHEN IT IS RED] Hebrew, al-

tareh yayin ki yithaddam, 'behold not ( = desire not) wine when it is red.' The
Lxx. gives so widely different a rendering of the passage, that it will be better to
present it connectedly, and not clause by clause: — (31) 'Mee methuskesthe en
oinois, alia homilcite anthrofiois dikaiois kai homileite en peripatois ; ean gar eis
tas phialas kai ta poteeria dos tous ophthalmous sou, htisteron peripateeseis gumno-
teros huperou. (32) To de eskaton hosper hupo opheos pepleegos ekteinetai kai
hosper htipo ekrastou diacheitai auto ho ios ; ' Be not drunk (or satiated) with
wines, but converse with just men, and converse in public walks ; for if on the
bowls and the drinking-cups thou shouldest set thine eyes, afterwards thou shall
go about more naked than a pestle. Then, at last, as if smitten by a serpent, he
stretches himself, and as if (bitten) by a horned serpent, venom is diffused through
him.' The V. translates the first clause of ver. 31, ne intuearis vinum quando
flavescit, 'thou shouldest not look on the wine when it becomes yellow.' But

PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 — 35. 137

flaveo is used to describe the color of ripened corn when the yellow acquires a
reddish tinge.

WHEN IT GIVETH HIS COLOR IN THE CUP] Hebrew, ki yittan l>ak-kois aino,
'when it gives in the vessel its eye.' By 'its eye' is meant the bubble or spark-
ling point which modern science has traced to the passing off of the carbonic acid
gas generated by fermentation. The V. has cum splenduerit in vitro color ejus,
'when its color glitters in the glass.'

WHEN IT MOVETH ITSELF ARIGHT] Hebrew,jft6tfo/fai fcmaishakrimt '(when)
it moves in straight lines.' The gas ascending is another indication of fermenta-
tion.*" The V. has ingreditur blonde, 'it goes in pleasantly.'

V. 32. AT THE LAST] Hebrew, akharitho, ' at its latter end ' = in its issue,
when its action is carried on to the end. The V. has sed in novissimo, ' but in its
extreme.'

IT BITETH LIKE A SERPENT] Hebrew, k^-nakhash yish-shak, 'like a serpent
it will bite.' The same word is used of the biting of the fiery serpents in the
wilderness (Numb. xxi. 6). The V. has mordebit ut coluber, 'it will bite like a
snake.' In Deut. xxxii. 33, intoxicating wine is expressly called 'venom' and
' poison ' ; here the same idea is asserted by a comparison.!

AND STINGETH LIKE AN ADDER] Hebrew, uk-tziphoni yaphrash, ' and like
a viper it pierces.' The V. has et sicut regulus venena diffundet, 'and like a
basilisk it will pour forth poisons. '

V. 33. THINE EYES SHALL BEHOLD STRANGE WOMEN] Hebrew, aineikah
yiru zahroth, 'thine eyes shall behold ( = desire) strange women ( = harlots).'
The Lxx. has oi ophthalmoi sou hotan idosin allotrian, ' thy eyes when they shall
behold a strange woman ' ; the V., oculi tui videbunt extraneas, ' thy eyes shall see
strange women.'

AND THINE HEART SHALL UTTER PERVERSE THINGS] Hebrew, v$ libkdh yedab&r
tapukoth, ' and thy heart shall set forth (or declare) deceits ' ; the Lxx. to stoma sou
tote lalecsei skolia, : thy mouth then shall speak perverse things.' Symmachus has
strebla, 'twisted things.' The V. reads, et cor tuum loquetitr perversa, 'and thy
heart shall utter perverse things.'

V. 34. YEA, THOU SHALT BE AS HE THAT LIETH DOWN, etc.] Hebrew, v%-
hayitha kl-shokav bllev-yam uk-shokab bt-rosh khobal, ' and thou shall be like one
lying down in the heart ( = midst) of the sea, and like one lying down on the top
of a mast.' The Lxx. reads, kal katakaisee hosper en kardia thalassees kai

* Baron von Liebig, in his ' Chemical Letters,' unconsciously gives a striking testimony to the
descriptive accuracy of this text : — " The fermentation of grape-juice begins with a chemical action.
Oxygen is absorbed from the air ; the juice then becomes colored and turbid (by the falling of the
albumen, and the rising of the gas), and the fermentation commences only with the appearance of
this precipitate."

t We give a single example of the almost incredible carelessness with which one entire aspect of
divine truth is sometimes ignored by its professional interpreters : —

" What does ' wine ' stand for ? Everywhere it is associated with ideas of cheerfulness and joy.
It niaketh glad the heart of man. If bread stands for everything which sustains strength, wine
stands for everything which is genial, and generous, and animating. It gives fresh life to the faint
and the weary: it gives health and vigor to the sick; and the light-hearted drink it in their
brightest and happiest hours." — Article on UK Lords Supper in* Evangelical Magazine,' July
1867.

The sentence begins with the fallacy of using a general term 'wine,' as if it were a single thing,
of one quality alone, and then proceeds to explicitly contradict everything asserted of 'wine, the
mocker,1 by the inspired preacher! For sorrow we have joy, for babbling we have 'cheerful'
hours, for wounds and discolored countenance we have gladness of heart, for the serpent's
poison we have fresh life, for polluted and polluting sensuality we have genial and happy moments.
lor perverse utterances and insensibility to shame and pain, we have at last health, vigor, and
light- heartedness I

138 PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 — 35.

ktiberneetees en polio kludoni, ' and thou shalt lie down as in the heart of the sea,
and as a pilot in a heavy storm.' The V. has et eris sicut dormiens in media mari
et quasi sopitus gubemator amisso clavo, * and thou shalt be as one asleep in the
midst of the sea, and as a steersman fast asleep when the helm is let slip.'

V. 35. THEY HAVE STRICKEN ME, SHALT THOU SAY, AND I WAS NOT SICK]
Hebrew, hekkuni val-khahlithi, ' they have stricken me, nothing have I cared ' =
been affected or pained by it. The Lxx. reads, ereis de tuptousin me kai ouk eponesa,
'and thou shalt say, They smote me, and I was not pained '; the V., et dices, ver-
beravcnmt me, sed non dolui, 'and thou shalt say, They have beaten me, but I
have not ached.'

THEY HAVE ME BEATEN, AND I FELT IT NOT] Hebrew, halamuni, bal-yadahti,
'they have beaten me, nothing have I known (of it).' The Lxx. reads, kai ene-
paixan mot, ego de ouk eedein, ' and they mocked me, but I knew it not ' ; the V.,
traxerunt me et ego non sensi, ' they drew me, and I felt not. '

WHEN SHALL I AWAKE? I WILL SEEK IT YET AGAIN] Hebrew, mahthai ahquitz
osiph avaqshennu od, ' when I am roused I will gather myself up, I will seek it
again'; the Lxx., pote orthros estai, hina elthon zeeteeso meth'on suneleusomai,
' when will it be morning, that going out I may seek those with whom I may keep
company ?' The V. has quando evigilabo, et rursus vina reperiam ? ' when shall I
wake, and again find out wines ? '

The whole of this important passage may be thus translated (following the
Hebrew text) : — " Who has lamentation ? who has sorrow ? who has strifes ? who
has brawling ? who has unnecessary wounds ? who has dark discolored eyes ? Those
who tarry long at the wine, those who go to seek out mixed wine. Gaze not on
wine when it is red, when it gives its bubble in the cup, when it moves, itself
straightly ; for the end of it is that it bites like a serpent and pierces like an adder.
[If thou dost give thyself to it] thine eyes shall gaze upon abandoned women, and
thine heart shall devise deceits. And thou shalt be like one lying in the midst of
the sea, and like one lying on the top of a mast ; [and thou wilt say — ] They have
stricken me, but I have not cared; they have beaten me, but I was not aware.
When I am roused, I will gather myself up and seek it yet again."

I. The form of this passage is finely and forcibly dramatic. We are to imagine
the Wise man musing on the varied characters and classes of mankind, till the
vision of an object in whom is concentrated every species of misery rises before
him, and he asks, in tones of pity and surprise (ver. 29), "To whom, to what
men — to what class of men — belong this cry of lament, this load of sorrow, this
train of strife, this brawling din, these needless wounds, these eyes encircled with
livid marks?" And the answer is at hand (ver. 30), — "Those are the men —
those who are sitting long and late over the wine ; those who are hurrying to and
fro to seek wine mixed with drugs, to make it more pungent to the palate, and
more burning to the brain." To such slaves of drink the royal Preacher points
his hearers, and then, turning round, he emphatically exhorts (ver. 31) that each of
them would avoid the cause of such shame and suffering, — not so much as looking
with a longing eye upon the wine when it has become corrupted and corrupting —
red in color, bubbling on its surface, and moving up and down in straight lines.
There, he declares (ver. 31), dwell the serpent's fascination and the serpent's
flings. Neglecting this wise counsel, he tells the listener (ver. 33 — 35) that he
will be in danger of looking with a wistful eye on the common prostitute, of making

PROVERBS, XXIII. 29 — 35. 139

his heart a store-room of deceit, and of resembling the man who lies in the bed of
the sea or on the topmost mast, rolling hither and thither without any self-control,
and confessing that he is insensible to every correction, and that he will only raise
himself from his lethargy in order to seek again the cause of all his woes.

2. The passage is divisible into four parts, — (i) the internal and external effects
of drinking habits; (2) the signs and nature of intoxicating liquor; (3) its demoral-
izing influences ; (4) the lessons to be drawn and practised.

In the first place, tipplers and lovers of strong drink are miserable — contentious
in deed and word — subject to marks of violence — betraying their habits by their
disfigured faces.

In the second place, the signs of fermented wine are described, so that \heyayin
of this passage is clearly distinguished from all yayin of a different kind. To make
this point better understood a figure is introduced ; and this yayin is personified as
a serpent and adder, bright as the reddest wine, with an eye sparkling as the wine-
bubble, and with a power of biting and piercing those who are betrayed into a near
approach.

In the third place, the demoralizing influences of intoxicating liquor are enume-
rated,— lust, deceitfulness, want of self-control, incorrigibility, and the insatiate
thirst that madly hankers after and pursues the drinker's own worst foe.

In the fourth place, the one great lesson to be drawn is condensed into the words,
' Look not upon such wine ' : a precept which is to be observed as literally as can
be : for to cast eyes often on what is seductive is to run a risk of seduction: but
principally it is to be obeyed in the sense of not looking for and desiring intoxicat-
ing liquors, but desiring rather their absence and exclusion.

3. The plea that Solomon here warns against drunkenness only, or the excessive
use of intoxicating drink, is contrary to the terms and spirit of the passage.
Drinking, in the sense of intoxication, is not necessarily implied at all ; and it is
not intoxication, but wins, that is described in ver. 31 ; nor can intoxication be said
to bite at the last. It is manifestly the design of the Wise man to point out the
PHYSICAL CAUSE cf all the misery and mischief he portrays, and this he finds in
the nature of intoxicating liquor, and hence both reason and inspiration constrain
him to counsel abstinence even from the desire of an article in which a capacity
and tendency of such hurtfulness essentially inhere. When men learn that alco-
holic drink abuses them they will cease to talk of the virtue of not abusing //. This
fundamental difference, residing in the nature of things, was discerned by Solomon,
and it involves that practical distinction which he makes, and which the Temper-
ance reformation embodies and proclaims. It is the nature of strong drink to
deceive and injure man, therefore it ought not to be desired or drunk. Man may
abuse the good, the bad abuses him ; therefore he should disuse it. If there is a
flaw in this philosophy it is to be found in the writings of Solomon ; and those who
object to the premiss, ' Intoxicating drink is not good,' or to the inference,
• Therefore it should not be consumed,' ought first to settle their difference with
the wisest of men, whose teaching is identical with that of the Temperance system.
All, indeed, that can be claimed for that system is a revival of Solomon's doctrine
concerning intoxicating drink, and an organized attempt to bring the habits of
society into conformity with the wisdom of the Jewish sage.

140 PROVERBS, XXV. 1 6, 2O — 22.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 30.

I went by the field of the slothful, and by the vineyard of the man
void of understanding.

BY THE FIELD . . . AND BY THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, al-sedd . .

kerem, 'by the field . . . and by the plantation.' Here sedeh, an open field,
is distinguished from the inclosure, kerem, devoted to the cultivation of the vine
and other fruits. It is of the latter that the picture of desolation is drawn in ver. 31
— overgrown with thorns and nettles, and the stone wall broken down.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 16.

Hast thou found honey ? eat so much as is sufficient for thee, lest
thou be filled therewith, and vomit it.

HAST THOU FOUND HONEY?] Hebrew, devash matzahthak, 'honey hast thou
found?' [As to devash, see Note on Gen. xliii. II.]

LEST THOU BE FILLED THEREWITH] Hebrew, pen-tishbahennu, 'lest thou be
satiated therewith.' Sah-bah or sah-bdah, signifies ' to be satisfied to the full ' ; and
is generally connected with food in the same relation as rahvah and shahkar with
drink and sweet liquors.

Luscious things are to be taken in moderation, with strict adaptation to natural
wants. Excess is to be avoided, and a caution against this excess is here con-
veyed. This evinces that it is a mistake to suppose that a warning against
excess implies intoxicating quality in the object. The use of sweet wines in a dis-
gusting excess by the Roman ladies is satirized by Juvenal, though it was not
attended by inebriation, but by such vomiting as the free use of honey is calculated
to excite.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 20.

As he that taketh away a garment in cold weather, and as vinegar
upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs to an heavy heart.

VINEGAR UPON NITRE] Hebrew, khometz al nattier, 'fermented drink (•=
vinegar) upon nitre.' This nitre is not the saltpetre of commerce, but a species of
potash, which, when compounded with oil, is used in the East as a soap. It is
found mixed with the soil in some parts of Syria. Vinegar poured upon this
substance makes it effervesce (in the Eastern sense ' ferment '), and this fact is an apt
representation of the incongruity involved in singing jovial songs to a heavy keart,
the only result of which can be to excite a disagreeable fermentation and irritation
of the spirits. The Lxx. reads, ' as vinegar draws a sore, so trouble befalling the
body afflicts the heart.'

CHAPTR XXV. VERSE 21, 22.

21 If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; and if he be
thirsty, give him water to drink : 22 For thou shalt heap coals of fire
upon his head, and the LORD shall reward thee.

PROVERBS, XXV. 25, 2/. \\ <1 14!

V. 22. GIVE HIM WATER TO DRINK] Hebrew, hashqahu maim, 'give him to
drink water. '

No drink equals water for the assuaging of thirst, and generally all . liquids
relieve thirst by virtue of the water they contain. Alcohol, as an irritant and
thickener of the blood, creates thirst in proportion to its potency and quantity.
On account of their pre-eminent value, bread and water are the fittest representa-
tives of all the materials of physical subsistence.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 25.

As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far
country.

As COLD WATERS TO A THIRSTY SOUL] Hebrew, maim qakrim al-nephesh aiphah,
' cold water to a soul (which is) wearily athirst ' = languishing from thirst.

The comparative structure of the proverb is, perhaps, more striking in the
Hebrew than as presented in the A. V. — ' cold water to a soul wearily athirst,
and good news from a far country.' In the heat of a Syrian summer, inexpressibly
refreshing, even like good news from a friend in a distant land, is cool water to the
parched and fainting frame.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 27.

// is not good to eat much honey : so for men to search their own
glory is not glory.

IT IS NOT GOOD TO EAT MUCH HONEY] Hebrew, ahkol devash harboth lo tw,
' to eat much honey is not good. ' The Lxx. reads, ' to eat much honey is not good,
but to honor venerable sayings is right.' The V. has 'as it is not good to a
man to eat much honey, so he who is a searcher of majesty shall be oppressed by
glory.'

That which is goodflerse is not good to the user if used in excess ; but any use of
that which is not good is an act of excess. Honey is good for food, but taken in
large quantities is not assimilated as food, and is then not good. The chronicler
says that many English under Prince Edward, in Palestine, died from a neglect of
this caution. [See Note on xxv. 16. ] The whole proverb reads thus: — 'To eat
much honey is not good, and to search out their glory, glory.' The comparison
is obscure to the modern mind. The A. V. supplies ' not ' before the second
' glory ' to agree with ' not good ' in the first clause. Others propose to read
interrogatively — ' is it glory ? ' Possibly there is a designed play upon the word
kabod, which signifies both ' glory ' and ' heaviness ' ; so that the sense would be,
"as eating honey in excess is not good, but oppressive to the stomach, so when
men make their own glory an object of search, they are apt to get heaviness for
their pains." The vain-glorious are subject to mortifications that weigh like burdens
upon their hearts.

142 PROVERBS, XXXI. 4, 5.

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 9.

As a thorn goeth up into the hand of a drunkard, so is a parable
in the mouth of fools.

AS A THORN GOETH UP INTO THE HAND OF A DRUNKARD] Hebrew, kllOdkh

ahlah v^-yad shikkor, ' a thorn goeth into the hand of a drunkard. ' The Lxx. has
akanthai phuontai en cheiri methusou, douleia de en cheiri ton aphrondn, ' thorns
grow in the hand of a drunkard, but servitude in the hand of the fools.' The V.
has quonwdo si spina nascatur in manu temulenti, sic parabola in ore stultorum, 'as
if a thorn should grow in the hand of a drunkard, so is a parable in the mouth of
fools.'

A drunkard not knowing how to grasp a thorn, or mistaking it for something
else, it runs into his hand and injures him ; so a fool not knowing how to use a
proverb can only abuse it so as to bring ridicule on himself or affront others.
Some commentators understand a reference to the insensibility of the drunkard
when injuring himself, as illustrative cf the ignorance of the fool who uncon-
sciously misapplies the wisest sayings.

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 21.

As coals are to burning coals, and wood to fire ; so is a -conten-
tious man to kindle strife.

The Arabic reads, ' scurrility is of wine, wood is for the fire, and a litigious man
for the raising up of strife ' = wine acts as fuel to scurrility, as wood to a fire, and
a quarrelsome man to strife.

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 9.

Ointment and perfume rejoice the heart ; so doth the sweetness of
a man's friend by hearty counsel.

OINTMENT AND PERFUME REJOICE THE HEART] The Lxx., which is followed
by the Arabic, reads, ' the heart delights in ointments, and in wines (kai oinois)
and perfumes.'

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSES 4, 5.

4 // is not for kings, O Lemuel, if is not for kings to drink wine ;
nor for princes strong drink : 5 Lest they drink, and forget the law,
and pervert the judgment of any of the afflicted.

The Hebrew of the received text is as follows : — al lam-melakim Lemoal, al
lam-melakim shethoyayin til-rozenim av shakar ; pen-yishteh ve-yishkakh mekhuqqaq
vishanneh din kahl benai oni : 'not for kings, Lemuel, not for kings (is it) to drink
wine, and (not) for princes desire of strong drink; lest they should drink and
forget what is decreed ( = the law), and change ( = subvert) the judgment of" any
of the children of affliction.' Instead of av, ' desire,' some MSS. have at, 'where ' ;
which, if adopted, would make the passage read, ' and for princes (it is not to ask)
where (is) strong drink, lest,' etc. The T. reads, ' hold thyself aloof from kings,

* That is, the judgment due to such.

PROVERBS, XXXI. 6, 7. 143

Lemuel, from kings who drink wine, and mighty ones who drink strong drink; lest
perchance thou shouldst drink and pervert thy cause, and change the judgments
of any of the children of the poor.' The Syriac runs, 'of kings, Lemuel, beware,
of kings, I say, who drink wine, and of princes who drink strong drink ; lest per-
chance thou shouldst forget to declare the law, and by forgetfulness shouldst sur-
render the cause of any children of the poor.' In the ' Jewish' School and Family
Bible ' Dr Benisch, a learned rabbi of Great Britain, gives the following translation :
'it is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes to
covet strong drink ; lest they drink and forget what is established, and alter the verdict
of any of the afflicted.' Differing in some respects from these renderings are those of
the Lxx. and the V., and most notably the Lxx. : meta boulees panta poiei, mela
boulces oinopotei. Oi dunastai thumodeis eisin ; oinon de mee peinetosan, hina met
piontt's epilathontai tees sophias kai ortha kreinai ou mee dunontai tons astheneis :
' with counsel do all things, with counsel drink wine. The princes are prone to
anger, let them then not drink wine, in order that they may not forget wisdom
when drinking, and may not be able rightly to judge the weak.' Aquila and
Theodotion give 'and shall change the judgment of the sons of the poor man.'
The V. is noli regibus, O Lemuel, noli regibus dare vinum ; quia nullum secretum est
ubi regnat cbrietas ; ft ne forte bibant et obliviscantur judiciorum, et mutent causam
filiorum panperis ; 'be thou unwilling, O Lemuel, be unwilling to give wine to
kings ; because nothing is secret where ebriety reigns and lest perchance they
should drink and be forgetful of judicial rules, and should change the cause of the
children of the poor.

Obs. It is now impossible to explain the introduction of the curious prefix
contained in the Lxx., 'do all things with counsel, with counsel drink wine.'
Possibly it may have once formed a marginal note, and have been incorporated
with the text by some subsequent but very early transcriber. It is observable that no
such unwise limitation is to be found in the Hebrew of this or any other inspired
text. All the versions agree in the injunction against the use of wine by kings and
prkices, and in the reason assigned for the injunction — namely, the danger that by
using wine they should be unfitted for their judicial duties, which, in ancient
times, kings frequently discharged in person. Probably we have in this passage
of Holy Writ a fragment of the ' wisdom of Egypt ' which is said to have incul-
cated abstinence from intoxicating drink upon the Pharaohs. [See Note on Gen.
xl. II.] Nothing is known of Lemuel or of his mother, the ostensible speaker.
Some critics think that the first ten verses of this chapter form a short ethical
lesson, originally addressed to an Arabian king. Whatever force is contained in
the reason assigned for abstinence in rulers and judges under the old dispensation,
is applicable (& fortiori) to every position in Christian life where the possession of
a clear, sound judgment is needed ; and what are the circumstances where such a
blessing can be wisely rejected or imperilled ?

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSES 6, 7.

6 Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine
unto those that be of heavy hearts. 7 Let him drink, and forget his
poverty, and remember his misery no more.

The Hebrew is as follows : — lenu shakar K-ovad vZ-yayin ftmahrai naphesh,
yishteh vt-yishkakh risho, vaamahlo lo yizkar od : ' give strong drink to the

144 PROVERBS, XXXI. 6, 7.

perishing one, and wine to those bitter of spirit; let him drink and forget his
poverty, and his sorrow not remember again.' The T. reads, 'give strong
drink to the mournful, and wine to those who are bitter in soul; that they may
drink and forget their indigence, and not longer remember their mean attire.'
The Syriac has ' let strong drink be granted to the mournful, and wine to those
of bitter soul ; that they may drink and forget their sorrows, and may not further
recall their calamities.' The Lxx. has didote metheen tois en lupais, kai oinon
peinein tois en odunais, hina epilatJwntai tees penias kai ton ponon me mneesthosin
eti: 'give ye strong drink to those in griefs, and wine to drink to those in pains,
in order that they may be forgetful of the poverty, and of their troubles have no
remembrance any more.' The V. reads, date siceram mxrentibzis et vinum his
qui amaro sunt animo. Bibant et ebliviscantur egestatis sua, et doloris sid non
recordentur amplius : ' give ye strong drink to the mournful, and wine to those
who are of bitter soul. Let them drink and forget their indigence, and of their
grief have not a remembrance any longer.' So far as the words go, we have
here a plain prescription to ' drown sorrow in drink ' ; but we may well question
whether such could have ever been the intention of an inspired writer. To deter-
mine the true meaning of these verses, therefore, is of considerable importance,
both as a point of morals and of Temperance doctrine.

1. Some regard the passage as an allusion to the exceptional practice of giving
intoxicating and stupefying potions to criminals before execution : but the allusion,
if such, is a sanction and even command ; and the pious mind must revolt from the
thought of a Scripture exhortation to make men drunk and unconscious at the
approach of death. The great Exemplar, when about to die, was offered 'wine
mingled with myrrh,' but it is recorded that He refused it. Could the 'Spirit
that was in Christ' ever have testified adversely to this ?

2. The theory that what is recommended is a moderate use of intoxicating liquor
as a cordial in time of trouble, is contrary to the natural sense of the words and to
the result described — complete oblivion of earthly care. Besides, can intoxicating
drink be properly recommended in any quantity as an antidote to trouble ? Han-
nah did not think so (see Note on I Sam. i. 15). St James writes, ' Is any
afflicted ? let him pray ' — not fly to the bottle. All experience shows that to use
alcoholic fluid for mitigating grief is to subject one's self to a special danger,
amounting to moral certainty, of contracting habits of intemperance. Under such
conditions the system is doubly susceptible of the delusive influence of alcoholics.

3. If the passage is to be construed as a serious recommendation, it is nothing
short of a direct injunction to get intoxicated; advice which could not fail to be
stigmatised (i) as most irrational, because certain to multiply care and trouble;
(2) as radically opposed to the tenor of Scripture teaching; and (3) as utterly
immoral, by giving encouragement to the mother and mistress of all the lowest
vices of mankind.

4. An attempt has been made to cut the knot by translating the principal
terms so as to exclude all reference to wine and strong drink. It is true that by
falling back upon mere etymology, and rendering yayin 'pressure,' and shakar
'reward,' 'bribe,' or 'gift,' an entirely new turn is given to the passage, which is
thus paraphrased: — " It is not for kings and princes to receive gifts or bribes, lest
(so accepting) they forget the law, pervert the claim of any of the afflicted. Give
gifts (rather) to him that is ready to perish, and to those that be of heavy heart;

PROVERBS, XXXI, 6, 7. 145

let him accept [orig. drink] them, and forget his poverty, and remember his misery
no more." It cannot, however, be supposed that gifts to kings and princes are
indiscriminately to be condemned, or that indiscriminate almsgiving to the poor is
to be commended. Besides, the critical objections to this new translation are
insuperable, (i) Yayin is never elsewhere used in the sense imparted to it; and
what can be meant by giving ' pressure ' to the poor ? (2) The connection of yayin
with shakar determines the meaning of shaken beyond all fair question.* (3) The
allusion to drinking as a cause of loss of judgment and memory is too clear to be
mistaken.

5. Any interpretation of verses 6 and 7 which is to preserve their harmony with
morality and religion, must exclude from the initial word tenu, 'give thou,' the
force of a recommendation or command, (i) It may be regarded as logical, and
not mandatory; not as 'do give,' but 'should you give,' then such and such will
be the result. The sense would then be tantamount to this : — 'It is not becoming
in kings and princes to drink wine and strong drink, lest they forget the law and
pervert the rights of others ; though, should such drink be given to the afflicted,
they will simply drink and forget their own cares and become unconscious of their
own misfortunes.' The grammatical concord supports this view; for it is not
' Give wine and strong drink to the afflicted, and make them forget their troubles,'
but ' Give them wine and strong drink, and the afflicted one will drink (yishteK),
and he will forget (yishkekh) his distress.' This usus loquendi is to be found in
the proverbs of all languages. In our own we say, ' Set a beggar on horseback,
[not meaning ' do set him,' but * if you set him,' theri\ he will ride to perdition/
' Give some people an inch, and they will take an ell. ' This may be defined as
the logical imperative, in distinction from the ethical. (2) The imperative tenu,
'give thou,' maybe regarded as a term of conditional comparison. Kings and
princes (verses 4 and 5) are not to use wine and strong drink because inimical to
mental clearness and judicial integrity ; but if not fit for those who owe important
duties towards others, what are they fit for ? The answer is supplied (verses 6
and 7): 'Give them — if at all — to the perishing and careworn, who will find in
them oblivion from the very memory of their sorrows.' This, observe, is not a
contradiction, but an amplification, of the thought developed in verses 4 and 5,
The alternative advice of the text may be thus modernly expressed: — "Better
drink so that you forget your own cares, than, occupying a position of influence
and trust, you should drink and do injury to others." The whole passage may be
viewed as a declarative medal; on whose obverse side is inscribed, "Intoxicating
liquors are not fit for those who have to think and act for others " ; on the reverse,
"Intoxicating liquors are only fit for those who wish to lose the power of think-
ing and acting for themselves." Can any stronger condemnation be passed upon
inebriating compounds of every name? To whom has the Creator given per-

*The Masoritesy-so called because about the seventh century of the Christian era they accen-
tuated and otherwise edited the Hebrew Scriptures according to masora (tradition)— discriminate
between s h-k-r as 'strong drink' and sh-k-r as 'reward' or 'wages,' by so marking the latter
'sh' that it maybe pronounced ' s,' — sak-kar. Whether they are right or not in so doing, any
reader, however ignorant of Hebrew, might see that the words do express very different tilings,
and that the context in every case supports the distinction made by the English translators.
Possibly the use of sh-k-r in the sense of ' reward ' or ' wages ' was derived from the generic sense
of 'sweetness ' : but the distinction must have been made at a very remote period, and when made,
a difference of pronunciation (which the Masorites may have preserved) would naturally be adopted
to indicate the difference of object present to the mind.

146 PROVERBS, XXXI. 1 6.

mission to drown affliction in the wine-cup ? With a voice of infinite pity,
the Son of God, addressing the afflicted and perishing, exclaims, "Come unto
Me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I WILL GIVE YOU REST." *

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 16.

She considereth a field, and buyeth it : with the fruit of her hands
she planteth a vineyard.

SHE PLANTETH A VINEYARD] Hebrew, nahtah karem, ' she planteth a culti-
vated enclosure,' or 'sets out a plantation.' Kerent here is distinguished from
sadeh (in the first clause), *an open field.' The Lxx. has katepheusen kteemat
* she planted a possession ' ; the V., plantavit vineam, ' she planted a vineyard.'

•The late Sir W. a' Beckett, ex-Chief Justice of Victoria, has beautifully expressed the unwisdom
of seeking consolation in the cup which mocks:

IN VINO FALSITAS.

Grief banished by wine will come again,

And come with a deeper shade,
Leaving, perchance on the soul a stain,

Which sorrow had never made.
Then fill not the tempting glass for me ;

If mournful, I will not be mad ;
Better sad, because we are sinful, be,

Than sinful because we are sad.

THE BOOK OF ECCLESIASTES.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 3.

I sought in mine heart to give myself unto wine, yet acquainting
mine heart with wisdom ; and to lay hold on folly, till I might see
what was that good for the sons of men, which they should do under
the heaven all the days of their life.

I SOUGHT IN MINE HEART TO GIVE MYSELF UNTO WINE] Hebrew, tarti vl-libe
limshok bay-yayin tth-blsari, * I sought in my heart to draw out my body (or flesh)
with wine. ' The Lxx. has kateskepsameen ei hee kardia mou helkusen hos oinos
ten sarka mou, ' and I examined whether my heart would draw, as wine, my flesh ' ;
the V., cogitavi in corde meo abstrahere d vino carnent meam> 'I thought in my
heart to withdraw my flesh from wine.' The T. has 'to draw my flesh into the
house of the banquet of wine.' The Hebrew mahshak signifies 'to draw,1 'to
continue,' ' to spread ' ; hence Gesenius and others construe the passage — ' I sought
in my heart to make my body strong with wine.' It would be interesting to know
how St Jerome came to write d vino, ' from wine.' The bay-yayiu of the Received
Text can bear this rendering only by taking ' £' in the infrequent sense of ' against,'
which could hardly be assigned to it here.

YET ACQUAINTING MINE HEART WITH WISDOM] Hebrew, v l-libe nokag bakkak-
mah, 'and my heart acting (or urging) with wisdom,' or 'cleaving to wisdom.'
The Lxx. has kai kardia mou hodeegeesen en sophia, ' and my heart guided (me)
with wisdom'; the V., ut animum meum transferrem ad sapientiam, devitarem-
que stultitiam, ' that I might carry over my mind to wisdom, and avoid folly.1

CHAPTER II. VERSE 4.

I made me great works; I builded me houses; I planted me
vineyards.

I PLANTED ME VINEYARDS] Hebrew, nahtati li kerahmim, 'I planted for my-
self vineyards,' or 'set out plantations.' Ver. 5 has a reference to gannoth
u-phardasim, translated in A. V. ' gardens ' and ' orchards. ' Gannoth, from ganan,
* to cover,' seems to denote conservatories ; and pardanm, 'paradises,' pleasure-
grounds — laid out around the royal dwelling.

148 ECCLESIASTES, IX. /.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 24.

There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and
drink, and that he should make his soul enjoy good in his labor.
This also I saw, that it was from the hand of God.

AND DRINK] Hebrew, ve-shahthath, 'and he has drunk.' The same phrase
recurs, chap. iii. 13; and one similar, chap. v. 18; viii. 15.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 29.

Lo, this only have I found, that God hath made man upright ; but
they have sought out many inventions.

UPRIGHT] Hebrew, yahshar, 'straight '= upright or just.

MANY INVENTIONS] Hebrew, khishvonoth rabim, 'many devices.' Revelation as
well as reason explodes the fallacy of confounding nature with art ; the work done
by means of Divine power lent us, with the work which, being 'upright' and 'fit,'
expresses the Divine will and wisdom. The distinction is a cardinal one in ethics,
the denial of which would destroy all moral distinctions and responsibility, by
identifying the moral quality of all actions as equally divine, since there is no power
that is not of God. [See Note on Acts xvii. 29.] The simple existence of an act
cannot vindicate its 'uprightness,' which is a relation of adaptedness.

Not everything that man, ' the reasoning animal,' has contrived, is entitled to the
distinction of ' reasonable,' much less of a Divine origin. The ' inventions ' of man,
the offspring of his understanding, must be compared with the standard of that
natural uprightness according to which he was himself created. The true and final
test of their uprightness is their fitness to make mankind happier and better. If they
cannot endure this test they stand condemned in their own nature. It is in vain to
point to the actual manufacture of intoxicating liquor in almost incomputable
quantities, and at enormous cost, as a proof that they are designed for use; since,
if their influence on man's material and moral condition is evil rather than good,
the application of human intelligence to their preparation is but another evidence
that though God made man upright, he has abused his faculties by contriving
inventions that are at once the monuments and the instruments of his shame.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 7.

Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with
a merry heart; for God now accepteth thy works.

EAT THY BREAD WITH JOY] Hebrew, ekol besimkhah lakhmekah, 'eat with
gladness thy bread'; the Lxx., phage en euphrozunee ton arton sou, 'eat with
joyfulness thy bread'; the V., comede in la;titia panem tuum, 'eat with gladness
thy bread.'

AND DRINK THY WINE WITH A MERRY HEART] Hebrew, u-shtha ve-lev-tov
yaynekah, 'and drink with a good heart thy wine.' The Lxx. reads, kai pie en
kardia agathee oinou sou, ' and drink with a good heart thy wine ' ; the V., et bibe
cum gaudia vinum tuum, 'and drink with joy thy wine.' The T. represents this
language as prophetic of what God shall say to the good in the world to come, —

ECCLESIASTES, X. I/, 19. 149

" Drink with a joyous heart the wine stored up for thee in the garden of Eden, on
account of the wine which thou hast mingled for the poor and lonely when athirst."

Where God accepteth man's works, he is justified in partaking of the Divine
bounties with a joyful and merry heart, whether the produce of the field or the
vineyard. The condition that this fruit is good in itself is presupposed, and corn
which has been mildewed, or yayin which has passed into the state of a 'mocker,'
is excluded from the nature of the case. Those who conclude that the wine
approved in Scripture must have been intoxicating because said to give pleasure,
are refuted by this very passage, in which the eating of 'bread' is associated with
' gladness ' — simkhah, — a term descriptive of the highest delight.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 17.

Blessed art thou, O land, when thy king is the son of nobles, and
thy princes eat in due season, for strength, and not for drunkenness.

AND NOT FOR DRUNKENNESS] Hebrew, vt-lo vashti, 'and not for drinking '=
carousing, or gluttony. The Lxx. has kai ouk aischuntheesontai, ' and shall not
be ashamed,' — having evidently read boshu, the third person plural preterite of
bushy 'to be ashamed.' The V. has et non ad luxuriam, 'and not for luxury.'
As 'eating1 includes 'eating and drinking,' so 'drinking' here includes all table
excess.

The rule of eating — for strength, to recruit and benefit the body, and not for
animal indulgence — is an admirable definition of physical temperance ; and happy
would be our land, if not its princes only, but its people, would make that rule the
law of their lives. The ' pleasures of the table ' are not to be discarded in so far
as they are subservient to the principal purpose of all eating — the health and sup-
port of the body. Whatever in degree, or kind, is inconsistent with this purpose
ought to be faithfully and conscientiously rejected.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 19.

A feast is made for laughter, and wine maketh merry : but money
answereth all things.

A FEAST is MADE FOR LAUGHTER] Hebrew, liskhoq osim lekhem, ' for laughter
they make bread.' So the Lxx., eis gelota poiousin arton, 'for laughter they make
bread ' ; and the V., in risum fadunt pattern.

AND WINE MAKETH MERRY] Hebrew, vt-yayin yesammakh khayim, 'and wine
will rejoice the living.' The Lxx., Codex B, has kaioinon kai elainon tou euphran-
theenai zdntas, ' and (they make) wine and oil that the living may rejoice.' The V.
reads, et vinum ut epulentur viv en/ts, 'and wine that the living may feast.' The
T. reads, ' and the wine which they mingle for the thirsty shall be to them for &
joy in the age to come.'

Nothing here said renders it needful to associate the idea of ' wine ' with an
intoxicating quality ; and in taking the juice of the grape as God has created it,
enjoyment and thankfulness may most completely and fitly blend.

THE BOOK OF CANTICLES,

OR SONG OF SOLOMON.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 2.
For thy love is better than wine.

Hebrew, tovim dodikah miy-yayin, 'good (are) thy loves above wine.' So the
Lxx., huperoinon, 'above wine'; and V., vino, 'than wine.'

CHAPTER I. VERSE 4.
We will remember thy love more than wine.

MORE THAN WINE] Hebrew, miy-yayin; Lxx., huper oinon ; V., super

CHAPTER I. VERSE 6.

They made me the keeper of the vineyards ; but mine own vine-
yard have I not kept.

KEEPER OF THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, notarah eth-hak-k%ramimt 'keeper of
the vineyards.'

MINE OWN VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmi shelli, 'my vineyard, that which is
mine '= even mine.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 14.

My beloved is unto me as a cluster of camphire in the vineyards of
En-gedi.

A CLUSTER OF CAMPHIRE] Hebrew, eshkol hak-kopher, ' a bunch of cypress ' ;
the Lxx., kupros, "a shrub or small tree, with whitish odoriferous flowers growing
in clusters ; the Lawsonia inermis of Linnaeus, called kopher in Hebrew [from
kaphar, 'to cover'], as has been well suggested by Job Simonis, from a powder
being made of its leaves, with which, when mixed with water, women in the East
smear over their nails so as to make them of a red color for the sake of orna-
ment."— (Gesenius.)

CANTICLES, II. 4, 5, 13. 151

IN THE VINEYARDS OF EN-GEDi] Hebrew, bt-karniai Ain gtdi, 'in the vine-
yards (or plantations) of Engedi.' Ain-gedi (signifying ' the fountain of the kid')
was the name of a town (probably also of a district) situated near the Dead Sea,
and abounding in palm trees. Some versions read, 'to those in Gaddi.'

The Targum of the Canticles is an attempt to convert the imagery of this glowing
idyl into a relation by Solomon, half historical, half prophetical, concerning the
Jewish State. One illustrative extract is selected, bearing upon the use of wine in
the Levitical rites : — " Moses commanded the sons of Aaron, who were priests, that
they should offer oblations upon the altar, and that they should pour out wine upon
the oblations. Whence, however, could they procure the wine thus to pour out ?
How could they get it in that desert place which was not fit to be sowed, and
where no fig trees, or vines, or pomegranate trees grew ? But they went to the
vineyard of Engedi, and they brought thence clusters of grapes, and they expressed
from them wine tyatzrin min'hon khamar}, and they poured out from it upon the
altar the fourth part of a hin upon each ram." Later on, the T. refers to 'red
wine and white wine ' (khamar summaq v'khamar khiwar) as having been poured
out upon the altar.

CHAPTER II. VERSES 4, 5.

4 He brought me to the banqueting house, and his banner over me
was love. 5 Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples : for I am
sick of love.

V. 4- To THE BANQUETING HOUSE] Hebrew, el baith hay~yayin> 'to the house
of wine ' — a cool recess or cave in the royal gardens. The Lxx. , eis oikon tou
oinou, ' into a house of the wine. ' Symmachus, eis ton oindna ' into the wine-
cellar.' So the V.

V. 5. STAY ME WITH FLAGONS] Hebrew, samkani ba-ashishoth, 'sustain me
with cakes-of-grapes. ' The Lxx., steeiisate me en murois, ' support me with per-
fumes.' V.,fulcite mefioribi4s, ' stay me with flowers.' Symmachus, epanaklinete
me in antheit 'make me recline on a flower.' Aquila, steeresate me oinanthont
'support me with vine-flowers.'

[As to ASHISHOTH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes on 2 Sam. vi. 19; I Chron.

COMFORT ME WITH APPLES] Hebrew, rapduni bat-tapukhim> ' refresh me with
apples.' The Hebrew tapuakh had a width of meaning like the Latin pomum, in-
cluding all round apple-like fruit, such as the peach, melon, citron. Lxx., stoi-
basate me en meelois, ' stay me with quinces.' V., stipate me ma/is, ' fill me with
apples.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 13.

The fig tree putteth forth her green figs, and the vines with the
tender grape give a good smell. Arise, my love, my fair one, and
come away.

AND THE VINES WITH THE TENDER GRAPE GIVE A GOOD SMELL] Hebrew,
vl-hag-gcphanim slmahdar, nathntt raiakh, 'and the vines (are in) blossom, they
give forth sweet-odor.' The A. V. agrees with the Mishna in taking slmahdar

152 CANTICLES, V. I.

to signify 'the tender grape' — the grape first out in bloom. Lxx., ai ampdoi
kuprizoiisin edkoan osmeen, ' the vines are in flower, they have given a scent.'
Symmachus, ton ampelon hee oinanthee, 'the flower of the vines.' V., vinece
florentes, dederunt odorem suum, ' the vineyards are flowering ; they have given
their odor.' Pliny (chap. xiv. 2) states that no odor excels in pleasantness that
of the flowering vine, ubicumquc pubescentium odori nulla suavitas prefertur.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 15.

Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines : for our vines
have tender grapes.

THE FOXES] Hebrew, shuahlim, 'jackals,' which abounded in Palestine.
Lxx. alopekasy V. vutpes, 'foxes.' Aristophanes compares soldiers who despoil
countries to foxes who spoil vineyards; and Galen says that hunters eat foxes
fattened on autumnal grapes. The Syrian jackal is as great a spoiler of vineyards
as the common fox elsewhere.

THE VINES] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.' The shtiahlim 'spoil' — lay
waste — not only particular vines, but whole vineyards.

FOR OUR VINES HAVE TENDER GRAPES] Hebrew, u-keramainu stmahdar, * and
our vineyards (are in) blossom.' Lxx., kuprizousai, 'are flowering.' V.,jfl0ruift
•is flowering.'

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 10.
How much better is thy love than wine!

THAN WINE] Hebrew, miy-yayint 'above wine' (as in chap. i. 2).

CHAPTER V. VERSE i.

I am come into my garden, my sister, my spouse : I have gathered
my myrrh with my spice; I have eaten my honeycomb with my
honey; I have drunk my wine with my milk: eat, O friends; drink,
yea, drink abundantly, O beloved.

I HAVE DRUNK MY WINE WITH MY MILK] Hebrew, shahthithi yayni im kha-
lahvi, 'I have drunk my wine with my milk.' Lxx., 'I have drunk my wine
(oinon moil) with my milk.' V., vinum meum, 'my wine.' The pure juice of the
grape would form a suitable companion beverage with the fresh flowing milk, and
both might be drunk freely, even by tender women, without injury either to body
or mind.

DRINK, YEA, DRINK ABUNDANTLY, O BELOVED] Hebrew, sh&hu v2-shikru
dodim, 'drink, and drink to fulness, O loved ones.' Lxx.,/*>& kai methustheete
adelphoi, 'drink, and be satiated, O brothers.' V., bibite el inebriamini charts-
simi, ' drink and be filled to the full, ye dearest. ' Here, beyond all cavil, the
Hebrew shakar, the Greek methuo, and the Latin inebrio, have reference to
' plentiful drinking ' ; none at all to an intoxicating effect of what is drunk.

CANTICLES, VII. 2, 7, 8, 9. 153

CHAPTER VI. VERSE n.

I went down into the garden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley,
and to see whether the vine flourished, and the pomegranates budded.

To SEE WHETHER THE VINE FLOURISHED] Hebrew, liroth hapharkhah hag-
gephfn, 'to see the budding of the vine.' Lxx. idein ei centheesen hee ampelos,
'to see if the vine is in flower.' V., inspicerem si floruisset vinea, 'that I might
observe if the vineyard had flowered.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 2.
Thy navel is like a round goblet, which wanteth not liquor.

LIQUOR] Hebrew, ham-mazeg, 'the mixture.' Mczeg is equivalent to mesek,
and alludes here not to a ' mixture ' composed of intoxicating and inflaming drugs,
but to such a sweet and healthful potion as Wisdom is said to mingle for her
friends. [See Note on Prov. ix. 2, 5.] Lxx., krama, 'mixed -liquor.' V.,
iS) 'in cups.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 7.

This thy stature is like to a palm tree, and thy breasts to clusters
of grapes.

A PALM TREE] Hebrew, tahmar. Lxx., phoiniki, « to a palm tree.' V.,
Palmes^ 'to a palm tree.'

THE CLUSTERS OF GRAPES] Hebrew, tt-cshkeloth, 'to clusters.' Lxx., tois
botrusin, 'to the grape-clusters.' V., botris, 'to grape-bunches.' Gesenius thinks
' clusters of dates ' are meant, which would carry out the figure of the palm tree ;
but analogy supports the A. V. in supplying 'of grapes.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 8.

I said, I will go up to the palm tree, I will take hold of the boughs
thereof: now also thy breasts shall be as clusters of the vine, and the
smell of thy nose like apples.

As CLUSTERS OF THE VINE] Hebrew, kt-eshkeloth hag-gephen, 'as clustered
branches of the vine.' So the Lxx., hos botrues tees ampelou, and the V., sicut
botri vinece.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 9.

And the roof of thy mouth like the best wine for my beloved, that
goeth d(nvn sweetly, causing the lips of those that are asleep to speak.

AND THE ROOF OF THY MOUTH] Hebrew, vt-khikhakt ' and thy palate.' "The
palate seems (here) to be delicately put for the moisture of the mouth perceived in
kisses."— (Gesenius.)

154 CANTICLES, VIII. 2.

LIKE THE BEST WINE] Hebrew, ke-yayn hat-tw, 'like the wine of the good'=
like very good wine. Lxx., hos oinos ho agathos, 'as wine, the good (kind") ' — ho
(the) being emphatic; but Codex A is without the ho. V., sicut vinum optimum,
'as the best wine.'

THAT GOETH DOWN SWEETLY] Hebrew, holak IZ-dodi ll-maisharim, 'going
to my beloved according to straightnesses '= rightly. Lxx., poreuomenos to
adelphido mou eis euthuteeta, ' going to my kinsman in a straight way.' V., dignum
dilecto meo ad potandum, ' fit for my beloved to drink. ' Symmachus, harmozon t<>
agapeeto mou eis eidhuteeta, ' fitted to my beloved in a straight line.'

CAUSING THE LIPS OF THOSE WHO ARE ASLEEP TO SPEAK] Hebrew, dwav
siphthai yishanim, ' flowing over the lips of the sleeping.' Lxx., hikanoumenos
cheilesi mou kai odousin, ' satisfying to my lips and teeth.' V., labiisque et denti-
bus illius ad ruminandum, 'and (fit for him) to ruminate with his lips and teeth.'
Symmachus, prostithemenos cheilesi, ' applied to the lips.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 12.

Let us get up early to the vineyards ; let us see if the vine flourish,
whether the tender grape appear, and the pomegranates bud forth :
there will I give thee my loves.

To THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, lak-keramim, 'to the vineyards.'

IF THE VINE FLOURISH] Hebrew, im parkhah hag-gephen, ' whether buds the
vine'; the Lxx., ei eentheesen hee ampelos, 'if the vine flowers'; V., si florunt
vineasy 'if the vineyards are in flower.'

WHETHER THE TENDER GRAPE APPEARS] Hebrew, pittakh has-s^mahdar,
'(whether) opens out the blossom (or young grape)'; Lxx., eentheesen ho
kuprismosy '(if) the blossom has flowered'; V., si flores fructus parturiunt, 'if
the flowers of the fruit put forth.'

AND THE POMEGRANATES BUD FORTH] Hebrew, kanatzu harimmonim,
' (whether) are bright (or flourish) the pomegranates.' [As to Rimmonimt see
Note on I Sam. xiv. 2. ]

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 2.

I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice of my
pomegranate.

OF SPICED WINE OF THE JUICE OF MY POMEGRANATE] Hebrew, miy-yayin
hareqakh) ma-asis rimmoni, ' from the wine of the spice, from the fresh juice of
my pomegranate.' Yayin hareqakh, ' wine of the spice, ' is equivalent to ' spiced
(or seasoned) wine.' A sis is used of the newly expressed juice of the grape [see
Prel. Dis., and Notes on Joel i. 5 ; iv. 18; Amos ix. 10], but is here applied to the
fresh juice of the pomegranate. It is doubtful whether 'the juice of my pome-
granate ' is identical with ' the spiced-wine' ; or whether the yayin was mixed with
the 'juice of the pomegranate,' and so was rendered ' spiced'; or whether the yayin
was otherwise spiced and drunk along with the pomegranate juice. The Lxx. has
apo oinou tou murepsikou, apo namatos rhoon mou, ' from the myrrhed-wine, from
my juice [spring] of the pomegranates'; Symmachus, 'from prepared wine'; V.,

CANTICLES, VIII. II, 12. 155

ex vino condito ft mustum malorum granatorum meorum, ' from prepared wine

and must of my apples.' Instead of 'spiced,' the Syriac and the Arabic have
'sweetest.'

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE n.

Solomon had a vineyard at Baal-hamon; he let out the vineyard
unto keepers ; every one for the fruit thereof was to bring a thousand
pUccs of silver.

A VINEYARD] Hebrew, ktrtm, 'vineyard.'

THE VINEYARD] Hebrew, eth-hak-kertm, 'the vineyard.'

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12.

My vineyard, which is mine, is before me: thou, O Solomon,
must have a thousand, and those that keep the fruit thereof two
hundred.

MY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmi, 'my vineyard.'

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET ISAIAH.

[ISAIAH PROPHESIED ABOUT THE YEAR 7$0 B. C.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 8.

And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a
lodge in a garden of cucumbers, as a besieged city.

As A COTTAGE IN A VINEYARD] Hebrew, k&ukkah b^karem, ' as a booth (made
of leaves and branches) in a vineyard.'

CHAPTER I. VERSES 16, 17.

16 Wash you, make you clean ; put away the evil of your doings
from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; 17 Learn to do well; seek
judgment, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the
widow.

The real evidence of all repentance, and the essential condition of all acceptance
with God, is the desire of amendment — a desire which, wherever it exists, neces-
sarily prompts to the avoidance of known evil and its causes. If the people of this
nation should sincerely repent of the national sin of intemperance, their abhorrence
of it would lead them to shun all degrees of it and all participation in its sources ;
and until this repentance is experienced, all professions of regret, and all efforts to
palliate the effects or materially to modify the symptoms of the disease, will neither
satisfy God nor accomplish an abiding cure.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 22.
Thy silver is become dross, thy wine mixed with water.

THY WINE MIXED WITH WATER] Hebrew, sahvak mahhul barn-maim, 'thy
soveh is cut with water.' Lxx., oi kapeeloi sou misgousi ton oinon hudati, 'thy
hucksters (low taverners or vintners) mix the wine with water.' Aquila has
sumposion sou, 'thy banquet' (drinking-feast) ; Symmachus, ho oinos sou, 'thy
wine.' The T. has khamraik, ' thy wine ' ; V., vinum tuum mistum est aqua, ' thy
wine has been mixed with water.' Soveh, = 'that which is eagerly sucked up*

ISAIAH, III. I. 157

[see Prel. Dis.], here manifestly denotes some luscious preparation, probably of
boiled grape-juice, fifah-al, 'to cut,' ' prune,' or ' circumcise,' is a figure for the
dilution commonly practised by the lower class of liquor venders, who tried to pass
off a thin watery article for the superior and genuine soveh. The idiom is common
in the East, and is to be found in the poet Martial (Ep. i. 18), — jugulare vetat
Falernum, ' he forbids the Falernian (wine) to have its throat cut ' = to have its
strength diminished. Dr Gill quotes Gussetius as suggesting that mahal is con-
tracted from meholal, which signifies 'infatuated,' so that the meaning would be
'thy wine is infatuated into water.' The erudite author of ' Tirosh lo Yayin '
traces to soveh the Latin sapa, which was must boiled down to one-third its
original bulk, and by an apt quotation from Varro (lib. i., cap. 54) shows how the
figure of circumcision might come to be applied to wine unduly diluted with water.
Varro, speaking of grapes that had been trodden and then put under the press,
adds, " When the must has ceased to flow from the press some persons circumcise
the extremities (of the grape-mass) and press again, and what results from the
second pressure they call circumcisitum " — cum desiit sub prelo fiuere, quidem
circumcidunt extrema, et rursus premunt, et rttrsus cum expressum circumcisitum
appellant. He also cites Cato (xxiii. 76) as applying to the wine made from a
similar pressure of grape husks, etc., the name of vinum circumcidaneum, and
Columella (xii. 36) the name of vinum circumcisiviim.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 8.

Their land also is full of idols ; they worship the work of their own
hands, that which their own fingers have made.

This may be truly said of the monster idols of Great Britain — fermented and
distilled liquors of every quality, color, and denomination, and of the temples of
Bacchus and Tobaccos. The land is 'full of them.' Evil drinks occupy tens
of thousands of breweries, distilleries, warehouses, cellars, and shops, and in
the more than religious homage which millions pay to them, we have an example,
the most painful and shameful, of the worship that men render to * the work of
their own hands.'

CHAPTER III. VERSE i.

For, behold, the Lord, the LORD of hosts, doth take away from
Jerusalem and from Judah the stay and the staff, the whole stay of
bread, and the whole stay of water.

Bread and water are here described as the two stays or supports of physical
existence — bread, the one typical food; water, the one essential liquid. Unlike
such imaginary and fictitious supports as alcoholic beverages, these have no ten-
dency to excite a morbid appetite, and if taken even to excess they can never
generate moral and social evils of a malignant and destructive kind. The wisdom
and goodness of God are displayed in withholding from the materials constituting
our daily sustenance any property prompting to their abuse, and any power, if
abused, to pervert reason and deprave the soul. He provideth no 'deceitful meat,'
no drink that 'mocks' and 'deceives.' Articles possessing such characteristics
must, in reason, be set aside as neither essential nor useful to health and vigor.

158 ISAIAH, V. I, 2, 3.

CHAPTER V. VERSE i.

Now will I sing to my well-beloved a song of my beloved touching
his vineyard. My well-beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful hill.

TOUCHING HIS VINEYARD] Hebrew, le-karmo, 'concerning his vineyard.1
The Lxx. has ' to my vineyard. '

A VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem. So in ver. 6 also.

IN A VERY FRUITFUL HILL] Literally, 'in the horn of the son of fatness.'
Vines were planted on hill-sides. So Virgil, — ' Bacchus loves the open hills.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 2.

Aiid he fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted
it with the choicest vine, and built a tower in the midst of it, and
also made a winepress therein : and he looked that it should bring
forth grapes, and it brought forth wild grapes.

THE CHOICEST VINE] Hebrew, sorag, 'a noble vine'; Lxx., ampelon soreek
[Codex A has soreek}, 'a vine sorek.' Aquila and Theodotion have soreek; but
Symmachus has eklekteen, which appears in the V. electam 'choice,' — vitem^ 'vine,'
being understood. In a note on this passage St Jerome, while observing that the
only Greek translator who had rendered soreek by ' choice ' was Symmachus, says
that it seemed to him he was expressing the sense though breaking the letter of
the original word, "for the Jews say that sorek is a species of the best vine, which
yields the juciest and most constant fruit. Whence sorek by some is interpreted
kallikarpos, which we may translate vcAa pulcherrimos fructus '(' the most beautiful
fruits ')." [See Note on Gen. xlix. u.]

A WINEPRESS] Hebrew, yeqeb, 'a wine-press ' ; Lxx., proleenion ; V., torcular.

A TOWER] Hebrew, tnigdol 'a watch-tower.' These towers are common in all
Eastern countries in the midst of vineyards and orchards.

GRAPES] Hebrew, anabim, 'grape-bunches'; Lxx., staphuleen, V. uvas,
'grapes.'

WILD GRAPES] Hebrew, beushim, 'bad' or 'vile.' Beushim is from bah-ash,
'to have a bad smell.' If btushim refer to a bad species of grapes, we have here
an example of our idiom when we contrast the 'real* substance with 'rubbish,'
though both may be the same in nature, and differ only in their quality. " He
looked that it should bring forth grapes — grapes deserving to be called so ; and it
brought forth grapes indeed, but of a smell so sickly as to make them unworthy
of the name." Anabimt grapes, may, however, be contrasted with some spurious
berries resembling grapes, if at all, in nothing but their outward and clustered
form. The Lxx. and Theodotion read akanthos, 'thorns 'or 'brambles.' The
V. has labruscas, ' wild grapes ' = produce of the wild vine. The same terms
are used in ver. 4.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 3.

And now, O inhabitants of Jerusalem, and men of Judah, judge, I
pray you betwixt me and my vineyard.

MY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karniiy 'my vineyard.' So verses 4 and 5, %l-karmit
'to my vineyard.'

ISAIAH, V. 10, II. 159

The declaration following the text — "What more can I do than I have done?
saith the Lord" — ought to suggest to modern theorists that educational and
religious remedies — mere 'moral suasion,' as it is called — are inadequate to the
cure of intemperance, so long as the drink itself is provided and consumed. This
passage clearly teaches that the remedy must be special.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 10.

Yea, ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath, and the seed of an
homer shall yield an ephah.

TEN ACRES OF VINEYARD] Hebrew, azereth tzimdai kerem, ' ten yokes of a
vineyard.' A yoke (teemed) denotes as much land as a yoke of oxen can plough in
one day.

ONE BATH] Hebrew, bath ekhath, 'bath— one,' = 7^ English gallons. The
Lxx., Codices A and B, keramion Aen, 'one earthenware jar'; other MSS. have
baton, 'bath'; V., lagunculam unam, 'one small flagon.' What a proof of a
failure in the vintage, when the grapes upon ten acres of vines should not yield
eight gallons of yayin !

CHAPTER V. VERSE n.

Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning, that they may
follow strong drink; that continue until night, till wine inflame them !

WOE UNTO THEM THAT RISE UP EARLY IN THE MORNING] Literally, ' WOC '
or 'lamentation (shall be to) those rising early in the morning,' or 'by day-
light.'

THAT THEY MAY FOLLOW STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, shakar yirdophu, 'strong
drink they follow after earnestly, ' = pursue. Yirdophu is the future of radaph,
but the action is plainly described as concurrent in time with the early rising, a
sense which supports the theory that the so-called future form of the Hebrew verb
is really expressive of an indefinite present. The Lxx., kai to sikera diokontes, ' and
are pursuing si c era ' / V., ad ebrietatem sectandam, ' to pursue inebriation.' The
T. has ' old wine ' (khamar attiq) ; Aquila and Symmachus have methusma.

THAT CONTINUE UNTIL NIGHT, TILL WINE INFLAME THEM] (Woe shall be to)
'those tarrying into night.' Hebrew, yayin yadliqam, 'wine inflames them.'
Dahlaq signifies ' to burn,' or ' to inflame.1 Lxx., ho gar oinos autous sunkausei,
'for wine will consume them' ; V., ut vino czstuetis, 'that ye may be heated with
wine.' The T. has 'wine of rapine inflames them.' " 'Till wine inflame them,'
— their bodies with heat and their souls with lust." — (Dr Gill.) Compare with
this the lines of ' the Cyrensean ' (Callimachus) quoted by Athenacus : —

ho oinos
To fvri kison tcfui menos eufan es andras elthet :

"A force like fire wine uses when
It enters into strongest men."

And Bacchylides (Ath. ii. 10) : —

Tkalpct si Outmon Kupridos :
" It warms the heart with love's desire."

It is noticeable that many of the eulogies passed upon wine by the ancient poets
assume, in the light of divine truth, the form of warnings and reproaches.

I6O ISAIAH, V. 12, 22.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 12.

And the harp, and the viol, the tabret, and pipe, and wine, are in
their feasts : but they regard not the work of the LORD, neither con-
sider the operation of his hands.

AND WINE ARE IN THEIR FEASTS] Hebrew, va-yayin mishtaikem, ' and wine
(is) in their drinkings ' = feastings. The Lxx., ton oinon pinousi, 'they drink
wine'j Syriac, 'they drink wine'; the Arabic, 'they draw in wine'; the V., et
•vinum in conviviis vesfris, 'and the wine (is) in your feasts.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 22.

Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength
to mingle strong drink !

WOE UNTO THEM THAT ARE MIGHTY TO DRINK WINE] Hebrew, hoi gibborim
lishtoth yayin, 'lamentation (shall be) to those mighty to drink wine'; Lxx.,
ouai oi ischuontes human oi peinontes ton oinon, ' woe (is to) the mighty ones of
you, those drinking the wine ' ; V., va quipotentes estis ad bibendum vinum, 'woe
to you who are mighty to drink wine.'

AND MEN OF STRENGTH TO MINGLE STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, u ' anshai-khail
limsok shakar, 'and men of strength (= men who are strong) to mingle strong
drink'; Lxx., kai oi dunastai oi kerannuntes to sikera, 'and the mighty, those
mingling the sicera ' / some MSS. have methusma ; V., et viri fortes ad miscendam
ebrietatem, 'and men strong to mix inebriation'; the T., 'and men of wealth to
drench themselves with old (wine).' The Zabian 'Book of Adam,' translated by
Prof. Norberg in 1815, contains a striking parallelism to, perhaps imitation of,
verses 20 — 24. The last verse reads, "Woe to them who early drink new wine,
and in the evening drink that which is old, and are captivated with the song, the
lyre, and the pipe! "

Obs. I. Isaiah, who flourished about 750 years before the birth of Christ, and
commenced to prophesy in the reign of Uzziah, bears in the above (as in subse-
quent passages) a powerful testimony concerning the licentiousness and degeneracy
of his age. Contrary to modern and superficial notions, which confine intem-
perance to northern climes and exclude it from vine-growing countries, the people
of Israel, following the example of their chief men, were addicted to the grossest
indulgence in intoxicating liquors. The juice of the grape (yayin} and the juice of
other fruits (shakar) were drunk in their fermented state ; and probably both, cer-
tainly the latter, were mixed with pungent and heady drugs in order to gratify a
base and insatiable appetite. Men rose up early and sat up late to prosecute these
vicious indulgences, and they boasted of themselves as ' mighty ' and ' valiant ' in
proportion as they were able to gulp down large quantities of these compounds,
and to ' carry their drink well.'

2. The attendant, and in no small measure the consequential, evils were of the
most aggravated kind. The divine works were disregarded (ver. 12), ignorance
reigned (ver. 13), sin abounded (ver. 18), men's moral conceptions were the oppo-
site of the truth (ver. 20), self-conceit grew luxuriantly (ver. 21), bribery and
injustice were rampant (ver. 23). The vengeance of God was awakening against ,

ISAIAH, XVI. 8 — 10. l6l

them, and would take the triple form of famine, pestilence, and invasion, so that
their supplies of drink would be cut off (ver. 6, 7, 10), the pest-stricken would
lie in the streets (ver. 25), and hostile nations would ravage the land (ver.
26—30).

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 23.

And it shall come to pass in that day, that every place shall be,
where there were a thousand vines at a thousand silverlings, it shall
even be for briers and thorns.

A THOUSAND VINES AT A THOUSAND SILVERLINGS] Hebrew, eleph gepken
Veleph keseph, 'a thousand (specimens) of the vine for a thousand (shekels) of
silver.' The shekel was worth about 2s. 6d. English, and taking this as the cur-
rent price of a single vine in the time of Isaiah, we gain a glimpse of the plentiful-
ness and consequent cheapness of vineyard produce. It is so yet in the East.
For a few pence a person may feast for a day upon the most delicious grapes, and
other fruits in their season.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 8.

For the fields of Heshbon languish, and the vine of Sibmah : the
lords of the heathen have broken down the principal plants thereof,
they are come even unto Jazer, they wandered through the wilder-
ness : her branches are stretched out, they are gone over* the sea.

THE VINE OF SIBMAH] Hebrew, gephen Sivmah. Gephen, 'vine,' is used
collectively for gephanim, 'vines.' Sivmah was a town of the Reubenites, deriv-
ing its name from sivam, 'coolness,' or 'sweet smell.' It was celebrated for its
vines. Lxx., ampelos Sebama, 'the vine of Sebama' ; V., vineam Sebama.

THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS THEREOF] Hebrew, seriiqqeiha, 'her tendrils,' or
'noble vines.' Seriiqqhim is closely related to soraq, as to which see Note on
chap. v. I, and Gen. xlix. II. Lxx., fas ampelous, 'the vines'; N.yfiagella fjust
'its branches.'

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 9.

Therefore I will bewail with the weeping of Jazer the vine of
Sibmah : I will water thee with my tears, O Heshbon, and Elealeh :
for the shouting for thy summer fruits and for thy harvest is fallen.

I WILL WATER THEE WITH MY TEARS] Hebrew, arayyahvek dima/tti, 'I will
saturate thee with my tears.' The verb is rahvah. Lxx., 'thy trees he has cut
down ' ; V., inebriabo te lacryma mea 'with my tear I will inebriate ( = saturate)
thee.'

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 10.

And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field;
and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there

1 62 ISAIAH, XVII. 6, 10.

be shouting : the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses
I have made their vintage shouting to cease.

OUT OF THE PLENTIFUL FIELD] Hebrew, min hak-karmel, 'from the choice
field' = garden. [As to karmel, see Note on 2 Kings, xix. 23.] The Lxx., ek ton
ampelonou, 'from the vineyards ' ; V., de Carmelo, 'from Carmel.'

AND IN THE VINEYARDS] Hebrew, uvak-keramim ; Lxx., en tois ampelosi ;
V., en vineis.

THE TREADERS SHALL TREAD OUT NO WINE IN THEIR PRESSES] Hebrew,
yayin ba-yeqahvim lo-yidrok had-dorak, ' the treader (doraK) shall not tread wine
in the presses ' ; Lxx., kai ou mee pateesousin oinon eis ta hupoleenia, 'and they
shall by no means tread wine into the wine-vats ' ; V., vinum in torculari non
calcabit qui calcare consueverat, ' he who was accustomed to tread shall not tread
wine in the wine-press.' Yayin is here applied either to the grapes yielding yayin,
or to the expressed juice as it flows from under the treader's feet. The treading is
also said to take place in the yeqeb, showing that the yeqeb included the place of
treading as well as the reservoir into which the liquor ran.

I HAVE MADE THEIR VINTAGE SHOUTING TO CEASE] Hebrew, hdidahd hish-
bati, 'exultation I make to cease.' The words 'their vintage' are supplied by
the English translators, but the reference is undoubtedly to the sounds of joy with
which the vintage was gathered. Lxx., pepautai gar, ' for it has ceased ' ; the V.,
vocem calcantium abstuli, ' I have taken away the voice of the treaders.'

CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 6.

Yet gleaning grapes shall be left in it, as the shaking of an olive
tree, two or three berries in the top of the uppermost bough, four or
five in the outmost fruitful branches thereof, saith the LORD God of
Israel.

GLEANING GRAPES] Hebrew, ollalotk, 'gleanings.' Lxx. kalamce, and V.
racemus, point to a reading different from that of the received Hebrew text.

Two OR THREE BERRIES] Hebrew, shenaim sheloshah gargerim, 'two, three
berries.' Gargar denoted a single grape or berry ; anab, a small bunch of grapes ;
tshkol, a longer stalk containing a collection of bunches, = a cluster.

CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 10.

Because thou hast forgotten the God of thy salvation, and hast not
been mindful of the rock of thy strength, therefore shalt thou plant
pleasant plants, and shalt set it with strange slips.

AND SHALT SET IT WITH STRANGE SLIPS] Hebrew, u-z^morath zar tezrahennu,
'with strange vine-shoots thou shalt set it.' Zemorah, from zah-mar, ' to prune,'
signifies that which is pruned, = a vine-branch, a shoot. It also occurs Numb,
xiii. 23; and Ezek. xv. 2. Lxx., 'wherefore thou shalt plant an unfruitful

ISAIAH, XIX. 10, 14. 163

plantation and an unfruitful seed'; V., 'wherefore thou shalt plant a fruitful
plantation and shalt sow a strange seed ' ; the Syriac, ' wherefore thou shalt plant
a goodly plant and set it with foreign shoots.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 5.

For afore the harvest, when the bud is perfect, and the sour grape
is ripening in the flower, he shall both cut off the sprigs with pruning
hooks, and take away and cut down the branches.

THE HARVEST] Hebrew, qahtzir, 'harvest,' or 'vintage,' from qah-tzar, 'to
cut off.' In this verse the reference is clearly to the vintage season, when the
grapes were usually separated from the vines by some sharp instrument. Lxx.,
pro tou therismou, 'before the harvest'; V., ante mcssem eum, 'before such
harvest.'

AND THE SOUR GRAPE] Hebrew, u-voscr, 'the unripe grape.' Boscr\s a col-
lective noun, denoting grapes fully formed, but still unripe and sour. The word
occurs also in Jer. xxxi. 29, 30; and Ezek. xviii. 2. Lxx., kai omphax ; V., im-
matura (tcva understood).

WITH PRUNING HOOKS] Hebrew, bam-mazmaroth, 'with pruning hooks.'
Mazmara, ' a pruning hook,' is derived from zaAmar, 'to prune.' It also occurs
Isa. ii. 4; and Joel iii. 10.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 10.

And they shall be broken in the purposes thereof, all that make
sluices and ponds for fish.

ALL THAT MAKE SLUICES] Hebrew, kahl osai seker, 'all those making wages '
» hired servants. (So Gesenius.) The whole passage is difficult, and the versions
are exceedingly diversified. The most curious fact is that the Lxx. takes seker (as
pointed by the Masorites) to be shakar, ' sweet (or strong) drink,' and renders it by
znthos (barley-wine or beer). As the whole paragraph refers to Egypt the Lxx.
gives shakar this meaning here, and in no other place, because a sort of beer was
anciently drunk in that country. The clause is thus rendered, — kai pantes oi poi-
oiintes ton zuthon lupeetheesontai kai fas psuchas ponesousin, ' and all that make beer
shall be grieved and be pained in their souls.'

The Syriac has 'and all who make sicera for man's drink.' More allied to the
A. V. is the V., omnes qui faciebant lacunas ad capiendos pisces, ' all who were mak-
ing pits (or ponds) for catching fish.' The Targum of Jonathan reads, ' and a place
where they were making ponds and gathering the waters, everyone to his own mind.'
Henderson, after Gesenius, translates the whole verse thus : — ' Her pillars (/. e.
chief men) are broken down, and all the hired laborers are grieved in mind.'

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 14.

The LORD hath mingled a perverse spirit in the midst thereof:
and they have caused Egy )t to err in every work thereof, as a
drunken man staggereth in his vomit.

1 64 ISAIAH XXII. 13, 24.

HATH MINGLED] Hebrew, mahsak 'has mingled.' God is here represented as
mixing a powerfully intoxicating potion for the Egyptian princes. Lxx. ekerasen,
V., misaiit, 'has mixed.'

AND THEY HAVE CAUSED EGYPT TO ERR] Hebrew, ve-hithu eth Mitzraim,
'and they have caused Egypt to wander' or 'go astray'; the Lxx., eplaneesan ;
V., errare fecerunt. [Consult chap, xxviii. 7; Job xii. 25; and Jer. 1. 6.]

As A DRUNKEN MAN STAGGERETH IN His VOMIT] Hebrew, ke-hitahoth shikkor
leqio, 'as the wandering of a drunkard with his vomit'; Lxx., hos planatai ho
methuon kai ho emon hama, ' as wanders he who is drunk and he who vomits to-
gether ' ; V., sicut errat ebrius et v omens, ' as one strays who is drunk and
vomiting.'

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 5.

Prepare the table, watch in the watchtower, eat, drink; arise, ye
princes, and anoint the shield.

This and the preceding are part of the ' burden ' of Babylon, in which the cap-
ture of that great city is foreseen and predicted. The intemperate feasting which
preceded that event and rendered it possible is well known, and will be more par-
ticularly noticed hereafter. [See Note on Dan. v. 30.]

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 14.

The inhabitants of the land of Tema brought water to him that
was thirsty, they prevented with their bread him that fled.

To the thirsty water was supplied; the one that fled was 'prevented,' i. e.
anticipated, with bread. Bread and water are here again conjoined as the essen-
tials of human sustenance.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 13.

And behold joy and gladness, slaying oxen, and killing sheep, eat-
ing flesh, and drinking wirfe : let us eat and drink ; for to-morrow we
shall die.

AND DRINKING WINE] Hebrew, vt-shathoth yayin, ' and drinking wine ' ; Lxx.
kai piein oinon, V. et bibere vimtrn, ' and to drink wine.'

The concluding clause, 'Let us eat and drink,' etc., expresses a sentiment of
riotous animalism which had at that early period passed into a proverb, and along
with the sentiment the proverb descended to later ages. [See Note on I Cor.
xv. 32.]

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 24.

And they shall hang upon him all the glory of his father's house,
the offspring and the issue, all vessels of small quantity, from the
vessels of cups, even to all the vessels of flagons.

ISAIAH, XXIV. 7, 9. 165

VESSELS OF curs, . . . VESSELS OF FLAGONS] Hebrew, kUai hah-
aggahnoth . . . ktlai han-n&balim, * vessels of bowls (or basins), . . .
vessels of pitchers.' The V. has 'from vessels of bowls (craterarum} to every
vessel of musical instruments (musicontm^).' The margin of the A. V. has 'or
instruments of viols.1 [The Hebrew nabel (or nlbW) denoted articles as widely
separated in structure and use as the skin-bottle, the pitcher, and the ten-stringed
harp or lyre (Psa. xxxiii. 2).] TheT. applies all these expressions to the employ-
ment of very young children in the offices of the temple.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 7.

The new wine mourneth, the vine languisheth, all the merry-
hearted do sigh.

THE NEW WINE MOURNETH] Hebrew, ahi-al tirosh, 'hung down ( = mourned)
has the vine-fruit.' The primary senses of ah-val are 'to be languid,' 'to walk
with the head cast down,' which easily acquire the secondary sense of 'to mourn.'
Gesenius thus cites the passage, — 'the new wine mourneth,' /'. e. 'the clusters
mourn.' Lxx., pentheesei oinon, 'the wine will mourn'; Aquila, epentheesen ho
parorismos, ' the fruit out of season has mourned ' ; V., luxit vindemia, ' the vint-
age has mourned.' The Syriac reads, 'the corn will be turned into grief; the
Arabic, ' the vine will grieve. '

THE VINE LANGUISHETH] Hebrew, umlellah gahphen, 'languished has the
vine'; Lxx., pentheesei ampelos, 'the vine will mourn'; V., infirmata est vitis,
'the vine has languished away ' ; the T., 'because the vines are worn away.'

The prophet introduces us into the vineyard, and speaking of future events as
having actually transpired — a form frequently adopted in Scripture to give em-
phasis to prophesy — he points to the tirosh, now approaching maturity, and cries
out, "The fruit upon the vine has hung down its head, as if mourning for its fate;
the vine has languished, as if for very sadness ; all the merry-hearted who have
been wont to pluck the vintage with delight have sighed over the scene of desola-
tion before them." The prediction is one of drought. This description fixes the
meaning of tirosh as definitely as the context could do it.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 9.

They shall not drink wine with a song ; strong drink shall be bitter
to them that drink it.

THEY SHALL NOT DRINK WINE WITH A SONG] Hebrew, bash-shir lo yishtu
yayin, ' with a song they shall not drink wine; ' Lxx., eeschuntheesan, ouk epion
oinon, ' they have been ashamed, they have not drunk wine ' ; V., cum cantico non
bibent vinum, 'with a song they shall not drink wine.' The tirosh having been
shrivelled up for lack of water, the supply of grape-wine would be cut off.

STRONG DRINK SHALL be BITTER TO THEM THAT DRINK IT] Hebrew, yamar
shakar it-shotha/w, ' bitter shall be the sweet-drink to those who drink it ' ; Lxx.,
pikron egcneto to sikera tois pinousin, 'bitter has become sicera to those who drink
(it) ' ; V., amara erit potio bibentibus illam, ' bitter will be drink to those imbibing
it.' For shakar the T. has attiqah, ' the old ' (wine).

166 ISAIAH, XXIV. II, 13, 20.

It admits of question whether the prophet is .predicting that the sweet-drink
should be bitter to the taste, or bitter figuratively on account of the .smallness of
the supply. The severe drought which would cause the grapes to yield no yayin
would operate so as to make the juices of other fruits lose their sweetness, and to
be greatly lessened in amount. It is obvious from the contrast of 'sweet' and
4 bitter ' — a contrast wholly obscured in the A. V. translation of shakar as ' strong-
drink ' — that shakar was valued on account of its sweetness, a quality which disap-
pears in proportion as the sugar of the juice is decomposed and converted into
alcohol and carbonic acid gas. [See Note on Gen. i. 29.] Sweet shakar, like
some sweet wines, might be intoxicating, yet who has not read of the sweet and
innocent wine of Lesbos, which could be drunk almost in any quantity without
harm ? And the price put upon shakar for its sweetness, shows that it was not
mere alcoholic strength which caused its consumption by ancient topers, as ia the
case of the preference shown for ports and sherries by modern wine-drinkers.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE n.

There is a crying for wine in the streets; all joy is darkened, the
mirth of the land is gone.

THERE is A CRYING FOR WINE IN THE STREETS] Hebrew, tz&vahkhah al hay-
yayin bakhutzoth, 'an outcry (is) for wine in the outside places ' ; Lxx., olohizete
peri tou oinou pantachee, 'howl ye for wine everywhere'; V., clamor erit super
vino in plateis, 'a cry shall be on account of wine in the town-streets.'

Yayin may here be representative of the whole produce of the vineyard, the
fruit of which entered so largely into the diet of the people. But if the outcry was
for intoxicating drink, what a picture of sensuality and demoralization is pre-
sented !

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 13.

When thus it shall be in the midst of the land among the people,
there shall be as the shaking of an olive tree, and as the gleaning
grapes when the vintage is done.

AS THE GLEANING GRAPES WHEN THE VINTAGE IS DONE] Hebrew,
itn kahlah vatzir, 'as the gleaning when the cutting is completed.' This 'cutting*
(vatzir) is equivalent to 'gathering,' which was usually effected, as before ex-
plained, by the use of a sharp instrument — a pruning-hook. Symmachus has
has epiphullides ean stmtelesthee trugeetos, ' as the small grapes after the harvest is
concluded'; the V., et racemi cum fuerit fimta vindemia, 'and the grape-stalks
when the vintage shall have been ended.' St Jerome must have read -v^-eshkeloth
instead of kt-olaloth.

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 20.

The earth shall reel to and fro like a drunkard, and shall be
removed like a cottage; and the transgression thereof shall be heavy
upon it ; and it shall fall, and not rise again.

ISAIAH, XXV. 6. 167

THE EARTH SHALL REEL TO AND FRO LIKE A DRUNKARD] Hebrew, noij,

tahnua eretz kish-shikkor, 'reeling shall the earth reel like a drunkard.' Nuah
signifies 'to vacillate,' 'to swing to and fro.' Lxx., fk linen hvs ho mcthuvn
kai kraipalun, ' it swerves as he who is drunk and sick from a debauch ' ; Theodo-
tion, said saleutheesetai he gee hos methuun, 'with a shaking the earth shall be
shaken as one drunk ' ; V., agitatione agitabitur terra sicut ebrius, ' with a shaking
the earth is shaken as a drunken man.'

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 6.

And in this mountain shall the LORD of hosts make unto all people
a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees, of fat things full of
marrow, of wines on the lees well refined.

A FEAST OF FAT THINGS] Hebrew, mishta shemahnim, ' a feast of fatnesses '
= fat things. We are not to understand fat meat as distinguished from lean, but
well-fed, prime flesh, with the best quality of food, including the oily ingredients,
which were highly prized.

A FEAST OF WINE ON THE LEES] Hebrew, mishta shemahrim, 'a feast of
preserves.' From shah-mar, 'to keep,' 'to guard,' 'to take care of,' comes
shemerim, 'things specially cared for,' or, as we say, PRESERVES = dainties, con-
fections. That it means something preserved is not disputed, for Gesenius, who
approves the rendering of the A. V. in his definition of shemahrim, explains how
'wine,' which is not named in the Hebrew, is supposed to be referred to: —
" Shcmarim, dregs (of wine), so called because when wine is kept on the lees its
strength and color are preserved. " But there is no need to conceive an allusion
either to wines or their refuse. The feast is said to be as much one of shemahrim
(confections) as of shemahnim (fat things). If any allusion to wine had been intended
and if shemahrim had been used in the sense of dregs or refuse, what would have
hindered the use of the words mishta yayin al shemaraiv — 'a feast of wine upon his
dregs'? Is it credible that the prophet wrote so obscurely for the sake of the allite-
ration involved in mishta shemahnim and mishta shemahrim? It is true that the
phrase shemareiha, ' the dregs thereof,' occurs in Psa. Ixxv. 8, but the reference is
to the insoluble parts of the mixture in the cup of the Divine wrath — the drugs
mingled with the wine, and not to the dregs of the wine before drawn off from the
vat. In Isa. li. 17, 22, where 'dregs' appears in the A. V., a different Hebrew
word is employed.

OF FAT THINGS FULL or MARROW] Hebrew, shcmahnim mcmukhaim, 'of fat-
ness marrowed out '== taken from the marrow-bone, provision exceedingly rich
and abundant.

OF WINES ON THE Li:i:s WELL REFINED] Hebrew, shemahrim meznqqaqim, 'of
preserves well clarified.'

The Lxx. indicates a different reading of the Hebrew text: — 'In this mountain
they shall drink joyfulness (enphrosuneen') ; they shall drink wine (piontai oin^n) ;
they shall anoint themselves with ointment in this mountain ; Aquila, poton
lipasmaton diulismenon, ' a feast of fatnesses, (a feast) well clarified ' ; Symmachus,
poton trugion diulismcnon, 'a feast of lees, of things well clarified.' The Syriac
has 'a fat feast, a feast, I say, preserved and fat'; V., 'in this mountain a feast
of fat things (conz-iriumpingnittm}, a feast of vintage-produce (con-'iriiim vindemia\

168 ISAIAH, XXVII. 2, 3.

a feast of marrowy things (convivium medullatonuri) ; of vintage-produce well-
cleansed (yindemitz de/tzcatcz).' Dr Gill quotes a rendering by Fortunatus
Seacchus : — "The Lord of hosts will make to all people a feast of ointments, a feast
of those (animals) that are kept; of ointments full of marrow; of those that are
kept, pure " ; *'. <?. beasts well-kept and clean, according to the law of Moses.*

Two festal luxuries supply the images presented in this verse : fat things, — rich,
marrowy meats ; and confections, such as jellies and syrups : the former served up
in their most savory form, the other in their purest state. These delicacies are, as
they ever have been, the chief components of a sumptuous Eastern feast, and to-
gether they strikingly represent the spiritual provision, full of strength and sweet-
ness, made for the wants of our fallen race. God's spiritual gifts are not less plentiful
and pleasant than His material bounties. Compare Psa. Ixiii. 5, ' My soul shall
be satisfied as with marrow and fatness ' / and Psa. cxix. 103, * How sweet are
thy words unto my taste ! yea, sweeter than honey to my mouth ! '

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSES 2, 3.

a In that day sing ye unto her, A vineyard of red wine. 3 I the
LORD do keep it ; I will water it every moment : lest any hurt it, I
will keep it night and day.

V. 2. A VINEYARD OF RED WINE] Hebrew, kerem khemer, 'a vineyard of
foaming juice.' [See Prel. Dis. on KHEMER, and Note on Deut. xxxii. 14.] Many

* The A. V. rendering was retained by the Rev. ^Benjamin Parsons, author of 'Anti-Bacchus'
and ' The Wine Question Settled,' who remarks in the latter work (pp. 47-8)—" This passage
receives a striking illustration from Pliny. Speaking of the tipplers of his time he says, ' That we
may take the more wine, we break its strength by the filter.' His words are, Ut plus capiamus vini
sacco frangimus vires. And again, Utilissimum vinum omnibus sacco viribus fractis ; ' the
most useful wine is that which has had all its strength broken by the filter.' In the notes on
the Delphin edition of Horace, Car. lib. xi. 6, it is said, Veteres nempe mustum priusquam
ferbuisset per saccum toties colabunt ut de/iZcaretur, atque sic adempta quce vini vim aliit,
augetque, f&ce, liquidius, imbecillius, lenius, ac dulcius reddebant vinum, potuique jwcundius :
' The ancients filtered their wines repeatedly before they could have fermented, and thus the faeces
which nourish the strength of the wine being taken away, they rendered the wine itself more
liquid, weaker, lighter, sweeter, and more pleasant to drink.' The f(Kces which were here taken
away were no doubt the gluten which, though not known at that time by its scientific name, was
the active principle of fermentation ; and Dr Ure, in his late 'Dictionary of the Arts,' on the word
' Fermentation,' tells us that if the 'gluten or yeast' is removed by filtering, or by any other
means caused to subside, fermentation will not take place. See, then, how exactly the words of the
prophet and of these naturalists agree. Isaiah speaks of 'preserved wines well refined,' or 'well
filtered.' Pliny tells us that wines were thus filtered to destroy their strength or spirit, and that
the wines which had all their strength — not, mind ye, a part, but omnibus viribus, all their
strength — broken by the filter, were the best wines. The Delphin commentator adds that this
filtering took place before they could have fermented ; and Dr Ure informs us that when this is
done grape-juice will not ferment. Hence, then, we learn that the skemarim, ' the wines on the
lees,' or ' preserved wines well refined,' mentioned by Isaiah, were unfermented wines, were wines
without any strength or spirit, and on that account were most esteemed in ancient days, and called
the best and most useful wines. This harmless nutritious drink, therefore, is the beverage to which
God compares the blessings of the gospel feast."

The Rev. W. Ritchie, in his able essay entitled ' Scripture Testimony against Intoxicating Wine,'
observes: — "On the whole we agree with those who regard this word (sJiemahrini) as meaning wine
on the lees, old and pure wine. The lees are the refuse of the wine which lies at the bottom of the
vessel, and preserves the wine in its freshness and flavor. [But there is no proof that the unfer-
mented albumen ' preserves the wine,' or does any thing (until itself fermented) to the saccharine
juice. — EDS.] The term thus becomes a brief name for the richest and best wines. But such
wine needed to be strained ere it could be used, and hence the words added by the prophet, ' well
refined.' Here, however, the whole tone of thought and expression forbids the idea of supposing the
inspired penman to speak, in this promise, of intoxicating wine. We are led, on the contrary, to
think of the rich, refreshing, unfermented juice of the grape — the pure wine which makes glad
man's heart. This alone is a fit emblem of the heavenly blessings of salvation which are here prom-
ised by God to our ruined world."

Cranmer's Version (ed. 1585) reads: — "A feast of plenteous and delicate things, even of most
pleasant and daintie dishes"

ISAIAH, XXVIII. I, 3. 169

Hebrew MSS., however, have kettm khemtd, 'a vineyard of delight '= a delight-
ful (or desirable) vineyard ; analogous to the shedai khemed of chap, xxxii. 12 —
'the pleasant fields' of the A. V., and the marginal reading 'fields of desire.'
The prophet Amos has this very expression (v. 1 1) — karmai khemed, ' vineyards of
delight ' = pleasant vineyards. The distinction between the Hebrew letters ~| (d)
and ^ (r) is so slight that a change of one for the other might easily be effected by
a transcriber's error of sight or hand. Khemed is followed by the Lxx., ampelon
kalos, 'a beautiful vineyard'; also by the Arabic; and is supported by the
Targum of Jonathan, 'a vineyard planted in good ground.' But the V., adopting
Jthemer, has vinea meri, ' a vineyard of pure (wine) ' ; and the Syriac reads, ' of a
vineyard of wine.' In this conflict of MSS. and versions no decision can be
absolute. On the whole, probability favors khemeD ; but if khemed is preferred,
the prophet prospect! vely describes the juice of the grape — then sweetening and
ripening — as if already foaming under the treaders* feet, and yielding, when drunk
in that state, before fermentation had set in, a nutritious and luscious beverage.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSES i, 3.

i Woe to the crown of pride, to the drunkards of Ephraim, whose
glorious beauty is a fading flower, which are on the head of the fat
valleys of them that are overcome with wine ! . . . 3 The crown
of pride, the drunkards of Ephraim, shall be trodden under feet.

V. I, 3. WOE TO THE CROWN OF PRIDE] Hebrew, hoi a fa Zth gfaith 'lamenta-
tion (is to) the crown of pride (or splendor).' The atereth is here the wreath of
the reveller. Many commentators think that this image of the ' crown ' was sug-
gested by the situation of Samaria, the capital city of the kingdom of the same name,
encircled by a rich valley and chain of hills.

V. I. THE DRUNKARDS OF EPHRAIM] Hebrew, shikkorai Ephraim, * the deep-
drinkers of Ephraim.' The Lxx., taking the sh as s, sikkorai, reads, oi misthotoi^
'the hirelings.' The Arabic follows in the wake; but Aquila, Symmachus, and
Theodotion agree in giving methuontes, 'drunkards.' The Syriac has 'Ephraim
the drunken ' ; the V., ebriis Ephraim, 'to the drunkards of Ephraim.'

THEM THAT ARE OVERCOME WITH WINE] Hebrew, halumai yayin, 'smit-
ten of wine ' = whom wine has smitten. [Compare Prov. xxiii. 35 — hama-
lumi, 'they have smitten me,' — showing that he who is smitten by wine is
exposed to the smitings of every foe. ] The margin of the A. V. has ' beaten with
wine.' The Lxx. has the strange reading, oi methuontes aneu oinoti, 'those who
are drunken without wine,' i. e. with pride. So the Arabic. Aquila has oi katte-
lasmenoi oino, ' those overthrown by wine ' ; Symmachus, oi peplaneemcnoi hupo
oinou, ' those wandering by wine ' ; Theodotion, oi katanenugmenoi oino, ' those
stupefied by wine'; the V., errantes a vino, 'those wandering by wine.' The
Syriac has 'made foolish ' ; and the T., ' broken.'

The tribe of EPHRAIM ( = the kingdom of Israel as distinguished from the

kingdom of Judah), occupying as it did one of the finest situations in the Holy Land,

might well be figuratively described as wearing ' a wreath of pride ' or beauty, ' a

glorious ornament,' placed on ' the head of the fruitful valley ' ; but this ' wreath '

170 ISAIAH, XXVIII. 7, 8.

was merely a ' fading flower,' for it rested on the head of 'drunkards ' — of those
who were 'smitten by wine,' and yet who kneeled down so abjectly to the smiter
that they were about to be ' trodden under foot ' by a people more temperate and
robust than themselves. Neither abundance of food, nor splendor of scenery, nor
religious institutions, were able to preserve the Ephraimites from the effects of the
dissoluteness which they courted by their use of the intoxicating yayin. The Jews
had a tradition that the wine of Prugiatha and the waters (baths} of Diomasit cut
off the ten tribes. Buxtorf interprets this of pleasures and delights — effeminacy of
mind and body. A curious monument of their drunken habits survived in the
' Sychar ' of John's Gospel. [See Note on John v. 7.]

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 7, 8.

7 But they have also erred through wine, and through strong drink
are out of the way ; the priest and the prophet have erred through
strong drink, they are swallowed up of wine, they are out of the way
through strong drink ; they err in vision, they stumble in judgment,
s For all tables are full of vomit and filthiness, so that there is no place
dean.

V. 7. BUT THEY ALSO HAVE ERRED THROUGH WINE] Hebrew, ve-gam a/If A bay"
yayin shahgu, 'and also these by wine have wandered.' Shahgah, ' to wander,'
'to go astray,' is the same word used in Prov. xx. I, and rendered in the A. V. 'is
deceived.' Lxx., Codex B, has outoi gar oino pepteemmeleemenoi eisin, 'for these
by wine have transgressed' [pleemmeleo is literally to commit a fault in singing;
hence to transgress in general]. But Codex A has peplaneemenoi, ' have wan-
dered.' V., verum hi quoque pr<z vino nescierunt, ' truly these likewise by reason
of wine have not known.' The Syriac has ' they have wandered on account of
wine'; the Arabic, ' are lost in wine '; the T., 'have been drenched (inebriated)
by wine. '

AND THROUGH STRONG DRINK ARE OUT OF THE WAY] Hebrew, u-vash-shakar
ta/nt, 'and by strong drink they stray' ; Lxx., eplaneetheesan dia to sikera, ' they
have erred by means of the sicera ' ; Syriac, they have wandered on account of
sicera' ; Arabic, ' have erred by what is inebriating'; the T., 'by old wine have
been stupefied ' ; V., et prcz ebrictate erraverunt, 'and by reason of inebriety they
have erred.'

THE PRIEST AND THE PROPHET HAVE ERRED THROUGH STRONG DRINK] Hebrew,

kohan ve-nahvi shahgu vash-shakar, ' the priest and the prophet have wandered
by strong drink' ; Lxx., hiereus kai propheetees exesteesan dia to sikera, 'priest and
prophet have become deranged [literally, 'put out of place'] by means of the
sicera* Codex A reads, 'priest and prophet have been deranged by means of
wine ; they have been deranged by means of sicera ' / Aquila, eegnoeesan, ' they
have not known ' ; Symmachus, etarachtheesan, ' they have been confounded ' ;
the V., sacerdos et propheta nescienint pro; ebriatate, ' the priest and prophet have
not known by reason of inebriety ' ; the Syriac, ' priests and prophets have wan-
dered on account of sicera '/ the T., ' the priest and the scribe have been drenched
by old wine ' ; the Arabic, ' the priests as well as the prophets have been stupefied
by reason of wine.'
THEY ARE SWALLOWED UP OF WINE] Hebrew, nivlZu min hay-yayin ' they

ISAIAH, XXVIII. 7, 8. I/I

have been swallowed down (devoured) from wine '; Lxx., katepotheesan dia ton
oinon, ' they have been swallowed up by reason of the wine' ; the T., ' they have
been cast down by wine'; the V., absorpti sunt d vino, 'they have been swal-
lowed up by wine ' ; the Syriac, ' they have been overwhelmed by wine ' ; the
Arabic, 'they have staggered by wine.'

THEY ARE OUT OF THE WAY THROUGH STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, tahu min
hash-sha^ar, ' they have strayed from (by means of) strong drink'; Lxx., eseis-
theesan apo tees methees, ' they have been shaken by strong drink ' ; Codex A has
ton sikfra, 'from sicera.' Aquila has apo tou methusmatos, 'from the inebriating
drink ' ; the V., erraverunt in ebrietate, ' they have wandered with inebriety ' ; the
T., 'they have wandered by old wine '; Theodotion, in tee methee eesuteutheesan
hupeionkos, 'by strong drink they have been thoroughly debauched.'

THEY ERR IN VISION, THEY STUMBLE IN JUDGMENT] Hebrew, shahgu barolh,
pahqu bl-lilyiah, ' they have wandered in vision (roeh) ; they have staggered in
judgment '= have failed to be upright in the exercise of their judicial functions.
The V. has nescierunt videntem, ignoraverunt judicium, ' they have not known one
seeing (the seer), they have been ignorant of judgment.' Symmachus has dielusan
krisin, 'they dissolved (= destroyed) judgment'; Lxx., Codex B, 'they have
erred; this is zphasma (apparition or sign) ' ; which Codex A lengthens into 'they
have erred; this is a phantasma (image, fantasy).' The Syriac has 'they have
eaten immoderately'; the T., 'they turned after sweet meat; their judges have
wandered ' ; as if they had joined gluttony to inebriety.

Verses 7 and 8 may be translated, "And these also have wandered through
wine, and by means of strong drink have strayed ; the priest and the prophet have
wandered by means of strong drink ; they have been swallowed down by wine ;
they have strayed by means of strong drink ; they have wandered in vision ; they
have staggered in judgment : for all (their) tables are full of vomit and filth ; not
one place is clean."

1. This statement is believed by most commentators to concern the people of
Judah as distinguished from the people of Israel (the ten tribes alluded to as
Ephraim, ver. I, 2), and the verbs are supposed to be put in the past tense as a
not unusual prophetic future. If so, the period spoken of must have been the dark
and disastrous times which followed the transient glories of Hezekiah's reign.

2. The physical effects of their indulgence in intoxicating liquors are strikingly
made to portray their mental and moral influences. The irregular, wandering
movements of the man who is in liquor — never able to preserve a straight line, and
never going direct to any precise point — is emblematical of his erratic judgments
and moral transgressions. He is ' swallowed down ' by wine, and goes not where
his better nature, but where the vinous 'mocker,' may convey him. The language
of the eighth verse, literal as it is, also admits of another application, for what is
physically disgusting is typical of the filthiness of conceptions and utterance induced
by inebriating drinks. ' No place is clean ' is the verdict which must be passed
upon everything on which alcohol puts its mark.

3. This picture crowns a series of prophetic declarations which conclusively
negative, the statement put forth by some writers and speakers, without any his-
torical ground, that untie countries are sober countries, and that the insidious pro-
gress of the lust for liquor is not to be dreaded in the native 'habitats of the
vine.' Neither a beautiful climate, nor sanitary and social laws, nor special teach-

1 72 ISAIAH, XXIX. 9.

ing, nor religious privileges, nor peculiar circumstances, were safeguards against the
growth of the drunkard's appetite in all ranks.

4. The prominence given to the ' priest ' and ' the prophet ' as the subjects of
this unhallowed influence is specially appalling and instructive. The priest — who
was the people's representative with God, — and the prophet — who was God's repre-
sentative with the people, — men who should have stood out as exemplars of purity
and as reprovers of the guilty, were among the most depraved ! As one conse-
quence of their sin they 'wandered in vision,' not being able to fix their minds
upon the divine law so as to discern it either rationally or spiritually, and (as it has
been suggested) mistaking for divine revelations the fancies, dreams, and visions
of their own distempered brains. So affected, it was unavoidable that they should
'stagger in judgment* — tottering and stumbling in the discharge of those duties
which, above all others, required the utmost clearness, serenity, and collectedness
of mind. By this use of wine and strong drink the priests, who were pledged to
abstinence while engaged in the 'divine service' (Lev. x. 9), were guilty of
sacrilege as well as of the particular sin committed; and the prophets, who are
thought to have been trained as Nazarites, if not expressly bound by the vow, were
gross backsliders from their early temperance. They, like the less privileged
-classes, had * altogether become unclean.'

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSES 9, 10.

9 Whom shall he teach knowledge ? and whom shall he make to
understand doctrine ? them that are weaned from the milk, and drawn
from the breasts. 10 For precept must be upon precept, precept upon
precept; line upon line, line upon line; here a little, and there a
little.

Ver. 9 is generally accepted as the reply of the drunken priests and prophets
of Judah, in which they, with the characteristic self-sufficiency of tipplers,
boast their competency for their work, — ' Whom shall he teach knowledge ? '
Ver. 10 — a continuation of their reply — is also regarded as an ironical imitation of
the disconnected mumbling of the tippler, — Ki-tzav-lahlzahv — tzav-lahtzahv —
qav-lahqahv — qav-lahqahv — zeair-s/iahni — zeair-shahm, lj~or precept to precept —
precept to precept — line to line — line to line — here a little — there a little. ' They thus
complain that they are treated as children requiring elementary instruction ; and Dr
Henderson, in his Commentary, remarks, "The words are often preposterously
quoted in application to the abundant possession of religious privileges ! Both this
verse and ver. 13 convey the idea of paucity, or a mere outline of instruction, and
not that of fulness."

In ver. II the prophet resumes his predictions, and threatens these insensate
drunkards that, since they will not hear their Divine King when He speaks to them
persuasively, they shall be made to hear Him when He speaks through a people
of 'barbarous language,' who will come to chastise them for their sins.

CHAPTER XXIX. VERSE 9.

Stay yourselves, and wonder ; cry ye out, and cry : they are drunken,
but not with wine; they stagger, but not with strong drink.

ISAIAH, XXXIV. 4, 5, 7. 173

THEY ARE DRUNKEN, BUT NOT WITH WINE] Hebrew, shakktru vt-lo yayin
•they have been drunken, and (there was) not wine ' =\vine was not present.

THEY STAGGER, BUT NOT WITH STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, nahn vZ-lo sha,kart
' they have staggered ( = moved to and fro), and (there was) not strong drink.'

The Lxx., eklutheete kai eksteete kraipaleesate ouk apo sikera oude apo oinon,
'be ye overcome, and stupefied, be ye sick (as after a debauch), not by sicera nor
by wine'; V., inebriamini et non a vino, movcmini et non ab ebrietate, 'be ye
inebriated and not with wine, be ye disturbed and not by inebriety.'

The people of Jerusalem should be as besotted as those who had filled themselves
with intoxicating yayin, and as unsteady and helpless in their actions as those who-
had plied themselves with intoxicating shakar.

CHAPTER XXX. VERSE 24.

The oxen likewise and the young asses that ear the ground shall
eat clean provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and
with the fan.

CLEAN PROVENDER] Hebrew, btlil khahmitz, 'mixed food, salted.' The deri-
vation of khahmitz from khahmatz implies such a pungency in the provender as salt
would supply.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 10.

Many days and years shall ye be troubled, ye careless women : for
the vintage shall fail, the gathering shall not come.

THE VINTAGE SHALL FAIL] Hebrew, kahlah va/ifzir, 'the cutting (of grapes)
shall fail.'

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 12.

They shall lament for the teats, for the pleasant fields, for the
fruitful vine.

FOR THE PLEASANT FIELDS] Hebrew, al sMai-khlmtd, ' for the fields of delight "
= the delightful fields. [See Note on chap, xxvii. 2, 3.]

FOR THE FRUITFUL VINE] Hebrew, al glphln poriyah, ' for (on account of) the
prolific vine.'

CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSE 4.

And all the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens
shall be rolled together as a scroll : and all their host shall fall down, as
the leaf falleth off from the vine, and as a falling fig from the fig tree.

FROM THE VINE] Hebrew, mig-gtphen.

CHAPTER XXXIV. VERSES 5, 7.

s For my sword shall be bathed in heaven : behold, it shall come
down upon Idumea, and upon the people of my curse, to judgment.

174 ISAIAH, XLI. 17, 1 8.

. . . 7 And the unicorns shall come down with them, and the bul-
locks with the bulls ; and their land shall be soaked with blood, and
their dust made fat with fatness.

V. 5. FOR MY SWORD SHALL BE BATHED IN HEAVEN] The Hebrew for bathed
is rivthah, 'steeped,' 'drenched'; Lxx., emethusthee ; V., inebriatus est.

V. 7. THEIR LAND SHALL BE SOAKED WITH BLOOD] The margin of A. V. gives
' drunken ' ; but the Hebrew is the same as in ver. 5 above, rivthak, rendered
'bathed'; Lxx., methustheesetai ; V., inebriatur.

CHAPTER XXXVI. VERSES 16, 17.

16 Hearken not to Hezekiah : for thus saith the king of Assyria,
Make an agreement with me by a present, and come out to me : and
eat ye every one of his vine, and every one of his fig tiee, and drink
ye every one the waters of his own cistern ; 17 Until I come and take
you away to a land like your own land, a land of corn and wine, a
land of bread and vineyards.

V. 17. WINE] Hebrew, tirosh, 'vine-fruit.'

BREAD] Hebrew, lekhem, 'bread '=» all food made of corn.

[See Note on 2 Kings xviii. 31, 32, where the same words occur.]

CHAPTER XXXVII. VERSE 30.

And this shall be a sign unto thee, Ye shall eat this year such as
groweth of itself; and the second year that which springeth of the
same : and in the third year sow ye, and reap, and plant vineyards,
and eat the fruit thereof.

AND PLANT VINEYARDS] Hebrew, v%-nitu khnhmim, 'and plant vineyards.'

CHAPTER XLI. VERSES 17, 18.

i7When the poor and needy seek water, and there is none, and
their tongue faileth for thirst, I the LORD will hear them, / the God
of Israel will not forsake them, isl will open rivers in high places,
and fountains in the midst of the valleys : I will make the wilderness
a pool of water, and the dry land springs of water.

No imagery could be more forcibly descriptive of suffering than that of thirst,
when water could not be procured, and when the tongue (z. e. power of speech)
had failed for want of moisture ; and, on the other hand, no imagery could more
fitly set forth the fulness and blessedness of an escape from this trouble than the
promise that streams should flow from high places, fountains burst forth in the
valleys and the wilderness, and an arid soil abound with pools and springs.

ISAIAH, XLIV. 12. 175

CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE 20.

The beast of the field shall honor me, the dragons and the owls :
because I give waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to
give drink to my people, my chosen.

For ancient Israel God provided water out of the flinty rock, which followed
them during their desert journeying; but, under the figure of a still more abundant
supply of the vital fluid, He promises a triumphant deliverance for His people,
conditional, however, upon their repentance and fidelity.

CHAPTER XLIII. VERSE 24.

Thou hast bought me no sweet cane with money, neither hast
thou filled me with the fat of thy sacrifices : but thou hast made me
to serve with thy sins, thou hast wearied me with thine iniquities.

HAST THOU FILLED ME] Hebrew, hirvithahni, 'hast thou filled me to the
full.' The margin of A. V. gives 'made me drunk, or abundantly moistened me.'
The verb is rahvak, so often before noticed. Lxx., cpethumeesa, 'have I desired';
V., inebriasti mf, the use of which in reference to the 'fat of sacrifice* shows that
intbrio, like rahvah and shahkar, had radically a reference to filling-to-the-full,
and not to any intoxicating effect of the article consumed.

CHAPTER XLIV. VERSE 12.

The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth
it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms : yea,
he is hungry, and his strength faileth : he drinketh no water, and is
faint.

The ancient hammersmith, when he drank no water, was faint. It is also
implied that to water he looked for the liquid refreshment of which he stood in
need. In our own country, before the introduction of Temperance societies, some
of the hardest work in foundries was performed without fermented liquors, and
continues to be so executed at this day, even where the workmen are not at other
times abstainers. The mingling of oatmeal with the water is not less useful in the
case of man than of the horse.* It would be worth untold millions to the laboring
classes — to say nothing of many other advantages transcending all pecuniary

•The Times newspaper, in a graphic account (Sept., 1867) of the rolling of a fifteen-inch armor-
plate at the Atlas Works, Sheffield, gave a powerful testimony to the superiority of abstinence : —
*' Sometimes we came on groups of men who were saturating in water the rough bands of sacking
in which they were enveloped before going to wrestle with some white-heat forging: sometimes on
men, nearly naked, with the perspiration pouring from them, who had come to rest for a moment
from the puddling furnaces, and to take a long drink of the thick oatmeal and water, which is all
that they venture on during their labor, and which long experience has proved to be the most
sustaining of all drinks under the tremendous heat to which they were subjected" One of the
workmen writing to the Alliance News in reference to this paragraph (Oct. 12, 1867) observed, —
" Very many of the workmen at the Atlas Works are total abstainers, and- at the Cyclops (where
an armor-plate of fourteen inches in thickness was rolled more than two years ago, and where
plates from four to nine inches in thickness, and of the finest Quality, are occasionally rolled) the
teetotalers are nearly man for man with the drinkers, the cnief roller and furnaceman being
teetotalers, one of fourteen and the other of eight years' standing." Be it observed that during
the actual manipulation of these iron plates, all the workmen find abstinence essential to vigor
and endurance.

ISAIAH, LI. 17.

estimate — were they to cast off their superstitious faith in the power of alcoholic
liquors to assist them in their daily toil. Beer is still the fetich of the ' freeborn
Englishman ' as it was in the days of De Foe, who satirizes the slavish worship in
some well-known lines.

CHAPTER XLIX. VERSE 26.

And I will feed them that oppress thee with their own flesh ; and
they shall be drunken with their own blood, as with sweet wine : and
all flesh shall know that I the LORD am thy Saviour and thy Re-
deemer, the mighty One of Jacob.

AND THEY SHALL BE DRUNKEN WITH THEIR OWN BLOOD, AS WITH SWEET
WINE] The Hebrew, -vl-kS-ahsis dahmam yishkahrun, ' and like fresh grape-juice
their own blood they-shall-drink-to-the-full,' *. e. by a strong figure, they shall
drink as plentifully of their own blood as they have been accustomed to drink of
the fresh-trodden juice of the grape. [As to AHSIS, see Prel. Dis.] The clear
meaning ofshah-kar here is simply that of drinking largely, without any intoxication
implied ; and shah-kar, instead of rahvah, is used because ahsis connects the idea
of sweetness with the draught. The Lxx., kai piontai hos oinon neon to haima
auton, kai methutheesontai, 'and they shall drink — as (if it were) new wine — their
own blood, and shall be filled full ' ; V., et quasi musto sanguine suo inebriabuntur,
* and as with must (fresh grape-j uice), with their own blood they shall be inebriated
(filled to the full).' The T. has 'and as they are satiated with pure wine J(mak-
hamar marith), so the beasts of the field shall be satiated with their blood.'

CHAPTER LI. VERSE 17.

Awake, awake, stand up, O Jerusalem, which hast drunk at the
hand of the LORD the cup of his fury ; thou hast drunken the dregs
of the cup of trembling, and wrung them out.

THE CUP OF ms FURY] Hebrew, eth kos khamahtho, 'the cup of his heat
(fury).' [As to KHAMATH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes on Deut. xxxii. 24; Job
xxi. 20; Psa. Iviii. 5 ; Hos. vii. 5.]

THE DREGS OF THE CUP OF TREMBLING] Hebrew, eth-qiibaath kos hataralah,
' the lowest contents of the cup of reeling. ' Under qubadth, in allusion to this
verse, Gesenius writes, "'The chalice of the cup.' Abulwalid understands the
froth and dregs of the cup (from the idea of covering), but the explanation already
given is the better. What is probably meant by qubadth kos is ' the .whole cup,
even to the bottom.' " Henderson renders qubaath by 'goblet,' and kos hatara-
lah by 'cup of intoxication.' This is the 'cup of trembling,' or 'reeling.'
Symmachus has ton krateera tou sparagmou, 'the cup of convulsion,' or agony.
[See Note on Psa. xlix. 5, where the A. V. renders hataralah by 'astonishment.']

AND WRUNG THEM OUT] Hebrew, matzith, ' thou hast sucked up ( = drained it),'
— from matzah, 'to suck up.'

The Lxx. gives to poteerion tou thumou an tou, to poteerion tees ptoseos, to kondu
tou thumou exepies kai exekenosas, 'the cup of his anger, the cup of falling,

ISAIAH, LV. I, 2.

( = destruction,) the drinking-cup of (his) anger thou hast drunk up and hast
emptied out'; the V., bibisti calicem tree ejns ; usque ad fundum calicis soporis
bibisti, ft potdsti usque ad faces, ' thou has drunk the cup of his wrath; even to
the bottom of the cup of stupor thou hast drunk, and thou hast drunk even to the
dregs.'

CHAPTER LI. VERSE 21.

Therefore hear now this, thou afflicted, and drunken, but not with
wine.

AND DRUNKEN, BUT NOT WITH WINE] Hebrew, rishtkurath v2-lo miy-yayin,
'and (thou) drunken, and not from wine ' ; Lxx. kai methuousa ouk apo oinou ;
V. et cbria non a vino, * and drunken, not from wine. '

CHAPTER LI. VERSE 22.

Thus saith thy Lord the LORD, and thy God that pleadeth the
cause of his people, Behold, I have taken out of thine hand the cup
of trembling, even the dregs of the cup of my fury; thou shalt no
more drink it again.

[As to 'cup of trembling,' etc., see Notes on ver. 17.]

CHAPTER LV. VERSE i.

Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters, and he that
hath no money; come ye, buy, and eat; yea, come, buy wine and
milk without money and without price.

WINE AND MILK] Hebrew, yayin vt-khahlav, 'wine and milk.' The latter
word, pointed as khelt-v, would designate 'fatness,' which some interpreters regard
as the true sense ; in which case yayin would represent all sweet drinks, and
khtlev all nutritious food. Lxx., phagete oinou kai stear, 'eat wine and fat-
ness ' ; V., emite vinum et lac, ' buy wine and milk.' If khahlahv is retained, and
rendered 'milk,' it is not impossible that yayin may be used in the general sense
of grapes, and all that they yield, as affording the solid food, to ' eat ' which the
invitation is extended.

CHAPTER LV. VERSE 2.

Wherefore do ye spend money for that which is not bread? and
your labor for that which satisfieth not ? hearken diligently unto me,
and eat ye that which is good, and let your soul delight itself in
fatness.

The inquiries of this verse are susceptible of an important application to material
as well as spiritual objects. They are specially pertinent to those who waste their
means, often the scanty reward of toilsome labor, upon intoxicating beverages
which 'satisfy not.' Their wisdom, and that of all men, is to renounce such
drinks, purchasing and eating in preference that 'which is good,' and delighting in
the ' fatness ' of which they now deprive themselves by their expenditure upon
inebriating liquors.

178 ISAIAH, LX. 7.

CHAPTER LV. VERSE 10.

For as the rain cometh down, and the snow from heaven, and
returneth not thither, but watereth the earth, and maketh it bring
forth and bud, that it may give seed to the sower, and bread to the
eater.

BUT WATERETH THE EARTH] Hebrew, im hirvah eth hah-ahretz, 'but saturates
the earth.' Hirvah is the Hiphil conjugation of rahvah.

CHAPTER LVI. VERSE 12.

Come ye, say they, I will fetch wine, and we will fill ourselves with
strong drink; and to-morrow shall be as this day, and much more
abundant.

I WILL FETCH WINE] Hebrew, eqkhah yayin, 'I will fetch wine.'
AND WE WILL FILL OURSELVES WITH STRONG DRINK] Hebrew, ve-nisbcah
shakar, 'and we will suck up strong drink.' Nisbeah is from sah-bah, 'to suck,'
'to tope.' [See Prel. Dis., and Notes on Deut. xxi. 20; Prov. xxiii. 20, 21; Isa.
i. 22; Hos. iv. 18; Nah. i. 10.] This verse is absent from the Lxx., but it is
given by Theodotion, who for wine has oinon, and for strong drink, metheen.
The V. has sumamus vinum et impleamur ebrietate, ' let us take wine and be filled
with drunkenness.'

This language is the quintessence of sensuality, though, as with many ancient
tipplers, it was the quantity rather than the spirituous strength of their liquor
which was principally regarded. The concluding clause, which literally reads,
'and as to-day, so to-morrow shall be, great, exceedingly, abundantly,' expresses
the exuberant delight experienced in the prospect of continued indulgence — a per-
petual revelry.

CHAPTER LVIII. VERSE n.

And the LORD shall guide thee continually, and satisfy thy soul
in drought, and make fat thy bones : and thou shalt be like a watered
garden, and like a spring of water, whose waters fail not.

LIKE A WATERED GARDEN] Hebrew, ke-gan raveh, 'like a garden drenched';
Lxx. hos keepos methuon, ' as a saturated garden ' ; V., quasi hortus itigatus, 'as
an irrigated garden.'

CHAPTER LX. VERSE 7.

All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered together unto thee, the
rams of Nebaioth shall minister unto thee : they shall come up with
acceptance on mine altar, and I will glorify the house of my glory.

THE RAMS OF NEBAIOTH] Hebrew, ailai Nevaioth. The Nabathsea, or Na-
bathoeans, who are supposed to have been descended from Nebajoth, the firstborn
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13), inhabited the central part of Arabia. Their wealth was
pastoral, though some branches of the tribe were addicted to commerce. In his

ISAIAH, LXII. 8, 9. 179

description of them Diodorus Siculus (B. c. 60) notices some peculiarities in which
they very closely resemble the Rechabites. The words of the Sicilian geographer
are, ' It is a law (nomos) among them not to sow corn, nor to plant, nor to use
wine (rncctc oino chreesthai\ nor to build a house' (xix. c. 94). See Notes on Jer.

XXXV.

CHAPTER LXI. VERSE 5.

And strangers shall stand and feed your flocks, and the sons of the
alien shall be your plowmen and your vinedressers.

AND YOUR VINEDRESSERS] Hebrew, ve-kormaikem, 'and your vineyards ' =
vinedressers.

CHAPTER LXII. VERSES 8, 9.

s The LORD hath sworn by his right hand, and by the arm of his
strength, Surely I will no more give thy corn to be meat for thine
enemies ; and the sons of the stranger shall not drink thy wine, for
the which thou hast labored : 9 But they that have gathered it shall
eat it, and praise the LORD ; and they that have brought it together
shall drink it in the courts of my holiness.

V. 8. SHALL NOT DRINK THY WINE] Hebrew, ve-im-yishtu tiroshak, 'and shall
not drink thy vine-fruit ' ; Lxx., kai ei eti piontai hyoi allotrioi ton oinon sou, ' and
if longer the foreign children shall drink thy wine ' ; V., et si biberint filii alieni
fin urn tuum, 'and if the foreign children should drink thy wine.'

Though tirosh occurs thirty-eight times in the Old Testament, this is the only
passage where it is connected with the act of drinking. The real character of
tirosh as ' vine-fruit ' is too firmly established by an induction of texts to permit
the affixing of another meaning to it, on the strength of this single verse. If we
were constrained to view the construction, as an exception to the rule, it would
remain an exception, certainly not invalidating, if it did not confirm, the rule.
But there is no reason for regarding the collocation of this passage as at all incon-
sistent with the fact that tirosh denoted a solid and not a liquid substance. That
the prophet speaks of it as if it were a liquid is explicable by supposing that he
speaks figuratively, or elliptically.

1. To put one thing for another, especially when the objects are closely allied,
is a figure of speech common alike to poetry and prose. In this very verse 'corn*
(dahgan), which is said to be eaten, is used for bread (lekheni) made from the flour
of corn ; and so ' to drink the tirosh ' is an easy and parallel figure, signifying drink-
ing the yayin which the tirosh would yield after pressure.

2. Elliptical modes of expression are universal, and give rise to phraseology that
is apparently figurative. Thus to ' send a cut of meat ' is to send a piece cut from
another ; to ' make up a purse ' is to make up a sum of money to be put into a
purse for presentation ; to ' drink a bottle,' or a ' cup,' is to drink what the vessels
contain. The last examples are strictly analogous to the phrase 'to drink tirosh,'
meaning to drink the juice held in its grapes as in bottles, and so held as to be free
from every contaminating and deteriorating influence.

180 ISAIAH, LXIII. I, 2 3, 6.

AND THEY THAT HAVE BROUGHT IT TOGETHER SHALL DRINK IT] Hebrew,

umqabtzahv yishtuhu, ' and those collecting it shall drink it.' The meaning of
qah-botz is 'to collect,' 'to gather,' and inferentially marks the solid nature of the
substance gathered — the tiros k which by figure or ellipsis is said to be drunk. This
is admitted by Gesenius, who, though in most other places regarding tirosh as
*new wine,' explains qah-botz by a reference to this passage as signifying ' to collect
things, as grapes*

CHAPTER LXIII. VERSE i.

Who is this that cometh from Edom, with dyed garments from
Bozrah ? this that is glorious in his apparel, traveling in the great-
ness of his strength ? I that speak in righteousness, mighty to save.

WITH DYED GARMENTS] Hebrew, kharmitz be-gahdim, 'bright with garments.'
The use of khamutz in this connection is to be referred to a law of language by which
words descriptive of effects upon one sense are applied to effects upon another.
Thus we speak of ' a sweet flower,' ' a beautiful song,' ' a well-toned picture.' The
most remarkable example, perhaps, is that of the blind man who, asked what
were his conceptions of scarlet, answered that he supposed it was like the sound of
a trumpet — i. e. vivid and thrilling in its effects. So the effect of fermentation in
giving to sweet liquors a pungent taste (whether alcoholic or acid) is employed in
this passage to depict the vivid impression made upon the eye by a hero arrayed
in dyed garments, probably of a crimson or purple color.

CHAPTER LXIII. VERSES 2, 3, 6.

2 Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like
him that treadeth in the winefat ? 3 I have trodden the winepress
alone ; and of the people there was none with me : for I will tread
them in mine anger, and trample them in my fury ; and their blood
shall be sprinkled upon my garments, and I will stain all my
raiment. . . . 6 And I will tread down the people in mine
anger, and make them drunk in my fury, and I will bring down
their strength to the earth.

V. 2. RED IN THINE APPAREL] Hebrew, ahdom lilvushekah, 'red as to thy
apparel.' This redness is compared to the color of 'blood' in ver. 3. The
garments of the hero are represented as red with blood, and thus resembling those
who trod in the wine-press. This comparison intimates the abundance of grapes
yielding a bright red juice. On this point we present below an instructive extract.*

* " The grape cultivated in the open air in this country has, for the most part, a husk of a dusky
yellowish green, and juice colorless or of a cloudy white ; and though the purple-husked grape is
also met with, the juice of that is either colorless, or very slightly tinged with a pale yellowish
hue, little differing from what is generally termed white. Only one instance of a red or purple-
juiced grape grown in the open air m Great Britain is known to the writer. Even in hothouses it
is seldom that a red-juiced grape can be met with, though red or black-husked grapes are common
enough. The celebrated Speechly, who was gardener to the Duke of Portland, and raised at
Welbeck Abbey the immense cluster of Syrian grapes mentioned in a former part of this treatise
[see page 46 of this work], says, in his work on the vine, that the juice of the claret grape is of a
red blood color, a statement the correctness of which has been confirmed to the author by several

ISATAH, LXV. 8. i8l

IN THE \VI.NKI AT] Hebrew, bt-gath, 'in the press ' (gath is referred to ganan,
«to pound,' 'to press'); Lxx., leenoit ; V., /'// torculari.

V. 3. THE WINEPRESS] Hebrew, purah, 'press.' This word occurs only
here and in Hag. ii. 16. It is derived from fur, ' to break ' ; hence purah is the
place where the grapes were crushed by the treaders. The V. has torcular ; the
Lxx. gives no equivalent ; Symmachus has leenon.

V. 6. AND I WILL MAKE THEM DRUNK] Hebrew, va-ashafo&m, 'and I have
intoxicated them.' The generic sense of shahkar, 'to satiate,' 'fill to the full,' is
here applied to intoxication, as the succeeding phrase intimates.

\Vi in MY ANGER] Hebrew, vakhamathi, ' with my heat (fury).' Here kha-math
is rendered in A. V. ' anger ' ; but in ver. 5, vakhamathi, it is translated ' and
my fury.' The radical sense of 'heat ' naturally gave rise to the derivative senses
of inflammatory 'poison,' and figuratively of 'anger,' 'indignation.' The Lxx. is
without this clause, but Symmachus and Theodotion possess it, — kai emethusa
autous en thumo mou, 'and I have made them drunk with my wrath.' V., et
incbriavi eos in indignatione mea. Dr Henderson prefers the reading, ' I brake
them in pieces,' instead of ' I have made them drunk.'

The Divine Ruler is represented as filling His enemies with His khamath, which
has upon them the effect of a poisonous potion; and as intoxication can never
really impart vigor to those who are the subjects of it, it is strikingly added,
'And I -will bring down their strength to the earth.' That which inebriates neces-
sarily enervates, and the degree of enervation (other things being equal) is always
proportional to the quantity consumed in a given time. Strong drink is only
strong to weaken both body and mind — a lesson which the world has yet to com-
prehend and act upon. Most instructive is it to observe that when God would
present a symbol of His retributive wrath He selects for this purpose an intoxi-
cating draught, which ' brings down the strength ' of His adversaries ' to the earth.'

CHAPTER LXV. VERSE 8.

Thus saith the LORD, As the new wine is found in the cluster, and
one saith, Destroy it not ; for a blessing is in it : so will I do for my
servants' sakes, that I may not destroy them all.

As THE NEW WINE IS FOUND IN THE CLUSTER] Hebrew, ka-asher yimmahtzd,
hat-tirosh bah-eshkol, ' like as the vine-fruit is in a cluster (or on a vine-stalk) ' ;
Lxx., Ads tropon etiretheesetai ho rhox en to botrui, 'as the grape-stone shall be

intelligent horticulturists, one of whom observes that it is a little black grape, harsh and disagree-
able to eat. It is a French grape, though cultivated elsewhere, as in Italy, under the name of
'claretto rosso di Francia,' being used for the purpose of mixing with other wines to give them
color. There is also a Spanish grape, called 'tinto,' which is described as of exquisite flavor
and unrivaled sweetness having a rich crimson juice, almost like blood ; and from it, the author
is informed, the sweet wine called 'tent,' frequently used for sacramental purposes, is made.
There can be little doubt that such grapes were well known in Judea in former times and those
who were familiar with it would at once perceive the full force and propriety of the term ' blood of
the grape,' and the comparison between wine made of that particular grape and blood. In the
Apocrypha (i Mace. vi. 34) a singular circumstance is mentioned of an artifice resorted to for
provoking the war elephants: 'And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to fight,
they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries.' The juice of these crapes must evidently
have been red, or it could not have deceived so sagacious an animal. Achilles Tatius, a Greet
author (A. D. 300), in his second book, relates that Bacchus once being entertained by a Tynan
shepherd, gave him some wine to drink. The shepherd, after he had tasted it, asked Bacchus,
'Whore did you procure blood so sweet?' Bacchus answered him, 'This is the blood of the
grape.' " — Tirosklo Yayin, pp. 67-8. (1841.)

1 82 ISAIAH, LXV. II, 20.

found in the cluster'; V., quomodo si invetiiatur gramim in botro, 'as if a grain
(the young grape) should be found in a cluster.' The Hebrew expression is
peculiar, and apparently implies a paucity of produce, the entire fruit on a vine
being represented by a single cluster instead of by many clusters of grapes.

AND ONE SAITH, DESTROY IT NOT; FOR A BLESSING is IN IT] 'And he (one)
says, Thou wilt not destroy it, for a blessing (is) with it.' By verahkah, 'bless-
ing,' may be understood God's benediction on the tirosk as one of His good
creatures, or the nature of tirosh, which was adapted to prove a blessing to the
people when fully developed and properly used. Codex A of the Lxx. has ' a
blessing of the Lord is in it.' Both meanings may be said to coincide, since that
which God blesses will assuredly (unless perverted by man's misdirected ingenuity
and misapplied power) bless those on whom it is bestowed.

Under the figure of a single cluster of vine-fruit which is all that exists to reward
the toil and expectations of the proprietor, and yet which will not be destroyed
because a blessing is with it, the God of Israel promises that, on account of His
servants' sakes, few as those servants are, He will not destroy all the Jewish people,
but (ver. 9) will bring forth a seed out of Jacob, etc. The single cluster is good
and valuable as such, and therefore not to be destroyed. Let it not be forgotten
that by the process of converting the fruit of the vine and of the field into intoxi-
cating drinks, not only is their virtue as food effectually destroyed, but the new
product springing from this destruction becomes a destroyer of mankind beyond
all that can be affirmed of sword, fire, and plague.

CHAPTER LXV. VERSE n.

But ye are they that forsake the LORD, that forget my holy moun-
tain, that prepare a table for that troop, and that furnish the drink-
offering unto that number.

THE DRINK-OFFERING UNTO THAT NUMBER] Hebrew, lamZni mimsahk, ' and
to Fortune a mixture' ; Lxx., kai pleerountes tee tuchee kerasma, 'and filling to
Fortune a mixture'; V., et libatis super cam (Fortunam), 'and ye have made
libations over her (Fortune).' Meni was probably the name of some goddess
worshiped by the idolatrous Jews, to whom a mixture (mimsahk}, composed of
wiae and other ingredients, was offered in sacrifice.

CHAPTER LXV. VERSE 20.

There shall be no more thence an infant of days, nor an old man
that hath not filled his days : for the child shall die an hundred years
old ; but the sinner being an hundred years old shall be accursed.

The meaning evidently is that a time shall come when the term of childhood
shall be extended, because the age of manhood is prolonged; when the man who
falls short of an hundred years shall be judged to have cut short his days by some
kind of intemperance, — he shall be reckoned 'as accursed.' This possibility is
not only a doctrine of the Bible, but of science, as the following citations will
prove : —

ISAIAH, LXV. 21. 183

"By me (Wisdom) thy days shall be multiplied, and the years of thy life shall
be increased" (Prov. ix. 10, u).

"There is good ground for believing," says the Census Report for 1851, "that
life may gradually be raised yet nearer to the complete natural life-time. The
way is not closed to great and immediate ameliorations j but as it has pleased the
Author of the universe to make the food of mankind chiefly the product of labor,
their clothing of skill, their intellectual enjoyments of education, their purest emo-
tions of art, so health and the natural life-time of the race are, in a certain sense,
ntly to be the creation of the intellect and the will ; and it is only with the ob-
servation, experience, science, foresight, prudence and decisions of generations of
men at command, that the battle of life can be fought out victoriously to the end."

The realization of this ideal standard of longevity to any general extent must,
however, be indefinitely postponed until the personal and hereditary effects of
alcoholic indulgence are unknown — a social condition which never can be reason-
ably expected until the use of intoxicating liquor as a beverage is abandoned, and
its pernicious sale prevented. The great majority of long livers have been either
abstainers from intoxicating drinks or users of them to a very limited degree.
Aged topers are rara aves, and as no one professes to believe in the physical
harmlessness of deep drinking, it must be conceded that their term of years would
have been extended by abstemious habits. A striking confirmation of this action
of alcohol in abridging even a very protracted life was furnished in the case of Dr
Holyoke, of Salem, Massachusetts, who lived to a hundred years, but whose personal
friend (Dr Pierson) and biographer deponed before a select committee of the Massa-
chusetts legislature, that though Dr H. was 'never tempted to excess,' and drank
intoxicating liquors in small quantities only, yet he "died of the disease most
commonly produced by the use of ardent spirits and tobacco, an internal cancer."
All the other viscera except the stomach were in a healthy state. Dr Pierson added,
" I am far from wishing to say any thing to the discredit of the late Dr Holyoke,
who was my personal friend, but if his great age is to be made an argument for
the moderate use of spirits, I desire that his scirrhous stomach should be put
alongside of it." [See the testimony of Josephus to the longevity of the Essenes,
quoted in this COMMENTARY.]

CHAPTER LXV. VERSE 21.

And they shall build houses, and inhabit them; and they shall
plant vineyards, and eat the fruit of them.

AND THEY SHALL PLANT VINEYARDS, AND EAT THE FRUIT OF THEM]
Hebrew, ve-natu keramim ve-ahklu piryam, ' and they have planted vineyards, and
have eaten their fruit ' (the past form to be taken as the prophetic future) ; Lxx.,
kai kataphuteusousin ampelonas kai aiitoi phagontai ta genneemata auton; so the V.,
tt plantabunt vineas ft comcdent fnictus eanirn, 'and they shall plant vineyards
and shall eat their fruits.'

This prediction indicates the extensive use made of the fruit of the vine for pur-
poses of diet, the most useful appropriation of the grape, as of all other fruits.
[See Note on 2 Kings xviii. 31.]

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH.

[JEREMIAH FLOURISHED ABOUT THE YEAR 600 B. c.]

CHAPTER II. VERSE 21.

Yet I had planted thee a noble vine, wholly a right seed : how then
art thou turned into the degenerate plant of a strange vine unto me ?

A NOBLE VINE] Hebrew, sorak, 'a sorak (superior) vine.' [See Notes on Gen.
xlix. II, and Isa. v. 2.] Lxx., ampelon karpophoron, 'a fruit-bearing vine.'

THE DEGENERATE PLANT OF A STRANGE VINE] Litterally, 'the degenerate
branches of the foreign vine. '

CHAPTER V. VERSE 17.

And they shall eat up thine harvest, and thy bread, which thy sons
and thy daughters should eat: they shall eat up thy flocks and
thine herds : they shall eat up thy vines and thy fig trees : they shall
impoverish thy fenced cities, wherein thou trustedst, with the sword.

THEY SHALL EAT UP THY VINES AND THY FIG TREES] Hebrew, yokal gaphntkak
u-tcanahtheka, 'they shall eat thy vines and thy fig trees,' — teanah (fig tree),
tibanim (fig trees).

CHAPTER VI. VERSE i.

O ye children of Benjamin, gather yourselves to flee out of the
midst of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a sign
of fire in Beth-haccerem : for evil appeareth out of the north, and great
destruction.

IN BETH-HACCEREM] Hebrew, al-baith hakkerem, 'in Beth-haccerem,' *'. c. 'in a
house of the vineyards ' — the name of a town situated between Jerusalem and
Tekoa. [See Note on Neh. iii. 4.]

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 9.

Thus saith the LORD of hosts, They shall thoroughly glean the
remnant of Israel as a vine: turn back thine hand as a grape-
gatherer into the baskets.

JEREMIAH, XIII. 12, 13. 185

THEY SHALL THOROUGHLY GLEAN ... AS A VINE] Hebrew, olal ylolUu
kag-gephen, '(as one) gleaning, they shall glean as a vine (is gleaned).'

TURN BACK THINE HAND AS A GRAPEGATHERER INTO THE BASKETS] Hebrew,

hosa-' yahdkah k%-volzar al salsilloth. The grapegatherer (botzar), i. e. he who cut
off the grapes from the vine, was constantly withdrawing his hand from the vine
to the basket where the grapes were to be placed; and this action is used by
Jeremiah to describe the frequency with which the invader would return to strip
Judah of its people and its possessions.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 18.

The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the
women knead their dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven,
and to pour out drink-offerings unto other gods, that they may pro-
voke me to anger.

AND TO POUR OUT DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, ve-hassak nesahkim, * and to
pour out libations.'

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 13.

I will surely consume them, saith the LORD: there shall be no
grapes on the vine, nor figs on the fig tree, and the leaf shall fade;
and the things that I have given them shall pass away from them.

THERE SHALL BE NO GRAPES ON THE VINE] Hebrew, ain anahvim bag-gephen,
'no grapes [grape-bunches] on the vine.'

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 10.

Many pastors have destroyed my vineyard, they have trodden my
portion under foot, they have made my pleasant portion a desolate
wilderness.

MY VINEYARD] Hebrew, karmi, ' my vineyard. '

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 12, 13.

12 Therefore thou shalt speak unto them this word ; Thus saith the
LORD God of Israel, Every bottle shall be filled with wine : and they
shall say unto thee, Do we not certainly know that every bottle shall
be filled with wine ? 13 Then shalt thou say unto them, Thus saith
the LORD, Behold, I will fill all the inhabitants of this land, even the
kings that sit upon David's throne, and the priests, and the prophets,
and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, with drunkenness.

V. 12. EVERY BOTTLE SHALL BE FILLED WITH WINE] Hebrew [twice], kahl

n&vel yimmahlla, yayin, ' every skin-bottle shall be filled with wine.' The Lxx.

has askos oinoit, * a skin-bag of wine ' ; Symmachus, krateer, ' bowl ' ; Aquila,

lagffnion, which reappears in the V., laguncula vino, 'a small flagon with wine.'

1 86 JEREMIAH, XIX. 13.

V. 13. I WILL FILL . . . WITH DRUNKENNESS] Hebrew, mZmatla . . .
shikkahron, '(I am) filling with drunkenness.' Lxx., methusmati, 'with strong
drink.' V., ebrietatey 'with inebriety.' Dr Henderson has this note: — "These
bottles are frequently of a large size. On entering the city of Tiflis, in 1821, the
author found the market-place full of such bottles, consisting of the skins of oxen,
calves, etc., distended with wine, the parts at which the head and legs had been cut
off having been closely sewed up, so as not to allow the liquor to ooze out. It is
from this custom that our English word ' hogshead ' is derived, that term being
evidently a corruption of ox-hide." [Why not derived from hog's-hide ?]

What God says in this passage He will do, is to be taken as done providentially
in consequence of the guilty conduct of the Jewish people. Being addicted to the
intemperance Isaiah had predicted [see Note on Isa. xxviii 7, 8], and of which
Jeremiah was an eye-witness six centuries before Christ, he warns them that their
self-induced drunkenness and idolatry would act with all the force of a divine
visitation.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 7.

Neither shall men tear themselves for them in mourning, to comfort
them for the dead; neither shall men give them the cup of consola-
tion to drink for their father or for their mother.

THE CUP OF CONSOLATION] Hebrew, kos tankkumim, ' a cup of consolations ' ;
Lxx., poteerion eis parakleesin, 'a cup for consolation'; the V., potum calicis ad
consolandum, ' a draught of a cup for consolation.'

It appears that it had become a custom with the Jews to administer drink of some
kind to persons attending funeral rites. The prophet's allusion to the custom is not
to be regarded as a sign of his approval. Wakes are an imitation of, if not derivation
from, this ancient practice ; and the introduction of intoxicating liquors on such
occasions has had the most pernicious effects. Such cups of consolation have
frequently become cups of confusion. Religion proffers another and very different
cup to the bereaved and afflicted.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 8.

Thou shalt not also go into the house of feasting, to sit with them
to eat and to drink.

THE HOUSE OF FEASTING] Hebrew, uvaith-mishteh, 'and a house of feasting.'

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 13.

And the houses of Jerusalem, and the houses of the kings of Judah,
shall be defiled as the place of Tophet, because of all the houses upon
whose roofs they have burned incense unto all the host of heaven,
and have poured out drink-offerings unto other gods.

AND HAVE POURED OUT DRINK-OFFERINGS] Hebrew, ve-hassak nesahkim,
and to pour out libations.'

JEREMIAH, XXV. 15 — 17, 27, 28. 187

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 9.

Mine heart within me is broken because of the prophets ; all my
bones shake ; I am like a drunken man, and like a man whom wine
hath overcome, because of the LORD, and because of the words of his
holiness.

LIKE A DRUNKEN MAN] Hebrew, tA-ish shikkor, Mike a man drunk'; Lxx.,
hos aneer suntetrimmenos, ' as a vigorous man worn away ' ; V., quasi vir ebrius,
*as a strong man drunk.'

AND LIKE A MAN WHOM WINE HATH OVERCOME] Hebrew, uk-gtvtr avahro
yayin, * and like a strong man whom wine has overwhelmed (or oppressed).'
From ahvar, ' to pass over,' comes the figurative sense of ' to overwhelm' as by the
action of water. Lxx., kai hos anthropos sunechomenos ago oinou, ' and as a man
overcome by wine.' The V., quasi homo madidus a vino, 'as a man sodden by
wine.'

It is the strong man as well as the ordinary man who becomes the prey of strong
drink. The signs of this conquest are the ' broken-down heart ' and the ' shrinking
bones.' No other conqueror leaves deeper traces of his power than does Alcohol,
to whom the strongest of men have succumbed. Indeed, none are safe while this
enemy is admitted within the gates of the lips ; excluding it, the weakest are secure.
In the contest (i ESDRAS iii. and iv.) between the three Persian guards of Darius,
as to who should indite the wisest saying, the one who wrote, * Wine is strong
above other things,' is made to exclaim, " O sirs ! how exceeding strong is wine !
It makes all men to err who drink it. It makes the mind of the king and of the
fatherless child, of the slave and the freeman, of the poor man and the rich, to be
all one ; it inclines the mind to ease and mirth, and to remember neither sadness
nor debt, and it makes every heart rich, and causes forgetfulness of king and magis-
trate ; and it makes everything to be spoken by talents [the Syriac has ' as by weight
talents ' ; the idea is that wine forces men to speak by a weight they cannot resist].
And when they have drunk, they remember to love neither friends nor brethren ;
and in a little time they draw out their swords ; and when they have recovered
from their wine, they know not what they have done. O sirs ! does not wine
excel all else, because it compels this to be done ? ' The one who wrote, ' The
king is strong above others,' defends his theme; but the prize is awarded to the
third, Zorobabel, who had written, ' Women are strong above all, but truth is
victorious over all things.' Had the question been, Which is strongest for evil?
the verdict might have been different.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSES 15 — 17, 27, 28.

15 For thus saith the LORD God of Israel unto me ; Take the wine
cup of this fury at my hand, and cause all the nations, to whom I
send thee, to drink it. 16 And they shall drink, and be moved, and
be mad, because of the sword that I will send among them. 17 Then
took I the cup at the LORD'S hand, and made all the nations to drink,
unto whom the LORD had sent me. . . . 27 Therefore thou shalt
say unto them, Thus saith the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel ;
Drink ye, and be drunken, and spue, and fall, and rise no more,

1 88 JEREMIAH, XXXI. 5.

because of the sword which I will send among you. 28 And it shall
be, if they refuse to take the cup at thine hand to drink, then shalt
thou say unto them, Thus saith the LORD of hosts ; Ye shall certainly
drink.

V. 15. TAKE THE WINE CUP OF THIS FURY AT MY HAND] Hebrew, qakh eth-kos
hay-yayin hakh&mah hazzoth miy-yahdi, 'take the cup of the wine (the cup of)
this heat (fury) from my hand. ' The construction is peculiar. Dr Henderson
considers that in hay-yayin kakhfimah, 'the wine, the heat,' the khamah is taken,
adjectively, as if we should say ' the angry wine.' Lxx., labe to poteerion ton oinou
tou akratou toutou ek cheiros mott, ( take the cup of this unmixed wine from my
hand.' V., sume calicem vini furoris hujus de manu mea, 'take the cup of the
wine of this fury from my hand.'

V. l6. AND THEY SHALL DRINK, AND BE MOVED, AND BE MAD] Hebrew,

v%-skahthu, v%-hithgoashu, ve-hithholahlu, ' and they have drunk, and have reeled
and have become furious ' (z*. e. they will be so) ; Lxx., kai piontai, kai exemountai
kai ekmaneesontai, ' and they shall drink, and vomit forth and be furious ' ; V., et
bibent et turbabuntur et insanient, 'and they shall drink and be confused and
become mad.'

No mention is made in this passage of mingling in this ' cup of fury ' any drugs
to render the intoxicating wine more heady and inflaming. The Lxx., indeed, gives
\iokhamah [heat = poison, or fury] the force of 'unmixed,' to indicate that the
wine is as strong as fermentation can make it. The art of ' fortifying ' fermented
wine with distilled spirit was reserved for a later age. The opinion that a liquor,
capable of representing calamities so dreadful is at the same time suitable for daily
use, cannot too soon pass away from among sane men. The language of the verses
27 and 28 is full of warning. The symbol and instrument of their sin becomes the
symbol, and in part the instrument, of their overthrow. ' Drink and become sur-
charged ' is the inexorable and irresistible mandate to those who have persevered
in wrong-doing. The cup of their pleasure is the sign of their punishment. This
is no arbitrary arrangement, for that which inflames is a fit symbol of Divine
wrath ; and that which debauches does, in the very nature of things, prepare the
debauched for destruction. ' Lust, when it conceives, brings forth sin : and sin,
when it is finished, brings forth death.' 'There is a way which seemeth right
unto a man, but the end thereof are the ways of death. '

[See Notes on Job xxi. 20; Psa. xi. 6; Ixxv. 8; Isa. li. 17, 22; Lam. iv. 21;
Ezek. xxiii. 31 — 34; Rev. xiv. 10, 19; xvi. 19; xviii. 6.]

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 5.

Thou shalt yet plant vines upon the mountains of Samaria : the
planters shall plant, and shall eat them as common things.

VINES] Hebrew, klrahmim, 'vineyards.'

AND SHALL EAT THEM AS COMMON THINGS] Hebrew, vl-khillalu, 'and shall
use (or appropriate),' i. e. they shall not have the produce of their vineyards
carried off by the invader, but possess them for the purposes of sustenance and
commerce.

JEREMTAII, XXXI. 12, 14, 25, 29, 30. 189

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 12.

Therefore they shall come and sing in the height of Zion, and
shall flow together to the goodness of the LORD, for wheat, and for
wine, and for oil, and for the young of the flock and of the herd :
and their soul shall be as a watered garden; and they shall not
sorrow any more at all.

FOR WHEAT, AND FOR WINE, AND FOR OIL] Hebrew, al dahgan, vl-al tirosk,
vl-al yitzhar, ' with corn, and with vine-fruit, and with clive-and-orchard-fruit.'
This famous triad of natural products reappears, significantly called 'the goodness
of the Lord,' the tithes of which were to be presented to Jehovah in grateful
acknowledgment of His mercies. Lxx., epi geen sitoit, kai oinou, kai karpon, 'and
upon a land of corn, and of wine, and of fruits.' This translation of yitzhar "by
'fruits,' instead of by 'oil,' shows that the Greek translator of this passage had a
perception of the breadth of meaning included under that collective term. V.,
super frumento, ft vino, et oleo, 'and upon corn, and wine, and oil.'

CHAPTER XXX T. VERSE 14.

And I will satiate the soul of the priests with fatness, and my
people shall be satisfied with my goodness, saith the LORD.

AND I WILL SATIATE] Hebrew, v$-riwaithi, 'and I have satiated.' The verb
is rahvah. Lxx. methnso, V. inebriabo, ' I will fill to the full.' [The words
' shall be satisfied ' in the last clause of the verse are the rendering of another word,
yisbahit, from sah-ba, 'to satisfy,' used most frequently for being filled or satisfied
with food, as rahvah and shahkar are used of being charged or satiated with
drink.]

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSE 25.

For I have satiated the weary soul, and I have replenished every
sorrowful soul.

I HAVE SATIATED] Hebrew, hirvaithi, from rahvah, as above.

CHAPTER XXXI. VERSES 29, 30.

•9 In those days they shall say no more, The fathers have eaten a
sour grape, and the children's teeth are set on edge. 3o But every
one shall die for his own iniquity : every man that eateth the sour
grape, his teeth shall be set on edge.

V. 29. A SOUR GRAPE] Hebrew, vosfr, ' that which is sour ' ; — the word ' grape '
is supplied by A. V. Voser is collectively used of a bunch of berries or grapes,
well developed but not ripe. Lxx. omphaka (accusative of omphax\ V. want
acerbamt 'a sour grape.'

V. 30. THE snt-R GRAPE] Hebrew, hav-voser, 'the sour bunch.'

190 JEREMIAH, XXXV.

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 15.

For thus saith the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel ; Houses and
fields and vineyards shall be possessed again in this land.

AND VINEYARDS] Hebrew, ukZrakmitn, 'and vineyards (plantations).'

CHAPTER XXXII. VERSE 29.

And the Chaldeans, that fight against this city, shall come and set
fire on this city, and burn it with the houses, upon whose roofs they
have offered incense unto Baal, and poured out drink offerings unto
other gods, to provoke me to anger.

AND POURED OUT DRINK OFFERINGS] Hebrew, ve-kissiku nesahkim, ' and
poured out libations.'

CHAPTER XXXV. VERSES i — 19.

i The word which came unto Jeremiah from the LORD in the days
of Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah, saying, 2 Go unto the
house of the Rechabites, and speak unto them, and bring them into
the house of the LORD, into one of the chambers, and give them
wine to drink. 3 Then I took Jaazaniah, the son of Jeremiah, the
son of Habaziniah, and his brethren, and all his sons, and the whole
house of the Rechabites ; 4 And I brought them into the house of
the LORD, into the cha-mber of the sons of Hanan, the son of
Igdaliah, a man of God, which was by the chamber of the princes,
which was above the chamber of Maaseiah the son of Shallum, the
keeper of the door : 5 And I set before the sons of the house of the
Rechabites pots full of wine, and cups, and I said unto them, Drink
ye wine. 6 But they said, We will drink no wine : for Jonadab the
son of Rechab our father commanded us, saying, Ye shall drink no
wine, neither ye, nor your sons for ever : 7 Neither shall ye build
house, nor sow seed, nor plant vineyard, nor have any : but all your
days ye shall dwell in tents ; that ye may live many days in the land
where ye be strangers, s Thus have we obeyed the voice of Jonadab
the son of Rechab our father in all that he hath charged us, to drink
no wine all our days, we, our wives, our sons, nor our daughters;
9 Nor to build houses for us to dwell in : neither have we vineyard,
nor field, nor seed : 10 But we have dwelt in tents, and have obeyed,
and done according to all that Jonadab our father commanded us.
ii But it came to pass, when Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came
up into the land, that we said, Come, and let us go to Jerusalem for
fear of the army of the Chaldeans, and for fear of the army of the
Syrians : so we dwell at Jerusalem. J2 Then came the word of the
LORD unto Jeremiah, saying, 13 Thus saith the LORD of hosts, the
God of Israel ; Go and tell the men of Judah and the inhabitants of
Jerusalem, Will ye not receive instruction to hearken to my words ?
saith the LORD. 14 The words of Jonadab the son of Rechab, that he

JKKKMIAH, XXXV. 191

commanded his sons not to drink wine, are performed ; for unto this
day they drink none, but obey their father's commandment : notwith-
standing I have spoken unto you, rising early and speaking ; but ye
hearkened not unto me. 15 1 have sent also unto you all my ser-
vants the prophets, rising up early and sending them, saying, Return
ye now every man from his evil way, and amend your doings, and go
not after other gods to serve them, and ye shall dwell in the land
which I have given to you and to your fathers : but ye have not
inclined your ear, nor hearkened unto me. 16 Because the sons of
Jonadab the son of Rechab have performed the commandment of
their father, which he commanded them; but this people hath not
hearkened unto me : 17 Therefore thus saith the LORD God of hosts,
the God of Israel, Behold, I will bring upon Judah and upon all the
inhabitants of Jerusalem all the evil that I have pronounced against
them ; because I have spoken unto them, but they have not heard ;
and I have called unto them, but they have not answered. 18 And
Jeremiah said unto the house of the Rechabites, Thus saith the
LORD of hosts, the God of Israel ; Because ye have obeyed the com-
mandment of Jonadab your father, and kept all his precepts, and
done according unto all that he hath commanded you : 19 Therefore
thus saith the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel ; Jonadab the son of
Rechab shall not want a man to stand before me forever.

V. 2. THE HOUSE OF THE RECHABITES] Hebrew, baith hah-Rakahvim, 'the
house ( = family) of the Rechabites.' Lxx., eis oikon Archabein. V., ad domutn
Rechabitamm.

AND GIVE THEM WINE TO DRINK] Hebrew, v%~hishqithah otham yayin, ' and
give them to drink wine.' So Lxx., potieis autous oinon ; and V., dabis eis bibere
vinum.

V. 5. POTS FULL OF WINK, AND CUPS] Hebrew, g&viim mllaim yayin vt-kosoth,
' bowls (or jars) full of wine, and cups,' — the cups to be filled from the jars ; Lxx.,
kcramion oinou kai poteeria, 'a vessel (amphora) of wine, and cups ' ; V., scyphos
plenos vino et calices, 'goblets filled with wine, and cups.'

DRINK YK WINE] Hebrew, shethu yayin, ' drink ye wine.' So Lxx., piete oinon ;
and V., bibite vinum.

V. 6. WE WILL DRINK NO WINE] Hebrew, lo nishleh yayin, ' we do not drink
wine.' The so called future tense may here be fitly regarded as an indefinite pre-
sent, the reply of the Rechabites being, ' We do not drink wine — it is our custom
not to drink wine,' with an implied resolution to persevere in the custom so well
approved by a long experience. Lxx., on mee piomen oinon, ' we surely may not
drink wine ' ; V., non bibemus vinum, ' we will not drink wine.'

JONADAB THE SON OF RECHAB] Hebrew, Yonahdab ben Rakav, 'Jonadab
son of Rechab.' The name 'Jonadab' signifies 'whom the Lord impels'; while
Rechab \_Rakav, or Rakab~\ signifies 'a horseman.' Ben, 'son,' has in Hebrew
a comprehensive range of meaning, and is often equivalent to 'descendant' on
the father's side. This passage does not, therefore, necessarily denote that Rechab
was Jonadab's own or immediate father, though he may have been either that or
a remote ancestor.

192 JEREMIAH, XXXV.

YE SHALL DRINK NO WINE, NEITHER YE, NOR YOUR SONS FOREVER] Hebrew,

lo thishtu yayin, atem, uvenaikem, ad ulahm, ' you are not to drink wine, you and
your sons forever.'

V. 7. NOR PLANT VINEYARDS] Hebrew, ve-kerem lo thittahu, ' and a vineyard
ye are not to plant.'

V. 8. To DRINK NO WINE. V. 14. NOT TO DRINK WINE] The Hebrew in
each place is le-vilti shethoth yayin, ' so as not to drink wine.'

V. 9. VINEYARD] Hebrew, kerem.

V. 19. JONADAB THE SON OF RECHAB SHALL NOT WANT A MAN TO STAND
BEFORE ME FOREVER] Hebrew, lo yikkahrath ish le-Yonahdab ben-Rakab omad le~
phanai kahl hay-yahmim, ' there shall not fail to Jonadab the son of Rechab a man
standing before me all the days ' (= for all time).

The expectation of the Rechabites was to ' live long in the land wherein they
were strangers ' ; but the language of the prophet, as if with a foresight of the ruin
to fall upon the land and people, singularly changes, and becomes the vehicle of a
broader and more perpetual benediction.

I. Many qiiestions of great interest are suggested by this chapter ; as, —

(1) Who were the Rechabites ? We read in I Chron. ii. 55, "And the families
of the scribes which dwelt at Jabez ; the Tirathites, the Shimeathites, and Suchath-
ites. These are the Kenites that came of Hemath, the father of the house of
Rechab." The Rechabites, then, were a branch of the Kenite stock which sprang,
through Midian, from Abraham and Keturah.* Hobab, the brother-in-law of
Moses, is considered by Arabian tradition as the head of the tribe, which divided
into the Hobabites and Rechabites. Dr Wolff met, in 1836, the sheikh of the
* tribe of Hobab,' who spoke of the B'nee Arhab (children of Rechab) as another
branch of his descendants. The Kenites (Qaini in the Hebrew) were always the
friends and allies of the Israelites, and seem to have attended them in the desert,
and to have entered Canaan with them ; but the claims recently set up for the
Kenites by Mr Bunsen, of having contributed to the Hebrew monarchy its most
valuable elements, go far beyond the proof. The theory that David was of a
Kenite family involves consequences that insure its rejection. To sum up, the
Rechabites were a Kenite clan, and had embraced the fundamental principles of
Judaism. Jahn thinks they were 'proselytes of the gate.'

(2) Who was Rechab the father of Jonadab? The name Rechab — 'rider,'
'cavalier,' or 'horseman' — is given in 2 Sam. iv. 2 to a leader of one of the two
bands enlisted in the cause of Ish-bosheth. These captains, Baanah and Rechab,
were sons of Rimmon, a Benjamite. In Neh. iii. 14, mention is made of Malchiah
the son of Rechab. This Malchiah was ruler of part of Beth-haccerem, a town of
Judah, and he repaired one of the gates of Jerusalem at the time of the restoration.
The Rechab named in I Chron. ii. 55, is clearly identical with the Rechab of this
chapter. When his ancestor Hemath (Hebrew, 'Khammath') flourished is not
said. Rechab was the father of Jonadab, and must therefore have lived above
three centuries before the date of the transaction here recorded. It is barely

* It is not to our purpose to conjecture what relation these bore to the Nabatheans from Syria,
named in the ancient book of Kuthami, recently discovered by Prof. Chwolson (Ketab-as-Shu-
mum, 'The Book of Poisons'), or to the same people dwelling at Petrae, mentioned in the history
of Diodorus Siculus. We merely note that from the remotest antiquity abstainers existed on
physical, social, and religious grounds, and that their influence was seen, within the historic period, in
the Rechabites of Scripture, and in the Essenes, Therapeutae, Sabians and Rakusians of later
times. Th^ principle became inwoven with various forms of faith, and was adopted from the Ra-
kusians by Mohammed, with such marvellous advantage to his mission and people (at that time
very intemperate) that we may well wonder at the slackness of the Church in employing so potent an.
auxiliary for its higher and holier objects.

JEREMIAH, XXXV. 193

possible that he may have been a much earlier ancestor of Jonadab— some writers
regarding him as the same with Hobab, — but as the founder of a distinct 'house,'
or clan bearing his name, he was more famous than many of his Kenite brethren.
His name of ' cavalier ' may have been given to him as a recognition of his military
prowess. One theory, broached by Bouldac, a learned writer of the sixteenth
century, would explain away from this passage a personal Rechab. Proceeding
on the premiss that the name Rtktb (which differs only in the Masorite pointing
from RHkati), signifying 'a chariot,' was borne by Elijah, and afterward by Elisha,
as the spiritual guardians of Israel, it is conceived that their disciples, 'the sons
of the prophets,' became known as the 'sons of the chariot'; and that the
RACHAB or RECHEB of whom Jonadab is said to have been the son, was not any
Kenite father, but Elisha, the spiritual RECHEB of Israel. A Jewish tradition rep-
resents Jonadab as a disciple of Elisha ; but why should he have been singled out
as a ' son of Rechab ' if the designation would have been equally applicable to all
the members of the prophetical school of Elijah and Elisha? The Rechab of
Jeremiah we may accept as a Kenite chief, and perhaps the immediate father of
Jonadab.

(3) Who, then, was Jonadab ? If, as there is no reason to doubt, this Jonadab
is the same with the 'Jonadab the son of Rechab' mentioned in 2 Kings x. 15, 16,
23, we have indisputable evidence that he lived in the time of Ahab, Jehoram,
and Jehu, kings of Israel, and was in the vigor of his manhood about B. c. 880,
or nearly three hundred years before the date of the transaction named in this
chapter. The remarkable interview between Jonadab and Jehu is described in
terms evincing the high social position occupied by the former, and the desire of the
latter to enlist him in his pretended enterprise of ' zeal for Jehovah.' While head of
his paternal clan, much of his unbounded influence over it was probably derived from
his well-tried sagacity and courage. The Rechabites may have begun to forsake
the nomadic life of their Kenite brethren, and to follow the habits common in the
cities of Palestine. He discerned the peril attendant upon this course, and there-
fore enjoined a mode of life altogether different. "Ye shall drink no wine,
neither ye, nor your sons for ever : neither shall ye build house, nor sow seed, nor
plant vineyards, nor have any: but all your days ye shall dwell in tents; that ye
may five many days in the land -where ye be strangers" They were, in short, to
resume the pastoral, migratory life of their ancestors, and to unite with this a rule of
inflexible abstinence from wine. His object was at once social, sanitary, and moral,
rendering necessary the removal of his tribe from the intemperance and general
corruption which so long continued to pervade the town populations of Israel and
Judah. He thus aimed to insure for them the Divine favor, and (as the result of
both spiritual and natural laws) their physical longevity and tranquil residence in
the land. The note in Bagster's ' Treasury Bible ' is a mixture of just and of hasty
reflection: — "Jonadab, a man of fervent zeal for the pure worship of God, had
probably practised these rules himself; and having trained up his children to
habits of abstemiousness, he enjoined them and their posterity to adhere to them.
In these regulations he seems to have had no religious, but merely a prudential
view, as is intimated in the reason annexed to them, ' that ye may live many days
in the land where ye be strangers.' " Now in Deut. iv. 40, and other places,
* living long in the land ' is the blessing attached to obedience to the Divine com-
mand, and Jonadab, as a devout man, was desirous that this blessing should be
inherited by his family through successive generations. The editor, as the next
paragraph shows, cannot deny that the whole purport of the institution was a
religious one, namely, that Arabians or foreigners might live amongst the Jews as

IQ4 JEREMIAH, XXXV.

perpetual ' strangers,' accepting for their compensation the knowledge of the Jewish
law, and the Divine truth as it should come to the Hebrews, from whose civil
privileges they were voluntarily excluded. "And this would be the natural con-
sequence of observing these rules, for their temperate mode of living would very
much contribute to preserve health and prolong life, and they would avoid giving
umbrage or exciting the jealousy and envy of the Jews, who might have been pro-
voked by their engaging. and succeeding in the principal business in which they
themselves were engaged — agriculture and vine-dressing — to expel them from their
country, by which they would have been deprived of the religious advantages they
enjoyed." The prohibition against wine extended to all yayin (as in the case of
the Nazarites, whom Jonadab perhaps had in view), so that the possibility of error
might be excluded. It may be confidently assumed that shakar was also involved
in the proscription.

II. The fidelity with which the Rechabites adhered to the regulation of abstinence
from wine, instituted by Jonadab, is forcibly presented in this narrative.

(1) It was of long duration, having continued for three centuries at the least.
Their abstinence had grown into an easy and hereditary custom.

(2) It was, however, no blind and unreasoning conformity to precedent, springing
from respect to their great ancestor's memory, of whom they were justly proud; but
was sustained by the constant experience of the benefits it secured. They learnt
that Jonadab had given them wise counsel, and their veneration for his character
was thus perpetually renewed from a sense of the advantages continuously accruing.
Though from stress of circumstances their nomadic life had to be intermitted, and
was perhaps never resumed by the entire tribe, they remained inflexible as to
abstinence from wine, which precept was evidently regarded as the essential pivot
of the ancestral institution.

(3) It was proof against an unexpected and peculiar trial. Unknown to them-
selves they were selected by God to act out a parable for the reproof of their allies,
the Jewish people. He who knew all hearts knew their fidelity; and the trial to
which He put them was severe, but not greater than they could bear. We can
imagine their curiosity when they were visited by Jeremiah the prophet, and
invited to accompany him, for a purpose not yet declared. Responding to his
call, Jaazaniah, the then head of the clan, with his brethren and sons, and the
whole 'house' of the Rechabites — that is, all the male adults — accompanied the
prophet into one of the large chambers surrounding the naos or temple ; and being
assembled there, how would their curiosity change to astonishment when Jeremiah,
having filled the vessels and cups full of wine, addressed to them the exhortation,
* Drink ye wine ' ! Observe, Jeremiah does not use the binding formula ' Thus
saith the Lord,' neither does he urge fallacious reasons for drinking, or direct his
influence to induce them to drink. He tests them, but he does not solicit or tempt.
Perplexed, no doubt, at discovering the purpose for which they were convened,
they yet replied with dignity and firmness to the prophet, and the interview closed.
They would learn soon afterward the real object for which they had been assem-
bled, and their faith in their father's wisdom and their gratitude to the God of
Israel would be enhanced when Jeremiah, paying them a second visit, uttered the
benediction which he had been commanded to pronounce.

III. The blessing may be regarded in relation to the past and the future.

(i) Why was it bestowed? The answer is supplied by verses 16, 18, 19; but a
further inquiry arises : Was the blessing given solely on account of the obedience
of the Rechabites ? or had it respect to the nature of the command obeyed ? A
careful examination of the narrative will lead to a rejection of both the extreme

JEREMIAH, XXXV. 195

opinions that have been held: by some, that the obedience alone, irrespective of
the subject-matter, was approved ; and by others, that the benediction was given
principally, or exclusively, on account of the thing commanded. Unless we
can imagine that God would bless obedience to a sinful or foolish precept, by
whomsoever enjoined; or that He would have selected for His special approval
obedience to a rule neutral in its moral character, or observed from superstitious
motives, or from mere tyranny of custom, we may reasonably conclude that this
example was expressly chosen because it suited in all respects the Divine intention,
viz., to contrast the laudable fidelity of the Rechabites to a wholesome civil regu-
lation of their earthly father, with the shameful unfaithfulness of the Jewish people
to the spiritual authority of their all-wise and heavenly Parent.

(2) What the blessing included, is defined by the promise that there should never
fail a descendant of Jonadab to stand before the Lord. The usual signification
attached to these words is that of perpetual existence, — a prophecy that the house
of the Rechabites should never become extinct. Professor Plumptre [Art. ' Re-
chabites' in Smith's ' Dictionary of the Bible'] argues that the phrase 'to stand
before me ' (Jehovah) is to be taken in the sense which it bears in numerous other
passages — that of ministering or serving; and hence that the promise was one of
religious privilege, to be enjoyed by the family that had given such distinguished
evidence of fidelity to their honored ancestor. Having been faithful in compara-
tively a small thing, they were to be intrusted with a more excellent commission.
It cannot certainly be contended that the phrase 'to stand before,' either God
or man, has in Scripture the exclusive sense of ' to minister ' ; yet there are several
singular facts cited by Professor Plumptre which make it not improbable that the
Rechabites, both before and after the captivity, were associated with the service of
the Holy Place. According to one Jewish tradition, there were intermarriages
between the daughters of the Rechabites and the Levitical tribe. The name
of Rechabite continued to be remarkably associated with that section of the Jews
whose morality was the purest, and who were among the first to favor the Christian
faith. Eusebius quotes from Hegesippus a statement, that while James the Just,
supposed to be the Lord's brother, Bishop of Jerusalem and author of 'The General
Epistle of St James,' was being stoned, "one of the priests of the sons of the
Rechabites mentioned by Jeremiah the prophet cried out, protesting against the
crime." Epiphanius refers this protest to Symeon, a brother of James. Mr
Plumptre adds, "We may accept him [Hegesippus] as an additional witness to
the existence of the Rechabites as a recognized body up to the destruction of Jeru-
salem, sharing in the ritual of the temple, partly descended from the old * sons of
Jonadab,' partly recruited by the incorporation into their ranks of men devoting
themselves, as did James and Symeon, to the same consecrated life." If the
Rechabites were united with the Jewish people before the destruction of Jerusalem,
the prophesy may be considered as still in course of fulfillment, by their having
blended with the Jewish race, though now lost to our view as a distinct body of
worshipers.

(3) Whether the above theory be accepted or not, it is still open for us to construe
the special blessing on the Rechabites in the sense of perpetuated existence, as a
promise that, amidst the mutations of empires and destruction of tribes, the family
of Jonadab should never become extinct. It would not be necessary to our faith
in this word of the Most High, to prove the preservation of the Rechabites under
a separate name, for without this separation the promise might be carried out to
the letter. Yet evidence of the kind alluded to cannot fail to be of peculiar
interest; and such evidence exists. Benjamin of Tudela, a traveler of the twelfth

196 JEREMIAH, XXXV.

century, mentions that near El Jubar he found Rechabites who were Jews, to the
number of 100,000, who abstained from wine, and were governed by a prince,
Salomon ben-Nasi, who traced his genealogy to the house of David. In modern
times, Arabs claiming to be veritable descendants of Jonadab have been seen.
About the year 1824, Dr Wolff, when on a mission to his Jewish brethren and
others in the East, was traveling over the vast plains of Mesopotamia with a
caravan 5,000 strong, and while he was preaching "a Bedouin cavalier ap-
proached. Dismounting from his horse, he passed through the crowd till he came
to Wolff, when he looked in his Bible, and to Wolff's great surprise he began to
read Hebrew. Wolff asked him who he was. He replied, ' I am one of the
descendants of Hobab, Moses' brother-in-law, and of the branch called the B'nee-
Arhab, children of Rechab, who live in the deserts of Yemen. We drink no wine,
plant no vineyard, sow no seed, and live in tents. And thus you see how the
prophesy is fulfilled, ' Jonadab the son of Rechab shall not want a man to stand
before Me forever.' Saying this he rode off, leaving behind him the strongest
evidence of the truth of Sacred Writ." In 1836, when in Arabia, Wolff was told that
the B'nee-Arhab were besieging the town of Sanaa. Riding on to that town he
was quickly surrounded by these sons of the desert. "Then both they and Wolff
dismounted, and sitting down with them, he told them that he had seen, twelve
years back, one of their nation in Mesopotamia, Moosa by name. Rechabites — ' Is
your name Joseph Wolff ?' « Wolff. — 'Yes.' They embraced him, and said they
were still in possession of the Bible which he had given to Moosa. Thus Wolff
spent six days with the children of Rechab. They drink no wine, and plant no
vineyard, and sow no seed, and live in tents, and remember good old Jonadab, the
son of Rechab. And Wolff found in their company children of Israel, of the tribe
of Dan, who reside in Hatramawt. The children of Rechab say, ' We will fight
one day the battles of the Messiah.' " — (Travels and Adventures of Dr Wolff,
Edit. 1861, pp. 195 and 508.) Signor Pierotti, in a paper on 'Recent Notices
of the Rechabites,' read at the meeting of the British Association (October, 1862),
states that he met with a tribe of that name near the Dead Sea. They had a
Hebrew Bible, and said their prayers at the tomb of a Jewish rabbi. It is not
improbable that while a portion of the tribe settled down in the Holy Land, and
quickly merged in the Jewish people, a still larger number resumed their desert
life, who retain their identity, and the memory of their origin, down to this day.

IV. Among the lessons inferrible from the narrative, as a whole, may be enumer-
ated the following : —

1. That abstinence, for physical and moral ends, from intoxicating liquors, is, at
least, lawful, not foolish or sinful.

2. That such abstinence is, in fact, favorable to health and moral purity.
As to health, the experience of the Rechabites is invaluable for all ages. This rule
preserved them from all the admittedly harmful effects of intemperance, and from
those injuries — less recognized, but equally real — to constitutional vigor and stamina
induced by habitual « moderate ' drinking. As to moral purity, — in rendering
drunkenness impossible, what a flood of all the vices was diverted from this tribe !
and what aids to moral self-control and culture were afforded to its members !
Dr Guthrie has well said, " Happy family ! — of how few, if any, of ours could
it be said ? — in which, for three hundred years, there had never been a drunkard to
break a mother's heart, to bring shame over those who loved him, and to fill a
dishonored grave ! Such was Jonadab' s, and such how many sad mourners have
wished that theirs had been so ! Holding prevention to be better than cure [or
attempt at cure], and that, as all experience proves, it is much easier to keep

JEREMIAH, XL. IO, 12. 197

people out of temptation than save them in it, Jonadab, when enjoining his
descendants to drink no wine, seeks to protect them from temptation, forbidding
them — though they might have used the fruit of the vine in many other ways than
drink — to plant a vineyard. Peace of conscience and purity of mind turn much
more on our avoiding than [in courting with the hope of] resisting temptations.
It is wiser, if it be possible, to flee than to fight them ; a great truth taught us by
a higher authority than Jonadab. It stands embodied in the Lord's Prayer — and
that not the least important of its petitions, — ' Lead us not into temptation.' "

3. That when practised from a principle of duty, fidelity to abstinence is approved
by God. And well it might, when we reflect on the circumstances of this noble
example, which we are invited to follow with such incomparably less sacrifice.
They willingly, nay, joyfully, gave up many of the ordinary ambitions and privileges
of citizens, that they might secure 'the one thing needful,' and dwell as strangers
with those who had the light of Divine truth; and for this end, at this expense,
these Arabian truth-seekers also abstained from all wine. Would that, in the
modern Church, we had more persons like-minded, willing for the sake of the
world's progress, and of the truth by which the world must be saved, to sacrifice even
the love of a little liquor, and thereby secure for themselves, their families, and their
neighbors, exemption from the manifold miseries and pollutions of intemperance !

4. That it is better to remain faithful to this abstinence, and to every practice
proved to be safe and salutary,,than to deviate from it at the persuasion even of
men eminent for their position or personal worth. Jeremiah's act gives no sanction
to the temptations so commonly addressed to abstainers to induce a violation of
their principle and pledge ; for that act was directed by the Almighty, who foresaw
the issue. But the example of the Rechabites is a confirmation of true principle,
and a stimulus to consistency under trial. They would not deviate from thtir
proved wholesome rule of life, though the wine had been stored in the temple,
though it was set before them in holy vessels by the greatest prophet of the day,
and though that prophet himself invited (mark ! he did not press) them to partake.
They anticipated Paul's declaration as to 'a messenger from heaven' teaching
any doctrine contrary to fact, preferring wise consistency to temporary indulgence,
and the verdict of experience to the voice of apparent 'authority.' Most nobly
does their conduct compare with a not infrequent desertion of the Temperance
cause because the wine-cup has been associated with the hand of friendship, the
smile of beauty, the seal of fashion, or the solicitation of sensuous desire. Let
vigilance and prayer (to which abstinence lends its aid) be ever exercised on the
side of truth, and the time can never arrive when a courteous and dignified but
inflexible refusal to drink intoxicating liquor will pass without reward.

CHAPTER XXXIX. VERSE 10.

But Nebuzar-adan the captain of the guard left of the poor of the
people, which had nothing, in the land of Judah, and gave them vine-
yards and fields at the same time.

VINEYARDS] Hebrew, ktrahmim.

CHAPTER XL. VERSES 10, 12.

10 As for me, behold, I will dwell at Mizpah, to serve the Chaldeans,
which will come unto us : but ye, gather ye wine, and summer fruits

198 JEREMIAH, XLVIII. II, 12.

and oil, and put them in your vessels, and dwell in your cities that
ye have taken. ... 12 Even all the Jews returned out of all places
whither they were driven, and came to the land of Judah, to Gedaliah,
unto Mizpah, and gathered wine and summer fruits very much.

V. io. GATHER YE WINE] Hebrew, isphu yayin, 'gather ye wine'; Lxx.,
sunagagete oinon, ' gather ye wine '; V. , colligete vindemiam, ' collect ye vintage-fruit. '

V. 12. AND GATHERED WINE] Hebrew, vay-yaasphu yayin, * and they gathered
wine ' ; T. of Jonathan, khamrah, ' wine ' ; Lxx. kai suneegagon oinon, V. et
colligerunt vinum, 'and they gathered wine.' The V. varies from vindemiam (ver.
io) to vinum (ver. 12) in its rendering of yayin ; but both vinum and oinos are
terms sometimes applied by classic writers to the fruit of the vine — whether figur-
atively, or as the relic of a more ancient and popular usus loquendi, cannot now be
certainly determined. As to yayin, its etymology plainly distinguishes it from
tirosh, but that it should have been used by Gedaliah (ver. io) in a matter-of-fact
construction as synonymous with tirosh. (vintage-fruit), and that it is again used by
Jeremiah historically (ver. 12), indicates the absence of the modern prejudice, ' that
the liquid fruit of the vine is not wine till it is fermented ' !

There is one passage as to oinos, in an ancient Greek author, which is the exact
parallel to Gedaliah's use of the Hebrew yayin* It is preserved in Athenseus
(book vi., sect. 89), being an extract from the 'Voyage' of Nymphodorus, the
Syracusan, who lived before Christ 320 — "At the time of festivals, he [Drimacus
the General] went about, and took wine from the fields — ek ton agron oinon, — and
such animals for victims as were in good condition." No one, we suppose, can
carry prejudice so far as to impose upon himself the belief that fermented and
bottled wine was thus ' taken from the fields.'

CHAPTER XLVI. VERSE io.

For this is the day of the Lord GOD of hosts, a day of vengeance,
that he may avenge him of his adversaries: and the sword shall
devour, and it shall be satiate and made drunk with their blood : ' for
the Lord GOD of hosts hath a sacrifice in the north country by the
river Euphrates.

AND MADE DRUNK WITH THEIR BLOOD] Hebrew, vt-rav-thah mid-dahmahm,
'and be surcharged with their blood ' ; Lxx., methustheesetai ; V., inebriabitur.
[See Notes on Deut. xxxii. 42 ; Isa. xxxiv. 5, 8; xlvi. 26.]

CHAPTER XLVIII. VERSES n, 12.

ii Moab hath been at ease from his youth, and he hath settled on
his lees, and hath not been emptied from vessel to vessel, neither hath
he gone into captivity : therefore his taste remained in him, and his
scent is not changed. 12 Therefore, behold, the days come, saith the
LORD, that I will send unto him wanderers, that shall cause him to
wander, and shall empty his vessels, and break their bottles.

JEREMIAH, XLIX. 9. 199

HE HATH SETTLED ON His LEES] Hebrew, vc-shoqcit hit el shtmahrahv, 'and
he has settled himself upon his lees ' ; Lxx., kai pepoithos een epi tee doxee autou,
'and he has relied upon his glory' ; V., et requievit in fed bus suis, 'and he has
settled on his dregs.'

By a powerful image sensual Moab is compared to wine that had not been dis-
turbed since it was put into its first vessel ; and the threatening goes forth that he
shall resemble not only wine transferred from one vessel to another, but wine
which runs out and is lost, because the vessels containing it are emptied and
broken. [See Note on Zeph. i. 12.]

CHAPTER XLVIII. VERSE 26.

Make ye him drunken : for he magnified himself against the LORD :
Moab also shall wallow in his vomit, and he also shall be in derision.

MAKE YE HIM DRUNKEN] Hebrew, hishkiru, 'make him drunk'; Lxx., me-
thusate auton ; V., inebriate eum. The subsequent allusion to the state of Moab
indicates the intoxicating nature of the drink he is supposed to have swallowed.
The Moabites were reputed an intemperate people, and some writers have fancied
a connection of this propensity with the circumstances under which the founder of
the nation traced his descent from Lot.

CHAPTER XLVIII. VERSES 32, 33.

32 O vine of Sibmah, I will weep for thee with the weeping of
Jazer : thy plants are gone over the sea, they reach even to the sea
of Jazer : the spoiler is fallen upon thy summer fruits and upon thy
vintage. 33 And joy and gladness is taken from the plentiful field,
and from the land of Moab ; and I have caused wine to fail from the
winepresses : none shall tread with shouting ; their shouting shall be
no shouting.

V. 32. O VINE OF SIBMAH] Hebrew, hag-gephen Sivmah, 'the vine of Sibmah.'
For 'vine,' the Lxx. has ampelos ; the V., vinea. [See Note on Isa. xvi. 6.]

AND UPON THY VINTAGE] Hebrew, ve al-betzirakt 'and upon thy cutting '»•
the fruit of the vine cut off when ripe. Lxx., epi tnigeetais sou, ' upon thy vintage-
men'; V., et (super) vindemiam tuam, 'and upon thy vintage-fruit.'

V. 33. AND I HAVE CAUSED WINE TO FAIL FROM THE WINEPRESSES] Hebrew,
ve-yayin miqavim hishbati, 'and wine from the presses I have made to fail'; Lxx.,
kai oinos een epi leenois sou, 'and wine was in thy presses '; V., et vinum de tor-
cularibus sustu/i, 'and I have removed wine from thy presses.'

CHAPTER XLIX. VERSE 9.

If grapegatherers come to thee, would they not leave some gleaning
grapes ? if thieves by night, they will destroy till they have enough.

200 JEREMIAH, LI. /, 39, 5/.

GRAPEGATHERERS] Hebrew, botzerim, ' cutters ' = those employed to cut off the
grapes at the vintage season; Lxx., trugeetai, 'vintagers'; V., -vindemiatores^
'vintage-men.'

SOME GLEAXING GRAPES] Hebrew, olalotk, 'gleanings'; Lxx., katahimma^
'a remnant'; V., racemum, 'a cluster.'

CHAPTER XLIX. VERSE 12.

For thus saith the LORD : Behold, they whose judgment was not to
drink of the cup have assuredly drunken ; and art thou he that shall
altogether go unpunished? thou shalt not go unpunished, but thou
shalt surely drink of it.

The figure here, as in chap. xxv. 28, is that of a cup of retribution — intoxicating
and prostrating — prepared by God for evil-doers; and which, despite their self-
confidence — even where, as in the case of the Jews, they relied upon their
Abrahamic relationship — they would be constrained to drink up.

CHAPTER LI. VERSE 7.

Babylon hath been a golden cup in the LORD'S hand, that made all
the earth drunken : the nations have drunken of her wine ; therefore
the nations are mad.

THAT MADE ALL THE EARTH DRUNKEN] Hebrew, meshakkereth kahl hah-
ahretz, 'making drunk all the earth'; Lxx., methuskon ; V., inebrians.

OF HER WINE] Hebrew, miy-yaynah, 'from her wine '; Lxx., apo tou oinou
autees ; V., de vino ejus.

ARE MAD] Hebrew, yithholelu, 'were infuriated'; Lxx., esaleutheesan, 'were
shaken ' (convulsed); V., commote sunt, 'have been perturbed.'

The image of an intoxicating potion is again presented, and though the cup is
'golden,' the effects are not less destructive.

CHAPTER LI. VERSES 39, 57.

39 In their heat I will make their feasts, and I will make them
drunken, that they may rejoice, and sleep a perpetual sleep, and not
wake, saith the LORD. ... 57 And I will make drunk her princes, and
her wise men, her captains, and her rulers, and her mighty men : and
they shall sleep a perpetual sleep, and not wake, saith the King,
whose name is the LORD of hosts.

V. 39. IN THEIR HEAT] Hebrew, bl-khummahm, ' in their heat ' — the heat, says
Gesenius, ' arising from wine.' Lxx., en tee thermasia auton ; V., in calore eomm.

AND I WILL MAKE THEM DRUNKEN] Hebrew, ve-hishekkartim, 'and have
caused them to be drunk '; Lxx., kai methuso autons ; V., et inebriabo eos.

THAT THEY MAY REJOICE] Hebrew, fo-maan ya-alozu, ' that they may exult ';
Lxx., hopos karothosin, ' that they may be stupefied '; V., «/ sopiantur, ' that they
may be made senseless.'

JEREMIAH, LII. 16. 201

D SLEEP A PERPETUAL SLEEP] Hebrew, vc-yashnu shcnath olahmt 'and
sleep a sleep forever.'

V. 57. AND I WILL MAKE DRUNK] Hebrew, vl-hishekkarti, 'and I will make
drunk.'

Here God speaks, not as ordaining causes, but as connecting causes with effects.
How this prophecy was fulfilled, secular history singularly testifies. [See Note
on Dan. v. I, 30. ]

CHAPTER LII. VERSE 16.

But Nebuzar-adan the captain of the guard left certain of the poor
of the land for vinedressers and for husbandmen.

FOR VINEDRESSERS] Hebrew, %-korlmim, 'for vineyarders.'
26

THE BOOK OF THE

LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 15.

The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty men in the midst
of me : he hath called an assembly against me to crush my young
men : the Lord hath trodden the virgin, the daughter of Judah, as in
a winepress.

IN A WINEPRESS] Hebrew, gath, 'the press.'* The marginal reading is, 'the
winepress of the virgin.' Others propose, 'the Lord hath trodden the winepress
as it respects the virgin.'

Lxx. and V. have ' the Lord to the virgin daughter of Judah has trodden the
winepress.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 12.

They say to their mothers, Where is corn and wine ? when they
swooned as the wounded in the streets of the city, when their soul
was poured out into their mothers' bosom.

WHERE is CORN AND WINE?] Hebrew, ayya dahgan vah-yayin, 'where is corn
and wine?' Yayin here seems (as in Jer. xl. 10, 12) to be substituted for tirosh,
which in other places is uniformly connected with dahgan. In a country where
grapes are an article of daily food it is natural that children should be described
as crying out for them in the streets during a time of famine, especially since thirst
would be equally allayed by sucking the grapes. Congruity and probability are
alike shocked by supposing that little children would cry to their mothers for
intoxicating drink because of the want of food and water! Lxx.,/0w seitos kai
oinosy ' where is corn and wine ? ' V., ubi est triticum et vinum ? ' where is wheat
and wine ? ' — the Synac adds, ' and oil.'

CHAPTER III. VERSE 15.

He hath filled me with bitterness, he hath made me drunken with
wormwood.

* It is to be noted, however, that this word is of wider use than 'press.' As Dindorf says,
"the Hebrews truly distinguished gath into two parts ; the first they called gath higher, the other
gath lower. The first is the place in which the grapes were trodden, the wine (vinum) flowing into
a lacus beneath, through a tube."

LAMENTATIONS, IV. 7. 2O3

HE HATH MADE ME DRUNKEN WITH WORMWOOD] Hebrew, hirvani la-anah,
•he hath satiated me with wormwood.' Rahvah here reappears, and answers to
hisbianiy 'he hath filled me ' (from sahba) in the first member of the sentence.

J. G. Kohl, in his 'Travels in Austria,' notices a wine of wormwood in these
terms: — "On Mount Badatschon, north of the Flatten See, a kind of 'wine-
decoction' is made, known as 'Badatschon Wormwood,' and as renowned in
Hungary as the Tokay Essence. To make it, the juice is boiled with certain herbs.
The same thing is done with the best of the Schomlau grapes, to produce ' Schomlau
Wormwood.'"— (P. 374, Lond., 1845.)

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 7.

Her Nazarites were purer than snow, they were whiter than milk,
they were more ruddy in body than rubies, their polishing was of
sapphire.

A more literal rendering of this verse would be — " Pure have been her
Nazarites above snow, white above milk, ruddy in body above corals, (like)
sapphire (has been) their form." The Lxx., Codex B, gives ekathariotheesan
Naziraioi autees huper chiona, elampsan huper gala, epurotheesan, huper lithou
sappheirou to apospasma auton : ' her Nazarites were purer than snow, they shone
above milk, they were purified (as) by fire, beyond a sapphire stone was their
polish.' Codex A has elampsan, huper gala eturotheesetai huper lithous sappheirou^
' they shone, they were coagulated (made like cheese) above milk, above stones of
sapphire was their polishing.' The V. has candidiores Nazarei ejus nivet nitidiores
lacte, ntbicundiores ebore antiquo, sapphiropulchriores, ' whiter (were) her Nazarites
above snow, more shining than milk, ruddier than old ivory, more beautiful than
the sapphire.' The Syriac reads, ' her Nazarites were purer than snow, and whiter
than milk in their pastures ; their bones were brighter than the sardine, and their
body than the sapphire.' The Arabic follows the Lxx., but renders the last
clause, ' their form (= aspect; was more excellent than a (well-cut) sapphire stone.'
The T. of Jonathan reads, ' her Nazarites were whiter than snow, smoother than
milk, ruddier in their appearance than flame-colored stones (or metals), and their
countenance as the sapphire.' The Hebrew penninim has been variously under-
stood, taking the sense of 'stone' or 'stones' in the Lxx., 'admirable things'
(periblepta) in the version of Symmachus, 'old ivory' in the V., 'flame-colored
things' in the T., 'rubies' in the A. V., and 'corals' as suggested by Gesenius
and adopted in our rendering. Whatever object was denoted must have been of
a bright red color, or there would have been no force in the comparison that the
Nazarites were ' ruddier ' even than it.

This glowing description of the Nazarites is a testimony, as unimpeachable as it
is splendid, to the physical advantages of abstinence from all intoxicating liquors ;
and the light emanating from this one text should have been sufficient to
prevent the darkness of error as to the nature of strong drink from ever
settling down upon the mind of Christendom. Every touch in this picture
heightens the effect of the whole as a delineation of perfect health and vigor; the
bright blood mantling through a clear complexion, and the whole frame beaming

204 LAMENTATIONS, IV. 21.

and glowing, in lines of beauty, like a precious stone. Dr A. Clarke, who follows
Dr Blayney in rendering gizrahtham 'their veining' (instead of 'their polishing,'
as in A. V.), remarks upon this metaphorical description: — "Milk will most
certainly well apply to the whiteness of the skin ; the beautiful ruby to the ruddiness
of the flesh ; and the sapphire, in its clear transcendent purple, to the veins in a fine
complexion." It is not pretended that abstinence alone will bring about this
corporeal appearance, but the Nazarites were a race typical of the physical qualities
to which such temperance always predisposes, and which it will help to produce
when associated with a judicious regimen, actively persevered in. It is frequently
affected to be despised as 'a mere negative,' but when we remember that it is a
complete negative and nullifier of the most common and fashionable source of all
kinds and all degrees of disease, mental and bodily, — a negative upon a liquid which
fosters general debility by tainting the blood and irritating the nervous system, — it
may be truthfully regarded as no inconsiderable friend to human health and length
of days. Universally adopted, it would elevate the sanitary level of society, and
lower the rate of mortality, in excluding a noxious element, by which the one is
seriously depressed and the other correspondingly raised. It was the surest sign of
the havoc produced by the desolation of Judah, that the Nazarites, who had been
so prominent for their healthy and handsome appearance, should become dark,
haggard, and shriveled through hunger and thirst. Historically, this notice of the
Nazarites is valuable as showing that Nazaritism, as an institution, continued to
flourish down to the period of the captivity (B. C. 588).

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 21.

Rejoice and be glad, O daughter of Edom, that dwellest in the
land of Uz ; the cup also shall pass through unto thee : thou shalt be
drunken, and shalt make thyself naked.

THOU SHALT BE DRUNKEN, AND SHALT MAKE THYSELF NAKED] Hebre\T,
tishekeri ve-thithahri, 'thou shalt be drunken, and shalt uncover thyself; Lxx.,
methustheesee kaiapocheeis, 'thou shalt be drunken and cast down '; V., inebriaberis
atque nudaberis, ' thou shalt be made drunk and nude.'

What in a sober state is concealed, from modesty or prudence, is, in a state of
inebriation, made bare, and the very power of maintaining propriety or self-
protection is taken away. Edom, which had rejoiced over Judah's downfall,
should drink of the same cup of calamity, and be despoiled by the enemy, like a
drunken man stripped by the robber who had stricken him down.

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET EZEKIEL

[EZEKIEL IS BELIEVED TO HAVE PROPHESIED B. C. $95 — 574.]

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 17.

Then he said unto me, Hast thou seen this, O son of man ? Is it
a light thing to the house of Judah that they commit the abomina-
tions which they commit here ? for they have filled the land with
violence, and have returned to provoke me to anger: and, lo, they
put the branch to their nose.

THE BRANCH] Hebrew, kaz-z2morah, 'the branch* or 'vine-branch.' [See
Note on Numb. xiii. 23; Isa. xvii. 10.] Gesenius thinks the reference is "to the
Persian custom of worshipping the rising sun, holding in their left hand a bundle
of the twigs of the plant called Barsom."

CHAPTER XII. VERSES 18, 19.

isSon of man, eat thy bread with quaking, and drink thy water
with trembling and with carefulness ; 19 And say unto the people of
the land, Thus saith the Lord GOD, of the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
and of the land of Israel; They shall eat their bread with carefulness,
and drink their water with astonishment, that her land may be
desolate from all that is therein, because of the violence of all them
that dwell therein.

Bread and water are here conjoined as the staple means of sustenance, and for
these to be consumed with fear and trembling would be a sign of the devastation
and insecurity about to befall the once prosperous and happy land.

CHAPTER XV. VERSES 2, 6.

• Son of man, What is the vine tree more than any tree, or than 3.
branch which is among the trees of the forest ? . . . 6 Therefore
thus saith the Lord GOD ; As the vine tree among the trees of the
forest, which I have given to the fire for fuel, so will I give the in-
habitants of Jerusalem.

V. 2, 6. THE VINE TREE] Hebrew, atz ha^-^ephen, 'a tree of the
V. 2. A BRANCH] Hebrew, haz-ztmorah, 'the branch '= vine-bra

vine,
vine-branch.

206 EZEKIEL, XXIII. 31 — 34.

The vine is chiefly valuable for its fruit, not for its wood, which is used as fuel
only. God here declares, therefore, that Jerusalem, having ceased to be a fruitful
vine, was now fit for the burning to which He would consign it.

CHAPTER XVII. VERSES 6—8.

6 And it grew, and became a spreading vine of low stature, whose
branches turned toward him, and the roots thereof were under him :
so it became a vine, and brought forth branches, and shot forth
sprigs. 7 There was also another great eagle with great wings and
many feathers : and, behold, this vine did bend her roots toward him,
and shot forth her branches toward him, that he might water it by the
furrows of her plantation, s It was planted in a good soil by great
waters, that it might bring forth branches, and that it might bear
fruit, that it might be a goodly vine.

V. 6, 7. VINE] Hebrew, gephen.

V. 8. A GOODLY VINE] Hebrew, gephen ad-dahreth, <a vine ample' ^wide-
spreading). For 'goodly* the Lxx. has megaleen, the V. grandem, 'great.'

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 10.

Thy mother is like a vine in thy blood, planted by the waters : she
was fruitful and full of branches by reason of many waters.

LIKE A VINE IN THY BLOOD] Hebrew, kag-gephen be-dahmkah, 'as a vine in
thy blood.' The obscurity of this passage has caused some learned commentators
to give to dahm the signification of likeness, — 'thy mother is as a vine in thy
likeness ' = like thee. Calmet conjectures the true reading to be kag-gephen
karmekah, ' as a vine of thy vineyard. ' This is not improbable, since b in Hebrew
resembles k, and d resembles r; but it is not a conjecture supported by any ancient
version, and only by two known Hebrew MSS. The Lxx. has 'thy mother (is)
as a vine, as a flower in a pomegranate.' So the Arabic. The T. of Jonathan has
'Israel was like a vine planted near fountains of waters.' Henderson, following
Piscator and Havernick, reads, 'in thy quietude' — from dtim, 'to be quiet/
— understanding a reference to the quiet and prosperous times of the Jewish
monarchy.

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSES 31 — 34.

3i Thou hast walked in the way of thy sister; therefore will I give
her cup into thine hand. 32 Thus saith the Lord GOD; Thou shalt
drink of thy sister's cup deep and large : thou shalt be laughed to
scorn and had in derision; it containeth much. 33 Thou shalt be
filled with drunkenness and sorrow, with the cup of astonishment and
desolation, with the cup of thy sister Samaria. 34 Thou shalt even
drink it and suck it out, and thou shalt break the sherds thereof, and
pluck off thine own breasts: for I have spoken //, saith the Lord
GOD.

EZEKIEL, XXIII. 42. 207

V. 33. THOU SHALT BE FILLED WITH DRUNKENNESS AND SORROW] Hebrew,

shikkahron ve-yahgon timmalai, 'drunkenness and sorrow shall fill thee.'

WITH THE CUP OF ASTONISHMENT AND DESOLATION] Hebrew, kos shammak
ushtmahmah, 'the cup of desolation and astonishment.' These two nouns have
substantially the same meaning, but if an objective and a subjective sense are to be
given them, it is more natural to take first the literal objective sense of ' wasting '
or 'desolation,' and then the subjective sense of 'astonishment' as the result of the
desolation beheld.

V. 34. THOU SHALT EVEN DRINK IT AND SUCK IT OUT] Literally, ' thou
shall drink it and suck it up.' [See Notes on Psa. Ixxv. 8, and Isa. li. 17.] The
Lxx., " Drink thy sister's cup, a deep and broad one [Codex A adds, 'it shall be
for laughter and for scorn '], and filled to the brim, to cause complete drunkenness
(metheen\ and thou shalt be filled with exhaustion ; and the cup of destruction, the
cup of thy sister Samaria, drink thou it ! " The V., " Thou shalt drink thy sister's
cup, deep and broad, with derision and scorn — them who are most capacious.
Thou shalt be filled with drunkenness and sorrow, with the cup of grief and sadness,
with the cup of thy sister Samaria ; and thou shalt drink it, and shalt drink it up
even to the dregs, and the fragments of it thou shalt devour" — alluding, say the
Douay editors, to the fact that drunkards sometimes bite their cups in their rage.

Samaria, the kingdom of Israel, had been punished by sword, famine, and
captivity, and such a cup of misery was now to be given to Judah, who would be
compelled to drain it as her sister kingdom had done before. Surely the ingredients
of such a cup are not identical, as one and the same kind of wine, with the contents
of a ' cup of blessing ' !

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 42.

And a voice of a multitude being at ease was with her : and with
the men of the common sort were brought Sabeans from the wilder-
ness, which put bracelets upon their hands, and beautiful crowns
upon their heads.

This verse, as it stands in the A. V., is not free from difficulty, and much un-
certainty rests upon the meaning of the clause — ' and with the men of the common
sort were brought Sabeans from the wilderness.' For 'the common sort* the
margin gives 'multitude of men,' and for 'Sabeans' it has 'or, drunkards.' The
word ' Sabeans ' has particularly perplexed copyists and translators. The first
three Hebrew letters are s v b, and the Masorite pointing gives the whole word the
pronunciation of sahv-vah-im ; but the Masorite doctors, not satisfied with the word
as thus pointed, suggested a correction which would make the initial letters s b
(and not s v b\ and so permit the word to be taken as sobaim or sovaim, as if
derived from sah-vah, 'to tipple,' 'to drink to excess.' Sahv-vah-im yields no
intelligible sense unless taken as a proper name — Sabeans ; yet who were these
Sabeans ? Not those mentioned by Isaiah, xlv. 14, for they were a people of
Ethiopia, whose name is without at// and not the Arabian Sabeans, a name of
which the initial letter is sh, not s. If the Masorite correction be accepted, reading
sovaim or sobaim, we arrive at the sense of 'soakers,' 'tipplers,' or 'bacchanals,'
which agrees very well with the context. On reference, however, to the ancient
versions, fresh difficulties start up. Codex B of the Lxx. has no equivalent for
1 brought,' and reads, heekontas ek tee; ercmou, ' coming out of the desert' ; and the

208 EZEKIEL, XXVII. 1 8.

V., which has addticebantur, 'were brought,' agrees with Codex B in the next
clause, et veniebant de deserto, 'and they were coming from the desert.' Lxx.,
Codex A, however, has oinomenous, 'winebibbers from the desert.' We may
conclude that the MSS. followed by the Vulgate read v b ^ y m, and not
s v b ^5 y m ! in which case v would be taken for 'and,' and b ^ y m (boini) for
'coming.' It follows, then, that the present initial s was either dropped from
those MSS. by mistake, or it was added by mistake to the other MSS. that give
the received reading s v b ^ y m. The Masorite doctors propose to retain the s
and drop the v, while the Vulgate keeps the v and drops the s. We can, perhaps,
more easily account for the erroneous addition of the s than of the v. The final
letter of the previous word is m, and when m is the final letter (unelongated) of a
Hebrew word, it very closely resembles s. A copyist might repeat this final m by
mistake, and the next transcriber, seeing it made no sense, might conclude that it
was an error for s, and accordingly put s in his copy, joining it to the next v, thus
changing v b ^ y m (ye-boim = ' and those coming ') into sav-bahim, or sahv-bah-im
as we now have it. Such an error creeping into a MS. of credit would vitiate all
subsequent transcripts, while the transcripts made from correct copies would, of
course, continue to represent the other reading. On the other hand, this resemblance
between final m and s might lead to the omission of the s by a copyist, and have
thus originated the reading of v&-boim followed by the Vulgate ; but the fact that no
one can give any intelligible sense to sahv-bah-im is in favor of the Vulgate, unless
we carry out the rule that the most difficult reading is always to be preferred. The
difference between Codices A and B is a proof that the Hebrew MSS. varied as
far back, at least, as the second century of our era. Dr Henderson gives — "And
there was the noise of a careless multitude in her, and to men of the common sort
drunkards were brought from the desert ; and they put bracelets on their hands,
and a splendid crown upon their heads."

Aholah (Samaria) and Aholibah (Judah) are represented as lewd women who
send for their lovers to a distance ; and the prophet represents a miscellaneous
company as coming up from the wilderness (or, as it may be rendered, ' the plain,'
or ' pastures ' = the open country), many of whom are attired after the manner of
revelers, and all ready to indulge in any intemperance or other excess that may
be proposed. This seems to be an account of an idolatrous festival, perhaps that
of Bacchus, in which a riotous and drunken multitude assembled, adorned with
bracelets and chaplets, accompanied with music, songs, and dances. [See Note on
Amos vi. 4 — 6.] *

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 18.

Damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of the wares of thy
making, for the multitude of all riches; in the wine of Helbon, and
white wool.

IN THE WINE OF HELBON] Hebrew, be-yayn Khelbon, « with wine of Helbon ' ;
Lxx., oinos ek Chelbon ; Symmachus, oinos liparos, ' thick (fat) wine '; so the V.,
in vinopingui, « with fat (rich) wine,' — taking khelbon not as a proper name, but
as an adjective noun =' wine of fatness.' The Syriac rendering is the same.
The T. of Jonathan has bakhamar khailath mevashal, 'with rich wine boiled.'
According to Strabo, the wine of Helbon had so great a reputation that it was
exported for the use of the kings of Persia. Helbon, which still exists under the

EZEKIEL, XLIV. 21. 209

name of Haleb or Aleppo, though almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1822, is
not to be confounded with the more celebrated Aleppo of Asia Minor. Under the
names of Chalybon and Chalybonium t'inum the wine of Helbon was known to the
Greeks and Romans, but unless it had been an inspissated wine, thick as treacle
or honey, its transportation could not have been easily effected, certainly not with-
out a great risk of spoiling a fermented wine. Possibly the name was extensively
given to some imitations prepared for the European market.

CHAPTER XXVIII. VERSE 26.

And they shall dwell safely therein, and shall build houses, and
plant vineyards.

VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kZrahmim.

CHAPTER XXXIX. VERSE 19.

And ye shall eat fat till ye be full, and drink blood till ye be
drunken, of my sacrifice which I have sacrificed for you.

AND DRINK BLOOD TILL YE BE DRUNKEN] Hebrew, ushthithem dahm le-
shikkaron, 'and ye have drunk (= shall drink) blood to drunkenness ' = to
repletion ; the sense being that of gorging, to correspond with the first clause of
the sentence.

CHAPTER XLIV. VERSE 21.

Neither shall any priest drink wine, when they enter into the inner
court.

WINE] Hebrew, yayin ; Lxx., oinon ; V., vinum.

Ezekiel, in ver. 17 — 19, refers to the 'linen garments' of the priests when
ministering in the inner court; and as the use of linen was designed to insure a
cleanliness symbolical of inward purity, the prohibition of wine was obviously a real
means to that great moral end. Josephus (Antiq., b. iii., c. 12, s. 2) recognizes
this connection : — " Moses enjoined the priests not only to observe purity in their
sacred administrations, but in their daily conduct, that it may be unblamable also;
and on this account it is that those who wear the sacerdotal robe are without spot, and
concerning all things are pure and abstinent [kai peripanta katharoikai neephalioi~\,
being forbidden to drink wine so long as they are wearing this robe [pinein oinon
heos ou teen stoleen echusi kekulumenoi~\" It was, in fact, equal to saying, ' While
you are My special servants, wearing My livery, you must do My work on this
abstinent plan, or perish; there is no other plan of absolute safety and purity.'

On the phrase 'drink wine,' the Assembly of Westminster divines of 1651, in
their 'Annotations,' have this comment: — "Occasions of evil to be avoided;
specially in sacred things — Lev. x. 9; Psa. xciii. $ — and by sacred ministers.
They of all men must not be given to wine." Does not the question, then, fairly
arise, Why not avoid the evil by the adoption of the same plan ? — a plan devised
and enforced by the All-wise in regard to His own servants, engaged in His own
special work ? Are men wiser than God ?

This republication of the Levitical law (Lev. x. 9) is worthy of the careful
attention of those who look upon the prophecies of Ezekiel as typical of the
27

210 EZEKIEL, XLV. 1 7, 21.

dispensation under which all believers are 'kings and priests unto God.' It
cannot be without significance now, that during their most solemn official duties
abstinence was enjoined upon the ancient priests. Christianity does not sanction
the abolition of safeguards against evil, but renders their adoption more pleasing to
God, because inspired by filial reverence and godly fear. Philo, who was con-
temporary with the apostles, shows, in his treatise on Monarchy, that he had
entered into the moral and catholic spirit of the Levitical ordinance. The passage
is very striking, and is as follows: — "God issues additional commandments, and
orders Aaron, whenever he approaches the altar and touches the sacrifices at the
time when it is appointed for him to perform his sacred ministrations, not to drink
wine or any other strong drink, on account of four most important reasons —
hesitation, and forgetfulness, and sleep, and folly. For the intemperate man
\_akratos, which Dr Mangey refers not to the drinker but to the drink — unmixed
wine, — a sense which the passage will well bear] relaxes the powers of his frame and
renders his limbs more slow of motion, and makes his whole body more inclined to
hesitation, and compels it by force to become drowsy. And he [or it] also relaxes
the energies of his soul, and so becomes the cause to it of forgetfulness and folly.
But in the case of abstemious men (neephonton) all the parts of the body are lighter,
and, as such, more active and movable, and the outer senses are more pure and
unalloyed, and the mind is gifted with a more acute sight, so that it is able to see
things beforehand, and never forgets what it has previously seen. In a word,
indeed, it must be considered that the use of wine is most unprofitable to the soul
for all the purposes of life (suno/os, men oun teen oinou chreesin past tots kata ton
bion alusiteleotateen einai upoleepteon psuchees), inasmuch as by it the soul is
weighed down, the outward senses are dimmed, and the body is enervated. For it
does not leave any one of our faculties free and unembarrassed, but is a hindrance
to every one of them, so as to impede its attaining that object to which it is by nature
fitted. But in sacred ceremonies and holy rites this mischief is most grievous of all,
in proportion as it is worse and more intolerable to sin with respect to God than
with respect to man, on which account it probably is, that it is commanded to the
priests to offer sacrifices without wine (neephalia), in order to make a difference
and distinction between sacred and profane things, and pure and impure things,
and lawful and unlawful things."

CHAPTER XLV. VERSE 17.

And it shall be the prince's part to give burnt offerings, and meat
offerings, and drink offerings, in the feasts, and in the new moons,
and in the sabbaths, in all solemnities of the house of Israel: he
shall prepare the sin offering, and the meat offering, and the burnt
offering, and the peace offerings, to make reconciliation for the house
of Israel.

AND DRINK OFFERINGS] Hebrew, ve-han-nasek, ' and the libation.'

CHAPTER XLV. VERSE 21.

In the first monf/i, in the fourteenth day of the month, ye shall have
the passover, a feast of seven days ; unleavened bread shall be eaten.

UNLEAVENED BREAD SHALL BE EATEN] Hebrew, matzoth ydahkal, 'unfermented
(things) shall be eaten.' Matzoth here is taken as a collective noun, and joined to
a singular verb. It means 'fresh, sweet things.'

THE BOOK OF DANIEL.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 5.

And the king appointed them a daily provision of the king's meat,
and of the wine which he drank : so nourishing them three years, that
at the end thereof they might stand before the king.

OF THE KING'S MEAT] Hebrew, mip-pathbag ham-mtfek, 'from the food of the
king.' Gesenius gives to pathbag the force of 'delicate food,' 'dainties,' and refers
it to a Persian origin. Lxx., apo tees trapezees tou basileos, ' from the table of the
king.' V., de cibis suis, ' from his victuals.'

AND OF THE WINE WHICH HE DRANK] Hebrew, wniy-yayin mishtahv, 'and
from the wine of his drinking.' Lxx., kai apo tou oinou tou potou autou, 'and
from the wine of his own drinking.' V., et de vino unde bibebat ipse, 'and from
the wine whence he himself drank.'

Under Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian empire attained its greatest expansion
and glory ; but being founded on mere military supremacy, its decay was as rapid
as its rise. Luxury enervated the Babylonian princes and nobles during times of
peace ; and while their food was dainty, their drinks were chosen with the view
rather of exciting thirst than of allaying it.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 8.

But Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself
with the portion of the king's meat, nor with the wine which he
drank : therefore he requested of the prince of the eunuchs that he
might not defile himself.

WITH THE WINE WHICH HE DRANK] Hebrew, bl-yayin mishtahv, 'with the
wine of hi^(the king's) drinking.'

Daniel's scruples may have arisen from his knowledge of idolatrous rites used
in connection with the king's provisions, — perhaps their formal dedication to Bel
before they were served up for the royal table.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 10.

And the prince of the eunuchs said unto Daniel, I fear my lord the
king, who hath appointed your meat and your drink : for why should

212 DANIEL, I. II — 1 6.

he see your faces worse liking than the children which are of your
sort ? then shall ye make me endanger my head to the king.

YOUR FACES WORSE LIKING] Hebrew, plnaikem zoaphim, 'your faces sad.'
Zoaphim is rendered by the Lxx. skuthropa, 'melancholy-looking'; by the V.,
macilentiores, ' leaner. '

The prince of the eunuchs reasoned correctly from a right premiss — that the
best diet will produce the best effect upon the countenance ; but his minor premiss
being fallacious — that the king's diet was the best — his conclusion is at fault.
He mistook, as many still do, less excusable after Daniel's refutation of the error,
luxurious for strengthening fare, and highly flavored for nourishing food.

CHAPTER I. VERSES n — 16.

ii Then said Daniel to Melzar, whom the prince of the eunuchs
had set over Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, 12 Prove thy
servants, I beseech thee, ten days ; and let them give us pulse to eat,
and water to drink. i3Then let our countenances be looked upon
before thee, and the countenance of the children that eat of the
portion of the king's meat : and as thou seest, deal with thy servants.
14 So he consented to them in this matter, and proved them ten days,
is And at the end of ten days their countenances appeared fairer and
fatter in flesh than all the children which did eat the portion of the
king's meat. 16 Thus Melzar took away the portion of their meat,
and the wine that they should drink ; and gave them pulse.

V. ii. To MELZAR] Hebrew, el-ham-meltzar, 'to the meltzar.' The Lxx. reads,
Amelsad ; the V., Malasar. Some critics regard meltzarnot as a proper name,
but as the designation of an office.

V. 12. PULSE] Hebrew, haz-zaroim. The verb zahra signifies 'to sow,' and
zaroim may be taken comprehensively as including grain, herbs, and roots. Lxx.,
ton spermaton, ' of seeds ' ; Codex A adds tees gees, ' of the earth ' ; V., legumina,
'pulse.'

V. 15. THEIR COUNTENANCES APPEARED FAIRER AND FATTER] Hebrew,
nirah maraihcm tov ttveriai bahsar min-kol-hailahdim, 'their countenances
appeared good, and they were fat in flesh above all the (royal) offspring.'
Lxx. has ' their countenances appeared agathai kai ischurai tais sarxin — good
and firm in flesh;' but Codex A has 'their countenances appeared good, and they
were firm in flesh' — /. e. all over their body. V., apparuerunt vultus eorum
meliores et corpulentiores, ' their faces appeared better and fatter.'

The prince of the eunuchs having dismissed his plea, Daniel applied, on behalf
of himself and his young friends, to Meltzar — or some subordinate officer designated
'the meltzar,' — and proposed an experiment, which that officer had the good sense
to sanction. The period granted, ten days, afforded a reasonable time for solving
the question ; and it was solved, not more to Daniel's satisfaction than to the officer's
surprise. Instead of looking upon lean and melancholy countenances, he saw four
pleasant faces with fat and full-rounded cheeks. Having made out so good a case,
the Hebrew youths were permitted to continue the dietary for which they had
petitioned. Several circumstances call for special notice in this experiment.

DANIEL, I. II — 16. 213

1. The wisdom of Daniel. He had observed that all physical nutriment comes
primarily from the produce of the soil, and was not confined to dainty dishes or
flesh of animals. Equally discerning was he as to the compatibility of good health
without wine of any kind, whether fresh or fermented. The nutritious elements
of grape-juice existed, he well knew (as all might know by a little reflection), in
other substances, and he was not the slave of the miserable modern superstition,
alike deceitful and destructive, which assigns to the process of fermentation the
production of some peculiar element of vitality and vigor. From the example of
the Xazarites, if not himself one of that noble band of Jewish abstainers, he was
well assured that the wine which Solomon had called ' a mocker ' was no necessary
ingredient of a wholesome and nutritious diet.

2. Not less notable was the moral courage of the young Hebrew exile. He
dared to run counter even to court prejudice and fashion. He scorned scorn
where conscience was concerned. Anticipating an apostolic maxim, his example
virtually said, In things evil be not conformed to the court.

3. 77ie enlightened spirit of Meltzar, too, calls for eulogy. lie did not doggedly
set himself against change, and exclude the light of evidence. He did not say,
"Daniel must be wrong because the king thinks differently, and venerable
Babylonish usage is all the other way;" nor did he use the powers of his office
tyrannically, by refusing liberty to his charge in a matter relating to their own
comfort and convictions. Some portion of his spirit infused into many British
minds would incline them to undertake that personal trial of abstinence for them-
selves which Daniel desired leave for himself and his companions to carry out.
Some, indeed, who do enter upon this trial, begin with misgivings or longings
fitted to insure its failure, while the blame is absurdly cast upon the principle that
has been unfairly tried and treated. ' Ten days ' were allowed to Daniel, while
some who can choose their own period of experiment shorten it to half the time ;
and cases are not unknown where ' ten hours ' have been thought long enough to
try it as against 'the other side,' which has been practised for half a lifetime.
Experiments of this order prove nothing but the insincerity or trifling disposition
of those who enter upon them.

4. Daniel and his friends' success is at once an example, an argument, and an
encouragement. It was a visible success — written on the faces of Daniel and his
friends ; not an exceptional triumph, a lucky chance, but a result in accordance
with Divine natural law, and therefore one capable of being repeated and con-
firmed by experience in all ages and civil communities. The success of the experi-
ment demonstrates that the use of luxurious fare and intoxicating drinks is not
compatible -with the utmost perfection of body and brain; while it allows entire
liberty as to particular kinds of food, practically found to be best adapted to
nourish the body or gratify an unvitiated taste. The statement of Daniel (x. 3),
that he had abstained for a season from wine, and the implication that he after-
ward resumed its use, do not in the least qualify the great conclusion of this
narrative; even assuming, gratuitously [see Prel. Dis.], that the 'wine* in each
case was similar as to intoxicating quality. To assume that Daniel, late in life, used
the wine from which he so advantageously abstained in his youth, cannot get rid
of results ; nor, therefore, weaken the natural demonstration thus afforded, that
abstinence insured (as a negative condition) the most robust health, and even a
measure of health superior to that evidenced by those who (in the face of the fact)
continued their allotted portion of the king's meat and wine, — a class assuredly
not without descendants unto this day.

214 DANIEL, V. I — 4, 30.

CHAPTER V. VERSES i — 4, 30.

i Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords,
and drank wine before the thousand. 2 Belshazzar, while he tasted
the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his
father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in
Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his
concubines, might drink therein. 3 Then they brought the golden
vessels that were taken out of the temple of the house of God which
was at Jerusalem ; and the king, and his princes, his wives, and his
concubines, drank in them. 4 They drank wine, and praised the
gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone.
3o In that night was Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans slain.

V. i. A GREAT FEAST] Chaldee, lekhem rav, < a feast, a great (one).' Lekhem
is the Chaldee for 'food,' and thence is used to represent a large supply of food, a
banquet. Lxx., deipnon mega, 'a great feast.' (The Greek deipnon answered ta
the modern fashionable 'dinner,' both as forming the principal meal of the day,
and as being served up in the evening.) V., grande convivium, 'a great feast.'

AND DRANK WINE] Chaldee, ve-lah-qahval alpah khamrah shahtha, ' and to
(or before) a thousand he drank wine. ' The Chaldee khamrah corresponds to the
Hebrew khemer, but its primitive sense of ' foaming ' had merged into a new and
pregnant significance, from the practice of adding to the juice of the grape an
artificial form and depth of color, the outward sign of qualities holding 'fierce
enmity with the blood of man,' yet capable of exercising a fatal witchery over his
nervous system. As the king drank, so did his nobles. The Lxx. has ' and over
against the thousand, wine.' The V. has 'and he drank to every one according to
his age ' — i. e. he toasted the principal guests.

V. 2. BELSHAZZAR, WHILE HE TASTED THE WINE, COMMANDED] Chaldee,
Belshatzar amar bltam khamrah, ' Belshazzar ordered, in the taste of wine ' =
whilst drinking wine, he ordered, etc. Yet more than simple tasting is probably
designed by bitam khamrah ; for as team, from the original sense of ' tasting ' or
' flavor,' acquired the secondary meanings of 'knowledge,' 'decree,' 'command,'
the clause might not be improperly translated ' Belshazzar ordered, by (or under)
the influence (or inspiration) of wine,' etc. Dr Gill's note is, " As he was drink-
ing his cups, and delighted with the taste of the wine, and got merry with it ; or,
'by the advice of the wine,' as Aben Ezra and Jarchi interpret it, as if that
dictated to him and put him upon doing what follows ; and which often puts both
foolish and wicked things into the heads of men, and upon doing them." Lxx.,
kai peinon Baltasar eipen en tee geusei tou oinou, 'and Belshazzar drinking, said,
in the taste of the wine.' The edition of the Lxx. preserved by Origen reads,
enupsoumenos apo tou oinou, 'lifted up by the wine.' The V. is abrupt and
expressive,— -pracepit ergo jam temulentus, ' he commanded, therefore, being now
intoxicated.' Any reverence he might have felt for the sacred vessels of the
Jewish temple vanished as soon as the wine had done its work of disturbance in
the brain.

The feast was such as might be expected to take place under the presidency of
an absolute king, pampered and dissolute, and wishing to vaunt of his security,

DANIEL, X. 3. 215

while his kingdom was in fact departing from him. This dissipation was the
natural, but not less providential antecedent of the catastrophe sketched in the
words, ' In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain.' Accord-
ing to Xenophon, in his 'Cyropacdia' (vii. 5, 15), all Babylon was given up to
revelry while celebrating one of the great festivals of Bel ; and taking advantage
of this dissipation, Cyrus captured the city, and the king was slain. According to
Herodotus, the gates opening toward the river Euphrates having been left open
and unguarded, owing to the inebriety of the soldiers, the Persian prince (whose
refusal as a boy to taste wine because it had poison in it, is one of the stories one
wishes to believe) had no difficulty in entering with the troops he had marched
down the river's bed, after drawing off its waters into an artificial channel. The
name of the king who thus ingloriously fell was given by Berosus as Nabonnedus,
or Nabonadius ; Xabonnidochus, by Megasthenes ; and Labynetus,* by Herodotus.
And this discrepancy of nomenclature between the Scripture and secular historians
had not been left unused to discredit the narrative of the former. But Sir H.
Rawlinson deciphered, in 1854, some cylinders found in the ancient Ur of the
Chaldees, which testified that the eldest son of Nabonnedus was called Bel-shar-
ezar, and was admitted to a share in the government. "And we can now under-
stand," writes Rawlinson, "how Belshazzar, as joint-king with his father, may
have been governor of Babylon when the city was attacked by the combined forces
of the Medes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed ;
while Nabonnedus, leading a force to the relief of the place, was defeated and
obliged to take refuge in Borsippa, capitulating after a short resistance, and being
subsequently assigned, according to Berosus, an honorable retirement in Carma-
nia. " If this theory is correct, Belshazzar was slain B. C. 538 ; but if that of Niebuhr
be entertained, which makes Belshazzar identical with Evil-merodach, the son of
Nebuchadnezzar, and a first capture of Babylon to have happened under Astyages
(= Darius) the Mede, his death must be placed twenty-one years earlier, B. C. 559.

It may be fitly asked, why so many modern critics refuse to treat the difficulties
of the wine question as they do others, — as, for example, the one just discussed ?
Here they not only do not object to suppose facts that might remove a discrepancy,
but search for such facts, and hail their discovery with delight. But while in the
case of the governor of Babylon they are willing to accept two kings at once, they
as positively refuse to discriminate the quality of wines, which, they tenaciously
affirm, are but of one kind, and that of which the words are uttered, * Wine is a
mocker.'

CHAPTER X. VERSE 3.

I ate no pleasant bread, neither came flesh nor wine in my mouth,
neither did I anoint myself at all, till three whole weeks were fulfilled.

WINE] Hebrew, yayin. Daniel does not use the Hebrew word khtmlr, which
might have indicated a liquor analogous to the Chaldee khamrah, drunk by
Belshazzar and his lords, but he uses the generic name for the juice of the grape
in all its expressed forms. In the absence of information, no one has a right to
decide that Daniel, in his old age, habitually consumed the kind of yayin which

• These three names are the same ; in the last, L is substituted for N.

2l6 DANIEL, X. 3.

the royal Preacher had designated 'a mocker,' and which the older prophets of
his nation had employed as a symbol of Divine retribution. Innocent preparations
of yayin could be procured in abundance. The question, "what kind of wine
Daniel drank, is to be answered, so far as an answer is possible, by the proba-
bilities of the case. That somebody consumed innocent vinous preparations is
certain : is it probable that the prophets and saints were the sole persons who
refused to do so ? Is it likely that, while moral pagans preferred good wines, the
prophets and religious Jews invariably selected the drugged and intoxicating?
But the associated element of Daniel's abstinence will refute the whole principle of
the argument. He abstained from 'flesh.' Does this imply, because the term is
generic, that, before and after his temporary abstinence from all animal food, he
consumed pork and every other ordinary form of flesh ? If there was discrimina-
tion in the case of the meat, why not in the case of the wine ? If, behind the
general formula, we have to place many guiding principles of limitation in regard
to 'flesh,' universally a satisfier, is it not equally rational to do so in respect of
* wine,' of which one kind at least is said to be a deceiver and a poison ? Whatever
answer is returned can in no degree affect the general argument for abstinence
based on Science and Experience, nor the particular argument deduced from the
signal success of the abstinent practice which, in his youth, Daniel so firmly adopted
and so consistently pursued.

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET HOSEA.

[ HOSEA FLOURISHED ABOUT THE YEAR 750 B. C.]

CHAPTER II. VERSE 5.

For their mother hath played the harlot : she that conceived them
hath done shamefully : for she said, I will go after my lovers, that give
me my bread and my water, my wool and my flax, mine oil and my
drink.

AND MY DRIXK] Hebrew, vt-shiqquyahit 'and my drinks'; Lxx., kai panta
hosa mot katheekei, 'and all things which it befits me (to have).' So the Syriac
and Arabic. V., et potum meum, 'and my drink.' But the Aldine edition of
the Lxx. has ho oinos mou, ' my wine ' ; the T. of Jonathan, ' and all my
sustenance.' These 'drinks' were probably aromatic compounds, such as a
luxurious appetite would delight in.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 8.

For she did not know that I gave her corn, and wine, and oil, and
multiplied her silver and gold, which they prepared for Baal.

CORN, AND WINE, AND OIL] Hebrew, had-dahgan, vt-hat-tirosht v^-hay-yltzhar^
'the corn, and the vine-fruit, and the orchard-fruit.' These principal products of
the soil are here enumerated in the order which they had held in the Jewish
writings for seven hundred years. Lxx., si fan, oinon, elaion ; V., frumcntum,
vinum, oleum ; Newcome, ' corn and choice wine ' ; Benisch, ' corn and must.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 9.

Therefore will I return, and take away my corn in the time thereof,
and my wine in the season thereof, and will recover my wool and my
flax given to cover her nakedness.

AND MY WINE IN THE SEASON THEREOF] Hebrew, vl-tiroshi bl-moado, 'and
my vine-fruit in its appointed time.' The corn (dahgan) and tiros A are here both
represented as being directly created by God, and having their seasons of maturity.
Stronger evidence could hardly be afforded of their common nature as the solid
outgrowth of the fertile earth. Lxx , ton oinon mou, V., vinum meum, ' my wine.1
28

218 HOSEA, in. i.

That the ancient Jews understood the language of the text in its plain and
natural sense, and had no idea of giving to it a far-fetched metonymical meaning,
is evident from the fact preserved to us in the Talmud (treatise 'Berakoth,'
cap. vi.), where the various blessings of the Hebrews are explained: — "What
blessing must be said for fruit? For fruit which grows ^lpon a tree, say, Who
createst the fruit of the tree — save for Wine, wherein the benediction is, 'Who
Greatest the fruit of the vine.' . . . For things that derive not their growth
immediately from the ground (Psalm civ. 14, 15), say, 'Who gave being to all
things.' R. Jehudah says no blessing should be pronounced over things that
had their origin in a corruption or curse."

CHAPTER II. VERSE 12.

And I will destroy her vines and her fig trees, whereof she hath
said, These are my rewards that my lovers have given me : and I will
make them a forest, and the beasts of the field shall eat them.

HER VINES] Hebrew, gaphenah, 'her vine.' So the Lxx. and V. The T.
of Jonathan has ' the fruit of her vine. '

CHAPTER II. VERSE 15.

And I will give her her vineyards from thence, and the valley of
Achor for a door of hope : and she shall sing there, as in the days
of her youth, and as in the day when she came up out of the land of
Egypt.

HER VINEYARDS] Hebrew, eth-kei ameihah, 'her vineyards.' The Lxx. and
Arabic have 'her possessions ' (to. kteemata) ; the V., 'her vine-dressers ' (vinitores).
The Syriac agrees with the A. V.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 22.

And the earth shall hear the corn, and the wine, and the oil ; and
they shall hear Jezreel.

The triad is here repeated, dahgan, tirosh, yitzhar; and by an expressive figure,
the earth, which brings them forth, is described as hearing (listening so as to
answer) the cry of her offspring for her maternal sustenance. The whole beauty
and consistency of this metaphor depends upon the supposition that the tirosh and
yitzhar held the same relation to the earth as the dahgan (corn). Lxx., siton,
oinon, elaion, 'corn, wine, oil.' The V. has triticum, vinum, oleum, 'wheat,
wine, and oil,' — thus further narrowing even the corn to a single species !

CHAPTER III. VERSE i.

Then said the LORD unto me, Go yet, love a woman beloved of her
friend, yet an adulteress, according to the love of the LORD toward the
children of Israel, who look to/other gods, and love flagons of wine.

IIOSEA, IV. II. 219

FLAGONS OF WINE] Hebrew, ashishai anahbim, ' pressed cakes of grape-
clusters.' So Henderson and Benisch. L.x\.,pemmata meta staphidos [Codex A,
ttaphidun~\, 'cakes (made) with raisins'; V., vinacia uvanim, 'husks of grapes.'
[As to ASHISHAH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes upon 2 Sam. vi. 19; I Chron. xvi. 3;
Cant. ii. 5.]

CHAPTER IV. VERSE u.
Whoredom and wine and new wine take away the heart.

The Hebrew reads, zenuth, vt-yayin, v%~tirosh, yiqqakh lav, ' fornication, and
wine, and vine-fruit, captivate the heart.' Lxx., pomeian, kai oinon, kai mcthusma
edexato kardia laou mou, ' the heart of my people has taken to fornication, and
wine, and strong drink'; V.,fornicatio, ft vinum, et ebrietas auferunt cor, 'forni-
cation, and wine, and drunkenness bear away the heart.' The T. of Jonathan
reads, khamrah vt-ravyethah, ' wine and satiation (or drunkenness). '

The Westminster divines (1651) have a pithy annotation : — "The meaning of
this verse is, that their abundance makes them run into all riot, in carnal, sinful
pleasure." Now-a-days this verse is the last resource of those who hold that both
yayin and tirosh denote the same species of intoxicating wine ; but as the ground
of this notion is the word yiqqakh (from lah-qakh, to take), nothing is easier than
to show that the imaginary proof has no philological basis at all. Lah-qakh is
never once used (unless it be so now for the first time) in the sense of intoxication ;
why, then, should it be assumed to bear that meaning here ? The reasoning is in
a vicious circle, thus: — ' Yayin and tirosh are intoxicating articles.' 'Why?'
'Because they are said to take away, that is, intoxicate the heart.' 'But why
should "take away" be here suggested to mean intoxication?' ' Because yayin
and tirosh were intoxicating drinks ' ! Now, since fornication does not literally
intoxicate, why should it be necessary to presume intoxicating qualities in yayin
and tirosh ? Lah-qakh is used with a great variety and range of meaning, as, ' to
take,' 'to fetch,' 'to lay hold upon,' 'to take away,' 'to occupy,' 'to seize,' 'to
captivate,' etc. The sense of 'captivate' agrees best with the context of this
passage, and is similarly applied to the noblest form of human effort (Prov. xi. 30),
'And he that winneth (=enchaineth or captivateth) souls is wise.' Other
objections lie against the common supposition. It would be absurd to associate the
generic term ' wine ' with the specific tirosh, as if they were different in the common
quality of producing 'intoxication ' ! It violates a fundamental law of thought and
composition to put the weaker element last ; and the critics with whom we are
now dealing will hardly deny that 'new wine' {miistum, as they would render
tirosh} is weaker than ' old wine.' To speak of men being intoxicated with ' beer '
and ' new beer ' would be a form of speech not much improved by adding ' old ' to
the first term. Had the object of the prophet been to state anything about intoxi-
cation specifically, he would hardly have instanced two articles of the same class,
differing only in age, still less have asssociated them with a third which had not the
same quality at all. The force of the objection was clearly felt by the Lxx. and
the V. translators, who simply evaded it by departing from their original, trans-
lating tirosh as if it had been shakar! The key of the passage, however, is in the
first term, which critics have taken typically, while they foolishly forced upon the
other two a merely physical sense ! Yayin and tirosh, we conclude, are not neces-

220 HOSEA, IV. 1 8.

sarily intoxicating because they 'take away' the heart, or 'lay hold' of the
affections ; and the simple fact that they are here connected with ' whoredom '
might have suggested to the critic that some other reason existed for the triple
association than a property belonging only to two members of the triad. Nor is
the line of the prophet's thought difficult to trace, (i) By 'whoredom ' is here to
be understood, as throughout the prophecy, illicit worship rendered by the chosen
people to heathen gods. This worship was spiritual fornication, and by it their
hearts were captivated — literally, ' taken away ' from that exclusive trust and
allegiance which they owed to God as Jehovah of hosts and their covenant King.
(2) By yayin, wine — the type of sensual gratification, — their hearts had also been
captivated — 'drawn away' from that supreme affection which they owed to God
as their Divine Redeemer and Benefactor. (3) By tirosh, the fruit of the vine —
the type of natural, earthly good, — their hearts had been captivated — 'taken away'
from God as the infinite Goodness and the Fountain of spiritual joy. This was
the threefold apostasy of which the children of Abraham had been guilty ; they
went after strange gods instead of the true God ; their best affections centered in
sensual pleasures instead of being fixed upon the Divine love ; and their estimate
of good was limited to earthly things (represented by tirosh, one of the most
delicious of natural elements) instead of embracing Him ' from whom all blessings
flow.' Or, taking the ascending scale, their tinderstanding was darkened, for they
esteemed temporal good above the eternal Giver of good; their affections were
sensualized, by being excessively engaged with animal delights ; and their spiritual
nature was debased, by being prostrated before stupid idols. Intoxication, if at all
implied, is comprehended under those lusts of the flesh which intoxicating yayin
aggravates, and to which it adds a new lust unknown to the mere animal creation
— the lust of alcoholic drink.*

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 18.

Their drink is sour : they have committed whoredom continually :
her rulers with shame do love, Give ye.

THEIR DRINK is SOUR] Hebrew, sahr sahvahm, 'sour (is) their sovehS [As to
SOVEH, see Prel. Dis., and Note on Isa. i. 22.] Though a thick boiled and
luscious drink, sovek. was liable to be affected by sudden changes of temperature,
and to become sour. Columella (lib. xii. cap. 20) says that defrutunt (must boiled
to one-half its bulk) was accustomed to become acid (solet acescere}, however
carefully made. The Lxx. has the strange reading, 'he has vied with the
Canaanites.' The V. is 'their feast has been divided.' The T., mistaking the
pointing perhaps, reads, 'their princes multiply feastings with violence.' Hen-
derson, who takes sahr in the sense of 'past,' renders, 'when their carousal is
over ' ; Newcome, 'he is gone after their wine ' ; Benisch, 'their beverage is sour.'

* Another interpretation may possibly be preferred by some readers. Around idolatry (spiritual
whoredom) all the sins of Israel collected, and by association with idolatry, even that which was
intrinsically good was magnetized with the evil, and became a confirmation of it. Lasciviousness
and intemperance, it is certain, were closely and lavishly connected with heathen rites ; and in the
heathen temples supplications were made for all earthly blessings. Whoredom, therefore, i. e.
idolatry, took away the hearts of the people ; this was the primary captivity ; but the use of wine
(especially of an intoxicating kind), by way of ceremonial offering and indulgence at pagan rites,
still further drew their hearts from God ; and the prayers presented for the increase of their fruits
— tirosh being named as one of their chief productions — carried them still further away from
dependence upon the one God of heaven and earth. As to the connection of tirosh with idolatry,
see Note on chap. vii. 14.

HOSEA, VII. 4, 5. 221

Horsley, Ewald, and others, take sa/ir as ' sour.' Instead of sahvahm one Hebrew
MS. has sovim, ' drunkards ' ; another sevahim, ' Sabeans ' ; and a third tzcvah-ahmt
'their host.'

The prophet, in illustrating the fall of Israel into idolatry, uses two striking
comparisons — the turning sour of so sweet a drink as soveh, and the crime of
adultery. As far removed as sourness was from /sweetness, and fornication from
marital fidelity, so vast was the difference between idolatry and the service of the
God of Jacob.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 4.

They are all adulterers, as an oven heated by the baker, who
ceaseth from raising after he hath kneaded the dough, until it be
leavened.

UNTIL IT BE LEAVENED] Hebrew, ad khumZtzahtho, 'until its leavening.'

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 5.

In the day of our king the princes have made him sick with bottles
of wine ; he stretched out his hand with scorners.

IN THE DAY OF OUR KING THE PRINCES HAVE MADE HIM SICK WITH BOTTLES
OF WINE] Hebrew, yom niafekkanu hekhelu saritn khamath miy-yayin, f the
day of our king, the princes made themselves sick (with) the heat of wine.' By
' the day of the king ' is to be understood his coronation or his birthday — the high
day or festival day when the event was commemorated. On such a day the princes
made themselves sick with the khamalh^ 'heat of wine. It is extraordinary
that the translators of the A. V., who so often translated the word as 'poison,'
4 heat,' and ' fury,' should have preferred the rendering of ' bottles,' seeing (i) that
khamath, in the obsolete sense of 'bottle,' occurs in but one early chapter of the
Old Testament, — Gen. xxi. 14, 15, 19; (2) that the construct or genitive case
there (in ver. 14) is differently pointed from the pointing of this text; (3) llut the
noun khamah and the verb khahmam are used repeatedly of the inflaming, poisonous
influence of wine (Deut. xxxii. 33; Isa. li. 17; Jcr. xxv. 15; li. 39); (4) that the
khamath is clearly assigned as the cause of the sickness; and (5) that in ver. 7 of
this very chapter the phrase yakhamnni katannur is translated in A. V. ' they are
hotzs an oven. The Lxx. has [Codex A, ai~\ heemerai ton basileon httmun, eerxanto
oi archontes tJnimonsthai ex oinou, ' (they were) the days of your kings ; the princes
began to rage with wine ' ; SyYiac, 'in the day of our kings the great men began
to be infuriated with wine ' ; the V., dies rcgis nostri; ca-pcrunt frincipes furere a
vitw, '(it was) the day of our king, the princes began to be mad from wine.'
Benisch has 'officers made him sick with fury from wine.' Henderson reads,
' the princes are sick with the fever of wine ' ; Newcome, ' the princes began to be
hot with wine.' Both the Lxx. and V. take h-kh-l-n, not as Hiphil of khah-lah,
' to smooth,' ' become sick ' or ' sad,' but as the Hiphil hakhllu of the verb khah-lal
'to pierce,' 'open,' 'begin ' — 'the princes began ' ; and they also take khahmath
as an infinitive, 'to be hot' = to be maddened. These readings supply a very
good sense ; but a still better sense will be obtained if khah-lal is taken in the

222 HOSEA, IX. 2.

sense of ' to profane ' or ' pollute,' as it is in Ezek. xxxix. 7, — 'And I will not let
them pollute My holy name.' Indeed, if khah-lah is retained, the sickness must
be considered as moral, and not physical ; so that the same result is arrived at.

HE STRETCHED OUT HIS HAND WITH SCORNERS] The Hebrew for scorners
is lotzetzhn, ' those scorning ' or ' mocking.' This is the verbal form of the word
latz which occurs in the celebrated passage, ' Wine is a mocker ' (latz) ; and no
wonder that this powerful 'mocker' should place the ruler of Israel among the
number of mockers, betraying king and courtiers alike into open transgression.
The Lxx., exeteine teen cheira autou meta loimon, 'he stretched out his hands with
pests,' *'. e. men who were like pests or plagues; the V., cxtendit mamtm suam
cum illusoribus, 'he stretched out his hand with mockers' ; the T., 'he drew to
his own hand a crowd of liars ' ; the Arabic, ' he stretched out his hand with
corruption '; the Syriac, 'they draw out their hands with the vile.' The passage
is abrupt, but sententiously expressive, and the meaning may, perhaps, be conveyed
in the following translation : —

(It was) the king's (high) day ; — the princes polluted themselves : —

Inflaming heat (proceeded) from wine ; —

(Even) he (the king) drew out his hand with mockers !

As among the children of Judah the priest and the prophet erred through wine,
among the children of Ephraim the king and the princes were numbered, through
wine, among the impure and the scoffers. Some other consequences of this vinous
indulgence are described in ver. 7, 8, 9: — "They are all hot as an oven, and have
devoured their judges ; all their kings are fallen : there is none among them that
calleth unto me. Ephraim, he hath mixed himself among the people ; Ephraim is
a cake not turned [burnt and spoilt]. Strangers have devoured his strength, and
he knoweth it not : yea, gray hairs are here and there upon him, yet he knoweth
not." A striking resemblance exists between this language and that used in Prov.
xxiii. 29 — 35.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 14.

And they have not cried unto me with their heart, when they
howled upon their beds : they assemble themselves for corn and wine,
and they rebel against me.

THEY ASSEMBLE THEMSELVES FOR CORN AND WINE] Hebrew, al dahgan v&
tirosh yithgorahru, 'for corn and vine-fruit they assemble themselves.' Gesenius
thinks that the allusion is to meetings for supplicating the idols to grant fertility to
the soil. Lxx., epi sito kai oino katetemnonto, 'for corn and wine they have cut
themselves' =/. e. in order to propitiate their go.ds. So the Arabic. V., super
triticum et vinum ruminabant, 'upon corn and wine they ruminate.' As God
here adds, ' They have rebelled against Me,' this verse may throw light upon chap.
iv. ii; for it might be said that both corn and wine had taken away their heart,
since in order to obtain them, the people engaged in idolatrous worship.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 2.

The floor and the winepress shall not feed them, and the new wine
shall fail in her.

HOSE A, XIV. 7. 223

The Lxx. reads, 'the threshing-floor and the winepress (leenos) knew them
not, and the wine deceived them,' — kai ho oinos epseusato autoiis. V., 'the
(threshing) floor and the winepress (torcular) shall not feed them, and the wine
shall deceive them,' — et vinurn mentictur eis. T., ' from the threshing-floor and
the press they shall not be nourished ; the vine shall not suffice for them.'

WINEPRESS] Hebrew, ytqeb — the place where grapes were trodden and their
juice collected; corresponding with gortn — the place where grain was stored and
winnowed.

AND THE NEW WINE SHALL FAIL IN HER] Hebrew, vl-tirosh ylkakhesh bah,
'and the vine-fruit shall fail (or decrease) in her.' Here the failure of tirosh
represents the failure of all the fruits of the earth. Gesenius refers to this passage
as an instance where the verb kakhash 'is used of the productions of the earth.''

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 4.

They shall not offer wine offerings to the LORD, neither shall they
be pleasing unto him : their sacrifices shall be unto them as the bread
of mourners; all that eat thereof shall be polluted: for their bread for
their soul shall not come into the house of the LORD.

THEY SHALL NOT OFFER WINE OFFERINGS UNTO THE LORD] Hebrew, lo
ycsstku la- Yehoveh yayin, 'they shall not pour out wine to Jehovah.' Lxx., ouk
fspeisan to Kurio oinon, ' they have not poured out wine to the Lord.' V., non
libabant Domino vinum, 'they will not pour out wine to the Lord.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 10.

I found Israel like grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your fathers as
the firstripe in the fig tree at her first time ; but they went to Baal-
peor, and separated themselves unto that shame ; and their abomina-
tions were according as they loved.

LIKE GRAPES] Hebrew, ka-anahvim, 'like grape-clusters.'

CHAPTER X. VERSE i.

Israel is an empty vine, he bringeth forth fruit unto himself:
according to the multitude of his fruit he hath increased the altars ;
according to the goodness of his land they have made goodly images.

AN EMPTY VINE] Hebrew, gtyhtn boqaq, 'a vine emptying' (itself)- Lxx.,
fuklftmatousa, 'branching out well'; V., frondosa, 'leafy.' Henderson has
'luxuriant.' According to the A. V.f the sense would be that Israel, having, for
his own use, emptied himself of his fruit, had left nothing for the Divine husband-
man. He was empty, or barren, God-wards.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 7.

They that dwell under his shadow shall return ; they shall revive
as the corn, and grow as the vine : the scent thereof shall be as the
wine of Lebanon.

224 HOSEA, XIV. 7.

AND GROW AS THE VINE] Hebrew, ve-yiphrekhu kag-gahphen, 'and they shall
bud forth like the vine.'

THE SCENT THEREOF SHALL BE AS THE WINE OF LEBANON] Hebrew,
zikro ki-yayn Levahnon, 'his memorial [remembrance] like wine of Lebanon.'
Lxx., mneemosunon autou hos oinos Libanou to Ephraim, 'his memory (shall be)
as wine of Libanus to Ephraim'; V., memorials ejus sicut vinum Libani, 'his
memorial as wine of Libanus ' ; Henderson, ' Their fame shall be as the wine of
Lebanon.'

Comparing Cant. ii. 13 with ver. 6 of this chapter, we may infer that as the
grapes of Lebanon emitted a pleasant odor, this scent was preserved in the wine
made therefrom. Sir John Bowring praises, as of 'excellent quality,' a wine con-
sumed in some of the convents of Lebanon, ' known by the name of the vino d 'or
[golden wine]. The custom of boiling wine he found to be almost universal.' The
Rev. J. A. Wylie, in his ' Modern Judea compared with Ancient Prophecy,' states
that "the wines of Lebanon are of three kinds — the white, the yellow, and the
red. The white is rather bitter, the yellow and red are too sweet; but if the red
is not boiled, it is equal almost to that of Bordeaux."

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET JOEL.

[JOEL, WHO WROTE ABOUT 860 YEARS BEFORE CHRIST, PROPHESIED THE
INVASION OF THE LAND BY ARMIES OF LOCUSTS, THAT SHOULD LAY WASTE
EVERY GREEN THING.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 5.

Awake, ye drunkards, and weep ; and howl, all' ye drinkers of wine,
because of the new wine ; for it is cut off from your mouth.

DRUNKARDS] Hebrew, shikorim, ' drunken ones ' = those who fill themselves ;
perhaps with an allusion to shakar, so as to include all the tipplers of the time, —
lovers of shakar ( palm-juice, etc.) and lovers ofyayin (grape-juice).

ALL YE DRINKERS OF WINE] Hebrew, kahl-shothai yayin, 'all drinkers of
wine.'

BECAUSE OF THE NEW WINE] Hebrew, al aAsis, 'for the fresh juice,' — the
juice as it flows from under the treader's feet. ' By ahsisj says Henderson, 'is
meant the fresh wine or juice of the grape or other fruit, which has just been
pressed out, and is remarkable for its sweet flavor and its freedom from in-
toxicating qualities.' The A. V., therefore, correctly renders ahsis by 'new wine,'
and it is much to be regretted that the same rendering is given in eleven places to
tirosh, with so different a signification. The Lxx., ekneepsate oi methuontes ex
oinou auton, kai klausate ; threeneesate pantes oi pinontes oinon eis metheen, hoti
exeerlhee ex stomatos humon euphrosunee kai chara, 'awake [become as abstainers;
see Notes on Gen. ix. 24, and I Kings xxv. 37], ye drunkards, from your wine,
and weep ; mourn ye, all ye (who are) drinking wine to drunkenness, for joy and
gladness are removed from your mouth.' V. has ebrii — 'drunkards' — qui bibitis
vinunt in dulcedint, ' who drink wine with sweetness ' ; the T. has al khamar
marath, ' because of the pure wine.'

CHAPTER I. VERSE 7.

He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my fig tree: he hath
made it clean bare, and cast it away ; the branches thereof are made
white.

MY VINE] Hebrew, gaphni, 'my vine.' The clause literally stands, ' he hath
given my vine to wasting.'
29

226 JOEL, I. 9 — 13,

CHAPTER I. VERSE 9.

The meat offering and the drink offering is cut off from the house
of the LORD ; the priests, the LORD'S ministers, mourn.

AND THE DRINK OFFERING] Hebrew, vak-nes%k, and the libation.'

- CHAPTER I. VERSE 10.

The field is wasted, the land mourneth ; for the corn is wasted : the
new wine is dried up, the oil languisheth.

THE NEW WINE IS DRIED UP] Hebrew, hobish tirosh, ' dried up [= perished]
(is) the vine-fruit.' Hobish is the Hiphil form of yak-bask, " to be dried up, to be
or become dry, used of plants, trees, grass, . . . fruits, the harvest — Joel i. 10"
(Gesenius). Lxx. is exeranthee oinos, 'dried up (is) wine ' ; the V., less happily,
confusum est vinum, ' confounded has been the wine ' — yakbask, ' to be dry,' being
misread as yak-bask, 'to put to shame ' ; T., ' the vines have dried up.'

THE OIL LANGUISHETH] Hebrew, umlal yitzhar, 'the orchard- fruit droops.'
Lxx., oligothee elaion, 'oil becomes scarce'; V., elanguit oleum, 'the oil has
languished.' Proof so direct and decisive that tirosh and yitzhar describe two
classes of 'fruits,' and not artificial liquid preparations, ought to satisfy even
incredulity itself.

CHAPTER I. VERSE n.

Be ye ashamed, O ye husbandmen ; howl, O ye vinedressers, for
the wheat and for the barley; because the harvest of the field is
perished.

O YE VINEDRESSERS] Hebrew, kormim, 'vineyard-men' (laborers); V.,
vintores, 'vine-dressers ' ; but Lxx. has kteemata, ' possessions ' — not the farmer or
possessor. -

CHAPTER I. VERSE 12.

The vine is dried up, and the fig tree languisheth; the pomegranate
tree, the palm tree also, and the apple tree, even all the trees of the
field, are withered : because joy is withered away from the sons of
men.

THE VINE IS DRIED UP] Hebrew, hag-gephen hobishah, 'the vine is dried up.'
Not only the fruit borne, but the fruit-bearer, yields to the withering influence.
Lxx., hee ampelos exeeranthee, 'the vine is dried up'; V., vinea confusa est, 'the
vineyard has been confounded.'

CHAPTER I. VERSE 13.

Gird yourselves, and lament, ye priests : howl, ye ministers of the
altar : come, lie all night in sackcloth, ye ministers of my God : for
the meat offering and the drink offering is withholden from the house
of your God.

JOEL, III. 3. 227

AND THE DRINK OFFERING] Hebrew, vah-nahstk, ' and the libation.1

CHAPTER II. VERSE 14.

Who knoweth if he will return and repent, and leave a blessing
behind him ; even a meat offering and a drink offering unto the LORD
your God ?

AND A DRINK OFFERING] Hebrew, vah-nlslk, 'and a libation.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 19.

Yea, the LORD will answer and say unto his people, Behold, I will
send you corn, and wine, and oil, and ye shall be satisfied therewith :
and I will no more make you a reproach among the heathen.

CORN, AND WINE, AND OIL] Hebrew, eth-had-dahgan, vl-hat-tirosh, v^-hay-
yitzhar, 'the corn and the vine-fruit, and the orchard-fruit.' Lxx., siton oinon,
claim, V., frumfntum, etvinum, ft oleum, 'corn, and wine, and oil.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE 22.

Be not afraid, ye beasts of the field : for the pastures of the wilder-
ness do spring, for the tree beareth her fruit, the fig tree and the vine
do yield their strength.

AND THE VINE] Hebrew, vah-gtph%n, 'and the vine'; Lxx., ampelos ;
V., vinea.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 24.

And the floors shall be full of wheat, and the fats shall overflow
with wine and oil.

VV'HEAT] Hebrew, bar; used, perhaps, to indicate the finest quality of corn
(dahgan).

AND THE FATS SHALL OVERFLOW WITH WINE AND OIL] Hebrew, vl-hashiqu
haylqahvim tirosh v^-yitzhar, ' and the presses shall abound with vine-fruit and
orchard-fruit.' Lxx., kai huperchutheesontai ai leenoi oinou kai elaiou, 'and the
presses shall be overflowed with wine and oil ' ; V., et redundabunt torcularia.
vino et oleo, ' and the presses shall be redundant with wine and oil.' The Hebrew
word shnq, translated 'overflow,' signifies 'to run' or 'abound'; hence, 'to
desire eagerly.' It is here in the Hiphil conjugation; and if the figure is not too
strong, we may consider that the prophet represents the presses as causing the tirosh
and yitzhar to run into them, so as to fill them to the brim ; not with the expressed
juice, but with the substances whose subsequent pressure should yield the desired
drink.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 3.

And they have cast lots for my people; and have given a boy for
an harlot, and sold a girl for wine, that they might drink.

228 JOEL, III. 13, 1 8.

WINE, THAT THEY MIGHT DRINK] Hebrew, vay-yayin vay-yishtu, 'for
wine, and they shall drink.' Lxx., anti tou oinou kai epeinon, 'for the sake of
the wine, and have drunk ' j V., pro vino ut biberent, ' for wine, that they might
drink.'

So insatiable is the unnatural appetite for strong drink, and so hardening is its
effect on the moral nature, that the strongest natural instincts — love of offspring
and love of life — yield to it like flax before the fire.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 13.

Put ye in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe : come, get you down >
for the press is full, the fats overflow ; for their wickedness is great.

This verse tersely describes the vintage harvest. " Put forth the knife [maggal
— that which cuts], for the vintage \_qahtzir — cutting = that which is cut] is ripe:
come, descend (or tread), for the press \gath~\ is full ; the presses (hayyeqahvim)
abound (kashiqu} ; for their wickedness is great." The prophet is here describing,
not the result of the treading, but the preparations for it; and he invites the
avengers (the foreign foe) to come and tread, because the wickedness (= vintage)
of the idolatrous nations was ripe, and its fruits (the grapes collectively, tirosh)
were brought together in a 'great' heap, ready to be trodden (punished) by the
instruments of the Divine justice. This text tends to illustrate the sense of the one
other passage where (in A. V.) the presses are said to 'overflow' with tirosh, the
real idea being, that the vintage has been so fruitful that the grapes have to be
piled up in the presses.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 18.

And it shall come to pass in that day, that the mountains shall drop
down new wine, and the hills shall flow with milk, and all the rivers
of Judah shall flow with waters, and a fountain shall come forth of
the house of the LORD, and shall water the valley of Shittim.

THE MOUNTAINS SHALL DROP DOWN NEW WINE] Hebrew, yitphu ha-hahrim
aksis, 'the mountains shall drop down fresh juice.' Lxx., apostalaxri ta oree
glukasmon, 'the mountains shall drop sweetness'; V., stillabunt monies dulcedi-
nem, ' the mountains shall drop sweetness ' ; T., ' pure wine.'

As vines were often cultivated on the hill-sides, the prophet represents the fer-
tility of the vines and the richness of their produce by a very expressive image —
that of the hills sending forth streams of the luscious juice contained within the
purple clusters. It is, however, a fact that, in a fertile season, the ripe luscious
grapes burst with 'their juice,' which literally distills upon the rocks.

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET AMOS.

[AMOS PROHESIED ABOUT THE YEAR 790 B. C.]

CHAPTER II. VERSE 8.

And they lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge by every
altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned in the house of their
god.

AND THEY DRINK THE WINE OF THE CONDEMNED] Hebrew, vl-yayn anushim
yishtu, 'and the wine of the condemned ( = fined) they will drink.' The A. V.
treats the future form of the verb as an indefinite present. Lxx., kai oinon ek
sukophantiun cpeinon, ' and wine from calumniators they drank.' [The sukophan-
tees was at first an informer against persons who broke the Athenian law by
exporting figs from Attica ; and then the term became applied to any informer or
accuser; next, as these men were often perjurers, to a calumniator or false
accuser; until it finally acquired the meaning of 'sycophant,' as with us, — one
who, from motives of self-interest, seeks to ingratiate himself with another by any
means, such as slandering his betters.] V., et vinuni damnatorum bibcbant, 'and
the wine of the condemned they have drunk.'

Anush signifies to 'amerce ' or ' fine ' ; so that we have here the picture of men
of violence, who, having inflicted on the weak, fines which were paid in wine or
expended in that liquor, drank the wine in their pagan temples, — thus adding
revelry and idolatry to injustice, if, indeed, the desire for this revelry was not the
predisposing cause of the injustice, as it often is of robbery in our own day.

CHAPTER II. VERSES n, 12.

it And I raised up of your sons for prophets, and of your young
men for Nazarites. Is if not even thus, O ye children of Israel?
saith the LORD. iaBut ye gave the Nazarites wine to drink; and
commanded the prophets, saying, Prophesy not.

V. 12. BUT YE GAVE THE NAZARITES WINE TO DRINK] Hebrew, vattashqu eth
han-Nlzarim yayin, 'and ye gave wine to drink to the Nazarites.' Lxx., kai
epotizete tons hetgiasmenous oinon, ' and ye caused the consecrated ones to drink
wine'; V., ft propinabitis A'azar&is rinitm, 'and you will present wine to the

230 AMOS, IV. Q.

Nazarites.' The T. of Jonathan reads, ' ye have driven the teachers into error by
your wine.'

It has been inferred by able expositors, from this passage, that the * sons raised
up for prophets ' were also the ' young men ' raised up for Nazarites, although the
Nazarites may have included others who were not trained to the prophetical
office ; so that the description (as given by Isaiah and Jeremiah) of intemperance
among priests and prophets, marked the violation of special obligations to absti-
nence, as well as a violation of general moral principle. Be this as it may, we
learn from these verses the importance attached by God to the Nazarite class, and
also that their pre-eminent characteristic was abstinence from wine. Jehovah claims
to have raised up a succession of prophets and Nazarites, and the attempt to subvert
the fidelity of the Nazarites is coupled as a sin with the impious effort to silence
the teachers of the nation and the organs of the Almighty. That there was a
connection between the love of drink, and the rejection of the true prophets who
would not countenance the causes of the national declension, Micah (ii. 1 1 ) makes
as plain as does Amos the contrary and better association, between abstinence and
a pious fidelity to the will of God in his ' holy ones ' ; and we may be assured that
whatever advantages sprang from this abstinence among the Jews, may be enjoyed
in a yet higher measure in our day ; while those who pride themselves in leading
others to abandon so safe and beneficent a rule, may take what comfort they can
extract from the spirit of the text before us.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE i.

Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, that are in the mountain of
Samaria, which oppress the poor, which crush the needy, which say
to their masters, Bring, and let us drink.

Cruelty and sensuality are well matched. Inflamed passions crave for inflaming
drink, and this again 'sets on fire the whole course of nature,' and disposes to
deeds of violence and shame. Nor must it be forgotten that men and women
naturally mild and kind, commit the most ferocious (otherwise unaccountable) acts
when under the influence of alcoholic drink, which exerts all the force and tyranny
of diabolical possession.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 5.

And offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven, and proclaim and
publish the free offerings : for this liketh you, O ye children of Israel,
saith the Lord GOD.

WITH LEAVEN] Hebrew, makhahmatz, 'with leavened matter.' The V. has
de fermentato ; but the Lxx. reads, exo nomon, 'without law.' God reproves the
conduct of the idolaters by ironically urging them to do that which they had already
done, and contrary to the solemn injunctions of His law.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 9.

I have smitten you with blasting and mildew : when your gardens
and your vineyards and your fig trees and your olive trees increased,

AMOS, VI. 6. 231

the palmerworm devoured them : yet have ye not returned unto me,
saith the LORD.

AND YOUR VINEYARDS] Hebrew, vl-kannaikem, 'and your vineyards.'

CHAPTER V. VERSE 11.

Forasmuch therefore as your treading is upon the poor, and ye take
from him burdens of wheat : ye have built houses of hewn stone, but
ye shall not dwell in them ; ye have planted pleasant vineyards, but
ye shall not drink wine of them.

PLEASANT VINEYARDS] Hebrew, kanitai khlmM, 'vineyards of delight';
Lxx., ampeloras tpithumeethoits, ' desirable vineyards '; V., vineas amantissimas,
' most beloved vineyards.'

BUT YE SHALL NOT DRINK WINE OF THEM] Hebrew, vl-h thhhtu cth-

yaynahtn, 'and ye shall not drink their wine.' So the V. The Lxx., ou met
pieete ton oinon ex autvn, ' and ye shall not drink wine from them.' The inference
would naturally be, that the wine was really contained in the vineyards ; not needing
the process of fermentation to proititce it, but only pressure to educe it.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 17.

And in all vineyards shall be wailing ; for I will pass through thee,
saith the LORD.

AND IN ALL VINEYARDS] Hebrew, wv-kahl-kcrahmim. So the V. ; but the
Lxx. has 'in all ways.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 6.

That drink wine in bowls, and anoint themselves with the chief
ointments : but they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph.

THAT DRINK WINE IN BOWLS] Hebrew, hashothim bl-miztltj&i yayin, 'that
drink in bowls of wine.' The mizrcnj properly denoted a vessel out of which
anything was scattered or sprinkled (from zahraq, 'to scatter'), and thence was
applied to any large cup, bowl, or goblet. The Lxx., oi frinontes ton diulismenon
oinon, 'those who drink strained (= refined) wine.' This rendering points to
some MS. reading of nifznqahq^ ' strained ' or ' refined,' instead of the reading of
the present Hebrew text. V., bibentcs vinttw in phialis, 'those drinking wine in
vials.' The T. has 'in silver vials.' The Arabic has ' clear wine,' and the Syriac,
' clearest wine.'

To drink large quantities of wine was customary among eminent topers. In the
Di'if>nosof>hislte of Athenrcus various particulars are given of great drinkers. To
swallow gallons of liquor at one sitting was a feat held in great esteem, without
reference to the intoxicating quality of what was consumed.

232 AMOS, IX. 13, 14.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 13.

Behold, the days come, saith the LORD, that the plowman shall
overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes him that soweth seed ;
and the mountains shall drop sweet wine, and all the hills shall melt.

AND THE TREADERS OF GRAPES] Hebrew, ve-dor&k anahvim, ' and the treader
of grape-clusters.' So the V. ; but the Lxx. has 'and the grape shall ripen in
the time of sowing.'

THE MOUNTAINS SHALL DROP SWEET WINE] The marginal reading of A. V.
is 'new wine,' but the phrase is the same as in Joel iii. 18, ahsis, the juice of the
newly trodden grapes. Lxx., 'the mountains shall drop sweetness ' (glukasmon)\
the V., ' the mountains shall distill sweetness ' (dulcedineni).

The promise is one of continual fertility and abundance, one agricultural
operation following rapidly upon another, all carried on without exhausting the
soil, and all resulting in the enrichment of the people. Christian commentators
give to the prophecy a spiritual application.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 14.

And I will bring again the captivity of my people of Israel, and
they shall build the waste cities, and inhabit them / and they shall
plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof; they shall also make
gardens, and eat the fruit of them.

AND THEY SHALL PLANT VINEYARDS, AND DRINK THE WINE THEREOF]

Hebrew, v^-nahtu kerahmim ve-shahthu eth-yaynahm, 'and they plant vineyards
and drink their wine.' Lxx., oinon ; V.,vinum. The threatening pronounced
(v. 1 1) is to be cancelled on the repentance of the people. Compare with this
the language of the Erythrseen Sibylline Oracle, as quoted by Lactantius, Div.
Inst., b. vii. c. 24: —

Kai Me dee charmeen megaleen theos andrasi dosei,
Kai gar gee, kai dendra, kai aspeta thremmata gaiees
Dosousin karpon ton aleethinon antkropoisi,
Oinou, kai melitos gleukeos> leukou te galaktas,
Kai sitou, hoper esti brotois kattiston apanton.

And truly then great joy shall God to men impart,

For from earth, trees, and earth's dumb offspring — countless sight !—

Shall fruit, best fit for man, luxuriantly start :

Wine, luscious honey too, and milk of purest white,

And corn, and all that gives to mortals most delight.

If oinos here does not directly signify vintage-fruit — fruit on the vine, — it must be
accepted as the liquid fruit of the vine in its fresh and sweetest state. Honey has
been happily called the 'fruit of bees.'

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET OBADIAH.

[THIS PROPHET IS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN A CONTEMPORARY OF JEREMIAH
AND EZEKIEL ; AND TO HAVE DELIVERED HIS PROPHESY AFTER THE DE-
STRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, OVER WHICH THE EDOMITES WERE REJOICING,

ABOUT 580 B. C.]

VERSES 15, 16.

15 For the day of the LORD is near upon all the heathen : as thou
hast done, it shall be done unto thee : thy reward shall return upon
thine own head. 16 For as ye have drunk upon my holy mountain,
so shall all the heathen drink continually, yea, they shall drink, and
they shall swallow down, and they shall be as though they had not
been.

V. 16. AND THEY SHALL SWALLOW DOWN] Hebrew, vl-lahu, 'and they
shall suck up.' The margin of A. V. has 'sup up.' The Hebrew term is one
expressive of greediness. Lxx., ' all the nations (ethnee) shall drink wine (oinon).'
So the Arabic. Here the generic term is applied to a bad wine, as the context
makes evident. The Lxx. translators must have read khamer, 'foaming juices,'
instead of tahmed, 'continually.' The initial and final letters of the two words
(/, kh, and d, r), are easily mistaken by a copyist.* The word wine gives the best
sense. It is the ' cup of astonishment ' (not of blessing) that shall be given to the
Edomites, and they shall drink it till it destroys them from the earth.

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET JONAH.

[JONAH LIVED ABOUT 860 B. c.]

CHAPTER III. VERSES 6, 7.

6 For word came unto the king of Nineveh, and he arose from his
throne, and he laid his robe from him, and covered him with sack-
cloth, and sat in ashes. ^ And he caused it to be proclaimed and
published through Nineveh by the decree of the king and his nobles,
saying, Let neither man nor beast, herd nor flock, taste any thing : let
them not feed, nor drink water.

The king's prohibition against the use of water by man, beast, herd, and flock,
was, in such a climate, the strongest proof of sincere self-denial which the king
and the nobles of Nineveh could exhibit. Is not this example a standing rebuke
to many Christian communities, who, for the sake of a great and needed reforma-
tion of manners, morals, and religion, cannot deny themselves the use of an arti-
ficial, needless, and even noxious beverage ?

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET MICAH.

[MlCAH WAS CONTEMPORARY WITH ISAIAH, ABOUT 7<X> B. C.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 6.

Therefore I will make Samaria as an heap of the field, and as
plantings of a vineyard : and I will pour down the stones thereof into
the valley, and I will discover the foundations thereof.

As PLANTINGS OF A VINEYARD] Hebrew, l-mattahaj kahrem, ' the plantations
of a vineyard.'

CHAPTER II. VERSE n.

If a man, walking in the spirit and falsehood, do lie, saying, I will
prophesy unto thee of wine and of strong drink; he shall even be the
prophet of this people.

I WILL PROPHESY UNTO THEE OF WINE AND OF STRONG DRINK] Hebrew,
attiph te-kah lay-yayin vt~lash-shakar, f I will prophesy to thee concerning wine
and concerning strong drink.' Lxx., ' ye have fled, no one pursuing; thy spirit
has framed falsehood ; it has dropped down (descended) on thee in regard to wine
and strong drink (eis oinon kai methiisma) ' ; V., stillabo tibi in vinum et in ebrieta-
tem, ' I will distil to thee as to wine and drunkenness ' = a ' lying spirit ' that
stoops down to the calls of the sensual nature, and is accepted as true by those
whose 'god is their belly.'

As the Westminster divines' 'Annotations' quaintly expresses it, "They love
and like those prophets that will speak pleasing things, and sew pillows under
their elbows: they would be fostered and bolstered up in their sins; else the
prophets are no prophets for them " (1651).

How strange is it that, in the face of such texts as these perpetually recurring in
the history of the Jews, men of professed piety and of undoubted intelligence
should labor under the extraordinary delusion that wine — and especially Eastern
— countries, must necessarily be sober countries ! So far from this being the fact,
this Hebrew text implies that the people were so anxious to indulge their craving
for inebriating liquors, that any one (though destitute of the marks of a true
Teacher) who should promise them an abundant supply, would be eagerly received
by them as a true prophet, however false and sensuous might be his prophesy.

236 MICAH, VI. 15,

The same spirit is displayed in our own time, when a ready ear is turned to those
who defend, no matter how falsely, the drinking customs of society, and eulogize
artificial and inflaming liquors as ' the good creatures of God.'

Let believers in the light-wine delusion read the following testimony from
France : — " The abundance of the harvest in 1858 diminished the poverty, and by
consequence the crimes and offences which misery inspires ; but the abundance of
the vintage, on the contrary, multiplied blows and wounds, the quarrels of cabarets,
the rebellions, the outrages and violences toward the police. These facts are again
found in all analogous circumstances." — Revue £ Economic Chretiennet Parts-.
1862, p. 171-2.

CHAPTER IV. VERSES 3, 4.

3 And he shall judge among many people, and rebuke strong
nations afar off; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and
their spears into pruning-hooks : nation shall not lift up a sword
against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. 4 But they
shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree ; and none
shall make them afraid: for the mouth of the LORD of hosts hath
spoken it.

V. 3. INTO PRUNING-HOOKS] Hebrew, le-mazmaroth, 'into pruning-blades.'
The reading of the A. V. text is preferable to the marginal 'scythes.' The Lxx.
has drepana, 'sickles ' ; the V., ligones, 'curved knives.'

V. 4. His VINE] Hebrew, gaphno, 'his vine.' [See Note on I Kings iv. 25:
Zech. iii. 10.] The T. has 'under the fruit of his vine.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 15.

Thou shalt sow, but thou shalt not reap; thou shalt tread the
olives, but thou shalt not anoint thee with oil; and sweet wine, but
shalt not drink wine.

AND SWEET WINE, BUT SHALT NOT DRINK WINE] Hebrew, vo-tirosh vt-lo
thishteh yayin, 'and vine-fruit, and thou shalt not drink wine.' To realize the
full sense we must take the whole verse: — "Thou shalt tread the olive (zaith)
and shalt not anoint thyself with oil (shemen}, and (tread) the tirosh (or vine-fruit)
and shalt not drink the yayin (or expressed juice)." Here tirosh is as clearly
placed in apposition to yayin as zaith (olive) to shemen (oil) ; and it is strange how
the translators of any country could have failed to see that poetical consistency
and common sense alike required tirosh to be taken as the solid substance whose
pressure yielded yayin. It was to be a punishment to the nation, that though the
zaith and tirosh had been plucked, the liquids (oil and wine) flowing from their
pressure should either be so deficient in quantity, owing to the withered condition
of the fruit, that there should be no sufficient supply ; or that what there was should
be diverted to the use of the spoiler, and not be used by those who had plucked
the fruit.

Lxx., 'thou shalt PRESS the olive, but shalt not anoint with oil, and wine
•(oinon), and ye shall not surely drink (any)' — kaiou mee pieete, — thus omitting one
member of the parallelism by using oinon. in the double sense of ' growing wine '
and '^pressed wine.' The V. has et mustum et non bibes vinunt, 'and (thou
shalt tread) must, new unfermented wine, and shalt not drink wine.' The Arabic

MICAH, VII. I. 237

has ' must.' T., ' and thou shalt tread the grapes, whose wine thou shalt not drink.'
Archbishop Newcome inserts words in italics, and paraphrases, ' And the grape of
the choice wine' ! Henderson has 'the grape of the new wine,' but has no note
on this periphrastic rendering of tirosh, though in a note on Joel i. 5 he had con-
fined it to juice of the grape which, 'however new, had already obtained an in-
ebriating quality ' ! Tirosh clearly denoted a thing which bore the same relation
to yayin, that ' olives ' did to ' oil.' The one was the fruit trodden, the other the
liquid pressed out of it.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE i.

Woe is me! for I am as when they have gathered the summer
fruits, as the grape-gleanings of the vintage : there is no cluster to eat :
my soul desired the first ripe fruit.

As THE GRAPE-GLEANINGS OF THE VINTAGE] Hebrew, kZ-olcloth bahtzir, 'as
the gleanings of the cutting '= the time of cutting or vintage.

THERE is NO CLUSTER TO EAT] Hebrew, ain eshkol R-%kolt ' no cluster (i*
there) to eat.'

THE

BOOK OF THE PROPHET NAHUM.

[NAHUM FLOURISHED ABOUT 7148. c.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 10.

For while they be folden together as thorns, and while they are
drunken as drunkards, they shall be devoured as stubble fully dry.

AND WHILE THEY ARE DRUNKEN AS DRUNKARDS] Hebrew, uk-sahvahmt
sevuim, 'and as (with) their sovh [rich wine] (they are) soaked.' The Lxx.,
gives the whole verse as follows : — ' For even to his foundation shall he be laid
bare, and shall be devoured as twisted yew, and as stubble fully dry.' The V. has
sic convivium eorunt pariter potantium, * so is their feast as (that) of the topers ' ;
the T., 'even as they have wandered by wine, so their enemies have borne them
away and devoured them ' ; the Syriac, ' they are drunken in their own drunkenness.'
Henderson reads, 'thoroughly soaked with their wine.'

CHAPTER III. VERSE n.

Thou also shalt be drunken : thou shalt be hid, thou also shalt seek
strength because of the enemy.

THOU ALSO SHALT BE DRUNKEN] Gam-at tishkeri, ' also thou shalt be drunken *
(surcharged). Lxx., ' and thou shalt be made drunk (methustheesee) and despised.'
V., 'and thou shalt be inebriated (inebriaberis) and shalt be despised.' Newcome
has 'shalt become a hireling,' altering the pointing from tishkeri to tiskeri.

Diodorus Siculus, who describes the capture of Nineveh by Arbaces the Mede
and Belesis the Babylonian, states that, after the besiegers had been conquered in
the field, the Assyrians gave themselves up to feasting and drunkenness ; when the
enemy, being informed of their condition, fell upon them, and, after a great rout,
drove into the city those who had escaped slaughter or capture.

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET HABAKKUK.

[HABAKKUK'S PROPHESY is REFERRED TO ABOUT 600 B. c.]

CHAPTER II. VERSE 5.

Yea also, because he transgresseth by wine, he is a proud man,
neither keepeth at home, who enlargeth his desire as hell, and is as
death, and cannot be satisfied, but gathereth unto him all nations, and
heapeth unto him all people.

YEA ALSO, BECAUSE HE TRANSGRESSETH BY WINE] Hebrew, vl-aph ki hay-
yayin bogad, ' now, in truth, the wine is defrauding '= is a defrauder, a deceiver.
The Lxx. reads, ' but the arrogant man and the scorner, the boastful man, shall
not finish any thing'; the V., ft quomodo vinum potantem decipit, 'and in like
manner as wine deceives the drinker.' The T. has 'behold, as one wanders by
wine.' Henderson's translation, ' moreover, wine is treacherous'— (so Benisch) ; —
and in a note he remarks "that the prophet has his eye upon the intemperance
to which the Babylonians were greatly addicted, there can be no doubt. How
strikingly was the deceptive character of wine exemplified in the case of Belshaz-
zar !" Newcome reads, ' moreover, as a mighty man transgresseth through wine.'

Wine (that is, the wine that intoxicates) is here distinctly described as a secret
spoiler = one that secretly plunders ; and this characteristic of wine is made
the ground of a comparison between it and a ' strong man ' (geber) who is 'proud,
and does not rest, who enlargeth his desire (or soul) as j£//0/(the under- world).'
The verdict of Solomon, latz hay-yayin, 'a mocker is the wine,' and the confirm-
atory verdict of Habakkuk, hay-yayin bog&l, 'the wine is a defrauder,' affix for
ever upon the wine that intoxicates, a stigma which no colors of social flattery
can conceal, and no force of sophistry expunge.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 15.

Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor drink, that puttest thy
bottle to him, and makest him drunken also, that thou mayest look on
their nakedness !

240 HABAKKUK, II. 15.

It is worthy of note that the I4th verse, which speaks of the millennial glory
when the earth shall be 'full of the knowlege of the Lord,' should be followed
by this woe, — as if indicating the love of strong liquor to be the great and primary
obstacle to that spiritual jubilee.

WOE UNTO HIM THAT GIVETH HIS NEIGHBOR DRINK] Hebrew, hoi mashqa
ruahu, 'woe to him-giving-drink-to his neighbor.'

THAT PUTTEST THY BOTTLE TO HIM] Hebrew, mtsap&akh khamathkah,
'pouring out thy inflaming drink.' [On KHAMAH, see Prel. Dis., and Notes upon
Deut. xxxii. 35; Psa. Iviii. 4; Isa. li. 17; Jer. xxv. 15; li. 39; Hos. vii. 5.]
Grotius renders khamath ' hot wine ' ; Parkhurst, ' hot inflammatory liquor ' ; Arch-
bishop Newcome, 'gall, poison.'

AND MAKETH HIM DRUNKEN ALSO] Hebrew, vt-aph shahkar, 'and even
making him drunk.' It is a beginning of badness to give bad drink for sensual
purposes — bad to give at all the brain-disturbing khamah, the emblem of God's
anger — and the consummation of wickedness is reached when dead-drunkenness
ensues.* The Lxx. renders the whole verse, O ho potizon ton pleesion autou,
anatropee tholera kai methuskon, hopos epiblepee epi ta apeelaia auton, ' woe (to him)
who gives his neighbor to drink from the turbid subversion [or, thick dregs], and
makes him drunk, so that he may look upon their secret parts. ' The Barberine codex
has cholou sou, ' of thy fury ' ; Symmachus, ton thumon heautou, 'his own rage ' ;
the V., vce quipotum datamico suo mittens f el suum et inebrians et aspiciat nuditatem
ejus, 'woe (is) to him who gives drink to his own friend, presenting his own gall,
inebriating (him), that he may gaze upon his nakedness ' ; the Syriac, ' Woe to him
who gives his companion to drink the dregs of fiery (wine), and inebriates him,
that he may gaze on their nakedness.' The T. has, 'Woe to him who gives his
companion to drink, and covers him with heat, that he may drink and be
intoxicated and expose his shame.' Dr Henderson's version is as follows : —

" Woe to him that giveth drink to his neighbor, \
Pouring out thy wrath, and making him drunk ;
In order to look upon their nakedness."

Dr Benisch has, "Woe unto him that giveth his fellow drink, pouring forth thy
fury to make also drunk, that thou mayest look on their nakedness."

An able version of Habakkuk's prophesy appeared in the Christian Spectator of
1865 (p. 94), from which we give this passage : —

(15) " Woe to him giving his neighbor drink,

Pouring out his poison, and even making drunk,
In order to gaze upon his nakedness.

(16) " Thou shalt be satiated with shame rather than glory ;

Drink thou also, and be soon uncircumcised ; t

There shall be passed to thee the cup of Jehovah's right hand, t

And infamy shall be on thy glory."

* That is an extraordinary kind of argument which infers, from the mention or prohibition of an
extreme sin, the rightfulness of the intervening and causative steps. Here, however, all the stages
and agencies are denounced and condemned — the poisoned potion, the giving of it, and the final

t The Lxx., V., Syriac, and Arabic, followed by Rabbi Kimchi and others, read this clause as if
by a slight transposition of the Hebrew, — the verb haahral, ' be thou uncircumcised,' should be
converted into harahal, ' reel or stagger/ in keeping with the phrases employed in Isa. li. 17, and
Zech. xii. 2. (Vide Notes.)

$ This cup is also khamath, — though the word is not here repeated— the hay-yayin hay-kkemah
which Professor Nordheimer, in his Critical Grammar, rightly translates, 'the maddening wine.'

HABAKKUK, III. I/. 241

CHAPTER II. VERSE 16.

Thou art filled with shame for glory : drink thou also, and let thy
foreskin be uncovered : the cup of the LORD'S right hand shall be
turned unto thee, and shameful spewing shall be on thy glory.

The cup of riot shall be followed by the cup of retribution. Sensuality entails
shame ; and those who assist in the degradation of others are adopting the most
effectual means of their own ignominious exposure. The woe pronounced in
ver. 15 is thought by some, not to attach to those who hold out the cup of
inflaming drink for gain, yet not purposely to make others drunken ; but that a
portion of their condemnation is associated with every part of the procedure, no
intelligent Christian can doubt. It is no excuse for the fool who casts lighted brands
about, to cry, 'I am in sport'; and to deal out (whether by the barrel or the
bottle) inflaming and polluting draughts, for the sake of 'filthy lucre,' does not
render the act innocuous, nor the agent blameless. Even when the motives are not
mercenary, and the intentions even kind, there must be a heavy responsibility for
the sanction given to the circulation of dangerous drinks, and the persuasions used
in pressing their use on others.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 17.

Although the fig tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the
vines ; the labor of the olive shall fail, and the fields shall yield no
meat ; the flock shall be cut off from the fold, and there shall be no
herd in the stalls.

NEITHER SHALL FRUIT BE IN THE VINES] Hebrew, v2-ain yevul bag-gphah-
nim, 'and no produce in the vines.'

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET ZEPHANIAH

[THE DATE OF THIS PROPHESY IS REFERRED TO 630 B.C.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 12.

And it shall come to pass at that time that I will search Jerusalem
with candles, and punish the men that are settled on their lees : that
say in their heart, The LORD will not do good, neither will he do evil.

SETTLED ON THEIR LEES] Hebrew, haq-qophim al shimraihem, 'drawn up
(coagulated) upon their lees.' Lxx., 'and I will bring judgment upon the men
who despise their defences ' (phalagmata). Liddell and Scott give to phalagmata
here the sense of 'commandments.' The V., et insitabo super viros defixos in
f/zcibus suis, 'and I will look down the men settled upon their own lees.'

CHAPTER I. VERSE 13.

Therefore their goods shall become a booty, and their houses a
desolation : they shall also build houses, but not inhabit them ; and
they shall plant vineyards, but not drink the wine thereof.

AND THEY SHALL PLANT VINEYARDS, BUT NOT DRINK THE WINE THEREOF]
Hebrew, vti-nahtu kerahmim v$-lo yishtu eth yaynahm, ' and they have planted
vineyards, and shall not drink their wine.' Lxx., for 'wine,' has oinon ; V.,
vinum.

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET HAGGAI.

[THIS PROPHET PROPHESIED IN OR NEAR THE YEAR $2O B.C.]

CHAPTER I. VERSE 6.

Ye have sown much, and bring in little ; ye eat, but ye have not
enough; ye drink, but ye are not filled with drink; ye clothe you,
but there is none warm ; and he that earneth wages earneth wages to
put it into a bag with holes.

YE DRINK, BUT YE ARE NOT FILLED WITH DRINK] Hebrew, shahthu v$~ain
lishahkrah, « ye have drunk, but not to-be-full ' = fulness. So Henderson. The
previous clause reads, ' ye eat, but not to-be-satisfied ' (esahvah = to fulness of
food). This comparison, and the obvious reference of the prophet to a state that
was to be deplored, show that shahkar is here used in its primary and innocent
sense of ' to be filled.' The same sense must, therefore, be attached to the Lxx.,
eis mctheen, i to repletion ' ; and to the V., non estis inebriati, 'ye are not filled.'

The concluding clause, "and he that earneth wages earneth wages to put it
into a bag with holes " (or pierced), has been fitly applied in illustration of the
folly which expends on intoxicating liquors ninety millions of pounds in the
United Kingdom, upwards of one-third of which comes out of the pockets of
the working classes. Wages so wasted may well be said to be put into bags with
holes, — with the melancholy difference, that not only does the money run out, but
miseries innumerable spring up from the misappropriation. The money loss,
enormous as it is, is but the first loss, and the precursor of other losses — in regard
to personal and domestic comfort, mental improvement, and religious growth, —
that keep the nation out of its noblest rights and loftiest enjoyments, by wasting
its splendid opportunities of progress.

CHAPTER I. VERSE u.

And I called for a drought upon the land, and upon the mountains,
and upon the corn, and upon the new wine, and upon the oil, and
upon that which the ground bringeth forth, and upon men, and upon
cattle, and upon all the labor of the hands.

244 HAGGAI, II. 12, 1 6, 19.

AND UPON THE CORN, AND UPON THE NEW WINE, AND UPON THE OIL] Hebrew,
v%-al had-dahgan, ve-al hat-tirosh, v%-al hay-yitzhar, 'and upon the corn, and
upon the vine-fruit, and upon the olive-and-orchard-fruit ' ; Lxx., siton, oinon,
elaion / V., triticum, vinum, oleum.

The entire structure of the verse shows that the prophet has in his mind, not an
artificial preparation, but the growing produce of the soil.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 12.

If one bear holy flesh in the skirt of his garment, and with his skirt
do touch bread, or pottage, or wine, or oil, or any meat, shall it be
holy ? And the priests answered and said, No.

Three out of the four articles named here — lekhem (bread), yayin (wine), and
shemen (oil) — are preparations from the substances named in chap. i. ii; while
* anything made ready for eating ' = any meat, answers to ' upon that which the
ground bringeth forth,' over and above the class of productions separately named.
The word for 'pottage,' nakzid, signifies anything boiled or cooked, probably
including roots and herbs of any kind. Lxx., oinon ; V., vinum.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 16.

Since those days were, when one came to an heap of twenty
measures, there were but ten : when one came to the pressfat for to
draw out fifty vessels out of the press, there were but twenty.

THE PRESSFAT] Hebrew, hay-yeqlv, 'the wine-press'; Lxx., to hupohenion,
'the wine-vat'; V., torcular, 'press.' Henderson notes, "The word purah,
which is used for the wine-press itself (Isa. Ixiii. 3), is here employed to denote a
liquid measure in which the wine was drawn out." But another reading is open
to us. [See Prel. Dis. p. xxvi.] The 'heap' maybe referred to the corn, and
the ' fifty ' to the expected clusters in the grape- vat, when there were but ' twenty '
in the whole building {purah, or 'fruit-house ').

The disappointment of the proprietor is graphically depicted. Expecting to
realize twenty measures of wheat from the threshed corn, and the yield was but
ten ; looking for fifty measures of wine or clusters of grapes in the press, and
twenty only could be found !

CHAPTER II. VERSE 19.

Is the seed yet in the barn ? yea, as yet the vine, and the fig tree,
and the pomegranate, and the olive tree, hath not brought forth : from
this day will I bless you.

THE VINE] Hebrew, hag-geph%n, 'the vine.'

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET ZECHARIAH.

[ZECKARIAH is BELIEVED TO HAVE PROPHESIED 520 — 518 B. c.]

CHAPTER III. VERSE 10.

In that day, saith the LORD of hosts, shall ye call every man his
neighbor under the vine and under the fig tree.

THE VINE] Hebrew, gephen, 'a vine.'

CHAPTER VIII. VERSE 12.

For the seed shall be prosperous ; the vine shall give her fruit, and
the ground shall give her increase, and the heavens shall give their
dew ; and I will cause the remnant of this people to possess all these
things.

THE VINE SHALL GIVE HER FRUIT] Hebrew, hag-glphln titan piryah, 'the
vine shall give her fruit.' So Lxx. and V.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 15.

The LORD of hosts shall defend them ; and they shall devour, and
subdue with sling stones ; and they shall drink, and make a noise as
through wine ; and they shall be filled like bowls, and as the corners
of the altar.

AND THEY SHALL DRINK, AND MAKE A NOISE AS THROUGH WINE] Hebrew,
vl-shahthii hahmu kt-mo yahyin, 'and they drink, (and) make-a-noise ( = rage) as
wine (does).' Hahmah is rendered 'raging' in A. V. of Prov. xx. I, where it
is applied to shakar, 'strong-drink.'

AND THEY SHALL BE FILLED LIKE BOWLS, AND AS THE CORNERS OF THE

ALTAR] Lxx., Codex B, renders, 'and they shall swallow them as wine, and
fill the bowls as the altar'; but Codex A reads, 'and they shall swallow tlieir
blood as wine, and fill the altar as bowls.' The V., 'and drinking they shall be
inebriated as by wine, and they shall be filled as vials and as the horns of the

246 ZECHARIAH, IX. I/.

altar.' The Syriac, 'and they shall drink confusion as wine, and they shall be
fired as mixed (wine), and as the horns of the altar.' The T. of Jonathan reads,
'and they shall be satiated by them, like those who drink wine, and their soul
shall be filled with delicacies as a vial when it is filled with oil.'

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 17.

For how great is his goodness, and how great is his beauty ! corn
shall, make the young men cheerful, and new wine the maids.

CORN SHALL MAKE THE YOUNG MEN CHEERFUL, AND NEW WINE THE MAIDS]
Hebrew, dahgan bakhurim v^-tirosh yenovav bethuloth, 'corn shall make the
youths to grow (to thrive), and vine-fruit the maidens.' Lxx., 'for if he has
anything good, and if he has anything fair, to the young men (is) corn, and fragrant
wine (oinos euodiazon) to the virgins.' The V., 'for what is his goodness, and
what is his beauty, unless the corn of the elect ones (frumentum electoruni), and
growing- wine (to) the virgins ? ' — vinum germinans virgines. The Syriac, ' how
good and how useful is corn to the young men ! and wine renders the virgins
joyful.' The Arabic, 'for if anything is from him, and if any beauty is from him,
(appropriate) corn to the young men, and wine brings a sweet odor to the virgins.'
The Targum spiritualizes the text.

In referring to the nutritious qualities of corn and vine-fruit, the prophet assigns
the 'corn ' to the youth of one sex, and the ' vine-fruit ' to the youth of the other
sex, — not because their food was respectively confined to corn or grapes, but be-
cause, in making a difference, the bloom and lusciousness of the vine-clusters better
harmonized with the beauty and sweetness of the Jewish virgin than with the mas-
culine attributes of the rougher sex. Archbishop Newcome renders, ' the harvest
gladdeneth the young men, and the vintage the maidens ' ; but in a note he takes
yenovav in the sense of abounding, and proposes to read, ' the corn aboundeth for
the young men [to gather it], and the choice wine for the maidens [to prepare it].'
Dr Henderson's note is a remarkable instance of the dangerous conclusions to
which false premises will conduct good and learned men. It is as follows : — " The
drinking of must by young females is peculiar to this passage ; but its being here
expressly sanctioned by Divine authority provides an unanswerable argument
against those who would interdict all use of the fruit of the vine. Tirosh, new
wine or must, so called from yahrash, 'to take possession of,' because, when taken
to excess, it gains the mastery over the person who indulges in it." But (i) " those
who would interdict all use of the fruit of the vine " are nowhere to be found ; they
are phantoms of the imagination ; (2) the derivation of tirosh from yahrash does
not in the least involve the idea of any intoxicating quality in tirosh [see Prel. Dis. ] ;
(3) the good Doctor is evidently not quite at ease with the free use of an intoxicating
drink by 'young females' being 'expressly sanctioned by Divine authority,' since
in all ages, and even in British society where alcoholic liquor is used, its employ-
ment to make young females ' thrive ' would not be ventured upon. Did Dr H.
recommend a free use of wine to his daughters or other young Christian females ?
The apposition of ' corn ' with ' tirosh ' might have suggested to him a revision
of his exegesis, especially when, in Micah vi. 15, he had been compelled to
translate tirosh, not by 'new intoxicating wine,' but by 'the grape of the new wine.'

ZECHARIAH, XIV. IO. 247

CHAPTER X. VERSE 7.

And they of Ephraim shall be like a mighty man, and their heart
shall rejoice as through wine : yea, their children shall see iV, and be
glad; their heart shall rejoice in the LORD.

AND THEIR HEART SHALL REJOICE AS THROUGH WINE] Hebrew, vl-sahmakh
libahm k$-mo yahyin, 'and their heart shall be glad like (those who drink) wine.'
The word 'through' is not justified by the Hebrew, kemo expressing not causation
but comparison. The rejoicing may, of course, refer either to the gladness and
cheerfulness arising from an abundance of innocent wine, or to the effect of the
inebriating cup. In any case, there is no more a sanction of the agent wine,
or the act of drinking it, than a sanction of war is involved when the Spirit of
Truth is likened to a two-edged sword. Lxx., 'and they shall be as the warriors
of Ephraim, and their hearts shall rejoice as with wine ' ; ' and Ephraim shall
be as a mighty (one), and their heart shall be delighted as with wine.'

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 2.

Behold, I will make Jerusalem a cup of trembling unto all the
people round about, when they shall be in the siege both against Judah
and against Jerusalem.

A CUP OF TREMBLING] Hebrew, saph rdal, 'a bowl of reeling* -rthat makes
to reel or stagger. A. V. gives in the margin, 'or, slumber, or poison.' Lxx.,
frothura saleuomena, ' trembling door-posts '; V., superliminarc crapula, 'an
upper lintel (of a door) of intoxication.' T., 'a bowl filled with strong drink*
(marvai), or 'drunkenness.'

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 10.

All the land shall be turned as a plain from Geba to Rimmon south
of Jerusalem : and it shall be lifted up, and inhabited in her place,
from Benjamin's gate unto the place of the first gate, unto the corner
gate, and from the tower of Hananeel unto the king's winepresses.

UNTO THE KING'S WINEPRESSES] Hebrew, ad yiqvai ham-mlfck, ' to the
wine-presses of the king.'

THE BOOK OF

THE PROPHET MALACHI.

[MALACHI FLOURISHED ABOUT THE YEAR 400 B. c.]

CHAPTER III. VERSE n.

And I will rebuke the devourer for your sakes, and he shall not
destroy the fruits of your ground: neither shall your vine cast her
fruit before the time in the field, saith the LORD of hosts.

NEITHER SHALL YOUR VINE, ETC.] Hebrew, vt-lo tlshakkal lahkeni hag-gephtn
bas-sahdeh, 'and the vine in the field shall not be abortive ( = sterile) to you.'
Lxx., ' and the vine which is in the field shall surely not be weakly (or sick) '— -
ou met astheneesee. V., 'nor shall the vine (or vineyard = vinea) in the field be
sterile (sterilis).'

The gephen sahdeh, 'vine of the field,' was a species of vine suffered to run un-
trained in the open country (see Note on 2 Kings iv. 29) ; hence the promise that
even the wild vine should cease to be barren, and should bear fruit worthy of the
name, was a striking assurance of the Divine blessing upon the land of Judea.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

GENESIS XL. VERSES 9 — 13, 21.

Philo, in his Treatise on Joseph, gives an account of the imprisonment of the
young Hebrew and the dreams of the chief butler and baker. Of the former he
states: — "Then first the chief-wine-pourer (arc hioinoc hods} declares, It seemed, to
me that a great vine of three roots brought forth one very vigorous and fruitful
stock, bearing clusters as if in the height of summer; and as the grapes had a
high, ripe color, I gathered the clusters and gently squeezed them into the royal
cup, and when it contained sufficient of the pure wine (akratou\ I presented it to
the king." Joseph predicts his restoration to his office at court, and adds, " In
order to the confirmation of thy dignity, thou shalt pour out wine (oinochoccsris),
and present the cup to thy sovereign."

EXODUS XII. VERSES 17— 20.

In his treatise concerning the Sacred Festivals, Philo observes that some inter-
preters of Holy Scripture accounted for the prohibition of leaven at the passover
from the fact that ' unfermented food is a gift of nature, while that which is fer-
mented is a work of art ' (holt hee azuma trophte doreema phuseos, de tumomenon
technees ergon) ; and, further, that as the primitive inhabitants of the world must
have used the productions of the earth in their natural state, so it was suitable for
the Creator to kindle afresh every year the primitive spirit by a course of plain and
simple dietary.

EXODUS XXXII. VERSE 6.

And they rose up early on the morrow, and offered burnt offerings,
and brought peace offerings ; and the people sat down to eat and to
drink, and rose up to play.

To this circumstance St Paul refers, I Cor. x. ^. Whether the words 'sat
down to eat and to drink' imply gluttony and drunkenness cannot be absolutely
determined. Though the people were not furnished by God with strong drink,
occasional supplies might have been procured, with the certain effect of stimulating
every tendency to impurity and idolatrous rites.

25O ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NUMBERS XXV. VERSES i, 2.

i And Israel abode in Shittim, and the people began to commit
whoredom with the daughters of Moab. • 2 And they called the
people unto the sacrifices of their gods : and the people did eat, and
bowed down to their gods.

This shameful tergiversation is made a subject of apostolic warning, I Cor. x. 8.
Prevented from cursing the people of Israel, Balaam basely gave such advice to
Balak, the king of Moab, as led to the temptation before which the children of
Israel fell. So far did the corruption extend, that the Israelites ate of the Moabitish
sacrifices, and did reverence to the idols. As these sacrificial feasts were always
occasions of revelry and intemperance, it may be presumed that the one described
in the text was no exception to the rule.

DEUTERONOMY XXXIII. VERSE 28.

The expression shahmahiv, 'THY heavens,' seems to indicate that the am Yaakov,
'the eye (or fountain) of Jacob,' is nothing less than a poetical and intensive
form of speech personifying Jehovah, who describes Himself in ver. 26 as ' the
God of Jeshurun.' The promise that God's eye, the sign of complacency and
blessing, should be upon the land, would exactly agree with the words of Deut.
xi. 12, "A land which the Lord thy God careth for: the eyes of the Lord thy
God are always upon it." In Psa. xxiv. 6 the appellative 'Jacob' is distinctly
ascribed to Jehovah in a similar outburst of ecstatic devotion, God being identified
with Jacob the patriarch, as the Father of the chosen race.

ESTHER I. VERSE 8.

Concerning the change of manners and morals among the ancient Persians as to
the use of strong drink, Professor Rawlinson, in his 'Ancient Monarchies,'
vol. iv., offers the following remarks: — "In respect of eating and drinking, the
Persians, even of the better sort, were in the earlier times noted for their temper-
ance and sobriety. Their ordinary food was wheaten bread, barley cakes, and
meat simply roasted or boiled, which they seasoned with salt and with bruised cress-
seed, a substitute for mustard. The sole drink in which they indulged was water.
Moreover, it was their habit to take one meal only each day. The poorer kind of
people were contented with even a simpler diet, supporting themselves, to a great
extent, on the natural products of the soil, as dates, figs, wild pears, acorns, and
the fruit of the terebinth tree. But these abstemious habits were soon laid aside,
and replaced by luxury and self-indulgence, when the success of their arms had
put it in their power to have the full and free gratification of all their desires and
propensities. Then, although the custom of having but one meal in the clay was
kept up, the character of the custom was entirely altered by beginning the meal
early and making it last till night. Not many sorts of meat were placed on the
board, unless the occasion was a grand one ; but course after course of the lighter
kinds of food flowed on in an almost endless succession, intervals of some length
being allowed between the courses to enable the guests to recover their appetites.

ADDITIONAL NOTES. 251

Instead of water, wine became the usual beverage ; each man prided himself on the
quantity he could drink; and the natural result followed, that most banquets ter-
minated in general intoxication. Drunkenness even came to be a sort of institution.
Once a year, at the feast of Mithras, the king of Persia, according to Duris, was
bound to be drunk. A general practice arose of deliberating on all important
affairs under the influence of wine, so that in every household, when a family crisis
impended, intoxication was a duty."

PROVERBS XXXI. VERSES 4, 5.

Plato, in his * Laws/ b. ii. 674, puts into the mouth of the Athenian guest
certain concluding remarks which the others pronounce to be very good.

" In preference (he says) to the custom of the Cretans and Lacedaemonians I
would favor the Carthaginian law ; viz., that no one when in camp is to taste of that
drink (wine), but is to exist upon water during all that period; and that in the
city, neither a male nor female slave should ever taste it ; and that not magistrates
during their year of office, nor pilots (of the State ? kuberncetas), nor judges
engaged in business, should taste it at all; nor any one who goes to any council to
deliberate upon any matter of moment ; neither anyone in the daytime at all, unless
on account of bodily exercise or disease (somaskias ee noson) ; nor at night, when
either man or woman is intent upon begetting offspring. Many other cases a person
might mention in which wine ought not to be drunk by those who possess under-
Standing and a correct rule of action (nomon orthon}"

CANTICLES VIII. VERSE 2.

The Targum on this passage is periphrastic and allegorical, but contains the fol-
lowing expressive sentence : — "We shall drink old wine (khamar attiq) which has
been stored up in its own grapes since the commencement of the creation, and from
pomegranates which have been made ready for the righteous in the Eden of
delight."

CANON OF CRITICISM.

" The usage of the time and place of the writer determines the meaning. If a word or phrase
had several meanings, the context determines which it bears in ' a given ' passage. The more
common meaning of the toriter's day is to be preferred, provided it suits the passage,— not that
more common to our day."

Professor MURPHY, D. D., Self as tt Commentary.

CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND
NEW TESTAMENTS.

No thoughtful person can peruse the Sacred History (constituting the Jewish
Bible) on which we have been commenting in relation to a great practical duty lying
at the foundation of the spiritual life of the Individual, and of the religious progress
of the Jewish people, without perceiving that it is a history of development. The
simple religion of the Patriarchs prepares for the more complicated legislation
of Moses, and for the adumbrations and symbolism of the Levitical system —
shadowing forth the ' better things to come.' In process of ages, however, human
corruption and tradition are seen obscuring and perverting the spirit of the whole
dispensation, and the people are in danger of the eclipse of formalism and super-
stition. To recall them to the true meaning of Ordinances and Sacrifices, and to
re-infuse a spirit of reality into their life, various bold and outspoken Prophets and
Exemplars are consecrated and sent forth : —

" I raised up your sons for Prophtts,
And of your young men for Nazarites ;
Is it not even thus? saith the Lord."

While the one was commissioned to announce neglected Truth, the other
exhibited the willinghood of a piety founded upon a regard for the Divine Will,
evincing the superior value of the spontaneous sacrifice of our appetites upon the
living altar of Duty. The last of the prophets had spoken, and the roll of prophesy
had become sealed till ' the fulness of time ' should arrive for the advent of its
living Illustrator. Meanwhile the example of the Nazarites had called up
imitators, and, while the class bearing that peculiar name may have diminished, the
chief practice and principle by which they were distinguished, assumed a solidarity,
and exerted a power, of a very remarkable kind. The association of the Jews with
the Persian Magi, the influx of Greek philosophy along with the Grecian conquests
specially the semi -moral and religious philosophies of Epicurus and Pythagoras,
id later still, intimate relations with the Egyptian Wisdom, — all brought the
pious and reflecting Jews into constant contact with some form of abstinence from
intoxicating liquors — a doctrine closely interwoven with the religion and morals of
antiquity. Such is the nature of the human mind, that many persons will readily
embrace an opinion or a practice of foreign growth, sanctioned by strange author-
ities or fashions, which they would persistently reject when recommended by the
faithful servants of God and truth at home. Thus, while the Jews perversely
'gave their Nazarites wine to drink,' subsequently the very same class of people
might look with favor upon the abstinence which came to them from the teachers
of India and Persia on the one hand, or from those of Egypt and Greece on the
other. The Apocrypha and Secular History make certain the fa ct of the prevalence
of such opinions and practices amongst the pre-Christian Jews, and the early Chri*-
tians — so much so, that unless we proceed to read the New Testament in the light
of this fact, many of its allusions and even its words will fail to yield up the truth
to us, which was patent to the minds of those to whom the original was addressed.

254 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

Imagine, for example, that portions of our religious and temperance literature were
to be perused by a people or a generation to whom our inner doctrine was unknown
— how great and manifold would be the misunderstandings ! Mr. Jowett, M. A.,
the Professor of Greek at Oxford, may be cited as an impartial authority on this
head : — " Such examples (as Daniel and Tobit) show what the Jews had learned
to practice or admire in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.
So John the Baptist 'fed on locusts and wild honey.' A later age delighted to
attribute a similar abstinence to James, the brother of our Lord (Hegesippus apud
Euseb. H. E. ii. 23); and to Matthew (Clemens Alexandrinus, Peed. ii. 2, p. 174);
heretical writers added Peter to the list of these enkratites (Epiph. Her. xxx. 2 ;
Clemens, Horn. xii. 6). The Apostolic Canons (xliii.) admit an ascetic-abstinence,
but denounce those who abstain [like the Persian Magi and Manichees] from any
sense of the impurity of matter. (See passages quoted in Fritshe, iii. p. 151.)
Jewish as well as Alexandrian and Oriental influences combined to maintain the
practice in the first centuries. Long after it had ceased to be a Jewish scruple, it
remained as a counsel of perfection." (Epistles of St Paul, vol. ii. Lond. 1855.)

Speaking (p. 313) of the sects prevalent in Judea just prior to the advent of the
Redeemer, Professor Jowett observes : — " In their first commencement, the zealots
were animated by noble thoughts. Many of these ' Galileans ' must have been
among the first converts. Like the Essenes, they probably stood in some relation
that we are unable to trace to the followers of John the Baptist and of Christ."

In regard to the opinions of heretical writers of the first four or five centuries it
must be remembered that we have often to depend on the testimonies of their
enemies, who destroyed their books ; and it is demonstrable that, in many respects,
they were grossly misunderstood, and therefore misrepresented. St Augustine,
for example, charges some of the abstaining ' heretics ' with folly, because, said he,
while they refuse wine, even at the Sacrament, they actually suck the juice of the
grape! Augustine has a numerous posterity up to the present day, who fancy that
there is an inconsistency here, when in fact there is merely a confusion in the minds
of the objectors. The simple solution is, that wwfermented ' wine ' is as different
from the fermented, in its nature and effects, as a good will is different from a
vicious will, or a prudent ' wife ' from an /wprudent. The generic words are the
same, but the concrete things extremely diverse. Still, the testimony is valuable
as a proof of the continuity of the practice of abstinence in the Church.

Theodoret remarks of Tatian (A. D. 172), that "he abhors the use of wine."
Augustine reproaches " the Manichees with being so perverse that while they refuse
wine (yinuni), and call it the gall of the Prince of Darkness (fel principiis
tenebrarum\ they nevertheless eat of grapes." — De Morib. Manichaor. lib. ii. $ 44.

Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, says of the Enkratites (or Temperates), " They
did not use wine at all, saying, it was of the Devil ; and that drinking and using it
was sinful." This was evidently said of intoxicating wine, not of the natural juice
of the grape, which they are charged with inconsistently sucking.

Photius observes of the Severians, — "They were averse to wine as the cause of
drunkenness."

From this doctrine, propagated to the Eremites of the desert, and the later
monks of the Arabian border, there can be little doubt that Mohammed borrowed
his famous dictum: — "Of the fruit of the grape ye obtain an inebriating liquor,
and also good nourishment." He issued an interdict against the one, but never
against the other. [See note on Rev. vi. 6.]

The hostile spirit of controversy, in the early ages, however, led to the doctrine
being repudiated in toto by the triumphant party, and thus the association of a

CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 255

practical trutli with real or supposed errors, was, for want of logical discrimination,
the unhappy cause of great subsequent corruption of life in the Christian Church.
The dark ages set in, followed by the skeptical, and it is only in our day that men
are rising above the mists, and looking once more at the original and abiding fads.

The most remarkable of all the religious communities of antiquity, were the
ESSENES and THERAPEUTVE, with their kindred associates. We" are indebted for
our knowledge of them to two writers — namely, Josephus, the Jewish historian,
and Philo, anothef Jew, of the Alexandrian school. Their tenets and practices, in
many curious particulars, bore so great a resemblance to those of the early Chris-
tians, that some learned writers have contended that they were Christians, protect-
ing themselves from persecution, and probable extinction, under the veil of a secret
Jewish sect. The Rev. John Jones, the ingenious author of ' Ecclesiastical
Researches' (1812), and De Quincy, the critic and philosopher, have put forth
elaborate essays in support of that view. This certainly would account for the
singular fact that no special mention of the Essenes occurs in the New Testament,
but Dean Prideaux has advanced another theory : —

"Although our Saviour very often censured all the other sects then among the
Jews, yet He never spake of the Essenes, neither is there any mention of them
through the whole Scriptures of the New Testament. This proceeded, some think,
from their retired way of living; for, their abode being mostly in the country, they
seldom came into cities ; nor were they in our Saviour's, time ever seen at the
temple, or in any public assembly ; and therefore, not falling in the way of our
Saviour's observation, for this reason, say they, He took no notice of them. But
much more likely it was, that being a very honest and sincere sort of people, with-
out guile or hypocrisy, they gave no reason for that reproof and censure which the
others very justly deserved."

Josephus thus writes of them in his 'Jewish Antiquities' (book xv. c. n) —
" These men live the same kind of life as do those whom the Greeks call Pythag-
oreans. . . . It is but fit to set down here the reasons wherefore Herod had
these Essenes in such honor. . . . There was one, named Manahem, who
had this testimony, that he not only conducted his life after an excellent fashion,
but was endued by God with the foreknowledge of future events. . . . Many
of the Essenes have, by the excellency of their life, been deemed worthy of divine
revelations."

This author curiously refers to a secret, mystery, or oath which the Essenes had,
suggesting that on this point of esoteric or inner doctrine, we must take what he
says with caution : Jones and De Quincey believe that this was nothing but an
Agape, or religious ' Love-feast.'

Josephus further says (' Wars,' book ii. c. 8), — "The Essenes are Jews by nation
and a society of men friendly to each other beyond what is to be found among any
other people. They have an aversion to sensuous pleasure in the same manner as
to that which is truly evil. Temperance (teen enkrateian), and the keeping their
passions in subjection, they esteem a virtue of the first order. . . . They have
stewards chosen for the management of their common stock, who provide for all
according as every man hath need. They do not all live together in one city, but
in every city many of them dwell. These give reception to all travelers of their
sect, who eat and drink with them as freely as of their own, going in unto them,
though they never saw them before, in the same manner as if they had been old
acquaintances." Of their diet, regimen, and longevity, Josephus gives a most
interesting account. In this manner, the Essenes passed the day: "They are, in
what concerns God, remarkably religious. For before sunrise, they speak on no

256 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

secular subject, offering up to God their prayers in ancient forms received from
their predecessors, specially supplicating that He would make the sun of his
blessing to rise upon them. After this, each is sent by the superior of the com-
munity to work in the employment they are best skilled in, and having diligently
labored till the fifth hour [that is, till eleven in the morning], they assemble again
in one place, and each having a linen garment to put about him, they wash them-
selves in cold water. After this lustration, they go into a private room, where none
but their own order is permitted to enter. And being tints cleansed, they go into the
refectory (or dining-room) with the same behavior as into a holy temple ; and after
a silence, the baker lays before every man his loaf of bread, and the cook in like
manner, serves up to each his dish, all of the same sort of food. The priest then
says grace before meat, it not being lawful for any one to taste before the grace be
said ; and after dinner they say grace again : and thus they always begin and end
their meal with praise and thanksgiving to God, as the giver of their food. After
this they put off the robes, looking on them as in some sense sacred, and again
betake themselves each to his work till evening, when returning they take their
supper in the same manner as they had done their dinner, their guests sitting at
meal with them, if any such happen to be in the place. No clamor or tumult is
ever known in the houses ; for when together, they speak only each in turn. This
silence appears to those not of their sect as a venerable and sacred custom. All
this is the result of a constant course of sobriety in their moderating their eating and
drinking only to the end of sufficing nature.* . . . They are long-livers, so
that many of them arrive to the age of a hundred years ; which is to be ascribed
to their simple and plain diet, and the temperance and good order observed in all
things." Josephus records a fact concerning the Essenes, which is strikingly in
harmony with Christian doctrine, as expounded by Paul (Rom. xii. i) — "Though
they send gifts to the temple, they do not sacrifice victims, having adopted a differ-
ent mode of purification, being themselves the victims they offer up" — a living
sacrifice. (Antiquities, book xviii. c. i. ) Philo, in his treatise on ' the virtuous
being also free,' refers to the Essenes in similar language. "They are above all
men devoted to the service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying
to preserve their own minds in a state of holiness and purity."

In his ' Antiquities ' (book xviii. c. i. ), Josephus gives the following more con-
densed description : — "The Essenes refer all things to God; they teach the immor-
tality of the soul, and hold forth the reward of virtue to be most glorious. . . .
They deserve to be admired beyond all other men who profess virtue, for their
justice and equality. For in opposition to every selfish consideration, they make
their goods common property, whence the rich has not greater command or enjoy-
irent of his own than those who have no legal claim upon them. This practice
has not obtained among the Greeks or barbarians for any length of time, nor in
any individual instance, though it has been long established by the Essenes. The
men who do these things exceed four thousand, maintaining withal neither wives,

*This passage in the original is of great critical value, occurring as it does in a contemporary of
the Apostles. " The reason," says Josephus, " is their constant sobriety (neefisis, ' abstinence ') and
measuring out their food and drink simply to satisfaction." No one can doubt the meaning of the
word neeflsis here.

In this connection, a passage from Philo may be reproduced, illustrating another form of the
same Greek word occurring in the New Testament, both in its literal and figurative applications: —

"As the acute Plato holds, Envy (selfish unwillingness) stands outside the Divine assembly;
while Wisdom, conversely, as being truly God like, is communicative and beneficent, never shutting
up its school, but expanding (its doors) as with open wings, allures those who are thirsting for
refreshing words. For this, she pours out the copious (unenvying) stream of twice pure (disakratou,
twice unmingled) instruction, and induces men to be filled with her SOBER WINE " (methueinteen
neephalian anapeithei metheeii).

CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 257

nor keeping slaves, as thinking the latter to be contrary to justice, and the former
to be productive of domestic broils. As they live in a distinct community, they
supply the place of slaves by each administering to the wants of the other. They
elect good and holy men to be stewards over their revenues, in order to provide
corn, and a supply of such things as the ground produces. The course of life
which they pursue is exempt from change or the caprices of fashion ; and they bear
some resemblance to the clans or communities said to subsist among the Dacians."
The Essenes of whom these Jewish writers speak, are said to have been four
thousand in number, but on the perusal of the whole account, it becomes evident
that this estimate can hardly be meant to apply beyond the locality of Jerusalem, or
to any but the rulers of the body. Who the Therapeutae were we have no exact
contemporary authority, though Eusebius asserts that they were Christians. But
it is needful to remember, that when Philo begins his description of these singular
people, he expressly says that ' some of them were called Essenes.' If this word
meant 'holy' or 'healing,' like hosios, and a kindred Syriac term, then it might
have been applied to a select number of persons, who were either ' saints ' or
physicians, exclusive of a larger number of outstanding neophytes or probationers.
Dean Prideaux, it appears to us, gives less weight to the authority of Philo than
it deserves, and at the same time makes statements somewhat more precise than
his author's language will warrant. He says : — " Philo, being a Jew of Alex-
andria, knew nothing of the Essenes of Judaea but what he had by hearsay; but
with the Essenes of Egypt he was indeed much better acquainted ; for although
the principal seat of them was in Judaea, yet there were also of them in Egypt,
and in all other places where the Jews were dispersed ; and therefore Philo dis-
tinguished this sect into the Essenes of Judaea and Syria, and the Essenes of
Egypt and other parts. The first he called practical Essenes, and the others he
calls Therapeutic, or contemplative " (vol. ii. p. 379, seq.).

Nothing can certainly be determined as to the origin and signification of the
name Essenes, but that of the ' Therapeutae ' (healers), explains itself. They were,
like our Lord, and all Oriental teachers and reformers of manners, physicians both
of the body and soul. It should be recollected that John, the Nazarite and Baptist,
had a large number of followers, adopting something of the mode of life pursued
by these Essenes ; and there was, probably, some connection also with the Sabutzans
( = Baptists), identified by Epiphanius (Op. i. p. 28) with the Essenes, and whose
posterity according to Norberg, cited by Michaelis (Introd. iii. p. 285), have sur-
vived to our own day, claiming John for their great master. The same writer asserts
that the Essenes were chiefly 'Samaritans.' When our Lord, in a season of per-
secution, went into the wilderness beyond Jordan, his teaching seems to have had
a singular identification with the doctrines of the Essenes, on the subjects of
marriage, divorce, and humility ; yet at the same time, in utter antagonism to the
diabolical doctrine of the Samaritan Simon, who had embraced the dualistic tenet
which represented the creation of matters a subordinate and evil deity — " there
is none good but one, that is, God." Philo gives the following account : —

" Palestine and Syria are not barren of honorable and good men, for there are
considerable numbers of such scattered about, even compared with the very popu-
lous nation of the Jews. Among these are some whom they call Essoeans, being
in number about four thousand men, according to my opinion ; they have their
name by reason of their great piety, from the Greek word 00*10,, which signifies
holy, though the derivation is not according to exact analogy. While they are
most devoted servers and worshipers of God, they do not sacrifice unto Him any
living creature, but rather choose to form their minds to be holy, thereby to present
33

258 CONNECTION OF OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

them a fit offering unto Him. They chiefly live in country districts, avoiding
cities by reason of the vices prevalent among citizens, being sensible that, as the
breathing of a corrupted air engenders diseases, so the conversing with evil com-
pany often produces an incurable contagion of the soul. Some of them labor in
husbandry, others follow trades or manufacture, confining themselves, however, to
the making of such things only as are utensils of peace, endeavoring thereby to
benefit themselves and their neighbors. . . . You shall not find among their
handicraftsmen any who ever put a hand to the making of arrows, or darts, or
swords, or head-pieces, or corslets, or shields ; neither any armor, or engines, or
any other instruments of war ; nay, they will not make such utensils of peace as
are apt to be employed for mischievous purposes."

Referring to the Therapeutae of Egypt, he states : — " Their drink is only water
from the stream ; they eat only to satisfy hunger, and drink only to quench

thirst, avoiding fulness of stomach, as that which is hurtful both to soul and body.
At their feasts they drink no wine, but only pure water. . . . They abstain
from wine, as reckoning it to be a sort of poison that leads men into madness ;
and from too plentiful fare, as that which breeds and creates inordinate and
beastly appetites. While they thus sit at meat there is observed a most exact
silence, none making the least noise ; and when they have done eating, one of
them proposes a question out of Holy Writ, which another answers, imparting
what he knows in plain words, without affectation or aiming at praise.

" As to slaves, they have none ; all are equally free, and all equally labor for
the common good. The upholders of slavery they condemn as unjust and base
despots, by whom are violated the sacred laws of Nature, who, like a common
parent, has begotten all mankind without distinction, and seeks to educate them
in the genuine bonds of fraternity, consisting not in name but in reality."

Sodalities of this kind, teaching doctrines so just and true, and following prac-
tices so pure and good, necessarily modified at once the language and opinions,
the character and habits of mankind around them. They were a people who
lived a protest against the corruptions and errors of their time, — the lineal spiritual
descendants of the prophets, the adapted forerunners of that Gospel which, under
the sway of reason, is subservient in still higher measure to the same great ends of
purity and freedom, though, alas ! it has often become, in the hands of craft or
ignorance, the instrument of quite contrary effects. Lust of power has perverted
it into the apology for oppression, appetite into the excuse for sensuality ; while
'spiritual despotism,' instead of obeying the injunction of its Author, and holding
it up as ' the light of the world,' has put an extinguisher upon the Word, and used
its authority as a torch for kindling the flames of persecution, and obscuring the
reason of men with the smoke of superstition and the fumes of fanaticism.

Mr Conybeare, in his « Life of St Paul,' jus<ly observes of the Essenes, that
'we need not doubt that they did represent religious cravings which Christianity
satisfied.' Their spiritual aspirations and their practical lives, incorporating at
once many of the negative and positive virtues of Christianity, indicate a vast
improvement upon the time when kings, princes, priests, and people alike ' erred
through strong drink, and were altogether out of the way.' John the Baptist is the
culminating point of this influence ; — his public mission is the last event in that
4 fitness and fulness of time' that made Christianity possible; and in the force and
purity of his ministry, associated with his avowed office as the harbinger of the
Messiah, we behold the purposes of Providence, uniting with the developments of
history and of culture, to herald the inauguration of CHRIST in the Temple of
Humanity.

THE BOOKS

OF THE

NEW TESTAMENT.

THE GOSPEL

ACCORDING TO MATTHEW.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 7.

Jesus said unto him, It is written again, Thou shalt not tempt the
Lord thy God.

THOU SHALT NOT TEMPT] All the oldest MSS. read, ouk ekpeiraseis, except
Codex D, which has ou peiraseis. The ek gives greater force to the verb peirad,
which then takes the sense of ' I try out '= ' I put strongly to the proof.' Ekpeirad
is the word selected by the Lxx. as a translation of the Hebrew thenassu (from
nahsah, 'to tempt' or 'prove') in Deut. vi. 16, which the Saviour here partially
cites — 'Ye shall not tempt the Lord your God,' etc.

When we put ourselves into needless danger, with the expectation that Divine
power will be exerted for our preservation, we are tempting God — asking Him, in
fact, to manifest His power simply to remedy our imprudence or sanction our
neglect Whether the danger incurred be physical or moral makes no difference,
except that, where moral interests are at stake, the consequences of our thus
tempting God will be more seriously noxious ; still, it is not to be forgotten that
the state of mind which leads us to tempt the Most High, even in regard to things
physical, is displeasing to Him. Instead of being glorified, He is insulted by a
presumptuous reliance upon His grace or power when His revealed will is disobeyed.
Men often allege that "they are not afraid of using intoxicating liquors, because God
(or 'the grace of God') will preserve them from injury." But this statement is
devoid equally of sense and sanctity, unless it can be shown that danger is absent
from the use of such drinks, or that the danger is incurred from necessity, or from
some superior moral obligation. If alcoholic liquors are prejudicial to health, to
expect that Providence will interpose to arrest their physical effects upon a believer,
is to 'tempt God' as truly as Satan urged Christ to tempt Him; and if the
intemperate appetite, with all its immoral issues, be the result of a physiological
action of alcoholic drinks upon the nervous system, to expect its prevention or
eradication while such liquors are consumed, merely because the consumer is pious
or piously disposed, is a still more aggravated form of the same temptation. It is
not enough to say that the liquor has not yet created the appetite, or that, in
society, indulgence is the exception and not the rule. The answers to this plea are
several, (i) The intemperate appetite is so frightful a curse, physical, mental and

262 MATTHEW, IV.

moral, that even the avoidance of the risk is incumbent upon all.* In epidemical
visitations of disease the great majority escape; but who would be justified in
needlessly running into danger ? How much more censurable, then, is it to incur
any risk of an evil that kills soul and body together ! (2) Were the average risk
of becoming a drunkard much smaller than it is, no one can know beforehand that
to himself it may not be personally great. That men are more careless of moral
than of corporeal danger is due to their moral blindness, but cannot argue against
the fact; and so, in respect to intemperance, those most in peril are usually the
most self-confident. One of the worst effects of even * moderate ' draughts of a
narcotic is to render the drinker insensible of the danger they induce. (3) The
intemperate appetite exists in very varying degrees, and though its most awful
manifestations — as in dipsomania — are limited, taking all ages into account, yet its
lesser degrees are by no means infrequent ; and the numerous cases of religious
apostasy from this cause, prove that, to the Christian profession, the risk is neither
nominal nor intangible. Far short of sottish intemperance, there may be, and often
is, an appetite for strong drinks, and an indulgence in them, which sensibly impair
spiritual perception, and diminish spiritual feeling and power; and the extreme
difficulty which many Christians experience in the effort to renounce them is
practical evidence of the hold they unconsciously have of their subject. As a
physical disease, this alcoholic craving has its lower as well as its higher types,
and, in one form or other, it is very extensively diffused among all classes and both
sexes. The hazard of incurring it, therefore, is not small, either absolutely or
relatively considered ; and God is not honored by the presumption which relies
on His protection while the infecting agent is used as an article of diet or
enjoyment. Upon every barrel and decanter of strong drink this text might be
inscribed, to testify like a beacon-light — 'Thou shall not tempt the Lord thy God.'

* The fact of connection between use and abuse, is not only admitted by drinkers, and even by the
champions of drink ; it is explained by philosophers and physiologists, as the following will witness : —

" The frequent use of things which stimulate the nervous system, produces a languor when their
effect has gone off, and a desire to repeat them"— Prof. THOMAS REID, D.D., 1780.

" Alcohol is a dangerous and tricksy spirit : it oils the hinges of the gate leading to excess." —
G. H. LEWES, 1855.

" Indigestion being relieved by alcoholic stimulants, lays the foundation for an ever-growing
habit of taking them. — Prof. LAYCOCK, M. D., 1857.

" Nearly all those who employ them experience their exhaustive effects before they know what
they are doing, and so are insensibly trained to crave renewed excitement." — Dr MANN, Guide
to Life.

" It allures men into a vicious indulgence, and then mocks their folly." — Dean RAMSAY, 1859.

" The use of Wine is quite superfluous to man. It is constantly followed by the expenditure of
power. The drinker draws a bill on his health, which must always be renewed." — Baron LIEBIG,
1859.

Alcohol is a disturber of the system, and cannot be regarded as a food. . . . The influence
of wine begins in a few minutes, obtains its maximum in less than one hour, and soon after
disappears, or manifests its secondary influence. Alcohols decrease consciousness, sensibility, and
voluntary muscular action ; are followed by reaction and a miserable feeling. . . . The dose
only affects the degree, not the direction of the influence. Alcohol neither warms nor sustains tha
body by the elements of which it is composed." — Dr EDWARD SMITH, 1860.

" A moderate dose of wine would, in most cases, at once diminish the maximum weight which
a healthy person could lift, to something below his teetotal standard. A single glass will often
suffice to take the edge off both mind and body, and reduce their capacity." — W. BRINTON, M. D.,
On Dietetics, 1861.

" It is clear we must cease to regard Alcohol as in any sense an aliment. The primary action is.
anaesthetic. The exhilaration is nothing more than a blunting of the sensations to the half-felt
corporeal pains and petty cares of life. The evidence shows the action of alcohol upon life to be
consistent and uniform in all its phases, and to be always exhibited as an arrest of vitality." —
Dr T. KING CHAMBERS, 1861.

The want or craving of the drinker is the result of this law of lowered life and tone, which forms
the real temptation to drink more and more. ' Use ' is the seed, and ' excess ' is the harvest to
which it tends and grows.

MATTHEW, V. 29, 30. 263

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 23.

And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues,
and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all manner of
sickness and all manner of disease among the people.

In this proceeding we are constrained to admire the union of wisdom, benevo-
lence, and power ; power equal to the cure of ' every sickness (pasan noson) and
every disease (kai pasan malakeen) ' ; benevolence that set in motion the wonder-
working hand ; and wisdom that made the sensible and acknowledged benefit the
introduction to spiritual influences for the removal of moral evil. To this day
in the East, the hakim (physician) can gain access where all other persons would
be excluded ; and hence the importance of a plan now increasingly recognized by
missionary institutions, of uniting, whenever possible, in the same person a knowl-
edge of at least the rudiments of medical science with the ability to preach the
' Word of life. ' The example of the Saviour is a direct sanction to the use of
means for improving the temporal condition of men, with a view to their higher
and spiritual good. Both from duty and policy the Christian Church should exert
itself for the removal of whatever renders mankind miserable and degraded ; and
where every variety of wretchedness and vice is traceable to the diffusion of one
particular class of drinks, it seems a perfect infatuation that the Church, as a whole,
should not only fail to protest against their diffusion, but by the customs of its
members should extend its patronage to them, and promote their circulation.
Surely this conduct resembles the propagation rather than the cure of sickness and
disease among the people. With abstinence as an instrumentality, honestly and
fearlessly applied by the entire Christian Church, wonders, little short of miraculous
in their results, might be performed among a population such as ours, where the
drink-engendered maladies of body and mind are literally 'legion.'

CHAPTER V. VERSES 29, 30.

29 And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from
thee : for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should
perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. 30 And
if thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee : for it
is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not
that thy whole body should be cast into hell.

OFFEND] Skandalizei is from skandalizeiny 'to cause to stumble or fall.' It is
related to skandalon, ' a crooked stick on which the bait is fastened, which the
animal strikes against, and so springs the trap ' ; hence ' anything which one strikes
against' =a stumblingblock, impediment. In the N. T. the noun and verb are
employed in a moral sense only, occasionally with the meaning of 'giving offence,'
and 'scandalizing' others.

Ver. 30 is absent from Codex D.

The principle embodied in this metaphorical instruction is too plain to be mis-
conceived. Anything, however dear, and even of real and great value, is to be
renounced as soon as it becomes a cause of evil, just as at sea everything is cast

264 MATTHEW, VI. 13.

overboard in order to save life ; and the expressions, * cut it off,' ' pluck it out,' and
'cast it from thee,' are designed to indicate both the resolution required, and the
energy that should be exerted, in the execution of this duty. Dean Alford regards
ver. 29 as "an admonition, arising out of the truth announced in ver. 28, to with-
draw the first springs and occasions of evil desire, even by the sacrifice of what is
most useful and dear to us "; and he observes " that our Lord grounds this pre-
cept of the most rigid and decisive self-denial on considerations of the truest self-
interest — sumpherei soi (it» is profitable to thee)." — Greek Test. 5th edit. vol. i.
p. 48. None will controvert the fact that, to the inebriate, strong drink comes
within the prohibitive scope of this precept, and that he is called upon to dash
away from him the liquor which has enthralled and cursed him. The difficulty of
compliance with this rule is, however, extremely great, arising from the morbid
condition of the drinker, till, in the case of the oinomaniac or dipsomaniac,
voluntary compliance with the safeguard becomes impossible. Hence (i) the
importance of abstinence from drinking customs and the use of strong drink on
the part of the sober and virtuous, so that the victims of intemperance may escape
external temptation to drink, and be encouraged in their abstinent practice ; and
(2) the equal importance of abstinence to the sober, as a preventive against the
fascinating and ruinous influences of intoxicating liquor, from which so few, com-
paratively, are ever delivered. [See, on these two latter points, Notes on chap,
xviii. 7 — 9; Rom. xiv. 13, etc.]

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 13.

And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: For
thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen.

TEMPTATION] Peirasmon, 'a state of trial,' especially solicitation to sin.
EVIL] Tou poneerou, 'that which is evil,' or 'the evil-one.'

We are taught to pray to God not to lead us, or suffer us to be led, into such
circumstances as will tempt and endanger our souls. It is one thing to come into
contact with temptation (which is unavoidable), another to be led into it. Such a
prayer as this, if put up in a sincere and enlightened spirit, will be answered by
the protection of Providence extended to us in our daily walks, and by the diligence
we shall evince in shunning whatever we have reason to believe is prejudicial to
our moral and spiritual interests. To hundreds of thousands of men alcoholic
liquor acts as a temptation to its own use in a manner the most injurious ; and in
countless cases it acts, even when short of drunkenness, as an incentive to crime
and vice of every description. Who can answer the question, How much strong
drink can be taken without its becoming a temptation, or tempting to the com-
mission of some folly or sin ? If 'wine is a mocker,' how can its use be consistent
with the spirit of this solemn supplication ? On the spiritual affections wine may
safely be said to dim where it does not darken ; and Chaucer has wisely warned
us against temptation that may begrime where it does not burn.* So also as to the
prayer, 'Deliver us from evil,' — it must, in its broadest sense, include the causes
of social and moral evil : for to seek the exclusion of evil while patronizing its

* " Sotheby a whit wal although it brenne (burn) not fully by stikyng of a candel, yet is the wal
blak (by} the leyte (light)."— Chaucer's Parson's Tale.

MATTHEW, IX. I/. 265

sources is not to pray so as to be heard ; it is to ' pray amiss ' : yet what cause of
nearly all kinds of evil is so prolific and universal among us as the use of intoxi-
cating drink? If the translation 'deliver us from the evil-one' is preferred, we
are strongly reminded of the counsel of Peter,—" Be sober," neepsate (be abstinent),
"be vigilant; for your adversary the devil goeth about, as a roaring lion, seeking
whom he may devour " — katapiee, 'swallow down.' [See Note on I Pet. v. 8.]

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 17.

Neither do men put new wine into old bottles; else the bottles
break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but they
put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved.

NEITHER DO MEN PUT] Oitde ballousin, 'nor indeed do they [anthropoi, 'men,1
understood] place.'

NEW WINE] Oinon neon, 'new wine,' wine fresh from the press.

INTO OLD BOTTLES] Eis *skous palaiot4s, 'into old bags ' — bags or vessels,
askous, generally made out of skins of goats.

ELSE] Ei de mecge, 'but if not indeed.' So Codices Aleph, C, and D. Codex
B has ei dc nice, ' but if not.'

THE BOTTLES BREAK] Rheegnuntai oi askoi, ' the bags burst,' = are rent. So
Codices Aleph, B, and C. But Codex D reads, rheessei ho oinos ho neos tous askous,
'the new wine rends the bags.'

AND THE WINE RUNNETH OUT] Kai ho oinos ekecheitai, 'and the wine is poured
out. ' Codex D has kai ho oinos apollutai, ' and the wine is destroyed ' (or perishes).

AND THE BOTTLES PERISH] Kai oi askoi apolountai, 'and the bottles are
destroyed ' (or perish). So Codex C. Codices Aleph, A, and B have apolluntai.

BUT THEY PUT NEW WINE INTO NEW BOTTLES] Alia ballousin oinon neon
fis askous kainous, ' but they place new wine into new bags.' Codex D reads, bal-
lousin de. Codex Aleph has all"1 oinon neou eis askous kainous bleetion, ' but new
wine into new b?gs is-to-be-put.'

AND BOTH ARE PRESERVED] Kai amphotera sunteerountai, 'and both are kept
together ' =* preserved. Codices Aleph, B, C, and D have amphoteroi, ' both '
(masculine plural), instead of amphotera (neuter plural) ; and Codex D has tee-
rountai, 'are kept,' instead of sunteerountai, 'are kept together.'

The Vulgate reads, Neque mittunt vinum novum in utres veteres ; alioquin
rumpuntur utres, et vinum effunditur, et utres percunt. Sed vinum novum in utres
novos mittunt, et ambo conservantur : " Nor do they place new wine in old leather-
bottles ; otherwise the bottles are burst, and the wine is spilled, and the bottles
perish. But they place new wine in new bottles, and both are preserved." [See
Notes on parallel passages, Mark ii. 22 ; Luke v. 37, 38.]

1. From this verse (and the parallel passages) we learn (i) that it was not
customary in our Lord's day to put new wine into old wine-bags, lest the bags
should burst and the wine be lost ; and (2) that the opposite practice — that of
putting new wine into new wine-bags — was attended with the preservation of
both.

2. The usual explanation of this custom — viz., that new skin-bags were used in
order to resist the expansive force of the carbonic acid gas generated by fermenta-

266 MATTHEW, XL 1 8, 19.

tion — is erroneous and insufficient ; for it cannot have been customary to put wine
during fermentation into any kind of bottles, either new or old, since fermentation,
when permitted, was carried on in the wine-vat (Greek, hupoleenion ; Latin, lacus) ;
and when, from inadvertence, fermenting wine was poured into skin-bags dra\yn
tight, the destruction of the bag, however new and strong, was the certain conse-
quence. [See Note on Job xxxii. 19.]

3. The facts stated by the Saviour are only intelligible in the light of the efforts
used by the ancients to prevent grape-juice from fermenting, by straining the juice
so as to free it from much of its gluten, and then bottling it with sulphur fumiga-
tion; or by subjecting the juice to a boiling heat, which checks all incipient
fermentation, and then inclosing it in bags or other vessels made air-tight. It is
obvious that, to render these precautions effectual, the wine-bags themselves must
have been free from ferment ; and there was no other way of insuring the absence
of ferment save by using perfectly new skin-bags. If old bags were used, some of
the decayed albuminous matter adhering to their sides must, by the action of air,
have become changed into a leaven or ferment (Hebrew, seor) ; or, by long wear
and heat, cracks or apertures admitting the air might exist undetected ; and the
wine, thus set a-fermenting, would in due course burst the skin, and be spilled and
' lost ' ; but if the wine was poured into bags made of skins never before used, no
provocative to fermentation would be present, and both the wine and the bags
would be preserved, — the wine from fermentation, and the bags from the rupture,
otherwise sure to result from the elastic gas generated in fermentation making a
violent effort to find a vent.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 42.

And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a
cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple, verily I say unto
you, he shall in no wise lose his reward.

A CUP OF COLD WATER ONLY] Poteerion psuchrou monon, ' a cup only of cold '
— 'water ' being understood. In the parallel place, Mark ix. 41, the phrase is
poteerion hudatos, ' a cup of water. ' Codex Z has poteerion psuchroun, * a cold
cup'; Codex D, poteerion. hudatos psuchrou, 'a cup of cold water.' The A. V.,
' a cup of cold water only,' is calculated to mislead the reader, as if the thing given
were of small value — ' a cup of cold water only' ; but by the proper collocation, ' a
cup only of cold water,' the true meaning is presented, — that even a small donation
of water will not pass without the notice of Him who accepts a kindness done to
the obscurest disciple as though done to Himself.

CHAPTER XL VERSES 18, 19.

18 For John came neither eating nor drinking, and they say, He
hath a devil. 19 The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they
say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, a friend of publicans
and sinners. But wisdom is justified of her children.

V. 18. NEITHER EATING NOR DRINKING] Meete esthion meete pinon, 'neither
eating nor drinking ' ; that is, as the generality of men did, without any peculiarity.

MATTHEW, XL 18, 19. 267

His meat was 'locusts and wild honey,' and his drink was restricted to the water
of spring or stream.

A DEVIL] Daimonion, 'a demon,' — always in New Testament used of an
evil spirit or fallen angel. The demons were supposed to haunt solitary places ;
hence the taunt against John. The name diabolos, 'devil,' is never applied to any
evil spirit except the chief of fallen angels = Satan = Beelzebub = Apollyon.

V. 19. A MAN GLUTTONOUS, AND A WINEBIBBER] Anthropos phagos kai
oiiwpotees, 'a man (who is) an eater and a wine-drinker.' Wicklif (1380) and
Tyndale (1534) translate, ' drynker of wyne.' Beza gives homo, cdax, ft vini potor,
'a man, an eater, and a drinker of wine.' In Greek as in English, 'eater* and
'drinker ' (phagos and /0/<?f.r) acquired an intensive force, and came to signify one
addicted to a more than customary and respectable use of food and drink. The
A. V. pretty accurately marks this sense by the renderings ' gluttonous ' and
1 winebibber ' ; but in regard to oinopotees, frequency and love of wine-drinking, not
intoxication from wine, was the pith of the charge preferred.

OF HER CHILDREN] Ton teknon autees, 'of her children.' Instead of kknon,
Codices Aleph and B read, ton ergon autees, ' of her works. '

The reports of St Matthew and St Luke (in the translation of the A. V.) may
be placed side by side.

Matt. xi. 18, 19. Luke vii. 33 — 35.

For John came neither eating nor For John the Baptist came neither

drinking, and they say, He hath a eating bread nor drinking wine; and
devil. The Son of man came eating ye say, He hath a devil. The Son of
and drinking, and they say, Behold a man is come eating and drinking; and
man gluttonous, and a winebibber, a ye say, Behold a gluttonous man, and
friend of publicans and sinners. But a winebibber, a friend of publicans and
wisdom is justified of her children. sinners ! But wisdom is justified of all

her children.

1. The diet of John was simple and uniform — such as the wilderness spon-
taneously provided ; his dress was rough and hairy ; his residence was away from
the haunts of man ; and his manner was austere. The multitude was awe-struck,
but the profanely bold said, ' He has a demon,' an evil spirit that enables him to
bear the privations and fatigues of his arduous life. In truth, he was a Nazarite,
and more than a Nazarite [see Note on Luke i. 15]; — one who, in the perform-
ance of his peculiar mission as the Awakening Prophet and Forerunner of the
Messiah, was divinely devoted to do and be that which was best adapted for the
success of his great work.

2. Jesus, who would have done precisely as John did, had His office been the
same, was anointed to' another mission — that of preaching and presenting in His
own person the gospel of the kingdom. He therefore did not hold Himself aloof
from village, town, and city, nor adopt a singular attire, nor use the monotonous
food of the wilderness. He came not so much to awe by His wonders as to woo
by His gentleness. His life was eminently social; therefore, in common parlance,
He came 'eating and drinking,' while for both food and drink He was dependent
upon the grateful bounty of His friends. As the austerity of John's life led his
slanderers to charge him with being possessed by a demon, so the suavity of Jesus
led the same vituperators to charge Him with indulgence in sensuous delights, with
addiction to 'the pleasures of the table,' with pampering His appetite, and
gratifying a taste for 'good living' — with being 'an eater and wine-drinker,' a
LOVER of dainty food and drink! There was no ground for this charge; for self-

268 MATTHEW, XII. 26.

indulgence, especially in meats and drinks, was opposed to the whole purpose of
His advent and redeeming work. He was the grandest example of Self-Denial
the world ever beheld ; and whoever wishes for countenance in luxurious tastes and
habits must go elsewhere than to Christ, 'the Man of sorrows.' The reasoning
that "John drank no wine, while Christ did, therefore we may," overlooks or con-
founds the most important distinctions, (i) It ignores the fact that John, as a
Nazarite, abstained from all solid produce of the vine, and from all juice of the
grape, and that Jesus, not being a Nazarite, was not under the same obligation, and
did not so abstain, as we know from the account of the Last Supper; but the
inference that therefore Jesus partook of intoxicating liquor (such as Solomon and
Habakkuk condemned) is wholly unsupported and unjustified. The contrast was
neither universal nor special, but general, and hence the inference is illogical. It
is not necessary to assume that Christ drank all kinds of wine — good, bad, or
indifferent — because John abstained from all kinds, much less that He drank only
intoxicating wine ! No one ever thought of arguing in the same style in regard to
the contrast concerning 'eating.' (2) The objection confounds the official life of
John and Jesus with their personal character, and virtually assigns to John a
superiority in self-denial to the Master. It supposes that Jesus indulged Himself
in things which John refrained from under a more rigorous and refined ideal of
temperance ; whereas, as we have remarked, their difference of living was due to
their difference of office ; and there is not a particle of evidence for the theory that
would assign to John a mortification of fleshly desire which the Saviour did not
practise. Men who drink strong drink ' because they like it ' — from the animal
excitement or ' comfort ' it occasions, — and who refuse to deny themselves its use,
in spite of all the good they might thereby effect, cannot be permitted to shield
themselves by their appeal to the spotless Saviour, 'who pleased not Himself,' and
"whose meat and drink it was to do the will of His father, and to finish His
work." The real sacrilege of such an appeal is thinly disguised beneath the veil of
affected reverence which it puts on. Whatever food or drink the Lord may have
partaken of was not for the purpose of gratifying any mere fleshly desire, nor is
any one warranted in affirming that the kind of food or drink He consumed was
calculated, like the alcoholic liquors now in use, to engender an intemperate
appetite, and rob man of his priceless dower of reason and spiritual affection.
John the Baptist had not a demon, and Jesus was neither an effeminate nor
voracious consumer of food and drink.

3. 'Wisdom is justified of her children.' She is vindicated by the works of
goodness and utility to which she gives birth ; and as John and his Lord have
been so justified, despite the aspersions of their enemies, so every true reform, such
as the Temperance movement, illustrates the wisdom out of which it has sprung
by the excellence of its effects. ' By their fruits ye shall know them ' is a criterion
as applicable to institutions as to men.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 26.

And if Satan cast out Satan, he is divided against himself; how-
shall then his kingdom stand ?

When accused of exerting Satanic power for the expulsion of evil spirits, the
Redeemer exposes, by this question, the absurdity of the hypothesis. The principle
is absolute in the world of morals, — as are effects, so are their causes, and vice
versa. If we know the nature of a cause, we may predict the nature of the effect ;
and knowing the effect, we can pronounce as to the quality of the cause. Those

MATTHEW, XIII. 33. 269

who have slandered the Temperance reform as a work of the devil are confuted
by every Temperance society and adherent. A common source of confusion and
error lies in a want of discriminating between real and spurious effects. The faults
of Temperance advocates and organizations (;. e. the faults of fallible men, taken as
we find them) are charged upon the principle of abstinence, which is as unreasonable
as it would be to charge all the sins of those who use intoxicating liquor upon the
drink. What is plain to the candid observer is, the production of woeful evils by
the influence of alcoholic beverages, and the cessation of these evils (except where
they have become morbidly chronic) whenever these beverages are renounced.*
•To call evil good, and good evil,' does not alter the constitution of things, but it
is a serious offence against the Divine law, and will be followed by a perversion of
the moral sense in the offender himself.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 33.

Another parable spake he unto them ; The kingdom of heaven is
like unto leaven, which a woman took, and hid in three measures of
meal, till the whole was leavened.

To LEAVEN] Zumee, 'to ferment.' Yeast is albumen in a state of decay. The
action of leaven in dough converts the saccharine particles into alcohol and car-
bonic acid gas, when the effort of the gas to escape (or rise by its levity), gives to
the dough the porousness of light bread. But by pumping artificially made gas
into the dough, as is now done under Dagleish's patent for agrated bread, the same
effect is produced, and the waste of flour (about a twelfth part), always consequent
upon the fermenting process, is avoided. This waste, taking into account the
quantity of bread annually manufactured, is very great. The alcohol generated in
common dough by fermentation is afterward expelled by the heat of baking. An
attempt once made to collect the spirit thus evolved, entirely failed as a speculation,,
owing to the smallness of the quantity and the difficulty and expense of condens-
ing the vapor ; otherwise the alcohol might have been economized for scientific
purposes.

IN THREE MEASURES OF MEAL] Eis alturou sata tria, ' in three sata of flour r
(or meal). The word saton was the Greek form of the Hebrew staA, the third of
an ephah, and was equal to 2.%, English gallons. Aleuron (from aleo, to grind)
denoted the meal of any sort of grain separated from the husks.

TILL THE WHOLE WAS LEAVENED] Heds ou fzumdthte holon, 'until the whole
(mass) was fermented.'

The Saviour here selects one characteristic of leaven to symbolize the penetrating
and assimilating power of His heavenly influence. Such a simile does not modify
the striking analogy between ferment and corruption in doctrine or life. When
the Lord declared, ' I will come on thee as a thief,' the single point of comparison
is never mistaken, as it often is in the text before us, where prejudice and appetite
interpose their blinding influence.

•The Report of the Committee on Intemperance of the English Ecclesiastical Province of Can-
terbury (1869), shows that in 1300 districts where the traffic in drink is suppressed by local power,
drunkenness, crime, lun.icv and iHiotcy are all but nil, while pauperism is at a minimum. An enter-
prise which thus empties Satan's kingdom can hardly originate with him.

2/0 MATTHEW, XV. II, l6 — 2O.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 6, 7.

6 But when Herod's birthday was kept, the daughter of Herodias
danced before them, and pleased Herod. 7 Whereupon he promised
with an oath to give her whatsoever she would ask.

These texts, compared with Mark vi. 20 — 26, make it very evident that during
the excitement of a birthday revel Herod had lost his habitual caution, and given
a rash and wicked promise to a beautiful but profligate woman, in obedience to
which he sacrificed the life of a great preacher of the Reformation, to whom, in
his sober senses, he had respectfully and gladly listened. In our comments on
various passages of the Old Testament we have already illustrated the relations
between intemperance and the unwise and cruel acts of kings and rulers. From
the time of Alexander to the present day history is full of terrible examples of
the disastrous political influences of drinking, one of the latest of which has been
seen in the British Abyssinian war (1867-8), King Theodore, from being a prudent
and amiable ruler, having been gradually transformed, by his drinking habits, into
a sanguinary and capricious tyrant, altogether unamenable to the power of reason.

CHAPTER XV. VERSES n, 16 — 20.

ii Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man ; but that
which cometh out of the mouth, this defileth a man. . . . 16 And
Jesus said, Are ye also yet without understanding ? 17 Do not ye yet
understand, that whatsoever entereth in at the mouth goeth into the
belly, and is cast out into the draught ? 18 But those things which
proceed out, of the mouth come forth from the heart; and they defile
the man. 19 For out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders,
adulteries, fornication, thefts, false witness, blasphemies: 20 These
are the things which defile a man : but to eat with unwashen hands
defileth not a man.

This passage (with the corresponding one, Mark vii. 15, 18 — 23) has been
strangely cited to prove that intoxicating liquors, as physical agents, cannot defile
a man, seeing that all evil is from within, and not from without.

1. Those who reason after this fashion should, by virtue of the same premises,
deny that any quantity of intoxicating liquor can defile the user ; and that since no
moral or immoral effect is connected with it, whether the quantity consumed be
a glass or a gallon, a beaker or a barrel, matters nothing.

2. Were it granted that intemperance is a sin of the heart, like pride, covetous-
ness, etc., yet the occasion of the sin being intimately connected with the use of
strong-drink, abstinence from the drink may be highly expedient as a means of
avoiding the sin.

3. Could it even be proved (contrary to all evidence and experience) that as a
mental offence (the desire to get drunk), intemperance would be as frequent as it is
now, were all intoxicating liquors banished, — the absence of the actual and overt
offence would exempt the world from so much suffering, civil crime, and social
calamity, that the exclusion of the drinks would be worthy of every effort to
secure it.

4. The scope of the Saviour's teaching in this place is entirely distorted by the
attempt to deduce from it the conclusion, that the use of intoxicating liquors is a

MATTHEW, XVI. 6, II, 12. 2/1

matter of moral indifference, and that intemperance originates in the heart, (i)
The Lord is opposing that superstition of the Pharisees which attached a moral
value to the ceremonial purifications and distinctions of food as clean and unclean;
and He asserts, in contradiction to them, that moral evil is of the heart, and cannot
depend upon what is eaten, and how it is partaken of — though, of course, either
might illustrate the state of the heart in relation to a Divine precept. But certainly,
to ignore natural influences by the authority of a text which sets up real as above
ceremonial distinctions, is a case of clear perversion. (2) The Lord's remarks had
no respect to the special nature and effects of intoxicants, such as the articles
alcohol and chloroform, or the natural narcotics, opium and bhang ; and it is little
short of impiety to adduce His words in contravention of the well-known and
indisputable influence of such things to excite a diseased craving [see Note on chap,
iv. 7], the indulgence of which is productive of the most criminal results, inflam-
ing every evil predisposition, and giving rise to thoughts, passions, blasphemies,
and vicious actions, which but for them would have had no existence. It is not
true, as every one knows, that it makes no moral difference to the world whether
intoxicating liquors are used or disused ; and to represent the Saviour as asserting
what is contrary to universal knowledge is a fearful example of wresting the words
of holiness and truth.

5. The very opposite conclusion to the one above offered may lawfully be drawn
from the Saviour's argument ; for if there be no virtue in mere ceremonialism, nor
vice in the absence of it — if the state of the heart is the one matter of paramount
importance, — how carefully ought the Christian to guard himself, as well as others,
from all indulgence in those seductive drinks, which 'cause the heart to utter
perverse things,' — which, unlike ordinary articles of food, act specifically upon
the nervous system, and through it upon the whole man as a moral and spiritual
being! Even if drink did nothing more than to lay the heart open to Satanic
influences, how sedulously ought it to be shunned ! *

CHAPTER XVI. VERSES 6, n, 12.

6 Then Jesus said unto them, Take heed and beware of the leaven
of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees. . . . » How is it that ye
do not understand that I spake // not to you concerning bread, that
ye should beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees ?
iaThen understood they how that he bade them not beware of the
leaven of bread, but of the doctrine of the Pharisees and of the Sad-
ducees.

BEWARE OF THE LEAVEN] Prosechett apo tees zumees, 'hold yourselves from the
ferment.' Prosecho, 'to have (or hold) to,' is generally used in the sense of
applying the mind to a thing; but when, as in this case, it is followed by apo,
'from,' the verb expresses the concentration of the mind with a view to avoiding
the object, and is then practically synonymous with apccho, ' to hold off from,' ' to
abstain.'

V. 12. BUT OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE PHARISEES AND OF THE SADDUCEES]

Air apo tees didachces ton Pharisaion kai Saddoukaion, 'but from the teaching of

•Contrast the hardness and tenacity of many professing Christians on this subject— their
insensibility to the circumstances of the case, and consequent duty— with the conscientious de-
claration of a late distinguished physician, that the danger attendant upon the use of alcoholics had
frequently prevented him from prescribing them, tven as nudicitut.

272 MATTHEW, XVIII. 7 — 9.

the Pharisees and Sadducees.' Didachee (from didasko, to teach) frequently denotes,
as here, the thing taught =» the doctrine.

Evil doctrine is compared by the Lord to leaven, from its tendency to corrupt the
mind, by the false principles injected and the irreligious conduct in which it issues.
The Pharisees made rabbinical tradition paramount to the plainest precepts and
spirit of the Mosaic law, 'judgment, justice, and mercy' ; and the Sadducees, by
their skepticism, struck at the root of all spiritual devotion. Such 'leaven ' could not
be too earnestly and completely excluded if faith and righteousness, acceptable to
the holy God, were to flourish and abound.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 24.

:o his disciples, If any m<

,nd take up his cross, and

[See also Mark viii. 34, and Luke ix. 23.]

Then said Jesus unto his disciples, If any man will come after me,
let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me.

Christian self-denial embraces — (i) The denial of all propensities entirely vicious.

(2) The denial of all sensuous pleasures which needlessly expose to moral danger.

(3) The denial of all gratifications which would disqualify for the adequate per-
formance of all Christian duties. These acts are said to be the denial of a man's
self, because they are the denial of those appetencies which are strongest in the
unrenewed nature. Let it not be supposed, however, that Christian self-denial is
self-mortification in the blind ascetic sense, or an effort at self-annihilation in
the Buddhist sense. On the contrary, Christian self-denial tolerates an enjoyment
of all innocent (and in the best sense natural) sources of pleasure, while it qualifies
for a participation in the happiness of the spiritual life. It is, in short, the subjec-
tion of the inferior nature in order that the superior nature may be more fully
developed ; and any pain and constraint attendant at first on the practice of this
self-denial will not only be recompensed by the joy it brings, but will in due time
be greatly diminished by the force of habit, and by the spontaneous preference of
things that are pure and good. The question whether self-denial should be
practised in regard to intoxicating liquors is of vast importance. They are mostly
used on account of the sensuous pleasure they impart — a pleasure inevitably
associated with more or less of moral peril ; — and their promiscuous use is con-
stantly prolific in misery and sin of every description. ' Would the Church and
the world be better without them? would my individual state and capacity for
usefulness be improved by abstinence ? ' — are inquiries which every professing
follower of Christ is under obligation to put to himself; and if, having answered
them in the affirmative, he refuses to follow up conscience by a corresponding
conduct, he may be said, without a breach of Christian charity, to fall short so far
of the standard presented in this passage. The Lord Jesus Christ is the perfect
model of self-denial, for He never refused to sacrifice mere taste or liking for the
sake of spiritual good, whether of Himself or others ; and therein ' He has left us
an example, that we should follow His steps.'

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSES 7—9.

7 Woe unto the world because of offences ! for it must needs be
that offences come; but woe to that man by whom the offence

MATTHEW, XXI. 33. % 2/3

cometh ! s Wherefore if thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them
off, and cast them from thee : it is better for thee to enter into life halt
or maimed, rather than having two hands or two feet to be cast into
everlasting fire. 9 And if thine eye offend thee, pluck it out, and
cast // from thee : it is better for thee to enter into life with one eye,
rather than having two eyes to be cast into hell fire.

V. 7. OFFENCES] Ta skandala, ' stumbling-blocks '= causes of moral offence or
wrong-doing.

The two ' woes ' of verse 7 are to be distinguished. There is woe * to the world,'
from or by the causes of stumbling which are in it ; and there is pleen oitai, ' woe
besides ' (= ' more woe,' or greater woe) to the man by whom stumbling comes. It
is bad for men to stumble ; it is worse for those who cause them to do so. The
tempter is not exonerated because the victim was able to resist, nor will he be
acquitted by urging (if truly) that he did not tempt for temptation's sake, or out of
pure malignity. The application of this solemn passage to the whole system of
making, providing, and vending intoxicating liquors must be apparent on reflection.
Who is ignorant of the dangerous nature of those drinks ? and who, if cognizant of
their nature, cannot but know that by recommending and circulating them he may
be at any moment setting a stumbling-block in the way of others ? The traffic in
intoxicating liquors is specially open to condemnation, since the direct object of
the vender is pecuniary gain ; and his observation must prove to him that their
promiscuous sale is attended with woeful consequences to the physical, social, and
moral welfare of society. That the State should license him to traffic in such
liquors is itself a scandal, but the fact is not a plea which will avail him in the
Supreme Court of Justice and Equity.

[Verses 8 and 9 are substantially similar to Matt. v. 29, 30, on which see Notes. "|

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 33.

Hear another parable : There was a certain householder, which
planted a vineyard, and hedged it round about, and digged a wine-
press in it, and built a tower, and let it out to husbandmen, and went
into a far country.

HOUSEHOLDER] Oikodespotets, 'house-ruler.'

A VINEYARD] Ampelona, the accusative of amptlon, 'a vineyard,' from ampe-
los, ' a vine ' ; but the derivation of this last is obscure. Very doubtful is that
which refers it to em —am, and peelos, 'clay,' also an Ionic equivalent for oinos,
' wine ' ; so that ampclos = ' that which contains wine.' Another conjecture points
to ampi (^Eolic for amphi), 'round, 'and helisso, 'to twirl,' 'to bend'; whence
helix, 'a tendril.' This etymology of ampelos would correspond to that of the
Hebrew gtphln, 'a twig,' applied to the vine as the principal flexile plant.

HEDGED IT ROUND ABOUT] Phragmon auto ptrietheeke, 'and placed round it
an enclosure ' (fence or hedge).

AND DIGGED A WINEPRESS IN IT] JCai vruxen en auto leenon, 'and digged in

it a press.' Leenos is supposed to have come from loo, ' to contain ' ; so that the

leenos (Doric, lanos) was the place which contained the grapes preparatory ti

treading [Hence ho Letttaws, ' the Lcenian,' was one of the names of Bacchus ;

2/4 MATTHEW, XXIV. 38, 48, 49.

Leenai = Bacchantes, female votaries of Bacchus ; the Leenaia were the feasts held
in honor of Bacchus ; Leenaion was the name of the month when this festival
was celebrated ; ho epi Leenaio agon was the contest at the Leensean festival in
dramatic poetry; leenaika were things prepared for this festival, such as odes,
etc.]

AND BUILT A TOWER] Kai okodomeese purgon 'and erected a tower.' Purges,
'a place of defence,' is thought to be analogous to the Teutonic burg, whence our
* burgh ' and ' borough. '

To HUSBANDMEN] Georgois, ' to workers-of-the-earth '= agriculturists, farmers.
Gorges — from^w, 'earth,' and ergo, 'to work' — signifies one who tills the soil.
Agriculture was held in high esteem by the ancients, and not without reason.
Adam was charged to dress and keep the garden of Eden ; and in all succeeding
periods tillage has necessarily been the first and chief resource of mankind for
sustenance.

It has been observed that the introduction to this parable more closely resembles
a passage in the Old Testament than any other of the Saviour's addresses. [See
Notes on Isa. v. I, 2; and Mark. xii. I.]

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 38.

For as in the days that were before the flood they were eating and
drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until the day that Noe
entered into the ark.

EATING AND DRINKING] Trogontes kai pinontes, 'eating and drinking. ' Trogo,
* to grind with the teeth,' indicates primarily the act of eating food requiring to be
ground or cracked j but in the New Testament usage it bears the general sense of
'toeat.'

* Eating and drinking ' is here used in the emphatic sense of eating and drinking
profusely and luxuriously ; but the terms are too indefinite to warrant the conclu-
sion that the antediluvians hardened themselves in sin by the copious use of
intoxicating liquors, though the probability, taking all things into account, inclines
to that hypothesis. [See Notes on Gen. vi. 5 ; and Luke xvii. 26 — 28.]

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSES 48, 49.

48 But and if that evil servant shall say in his heart, My lord
delayeth his coming; 49 And shall begin to smite his fellow-servants,
and to eat and drink with the drunken.

V. 49. AND TO EAT AND DRINK WITH THE DRUNKEN] Esthiein de kai pineln
meta ton methuonlon, 'also to eat and to drink with those-who-are-gorging.' The
structure of this clause shows that the reference is not to intoxication, but to
sensual indulgence, — the wicked servant being supposed to eat and to drink in the
company of those who are filling themselves to satiety with both food and drink.
Codices Aleph, B, C, and D read, esthiee de kai pinee, 'and should eat and drink ' ;
the V., manducet autem et bibat cum ebriosis, 'but shall eat and drink with

MATTHEW, XXVI. 17, 26 — 29. 275

drunkards.' Beza has quinetiam edere et bibere cum ebriis, 'even to eat and to
•drink with those who are drunk.' In Latin, the earius, 'man drunk,' differs from
the ebriosus, 'drunkard ' = 'man accustomed to get drunk.' Augustine applies
this distinction in extenuation of Noah's single and undesigned act of inebriation.
[See Note on Luke xii. 45.]

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 35.

For I was an hungered, and ye gave me meat : I was thirsty, and ye
gave me drink : I was a stranger, and ye took me in.

THIRSTY, AND YE GAVE ME DRINK] Edipsecsa, kai epotisate me, ' I thirsted,
and ye gave-driak-to me.'

The kindness shown to Christ's poor is kindness shown to Him, and the best
kindness is to give in all cases that which is most suitable to relieve the real wants
of the suffering. Benevolence, even Christian benevolence, often fails of its
object — nay, sometimes defeats itself — by being divorced from sound judgment.
In ordinary life how common it is to see intoxicating, thirst-creating drinks given
for the removal of thirst ! When alcoholic liquors assuage the sensation of thirst,
they do so by narcoticizing the nerves of feeling, and only partially answer the end
indicated by thirst, by virtue of the water they contain. They universally, by their
action on the blood, increase thirst to the extent of their alcoholic potency, even
where they do not occasion that diseased state of the nervous system known as
dipsomania, or ' thirst-frenzy,' which is fed by every new supply of the fiery fuel.

CHAPTER XXVI. VERSE 17.

Now the first day of the feast of unleavened bread the disciples
came to Jesus, saying unto him, Where wilt thou that we prepare for
thee to eat the passover ?

NOW THE FIRST DAY OF THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Tee de protee
t~m azum~>H, 'now on the first (day) of the unfermented things.' Tyndale's and
Cranmer's versions read, 'swete breed.'

XXVI. VERSES 26 — 29.

26 And as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed //, and
brake it, and gave it to the disciples, and said, Take, eat ; this is my
body. 27 And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave // to them,
saying, Drink ye all of it ; 28 For this is my blood of the new testa-
ment, which is shed for many for the remission of sins. 29 But I say
unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until
that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom.

V. 27. THE CUP] To poterion, 'the drinking-vessel,' 'the cup.' Potecrion
(also poteen) — signifying a vessel, cup, or goblet to drink from — is related to poton

2/6 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

and/<7/<?<?.f, ' drink ' ; potos, ' a draught ' ; potizo, ' to give to drink,' — all derived from
pino, 'to drink.' Codices Aleph, B, and Z have poteerion, 'a cup,' instead of h»
poteerion, ' the cup. '

AND GAVE THANKS] Kai eucharisteesas, 'and giving thanks.' The name of
'eucharist' applied to the Lord's Supper as the ordinance of special thanksgiving,
is of great antiquity. Justin Martyr, having said that thanks were given for the
bread and wine-and-water, adds, "And this very provision is called by us Thanks-
giving (kai hee trophee autee kaleitai par3 hee heemon Eucharistia)"

DRINK YE ALL OF IT] Piete ex autou pantes, < drink ye of it— all (ye).' Codex
D is without pantes, 'all.'

V. 28. FOR THIS IS MY BLOOD OF THE NEW TESTAMENT] Codices Aleph.

and B omit kainees, ' new. '

V. 29. I WILL NOT DRINK HENCEFORTH OF THIS FRUIT OF THE VINE] Ou
mee pio ap1 arti ek toutou tou genneematos tees ampelou, ' I will not drink from hence
out of this, the offspring of the vine. ' Genneema is ' that which is born ' or * pro-
duced,' from gennao, ' to beget.' Codices Aleph, A, B, C, and D, all read genee-
matos (with one «).

UNTIL THAT DAY WHEN I DRINK IT NEW WITH YOU IN MY FATHER'S
KINGDOM] Heos tees heemeras ekeinees, hotan auto pino melJ? humon kainon en lee
basileia tou patros mou, ' until that day when I will drink it with you new in the
kingdom of my Father.' Papias, who lived just at the close of the apostolic age,
and wrote an 'Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord,' gives a legendary account
of a prophecy ascribed to the Saviour, and contained in these words, — " The days
shall come in which vines shall grow, each bearing ten thousand shoots, and on
each shoot ten thousand branches, and on each branch ten thousand twigs, and on
each twig ten thousand clusters, and on each cluster ten thousand grapes, and each
grape when pressed shall yield jive-and-twenty measures of wine (vinos). And when
any of the saints shall have taken hold of one of these clusters, another shall cry,
'I am a better cluster, take me, bless the Lord through me.' " The passage is
interesting in a critical sense, as showing that the juice as expressed from the grape
was called ' wine ' ; otherwise the legend must be classed with similar hyperbolisms
preserved in the Talmud and later Targums. It has been supposed, with some
probability, that the legend got into circulation as a paraphrase of this 29th verse,
and that Papias was induced to record and accept it because it harmonized with his
view of a material and millennial reign of Christ upon the earth after the general
resurrection.

' The cup ' is used by figure or ellipsis for that which it contained ; and if we inquire,
What did the cup contain ? the answer given must be that of the Lord himself, —
'the fruit (or produce) of the vine' in a liquid state. The further question, Was
this juice of the grape fermented? is one which has excited considerable discussion,
and is of deep interest in connection with the Temperance reform. The earliest
Temperance bonds of union consisted of pledges of abstinence from intoxicating
liquors, 'except as a medicine or in a religious ordinance'; the object being la
avoid the difficulty that might have arisen had absence from the Lord's Supper, or
the rejection of the cup, been required as a condition of Temperance membership.
As the Temperance movement also was a practical one, aiming to remove the evils
consequent on the use of intoxicating liquors for diet or mere gratification, it was
felt that, were they for a time confined strictly to medicinal or sacramental purposes,
that practical purpose would not be seriously impaired. But its opponents would
not permit this neutrality to exist ; they taunted its friends with inconsistency in

MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. 277

using, as the symbol of redemption, that liquor which they condemned unsparingly
elsewhere; and such taunts, combined with the scruples of abstainers and the
attraction of the subject itself, led to a more careful and exact inquiry into the
nature of this Eucharistal emblem.

I. Those who hold that the 'cup' contained fermented grape -juice allege —
I. That the phrase ' fruit of the vine ' was a periphrastic expression for oinos (wine),
and that oinos always designated the fermented juice of the grape. 2. That at the
time of the passover, grapes out of which the juice could have been expressed for
drinking were not to be procured. 3. That the prediction of the Saviour that He
would no more drink of the fruit of the vine till He drank of it netv in the heavenly
kingdom, implies that He had then partaken of the old wine, commonly used and
preferred (Luke v. 39). 4. That it is evident, from the Mishna and the writings
of the rabbins, that grape-juice which could intoxicate was used at the passover.
5. That the practice of the modern Jews supports the inference that the wine was
intoxicating. 6. That the ancient custom of mingling water with the sacramental
wine favors the same conclusion. 7. That the practice of using unfermented
grape-juice at the Lord's Supper has been treated as an innovation, and has
received ecclesiastical condemnation ; as, for example, by the Third Council of
Braga, which condemned as heretics "those who used no other wine but what
they pressed out of the clusters of the grapes, which were then presented at the
Lord's table." — (Bingham's 'Church Antiquities.') 8. That the practice of all the
Christian churhes of the East and West, save that of the Abyssinian branch, is
opposed to the use of unfermented wine. This is specially urged by Dr Tattam^
late Archdeacon of Bedford, and is repeated in two or three Biblical Cyclopaedias
of recent date.

To these arguments it may be answered, each in order :— I. That the avoidance
of the term ' wine ' by the Saviour, and by the apostle Paul in his extended
reference to the Lord's Supper (i Cor. xi), is, at least, remarkable, and cannot fail
to suggest to the devout reader the wish of Jesus that the analogy between Himself
and the vine, on which He discoursed at this solemn period (John xv.), should be
impressed upon His followers. It is the true 'living vine,' and the fresh unde-
composed fruit of it, that are naturally prominent. It rather follows (i) that Jesus
did not choose a periphrastic and figurative expression to convey the idea of wine,
which the word oinos would have conveyed directly and without circumlocution.
But (2) it does not follow, even if ' fruit of the vine ' was used as equivalent to oinos
(wine), that the wine must have been fermented. Oinos, like the Hebrew yayin,
was a generic name for the expressed juice of the grape in every state, and was
certainly applied to the juice within the grape, if not to the grape itself. The Lxx.,
whose translation of the Old Testament was used by the Saviour, gives it as the equi-
valent of yayin and tirosh in passages where the idea of fermentation is necessarily
excluded. (See Notes on Judg. ix. 13 ; Jer. xl. 10, n ; and Appendix A.) Recipes
for preparing various kinds of wines without fermentation have been preserved by
wiiters of antiquity; and the common practice of boiling their wines, and also of
largely diluting them, showed that the action of fermentation (in producing an
intoxicating liquor) was not regarded by the ancients as essential to the existence
o( oinos. It is, therefore, a false assumption that oinos always denoted fermented
grape-juice, or that fermented oinos always continued inebriating; and in no case
could the inference be sustained, that by ' offspring of the vine ' the Lord intended
to use an expression synonymous with oinos as a fermented and intoxicating drink.

2. The Jewish passover, it is true, was six months after the vintage; but in
grape-growing countries nothing is easier than to preserve an abundant supply of

278 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

grapes from one vintage to another. Mr E. C. Delavan, of America, was intro-
duced, when in Italy, to one of the largest wine manufacturers, who, he says,
"informed me that he had then in his lofts, for the use of his table until the next
vintage, a quantity of grapes sufficient to make one hundred gallons of wine ; that
grapes could always be had, at any time of the year, to make any desirable quantity ;
and that there was nothing in the way of obtaining the fruit of the vine free from
fermentation, in wine countries, at any period. A large basket of grapes was sent
to my lodgings, which were as delicious, and looked as fresh, as if recently taken
from the vines, though they had been picked for months." The merchant was
Signer Peppini, of Florence. Niebuhr, in his 'Travels through Arabia,' mentions
(Heron's translation, vol. i. p. 406) that ' the Arabs preserve grapes by hanging them
up in their cellars and eating them almost through the whole year.' Swinburne,
in his ' Travels,' p. 167, says of the Spaniards, ' They have the secret of preserving
grapes, sound and juicy, from one season to another.' Josephus, in his ' Wars of
the Jews ' (b. vii. c. 8, s. 4), states, in reference to the fortress of Massada, " There
was also wine and oil in abundance, with all kinds of pulse and dates, heaped up
together. These fruits, all fresh and full ripe, were in no way inferior to such
fruits newly laid in, though they had been there little short of 100 years when the
place was taken by the Romans." The objection is, therefore, nugatory, because
an abundance of freshly kept grapes could have been procured, and their juice
expressed, at this last supper of the Lord. But even had this been impossible,
raisin wine, prepared as hereafter described, might at any time have been obtained,
such as is now frequently used by Jewish families in the celebration of the
passover.

3. It is not probable that the Saviour would associate the words, ' This is the
testament in My blood,' with the use of old wine as the representative of His blood
about to be shed. The inference that new wine was not used because of His declara-
tion that He would no more drink of the fruit of the vine until He drank it new
with His disciples in the heavenly kingdom, is only valid on the supposition
that He was alluding to different kinds of material wine ; but no such supposition
can be entertained for a moment.* The Redeemer did not imply, ' This is old vine-
fruit, and I will take no more vine-fruit till I take it new in My Father's kingdom ' ;
but having reference to the symbolic nature of the feast, He is to be understood as
affirming, that though He was then instituting a new dispensation, and probably
with new wine, this economy would, in process of time, yield to another, which
should be emphatically * new,' when the fruit of the vine (that is to say, its spiritual
joy) should, in its transcendent purity and sweetness, taste ' new ' even to those
who had partaken of the fruit of the New Testament dispensation. Bengel, and
a train of expositors, take kainon, 'new,' in the sense of 'exceeding all pre-
vious experience.' And after all, were we to admit a contrast between a present
and literal 'old wine,' and figurative and future 'new wine,' evidence would still
be required that a fermented old wine was used on this occasion. Unfermented
wines were made and preserved for long periods, and some of the old wines were
elaborately treated in order to free them from any intoxicating power, t

4. The ' Mishna,' or ' Misna,' is the text of the Talmud. It signifies ' repetition,'
being a collection of traditional Jewish expositions and customs, reduced into order

* Were it so, however, the argument would still be the same. For the wine that is alone best when
new is the unfermented, made from fresh grapes, as contrasted with old grapes.

t " Wines are rendered old and deprived of all their force by filtering." — Pliny.

" Wine is rendered old, or feeble in strength, when it is frequently filtered. The strength being
thus excluded, the wine neither inflames the brain nor infests the mind and passions, and is much
more pleasant to drink." — Plutarch.

MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 279

by Rabbi Yehuda (Judah), surnamcd Hakkadosh, 'the holy,' toward the close of
the second century of the Christian era. The ' Gemaras,' or commentaries on the
Mishna, are two — that of Jerusalem, variously ascribed to the third and fifth
centuries, and that of Babylon, compiled in the sixth century. The Babylon
Talmud is in most esteem. The Talmud was copiously annotated by Maimonides
and Bartenora, celebrated rabbins of the Middle Ages ; and it is from their notes,
and not from the text of the Mishna, that references to the intoxicating nature of
the passover wine have been extracted. These references will be afterward
examined. According to the Mishna, search for ferment was made by lamplight
on the night of the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, this search extending to
the cellars; and among the prohibited drinks are named the cutakh of Babylon,
the sheker of the Medes, and the khamctz of Idumea — all of them either fermented
liquors made from grain or fruit, or liquors so liable to ferment that they were
prudently excluded. The poorest Jew is said to be careful to drink four cups of
wine during the least, and permission is given to drink more wine between the first
and third cups, but not between the third and fourth cups. A warming-pot, or
kettle, is mentioned as being present on the passover board, probably to dilute the
wine when too thick or sweet for use as prepared.

5. The practice of the modern Jews is far from being consentaneous in favor of
fermented wine ; and those who use it are careful to put away the branded wines
of commerce, which are the kind most commonly used in the Christian celebration
of the Eucharist. See page 282.

6. The practice of mingling wine with water, both at the passover and Lord's
Supper, is undoubtedly very ancient. But the wide-spread custom of boiling wines
till the juice was reduced to a syrup or jelly, made the addition of water in large
quantities necessary, not to weaken the alcoholic strength, but to render them fit
for drinking at all.* In regard to those which were fermented, and retained the alco-
hol, the percentage of spirit was not greater than from 6 to 15 ; and when this liquor
was diluted with water in the proportion of three to one of bulk, the beverage
could not be compared with the ' fortified ' wines now in use. Rabbi Yehuda is
expressly said, in the Mishna, to have approved of boiled wine, the use of which
at the passover would necessitate the liberal application of water.t The antiquity
of wine-and-watcr in the Christian eucharist is high. Cyprian pleads for it as an
apostolic tradition, and mystical reasons very attractive to the Fathers were alleged
in its behalf. As the evangelists, however, say nothing about water, all positive
assertion on the point must be forborne, //"the traditions of the Mishna reflected
the general practice of the Jews at the passover, and //"that practice was adopted
by our Lord — then, for some reason unknown, water was mingled with the fruit of
the vine at the last supper. What the fact really was must always remain doubt-
ful to us ; but whatever it might be, it would altogether fail to support the conjec-
ture that the wine was fermented and intoxicating.

7. The extract from Bingham as to the decree of the local council of Braga
proves the existence of a difference in the Western celebration of the sacrament ;

• " Rendered thick by the continued action of heat and smoke from the fumarium or drying-
kiln, over which they were kept for years ; sometimes even boiled down to a concrete mass ; and
often inspissated with foreign matter ; they were, in many cases, reduced to a state of syrup or
extract, and so thoroughly seasoned with harsh aromatic bitterness, or even less estimable flavors,
that it was perhaps scarcely possible to drink them without dilution." — Quarterly Review, vol.
xxxii. r>. 232.

t Vide the original, cited in ' Works of Dr Lees,' ii. p. 169, from the Mishna, Tr. Terumoih, xi.
Rirtenor.i adds, in a Latin note, ' Because people drink less of boiled wine,' which is certainly
true, since boiling grape juice makes it more saccharine and satisfying.

280 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

and no one acquainted with the ignorance of most of the Fathers of the Western
church on many questions of Oriental philology and usage, would appeal to their
opinions, or to the decisions of councils under their influence, for testimony as to
Jewish manners and customs centuries before their time. But the objection may
be more directly met. Bingham, in his 'Antiquities of the Christian Church'
(book xv. chap. 2, sect. 7), discusses the practices of some ancient heretics who
used only water in the Lord's Supper, and also the custom, widely adopted, of
mixing the wine with water. He then continues, "And the third council of Braga
[in Portugal] relates Cyprian's words, correcting several other abuses that were
crept into the administration of the sacrament; as of some who offered milk
instead of wine ; and others who only dipped the bread into the wine, and so
denied the people their complement of the sacrament ; and others who used no
other wine but what they pressed out of the cluster of grapes that were then presented
at the Lord's table. All which they condemn, and order * that nothing but bread,
and wine mingled with water, should be offered, according to the determination
of the ancient councils.' " The words printed above in italics are Bingham's
translation of the words of the council — viz., quosdam etiam expression vinum in
sacramento Dominici calicis offerre, 'some even present wine expressed in the
sacrament of the Lord's cup.' Passing by the curious fact that non, 'not,' before
expressum is given by some MSS. as the reading of the passage, it is obvious that
the objection of the council had not respect to the unfermented nature of the
juice distinctly called vinum — 'wine,' — but to the juice of the grape being
expressed at the time of the sacrament, when no provision was made for the
canonical admixture with water. But Pope Julius, or whoever wrote the Epistle
to the Egyptians preserved by Gratian, had long before said, with an eye to this
objection, Sed si necesse sit botrus in calice comprimatur, et aqiia miscatur, ' but
if needful let the bunch of grapes be pressed into the cup, and let water be
mingled with it.' Thomas Aquinas alludes to this; see Note on p. 285.

8. The objection of the late Archdeacon Tattam, that only the Abyssinian,
amongst all the Eastern branches of the Church universal, supports the doctrine of
the Abstainer, is the exact contrary of the fact. Hardly any church but the cor-
rupted, intolerant, and persecuting churches of the West ever introduced any
other practice than that of the Abstainer. [Consult Student's Edition of Dr
Nott's 'Lectures on Bible Temperance,' p. 227, Appendix D, in reply to Dr
Tattam; 'Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii. pp. 131, 180; and see under II. division,
No. 4, farther on.]

II. The arguments in favor of the position that the Saviour used the zmfer-
mented * fruit of the vine ' may be thus summarized : —

I. Obedience to the Mosaic law required the absence of all fermented articles
from the passover feast. The law forbade seor — yeast, ferment, whatever could
excite fermentation — and khahmatz, whatever had undergone fermentation or
been subject to the action of a seor. [See Note on Exod. xii. 15, 19.] Fer-
mented grape-juice must, therefore, by the necessity of the case, have been equally
interdicted with fermented bread. Most noteworthy is it that Maimonides, Barte-
nora, and other mediceval rabbins, in allowing the use of intoxicating wine, defend
their permission by supposing that it is not fermented. They say, "It is an,
hypothesis of the Jews that the water of fruits does not ferment; hence the prohi-
bition does not apply to pure water and to wine." In other words, to excuse a
violation of the letter of the Divine law, rabbinism sets up a proposition which is
a plain contradiction of natural law ! If grape-juice does not ferment, whence
did the rabbins suppose its intoxicating power was derived ? It is hardly possible

MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 28 1

to stretch our charity so as to believe that the assertion was ever put forth in good
faith. An attempted distinction between the ferment of grain and the ferment of
grape-juice is not a whit more defensible; for (i) all ferment was forbidden, and
(2) the ferment (yeast) of grain and of grape-juice is chemically identical, both
being rotting albumen. Nor can it be pretended that ferment only, and not the
spirituous product of ferment, was prohibited ; for the Gemara and rabbins forbade
all fermented liquor of grain, however well fined; and, moreover, rum and all
distilled spirits which are quite free from seor have been always rigidly interdicted.
Besides, it must have been practically impossible for the Jews to retain large quan-
tities of fermented wine on their premises without a considerable portion of the
ferment remaining attached to skins and casks. We here reach the last pinch of
the argument. Did the Saviour understand the law, or did He not? Did He
observe the law, or break it ? If He used fermented liquor, He must, either
ignorantly or intentionally, have broken it; and reverence for their Master ought
surely to lead Christians to the conclusion that the cup He ' blessed ' and gave to
His disciples contained nothing which the law of Moses had interdicted.

2. The consistency and beauty of the sacramental symbol demanded the absence
of all fermented drink. Leaven had been used by the Great Teacher as an emblem
of the doctrine of the Pharisees ; and both among Jews and heathens ferment was
a common sign of corruption. The Lord of the dispensation of grace, who was
now about to seal the new covenant by His blood, offers the cup as the type and
token of that blood : could grape-juice which had been subject to a decaying and
fermenting process be fitly and consistently used as its visible symbol? Could
that blood, signifying the redemption of man and the cleansing of the conscience,
be aptly represented by an intoxicating cup, which, in the Psalms and prophets,
had been adopted, on the one hand, as the figure of human depravity, and, on the
other, as the emblem of Divine indignation ?

3. If the traditions of the Talmud correctly state that each person at the pass-
over was supplied with four cups at least, and had permission to take an extra
quantity between ; and if the Saviour kept the passover, according to this custom,
with His disciples, — unless we assume the absence of fermented liquors, the
inference is inevitable, that both the Lord and His followers countenanced and
illustrated alcoholic excess! Each cup, says Lightfoot (vol. ix. p. 151), was
to contain " not less than the fourth part of a quarter of a hin, besides what water
was mingled with it" ; and as the hin contained twelve English pints, the quantity
of wine which it was obligatory upon each person to drink would be three pints ;
but three pints of alcoholic wine would be sufficient to make any person, save a
hardened toper, grossly intoxicated. Kvcn if the Talmud be accused of extrava-
gance, and the quantity is reduced one-half, nine out of ten persons who drank it,
and all women and children, would be inebriated. Indeed, to suppose any sort of
wine to be freely drunk, except an wwfermented species, is to presuppose conse-
quences from which the truly pious mind instinctively recoils.*

* the confusion of thought evinced in the sentence preceding the quotation (gjven on
om the Evanr,-: -if (No. 103, Nevr Series),— " All Protestants strongly resent

of the Church of Rome in denying the cup to the laity ; but though we have received

• Hence
p. 139) from the /•-"•• i>

the usage of the (Jhui-.. _. —

and restored to the people the visible symbol which for many centuries had been withheld from
them, it is not quite certain that we have permitted ourselves to apprehend itf. mMnniR. We ttilt
celebrate the Lord's Suffer a* if t lit ivine mtr* fn*Udt* u*." This implies that the quantity
used i* much too small, and that it should be supped, not s.pned. But would the writer of this
complaint recommend tint eich communicant should receive the Talrnud.c allowance of a bottle
and a hnlf of intoxicitin- wine' Is it not clear, tint so Ion- as alcohol .c wine >s used, th« only
condit.on of ufetv is limiting the amount to a mouthful? and tint the wine of the Supper can
never be taken copiously and festally till it ceases to be alcoholic and inebriating ?

282 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

4. As subsidiary evidence, we may cite the long-established practice of nearly
all the Christian communities of the East, though widely separated from each
other. Baron Tavernier, in his ' Persian Travels ' (1652), says of the Christians of
St John, whom he found very numerous at 'Balsara' (Bassorah), "In the
eucharist they make use of meal or flour, kneaded up with wine and oil ; for, say
they, the body of Christ being composed of two principal parts, flesh and
blood, the flour and the wine do perfectly represent them. To make their wine
they take grapes dried in the sun — which they call in their language zebibes, — and
casting water upon them, let them steep for so long a time. The same wine they
use in the consecration of the cup." The Christians of St Thomas, who were
found on the coast of Malabar, and claimed to have derived the gospel from St
Thomas the apostle, celebrated the Lord's Supper in the juice expressed from
raisins ' softened one night in water,' says Odoard Barbosa. 'They use in their
sacrifices wine prepared from dried grapes ' (vino et passis uvis confccto in sacrificiis
utuntur), states Osorius (De Rebus, 1586). Ainsworth, in his ' Travels in Asia
Minor' (London, 1842), notes the administration of the sacrament among the
Nestorians, and adds, 'Raisin water supplied the place of wine.' Tischendorf,
in his narrative of visits to the Coptic monasteries of Egypt, remarks that at the
eucharist the priest took the thick juice of the grape from a glass with a spoon ;
end Dr Gobat (the Protestant Bishop of Jerusalem), in his Abyssinian 'Journal/
records the reception of ' some bottles of grape wine. The wine is the juice of
dried grapes with water.' It is morally certain that the eucharistical notices of
some of the ancient Christian sects, who are represented as denouncing wine and
rejecting it from the Lord's Supper, are colored and perverted statements, —
pointing simply to a refusal to use fermented wine in the sacrament. When so able
and acute a theologian as St Augustine charges his old associates, the Manichseans,
with inconsistency because they condemned intoxicating wine and yet allowed the
use of grapes, it is difficult to estimate the capacity for blundering in lesser minds
upon the kindred question of the wine used by the independent sects of antiquity;
some of whom may have been very wrong in respect to articles of faith, and very
right in points of discipline and practice.

5. In spite of the sophisms of many celebrated doctors, the Jews of the syna-
gogue do conform very extensively to the Mosaic injunction to celebrate the pass-
over without fermented drinks. Speaking no doubt from his own observation, the
Rev. C. F. Frey, a converted Jew and author of several Hebrew works, has said,
"Nor dare they (the Jews) drink any liquor made from grain, nor any that has
passed through the process of fermentation." The Arbah Turim, a digest of
Talmudic law, by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher, in the thirteenth century, says of the
four cups, " If needful, he must sell what he has, in order to keep the injunction
of the wise men. Let him sell what he has, until he procure yayin ov zimmooqim
— wine or raisins." The learned Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel, in his Vindicia
Judceorum (Amsterdam, 1656), says of the passover, " Here, at this feast, every
confection [ = matzoth] ought to be so pure as not to admit of any ferment, or of
anything that will readily fermentate" (Sect, i., No. 4). Mr. Noah, a leading
Jew of New York, informed Mr Delavan that the use of wine prepared from
steeped raisins was general among American Jews. Mr A. C. Isaacs, a teacher
of the Jews, among whom he had lived twenty-six years before his conversion,
stated in a letter (1844), "All the Jews with whom I have ever been acquainted
use w«intoxicating wine at the passover, — a wine made in this country expressly
for the occasion, and generally by themselves. Some raisins (dried grapes) are
steeped in water for a few days previous to the passover, the vessel being placed

MAI illEW, XXVI. 26 — J> 283

near the fire. This liquor is bottled off, and u.^cd at the fe^t of unleavened bread
as ' the fruit of the vine.' Sometimes, when time does not permit of steeping, the
raisins are boiled on the same day on which the feast is to be celebrated at night;
and when the whole of the saccharine matter is thought to be extracted, the decoc-
tion is bottled off and corked; and this is the passover wine." Dr Cunningham,
the learned Hebraist, says, "What is now chiefly used by the Jews at the pass-
over for wine is a drink made of an infusion of raisins in water, which is either
boiled at once or simmered during several days. It is free from alcohol and
acidity. It is quite sweet. I have tasted it at the paschal table. No Jew with
whom I have conversed, of whatever class or nation, ever used any other kind.
But a Mr Jonas informed me that he believed the proper kind of wine is that
expressed from the red grape at the time." In Home's 'Introduction to the
Scriptures ' it is said (vol. iii. p. 322, foot-note, Edit. 1846), " The modern Jews,
being forbidden to drink any fermented liquor at the passover, drink either pure
water, or a wine prepared by themselves from raisins (Allen's ' Modern Judaism,'
p. 394; the Truth-Seeker, 1845, p. 78). It is not known when the Jewish custom
began of excluding fermented wine from the passover feast. It is, however, very
ancient, and is now almost universal among the modern Jews." The late Professor
Moses Stuart, in the Bibliotheca Sacra (voi. i.), remarks, "I cannot doubt that
khamats, in its widest sense, was excluded from the Jewish passover when the
Lord's Supper was first instituted; for I am not able to find evidence to make me
doubt that the custom among the Jews, of excluding fermented wine as well as
(fermented) bread, is older than the Christian era. . . . That this custom is
very ancient; that it is even now almost universal; and that it has been so for
time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, I take to be facts
that cannot be fairly controverted." The Encyclopaedia Britannica observes, that
"considerable dispute has been raised as to whether the wine used on the occasion
was fermented or unfermented — was the ordinary wine, in short, or the pure juice
of the grape. Those who hold that it was unfermented, appeal mainly to the
expression 'unfermented-things,' which is the true rendering of the word trans-
lated 'unleavened bread.' The rabbins would seem to have interpreted the com-
mand respecting ferment as extending to the wine as well as to the bread of the
passover. The modern Jews, accordingly, generally use raisin wine, after the
injunction of the rabbins " (Art. 'Passover,' 8th Edit.). The Jews may, indeed,
differ in their practice, as the rabbins have differed in their opinions ; but, un-
questionably, multitudes consider that a regard to the Mosaic prescription
requires them to exclude fermented liquor of all kinds from their dwellings during
the passover, and to celebrate that feast in wine of a perfectly unintoxicating
character.

It may be inferred from the evangelical history, that, in the time of our Lord,*
the custom of using ' the fruit of the vine ' at the passover had become general.
As it is not named by Moses in his regulations for the observance of that feast, we
may presume that it was introduced after his day, perhaps after the captivity.
Whenever introduced, however, this ' fruit of the vine ' would fall under the
general principle prohibiting both the u^e and presence of ferment during the
passover week, from the I4th to the 2ist of the month Nisan. The wine thus
employed would, therefore, be composed (i) of grape-juice squeezed at the
passover feast — perhaps from the grape yielding a red, sweet juice, — and drunk
immediately after straining; or (2) of grape-juice previously boiled down, and

284 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

reconverted into a potable liquid at the table by water, hot or cold (hot is men-
tioned in the Mishna) ; or (3) of the juice of raisins which had been kept steeped
and simmering in readiness for the occasion.

If the order of proceeding described in the Mishna was followed by the Lord
and His apostles, the following would be the course of events : — The company
being seated, the Lord, acting as master of the feast, took the first cup of wine,
and having pronounced a blessing, such as " We thank Thee, O Lord, our heavenly
Father, who hast created the fruit of the vine," He drank of the cup, and gave it to
the disciples that they might also partake. The hands of all were then washed,
and the table was furnished with the paschal lamb roasted whole, with bitter herbs,
two unleavened cakes, the remains of the peace offerings presented on the pre-
ceding day, and the charoseth or thick-sauce. A piece of salad was then taken
and eaten, and a blessing pronounced on the herbs ; * after which, the provisions
having been temporarily removed or permitted to remain (as no children or strangers
•were present), conversation followed upon the origin of the feast; the supper
(if removed) was then replaced, and water having been mingled with the second
cup of wine, " He saith unto them, With desire have I desired to eat this pascha
with you before I suffer ; for I say unto you, I shall no more eat thereof until it be
fulfilled in the kingdom of God. And He took the cup, and gave thanks, and said,
Take this and divide among you ; I will not henceforth drink of the fruit of the
vine until the kingdom of God shall come." The H3th and H4th Psalms having
been read, the second cup of wine, distributed to each, was drunk. Hands were
again washed, an ejaculatory prayer uttered, and one of the unleavened cakes
blessed and broken, and a piece offered to each disciple. This was eaten with
the bitter herbs, the bread being dipped into the sauce. " And as they were eating,
He said, Verily I say unto you, that one of you shall betray Me. And they were
very sorry, and began each of them to say unto Him, Lord, is it I ? And He
answered and said, He who dippeth his hand with Me in this dish, he will betray
Me." Dipping a sop into the dish, the Saviour gave it to Judas. The flesh of the
peace-offerings was then eaten, a benediction pronounced, and the paschal lamb
served. "And as they were eating, Jesus took the bread (the second unleavened
cake), and blessed and brake it, and gave it to His disciples, and said, Take ; this is
My body, which is given for you: this do in remembrance of Me." Thanks were
offered, hands were again washed, and 'the cup of blessing' prepared, which
received a new and exalted significance, for "after the same manner also He took
the cup after supper, and having given thanks, gave it to them, saying, Drink all
of you out of it ; for this is My blood of the covenant, which is shed for many for
the forgiveness of sins. But I say unto you, I shall not drink henceforth of this fruit
of the vine, until that day I drink it new with you in My Father's kingdom." The
allusion to God's kingdom touched a chord of ambition in the disciples' breasts,
and they discussed who should be the greatest in it. This self-exalting disposition
was reproved, and Peter was warned. The wonderful and mysterious discourse re-
corded by John was then commenced, and carried on down to the words (chap. xiv. 31),
'Arise, let us go hence.' The fourth cup of wine was then filled, and the grand

*The language of the 'blessings' was very precise, nicely distinguishing between natural and
manufactured things. For example : — For fruit which grows upon a tree, say, Who ' createst
the fruit of the tree ' ; save for wine, whereon the benediction is, ' Who createst the fruit of the vine.'
For things which derive not their growth immediately from the ground (Psa. civ. 14, 15), say,
'Who gave being lo all things.' " — (Mishna, Tr. Berakoth, vi.) Let it be remembered, that though
no one would think of calling vinegar the ' fruit of the vine,' it is really more deserving that
appellation than any form of alcohol. The former is sometimes found in growing fruit, the latter
never.

MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 29. 28$

hallel or hymn of praise — comprehending Psalms cxvi. to cxviii. — having been
sung, the disciples drank of ' the fruil of the vine ' ; and the company having passed
into the open air and out of Jerusalem, the Saviour resumed His discourse,
with an implied reference to what had been last done in the passover chamber;
as if saying, " Ye have been drinking of the fruit of the vine, but remember! ' I am
the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.' "

The principal reasons for a use of unfermented wine in the present day, at the
Sacramental communion, may be briefly enumerated: —

1. Unfermented wine, if the preceding arguments are valid, was used by the Lord
when instituting the Supper, conformably to a law, the moral significance of
which remains the same, and is even greatly enhanced ; for if ferment, the symbol
of corruption and insincerity, was out of place at the passover, how much more
unsuitable is it at the board of Christian fellowship and joy! It may be answered
that conformity to the old analogy requires the disuse of fermented bread ; and why
should the conformity not be complete ? Yet partial conformity is better than total
contrariety; and if the conformity must be partial, there are special reasons
(afterwards assigned) why the cup should be selected, — not to insist on the fact that
in fermented wine the effects of the ferment remain, while in bread they have been
expelled by the heat of baking.

2. Unfermented wine is, in literal truth and beyond all question, the only ' fruit
of the vine.' That designation it may challenge without fear of contradic-
tion. What the vine has made it by vital processes, and what earth, sun, and air
have combined to make it by the genial chemistry of absorption, warmth, and
nutrition, it has become.* Fermented wine, on the contrary, is,jusf so far as itf
fermented and alcoholic character gofs, something quite other than the ' fruit ' of the
vine, — the result of disintegrating forces which do not operate upon the vine, or
within the grape, as formed by the Creator.! One practice, therefore, is at least
right, while the other may be wrong, since the juice of the grape must be the fruit
of the vine, whereas the wine of commerce cannot be so entirely, and may not be
so in any degree. Under such circumstances, who can decide in favor of the
latter, and against the former, as the substance which Christians are commanded
to use in remembrance of their Lord ?

3. Unfermented wine, on account of its innocent and nutritious properties, is a
proper symbol of the blood of the Redeemer shed for the remission of sins. But
fermented wine is almost destitute of any nutritious property, and, as containing
the invisible but potent spirit of mischief, is, in proportion to its alcoholic strength,
more fitted to represent moral disease and guilt than pardon and purification.
This inversion of all analogy becomes the more serious when almost all the wines
sold are charged with brandy, and are otherwise adulterated, so as more to resemble

* The schoolmen, with all their acumen, did not dream of denying so plain a fact. The work*
of Thomas Aquinas are contained entire in Migne's Patrologia Cursus ComflletMS ; and in the 4th
book, 74th question, and sth article, where it is asked, in reference to the Lord's Supper, vtntm
vinum vitis sit propria materia hujus incramenti — ' whether wine of the vine is a proper sub-
stance to be used in this sacrament,' — he answers. Mustum (intern jam kabtt sfOeciem vini,
'grape-juice has the specific nature of wine' ; and decides, Idea de musto fotest con/lei hoc
tftfnfam, 'therefore this sacrament can be kept with grape-juice.' He

cautions against the use of

must just expressed, on account of its turbidness : but stales that, by the decree of Pope Julius
si tucesse f Merit botna in calice com^rimaiur, ' the cluster may, if necessary, have its juice
pressed into the cup.' [See page 280 ]

t " It is curious," says Professor Brande, in his 'Manual of Chemistry.' "how perfectly the
exclusion of air is provided for by the natural texture of the grape, which does not allow its ingress
although it admits of the transpiration of aqueous vapor, as U shown by the spontaneous desiccation
of the berry."

286 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29.

the dreadful ' mixed wine ' of Scripture than the sweet and sanctifying influences
of Divine grace in Christ Jesus our Lord.

4. Unfermented wine can be used by all communicants, young or old, without
any danger of creating or of reawakening the drunkard's appetite; while the use of
fermented wine at the Lord's Supper has been known to rekindle the flame which
abstinence had laid in many reformed inebriates. Surely the Lord's table ought
not to be a place of fierce temptation to any Christian ; or a place where, for the
soul's sake, one-half of the emblems has to be rejected by any believer — a course
that not few reformed drunkards are compelled to follow whenever fermented
wine is present at the Eucharist.

5. Unfermented wine may be used by all without any scruples or qualms of
conscience, but fermented wine cannot ; and therefore, on the broad principle of
' not casting a stumblingblock in a brother's way,' Christians who might themselves
(till otherwise convinced) use alcoholic wine conscientiously, should cheerfully,
from a spirit of brotherly affection, commune in elements of which all can partake
without danger or offence. The course taken by some Congregational officials,
of excluding from membership those who have not been able to use alcoholic wine,
is a violation of Christian equity and charity, an arbitrary and cruel act, which is
self-condemned. A majority of those who have power to decide not to supply
unfermented wine ought, at least, to allow those who desire it to have it provided
for their separate use. A contrary course must inevitably produce division. *

6. Unfermented wine is procurable without extending any sanction to the
iniquitous traffic in alcoholic liquors. The fearfully injurious influence of that
traffic upon national morals is such as to make it eminently desirable that all
connection between it and true Christian communities should be avoided. This
may be done with ease and satisfaction by exchanging the wine which mocks and
deceives for the uncorrupted 'fruit of the vine,' on which a blessing may be freely
invoked without any sense of incongruity, and without exciting aversion and disgust.
At a moderate computation, the quantity of alcohol consumed any year in Great
Britain at the Sacramental table cannot fall short of 25,000 gallons, representing
five times as many gallons of wine purchased, at a minimum cost of ,£75,000.
What God has not joined may be lawfully sundered whenever a laudable purpose
is to be attained ; and while no sacred principle binds the table of the Lord to
the vender of intoxicating and mostly factitious wines, a separation between them
would withdraw from that 'mystery of iniquity,' the Wine Trade, a patronage and
implied approval which is simply shocking. Surely it is 'a consummation devoutly
to be wished,' that the Church of God, and the sanctuary of a pure and spiritual
worship, should be kept as free as possible from every taint of intoxication, and
from everything that feeds and fosters the wide-spread intemperance of the
nation.

* Whether a Christian abstainer should take the Lord's Supper in fermented wine, when he
must do so or not commune at all, is a question of conscience which each person must determine
for himself. Consistency certainly requires that he should use his legitimate influence to obtain a
substitution of pure for alcoholic wine in the communion service of his own church. Failing this,
he may claim to be supplied with the only wine of which he can safely or conscientiously partake,
or not to have the intoxicating cup forced upon him by the penalty of excision. The recipe for
making passover wine is as follows : — " Take a quantity of the best bloom or Muscatel rasins ; cut
them into small pieces ; pour on them boiling water in the proportion of a pint to every pound ; let
the infusion stand overnight ; then press out the liquor from the fruit, adding two tea-spoonfuls of
burnt sugar for coloring. After the whole has settled for a few hours, decant the clear wine by
pouring slowly into the vessel to be used, leaving any sediment behind." A sufficient quantity
of unfermented grape-juice can thus be produced at a very economical rate. Where a wine more
scientifically prepared, and of clear and beautiful appearance, is preferred, the ' passover wine ' of
Mr Frank Wright, of Kensington, England, can be recommended ; or that of Mr Reynolds, of
Ripley, Ohio. It is, undoubtedly, grape-juice pure and wholesome.

MATTHEW, XXVII. 34, 48. 287

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 34.

They gave him vinegar to drink, mingled with gall : and when he
had tasted thereof, he would not drink.

VINEGAR] Oxos, derived from oxus 'sharp,' applied to the edge of tools, and
then to the sense of taste; hence oxos, that which tastes sharply = vinegar, sour
wine. In Codices C and Z the passage is lost ; but Codices Aleph, B, and D have
oinon, 'wine.' With this reading agrees the V., vinum ; but Beza has acetum,
'vinegar.' Mark says 'wine.' The obvious conclusion is, that wine which had
undergone both the alcoholic and acetous fermentations was used, agreeably to
the prophecy, 'In My thirst they gave Me vinegar (khometz) to drink.' [See
Note on Psa. Ixix. 20.]

MINGLED WITH GALL] Meta choices memigmenon. Cholee is the word by which
the Lxx. translates the Hebrew rosh, ' gall,' and faana/t, ' wormwood.' The literal
meaning is bile, gall (from cheo ' to pour out ' = that which is poured out of the
gall-bladder). It is applicable to any bitter substance, such as the myrrh referred
to by Mark, unless by cholee is to be understood some substance associated with the
myrrh. [See Note on Mark xv. 23.] The V. and Beza give/<r/&, 'with gall ' (fel)»
the Latin equivalent for cholee.

This event is described by Matthew and Mark only. Bleeding and fainting,
the Saviour had followed the cross, which He was unable to carry, until Golgotha
or Calvary was reached; and then He probably exhibited so much exhaustion,
and appeared so likely to die before crucifixion, that some pungent draught,
composed of sour wine and bitter drugs, was presented to Him. The notion that
this mixture was intended to deaden the pain of crucifixion is derived from a
foregone conclusion concerning the death-cup given to criminals, but is not
warranted by the other circumstances of the transaction, — all testifying to the
harshness and brutality of the persons officially acting in it. The prophetic
language of the Psalmist also excludes the thought of purposed kindness by the
soldiery.* Perhaps, however, a drugged potion, such as was offered, would have
somewhat deadened the nervous sensibilities, while it excited muscular action;
but no such anodyne or ' support ' was desired by the Redeemer. ' When He had
tasted, He would not drink,' says Matthew ; while Mark more sententiously records,
' He received it not' He was to drain the cup of suffering, and He would do it
in the possession of all his mental powers. What is fit to be done and endured,
ought to be so, and may be, without recourse to liquors that stupefy or inflame.

CHAPTER XXVII. VERSE 48.

And straightway one of them ran, and took a sponge, and filled :/
with vinegar, and put // on a reed, and gave him to drink.

ONE OF THEM] Eis ex aufun, 'one from among them.' The words ex auton
are absent from Codex Aleph.

• It is a tradition of the Talmud that a society of ladies existed in Jerusalem who supplied
criminals with drugged drink, to allay the fears and pains of execution ; and one scholar has con-
nerted with this tradition the account of Luke, ' a great company of people and of women '
followed Jesus to Calvary, bewailing and lamenting Him. But there is no reason to ascribe to
female sympathy the intoxicating draught offered to the Saviour.

288

MATTHEW, XXVII. 48.

A SPONGE] Spongon. Latin, spongiam.

WITH VINEGAR] Oxous. Codex D has oxou. Latin, aceto.

PUT IT ON A REED] Peritheis kalamo, ' having placed it round a cane, — /. e~
round the top of the cane. The calamus was ' a plant with a jointed hollow stalk,
growing in wet ground.' John says the sponge was put upon hyssop; so that
kalamos is here used for the stalk of the hyssop, which sometimes grows to the
height of two feet. Some portion of the hyssop may have remained attached to
the reed, so that it is spoken of as 'hyssop.' The sponge, after being soaked in
vinegar, was raised on the point of the reed to the lips of the crucified One. The
accounts of all the evangelists may be here compared with advantage : —

JOHN xix. 28 — 30.
After this, Jesus
. . . saith, I thirst.
Now there was set
a vessel full of vine-
gar : and they filled
a sponge with vine-
his mouth. When
Jesus therefore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished :
and he bowed his head, and gave up the ghost.

The particulars, as variously presented above, may be thus collectively repro-
duced : — At or about the ninth hour, three in the afternoon, the Saviour, in His
agony, uttered the awful cry, 'Eli, Eli, lama, sabachthani,* which those who
stood by mistook for an appeal to Elias. He then added, 'I thirst.' Someone
who heard this ran to 'a vessel,' near at hand, 'full of vinegar ' — -posta, the usual
drink of the Roman legionaries, — ' and took a sponge, and filled it with vinegar ' ;
and then ' the soldiers/ fixing it on a 'reed' of hyssop, held it up to Him with
* mocking ' words, putting it ' to His mouth to drink ' ; while others, less profane
and more curious, cried, ' Let be ' — be still, — ' let us see if Elias will come to save
Him.' Jesus 'received the vinegar,' for the saturated sponge cooled His lips and
relieved his burning thirst without beclouding his mind; and having cried with a
'loud voice,' saying, ' It is finished,' He added, ' Father, into Thy hands I com-
mend My spirit;' then 'He bowed His head,' resigning His life, and His spirit
passed from earth into paradise.

MATT. xxvn. 48.
And straightway
one of them ran,
and took a sponge,
and filled it with
vinegar, and put it
on a reed, and
gave him to drink.

MARK xv. 36.
And one ran and
filled a sponge full
of vinegar, and put
it on a reed, and
gave him to drink.

gar, and put it upon

LUKE xxni. 36.
And the soldiers
also mocked him,
coming to him,
and offering him
vinegar.

hyssop, and put it t

THE

GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 22.

And no man putteth new wine into old bottles : else the new wine
doth burst the bottles, and the wine is spilled, and the bottles will be
marred : but new wine must be put into new bottles.

AND NO MAN PUTTETH NEW WINE INTO OLD BOTTLES] Kai oudcis bdllci
oinon neon eis askous pataious, ' and no one places new wine into old leathern-
bags.'

ELSE THE NEW WINE DOTH BURST THE BOTTLES] Ei de nice, rheessfi ho oinos
ho neos tons askous, 'but if not (= otherwise), the new wine rends (— bursts) the
bags.' All the chief Codices except Codex A read rheexei, 'will burst,' and
omit ho neos, ' the new,' having simply ho oinos. ' the wine.'

AND THE WINE is SPILLED] Kai ho oinos ekcheitai, 'and the wine is poured
out.' Codex B has kai ho oinos apollutai, ' and the wine is lost ' (destroyed) ; Codex
D has only kai ho oinos, 'and the wine.'

AND THE BOTTLES WILL BE MARRED] Kai oi askoi apoloitntai, 'and the bags
will be lost ' (destroyed). Codex B has only kai oi askoi, ' and the bags.'

BUT NEW WINE MUST BE PUT INTO NEW BOTTLES] Alia oinon neon eis askous
kainous bleeteon, ' but new wine should be placed into new bags. ' Codex D omits the
whole clause. Codices Aleph and B omit bleeteon, ' must be placed ' ; but in Aleph
it is supplied by a second hand. The reading of Codex A agrees throughout with
the received Greek text; and Codex C does the same, with the exception named
above of rheexei, 'will burst,' for rheessei, 'bursts.'

[For Exposition, see Note on Matt. ix. 17.]

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 41.

For whosoever shall give you a cup of water to drink in my name,
because ye belong to Christ, verily I sav unto you, he shall not lose
his reward.

A CUP OF WATER] Potfcrion hudatos, 'cup of water.' [See Note on Matt
4*.]

MARK, XIV. 23 — 25.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE i.

And he began to speak unto them by parables. A certain man
planted a vineyard, and set an hedge about *'/, and digged a place for
the winefat, and built a tower, and let it out to husbandmen, and
went into a far country.

A VINEYARD] Ampelona.

AND SET AN HEDGE ABOUT IT] Kai perietheeke phragmon.

AND DIGGED A PLACE FOR THE WINEFAT] Kai oruxen hupoleenion, 'and
digged an under-press.' When used in distinction from leenos, 'press,' the hupo-
leenion denoted that part of the structure into which the juice flowed after pressure
of the grapes. Here it would seem to designate the entire receptacle for treading
the clusters and collecting the 'new wine.' The wine-press was frequently dug
out of the rock or soil, — precautions being taken that the liquid should not ooze
away.

AND LET IT OUT TO HUSBANDMEN] Kai exedoto auton georgois, 'and gave it
out (i. e. on hire) to cultivators of the earth.' [See Note on Matt. xxi. 33.]

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 23 — 25.

23 And he took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave it
to them : and they all drank of it. 24 And he said unto them, This is
my blood of the new testament, which is shed for many. 25 Verily I
say unto you, I will drink no more of the fruit of the vine, until that
day that I drink it new in the kingdom of God.

V. 23. THE CUP] Topoteerion. All the chief MSS., except A, omit hot 'the.1

AND THEY ALL DRANK OF IT] Kai epion ex auto pantes, ' and all drank of
it ' — i. e. of its contents, — in response to the invitation, as recorded by St Matthew,
piete ex autou pantes, 'drink ye all of it,' — phraseology which conveys the impres-
sion that but one cup was used at this time, of which all the apostles (except,
perhaps, Judas) drank in common.

V. 24. THIS IS MY BLOOD OF THE NEW TESTAMENT] Codices Aleph B, C,
and D omit the word kainees, ' (of the) new.'

V. 25. I WILL DRINK NO MORE OF THE FRUIT OF THE VINE] Ollketi OU
mee pio ek ton genneematos tees ampelou, ' no more, not at all, will I drink of the
fruit of the vine.' All the chief MSS. read geneematos (with one »). Codex
Aleph omits ouketi, and Codex D has ou mee prostho pein, ' I will not add to
drink.'

UNTIL THAT DAY THAT I DRINK IT NEW IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD] Heos
tees heemeras ekeinees, hotan auto pino kainon en tee basileia tou Theou, 'until that
day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God.'

[For Exposition, see Note on Matt. xxvi. 26 — 29.]

MARK, XV. 23, 36. 291

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 23.

And they gave him to drink wine mingled with myrrh : but he
received it not.

To DRINK] Piein, 'to drink.' This word is absent from Codices Aleph, B,
and C.

WINE MINGLED WITH MYRRH] Esmurnfsmftion oinon, ' smyrnized wine '=
wine prepared or flavored \vith myrrh. Smurna or myrrha (from the Hebrew
mor) is said, in Robinson's N. Test. Lexicon, to be "a substance distilling in
tears (drops), spontaneously or by incisions, from a small thorny tree growing in
Arabia, and especially in Abyssinia : these tears soon harden into a bitter aromatic
gum, which was highly prized by the ancients, and used as incense and perfume."
Very little is known of the myrrh-plant even at the present day. In the Baby-
lonian Talmud, Rabbi Chusda is quoted as saying, "He who is led to death has
given to him to drink a grain of myrrh (or frankincense) in a cup of wine, that his
mind may be withdrawn from the sense of his situation." But the historical
evidence in support of this statement is exceedingly slender and obscure. [See
Note on Matt, xxvii. 34. ]

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 36.

And one ran and filled a sponge full of vinegar, and put it on a
reed, and gave him to drink, saying, Let alone ; let us see whether
Elias will come to take him down.

ONE] Eis, 'one (man).' Codices Aleph and B read tis, 'a certain (man).'
FILLED A SPONGE] Gemiseu spongon, 'making a sponge full." Codex D has

pleesas sfongon, 'filling a sponge.'

PUT IT ON A REED] Peritheis te kalamd, 'and having placed it round a reed.'

Codex D has epitheis, 'having placed it upon.' [See Note on Matt. xxviL 48.]

THE

GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 15.

For he shall be great in the sight of the Lord, and shall drink
neither wine nor strong drink ; and he shall be filled with the Holy
Ghost, even from his mother's womb.

AND SHALL DRINK NEITHER WINE NOR STRONG DRINK] Kai oinon kai sikera
ou met piee, 'and wine and strong drink he may not surely drink.' Wiclif (1380)
translates, ' and he schal not drynke wyn ne sider ' (cider). The Rheims version
(1582) has 'and wine and sicer he shal not drinke.'

John the Baptist was to be * great in the sight of the Lord,' and to be
* filled with the Holy Ghost ' from his birth. Called to a work of extraordinary
solemnity, he was through life to be a Nazarite, — the principal feature of whose
vow and regimen is quoted by the angel. If, as a matter of physical support,
alcohol would have conduced (as nothing else could) to the performance of his
onerous labors, it is inconceivable that he should have been deprived of it. [As
to the contrast between the Baptist and the Saviour, see Note on Matt. xi. 18, 19;
and on the relation of abstinence to spiritual influence, see Note on Ephes. v. 18.}

The comparison between John the Baptist, as the harbinger of Christ, and Tem-
perance societies, as pioneers of Christian civilization, has often been drawn, and in-
volves both a significant truth and an impressive argument, if properly defined. No
preparatory work can equal in importance that of making those sober to whom
the Gospel is preached, in order that it may be heard by them to purpose.
And if this preparatory work does not belong to Christians, upon whom does it
devolve ? At the same time it ought to be borne in mind, and always urged, that
John's example does not furnish so strong a reason for abstinence as do the
benevolent and self-denying principles of Christianity, illustrated by the transcendent
pattern of His self-sacrifice whose shoes' latchet John confessed he was not worthy
to unloose. [See Note on chap. ix. 23.]

CHAPTER III. VERSE i.

Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius
Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee,

LUKE, v. 37—39- 293

and his brother Philip tetrach of Ituraea and of the region of
Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene.

TIBERIUS OESAR] This was the Emperor Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero, the
step-son and successor of Augustus, who ruled the Roman empire from A.D. 14 — 37-
Seneca says of him, that he was never drunk but once in his life ; for having once
begun to drink, he never ceased drinking till his death. This description is
scarcely chargeable with extravagance when compared with the more exact account
given of him by Suetonius: — "When a young soldier in the camp, he was re-
markable for his excessive inclination to wine. For Tiberius they called him
Biberius [bibber], for Claudius, Caldius [hot], and for Nero, Mero [neat (wine)].
And after he succeeded to the empire, and was invested with the office of reforming
the morality of the people, he spent the whole night and two days together in
feasting and drinking with Pomponius Flaccus and Lucius Piso, to one of whom he
immediately gave the province of Syria, and to the other the prefecture of the city,
pronouncing them in his letters patent to be ' very pleasant companions and friends,
fit for all occasions.' He preferred a very ignoble candidate for the quaestorship
before the most noble competitors, simply because he had swallowed an amphora
of wine at a draught." This 'amphora' must have been of lesser size than the
common sort, which held about eight English gallons. The other vices of Tiberius
were in keeping with his chronic inebriation.

CHAPTER V. VERSES 37 — 39.

37 And no man putteth new wine into old. bottles ; else the new
wine will burst the bottles, and be spilled, and the bottles shall perish.

38 But new wine must be put into new bottles ; and both are preserved.

39 No man also having drunk old wine straightway desireth new ; for
he saith, The old is better.

V. 37. AND NO MAN PUTTETH NEW WINE INTO OLD BOTTLES] Kai Olldcit
ballei oinon nton tis askous palaious, ' and no one places new wine into old bags.'
Codex C has epibalUi, ' places upon,' an obvious reiteration, by mistake, of epiballei
in ver. 36, where it is appropriate.

ELSE THE NEW WINE WILL BURST THE BOTTLES] Ei de Wffgf, rkgfXfi ho fttOI

oinos tons askous, * otherwise, the new wine will rend the bag.' Codex C has
rhffssei, ' rends ' ; Codex Aleph omits neos, reading ' the wine will rend the bags ' ;
Codex D repeats the word 'old' — 'the old new-wine will rend the old bags.'

AND BE STILLED, AND THE BOTTLES SHALL PERISH] Kai auto* tkchuthtttftai,

bat hoi askoi apolountai, ' and it will be poured out ( = spilled), and the bottles
will perish.'

V. 38. BUT NEW WINE MUST BE PUT INTO NEW BOTTLES; AND BOTH ARK
PRESERVED ] A lla oinon neon eis askotts kainotts bleeteon, kai amphotcroisunteeronntai,
' but (it is fit for) new wine to be placed into new bags, and both are kept together
(—preserved).' In Codex Aleph bleeteon is substituted by a second hand for
ballousin ; and Codex C, instead of bleeteon, reads ballousin, ' they place ' new
wine, etc., and substitutes teeroitntai, ' they are kept,' for sunteerountai. Codices
Aleph and B omit altogether the words kai amphoteroi snnteerountai.

294 LUKE, v. 37— 39.

V. 39. NO MAN ALSO HAVING DRUNK OLD WINE STRAIGHTWAY DESIRETH

NEW] Kai oudeis pion palaion, eutheos thelei neon, ' and no one drinking old
immediately wishes new.' The word oinon, 'wine,' is to be understood after both
palaion and neon. Codices Aleph and B omit kai, ' and,' and eutheos, ' immediately.*
Codex C omits eutheos.

FOR HE SAITH, THE OLD is BETTER] Legei gar ho palaios chreestoteros estin,
' for he affirms, The old is better. ' Codices Aleph and B have, instead of chreestoteros t
'better,' chreestos, 'good' — suitable — 'good enough' (Alford).

The received Greek text of these three verses agrees verbatim with the text of
Codex A. The V. renders chreestoteros by melius, ' better ' ; Beza by utilius,
'more useful.' Verses 37 and 38 agree in the corresponding passages of the
Gospels of Matthew and Mark; and for an explanation of them, see Note on
Matt. ix. 17. Ver. 39 is peculiar to Luke's Gospel, and is even absent from the
text of Luke as presented in Codex D ; but the preponderance of evidence is in
favor of its genuineness.

The whole passage is part of the Saviour's reply to the question why His
aisciples did not fast as did the disciples of John and the Pharisees; and is
generally interpreted to signify that it was not judicious to impose trials too heavy
»pon young disciples, but that there must be an adaptation of discipline to ex-
perience ; in other words, that the law of congruity must be regarded, as in the
case of those who avoided putting new wine into old bottles. But the commentators
are puzzled to trace any connection between this exposition and ver. 39, where
the drinker of old wine affirms its superiority over new. We may, perhaps, find
the link of connection in the idea that new wine, preserved by close confinement in
new bottles till it is old, retains in perfection all its original properties, and acquires
a lusciousness that enhances its value to the user.* The language may, therefore,
be thus paraphrased: — "You ask why My disciples do not act as do the disciples
of John and the Pharisees. You forget that the spirit of My dispensation — a spirit
of sacred liberty — is essentially different from theirs, and, therefore, that the
regulations affecting its subjects must also differ. If put into the bottles of
traditional Judaism, it would acquire a fermentative violence that would burst the
traditional bands, and endanger its own religious existence, by the change of liberty
into license. Such rules as are required for My dispensation must be adapted to
its spirit — the bottles must correspond with the contents, — and so both will be
preserved, — the spiritual liberty and the conditions under which it is held. Thus
preserved from contamination and fermentation, the older it becomes, the sweeter
and purer it will be ; and as no one who drinks old wine that has been safely kept
desires new wine, because he declares that the old is better, so, the longer the
liberty I bring is possessed in conformity with the principles I inculcate, the more
assuredly will its excellence be exhibited and approved." (If the old wine of ver.
39 is taken as symbolical of the old form of Judaism, the remark 'No one,' etc., as
Alford suggests, is simply declaratory of the self-satisfaction of the rabbinical Jew
with his doctrines and rites.) Hence —

*Mr Wright's passover wine is found to improve in flavor by keeping, though no chemical
change, and certainly no fermentation, occurs. An explanation may be found in the fact that the
original aromas of the grape, fine and subtle particles, being, by the act of crushing, mingled with
the saccharine and albuminous matters, become less perceptible to the palate ; but, by being kept,
they mechanically separate again, and so impart a fuller and distincter flavor by first touching
the nerves of taste.

LUKE, IX. 23. 295

1. The Lord docs not introduce incongruous or contradictory metaphors.

2. Nor does He assign to old fermented wine a superiority over new and unfer-
mented wine. But, —

3. A consistent sense is elicited by considering the ' new wine ' of ver. 38 iden-
tical in nature, and representative of the same Christian blessings, with the ' old
wine' of ver. 39 — being the new preserved and improved by age. Historically, it
is unquestionable that many of the oldest wines, and such as were most esteemed,
acquired a honeyed thickness and sweetness that made their extreme dilution
imperative, in order to their being drunk. Aristotle testifies that the wines of
Arcadia were so thick that they dried up in the goat-skins, and that it was the
practice to scrape them off and dissolve the scrapings in water.* Some of the
celebrated Opimian wine mentioned by Pliny had, in his day, two centuries after
its production, the consistence of honey.t Professor Donovan says, "In order
to preserve their wines to these ages, the Romans concentrated the must or grape-
juice, of which they were made, by evaporation, either spontaneous in the air or
over a fire, and so much so as to render them thick and syrupy." J

CHAPTER VII. VERSES 33—35.

33 For John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking
wine ; and ye say, He hath a devil. 34 The Son of man is come eating
and drinking ; and ye say, Behold a gluttonous man, and a wine-
bibber, a friend of publicans and sinners ! 35 But wisdom is justified
of all her children.

V. 33. NEITHER EATING BREAD NOR DRINKING WINE] Meete arton esthion,
meete oinon pinon.

V. 34. A WINEBIBBER] Oitwpotees, 'wine-drinker'; the V. and Beza, bibens
vinum, 'drinking wine.' Wiclif has 'drynkynge wiyn ' ; Tyndale, 'a drinker of
wyne.'

V. 35. BUT WISDOM IS JUSTIFIED OF ALL HER CHILDREN] Kdi tdikaiotktC

hee sophia apo ton teknon hautees panton, ' and wisdom is vindicated (shown to be
just) by all her offspring.' Codex Aleph, instead of teknon, has ergon, 'works.'
In Codex D, panton, ' all,' is absent.
[For Exposition, see Note on the parallel text, Matt. xi. 18, 19.]

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 23.

And he said to thftn all, If any man will come after me, let him
deny himself, and take up his cross daily, and follow me.

This is one of many texts in which we find a wonderful condensation of the
great tests and principles of the Christian life. Self-conquest and self-control are
both involved, — the denial of all that is sensual and vicious, the doing of all that
is virtuous. In the 'battle of life,' not only must we encounter and overthrow

* Meteoroloe. iv. 10. t Nat. Hist. xiv. 6.

\ ' Domestic Economy," in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia.

296 LUKE, X. 7, 34.

every enemy, but we must prove our profession and possession of Christian grace
by acts of beneficence and sympathy, — by conduct adapted to the circumstances
in which we live, and the necessities of the people around us. How sad it is to see,
on the contrary, general professions of Christian zeal and sacrifice, with no con-
crete illustrations of their reality ! Whole congregations will sing, with apparent
heartiness, but really without any thought at all of the application of these

words, —

" When I survey the wondrous cross

On which the Prince of glory died,
My richest gains I count but loss,
And pour contempt on all my pride.

" Were the whole realms of nature mine,

That were a present far too small ;
Love so amazing, so divine,
Demands my soul, my life, my all! "

But how many would give up their little glass of ale or wine to accomplish the
reclamation of many drunkards, and secure the salvation of many souls ?

Some cursed thing unknown

:ly lur
Some idol which I will not own,

ung i

Must surely lurk within ;
ome idol which I will nol
Some secret lust or sin."

The Christian hope, which looks forward to the possession of a glorious spiritual
(or psychical) body, should induce us to adopt abstinence as the means of partially
purifying the body we now have, that, as St Augustine says of the resurrection-
body, "with perfect and most wondrous facility of obedience it will be subject to
the Spirit, so as completely to fulfill the serenely calm volitions of a never-ending
life" ('City of God,' lib. xiii. cap. 23).

CHAPTER X. VERSE 7.

And in the same house remain, eating and drinking such things as
they give : for the laborer is worthy of his hire. Go not from house
to house.

EATING AND DRINKING SUCH THINGS AS THEY GIVE] Esthiontes kai pinontes
tapar1 auton, 'eating and drinking the (things) from them.'

To infer from this command that the Lord's first disciples were required, or that
Christians now are bound or permitted, to consume whatever is presented to them,
without regard to its fitness as food, is to sacrifice reason to a most absurd literal
interpretation of Scripture ; yet even this inference has been drawn, and constructed
into an objection to the disuse of intoxicating liquors ! The objectors, however,
would never apply it to things they disliked.

CHAPTER X. VERSE 34.

And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and
wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and
took care of him.

LUKE, X. 36, 37. 297

POURING IN OIL AND WINE] Epicheon elaion kai oinon, 'pouring upon (them)
oil and wine.' The oil would act as an emollient, the wine as an astringent.
When fermented wine was used in such cases, the virtue of the application could
not reside in the alcohol present, whose only effect would be to increase the inflam-
matory condition of the wounds. Hence, in modern battle-fields, nothing has
been found superior to simple lint and cooling water for wounds = wet bandages.
It has been conjectured that the reference is to a compound of oil and wine, called
by Galen oinelaion, 'wine-oil'; and noticed by Africanus ('Geoponics,' book x.
chap. 49) as applied to branches of fig trees after pruning, probably to prevent
the effusion of the sap. Pliny, in his ' Natural History ' (book xv. chap. 7), in
describing medicated oils and unguents, names the oleum gleucinum, compounded
of sweet wine (gltukos) and oil. Columella's recipe for making this article is
given in his I2th book, chap. 51. The passage is translated at length in Tirosh lo
Yayin; * but the sum is — " To about ninety pints of the best must in a barrel,
eighty Ibs. of oil are to be added, and a small bag of spices sunk to the place
where the oil and wine meet ; the oil to be poured off on the ninth day. The spices
in the bag are then to be pounded and replaced, filling up the cask with another
eighty Ibs. of oil; this oil to be drawn off after seven days." This text has been
read by some devotees of strong drink as if the oil were designed for the wounds
and the wine for the stomach of the wounded traveler ! — much in the same way
as ' the brandy-and-salt ' embrocation (once a popular form of quackery) was
divided by some Bacchanalians into two parts, — the salt being rubbed upon the
surface of the body, the brandy reserved for internal application 1

CHAPTER X. VERSES 36, 37.

36 Which now of these three, thinkest thou, was neighbor unto him
that fell among the thieves ? 37 And he said, He that showed mercy
on him. Then said Jesus unto him, Go, and do thou likewise.

The parable of the Good Samaritan has charmed and edified sixty generations
of Christian disciples; and the personal summing up, 'Go THOU AND DO LIKE-
WISE,' remains, and ever must remain, in universal force. Topographically and
outwardly, those are our neighbors, who live round about us ; sympathetically
and vitally, we are neighbors — and discharge our obligations as neighbors — to
those whom we help according to the measure of their needs and our opportunity.
The slaves of strong drink, and the sufferers associated with these victims, abound
in every quarter, and are seen on every hand ; and if this parable has any bearing
on social evils at all, it must be viewed, —

First, as condemning —

(1) All measures, whether public or private, by which the love of intoxicating
liquor is excited and intensified, and the number of its spoiled and wounded victims
increased.

(2) Mere simple observation of this evil, mere abstract pity for the sufferers, if
unaccompanied by efforts for their relief. Benevolent ' sentiment,' separated from

• This treatise is now accessible only in the Appendix to ' Works of Dr Lees,' TO!, ii.
38

298 LUKE, XII. 19, 45

benevolent sense, is branded with the Divine disapprobation ; and not least, but
most, where it is evidenced by persons of religious profession and ecclesiastical
position — 'the priest and the Levite.'
Secondly, as approving —

(1) The adoption of the most direct and effective action for the benefit of those
who are overcome by strong drink. And no means can be so direct, certainly
none have proved so effective, as those which have sought the exclusion of intoxi-
cating liquor from the social sphere.

(2) The exhibition of such conduct by men of all classes. It was a Samaritan
(not a traditional Jew) whom the Saviour introduced into this parable as the
genuine philanthropist and exemplar of practical compassion, — a standing warning
to conventional religionists not to decry good things by whomsoever done, and not
to point to their own faith, however correct, unless the works of love, resulting
from it, attest its sincerity and its success.

(3) Of all means that seek the prevention of evils rather than their mitigation,
or the partial removal of their bad effects. He is the best of good Samaritans
who drives out the robbers and averts their attack on the peaceful traveler. The
Temperance reform, which aims at the absolute prevention of intemperance, will
secure this greatest of all results just so soon as it is adequately supported by
Christians and patriots of every class, who are willing to ' do good ' in this man-
ner, as God gives them opportunity. The ' good Samaritan ' did this good at
some risk, trouble, and expense ; while the benefits imparted by the Temperance
movement to the intemperate and their friends, are purchased by no real loss, but
secure much personal advantage to those who use its principles for the rescue or
preservation of their neighbors.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 19.

And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for
many years ; take thine ease, eat, drink, and be merry.

EAT, DRINK, AND BE MERRY] Phage, pie, eupkrainou. Here speaks the
undisguised sensualist, whose ' god is his belly.' It should be remembered, more-
over, that alcoholic liquor, when used far short of drunken excess, tends princi-
pally to intensify the animal appetites, while it hardens the mind against the moral
and spiritual influences directed upon it.

CHAPTER XII. VERSE 45.

But and if that servant say in his heart, My lord delayeth his
coming ; and shall begin to beat the men-servants and maidens, and
to eat and drink, and to be drunken.

AND TO EAT AND DRINK, AND TO BE DRUNKEN] Esthiein te kai pinein kai
mctJmskesthai, 'and to eat and drink, and be surcharged.' Codex D has esthion
te kai pinon methuskomenos, 'with eating and drinking, being drunk (or sur-
charged).' Methuskesthai is intended to indicate that the eating and drinking

LUKE, XXI. 34. 299

would be in such degree as to cause repletion ; whether intoxication resulted
would depend on the kind of drinks' consumed.

CHAPTER XVII. VERSES 26—28.

26 And as it was in tile days of Noe, so shall it be also in the days
of the Son of man. 27 They did eat, they drank, they married wives,
they were given in marriage, until the day that Noe entered into the
ark, and the flood came, and destroyed them all. 28 Likewise also as
it was in the days of Lot : they did eat, they drank, they bought, they
sold, they planted, they builded.

V. 27. THEY DID EAT, THEY DRANK] Eesthion, tpinon, 'they ate, they drank.'
Both eating and drinking here carry with them an emphatic meaning, implying not
the mere acts of eating and drinking, but excessive addiction. [See Note on Matt,
xxiv. 38.]

CHAPTER XX. VERSE 9.

Then began he to speak to the people this parable : A certain man
planted a vineyard, and let it forth to husbandmen, and went into a
far country for a long time. •

A VINEYARD] Ampelona, 'a vineyard.' [See Notes on Matt. xxi. 33, and
Markxii. I.]

CHAPTER XXI. VERSE 34.

And take heed to yourselves, lest at any time your hearts be over-
charged with surfeiting, and drunkenness, and cares of this life, and so
that day come upon you unawares.

BE OVERCHARGED] Barunthosin, ' be made heavy ' = dull, stupid. Codices
Aleph, B, and C read bareethosin, 'be weighed down ' = oppressed.

WITH SURFEITING, AND DRUNKENNESS] En kraipalfe kai methee, 'in debauch
and drunkenness.' Robinson's Lexicon, under kraipalec, has the following: —
" Properly, seizure of the head : hence, intoxication and its consequences, giddiness,
headache, etc. Latin, crapula. Luke xxi. 34, en kraipalee kai methct, i. t. in
constant revelling, carousing."

AND so THAT DAY COME UPON YOU UNAWARES] Aiphnidios, rendered in A. V.
'unawares,' is literally 'unforeseen.' Codex Aleph has fphnidios. Addiction to
sensuality not only takes off the thoughts from the recompense of evil-doing, but
so bedims and even blinds the judgment, that the day of judgment may be strictly
said to be ' unforeseen.'

300 LUKE, XXIII. 36.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSES 17, 18.

17 And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and said, Take this, and
divide /'/ among yourselves : 18 For I say unto you, I will not drink
of the fruit of the vine, until the kingdom of God shall come.

V. 17. THE CUP] Poteerion, 'a cup.' Codices A and C read to poteerion%
'the cup.'

TAKE THIS] Labete toitto, 'take this.' In Codex Aleph, touto was omitted by
the copyist, but is supplied by another hand.

AMONG YOURSELVES] Heautois, 'among yourselves.' Codices B and C have
is heantous, 'for yourselves.' Codex Aleph reads alleelois, 'among one another,'
but a second hand has written eis heautous.

V. 1 8. THE FRUIT OF THE VINE] Tou genneematos tees ampelou, 'the offspring
of the vine.' All the old MSS. read geneematos. Codices Aleph, B, and D add
the words apo tou nuny ' from the (time) now ' ; and Codices Aleph, B, and C,
instead of heos hotou, ' until,' read heos ou.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 20.

Likewise also the cup after supper, saying, This cup is the new
testament in my blood, which is shed for you.

THE CUP] To poteerion, ' the drinking-cup.^ This verse is absent from Codex D.
[See Notes on Matt. xxvi. 27 — 29.]

CHAPTER XXIII. VERSE 36.

And the soldiers also mocked him, coming to him, and offering him
vinegar.

I VINEGAR] Oxos, ' sour wine,' oinos being understood. [See Note on Matt,

xxvii. 48.]

THE

GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN.

CHAPTER II. VERSES i — n.

i And the third day there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee ; and
the mother of Jesus was there : a And both Jesus was called, and his
disciples, to the marriage. 3 And when they wanted wine, the mother
of Jesus saith unto him, They have no wine. 4 Jesus saith unto her,
Woman, what have I to do with thee ? mine hour is not yet come,
s His mother saith unto the servants, Whatsoever he saith unto you,
do i/. 6 And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the
manner of the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins
apiece. ^ Jesus saith unto them, Fill the waterpots with water. And
they filled them up to the brim. 8 And he saith unto them, Draw
out now, and bear unto the governor of the feast. And they bare it.
9 When the ruler of the feast had tasted the water that was made
wine, and knew not whence it was : (but the servants which drew the
water knew;) the governor of the feast called the bridegroom, 10 And
saith unto him, Every man at the beginning doth set forth good wine;
and when men have well drunk, then that which is worse : but thou
hast kept the good wine until now. u This beginning of miracles
did Jesus in Cana of Galilee, and manifested forth his glory; and his
disciples believed on him.

V. i. IN CANA] En Kuna. Both the situation of this village and the significa-
tion of its name have been warmly discussed. Kefr Kenna, about an hour and ft
half's ride N.E. of Nazareth, has still some advocates, but critical consent is gene-
rally given to Dr Robinson's arguments on behalf of Kana-el-Jelil, a village situated
about three hours' distance, due north, from Nazareth.

THE MOTHER OF JESUS WAS THERE] It is a conjecture, not devoid of plausi-
bility, that this was the marriage of some young relative of Mary, so that she 'was
there ' not so much by invitation as of right, and could therefore, without obtrusive-
ness, address the servants as recorded in ver. 5.

V. 2. WAS CALLED] Eklffthtf, ' called ' = invited.

V. 3. AND WHEN THEY WANTED WINE] Kai huftfrffsantos oinou, 'and wine
running short ' = being deficient. Wiclif, ' and whanne wyne failid.' So all the
old English versions. A later hand has altered Codex Aleph into oinon ouk eichon
oti sunttflfsthff, ' they had not wine because it was used up.' The original supply

302 JOHN, II. I — II.

may have been too limited, or the guests were more numerous than was at first
expected. A marriage party in the East lasted several days, and this deficiency
probably occurred upon the last day, soon after the Lord and His disciples had
arrived. Incidentally, this notice of a short supply of wine suggests that the
wedded persons were not wealthy, else the purchase of a sufficient quantity would
have been the first and simplest course to be proposed.

THEY HAVE NO WINE] Oinon ouk echousi, 'wine they have not.' A later
correction in Codex Aleph gives oinos ouk estin, 'wine is not.'

V. 4. WHAT HAVE 1 TO DO WITH THEE] Ti emoi kai soi, ' what to Me and
thee ? ' i. e. ' what is there in common to Me and thee ? ' Mary thought only of
supplying the deficiency,* Jesus of showing forth the Father's glory. The concep-
tions of the earthly mother and the heavenly Son moved upon different planes.
This remarkable expression throws light upon the extent of the miracle its'elf.

V. 6. SIX WATERPOTS OF STONE . . . CONTAINING TWO OR THREE FIRKINS
APIECE] Hudriai lithinai hex . . . chorousai ana metreetas duo ee treis, ' six
stone water-jars . . . holding each two or three measures.' The Greek melreetecs
is supposed to have corresponded with the Attic amphora, and to have held about
eight gallons English. Reckoning two and a half measures to each water-jar, we
may assign to every vessel a quantity of water equal to twenty gallons English, and
to the whole six jars a quantity equal to 120 gallons. (Alford reckons the total at
126 gallons.) During a visit to this region, Dr E. D. Clarke saw a number of
large massive stone pots " lying about, disregarded by the present inhabitants as
antiquities with whose original use they were unacquainted." They would have
held from eighteen to twenty-seven gallons of water each.

V. 7. FILL THE WATER POTS WITH WATER. AND THEY FILLED THEM UP TO

THE BRIM] The amount of water in each of the jars had probably been reduced
by the use made of it for the ablutionary purifications commonly practised ; but
the command was chiefly given in order that the guests might see that each vessel
contained water, and water only; since the infusion of a coloring liquid would
have stained the whole quantity in any particular jar.

V. 8. BEAR UNTO THE GOVERNOR OF THE FEAST] Pherete to architriklino9
'carry (what is drawn) to the architriklinos.' This was the guest who occupied
' the uppermost seat at a feast,' and exercised a general superintendence over all
its proceedings.

AND THEY BARE IT] Kai eenenkan, 'and they carried (it).'

V. 9. AND KNEW NOT WHENCE IT WAS] He did not know from whence the
wine had been got.

BUT THE SERVANTS WHICH DREW THE WATER KNEW] Oi de diakonoi eedeison
oi eentleekotes to Jitidor, 'but the servants knew, who had drawn the water.' This
expression is very striking, for it shows that what was drawn from out of the vessel
was then water, and that its transmutation into wine was accomplished (not as
Lucke, quoted by Alford, intimates, in the interval between ver. 7 and ver. 8, but)
while the water was in transit from the water-jar to the governor. The view of

*That this is so can hardly be doubted, though men so eminent as Bengal and Calvin hare
ascribed other motives to Mary, of a totally different kind; such as a desire that the assembly
should be broken up before the scarcity was perceived, or that Jesus should deliver a religious
discourse.

JOHN, II. I — II. 303

Archbishop Trench, that this 'drawing' had reference to drawing in order to fill
the jars with water, is far-fetched. Nothing can be clearer than that it points
back to the command of Jesus, ' Draw now ' (ver. 8), after the vessels were filled
to the brim.

V. 10. EVERY MAN AT THE BEGINNING DOTH SET FORTH GOOD WINE]
Pas anthrdpos proton ton kalon oinon titheesi, 'every man (/'. e. who is a numphios,
'bridegroom,' as thou art) places first the good wine ' — that which is specially good,
held in most esteem.

AND WHEN MEN HAVE WELL DRUNK] A'ai hotan methusthosi, 'and when they
(the guests) have drunk to the full ' ; \Viclif, ' whanne men ben fulfillid ' ; Tyndale,
' when men be dronke ' ; so Cranmer. The Geneva V., ' wel droncke ' ; the Rheims,
«wel drunke.' The A. V. is opposed to the assumption that methud and methusko
necessarily signify drinking in the sense of intoxication. The governor did not
refer to the inebriating effect, but to the large quantity consumed, and this is the
primary signification of the word.

THEN THAT WHICH is WORSE] Tote ton elasso, 'then (he places) the inferior.'
The governor has been supposed to refer here to the loss of sensibility — to the
impaired delicacy of the palate — induced by drinking intoxicating wines, thus
enabling hosts to pass off their coarser wines at the fag-end of their entertainments ;
but this supposition — redolent of the public-house, and not at all complimentary to
the effect of intoxicating liquor upon the nerves of taste — is not required to account
for the governor's allusion. The best viands (food as well as liquors) would
naturally be produced first, because of a desire to make a good impression at the
outset, because guests would then be most critical, and because, where a succession
of visitors had been invited, the most important would be the first to arrive. Even
where the same persons continued present, when enough of the best viands had
been consumed, there would be no inclination for the inferior. As to what was
esteemed 'the good wine,' there is ample evidence that the stronger (unmixed)
wines were not preferred or drunk except by vicious or intemperate men, and that
the su-fftfst and lightest wines, almost, if not altogether, incapable of intoxicating,
were deemed the best by all sober persons. Indeed, the governor's language im-
plies that ' the good wine ' usually provided at feasts was of a kind that could be
abundantly used without inebriation ; and in one remarkable passage, Philo (who
flourished during and after our Lord's life upon earth) describes the votaries of
wine proceeding from one kind to another, till they finished up with great draughts
of the unmixed and strongest sorts.*

BUT THOU HAST KEPT THE GOOD WINE UNTIL NOW] Su teleereckas ton kalon
oinon hcus arti, 'thou hast kept back the good wine until now.' This wine of
which he had tasted from the cup presented by the servants was so superior in all
the finer qualities of wine (such as sweetness, mellowness, and fragrance), that it
seemed to the governor as if the usual order of things had been reversed, and that
the best wine had been reserved till the last. This opinion was expressed by the
president when he had merely ' tasted ' the wine, and could not have been founded,
therefore, upon any evidence of its alcoholic strength — its power to inflame the
body or disorder the brain.

•On Drunkenness, sect. 53.

304 JOHN, ii. i — ii.

I. THE NATURE OF THE MIRACLE is unfolded in the statement that the ' water
became wine ' — had acquired all the sensible properties of wine, and, according to
the governor's decision, wine of the best kind. The process of the miracle is not
explained, for it is not explicable. In the natural world, all that science can
observe (and this very imperfectly) is the connection and succession of phenomena;
the cause of that connection and succession is among the deep things of God. In
the supernatural, the ultimate cause is not more mysterious than in the natural, but
the succession of phenomena, if there be succession, is too rapid to admit of dis-
crimination. In this beginning of the Lord's miracles we have (i) His two com-
mands to the servants, 'Fill up the jars,' 'Draw (from one jar) and bear to the
governor ' of the feast ; (2) their obedience— they fill up, they draw, and carry the
water to the governor; (3) the exertion of a Divine energy, and the instantaneous
metamorphosis of the water into wine. That the water became alcoholic wine is
an assumption which opponents of the Temperance movement have first made, and
have then put forward as an objection! 'It was wine, they say, 'and THAT is
enough for zts.' But if it is enough that wine was created, their objection evapo-
rates at once ; for unless they can show that fermentation is essential to the nature
of wine, they have no right to assume that, besides making the water wine, the
Lord also made it wine stick as they are enamored with. That it was 'good
wine,' the very best that could be provided, is also true, but the taste of English
wine-drinkers is no standard of the taste of a Jewish architriklinos, Anno Domini 30.

The burden of proof here rests with the advocate of alcoholic wine ; and it is
impossible that the slightest shadow of proof can be advanced in behalf of their
hypothesis. Those who uphold it, generally consider that the whole of the water
was transformed into wine, but is it credible that 120 gallons of intoxicating liquor
should have been provided by Christ for one wedding party, and at the end of the
drinking? What Christian would do so now? The statement of the governor as
to persons having ' well drunk ' was a general reference, and had no special appli-
cation to that particular company ; yet it is highly probable that the guests then
assembled had already freely partaken of such wine as had been provided. The
case for alcoholic wine, therefore, requires it to be assumed that, in addition to a
considerable quantity of such wine before consumed, the Lord miraculously pro-
duced a much larger quantity for the use of the men and women collected together !
But (i) this assumption is wholly without proof; and (2) it involves a reflection
upon the wisdom of the Son of God, which ought to insure its rejection by every
reverential mind. Restricting attention, however, for the present to the contents
of the cup placed before the governor of the feast, there are many strong reasons
for rejecting the opinion that it contained fermented wine.

I. The process of fermentation is one of decay, and it is not probable that it
would have been imitated, or its results realized, by the fiat of the Saviour. In
all fermentative action, vital growth is arrested, organized matter is disintegrated,
and a retrogression ensues. It is a passage from more complex to more elementary
form — in fact, from diet to dirt. To produce pure grape-juice, the unfermented
fruit of the vine, would, if possible to man, be a closer imitation of the creative
plan of Providence than calling a derivative substance into existence. It is by the
growth of food that God blesses the world; and though decay is tributary to
future growth, it is in and by the growth that we discern the goodness, and glory,
w\& purpose of His power. The end and adaptation of food is to condense power —
the power with which we live, and see, and think — by which we realize the Divine
works and glory. The whole meaning of our Lord s metaphor, ' I am the vine,
and ye are the branches,' rests on this physiological fact. If the water of life

JOHN, II. I — II. 305

was first made into that precious juice the blood of the vine, and then transformed
into alcohol, the Son did exactly the contrary of that which the Father doeth in each
season, when He « bringeth forth food out of the earth, wine that maketh glad the
heart of man.' But if Jesus did on this occasion that which was creatively highest
and best, he did not produce a fermented and intoxicating drink.

2. It is against the principle of scriptural and moral analogy to suppose that the
Saviour exerted His supernatural energy to bring into being a kind of wine which
had been condemned by Solomon and the prophets as * a mocker ' and ' defrauder,'
and which the Holy Spirit had selected as an emblem of the wrath of the
Almighty.

3. A most beautiful and satisfactory hypothesis has been conceived which obviates
all resort to the theory of a direct creation of alcoholic wine. It is that in the cup
the Lord repeated, but with supernatural rapidity, that marvellous conversion of
water into ' the pure blood of the grape ' which takes place annually within the
berries of the growing vine. St Augustine was one of the first, if not the first,
of the Christian fathers who propounded this hypothesis, saying (in his Tractus 8,
Evang. Joannis), Ipse (nim fecit vinum illo die in nuptiis in sex illis hydriis quas
impleri aqud precepit qui omni anno facit hoc in vitibus. Sicut enim qaod miserunt
minis fri in hydrias in vinum conversum est ofere Domini, sic et quod nubes fund unt
in vinum convertitur ejusdem opere Domini. Illud autem non miramur quia omni
anno fit ; assiduitaie amisit admirationem : " For He on that marriage day made
wine in the six jars which He ordered to be filled with water — He who now makes
it every year in the vines. For as what the servants had poured into the water-jars
was turned into wine by the power of the Lord, so also that which the clouds pour
forth is turned into wine by the power of the selfsame Lord. But we cease to
wonder at what is done every year; its very frequency makes astonishment to
fail." So Chrysostom (Homily 22 on John), Nun mentoi deiknus hoti autos estin
ho in tais ampelois to hudor metaballon kai ton hueton dia tees rhizees eis oinon
trepdn, hope* en to phuto dia pollou chronou ginetai touto athroon en to gamd
tirgasato: "Now indeed making plain that it is He who changes into wine the
water in the vines and the rain drawn up by the roots, He produced instantly at
the wedding feast that which is formed in the plant during a long course of time."
In sympathy with these expositions, Dr Trench, now Archbishop of Dublin, in
his 'Lectures on the Miracles,' remarks (p. 105), " He who each year prepares
the wine in the grape, causing it to drink up and swell with the moisture of earth
and heaven, to transmute this into its own nobler juices, concentrated all those
slower processes now into the act of a single moment, and accomplished in an
instant what ordinarily He does not accomplish but in months. This analogy
does not, indeed, help us to understand what the Lord at this time did, but yet
brings before us that in this He was working in the line of (above, indeed, but
not across, or counter to) His more ordinary workings, which we see daily around
us, the unnoticed miracles of every-day nature." It does not militate against the
fitness and beauty of this exposition that Augustine and Archbishop Trench are
afterward inconsistent with themselves, by falsely ascribing to the wine of miracle
the properties which are solely generated in the fermenting vat.

The venerable Joseph Hall, D.D., Bishop of Norwich (1600), in his 'Contem-
plations' on this miracle, evidently adopts St Augustine's explanation. His
words are as follow: — "What doeth He in the ordinary way of nature, but turn
the watery juice that arises up from the root into wine? He will only do this now
suddenly, and at once, which He doth usually by sensible degrees." The pious
and celebrated Rev. W. Law, M. A., in his reply to Dr Trap (1742), does not

306

JOHN, II. I — II.

notice St Augustine, but gives the same explanation in almost the same words ;
only he suggests that the wine formed by the direct operation of the Divine power
was " wine very much freed from all that evil, wrath, and curse which is inseparable
from the ordinary workings of the present state of nature." * Simply to state this
theory of St Augustine is to secure the adhesion to it of almost every unbiased
mind ; yet, if accepted, it disposes entirely of the other theory, which represents
the production of an alcoholic wine as necessary to the completeness and grandeur
of the miracle. As soon as the grape is formed, it is found to contain a watery
fluid, which, in the course of months, under the influence of Divine forces, is
transmuted into a luscious juice, food for the healthy and medicine to the sick;
and such wine it was which, with miraculous majesty, the Lord produced from the
liquid that had been drawn the instant before from the water-jar, 'filled to the
brim.'

* We regret to see that in the Fifth Edition of his 'Greek Testament,' Dr Alford retains the
note that appeared in earlier editions, which, it might have been hoped, reflection would have
induced him to expunge. It is as follows, italics and all : — " The large quantity thus created has
been cavilled at by unbelievers. We may leave them to their cavils, with just one remark, — that
He who creates abundance enough in this earth to 'put temptation in men's way,' acted on this
occasion analogously -with His known method of dealing. We may answer an error on the other
side (if. it be on the other side) by saying that the Lord here most effectually, and once for all,
stamps with His condemnation that false system of moral reformation which would commence by
pledges to abstain from intoxicating liquors. He pours out His bounty for all, and He vouch-
safes His grace to each for guidance ; and to endeavor to evade the work which He has appointed
for each man, by refusing the bounty to save the trouble of seeking the grace, is an attempt which
must ever end in degradation of the individual motives, and in social demoralization, whatever
present apparent effects may follow its first promulgation. One visible sign of this degradation,
in its intellectual form, is the miserable attempt, made by some of the advocates of this movement,
to show that the wine here, and in other places of Scripture, is unfermented wine, not possessing
the power of intoxication." On this we observe, —

i. That Strauss, and other unbelievers, agree with the Dean in believing the evangelist to
describe the manufacture of 126 gallons of intoxicating liquor for a company of guests at a village
wedding feast ; and on this common assumption Strauss founds an objection against the moral
character of Jesus. The Dean's reply is exceedingly weak, for it is true that such a supply of an
intoxicating drink would have presented a temptation to drunken excess, and it is not true that
such a provision would have been analogous to all or to any things in the Divine procedure, for
' God is not tempted of evil, neither tempteth He any man.'

a. The sneer as to the ' error on the other side (if it be on the other side)' is unworthy either
of the Dean's acumen or candor. To maintain that the wine provided by the Lord was free from
that element which makes intoxicating liquor essentially dangerous, is certainly ' on the other
side,' so far as relates to any possible implication, or shadow of reproach, upon the character of the
blessed Saviour.

3. That the Lord by this miracle has stamped His condemnation on the disuse of intoxicating
liquors, or pledges to that end, is not at all evident by the stamping phraseology of the Dean : for
he roughly and rudely claims as proved the very point at issue— that the wine produced was intoxi-
cating ; and he is guilty of a transparent petitio principii in representing alcoholic liquors, which
can spring from the destruction only of good food, as being in themselves the gift of the Divine
bounty as directly as the corn of the field and the fruit of the tree 1 He further assumes (in oppo-
sition to all fact and experience) that there is no difference between intoxicating and unintoxicatmg
substances in their tendency to seduce and deprave mankind !

4. That abstainers refuse the bounty in order to save themselves the trouble of seeking for the
protecting grace, is at once impertinent and slanderous, though a Dean has written the words.
Intoxicating liquors are abstained from because they have no claim to be regarded as a true food ;
and as offering, by their very action on the frame, a temptation to excess, which it is the distinct office
of Christian wisdom to avoid. The grace of God is surely as much displayed in leading men away
from needless temptation as in protecting them in it. [See Note on Matt. iv. 7.]

5. The Dean's prophetic forecast of the demoralization to be produced by the Temperance
movement has now been many years in print, but remains as far from fulfillment as at first. The
facts are against him. Would it not do him more honor to confess his error, or at least withdraw
the prophesy from observation, until he can give proof of his inspired mission ?

6. The advocates, whose ' miserable attempt ' excites the Dean's contempt, can afford to smile at
his miserable travesty of their object, which is not, as he appears to conceive, to prove all the
wines of Scripture to have been unfermented, but to ascertain, by examination and induction,
what the testimony of Scripture really is concerning the things to which the name 'wine' is
attached in the English version. As to the miracle at Cana, Augustine, Chrysostom, Bishop Hall,
Mr Law, and Archbishop Trench, must also be charged with the 'miserable attempt' of which these
Temperance advocates are accused : and in such company they can complacently listen to all that
the Dean's ignorance and arrogance may allege against them.

7. The gross inconsistency of the Dean himself will be seen by the extract from his ' Notes ' on
Rev. viii. i. The only difference between him and those whom he stoutly abuses is, that they
recognise the identity of alcohol in wine with alcohol in ardent spirits, and the Dean does not.

JOHN, II. I — II. 307

IT. THE EXTENT OF THE MIRACLE next invites our attention. So common is the
impression that all the water in all the stone jars was converted into wine, that it
is startling to have this traditionary interpretation called in question. It is certain,
however, that this common belief is a deduction from the narrative, and is not
asserted in any part of it ; nor is too much reliance to be placed on this general
consensus of opinion, since the equally general, but probably unjust, identification
of Mary Magdalene with the woman who was a sinner, shows how broad a stream
of popular persuasion may flow from trifling sources. The impression that all the
water was converted into wine was derived, —

(i) From the fact of Mary's anxiety for a fresh supply of wine, connected with
a notion that Jesus would meet her wishes; and (2) from imagining that the
approval of the governor would be followed by a resort to the stone jars for more
of the prized and superior beverage. But it must be remembered (i) that the
notable words of Jesus addressed to Mary, ' What have I to do with thee? (rather,
What is there between Me and thee?) My hour is not yet come,' seem to point to
a difference, and not a similarity, of purpose between Jesus and His mother — she
intent on a large supply of wine, and He on some object not yet revealed. (2)
That as the servants knew that the change had occurred after the water was drawn,
their statement would not induce the company to expect that wine could be drawn
from the stone jars, but would directly fix universal attention upon Him by whom
the command to draw and carry to the governor was first issued.

It is quite clear that even to supply the wants of the company the conversion of
120 gallons of water into wine was not necessary, and the complete silence of the
apostle who was present as to any such general change, or any further transmuta-
tion than that of the water in the cup, is exceedingly peculiar, and, in fact, unac-
countable, if any more extensive metamorphosis was effected. By contrasting this
silence with the full accounts given of the multiplication of loaves and fishes, the
argument against the traditional opinion becomes greatly strengthened. None but
a very undisciplined judgment will consider the miracle to have been less extraor-
dinary if confined to a cup of water instead of comprehending the contents of six
water-jars. A miracle is not to be measured by the extent of cubic inches affected
by it. Nothing short of a Divine power could have changed the water in one cup
into wine, and reason asserts that this power could, if Divine reason had seen fit,
have changed into wine not only all the Water in the six jars, but in all the wells of
Cana, and of Galilee of the Gentiles.

III. THE PRIMARY OBJECT OF THIS MIRACLE was to make an incontrovertible
manifestation of the « Spirit of Power ' inherent in Jesus of Nazareth, and so to
induce personal confidence in Him as the Sent of God. This object was accom-
plished: ephanerosen teen doxan autou. 'He revealed His glory,' and therefore
episteusan eis auton oi matheetai autou, ' His disciples put faith in Him.' Beginning
by proving the subjection of matter to His and His Father's will, the Son of God
afterward went forth to make proof of His sovereignty over evil disease and evil
spirits, and to reduce to voluntary obedience the sons of men, that He might raise
them, by spiritual adoption, to the dignity of 'sons of God.'* Some of the
Fathers, who were engaged in controversy with the Manichseans, and with others
who asserted the sinfulness of matter and the intrinsic virtue of self-inflicted

• For a full development of the hidden adaptations of this miracle to the heresy of Dualism, see
' Works of Dr Lees,' vol. iii The reservation of the record of the first miracle to the latest of th«
Gospels supports the conception that it was designed to refute the Manichcan conceptions which
clouded the light of the early Church.

308 JOHN, iv. 5—7.

austerities, considered that this miracle was performed in order to set the seal of
the Redeemer's disapproval upon such heretical doctrine and practices. That His
presence at a marriage feast was intended to show His approval of the connubial
relation, and the hospitable amenities of social life, may be freely granted, but all
other considerations were clearly subservient to the epiphany of His glory, and the
prosecution of His Messianic mission. As Mr Law forcibly remarks, " Herein
lay the strength, and certainty, and glory of the miracle, that so many witnesses
were forced to see and own that by the word of our Lord wine was drawn from
pots just filled, and still remaining full to the top, with water. And when this
miracle had incontestably manifested itself, the whole affair was over, and the
guests were left, not to rejoice over full pots of water turned into wine, but to make
sober reflections upon the Divinity of that Person who had put such an astonishing
end to their drinking. Great and holy Jesus ! how like Thyself, the Saviour ot
the world, hast Thou acted at this feast ! How couldst Thou more sink the value,
extinguish the desire, suppress all thoughts of pleasure and indulgence in earthly
wine, than by showing the feasters that from the poorest of the elements Thoit
couldst call forth such wine as no grape could give ? How couldst Thou more
effectually take from them their sensual joy, or more powerfully call them to deny
themselves and come after Thee, than by thus miraculously showing them that the
richest delights of sensual gratification were far short of what Thou couldst give to
them that would leave all earthly delights for Thee ? " It would not be difficult to
discover in the cup of supernatural new wine, a mystical emblem of the superiority
of Christian blessings over those of other dispensations; but it is better to be
satisfied with the evangelist's declaration, 'He showeth forth His glory.' *

CHAPTER IV. VERSES 5 — 7.

s Then cometh he to a city of Samaria, which is called Sychar,
near to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph.

6 Now Jacob's well was there. Jesus therefore, being wearied with
his journey, sat thus on the well : and it was about the sixth hour.

7 There cometh a woman of Samaria to draw water : Jesus saith
unto her, Give me to drink.

V. 5. SYCHAR] Suchar. This city occupied the site of the ancient Shechem
or Sychem, a city of Ephraim, beautifully placed between Mount Ebal and Mount
Gerizim. It survives in the modern Nablous, a native corruption of the Greek
word Neapolis, ' New City. ' The name Sychar is supposed to have been given
to it in contempt by the Jews, either from skahqer, 'falsehood,' as being the seat

* Richard Crashaw's celebrated, though rather fanciful epigram, will be read with interest by
all who accept this wondrous sign ; —

Unde rubor vestris et non sua purpura lymphis f
Qua rosa mirantes tarn nova mutat aquas ?
Numen, convives ! prasens, cognoscite numen,
Nympha, pudica Deum vidit, et erubuit.

Whence the strange purple this pale water shows ?
What rose so fresh has touched it till it glows?
A Power Divine, ye guests, discern ! — be hushed, —
The modest maid has seen her God and blushed.

JOHN, VI. 12. 309

of the false worship of the Samaritans ; or from shikkor, 'drunkard,' in allusion to
Isa. xxviii. 17, where the drunkenness of the then inhabitants is vividly portrayed.

V. 6. Now JACOB'S WELL WAS THERE] Een de ekei peegee tou lakdb, ' Now
a spring of Jacob was there.' Peegee signifies a ' source,' ' spring,' or ' fountain ' ;
but in ver. II the word for 'well' — 'the well is deep' — is phrtar, 'a pit.' The
phrear was dug round the peegec, and usually lined with masonry, for the better
preservation of the water. Jacob's well still remains ; and though in Maundrell's
time it had five feet of water, it is now dry, — most likely because the ancient spring
has been choked up by accumulations of rubbish. The well's diameter is about
three yards, its depth thirty-five.

V. 7. GIVE ME TO DF.INK] The Lord was weary and thirsty, and He did not,
like many of those who bear His name, despise the best beverage for man.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 10.

Jesus answered and said unto her, If thou knewest the gift of God,
and who it is that saith to thee, Give me to drink ; thou wouldest
have asked of him, and he would have given thee living water.

LIVING WATER] Chrysostom's comment upon this phrase is felicitous: — "The
grace of the Holy Spirit. For as the water which descends from heaven nourishes
and vivifies, and though it be of one kind, operates in various ways, — is snow-
white in the lily, but dark-colored in the narcissus, blushes in the rose, is purple
in the violet, is sweet in the fig, but bitter in the wormwood ; so also the Divine
Spirit, which descends from heaven, nourishes and vivifies the soul, and though of
one kind, exerts its power and efficacy in various ways."

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 11.

The woman saith unto him, Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with,
and the well is deep : from whence then hast thou that living water ?

NOTHING TO DRAW WITH] Oule anlleema fcheis, 'a bucket thou hast not'
Thevenot says that ' travelers provide themselves with small leathern buckets,
because the wells in those parts are furnished with no apparatus for drawing.'

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 12.

When they were filled, he said unto his disciples, Gather up the
fragments that remain, that nothing be lost.

Having miraculously illustrated the Divine beneficence, the Lord now inculcates
the practice of an economy no less Divine. The fragments of this bountiful feast
were not to be wasted. There was need of them elsewhere, therefore they must
be preserved. He would have Hfs disciples comply with the principle of His
Father's government, under which nothing is lost And if God is bountiful to
mankind now, it is not that they may abuse, but utilize, His manifold gifts. In

310 JOHN, XV. I.

the production of strong drink, however, there is a waste of food so prodigious as
scarcely to be credible [see Note on Gen. i. 29], and at radical variance with the
example and exhortation of the Saviour on this occasion. He increased the supply
of aliment, — the manufacture of strong drink decreases it; he commanded that
'nothing be lost,' and an observance of this command would arrest at once the
operations of every distillery, brewery, and wine factory, — never to be resumed.*

CHAPTER VII. VERSE 37.

In the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried,
saying, If any man thirst, let him come unto me, and drink.

THAT GREAT DAY OF THE FEAST] The eighth day of the Feast of Tabernacles.

LET HIM COME UNTO ME, AND DRINK] The 'truth and grace' which pre-
eminently came in Jesus Christ was here offered to the people under the figure of
water, that peerless physical blessing of a Fatherly providence. The use of the
figure on this occasion may have been prompted by a solemnity called ' the pour-
ing out of water,' practised by the Jews on this chief day of the feast, when they
filled a golden vessel from the pool of Siloam, brought it into the temple with
sound of trumpet and other ceremonies, and poured it upon the altar before the
Lord with expressions of the liveliest joy.

CHAPTER XV. VERSE i.
I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.

Under the figure of the real or true vine (hee ampelos hee aleethinee), Jesus
indicates the relation which He sustains to all His disciples, the 'branches,' and the
character of the works, the 'fruit,' they are expected to bear — and certainly will
bear, so long as they retain, in the exercise of their freedom, a vital participation in
His grace, the sap by which all fruitfulness is promoted. Those who imagine
that abstainers cannot enter into the beauty of this figure because they renounce
intoxicating liquors, are ignorant of the reason of this renunciation. It is because
they value the fruit of the vine so highly that they object to its degradation into an
intoxicating drink. The ripe and luscious grapes are an appropriate and striking
emblem of the good works resulting from union with Christ, just as the fermented
juice of the grape is an appropriate and striking emblem of the moral corruption
which, unless purged away, works only death.

*The principle has various applications: (i) It forbids the conversion of food into drink, whereby
the greater part of grain is destroyed. In 1666 parts of beer, analytical chemistry shows that only
one part is left for nourishment. (2) It condemns the expenditure of money — the representative of
food — upon intoxicants, as a frightful waste. In the United States of America, according to the
Secretary of the Treasury, eight millions of gallons of spirits are annually made out of grain and
grapes — not to speak of cider, beer and wine. The annual revenue alone from this source, if fairly
paid, would reach sjxty millions of dollars. (3) But the end of food is farcf-^-bodily power — and
every glass of intoxicating liquor drank, by exciting increased vascular action in heart, lungs, etc.,
robs the voluntary muscles and the brain of an equivalent amount of power designed for the further*
ance of the physical, industrial, and mental work of the world. This is the real and most valuable
capital of progress, which is for ever lost, and far transcends the mere pecuniary waste.

JOHN, xix. 28 — 30. 311

CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 28 — 30.

28 After this, Jesus knowing that all things were now accomplished,
that the scripture might be fulfilled, saith, I thirst. 29 Now there was
set a vessel full of vinegar : and they filled a sponge with vinegar, and
put *'/ upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth. 3o When Jesus there-
fore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished : and he bowed
his head, and gave up the ghost.

V. 28. MIGHT BE FULFILLED] Codex Aleph reads plecrothec, 'might be fulfilled,'
instead of teleiothee, 'might be completed.'

V. 29. NOW THERE WAS SET A VESSEL FULL OF VINEGAR : AND THEY FILLED
A SPONGE WITH VINEGAR, AND PUT IT UPON HYSSOP] SktUOS OUH tkfito OXOUS
mestan, oi de plcesantes spongon oxous kai hussopd perithentes, ' a vessel then was
set down full of vinegar : now they filling a sponge with vinegar and placing it round
hyssop.' Codex Aleph reads, skeuos de ekeito oxous meston : spongon oun meston
oxous kai hussopd perithcntes, ' now a vessel full of vinegar was set : and having
placed round about hyssop a sponge then filled with vinegar.' Codices A and B
adopt the same reading, except that they omit the kai, 'and,' before hussofo9
4 hyssop.'

| For Exposition see Note on Matt xxvii. 48.]

THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.

CHAPTER II. VERSES 13 — 15.

13 Others mocking said, These men are full of new wine. 14 But
Peter, standing up with the eleven, lifted up his voice, and said unto
them, Ye men of Judaea, and all ye that dwell at Jerusalem, be this
known unto you, and hearken to my words : 15 For these are not
drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day.

V. 13. OTHERS MOCKING SAID, THESE MEN ARE FULL OF NEW WINE") Heteroi
de dia chleuazontes elegon, hoti gleukous memestomenoi eist, ' but others jeering right
out, said that they (the disciples) were filled with gleukos (sweet- wine).' * Wiclif s
translation is, 'other scorned and seiden, For these men ben ful of must.' Codices
Aleph, A, B, and C, read diachleuazontes, but Bloomfield prefers the reading of
some MSS. which omit the dia. Codex D. has diechleuazon legontes, 'jeered right
out, saying'; also, hotttoi, 'these (men),' before memestomenoi.

V. 15. FOR THESE ARE NOT DRUNKEN, AS YE SUPPOSE] Ou gar hos kumetS
hupolambanete methuousin, ' for these are not surcharged (with gleukos} as you
suppose.' Codex C reads, ou . . . methtiosin, 'should not be surcharged'
(or drunken).

SEEING IT is BUT THE THIRD HOUR OF THE DAY] Esti gar hora tritee tecs
heemeras, ' for it is the third hour of the day ' (nine o'clock a.m.). Codex D reads,
ousees horns tritees tees heemeras ge, 'it being the third hour of the day.'

Two questions spring from this narrative : — How is the slander of those who
mocked to be understood ? How is St Peter's rejoinder to be construed ?

I. The slander undoubtedly insinuated is the intoxication of those who 'spoke
with tongues ' ; nor is it necessary to consider whether the jeerers believed their
own insinuation. Possibly they did, for Philo, who lived at this time, says, in a
striking passage, that the most sober persons, ' abstainers,' when under the influence
of a holy inspiration, seem to others to be in a drunken state, and do indeed
exhibit some of the external appearances of vinous inebriation. (On Drunk, s. 36.)
It is the form of the slander that occasions the difficulty, — ' These men are full of
new wine.* It has been objected to the A. V. translation of gleukos that no new

* The following extract from Mr Macgregor's ' Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe ' will
sufficiently indicate the popular meaning of the phrase 'new-wine,' and establish the nature and
reality of the thing called ' sweet-wine ' :— " At one of the great inns on the road, some NEW-WINS
was produced on the table. It had been made only the day before, and its color was exactly like
that of cold tea, with milk and sugar in it, while its taste was very luscious and sweet. This
' new-wine ' is sometimes in request, but especially among the women (Zech. ix. 17)." — P. 215,
Second Edit., 1866.

THE ACTS, II. 13 — 15. 3! 3

wine could have been obtained at Pentecost, a month or two before the early
vintage; and there is force in the objection, since, though grapes could be kept
from vintage to vintage for any special purpose, it is not likely that they were
extensively used for the production of new wine. Gleukos literally means 'sweet*
(oinos, 'wine,' being understood), and 'sweet wine' — the juice of the grape pre-
served in all its original sweetness— could be obtained at any season of the year.
That gleukos was a term specially descriptive of the juice of the grape in an unfer-
mented state, and answered in Greek to the Latin mustum, is certain [see Prel.
Dissert.].

1 i ) It is clear that g leukos (from glukus, ' sweet ' ) primarily denoted sweet juice that
had not undergone any change such as fermentation, whereby the saccharine matter
is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. Suidas, the etymologist, actually
defines it as to apostalagma tees staph ulees prin pateethee, * the droppings of the grapes
before they are trodden.' As applied to grape-juice newly expressed, it corre-
sponded to the Hebrew ahsis, and in a Hebrew translation of the Greek New
Testament it is here rendered by that term. Further, gleukos was applied to wine
whose sweetness was conserved by straining the juice, bottling it, and keeping it at
a low temperature or by boiling it to a jellied consistence and luscious essence.

(2) If, then, as is assumed, gleukos is here applied to wine which, though sweet,
was also fermented, we have an example of what is denied by some careless writers,
— that the same term can be applied to an intoxicating article as well as to a natural
and non-intoxicating substance ; and if a specific term like gleukos could be used
thus comprehensively, how confidently may the same be predicated of a generic
term like oinos !

How then, it may be asked, could the mockers, wishing to charge the disciples
with drunkenness, accuse them of being filled with gleukos ? Why did they not
use the generic name oinof, which comprehended wine of all sorts, fermented and
otherwise ?

As to the difficulty proposed, two modes of solution have been suggested.

The first considers that gleukos here retains its primary sense of sweet, unfer-
mented wine, and that the use of the word in that sense formed part of the mockery
connected with the charge. Ironical insinuations are always the most cutting
accusations, or at least are intended to be so, and constitute a mode of derision
often used by the most refined as well as by the coarsest minds. When, therefore,
certain men wished to exhibit their bitter animosity on the day of Pentecost, they
did so by the jeering exclamation, ' These men are full of gleukos — sweet wine ! ' —
meaning, on the contrary, that they were full, not of gleukos (unfermented wine),
but of some more potent drink.* To have said, 'They are drunk,' would have
been too blunt and direct a charge to suit the mockers ; but to launch it in the
ironical shape of taking too much innocuous juice of the grape, gratified alike their
malignity and self-conceit. Thus a really wise man may be mocked by being
saluted as 'Solomon,' a 'Solon,' a 'second Daniel come to judgment '; and the
word ' saint ' has often been derisively applied to men of whom ' the world was
not worthy.'

The second explanation does not extend the mockery to the phraseology, but
confines it to the charge of intoxication ; and it accounts for the taunt — ' full of
sweet wine ' — by the tendency of gleukos, when carelessly allowed to ferment,
rapidly to acquire an inebriating quality. Enough saccharine matter would remain

• A French writer, for example, accused Proudhomme of being vn bwtur eTeatt, 'a water-drinker,1
really meaning the opposite — namely, ' brandy-tippler.'

314 THE ACTS, II. 13 — 15.

undecomposed to permit an alcoholic gleukos to preserve its characteristic sweet-
ness ; and as this sweetness would tempt to copious consumption, the results may
be forecast.* Gleukos would thus answer to the Hebrew shakar, literally, ' sweet
drink,' but frequently applied to liquor which would intoxicate if freely consumed.
Hence, too, the force of the expression, memestomenoigleukous, ' filled full tfgleukos\
implying, first, that, being luscious, a plentiful use of it was probable ; and that,
being partially fermented, a copious potation would be needed to insure the inebri-
ation of the drinkers.

2. The reply of Peter is a denial of the implicit charge of drunkenness, but the
form of his reply — ' These are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third
hour of the day ' — has been adduced as an admission that the apostles were in the
habit of using some kind of intoxicating liquor. He did not say, * We never take
strong drink; we are abstainers, or Nazarites,' but he fell back, as a sufficient
refutation, upon the period of the day when the false accusation was made. The
objection will not stand, for, —

(1) The apostle used the only argument adapted to the character of the mockers.
Had he said, 'We never drink at all,' the jeering rejoinder might have been,
' Except upon the sly ! Men who get drunk are very apt to profess the strictest
sobriety.' To have appealed to personal character or habit would have been
useless, since both were already called in question; but the apostle meets them on
social grounds ; he retorts by an argumentum ad usum, the force of which they
could not resist. He replies in effect, " On your own assumption that we drink to
excess of gleukos, or something stronger, your inference is unreasonable. It is now
but the hour of nine in the morning, and you know that ' they that are drunken are
drunken in the night'; drunkards begin their debauches at night, and in the
morning are fit for nothing ; or if they should ever assemble to drink so early, they
do not break off at this time of day, but continue till wine inflames them." Such
a reply was just what the circumstances required, and more than the insincere
mockery deserved.

(2) The inference that Peter tacitly admitted that he and his colleagues used
intoxicating drink, but not to an intoxicating excess, is wholly assumptive and
illogical, (a ) He no more denied that himself and friends drank to excess, than that
they drank at all ; he simply showed that if they did, they would not be likely to
have done so at that early hour. Did he, then, tacitly acknowledge that the
disciples were accustomed to evening debauches ? (£) The use of the word gleukos
by the mockers prevented an absolute denial of all use of wine, except by the
Nazarites ; for the most rigid abstainer from intoxicating wine might freely have
used innocent, uninebriating gleukos. (c) The conception that Peter and the early
disciples used intoxicating liquor as a beverage, is in opposition to the ancient
tradition which assigns to Peter and the Lord's brethren a strong sympathy with
the regimen of the Nazarites and Rechabites. Eusebius quotes Hegesippus as
testifying that St James, the Lord's brother, and author of the General Epistle, 'did
not drink wine or sicera ' (oinon kai sikera ouk epien). Traces of this influence are
very perceptible in Peter's First Epistle, i. 13 ; iv. 3, 7 ; v. 8 ; and in the Second
Epistle, i. 6. [See Notes on those texts.]

* In the United States of America there is an every-day illustration of this. The sweet cider is
often k-ept and used by professed Temperance people, who are not aware that through time, or care-
lessness, it runs into a slight fermentation, and becomes slightly intoxicating.

THE ACTS, XIX. 23 — 28. 315

CHAPTER XI. VERSE 28.

And there stood up one of them named Agabus, and signified by
the spirit that there should be great dearth thoughout all the world :
which came to pass in the days of Claudius Caesar.

This Claudius (who succeeded Caligula) reigned as Emperor of Rome A, D.
4* — 54- He was grossly intemperate. Suetonius says of him that he scarcely
ever left the table till he had thoroughly crammed himself and drunk to intoxica-
tion, and would then immediately fall asleep, lying upon his back, with his mouth
open.

CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 29.

We ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or
silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device.

Art' (technee) and 'device* (enthumeesis). This is an apostolic distinction
which the modern advocates of drinking frequently strive to ignore. ' All things
are from God's power, therefore all things are God's creatures ' / It is a kind of
logic that proves far too much, and will lead to very immoral conclusions. Common
sense tells us that idols, instruments of torture, lascivious statues, immoral books,
and alcoholic drinks, cannot exist save by derived and Divine power, but conscience
equally tells us that as their qualities are the result of their /CTOT, and their form the
result of 'man's art and device,' man is responsible for their existence as well as
their use ; and it is virtual blasphemy to attempt to vindicate either their « manufac-
ture ' or their ' use ' by calling them God's 'creatures.' It is not less an abuse of
language and common sense to confound 'matter* with 'form,' 'power' with
'use,' and the products of ' natural growth ' (as sugar) or of ' creation ' (as iron or
gold) with the products of art, resulting from the fermentation of the one, or the
melting and moulding of the other. [See Note on chap. xix. 23 — 28.]

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 18.

And Paul after this tarried there yet a good while, and then took
his leave of the brethren, and sailed thence into Syria, and with him
Priscilla and Aquila ; having shorn his head in Cenchrea : for he had
a vow.

A vow] Euchcen. Some regard this as a Nazarite vow ; others as a civil vow,
not unusual among Jews and Gentiles. As to the question, who had taken this
vow ? some commentators refer to Aquila, owing to the peculiar order of the
words 'Priscilla and Aquila,' but Paul is generally considered to be the person
indicated by the historian Luke.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSES 23—28.

»3 And the same time there arose no small stir about that way,
a4 For a certain man named Demetrius, a silversmith, which made
silver shrines for Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen ;

3l6 THE ACTS, XXI. 23, 24, 26.

25 Whom he called together with the workmen of like occupation, and
said, Sirs, ye know that by this craft we have our wealth. 26 More-
over ye see and hear, that not alone at Ephesus, but almost through-
out all Asia, this Paul hath persuaded and turned away much people,
saying that they be no gods, which are made with hands : 27 So that
not only this our craft is in danger to be set at naught; but also that
the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her
magnificence should be destroyed, whom all Asia and the world
worshippeth. 28 And when they heard these sayings, they were full of
wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians.

Demetrius and his fellow-craftsmen, who made ' silver shrines ' — /. <?. small
models of the celebrated temple of Ephesus, — were zealously stirred up against
Paul and his Christian doctrine when the prospect of diminished gain was present
to their minds. Demetrius admits as much (ver. 25); and though we smile at the
devotional gloss which he bestows (ver. 27) on the worldly motive that sways his
words and actions, we know that his cant is paralleled in our own day by the
mawkish pretences of patriotism, and appeals to Divine bounty and Scripture texts,
advanced by the manufacturers and retailers of intoxicating liquor. Were they
candid, they would say with Demetrius (ver. 25), ' By this craft we have our
wealth,' and leave it there. It may be true that as the Ephesian silversmiths
believed in Diana, so British brewers believe in the virtues of strong drink ; but it
is not true that they would engage in the ministry of Bacchus except for the profits
of the occupation.

CHAPTER XXI. VERSES 23, 24, 26.

23 Do therefore this that we say to thee : We have four men which
have a vow on them ; 24 Them take, and purify thyself with them,
and be at charges with them, that they may shave their heads : and
all may know that those things, whereof they were informed concern-
ing thee, are nothing ; but that thou thyself also walkest orderly, and
keepest the law. ... 26 Then Paul took the men, and the next
day purifying himself with them entered into the temple, to signify the
accomplishment of the days of purification, until that an offering
should be offered for every one of them.

That tiiis euch.ee was a Nazarite ' vow ' is the opinion of most expositors.
Wetstein has quoted passages from the Rabbins to show that it was customary for
the wealthier Jews to assist their more indigent brethren who had taken this vow,
by bearing the expense of the sacrifice with which the vow ended ; and those who
did this became, for the time being, partners in the vow. That Paul should have
acted on the suggestion of the other apostles was in harmony with his great prin-
ciple to make himself the servant of all in order that the Gospel might have free
course and be glorified. To his large, generous heart, how petty would have
seemed the common objections against the practice and promise of total abstinence,
because of their supposed ' binding ' character ! To be bound by a sense of duty is
honorable in all, and in the service of humanity the enlisted soldier is a volunteer
of the noblest order and the highest distinction.

THE ACTS, XXIV. 1 6, 25. 317

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 16.

And herein do I exercise myself, to have always a conscience void
of offence toward God, and toward men.

The word translated * exercise ' is asko, ' to work up* — ' to perform with care,' —
and hence was used to denote the bodily exercise or training of athletes, and, in a
figurative sense, the regulation and direction of the mind. From the noun askeetees
came our 'ascetic,' which, by ignorant writers and careless speakers, is applied
indiscriminately as a term of reproach against persons who lead a wiser and more
careful life than themselves. The early Christian writers applied the term in a
pious sense, to those who gave themselves up to spiritual exercises and engagements.
St Cyril, of Jerusalem, calls the prophetess Anna, named in Luke ii. 36, 37,
' a most religious ascetic ' (askeetria eulabcstatec). Dr Eadie, giving this reference
in his ' Ecclesiastical Cyclopaedia,' adds, " In the primitive ages such as pretended
to this title were men of active life, living in society, and differing from the rest of
mankind only in their exact adherence to the rules of virtue and forbearance
inculcated in the Gospel." A false asceticism undoubtedly sprung up early, which
has been confounded, by shallow readers, with the still earlier practice. The
charge of asceticism (in a bad sense), leveled against the Temperance system, is
wholly unfounded, and simply proves the ignorance or prejudice of the accusers.
The abstainer from intoxicating liquors does not imitate the false ascetic, who cuts
himself off from all physical and social enjoyment ; on the contrary, by his absti-
nence he seeks so to exercise himself, in a virtuous and rational self-control, that
his possession of all truly good things may be enlarged, and his enjoyment of them
intensified and prolonged.*

CHAPTER XXIV. VERSE 25.

And as he reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to
come, Felix trembled, and answered, Go thy way for this time; when
I have a convenient season, I will call for thee.

OF TEMPERANCE] Enkratfias, 'self-restraint.' Wiclif has 'chastite,' which is
followed by the Rheims version, but Tyndale and the other old versions have
'temperaunce.' Enkrateia, from enkrateuomai, 'to have self-command,' denotes
the government of the appetites and passions. Xenophon's definition of the enkratees
is very happy (' Memorabilia,' iv. 8), — Enkratees de hoste meedepote proaireisthai
to heedion anti ton beltionos, ' but he is temperate who on no occasion prefers what
is merely pleasant to what is better.' This definition is expanded by Milton in his
'Comus,' where the lady exclaims, —

4 That which is not good is not delicious
To a well-governed and wise appetite.'

• Dr J. S. Howson, in hi» ' Lectures on the Character of St Paul,' remarks (p. 131):— "The forma-
tion of a Christian character without self-discipline is impossible. No doubt the highest form of virtue
is spontaneous habit. Yet who will dare to say that his good habits are built up ? Happy is he who
has a comfortable assurance that his bad habits are tottering to their fall Never was Christianity, in
any of its phases of which we have yet had experience, really efficient without the presence of an
ascetic element." And in a foot-note he adds, "There seems to me ground lor very serious regret
that the word ' asceticism ' has not retained with us, a* it has in Germany, its old signification of
practical Christian self-discipline. In arguing once on this subject with a clergyman (a thoughtful and
well-educated man), I found that his opinion was largely influenced by his impression that MM* wa»
derived from outturn (vinegar)."

318 THE ACTS, XXIV. 25.

The temperance which rejects what may be pleasant to the appetite, but not
good, brings with it, in due time, an aversion to what was once loved. This
reform of the appetite beginning with its restraint, is the crown of physical temper-
ance ; self-denial is consummated and absorbed in self-gratification. Temperance
and asceticism have a superficial resemblance which has deceived many, but the
difference is radical ; for while asceticism seeks the emaciation of the physical
nature, temperance aims at its most vigorous development, which can only be
realized by the observance of physical laws, including the rejection of all deleterious
articles. The English word * temperance ' is derived directly from the Latin
temperantia, the root of which, as of temp-us, temp-lum, is found in the Greek
temo, temno, tempo, 'to cut off.' Hence temperantia (temperance), as a virtue,
is the cutting off that which ought not to be retained, — self-restraint from, not
in, the use of whatever is pernicious, useless, or dangerous. This etymology
is an adequate vindication of the application of the word ' temperance ' to the
practice of abstinence from all intoxicating liquors, as being a cutting-off of those
articles of diet that are best put away, and as the swiftest, simplest, and only
effectual method of cutting off the intemperance that devastates the land. Prior to
the Temperance reform, owing to the growth of drinking, the term ' intemperance '
had acquired a special reference to the lavish use of intoxicating liquors ; and the
Abstinence principle (first applied to ardent spirits, and afterward extended to all
alcoholic liquors) being the direct opposite and antagonist of this intemperance —
as well as its sole cure and sure preventive, — was justly entitled to the Temperance
name. The Latin moderatio (from moderor, 'to measure,' 'qualify,' 'temper,'
' rule ') has much the same moral signification as temperantia, for true moderation
is such a measurement and tempering of appetite by judgment and conscience, as
involves the non-use of what is useless or hurtful, as well as the avoidance of all
injurious use of whatever is intrinsically good and useful. In the instance of the
text, temperance implied a total abstinence from the evil relationship referred to.

Felix, a man addicted to licentious indulgence, was at this time living in adultery
with Drusilla;* he was also an unjust governor, and careless of all retribution,
except such as might emanate from the reigning Caesar. When he invited Paul to
preach concerning the 'faith in Christ,' that bold and sagacious minister did not
dwell, as Felix had perhaps expected, on questions of theology, but seized the
opportunity to bring Christian truth into direct contact with his heart. The
apostle 'reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come ' ; and with
such power that the conscience of the sensual worldling was touched, and he
trembled as he heard. We learn from this, —

1. That preaching should be practical — and always may be so — even when deal-
ing with doctrinal subjects. From truths granted or assumed, appeals — not
declamatory, but pungent and searching — should be constructed, that the conscience,
enlightened and aroused, may do its salutary work.

2. That temperance, as a part of practical preaching, is not out of place in the
pulpit, and does not render preaching chargeable with a neglect of the gospel of
God's grace. So, also, as abstinence from intoxicating liquor enters into tem-
perance in its broadest sense, its advocacy comes within the legitimate range of
pulpit reasoning and Christian exhortation. Circumstances will indicate when
specific practical duties may be most suitably enforced, — for we should study to
avoid giving offence, even when the whole truth is fearlessly proclaimed. The

* The divorced wife of King Azizus.

Tin; ACTS, xxv. 10. 319

hearer must be convinced that it is not himself, but his sins or errors that are
assailed, else the gateway of all moral influence — candid attention — will be fast
closed. Tact and good temper are never thrown away in conciliating those whose
conversion is desired.

CHAPTER XXV. VERSE 10.

Then said Paul, I stand at Caesar's judgment seat, where I ought
to be judged : to the Jews have I done no wrong, as thou very well
knowest.

The Caesar here referred to, also styled Augustus (chap. xxvi. 21, 25), was the suc-
cessor of Claudius, the infamous Nero, who reigned as Roman emperor A.D. 54 — 69.
In the early part of his career he was accustomed to visit taverns in disguise, and
then ramble about the city as a marauder. Finding this ' sport ' too dangerous, he
abandoned it, but his revels lasted, we are told by Suetonius, from mid-day to mid-
night. Before him Paul appeared, and describes him as ' the lion ' (2 Tim. iv. 1 7) ;
and well did he deserve the name, both on account of his savage qualities, and
because he was accustomed, dressed up as a wild beast, to act in a vile and
abominable manner toward men and women tied to stakes in the arena.

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE ROMANS,

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 12, 13.

12 Let not sin therefore reign in your mortal body, that ye should
obey it in the lusts thereof. 13 Neither yield ye your members as in-
struments of unrighteousness unto sin : but yield yourselves unto God,
as those that are alive from the dead, and your members as instru-
ments of righteousness unto God.

The apostle, without giving any countenance to the dogma that identified moral
evil with matter, earnestly enjoined a control of the bodily members necessary to
hinder them from becoming the ' servants of sin. ' This control, if it is to be
effectual, demands the exclusion of whatever tends to convert those members into
' instruments of unrighteousness ' ; but who can name such an agency at all com-
parable to intoxicating drink? Comparatively small quantities of these liquors
will often exert a distinctly vitiating influence, and their slightest sensible effect is
unfavorable to the perfect control of the animal by the spiritual nature. The
ordinary social use of alcoholics, as all experience attests, stimulates every irregular
and depraved desire. Christian prudence cannot but approve the rejection of such
incentives to vice ; and if any one should say that they have not proved so to him-
self, he is bound to consider whether he may not have suffered some loss without a
perception of it; whether he is justified in risking- the many mischiefs that intoxi-
cating liquors are capable of inflicting ; and whether he acts advisedly and kindly
in sanctioning the use of articles by which so many persons around him are
tempted, betrayed, and undone.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSES i, 3.

i Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is
no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God. . . .
a For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt
thou then not be afraid of the power ? Do that which is good, and
thou shalt have praise of the same.

Most explicitly is it here affirmed that Civil Government is in its essence a Divine
institution, and entrusted by God with powers of prohibition and punishment that

ROMANS, XIII. 10, 13. 321

ought not to lie in abeyance where preventible evil is concerned. True, Nero was
a monster; yet the fact that even he was the legal head of the Roman empire did
not weaken the apostolic argument; and in whatever degree representative
government is superior to arbitrary rule and tyranny, the moral authority of human
law becomes the more binding and exalted. But where any government permits
and sanctions pursuits that dtfitave, impoverish, and destroy its subjects by whole-
sale, it is neglecting its proper function, and frustrating those great ends of social
security and progress for which government, and society itself, exist. In the
patronage extended by the British Government to the traffic in strong drink, this
social anomaly and contradiction is seen upon a scale of colossal magnitude; and
the enormous revenues (upward of twenty millions of pounds annually) raised
from the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors, make it the more needful that
this illegitimate connection should be exposed. The very least that should be done
under such circumstances is, that legally denned districts should be enabled to
determine whether a business so anti-social in its results should be licensed and
tolerated. A local veto-power of this kind would permit districts to protest
against the national policy, while it would protect them against the consequences
of a legislation so caustically described by the poet Cowper : —

" Pass where we may, through city or through town,
Village, or hamlet, of this merry land,
Though lean and beggared, every twentieth pace
Conducts the unguarded nose to such a whin
Of stale debauch, as makes temperance reel."

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 10.

Love worketh no ill to his neighbor : therefore love is the fulfilling
of the law.

Love embodied in the Christian, will effectually prevent him ' working ill to his
neighbor,' whether by carrying on occupations that seduce and deprave, or by
extending his sanction to dangerous and evil customs. On the contrary, ' love is
the fulfilling of the law,' — viz. of that second department of the law which com-
prehends all a man's relations to his fellow-creatures. As love is an ever-active,
ever-operative principle, if it does not work evil, it works out the welfare of all
within its own reach ; and it does this not least by removing from their path all
that can delude and betray. To this love the Temperance cause appeals for aid
in the war against the causes of intemperance, whether residing objectively in the
properties of strong drink, and in its general circulation and public sale, or sub-
jectively in the fallacies and false tastes excited by its consumption as a beverage.
Love cannot behold without grief the ravages of intoxicating liquors ; and when
enlightened as to the true nature of such drinks, it must prompt to efforts for their
exclusion from the home, the place of public concourse, and the Church of Christ.
Love will ever do, as well as desire, what is best for the cure and prevention of
intemperance _

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 13.

Let us walk honestly, as in the day ; not in rioting and drunken-
ness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying.

HONESTLY] Euscheemonus, 'becomingly ' (from eu, ' well,' and scheema, 'deport-
ment' or 'condition ')= in a manner well-suited to moral obligation «nd Christian
character.

322 ROMANS, XIV. 13,

NOT IN RIOTING] Mce komois, 'not in revelries.' Wiclifhas 'not in superflue
feestis.' Tyndale and Cranmer have 'not in eatynge;' the Geneva V., 'not in
glotonie ' ; the Rheims V., 'not in banketings.' Comus, the god of revelry, is
represented as a young man wearing a garland, and with a torch falling from his
hand, or burning his side, as he lies in a drunken sleep. The komos was either a
festival in his honor, or a private feast, when the revellers were accustomed to
sally out after supper, attired as bacchanals, and behaving themselves as such.

AND DRUNKENNESS] Kai methais, 'and in intemperances' — all intemperate
indulgences of the appetite, whether in food or drink, whether attended by
intoxication or not. A great error is committed by those who regard 'drunken-
ness,' in the scriptural sense, as synonymous with mad or helpless intoxication.
Philosophy likewise teaches that the sin of drinking is not in the mere physical
degree of disturbance, but in the motive — in the relation of the mind of the
drinker to the law of God. Another apostle taught that he who breaks one law
breaks vall, so far as God is concerned; and it is a mere commonplace that the
law of honesty is equally violated in stealing a penny as in stealing a pound.
Drinking for pleasure, in defiance of need and fitness, is the essence of the vice of
drunkenness *

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 13.

Let us not therefore judge one another any more : but judge this
rather, that no man put a stumbling-block or an occasion to fall in his
brother's way.

A STUMBLING-BLOCK] Proskomma, ' a stumbling ' = a cause of stumbling.
Codex B omits this word, and Codex C, instead of proskomma, reads proskosma.
Wiclifhas 'hirtynge.'

OR AN OCCASION TO FALL] Ee skandalon, ' or snare ' [see Note on Matt. v.
30], The meaning of the passage is, that Christians are not hastily to pass judg-
ments upon one another, and are to be exceedingly careful not to do aught that
may cause a brother to fall or be ensnared. Whether this command has any appli-
cation to the drinking customs of our country must depend upon the reply to the
question, whether these customs do prove a stumbling-block and snare to Christian
brethren. If they do — and he must be strangely ignorant who should deny it, —
any sanction of the customs musj: be at variance with the apostolic precept. Nor
is it any excuse to say, ' Such customs are not causes of evil to me,' for it is not for
his own sake, but for his brother's, that the Christian is here enjoined to be dis-
connected from stumbling-blocks and snares. The danger to others is to be as
carefully avoided by him as if it were danger to himself. In this, as in all respects,
he is to do to others as he would wish them to do to him, were their circumstances
mutually reversed. If he is to be willing to 'lay down his life for the brethren,'
the least he can do for them is not to bring them, by act of his, into temptation
and transgression ; yet, to carry out this negative principle of Christian fraternity,
there must be thoughtfulness and intelligence ; for evil, wrought by ignorance and
inconsideration, is not wrought without sin to the unintentional doer. If he who
will not ' know to do good ' is not innocent, still less is he blameless who does evil
because he will not « learn to do well.'

•Aristotle's Ethics. "The intemperate man desires all things pleasant, and is led by his inert
desire to choose these things."

ROMANS, XIV. 14 — 17. 323

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 14.

I know, and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing
unclean of itself: but to him that esteemeth any thing to be unclean,
to him // is unclean.

The apostle is not discussing the question whether some things are unfit for food.
He is proceeding on the supposition that this fitness exists, and then affirms that
there is nothing koinon, 'unclean,' of itself: in other words, that ceremonial un-
cleanness, however defined, is not identical with moral uncleanness ; consequently,
that no moral guilt is contracted by the use of food. Yet he allows that if even
food is regarded as unclean by any one, it becomes to him unclean in such a sense
that he would contract guilt by using it, seeing that he would be doing what he
believed was an andean action.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 15.

But if thy brother be grieved with thy meat, now
charitably. Destroy not him with thy meat, for whom

Wfc

The argument of the apostle may be thus paraphrased : — " No food (properly
so called) is unclean, but if on account of food (broma} — that is, any particular
kind or preparation of food (in the A. V. ' thy ' is aptly supplied)— thy brother is
grieved — feels distressed or aggrieved by it as unclean, — now walkest thou not
charitably, if thou puttest it in his way and temptest him to eat it. Do not with
thy food destroy him for whom Christ died. If he transgresses his conscience, and
so falls away through your example, you will be chargeable with his loss, though
you never intended it." How affecting is the apostle's appeal! — "Let not your
meat be his destruction to whom the Lord has given His body as spiritual meat
and His blood as spiritual drink. If Christ died for him, you ought to abstain —
in his presence at least — from the meat which to him is unclean."

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 16, 17.

i6Let not then your good be evil spoken of: 17 For the kingdom of
God is not meat and drink ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in
the Holy Ghost.

You, continues the apostle, may partake of such food with a good conscience,
but if your act is liable to be evil spoken of (blaspheemeisthb, 'blasphemed'), and is
an act not positively required by Christian duty, leave it undone. Your personal
benefit is small, the injury to the cause of Christ may be great. "The kingdom of
God is not meat and drink (In dsis kai posts) ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy
in the Holy Ghost." Neither directly nor indirectly ought 'what shall we eat? '
to be balanced in the scale with what concerns the advancement of the Divine
kingdom upon earth.

324 ROMANS, XIV. 1 8 — 21.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 18 — 20.

18 For he that in these things serveth Christ is acceptable to God,
and approved of men. 19 Let us therefore follow after the things
which make for peace, and things wherewith one may edify another.
«oFor meat destroy not the work of God. All things indeed are
pure ; but it is evil for that man who eateth with offence.

Instead of en toutois, 'in these things,' all the chief MSS. read en touto, 'in
this.' He who in this manner se'rves Christ — by making questions of food sub-
ordinate to spiritual things — is acceptable (etiarestos) — well-pleasing to God, and
' approved ' of men ' (dokimos tois anthrupois), — approves himself to men as being
what he professes, /. e. spiritually and not carnally minded. Let us then follow
(diokomen) — pursue — « the things of peace,' the things that promote brotherly peace,
'and the things of edification for one another' — things by which Christians build
one another up in the strength and completeness of the Christian life. The idea
of a ' building ' suggests the reiterated appeal, — do not on any account destroy
(katahio, dissolve, or cast down) the work of God — the living workmanship of
God's Spirit — in the person of a Christian brother. The apostle then returns to
the thought expressed in verse 14, asserting the undeniable truth, that, though a
thing is pure (katharon) in itself, it becomes evil (kakon) to the conscience of the
man who regards it as such, and yet joins himself to it ; so that good food is con-
verted into a stumbling (proskomma) — a cause of sin — to him who eats it while he
considers it unclean.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 21.

// is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor any thing
whereby thy brother stumbleth, or is offended, or is made weak.

The apostle had been alluding to the case of a Christian who considered
meat offered to idols as having become polluted ; and he had been showing that
by inadvertently tempting him to eat such food, his fellow-Christians were eating
uncharitably, and imperilling his salvation. He now proceeds to state the general
principle underlying this case, and all others of the same class. It is good (kalori)
— morally beautiful or excellent, calculated to call forth the admiration of all
good beings — not to eat flesh (krea\ nor to drink wine (oinon), nor "to do any
thing by means of which thy brother stumbles, or offends, or is made weak " ;
that is, by which his conscience is impaired, as would be the case if its dictates
were disobeyed.

No text has been more frequently and successfully quoted than this, on behalf
of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors; yet many objections to such an
application of it have been taken from opposite quarters.

Opponents have objected (i) that the apostle's reference was to a particular
case, and not to the question of abstaining from flesh or wine, as such, under all
circumstances. True, but the principle is broad enough to include all circum-
stances and occasions, where the main point is involved — the stumbling and sin of
a brother. The question is not what particular case St Paul had in his eye, but
whether the principle he enunciates is applicable to the use of intoxicating liquors
as a beverage. If such use by Christians be a cause of transgression, the evident
and essential element of moral comparison is established.

ROMANS, XIV. 21. 325

But it is objected (2) that the apostle limits his reference to the case where a
person offends his own conscience, and so contracts guilt by doing what he believes
to be wrong; whereas those who are led into evil by strong drink are persons
generally who use it without moral hesitation or constraint. This plea, if granted,
does not cover the numerous cases (a) where abstainers are induced to take strong
drink, contrary to their sense of right, by the example (and even persuasion)
of others ; and (A) where many, who are doubtful whether it is right to use such
liquors, are moved to take them in compliance with surrounding usage, sustained
by men with a reputation for religion. Customs are almost omnipotent in their
influence over innumerable minds, and not least over those whose sensitive systems
are most endangered by strong drink, who, in many cases, would gladly abstain,
if not discouraged by the opposite conduct of persons to whom they look up. But
the plea will not hold at all in the sense of the objector, for the argument of the
apostle is not based on the manner of the offence, but on its existence; and his
conclusion is not limited to the avoidance of sin in one particular way, but extends
to its avoidance altogether. The great end is not realized save by abstinence from
every thing that causes another to stumble, to do evil, and to become weak.
Reduced to its elementary form, the principle is nothing short of fids, — Abstain
front what will produce or provoke sin in others.

It is objected (3) that the apostle restricts his reference to Christian brethren,
and does not affirm the duty of abstaining from what is a cause of sin to men in
general. P^ven with this restriction, the duty of general Christian abstinence, for
the sake of fellow-Christians who are in danger of being seduced from their
integrity by strong drink, is clearly deducible from this passage; but who can
doubt that the spirit of the passage, the essence of the principle, is as applicable to
Christian behavior in respect to men in general as it is to believers in particular ?
The special case before him necessarily restricted the apostle's application of the
principle to Christians who had a conscience against eating food offered to idols ;
but who that knows how he labored ' to become all things to all men, that he
might save some,' can doubt that he would have applied the same principle to the
preservation of all men from vice and misery, especially from such diffusive and
ever-deepening vice and misery as spring from indulgence in alcoholic liquors?
Indeed, this more extensive application is made by the apostle himself in I Cor.
x. 32. See Note.

It is proper to notice an objection entertained by some Temperance advocates
to the common use of this passage as an argument for abstinence. "St Paul,"
they say, " is confessedly pleading with the Christians of Rome, that they should
resign what was good in itself for the sake of the conscientious, though unfounded,
scruples of some of their own body; and to make a corresponding appeal to
British Christians for abstinence from intoxicating liquors is to admit, what is con-
trary to fact, that these drinks are, like those meats, good in themselves, and that
abstinence is expedient only on account of the prejudices of abstainers, or because
of the weakness of those who cannot use them without going to excess. Neither
the advocacy nor practice of abstinence that rests on such a shifting basis of
expediency can itself be firm ; while positive error is encouraged by allowing men
to imagine that they are sacrificing a valuable article of diet when they are induced,
often reluctantly, to abstain out of regard to the welfare of others." There is
sufficient plausibility in this statement to make it desirable that the Pauline argu-
ment from Christian benevolence should never be employed, except' with a distinct
intimation that it is advanced without prejudice to the solid argument for absti-
nence, grounded on science and experience. Still, within its own limits, the

326 ROMANS, XIV. 22, 23.

Pauline plea seems quite legitimate, and very forcible. It is so in relation to the
Christian objector to total abstinence, who denies the validity of other arguments
in its favor, since it meets him on grounds from which he cannot retreat. It
virtually says to him, ".Well, if you decline to examine the evidence of physiology,
if you refuse to admit all the other arguments on behalf of abstinence, you must
admit that the temporal and spiritual benefit of others is good and sufficient reason
why articles of even real utility should be cheerfully resigned ; for otherwise the
example of the Saviour is a visionary ideal, and all talk of self-denial nothing better
than hypocritical 'profession,' or self-deception." In dealing with Christian oppo-
nents, then, the Pauline principle is a valuable argumentum ad hominem ; and
where the heart appealed to is imbued with a genuine Christian benevolence, such
an appeal, if intelligently apprehended, can hardly fail to be successful.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 22, 23.

22 Hast thou faith ? have it to thyself before God. Happy is he
that condemneth not himself in that thing which he alloweth. 23 And
he that doubteth is damned if he eat, because he eateth not of faith :
for whatsoever is not of faith is sin.

The apostle is here addressing himself to one who asserts that he has ' faith ' in
the lawfulness of eating what has been or may have been associated with idolatrous
rites ; and he advises, ' Have this faith to thyself before God, ' for he is happy who
does not condemn himself — /. e. is not condemned by his conscience — in the thing
that he allows ; but, on the contrary, he who ' doubts ' — he who exercises casuistry
(ho diakrinomenos), fearing evil in what he eats — is 'damned' — /. e. is condemned*
(katakekritai) — in eating, because he has no ' faith ' — or conviction — that what he
is doing is right ; 'for whatsoever is not of faith is sin,' — sin to the doer, because it
is not done with a good conscience. The apostle does not say that whatever con-
science approves is right (for conscience may be perverted or misinformed), but
that what conscience does not approve cannot be right to the doer. False notions
of ' Christian liberty ' have induced a wide-spread, growing, and most perni-
cious fallacy on this subject.

In all ages the question What is truth ? seems to have received an unhappy
treatment. The claims of Truth are subordinated to the claims of the individual
conscience, with all its whims, defects, and narrowness ! People refer constantly
to their 'opinions,' as if they did not rest under the ultimate obligation of refer-
ring their opinions to the facts and principles which are the only possible
evidence of their being true. Even philosophers like Grote go so far as to make
Truth into the varying perception of the percipient persons who ' trow ' it, as
if there were one truth for me and another for my neighbor ! The Universe,
however, with its stern' laws, vindicates the objective truth by punishing every
individual transgressor. // never accommodates itself to the ' opinions ' of man-
kind. Certainly, as St Paul argues, a man must follow his own sense of right, but
no man has more enforced the solemn obligation of seeking the true Light, lest the
fancy of the Individual should be the ignis fatuus of self-deception and of willing
defect. The bearing of this principle upon the use of intoxicating liquors is

* This word will show the plain reader how very different, because wider, is the ancient use of
it compared with the modern. It is like the word ' drunken ' in this respect.

ROMANS, XV. I — 3. 327

manifest ; for the tight now shed on the nature and effects of such beverages must
increase the number of persons who cannot use them without misgiving; and all
such persons should be impressed with the declaration that they cannot be other
than ' brought into judgment ' if, while in this state of moral indecision, they par-
take of inebriating drinks.*

CHAPTER XV. VERSES 1—3.

i We then that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak,
and not to please ourselves. 2 Let every one of us please his neigh-
bor for his good :o edification. 3 For even Christ pleased not
himself; but, as it is written, The reproaches of them that reproached
thee fell on me.

Most beautiful and Christ-like is the exhortation of ver. i. Those who cannot
partake of any particular kind of food with a good conscience are to abstain, and
those who might conscientiously partake are not to do so if their example will be a
snare to others, for the strong (dunatoi, ' the able ') ought to bear the infirmities
(fa asthencemata, ' the weaknesses ') of the weak (ton adunatuny * of the unable '),
and not to please themselves. How emphatically does this principle condemn
those who boast that they take intoxicating drink ' because they like it ' ! — ' because
they have a right to do what they please ' ! The true Christian's highest pleasure
consists in what is most acceptable to Christ and most useful to man ; so ' let
every one of us please his neighbor for his good (eis to agathon, for the neighbor's
benefit) to edification ' — to the building up of the Christian character and of the
Christian brotherhood as a Living Temple, all glorious with the beauty of holiness
and lovingkindness. ' For even Christ pleased not Himself.' As a man He had
appetencies which might have been innocently gratified, considered in themselves,
but they were not indulged — they were inflexibly and cheerfully restrained, — in
order that the work of human redemption might be triumphantly carried out.
How singular and suspicious, that while every day professed Christians are earnestly
pleading the example of our Lord for drinking what they like, we never hear of
their insisting upon His example of perfect self-denial ! Yet the Lord Jesus is the
sublimest and most perfect example of self-denial the world has seen ; He pleased
not Himself sensuously, because He pleased His Father and Himself spiritually;
and in exact proportion as His professed followers are like Him, they will not
consult with flesh or fashion, with palate or custom, as to what should be done or
left undone. If this standard were honestly applied to the question of using
intoxicating liquors, and if no more strong drink were to be henceforward consumed
merely to please the /<n/*r-self, who can doubt that the habitual use of it would
rapidly disappear from the Christian world ?

* ' What is a person to do if he is in as much doubt whether it is lawful to abstain as he is
whether it is lawful to drink ?' Two answers mav be Riven,— (i) that a question as to the /
rust of abstinence can hardly arise, except on the score of health, and then the best information
must be sought; and (2) that in a case of balanced doubts, the deciding motive may always b«
found by estimating the kind of influence most likely to be exerted, by either course, upon domestic,
jocial, and religious life.

THE FIRST EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS.

CHAPTER V. VERSES 6—8.

e Your glorying is not good. Know ye not that a little leaven
leaven eth the whole lump ? 7 Purge out therefore the old leaven,
that ye may be a new lump, as ye are unleavened. For even Christ
our passover is sacrificed for us : s Therefore let us keep the feast,
not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wicked-
ness : but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.

V. 6. A LITTLE LEAVEN] Mikra zumee. Zumee, 'ferment,' answers to the
Hebrew seor. Wiclif has ' witen ye not that a littl sourdouy apeirith al the goblet ? '
(corrupteth all the lump).

V. 7. As YE ARE UNLEAVENED] Kathvs este azumoi, 'as ye are unfermented '=
uncorrupted. Tyndale's version gives 'swete breed'; so Cranmer's and the
Geneva versions.

FOR EVEN CHRIST OUR PASSOVER is SACRIFICED FOR us] The words huper
heemon, 'for us,' are absent from all the ancient MSS.

V. 8. BUT WITH THE UNLEAVENED BREAD OF SINCERITY AND TRUTH] All ' en

azumois eilikrineias kai aleetheias, ' but with the unfermented (things) of sincerity
and truth.'

This passage may be appropriately compared with Luke xiii. 21, where the
penetrative and diffusive influence of leaven is used as an emblem of heavenly truth
in its rapidity of operation ; — here, ver. 6, the same qualities are ascribed to
spiritual error. But ver. 7, — 'Purge out therefore the old leaven,' etc. — answers
to the Saviour's warnings, and is founded on the well-known nature of ferment as
the product and producer of corruption. [See Notes on Matt. xvi. 6, 12, and
Luke xii. I.] Contact with evil is to be avoided, 'for a little leaven leavens the
whole lump,' if allowed to work unchecked ; — probably a proverbial saying, like to
the other, — ' Evil communications corrupt good manners.' But as this evil had
begun to work in the Corinthian Christians, they were to 'purge it out,' that they
might resemble an unleavened lump. Christ our passover (pascha = paschal-lamb)
is sacrificed; and as the ancient sacrifice was to be eaten with unfermented cakes
and bitter herbs, so must the great spiritual feast, in which the Lamb of God is set
forth as the food of the soul, be observed, not with malice and wickedness — the
leaven of the heart, — but with simplicity and truthfulness, the unperverted elements
of a genuine Christian disposition.

I CORINTHIANS, VI. 9— II. 329

CHAPTER V. VERSE n.

But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man
that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or
a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner ; with such an one no not
to eat.

OR A DRUNKARD] Ee methusos, 'or one who fills himself with drink' «= a hard
drinker = a drunkard, but not necessarily a drunkard of the English type. The
habitual bibber was not to be regarded as a 'brother,' though he might wish to
pass as such ; nor was he to be associated with in the festivities of the church.
Such persons were sure to be, as Jude afterwards describes, ' spots in their feasts
of charity,' and ought to be shunned, lest the contagion of their example should
breed a moral pest.

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 9 — n.

9 Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom
of God ? Be not deceived : neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor
adulterers, nor effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind,
10 Nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extor-
tioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God. » And such were some
of you: but ye are washed, but ye are sanctified, but ye are justified
in the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the Spirit of our God.

V. 10. NOR DRUNKARDS] Outc mtthusot, 'nor inordinate drinkers.' An
excessive addiction to liquors— even such as would not readily, or at all, intoxicate
—was a vice of the apostolic age, and one that abounded in Corinth, the most
profligate city of Greece.

In dissolute Corinth the gospel had become the power of God to the salvation
of some who had been steeped in every form of sensuality and impurity. This
text has been adduced to show that the gospel, without the intervention of Tem-
perance societies, is equal to the reclamation of the intemperate. But it is never
wise to set historical allusions against present and patent facts ; and no fact is
more completely attested than this, — that for every drunkard reclaimed by the
ordinary religious ministrations, direct Temperance efforts have reclaimed hundreds.
Not the gospel, however, but the routine of religious instruction has been at fault,
and mainly, because (i) the religious teachers have not gone to seek out the intem-
perate who would not come to receive instruction ; and because (2) they have not
pressed upon the intemperate the gospel principle of separation from the causes of
their besetment. Corinthian drunkards, coming under the influence of the Gospel,
would be necessarily drawn away from their former companions and associations,
and be introduced into a new society, of which the watchword was, ' Let us go on
unto perfection.' \Vhere intemperance had been the result of an appetite for
alcohol, the Corinthian convert would not be safe unless he put ' the mocker ' away
from him altogether. The principle of abstinence from intoxicants, by whomsoever
applied, is one recognized by the Gospel as the sine qua non of safety for the
drunkard ; and without it there can be no reasonable hope that the appetite for
strong drink will be overcome, or the divine life effectually nourished and matured
in the once intemperate man.
42

330 I CORINTHIANS, VI. 12.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 12.

All things are lawful unto me, but all things are not expedient : all
things are lawful for me, but I will not be brought under the power
of any.

ALL THINGS ARE LAWFUL UNTO ME] Panta moi exestin, 'all (things) to me
are possible ' ; i. e. 'I am able to do (the kind of actions referred to) without scruple
as to their moral propriety.' These 'all things ' related to the use of meats which
some persons regarded as being ceremonially unclean. A provincial divine has
wrested this text from its moral association in order to prove the logical universal,
that ' all physical things are lawful, and to be received with thanksgiving ' ; and to
establish the special inference, ' Therefore alcohol is lawful, and must not be
denounced as a bad article ' ! A moment's reflection would have exhibited the
absurdity of construing in a logical and absolute sense the simple and natural words
of Paul, which have not the slightest allusion to the physiological qualities of food
or drink. No one can believe that St Paul was discussing a question of regimen
or health, and asserting his physical invulnerability to the action of poisons (which
are included in 'all things '); * or, supposing him to have possessed a miraculous
exemption from the operation of divinely appointed physical laws, that his pro-
fessed disciples have inherited the privilege ! St Paul was arguing the moral
quality of certain actions, and the duty of a given course of life, as his next words
demonstrate; and to quote 'all (actions) are lawful for me,' in a universal sense,
is not only to ' wrest the Scripture to our own hurt,' but to make the apostle con-
tradict and abolish his own argument for the greater suitability and excellence of the
conduct which he is explicitly enforcing upon the Corinthian church, and therefore
implicitly upon the entire Christian world.

BUT ALL THINGS ARE NOT EXPEDIENT] AlV ou panta sumpherci, 'but all
things do not hold (or fit) together,' = do not edify or adapt themselves to profit —
i. e. all things are not suitable.

BUT I WILL NOT BE BROUGHT UNDER THE POWER OF ANY] A //' Olik fgO
exousiastheesomai hupo tinos, ' but I will not allow myself to be mastered by any
thing,' — i. e. I will not suffer any thing, however enticing, to induce me to act
contrary to my conviction of what is best, or contrary to the interests committed to
my trust.

In the Notes on the Greek Testament, by the Rev. S. T. Bloomfield, D. D., of
Sidney College, Cambridge (Fifth Ed. 1843), we find the following: —

"Panta moi exestin, etc.] The best Commentators are agreed that these
words are supposed (by an ellipsis) to be the words of an Objector, and such as
were probably often used by those who wished to indulge in sensuality, and eating
meats offered to idols, and who sought to justify it under the pretense of Christian,
liberty. By ' all things ' are meant all things which the Apostle has here in view ;
i. e. all kinds of food. To this the answer is, aW ou panta sumpherei — where the
alia has both a concessory and an exceptive force ; q. d. = ' True, all things are given
to us to enjoy; but all meats are not expedient to be eaten, because they may throw
a stumbling-block in the way of others.' The Apostle then repeats the objection,
in order to answer it more effectually. The Commentators suppose & paronomasia
with exesti (possible) ; q. d. = ' I have power over all meats, but none of them
shall have power over me ' — i. e. so as to make me a slave to my appetites.

* See Note on chap. ix. 25, for the Vulgate use of omnibus, 'all things.' If the runners in the
Grecian games abstained from 'a// things' absolutely, then starvation was a preparation for
strength 1

I CORINTHIANS, VI. 19, 2O. 331

"V. 13. Meats for the belly.~\ Esti, ;'. e. aneekei, 'are meant for.' Here the
foregoing sentiment is further illustrated, and an objection anticipated ; q. d. * All
aliments are meant for the sustenance of the body, and the body is fitted to the recep-
tion and digestion of them.' Or rather it may be regarded, with some, as another
argument of the opponent, containing an excuse for an indulgence in sensuality.
. . . The words following, to de soma, etc. [now the body is not for fornica-
tion.] There was no direct answer (in the case of the bromata, meats); bur, in
fact, the argument needed none, as it would be like arguing from the use to the
abuse of any thing. The Apostle, therefore, saves this, and replies to the apology
in \h& peculiar case for which it was, no doubt, often pleaded — namely, fornication. "

In his supplemental volume Dr Bloomfield adds :

"The first words (all '*re lawful to me) are those of an Excitser ; the next (but
all are not fitting) are the Apostle's in reply. The view taken by Billroth of the
purpose of the Apostle in these words is, I apprehend, quite correct, and it is sup-
ported by the judgment of Calvin, who ably treats on the subject. There is no
doubt that, of the extenuators of luxury and sensuality here alluded to, some went
even to the extent of extenuating simple fornication, which was by the heathens
regarded as, under certain restrictions [in moderation], lawful as well as natural.
Accordingly, these Corinthian pleaders for vice, maintained that it was to be
reckoned among things indifferent; thus making Christian liberty a cloak, or
occasion, for licentiousness."

It is singular that such a text should ever be selected for preaching the lawful-
ness of gratification and pleasure to the world. Yet we have before us a pro-drink
sermon preached on this passage — the argument of which is based solely upon
that part of the text which contains the motto of the Sensualist to be answered,
while it ignores entirely the Apostolic reply, which teaches the nnsuitableness and
rinfulntss of the course attempted to be justified, and its utter antagonism to the
ends of the Christian Life.

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 19, 20.

19 What ? know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy
Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your
own ? 70 For ye are bought with a price : therefore glorify God in
your body, and in your spirit, which are God's.

The solemn and glorious fact here declared should cause every Christian to exer-
cise the utmost care in rejecting whatever may, directly or indirectly, pollute the
•temple of the Holy Spirit' ; for even the body, by its union with the soul, is con-
sidered a fit dwelling-place of God. Nor is such a fact altogether beyond our
comprehension, since the reciprocal relation of body and mind is too constant and
intimate not to impress us with the importance of guarding the purity of the latter,
by excluding from its material tenement whatever may becloud or deprave it.
Whatever stimulates animal appetite, and abates the vigor of the intellectual and
moral nature, is unsuitable for the Christian's use, because not fitting to his high
calling and his consecration as 'a temple of the Holy Ghost.' How can he wisely,
or even complacently, consume the wine and strong drink which the Aaronic priests
were forbidden to use, and introduce into the temple of the Holy Spirit that which
the Spirit himself has branded as a ' mocker ' and ' seducer ' ? However limited in
quantity, the use can serve no sanctifying purpose, and may gradually create for
alcoholic liquors (as it has done in innumerable instances) a taste morbid in its
physical character, and pestiferous to every attribute of the rational and spiritual
being.

332 I CORINTHIANS.

CHAPTER VIII. VERSES 4—13.

4 As concerning therefore the eating of those things that are
offered in sacrifice unto idols, we know that an idol is nothing in the
world, and that there is none other God but one. 5 For though there
be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth, (as there be
gods many, and lords many,) 6 But to us there is but one God, the
Father, of whom are all things, and we in him ; and one Lord Jesus
Christ, by whom arz all things, and we by him. 7 Howbeit there is
not in every man that knowledge : for some with conscience of the
idol unto this hour eat // as a thing offered unto an idol; and their
conscience being weak is defiled, s But meat commendeth us not to
God: for neither, if we eat, are we the better; neither, if we eat not,
are we the worse. 9 But take heed lest by any means this liberty of
yours become a stumbling-block to them that are weak. 10 For if any
man see thee which hast knowledge sit at meat in the idol's temple,
shall not the conscience of him which is weak be emboldened to eat
those things which are offered to idols; » And through thy knowl-
edge shall the weak brother perish, for whom Christ died ? 12 But
when ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak conscience,
ye sin against Christ. 13 Wherefore, if meat make my brother to
offend, I will eat no flesh while the world standeth, lest I make my
brother to offend.

In these paragraphs the apostle deals with a question on which he had evidently
been consulted. The question consisted of two parts, — Was it right to eat of food
that had been devoted to idols ? Was it right to set an example of eating it to
those who believed that to eat was to contract defilement ? The first part of the
question the apostle answers in the affirmative, the second in the negative. The
use of the terms ' lawful ' and ' expedient ' by the English translators has very
much confused St Paul's reasoning to the common mind, and conveyed a wholly
fallacious notion of lawfulness as distinct from expediency, — the utter absurdity
that what is not expedient to be done may still be lawfully done ! Such a con-
struction runs counter to the apostle's clear intention to distinguish between certain
acts so far as they regard the doer, and so far as they regard others. He asserts,
what is quite plain, that there are many acts which, so far as they relate to the
doer, are not intrinsically wrong or in any way injurious, and therefore are per-
missible ; but which may exert an injurious influence upon others, and therefore are
not permissible under the Christian law of love. To infer that these actions are
'lawful,' though 'inexpedient,' nullifies all that the apostle teaches; for if 'inex-
pedient,' i. e. unprofitable and unsuitable in a Christian sense, they cease to be
lawful to Christian men. /n-espective of circumstances they would be innocent,
but circumstantially they are attended with harm, and therefore must not be done.
The words used by the apostle to express this difference are exesti, ' what is per-
missible ' in a j^-regarding sense ; on siimpherei, ' what is not advantageous '
in respect to others. His conclusion on the particular question submitted to him
was, that a Christian might eat food offered to idols without committing sin in the
simple act ; but that it was not to be eaten when calculated to lead fellow-Christians
to violate their consciences by eating it. This would be to convert personal
liberty into a stumbling-block to the weak ones (asthenousin} — /. e. those who had
not strength of mind to discern that an idol was nothing. But to cast such a

I CORINTHIANS, IX. 7, IQ, 25. 333

Stumbling-block in a brother's way was to sin against him, and hence to sin against
Christ !— so completely was the apostle incapable of recognising the lawfulness of
acts unprofitable and injurious to his brethren in the Lord. His conclusion (ver. 13)
is the inevitable issue of all that he has affirmed : — " Wherefore, if meat (broma,
food) make my brother to offend (skandalizfi, ensnares him), I will eat no flesh
(krea) while the world standeth (fis ton awna, during the age, the whole Christian
dispensation), lest I make my brother to offend (hina mee ton adelphon nwu skan-
daliso, so that I should not cause my brother to be ensnared)." [For the apostolic
argument, in its application to the Temperance reform, see Notes on chap. x.
22 — 30; Rom. xiv. 13 — 23; xv. 1—3.]

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 7.

Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges ? who planteth a
vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who feedeth a flock,
and eateth not of the milk of the flock ?

A VINEYARD] Ampeldna, 'a vineyard.' The inquiry of the apostle is a partial
quotation from Deut. xx. 6. As to ' eating of the fruit ' of the vineyard, see Note
on 2 Kings xviii. 31.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 19.

For though I be free from all men, yet have I made myself servant
unto all, that I might gain the more.

If the apostle could honestly say this of himself, how confidently may we suppose
that he would, were he living among us, eagerly avail himself of the Temperance
reform as a means of ' gaining ' the multitudes of our people who are the slaves
of appetite, and who need to be delivered from that bondage before they can
pass onward to the land of everlasting promise ! He who daily made himself the
servant — rather, 'slave' — of all ('I have enslaved myself to all,' pasin emauton
edoulosa), that he might win over some to the benign service of his Master, would
not have thought it a hard trial of appetite or patience to renounce the fiery and
heady beverages of Britain, that the drink-possessed ones, restored to their right
mind, might sit in grateful devotion at the Saviour's feet.

CHAPTER IX. VERSE 25.

And every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all
things. Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown ; but we an
incorruptible.

Wiclif has ' absteyneth hym fro alle thingis,' in which he is followed by Tyndale,
Cranmer, and the Geneva version. The Rheims V. has ' refraineth himself from
all things.' The Vulgate has omnis autem qtti in agora cotttfndit, ab omnibus sf
abstinet, ' but every one who strives in the agora holds himself back from all things '
— i. e. all things hurtful.

AND EVERY MAN THAT STRIVETH FOR THE MASTERY] Pas de ho a£<mizomenos,
•and every one who is a combatant,' the allusion being to the competitors in the
Isthmian games celebrated at Corinth.

334 I CORINTHIANS, IX. 25.

Is TEMPERATE IN ALL THINGS] Panta etikrateuetai, ' in all things (or wholly)
controls himself.' Dr Whitby, in his Notes, renders this clause, * observing a
strict abstinence.' 'Extreme temperance, and even abstinence, was required,'
says Dr Bloomfield. Dr A. Clarke, "This was a regimen for both quantity and
quality, and they carefully abstained from all things that might render them less
able for the combat; whence the apostle says they were ' temperate in all things.' "
The commentators give abundant illustrative references to various ancient authors,
but two must here suffice. Epictetus (A. D. 100), in his Encheiridion, chap. 35,
remarks, "Do you wish to gain a prize in the Olympic games? Consider the
requisite preparations and the consequences. You must observe a strict regimen,
must live on food which you dislike ; you must abstain from all delicacies ; must
exercise yourself at the necessary and prescribed times both in heat and in cold ;
you must not drink what is cold, nor wine as was your custom (tnee oinon hoi
ftuchen} ; in a word you must put yourself under the directions of a pugilist as
you would under those of a physician, and afterward enter the lists." Horace,
in his Ars Poetic a, has the well-known lines, —

" Qui studet optatant cursu contingere ntetatn,
Multa. tulit fecitqite piter; sudavit et alsit ',
Abstinuit Venere et Baccho."

Translated by Dr Francis as follows :

" The youth who hopes the Olympic prize to gain,
All arts must try, and every toil sustain ;
The extremes of heat and cold must often prove,
And shun the weakening joys of ivine and love."

Horace's terse expression is, 'He abstains from Venus and Bacchus,' using the
names of the heathen deities to personify the indulgences they were supposed to
patronize. The training practised by modern runners, pugilists, etc., conforms in
many points to the ancient customs, not least in the disuse or extremely sparing
use of the weakest fermented liquors. The training school is free from the popular
fallacy which confounds strong liquor with strengthening drink.*

1. It is singular that precisely the verse in the Bible which lends whatever sanc-
tion it involves to abstinence from intoxicating liquors, is the one that ignorant
readers most commonly allege in favor of using them ; and this abuse of Scripture
is usually associated with the further error of turning a simple reference to a well-
known fact into an apostolic command, as if the passage had read, ' Ye shall
be temperate in all things ' ! It is to be regretted that the A. V. should, in this
instance, have needlessly departed from the more explicit rendering of all the older
versions, thereby sanctioning a popular fallacy pregnant with evil to the world, and
fostering the pleasing delusion that the use of intoxicating liquor is indispensable to
the exercise of the virtue of temperance !

2. The apostle has often been described as a strong opponent of the asceticism
taught in Colosse and other parts of Asia Minor (Col. ii. 20 — 23) ; and if we accept
this view, so much the more impressive becomes the comparison here instituted
between the candidate in the Grecian games and the Christian convert. St Paul
affirms that the physical athletes ' do it ' — /. e. are ' temperate in all things ' — in
order ' to obtain a corruptible crown ' — a perishing wreath of leaves ; but that

* " The best trainers entirely prohibit the use of beer, wine, and spirits during the training neces-
sary for the prize-fighter." — Buckmaster's ' Elements of Physiology.' p. 161 (London, 1866).

I CORINTHIANS, X. 4, 7, 12 — 14. 335

'we,' the Christian candidates, do it for 'an incorruptible crown' — a glorious
wreath ' that fadcth not away.' Applying this principle of self-restraint to himself,
how affecting are his admonitory words ! — "/therefore so run, not uncertainly
(adeilus, irresolutely) ; so fight I, not as one that beateth the air : but I keep under
my body (air httpopiazo mou to stjma, ' but I press my body under ' : the hnpo-
piazo is said to have been a technical phrase for striking under the eye = punishing
severely), and bring it into subjection (doulagugo, lead it as a slave), lest having
preached to others I myself should be a castaway (adokimos gcnomai, should be-
come a 'disapproved' one — /'. e. a rejected candidate)."

3. It is not a just principle of interpretation to carry mere illustration into every
^detail. We must not, in this case, insist upon a literal correspondence of the
regimen required. The essential points are these: — (i) The Christian (like the
Grecian competitor) is called upon to exercise appropriate physical discipline —
not to consult bodily ease, but bodily service. (2) This must be done in order that
fleshly appetites may be subjected to the dictates of reason and of the spiritual
nature ; because (3) on the fact of this subjection depends the successful termination
of the Christian's course, be he private member, public pastor, or even apostle!
If, then, intoxicating liquors are not profitable to the body — as the- illustration of
the apostle supposes, and as experience proves ; if, moreover, they are a provocative
to the sensual affections, and expose even the most careful user to some peril which
might be shunned, how can abstinence from them be wisely excluded from the
conditions under which the Christian race is to be run, and the Christian victory
achieved ?

CHAPTER X. VERSE 4.

4 And did all drink the same spiritual drink : for they drank of
that spiritual Rock that followed them : and that Rock was Christ.

The historical event on which the apostle founds this sublime spiritual allegory
is described in Exod. xvii. I — 7, and Numb. xx. I — 13. So inestimable was the
boon conferred by the stream which burst from the rock of Horeb, that it might
well typify the blessings of Christ's redemption. The apostle's statement that the
Rock folltnved them— that is, the water from the Rock — completes the similitude
so far as it relates to the continual affluence of Christ's grace throughout our mortal
pilgrimage.

[V. 7. See Note on Exod. xxxii. 6, under Additional Notes, p. 249.]

CHAPTER X. VERSES 12—14.

12 Wherefore let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he
fall. 13 There hath no temptation taken you but such as is common
to man : but God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted
above that ye are able ; but will with the temptation also make a
way to escape, that ye may be able to bear ;'/. n Wherefore, ray
dearly beloved, flee from idolatry.

336 I CORINTHIANS, X. 23 — 30.

It is not enough to think or know we are * standing ' ; continual care must be
observed, or a fall may follow ; and such needfulness is never more properly
displayed than by the avoidance of that which has caused priest and prophet, the
wise and the good alike, to stumble and err. Only where this watchfulness exists
can any ' temptation ' or trial from without, that God permits, become endurable,
resistible, and therefore promotive of spiritual advancement. Instead of this
consideration engendering vain confidence (as when persons boast of their security
in the use of strong drink), it is a reason for fleeing all idolatry, and all incentives
to it, whether it be the idolatry of « dumb idols,' or of « fleshly lusts that war against
the soul.'

CHAPTER X. VERSES 23 — 30.

23 All things are lawful for me, but all things are not expedient : all
things are lawful for me, but all things edify not. 24 Let no man seek
his own, but every man another's wealth. 25 Whatsoever is sold in
the shambles, that eat, asking no question for conscience sake : 26 For
the earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof. 27 If any of them
that believe not bid you to a feast, and ye be disposed to go ; what-
soever is set before you, eat, asking no question for conscience sake.
28 But if any man say unto you, This is offered in sacrifice unto idols,
cat not for his sake that shewed it, and for conscience sake : for the
earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof: 29 Conscience, I say, not
thine own, but of the other : for why is my liberty judged of another
marts conscience ? 30 For if I by grace be a partaker, why am I evil
spoken of for that for which I give thanks ?

V. 29. CONSCIENCE, I SAY, NOT THINE OWN, BUT OF THE OTHER] That is, not
only of thine own, but also of thy brother. We must respect the moral sense of our
neighbor as well as our own sense of right ; and especially must we forego acting
upon a negative conviction where it would be likely to induce a discord between
opinion and practice in another. Through obedience to his own conviction the
Christian will learn to reverence the conscientious dictates of others, for his own
sensibility to the claims of duty will become the measure of his respect for his
neighbors. It must be recollected, however, that no apology for pleasure and
self-gratification can ever be elevated into the sphere of ' conscience ' ; it is but an
elaborate self-deception for a slaveholder or a drinker to plead a ' conscientious
conviction' in favor of slavery and sensuality. F. D. Huntington, D. D., well
observes that "consent to a general statement of a principle is one thing, while
a courageous loyalty to its personal requirements is another. There may be a wide
gap between the storehouse where we keep a supply of respectable abstract notions,
loosely laid away for quotation — something between the earnestness of conviction
and the inconvenient disrepute of scepticism, — on the one hand, and the living
embodiment of these notions in a self-denying practice on the other. It is easy
enough to agree that we ought not to weaken and damage and degrade other men's
consciences ; but to give up the gratification, the amusement, the pleasant and
otherwise harmless habit which will certainly damage and mislead them, is not
always very easy. Besides, there are some questions of right, how far, in particular
cases, this ought to be done. These questions may really complete the matter to
honest minds, or they may only furnish a subterfuge for cowardly and evasive

I CORINTHIANS, XI. I. 337

natures to escape a disagreeable sacrifice, without at the same time losing all self-
respect by abandoning the general principle. The New Testament takes pains to
provide directions for a settlement of both these classes of difficulties. Whether it
will be of any use to appeal to that source of instruction will depend on another
point— viz., whether we have determined to make the spirit and word of the
Testament, when we have found them out, the law of our lives, let them cut in
upon whatever comfort or indulgence they may. The Christian faith is eminently a
social principle. . . . If it declares, in one breath, that ' every man shall bear
his own burden,' in the next it says, 'Bear ye one another's burdens.' It predicts
an infinite misery for them that tempt, betray, misguide, deprave one another, —
for them that form companies, clubs, societies, to make each other frivolous, pro-
fligate, dissolute. It treats with terrible severity any one that presumes to reply,
when called to reckon for such outrages, ' Am I my brother's keeper ? ' — virtually
rejoining, ' Yes, you are , all men are each other's keepers, educators, helpers or
hinderers, saviours or seducers.' It requires all to give, not only food, clothes,
and money, but the ministry of encouraging words, patient endurance, honest
living, aspiring thoughts. So, negatively, it forbids theft and killing ; and if we
study the whole religion through and through, we shall see that this means the
robbery of any particle of virlue, honor, temperance, truth, the killing of the
spiritual and immortal part, quite as much as the theft of a garment, or the murder
of the body it covers. In fact, all the pages of our Book of Faith are marked with
these earnest counsels and expostulations about caring for other souls. It is always
adjuring us to work for, to suffer for, and to that end to love, other people. Such
is the compass of its charity. Whether it commands or forbids, its intent is the
same. Prohibitions and injunctions run into each other, and are only the two sides
of one bright truth, the positive and the negative being only measurements in
opposite directions of the universal law of affection and service. The lives of the
apostles were, throughout, consecrated, abstemious, self-sacrificing labors for the
souls of their fellow-men. . . . The silent decree within will reaffirm the
living oracles of the evangelists. Together they will pronounce him to be the only
truly conscientious man who is ever applying the discriminations of his sense of
right to new regions, new connections, new questions of conduct, and will pronounce
that it must be a very limited conscience indeed which only inquires, of a course of
action, how it will affect the individual performing it." — ('Christian Believing and
Living,' Sermon xxii.)

CHAPTER X. VERSES 31—33-

3i Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all
to the glory of God. 3a Give none offence, neither to the Jews, nor
to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God : 33 Even as I please all
men in all things, not seeking mine own profit, but the/w/f/ of many,
that they may be saved.

CHAPTER XI. VERSE I.
Be ye followers of me, even as I also am of Christ.

The ' glory of God ' should be the great end of all rational action, eating and
drinking among the rest; that is to say, all that is done by the creature should
have a tendency to show forth, and to carry out, the beneficent design of the
43

338 I CORINTHIANS, XL 2O — 22, 33, 34.

Creator ; for the glory of God is His goodness — that ' goodness ' which comprehends
all that is just and true and gracious in the essential harmony of the Divine Attri-
butes. Unless, then, the use of intoxicating liquors, and the traffic in them, can
be proved to conform to this supreme rule of all right action, they are put under
the ban of the highest law; nor is it enough for any one person to conclude that
his use of strong drink is compatible with the Divine glory. The tendencies of
actions, as developed in general experience t are ' fruits ' by which we are to judge
them; and strangely constituted must he be who can perceive any connection
between the drinking habits of this country and the glory of God, save a connection
of opposition and defiance. One important method of doing what is possible for the
glory of God is explained, chap. x. 32, "Give none offence (aproskopoi ginesthe, be
causes of stumbling), neither to the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church
of God " — a triumphant repudiation and refutation of the pretence that Paul limits
his principle (not to eat or drink what is an occasion of stumbling) to the case
of Christian brethren.* [See Note on Rom. xiv. 21.] In ver. 34 the apostle
declares that in carrying out this principle he would not merely resign any abstract
liberty he might claim, but would sacrifice even his own profit, seeking not his own
advantage (to emautou sumpherori), but that of 'the many,' so that they might be
saved. Then follows the grand practical application injudiciously severed from
chap, x., and made the commencement of chap. xi. = * Be ye followers (mimeetai,
imitators) of me, as also I am of Christ.' The apostle could advise the Corin«
thians to look to the profit of all, not only because he had himself done it, but
because it had been done by one greater than Paul, even by their Lord and his
Lord, who had exemplified to the uttermost the spirit of self-denial for the benefit
of man and the glory of God.

CHAPTER XL VERSES 20 — 22, 33, 34.

2o When ye come together therefore into one place, this is not to
eat the Lord's supper. 21 For in eating every one taketh before
other his own supper : and one is hungry, and another is drunken.
22 What ? have ye not houses to eat and to drink in ? or despise ye
the church of God, and shame them that have not ? What shall I
say to you ? shall I praise you in this ? I praise you not .....
33 Wherefore, my brethren, when ye come together to eat, tarry one
for another. 34 And if any man hunger, let him eat at home; that
ye come not together unto condemnation. And the rest will I set in
order when I come.

* The history of European intercourse with uncivilized tribes, like the North American Indians
and New Zealanders, and with peculiarly civilized nations, such as Hindoos and Chinese, is
replete with rank and noisome offences against the apostolic rule of practice — a rule as obligatory
on nations as on individuals. Every British Christian must blush for his country when he reads
what was said by the venerable Bishop Selwyn at a public meeting in England (1867):— "The
people of the New Zealand race stood out for many years against the temptations to intoxication.
In the statistical statement published in the town of Wellington, many years after the settlement
was formed, after describing a number of convictions for various offences, including the oflence of
drunkenness, there was a foot-note added to the effect that intoxication was almost unknown
among the native people. I cannot say it is so now. But if the native people of New Zealand
have given way to the sin of intoxication, from whom would God require an account of their sin ?
It was not a sin of native growth ; it was an imported, an exotic sin. They stood against it for
a time, but as their faith failed, they gave way to the temptation forced upon them by their
English brethren"

I CORINTHIANS, XI. 2O 22, 33, 34. 339

V. 20. INTO ONE PLACE] Epi to auto, 'to the same (place) '=. the place of
public assembly, and, as the reference implies, upon the first day of the week.

THIS is NOT TO KAT THK LORD'S SUPPKR] Ouk csti Knriakon deipnon phagcin,
* it is not to eat the supper pertaining-to-the-Lord.' Kunakon (from knrios, ' lord')
is here used to define the character of'our deipnon, as distinct from an ordinary
meal, and as consecrated to the memory of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.
The word occurs in only one other place in the New Testament, and with the same
application (Rev. i. 10, 'I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day' — en tec kuriaket
heemera, ' in the day of the Lord,' /. e. the day consecrated to the memory of His
resurrection, as the Knriakon deipnon was consecrated to the memory of His last
supper). Deipnon, ' supper,' among the Orientals, was the principal meal of the
day, answering to the English 'dinner'; and, like it, was generally taken either at
noon or in the afternoon, but among the more fashionable classes in the evening
of the day. St Paul, in anticipation of the complaint he is about to make, states
that, though the professed object of the Corinthians' assembling was the celebration
of the Lord's supper, the abuses connected with that sacred feast had made it
something wholly different in a spiritual sense.

V. 21. FOR IN KATINV, EVERY ONE TAKETII BEFORE OTHER HIS OWN SUPPER]

Jlekastos gartoidion deipnon prolambaneien to phagcin, 'for in eating (en tophagein
= in the act of eating) each one takes-before-another (/. e. snatches up) his own.
supper-provision.' Codex A reads proslambanei, 'take to himself; Codex D has
phagcin, 'at the (time of) eating.' Deipnon, 'supper,' is figuratively used
for the materials composing it. As described by Xenophon (Memorabilia, iii.
14) and other authors, meetings called eranoi (club-feasts) were common among
the Greeks, when each person brought his own food ; and as these meetings were
designed to express and promote a friendly sentiment, the poorer members would
often have their scanty supplies increased out of the abundance of the richer.
Sometimes these eranoi took the form of benefit clubs, and the meetings would
then resemble those of our friendly societies on club nights, — save that tippling
4 for the good of the house ' was unknown. Later on, these social church gather-
ings were known as agapai (Latin, agapa), 'love-feasts,' and were too frequently
the occasion of great abuses.* In the early Corinthian church the social eranos
had become mixed up with the Christian eucharist, and in such a way as to call for
apostolic reprehension and correction. Instead of the members waiting till all had
arrived, and till the meal was devotionally commenced, those who arrived first
spread their provisions and began to eat them up, and in an eager, selfish manner,
as if afraid they might be called upon to part with any for the accommodation of
the less sumptuously provided. Thus good order and decency were disregarded,
while the solemnity of the occasion and the spirit of brotherly affection were com-
pletely outraged. Nor was this all. To disorder, irreverence, and illiberality, was
joined, on the part of some at least, an excessive indulgence in theyiW that ought
to have been generally shared with others.

AND ONE is m'Nr.RY, AND ANOTHER is DRUNKEN] Kai hos men ptina, hot <k
methttfi, 'and one, indeed, is hungry, but another is over-filled ' = gorged. The
•wealthier members having consumed their provisions, those who came in afterward,
or had but little at first, remained hungry, while the others were surcharged. This
explanation has been adopted by the whole body of expositors, ancient and modem.
Webster and Wilkinson, however, in their ' New Testament with Notes,' suggest

• St Judc (A. D. 66), referring to the ' men who had crept in unawares' describe* them (ver. t j)
as 'snots in your feasts of charity'— en t*i* afjfais hum$>t tpiladtt ; and St Peter (a Ep. u. 13)
plainly alludes to the same licentious intruders.

340 I CORINTHIANS, XL 2O — 22, 33, 34.

that pelna is here used in the sense of ravenous over food, — /. e. gluttonous, — the
meaning then being, ' one, indeed, is voracious (over the meat), and another goes
to excess (over the drink).' As supporting this notion, they quote ver. 34, ei de tis
peina, 'and if any man hunger, let him eat at home,' where the hunger is evidently
not the hunger of poverty, but eagerness for food. This conjecture is ingenious,
and the argument plausible; and it is no valid reply that the whole host of
theologians must have been in error if these critics are right. That the whole
body of critics should have been mistaken on such a point of translation is, no
doubt, very improbable, yet not impossible. We feel, however, compelled to
dissent from these novel interpreters, for several reasons, (i) They adduce no
passage, from any other author, where peina bears the peculiar sense of ' hungry
indulgence in food,' as distinguished from methuei, 'indulgence in drink.' Had
such a distinction been intended by St Paul, he could hardly have failed to use
some other and less ambiguous word, such as empipleemi, answering to the Hebrew
sahva. (2) The construction of the sentence clearly implies a distinction of persons
between ' the one ' who was peina, and ' the other ' who was methitei, — yet, on
Messrs Webster and Wilkinson's hypothesis, one and the same person would, in
many cases, have been both; for those who ate their food to excess, would hardly
be the parties likely to use the drink they had brought, with less eagerness and
immoderation. (3) The tis peina, 'one that is hungry,' — referred to in ver. 34 —
who is told to eat at home, is not necessarily the same man as he who is said to be
'hungry ' in ver. 20. The tis peina of ver. 34 might fitly refer (and, as it seems to
us, does refer) to the one who, being hungry at first, had snatched up his food and
greedily devoured it; whereas the hos peina of ver. 20 was plainly one who
remained 'hungry' after the meal was finished. There seems, therefore, no
sufficient reason for departing from the ordinary understanding of this phrase,
which yields an excellent and harmonious sense, in favor of an interpretation
neither demanded by the context, nor justified by the usage of language.

Assuming, then, that the correct translation of hos peina is, ' one is hungry,'
what is the exact sense of methuei, translated ' drunken ' ? The answer is invested
with special interest, because the passage has often been alleged in support of the
use of intoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper in the present day. " Such wine,"
it is said, "was used by the Corinthians without apostolic correction, and may,
therefore, be used by us." But (i) if the Corinthians deviated from the original
custom, their conduct is no precedent for us, and the generally supposed result of
that departure is more of a -warning than an example. (2) Nor can it be concluded
that the apostle must have condemned their deviation from the primitive pattern,
for he says nothing concerning their use of fermented bread, which was probably
the kind used at their ordinary eranoi, and certainly was not the kind used at the
institution of the Lord's Supper. (3) Nor is it to be hastily inferred that the same
kind of bread and wine was used, both at the eranos, or common meal, and at the
celebration of the Supper ; and it was concerning the first, and not the second, that
the phrase hos de methuei, 'and another is drunken,' is used by the apostle.
As to the sense borne by methuei in this place, we remark, —
I. The exposition which imputes 'drunkenness' (in our sense) to the Corinthian
Christians at their social meal, implies that many of the members were guilty of the
awful sin of celebrating the Lord's Supper (which followed that meal) while in aiv

I CORINTHIANS, XI. 20 - 22, 33, 34. 341

inebriated condition, — an imputation highly improbable in itself, and tacitly con-
tradicted by the language of the apostle, who does not proceed to condemn (as
we should suppose he would have condemned) in strong language, so foul an
insult to the eucharist, while he simply inquires (ver. 21) whether they had not
houses to eat and to drink in ; and (ver. 34) bids them satisfy their hunger at home,
in order to avoid both the indecorum that had been exhibited, and the condemna-
tion to which it had exposed them.

2. Methnei being used as antithetical to peina, 'hungry,' requires to be under-
stood in the generic sense of 'satiated,' and not in the restricted and emphatic
sense of 'intoxicated.' That St Paul should have thus employed it is in harmony
with the fact that he was familiar with the Lxx. translation of the Old Testament,
where such a use of the word repeatedly occurs.* Such a double use of the word
has its exact parallel in the Scottish dialect. Walter Scott quotes the proverb, ' It's
hard to stand between ^.fou man and a. faffing' — where 'fou' means full, though
it would be easy to cite many examples of ' fou ' having the secondary sense of
4 drunken.' The 'over-filled' man forms the precise contrast to the 'hungry*
one, while a schoolboy can perceive that no proper contrast is offered by the state-
ment that one was 'hungry' and another 'drunken.'

3. The great majority of expositors join in ascribing to the apostle's words a
charge of selfish repletion, but not of intoxication. Clement of Alexandria ren-
ders methnei as 'full' (/W. ii.). Chrysostom views it as comprehending both
eating and drinking, and as more emphatically contrasting the state of the poorer
with that of the richer classes at the feast. Bengel sententiously puts the case,
Alter plus justo habet sifii, aller minus, ' one has for himself more than is his due,
another less.' Dr Hammond, in his paraphrase, explains methuei, 'feeds to the
full.' Dr Gill's note runs thus— " He that came late had nothing to eat, and so
was hungry; while he that was first, either ate and drank to excess, or at least very
plentifully, so that he was very cheerful, and more disposed to carnal mirth, than
in a serious and solemn manner to partake of the Lord's Supper." Dr 'Lightfoot
is of opinion " that by him that was drunken is meant the Jew that ate the Paschal
Supper, of which he ate and drank freely ; and by him that was hungry, the Gen-
tile who was so, not out of poverty and necessity, but because he refused and
avoided eating of the ante-supper, as savoring of Judaism, and so here was a
schism and a division among them." Dr Macknight renders methnei, 'is plen-
tifully fed.' Archbishop Newcome, in his 'Revised Translation' (179°). says: —
"And the poor man scarcely satisfied his hunger^ while the rich indulged to excess.
The word methuei does not necessarily import drunkenness." Dr A. Clarke, in his
Commentary, states, "Some ate to excess, others had scarcely enough to suffice
nature. Mcthiifi, was filled to the full ; this is the sense of the word in many places

e subjoin seven testimonies from a larpe number be'ore MS:
. xli i. 34, And Joseph's brethren ' were merry with him ' (rmflhustkresa
And thy cup runneth ovrr' — is full to the brim <methusk<m).

• We

Gen. xli i. 34, And Joseph's brethren ' were merry with him ' (rmflhustkresan mef antffn).
And thy cup runneth ovrr' — is full to the brim <methusk<m).

I'n xxxvi. 8, 'They shall be abundantly satisfied (mtthustktetoHtaf) with the fatness of Thy
kouse.1

' Saturate (methuson\ her furrows.'

Ter. xxxi. 14. ' I will satiate (methm't'] the soul of my priests with fatness.'

Cant. v. i, ' Drink ard be satiated ' (piete kni nttthustheete).

Prov v. 19, ' Let her breasts stitiffy thee' (mttknskf(dsan). Version of Aquila, A.D. 160.

A large collection of such texts, illustrating the usage of Mttlftuv, will be found in t!
Dr Lees,1 vol. iL, showing its application to food, to milk, to water, to blood, and to oil, as well as
to wine.

342 I CORINTHIANS, XI. 2O— 22, 33, 34.

of Scripture." Dr Bloomfield, in his Notes, remarks, "The sense is literally, 'he
is well soaked with diink,' a sense of methuei also occurring in John ii. 10. See
Note on this passage.* That drunkenness, however, is not here meant is plain
from what is said in the next words, ' Have ye not all houses to eat and to drink
(not get drunk) in ? ' >]l Dr Halley, in his work on the Sacraments, gives this excel-
lent reversed interpretation : — * While the rich feasted, others, and especially the
poor, were hungry ' (i. p. 46). Meyer, followed by Alford, inclines to give to
methuei the darkest shade of which it is susceptible. Dean Stanley more
cautiously says, "The use of this word in John ii. 10 shows that it need not be
always taken of intoxication, but this is its natural meaning in most passages,"
and he refers to passages of the N. T., in some of which the unforced meaning is
simply that of excessive indulgence of the appetite.

The apostle's complaint against a portion, and apparently not a small portion,
of the Corinthian church, maybe thus paraphrased in modern language: — "When
you assemble in your accustomed place of meeting on the Lord's day, you do so
avowedly to partake of the Lord's Supper, but in reality you do not celebrate it in
a manner deserving the name. For those who arrive first, having , produced their
provisions, begin to eat as at a common meal ; so eagerly and selfishly that, while
one member of the church remains hungry and unsatisfied, and has his poverty
exposed, another is filled to absolute satiety. Now have you not houses in which
eating and drinking can be carried on ? Why convert the house of worship, dedicated
to 'brotherly love,' into a place of selfish and sensual feasting ? Can it be that you
despise the church of God, and wish to put to shame your less affluent brethren,
who have not your means of satisfying their physical appetites ? What shall I say
to you? Shall I commend you for such conduct? I do not commend you."
[Having described the institution of the Lord's Supper in order to impress the
Corinthians with the solemnity proper to its observance, he returns to their ill-
behavior, ver. 33, 34.] "Let it therefore, my brethren, be your practice in
future, when you come together to partake of the Lord's Supper, to wait for one
another before you enter upon the sacred service. If any one is hungry, let him eat
to satisfy his appetite in his own house, either before or after this Christian com-
munion, so that he will not be tempted to withhold his surplus from the common
stock, and be involved in a common condemnation ; and as to the rest of your
irregularities " — whether including the use of the common elements of the love-feast,
instead of the proper and carefully prepared bread and wine of the passover, —
' those I will set in order on my personal arrival amongst you.' "

We learn from this passage, —

I. That the Christians had unwisely mixed up a social meal (yet eaten unsocially
by not a few) with the proper celebration of the Lord's Supper; but whether this
eranos had actually been substituted for a distinct celebration of the Supper, or had

* That Note is as follows : — "Methuein, from wethu (probably derived from the Northern med
or meth) signifies 'to moisten'; methusthai. 'to be moistened with liquor," and in a figurative
sense, like the Latin madere vino, 'to be filled with wine.' In classical use it generally, but not
always,t implies intoxication : in the Hellenistic, however, as Josephus, Philo, and the Lxx., it,
like the Hebrew shakar in Gen. xliii. 34, seldom denotes more than to drink freely and to hilarity^
which is, probably, the sense here."

t Homer, for example, in the Iliad, xvii. 390, says of the hides of oxen, methitousan aloiphee,
'were soaked in grease.' When Anacreon, in his forty-seventh Ode, says, hopos methuon choerusd,
he does not mean that he will dance when ' intoxicated,' but when satiated with the cups of wine
he has ordered to be brought. Hippocrates (De Ratione V 'ictus, lib. iii.) expressly uses the word
not for excess— 'drink freely (metAusttt<Mat)—but not beyond measure (HYPEUBOLEKN).' The
earliest form of this word mctk is to be found in metktier, the ancient Coptic tide of the Mother
Goddess, so named, as Plutarch says (in his ' Isis et Osiris'), "because methu signifies ' full,' and
tr, 'cause,' for matter is full of the (Divine) order (tou kosmou).

I CORINTHIANS, XI. 23 — 26. 343

marred its devout observance by introducing into it a spirit of irreverence and dis-
content, cannot now be decided.

2. That this association of common eating and drinking with religious worship
was disapproved in general by the apostle, on account both of the abuses incident
to it, and of the want of accordance between it and the design of spiritual com-
munion—elements of defect not at all to be lessened by the introduction of intoxi-
cating agents.

3. That this association was peremptorily forbidden, so that the offices of the
Lord's day and Lord's house might be suitably discharged, including, as they then
did, a weekly celebration of the Lord's Supper.

The Corinthians, we 'nay hope and conclude, rendered obedience to the apostle's
directions ; but ecclesiastical history makes it evident that the abuses censured in
this epistle long continued in other places. It became customary, however, to
celebrate the agafa (love-feasts) o/fer the Lord's Supper, and in course of time they
became separated from the Lord's day worship altogether.

CHAPTER XL VERSES 23 — 26.

»3 For I have received of the Lord that which also I delivered unto
you, That the Lord Jesus the same night in which he was betrayed
took bread : 24 And when he had given thanks, he brake if, and said,
Take, eat : this is my body, which is broken for you : this do in
remembrance of me. 25 After the same manner also he took the cup,
when he had supped, saying, This cup is the new testament in my
blood : this do ye, as oft as ye drink //, in remembrance of me.
a6 For as often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do shew
the Lord's death till he come.

V. 23. I DELIVERED TO YOU] Paredoka hnmin.

IN WHICH HE WAS BETRAYED] //«• paredidoto. This striking difference of
meaning within one verse in a double use of the same word patadiddmi, is a lesson
to those who insist that a word like yayin or oinos could bear but a single significa-
tion— 'fermented juice of the grape' ! It is also useful as showing that too much
stress is not to be laid on an identity of meaning between peina in ver. 21 and pdna
in ver. 34. Hence the invaluable rule of taking the context into consideration is
sure to misguide rather than to instruct, if a cast-iron identity of sense between
similar words (or of the same words in different relations) is obstinately assumed.

V. 24. TAKE, EAT] Labete, phagcte. Absent from all the most ancient MSS.

V. 25. THIS CUP] Touto to potftrion, ' this the cup ' «= • this cup which I now
give to you.'

THIS DO YE AS OFTEN* AS YE DRINK IT] Touto poifite hosakis an pincete, 'this
do ye as often as ye may drink it.' Codex A stops at poieite, ' do ye.' Dean Stanley
remarks, " 'Not only at the original feast, but at all your feasts.' These words
are emphatically introduced, as the thought conveyed in them is carried on to the
next verse, in order to indicate the continuance and identity of the original meal
with its subsequent celebration. ' Not only on that one occasion, but on all public
occasions.* There may also be the further object of showing that in the oii

•This institution, in feet, is a Divine and human plcdgt conjointly: when the faithful c:
truly observes it, he receives renewals of grace from its Author, to whose service he pledges himself
mfresh : while, on the human side, he ihnvs forth the great truth of sacrifice to the world. People
who loosely talk against pledges should ' think upon thti* thiitft.' — EDS,

344 * CORINTHIANS, XV. 32.

institution the intention was that they should commemorate the Lord's death, not
only on stated occasions, but at all their meals, whenever they ate bread and drank
wine." — (Notes on Ep. Cor., vol. ii. 243.) Yet it seems somewhat strained and
superfluous to apply the hosakis, 'as often,' to any other occasions than the social
assemblies, when believers came together to call upon the name of their Lord, and
celebrate His sacrificial love ; and it is, moreover, not consistent with the Pauline
distinction of eating at home and eating in the church.* If we accept the exegesis
thrown out by Dean Stanley, but not absolutely approved by him, it would involve
a distinct recognition of the Saviour's self-sacrifice whenever and wherever bread
and wine are socially partaken of by believers. It does not, however, appear to
us that more can be fairly deduced from the recited injunction than the duty of
using the bread and the cup in devout and grateful remembrance of the Lord 'as
often' as they are introduced into the assemblies of His people.

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 32.

If after the manner of men I have fought with beasts at Ephesus,
what advantageth it me, if the dead rise not? let us eat and drink;
for to-morrow we die.

This sensual sentiment had long passed into a proverb. [See Note on Isa. xxii.
13.] The classical writers offer illustrations too numerous to quote. Anacreon,
in his Fourth Ode 'To Himself,' has " Stretched on tender myrtles and upon lotus
herbage, I wish to drink to my friends. And let Cupid, having bound his vest
above his neck with papyrus, serve me with sweet drink (inethit). For like a
chariot's wheel life runs, being rolled along; and we, our bones dissolved, shall lie
reduced to a little dust," etc. So in the Fourteenth Ode, 'On being devoid of
Envy,' he exclaims, " To-day concerns me ; but who knows to-morrow ? Whilst,
therefore, it is fair weather, both drink and throw dice, and pour out libations of
Bacchus ; lest, if disease should come along, it should say, It is not for thee to
drink!" The same sentiment is expressed in Odes 24, 25, 35, 39, and 40.
Herodotus (book ii. chap. 78) says it was customary among the Egyptians of his
day to produce at all their feasts a wooden effigy of a dead person in a coffin, which
was shown to all the guests, each of whom was addressed in these words, — ' Look-
ing upon this, both drink and enjoy thyself; for thou shall be such as this is when
thou art dead ! '

* While Dean Stanley suggests the common use of the symbols of salvation, a clerical friend of
the Temperance cause argues, that since grape-juice was consecrated as the symbol of atonement,
it has become unlawful ior common use, as was the blood of animals under the old dispensation.
But it is obvious (from Gen. ix. 4) that the use of blood was forbidden in ancient times simply
because of its being the ultimate seat of animal life, a reason not applicable to grape-juice ; also
that the prohibition extended to the use of blood in the flesh as much as to extracted blood, whereas
only grape-juice expressed, and not grapes themselves with their contained wine, are supposed to
be now forbidden. Neither does analogy require that because blood, as a symbol of atonement,
was forbidden to the Jews, therefore grape-juice, which is simply an emblem of Christ's blood —
itself the true and specific symbol of His atonement, — should be equally interdicted. Again, the
eucharistic bread, equally with the wine, is a representation of the mysteries of redemption, and
should, for the same reason as the fruit of the vine, be excluded as ordinary food. That the
Saviour's own words do not clearly forbid all common use of 'the fruit of the vine,' and that they
were not so understood by the eleven, or by St Paul, is manifest from the novelty of the theory,
and from the absence of any single reference to it in the apostolic epistles. It is evident, on the
contrary, from the Circular Letter of the Council at Jerusalem, and from numerous passages in
the Pauline Epistles, that such a construction of our Lord's words never occurred to those to whom the
Holy Spirit was given, expressly that He should lead them into ' all the truth ' necessary \o the
preaching of the gospel and the observance of its laws.

I CORINTHIANS. XV. 33, 34. 345

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 33.
Be not deceived : evil communications corrupt good manners.

The words ' evil communications corrupt good manners ' are found in one of
Menander's dramas, but it may have passed into a proverb in the Apostle's days,
and have been cited by him as such. The statement itself is confirmed by daily
experience, and evinces the wisdom of reducing our necessary contact with evil
within the narrowest possible limits, that the personal and social corruption they
are calculated to produce may be restrained. That drinking fashions and tippling
resorts are vehicles of sv*ch corruption, in its most contagious and injurious forms,
cannot be doubted by those who have carefully inquired into their influence on
domestic and public life. Hence the demand for earnest and persistent effort to
place the one under the stigma of a moral public opinion, and the other under the
ban of civil law. •

CHAPTER XV. VERSE 34.

Awake to righteousness, and sin not ; for some have not the
knowledge of God : I speak this to your shame.

AWAKE TO RIGHTEOUSNESS] Ekneepsate, dikaivs, 'be sober again, righteously.'
The present imperative is employed to mark that the change should be immediate.
Ek, prefixed to neepsate, indicates a return to sobriety, neepsis, from an opposite
condition. In the Lxx. the phrase is used in the sense of awakening out of a
drunken sleep, — in reference to Noah, Nabal, and the drunkards of Israel. [See
Notes on Gen. ix. 24; I Sam. xxv. 37; Joel i. 5.] Commentators differ on the
question whether the word here has a literal or figurative application, — whether the
apostle calls upon the Corinthians to become literally 'sober,' or whether he com-
pares their spiritual state to one of intoxicating stupor, and invokes them to shake
themselves free of it. [As to neepho, see Note on I Thess. v. 7.] The exact force
of the adverb dikaius is also disputed. Some take it in the modal sense of ' fully,'
'perfectly,' ' effectually '= 'become sober again, thoroughly.' Others prefer the
moral sense of 'justly' or ' righteously '= 'become sober again, as it is rigAt.'
Others agree with the A. V., in giving to ekneepsate dikaius a causal connection
and righteous result = 'become sober again, and so enter on a righteous career.'
Conybeare and Howson, in their ' Life and Letters of St Paul,' paraphrase the
verse thus : — " Change your drunken revellings into the sobriety of righteousness,
and live no more in sin." However it may be read, it must be understood as
antagonistic to every degree of sensualizing influence.

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 16.

Wherefore henceforth know we no man after the flesh : yea, though
we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we
him no more.

By knowing Christ 'after the flesh' (kata sarkos) the apostle alludes to the
external events of the Saviour's life separated from their spiritual significance.
With such a knowledge of Christ he declares he would not be satisfied, since it was
wholly devoid of that transfwrning and assimilating power which belongs to a
spiritual discernment of Christ, and that alone. May not this passage be justly
applied to those who think they find a sanction to their use of intoxicating drinks
in the example of the Redeemer? If, as they suppose — and suppose without any
warrant from the Gospel "history, — the Lord made and used inebriating wine, their
plea is at best grounded in a knowledge of Him after the flesh, — such a knowledge,
in fact, as they would never dream of putting to a similar use by conforming to His
style of dress, manner of traveling, and outward life in general. On the contrary,
to know Him « after the spirit ' is to understand, appreciate, and imitate Him in
the spiritual principles by which He was actuated. If we have not His spirit, * we
are none of His,' and the paramount question for every Christian to consider and
answer for himself is, whether a resemblance to that spirit, so loving and self-
denying, is not exhibited in abstinence from alcoholic beverages, rather than in their
most limited but self-indulgent use ? Beyond all dispute, if abstinence is vastly
more conducive to the good of society than drinking, a perception of this truth
will lead those who know ' Christ after the spirit ' to abstain with all readiness and
cheerfulness. If any man say that he honestly believes drinking to be, on the whole,
more useful to society and to the cause of religion than abstinence would be, it is
not for us to judge our brother, but we may affectionately urge him not to rest in
such a condition without a full, careful, and unbiased examination of all the evidence
within his reach.

CHAPTER VII. VERSE i.

Having therefore these promises, dearly beloved, let us cleanse
ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness
in the fear of God.

<>RINTHIANS, VII. I. 347

Great was the anxiety of the apostle that his children in Christ should keep
themselves unspotted from the world, and that they and he should purify themselves
from "every defilement {pantos tnolusmou — in I Cor. viii. 7 the verb is rendered
in A. V. 'defiled ') of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness {cpitelonntcs agiysunecn
— completing the work of holiness in all its parts) in the fear of God." Such a
desire after exemption from all stain of sin would, if universal and deep-seated, go
far to secure its own realization, for it would instinctively lead to the avoidance of
all things that expose the Christian to the dreaded contamination. It is remarkable
that the defilement is spoken of as pertaining to ' flesh and spirit ' ; and whether
the allusion is to the flesh and spirit as the sources of the defilement, or as the
recipients of it, the caution conveyed ought to make believers shun intoxicating
liquor, because that is adapted, more than any other external agency, to stimulate
those lusts of the flesh and impurities of the spirit that bring the soul into deadly
peril. Most true it is, that so long as the Christian is in the world, he will be
exposed, more or less, to its evil ; but this consideration, instead of diminishing,
ought to increase his aversion to alcoholic beverages, as a wholly superfluous and
artificially superinduced element of danger, and (as experience proves) of destruc-
tion, to innumerable souls.

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE GALATIANS.

CHAPTER V. VERSES 13, 14.

13 For, brethren, ye have been called unto liberty ; only use not
liberty for an occasion to the flesh, but by love serve one another.
14 For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this ; Thou shalt
love thy neighbor as thyself.

Instead of alia dia tees agapees, 'but by love,' Codex D has alia tee agapeetou
PneumatoSy 'but in (or by) the beloved Spirit.' And after the words ho gar pas
nomos, 'for the whole law,' the same Codex reads in humun, 'in you.'

Christians are called ' unto liberty ' (ep' eleutheria\ — liberty from the condemna-
tion and power of sin, and liberty from the yoke of ceremonial observances ; but
this liberty is conditioned by the proviso that it is not to be used ' for an occasion
to the flesh' (eis aphormcen tec sarki). It is a liberty that is to be made no
excuse for indulging and pampering fleshly appetites ; but using love as its instru-
mental and efficient power, it is to be exercised and manifested in acts of service
by Christians to one another. For the whole moral law, as it relates to our human
duties, is summed up in the precept to love our neighbor as ourself. To what extent,
even among professing Christians, the use of alcoholic liquors is made an 'occasion
of the flesh,' we need not conjecture; but it may be affirmed with confidence, that
a general resolution by Christians to prefer the good of others to the gratification
of a merely sensuous taste, would result in an avoidance of strong drink more
extended, a discouragement of drinking customs more effectual, than Christendom
has ever yet beheld. Those who plead that they ' are at liberty to drink,' cannot
vindicate such a liberty on any Christian principle till they have shown that it is
not claimed for mere self-indulgence, and is consistent with the utmost usefulness
in the sphere assigned them by a gracious Providence.

CHAPTER V. VERSES 19 — 21.

19 Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these;
Adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, ™ Idolatry, witch-
craft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies,
si Envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like : of the
which I tell you before, as I have also told>w/ in time past, that they
which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God.

GALATIANS, V. 1 9 — 21. 349

V. 21. DRUNKENNESS] Methai, 'intemperances '—copious indulgences in drinks,
some of which would have the power of inebriating, though intoxication is not the
essence, but only the extreme of the vice condemned by the apostle. The essential
of the vice is, that men drink for pleasure, regardless of the law of God or the
claims of man.

REVELLINGS] Kvnioi, ' revelries ' — the acts of disorder and profligacy attendant
on the metkai previously named. Concerning the corruption of morals engendered
by this conduct, and the degree in which it abounded, both Pliny and Philo, con-
temporaries of St Paul, have left pictures of the gross sensuality of that age.
Pliny writes (book xiv. c. 28), " If any one will take the trouble duly to consider
the matter, he will find that upon no one operation is the industry of man kept
more constantly on the alert than upon the making of wine, as if nature had not
given us water as a beverage, — the one, in fact, of which all other animals make
use. We, on the other hand, even go so far as to make our very beasts of burden
drink wine ! — so vast are our efforts, so vast our labors, and so boundless the
cost which we thus lavish upon a liquid which deprives man of his reason, and
drives him to frenzy and to the commission of a thousand crimes. So great, how-
ever, are its attractions, that a great part of mankind are of opinion that there is
nothing else in life worth living for. Nay, what is even more than this, that we
may be enabled to swallow all the more, we have adopted the plan of diminishing
its strength by pressing it through filters of cloth, and have devised numerous
inventions whereby to create an artificial thirst. To promote drinking we find
that even poisonous mixtures have been invented, and some even are known to
take a dose of hemlock before they begin to drink, that they may have the fear of
death before them to make them take their wine.* Others, again, take powdered
pumice for the same purpose ; and various other mixtures, which I should feel
quite ashamed any further to enlarge upon. We see the more prudent among
those who are given to this habit, have themselves parboiled in hot baths, from
whence they are carried away half dead. Others, again, cannot'wait till they have
got to the banqueting couch — no, not so much as till they have got their shirt on,
— but, all naked and panting as they are, the instant they leave the bath they seize
hold of large vessels filled with wine, to show off, as it were, their mighty powers,
and so gulp down the whole of the contents, only to vomit them up again the very
next moment. This they will repeat, too, a second and even a third time. And
then, too, what vessels are employed for holding wine ! — carved all over with the
representations of adulterous intrigues, as if, in fact, drunkenness itself was not
sufficiently capable of teaching us lessons of lustfulness."

Philo, in his treatise on 'Drunkenness,' refers to " the contrivances displayed in
the preparation of different kinds of wine to produce some the effects of which
shall speedily go off, and which shall not produce headache ; but, on the contrary,
shall be devoid of any tendency to heat the blood, and shall be very fragrant,
admitting either a copious or a scanty admixture with water, according as the
object is to have a strong and powerful draught or a gentle and imperceptible
one." And describing those who are 'insatiably fond of wine,' he states, "After
they have drunk they are still thirsty, and they begin drinking at first out of small
cups ; then, as they proceed, they tell their servants to bring them wine in larger
goblets ; and when they are pretty full and getting riotous, being no longer able to
restrain themselves, they take bowls and goblets of all the largest sizes that they
can get, and drink the wine unmixed in huge draughts, until they are either over-

• Wine was believed to be the only antidote to the poison of hemlock.

350 GALATIANS, VI. 7, 8.

come by deep sleep, or till what they have poured into themselves is vomited out
again through repletion."*

It may not be easy to decide whether the apostle had any motive in bringing up
the rear of all the sins enumerated with ' drunkenness ' and ' revellings ' ; but it is
incontrovertible that to them may be traced, as to a fountain, many of the other
evils, or at least their prevalence. Very solemn is the declaration that, equally
with these transgressions and crimes, will drunkenness and revelling exclude their
subjects from the kingdom of God. How can it be otherwise ? — for what more
than they grieves the Holy Spirit, and effectually excludes the possible existence
of that state of mind and heart which can alone render heaven a place of enjoy-
ment to the human soul ?

CHAPTER V. VERSES 22 — 24.

22 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentle-
ness, goodness, faith, 23 Meekness, temperance : against such there is
no law. 24 And they that are Christ's have crucified the flesh with
the affections and lusts.

V. 23. TEMPERANCE] Enkrateia, 'self-restraint.' Conybeare and Howson
render by 'self-denial.' This fruit of the Spirit — the one last named — stands in
opposition to the associated vices named in ver. 21. [See Note on Acts xxiv. 25.]
Against such virtues and graces there is no law, for they are the evidences of that
spiritual decalogue which Christ writes upon all hearts that He makes His own.
Those who are Christ's — who belong to Him by a regenerating influence — ' have
crucified the flesh with its affections and lusts ' ; they no longer do what is pleasing
to the flesh because it is so, but what is pleasing to Christ, who loved them and
gave Himself for them.

CHAPTER VI. VERSES 7, 8.

7 Be not deceived; God is not mocked: for whatsoever a man
soweth, that shall he also reap. 8 For he that soweth to his flesh
shall of the flesh reap corruption; but he that soweth to the Spirit
shall of the Spirit reap life everlasting.

As the seed, so the produce ; as the sowing, so the reaping. The correspondence
is invariably preserved. So in the fable, when dragon's teeth were sown, armed
men sprang up. As tnte Science, therefore, consists in tracing effects to their
causes, so tnte Wisdom lies in avoiding the causes of evil, and seeking to substitute
the causes of happiness and goodness. To foster the causes and expect different
consequences is the extreme of irrationality, and must bring with it perpetual dis-
appointment. Of such unreason, however, the world is guilty when it clings to
strong drink and drinking fashions, and all the while hopes and expects that
intemperance will cease ! On a visitation of cholera or typhus to a locality, the
development of the seeds of the pestilence in any particular individual cannot be
predicted, but there can be little uncertainty as to the fact that it will be developed
amongst some persons most recipient of its influence. So the connection of drinking

* Hence tbe need of warning, in that day, against being 'given to much wine '—whether inebriat
ing, or not.

GALATIANS, VI. 9, IO. 351

with drunkenness cannot be asserted of any particular person who begins to drink,
but may be positively affirmed of some in any moderate aggregation of such
beginners. The legitimate conclusion is — the rejection of strong drink, not the
fatalistic, pseudo- philosophical dogma that drunkenness must necessarily exist. If
a nation will create and cultivate a taste for alcoholic liquors — will foster it by
fashion and feed it by license, — the curse of intemperance must surely visit it,
whatever is then done to avert it. The nexus cannot be broken, but the artificial
appetite and habit may.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 9.

And let us not be weary in well doing : for in due season we shall
reap, if we faint not.

Well-doing is sowing good seed; such seed will spring up. The sower, if he
do not faint, will reap the fruit; therefore let him not be weary in 'well doing.'
'Whatsoever ye sow, of that,' not of some other kind? 'ye will reap.' Good as
certainly results from good as evil from evil. Convinced that we have what is
good, let us then plentifully sow it, in confidence of a fruitful harvest in reserve.
This promise will, as a rule, be fulfilled in a measure even upon earth ; and what
this world does not yield, ' the world to come ' will unfailingly supplement and
supply. The well-doing spoken of is not restricted to direct Christian teaching,
and the Temperance Reform has produced some of the most striking illustrations
of this great providential law which modern times have witnessed. Let all who
desire the weal of humanity engage in this sphere of well-doing, and the land will
be covered with the precious harvest of their labors.

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 10.

As we have therefore opportunity, let us do good unto all men,
especially unto them who are of the household of faith.

OPPORTUNITY] Kairon, 'season.' This is the condition of active usefulness.
'Let us do good,' ergazometha to agathon, 'let us work trhat is good* to all,
primarily to those who are of the household of the faith. No principle of benevo-
lent action can be wider than this — every opportunity, every kind of good, every
class of person. If, therefore, abstinence affords an opportunity of service to our
fellow-creatures, it is a means of ' working good,' not to be despised or neglected
without a clear violation of this law of Christian conduct. To say, ' I don't believe
abstinence would supply such a means of good,' is no justification of indifference
unless we have first given it a fair and careful trial.

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE EPHESIANS.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 18.

And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess ; but be filled with
the Spirti.

AND BE NOT DRUNK WITH WINE] Kai mee methuskesthe oino, 'and be not
surcharged with wine.' Drinking immense quantities of wine was common among
the Greeks, and (strange as it may appear to modern bibbers) the intoxicating
liquors used were largely diluted, with the express intention of making the potations
both deep and prolonged. Public sentiment in Athens, in the time of Plato, did
not go beyond condemning drunkenness — and not always that, for at the festivals
of Dionysius (Bacchus) 'the giver of wine,' an abnegation of sobriety was almost
universal !

IN WHICH] En ho, 'in which.' The subject of this 'which' may be the
previous word 'wine,' or the whole of the preceding clause; that is, it may signify
'in which wine,' or 'in which state of vinous intemperance.' Bengel's note is
emphatic, — En ho, in quo vino scilicet quatenus immoderate hauritur, ' in which
wine, evidently, since it is immoderately swallowed.' Doddridge takes the same
view, and regards this construction as a beautiful figure. Having before him the
Lxx. rendering of Prov. xx. I — akolaston oinos, 'wine is an incorrigible thing,' —
the apostle might readily affirm that ' in ' wine, estin asotia, ' there is unsavableness.'
Nor would such an affirmation be purely figurative, seeing that the alcoholic
element is the active producer of that appetite and that sensuality which plunge
multitudes into perdition.

Is EXCESS] Estin asotia, 'is unsavableness ' = utter depravity and dissoluteness.
The word asotia is compounded of a and sotia, and literally signifies the absence of
salvation — a state of hopeless moral disintegration and ruin. Clement of Alex-
andria, in his ' Psedagogue,' b. ii., says: — "I admire those who desire no other
beverage than water, the medicine of a wise temperance, avoiding wine as they
would fire. It is desirable young men and maidens should forego this medicament
altogether, for ... hence arise irregular desires and licentious conduct ; . . . the
whole body is excited before its time by the action of wine on the system. The body
inflames the soul. . . . Well, then, has the apostle said, ' Be not surcharged with
wine, in which is asotia, a shameful licentiousness.1 He seems to signify the impos-
sibility of salvation (sdteeria) to drunkards, for the word asvteia, in Greek, means
equally 'luxury,' and an incapacity for salvation." — (A. D. 200.) Similarly the French
word rout, 'one broken on the wheel,' is also applied to an utter profligate.

The rendering ' excess ' 13 very tame ; and, being a mere repetition of the idea

EPHESIANS, V. 1 8. 353

contained in ' drunk,' is a. platitude unworthy of inspiration. More to the point is
Wiclif 's version, 'And nyle ye be drunken of wyne, in whiche is leecherie.'
The Rheims V. has 'wherein is riotousnes.' The Vulgate has luxuria,
'luxuriousness,' akin to the word which it supplies in Prov. xx. i,—Iuxuriosa
res vinum est. Beza has luxus, 'wantonness' or 'extravagance.' Calvin says,
In quo nomine intelligo lascivias omne genus et dissolutiones, ' by which term I
understand all kind of impurities and dissipations.' The epithet as an adverb
occurs in the parable of the prodigal son (Luke xv. 13), where the words ren-
dered in A. V. 'in riotous living ' are zon asotvs, ' living ruinously.'

BUT BE FILLED WITH THE SPIRIT] Alia pleerousthe en Pneumati, ' but be ye
filled in spirit,' or 'with the Spirit.' Either "be not filled-full of wine as to your
body, as the heathen are, but be ye filled in your spirit with all holy influences " ;
or, "let your fulness be not that of wine, but of the Spirit which you have
received by faith in Christ." The first interpretation is favored by the absence of
the article to (the) before Pncumati (Spirit), but the other is generally adopted, and
the signification is not different; for if, as all commentators agree, the mee methus-
kesthe of the first clause is in apposition with the pleerousthe of the second, the oinos
of the one requires an expressed or implied agent to correspond, which can be no
other than the Holy Spirit, given to those that believe. Dr Eadie, in his Com-
mentary, rejects the opinion that the apostle alludes, as in I Cor. xi., to any abuse
of the old love-feasts, or of the Lord's Supper ; and he contrasts the vain attempt
of men of the world to keep full of the wine whose fumes and stimulation are
evanescent, with the Christian's full possession by the influences of the Spirit,
which 'are not only powerful, but replete with satisfaction to the heart of man.'
Conybeare and Howson give the following as the sense of the whole passage :
""When you meet, let your enjoyment consist not in fulness of wine, but fulness of
the Spirit ; let your songs be not the drinking-songs of heathen feasts, but psalms
and hymns ; and their accompaniment not the music of the lyre, but the melody
of the heart ; while you sing them to the praise, not of Bacchus or Venus, but of
the Lord Jesus Christ."

Ols. 1. The apostle's Divine philosophy at once goes to causes. He presents in
this verse a practical antithesis between fulness of wine and fulness of the Divine
Spirit ; not an antithesis between one state of fulness and another — mere effects,—
but an antithesis pointing to an intrinsic contrariety of nature and operation
between the sources of such fulness — viz., inebriating wine and the Holy Spirit.
This contrast will be better understood by quoting the preceding words, ' Where-
fore be ye not unwise ' (aphrones, without reason) = not forgetting how antagonistic
to the full possession and exercise of your mind the use of wine comes to be, taken
in quantities that some may not call excessive.

2. Whether the asofia, 'dissoluteness,' be referred to wine as its geYminal and
active principle, or to ' drunkenness ' as the state of body and mind which brings
the profligacy into play, the fact of connection is affirmed, and is to be solemnly
taken into account in all Christian enterprises and efforts of reformation. When
intoxicating liquor exerts its specific effects it places the subject in astuia, which is
not merely a state in which he cannot be saved, but is synonymous with a condition
of moral corruption quite inimical to the reception of saving truth. Alcohol
deranges the functions of the brain — the medium of mental action, — and tends to
bring about organic disease, so that its influence on mind and morals is entirely
different in character from the influence of such evil inclinations and habits as leave
the brain in healthy rapport with the intellectual powers. Hence the renunciation
45

354 EPHESIANS, V. 1 8.

of inebriating drinks is generally a pre-requisite for the acceptance of the Holy
Spirit, and has been found a positive and direct means of preparation for spiritual
impressions by thousands of once prodigal drunkards.

3. The objection, that since the apostle says, 'Be not drunk with wine,' he
virtually sanctions a use of wine short of drunkenness, is one of those superficial
inferences in which uneducated or prejudiced minds delight. It is surely possible
in our day for a Christian missionary to condemn and forbid intemperance by
opium, without approving of the use of that drug in any degree. If the words
'in which is dissoluteness' are joined to the word 'wine,' a powerful warning is
given in respect to wine itself; and however the clauses may be construed, the
passage in its entirety neither recommends intoxicating drink nor implies that its
use, in the smallest measure, is either salutary or safe. The soul ' filled with the
Spirit ' is not supposed to crave after strong drink, but is more likely to resemble
the wise man of whom Philo (Paul's contemporary) observes, that 'he will never
voluntarily make use of unmixed wine, or of any drug of folly ' (akraton kai pan
aphrosunees pharmakon hekon oupote). Expositors, not themselves abstainers,
illustrate this text by a reference to Luke i. 14, where the promise that John
should be ' filled with the Holy Spirit,' even from his birth, was connected with
the heavenly prohibition, 'wine and strong drink he shall not drink.' Thus
Olshausen, in his comment on this verse, writes, "Man feels the want of a
strengthening through spiritual influences from without; instead of seeking for
these in the Holy Spirit, he in his blindness has recourse to the ' natural ' spirit,
that is, to wine and strong drinks. Therefore, according to the point of view of
the Law, the Old Testament recommends abstinence from wine and strong drinks,
in order to preserve the soul free from all merely natural influences, and by that
means to make it more susceptible of the operations of the Holy Spirit."

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE PHILIPPIANS.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 5.

Let your moderation be known unto all men. The Lord is at
hand.

MODERATION] Epidkecs, 'seemliness,' or 'gentleness.' The Vulgate has
modestia, which the Rheims version converts into 'modestie.' Wiclif gives 'be
youre pacience known to alle men ' ; Tyndale and Cranmer, ' softness ' ; the Geneva
V. 'patient mynde.' Had the A. V. read 'moderation-of-mind,' the ignorant
perversion of this text into an objection to the Temperance movement — as if the
apostle were recommending ' moderation-in-liquors ' — would have been avoided.
The reference is either to that propriety and consistency of conduct which
Christians should ever exhibit, or to that gentleness and equanimity of soul
which should ever be manifested to all, even to persecutors; for 'the Lord is
at hand,' — at hand to reward His people and judge their oppressors. So far as
this text can have any bearing on the use of strong drinks, it would be impossible
to show that Christian moderation of disposition — whether decorum or serenity —
is ever increased by the use of the smallest quantity of the wine which is a mocker ;
while there is lamentable evidence of breaches of propriety and good temper
provoked by its influence on professing Christians of every name. Cowper, who
was a good Greek scholar, very well rebukes the prevalent perversion of this text
in favor of sensuality : —

' The selfsame word that bids our lusts obey,
Is misapplied to sanctify their sway.'

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 8.

Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things
are honest, whatsoever things arc just, whatsoever things are pure,
whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report ;
if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these
things.

This comprehensive principle is an answer to the objection that abstinence is
not commanded in the Scriptures ; since, if it be included under any of the ' what-
soevers ' of this verse, it is as really affirmed and stamped with apostolic authority
as if distinctly pointed out. Nowhere do the sacred writers profess to give an
exhaustive enumeration of all varieties of virtuous conduct. In the application of

356 PHILIPPIANS, iv. 8.

this catholic course of Christian morals, all that is necessary is to ascertain whether
any particular act or line of conduct comes under the rule laid down ; if it does, the
scriptural application of it comes out as clearly and conclusively as, in logic, the
conclusion of a properly constructed syllogism issues from its premises. This
apostolic description aptly and singularly unites the two elements contained respec-
tiyely in the definition of morality given by Socrates and Plato. The former
defines virtue as that which is done with ' perception ' — i. e. of truth and suitability ;
the latter, as an action in resistance of appetite, manifesting moral strength, or the
control of the fleshly by the spiritual nature.* " The Christian has had to deal with
a thousand things against which no Divine [verbal] intimation could have been
quoted, but the evil of which conscience [enlightened by fact] would have taught
him. Men practically ignore their conscience in this matter." — (A. Purey-Cust,
M. A.)

* The ancients laid due stress upon knowledge, and ascribed nearly all evil to ignorance. In the
Neo-platonic book ascribed to Hermes (of which Arabic and Greek copies exist), there occurs the
following curious passage : —

" Whither are you carried, O men, drunken with drinking up the unmixed wine (akratott) of
Ignorance ? which seeing you cannot bear, why do you not (as with wine) vomit it up again ?

" Stand, drink not (neepsantes), and look up with the eyes of your heart.

" For the malice of Ignorance overrunneth the Earth, and corrupteth the Soul. Seek where the
clear light is, that is pure from darkness, where not one is drunken (methitei), but all are abstinent,
•ober" (ntephousin).— The Pcemander, lib. vii.

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO THE COLOSSIANS.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 16.

Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect
of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the sabbath days.

OR IN DRINK] Ee en posei, 'or in drink.' Codex B has kai en posei, 'and in
drink. '

The apostle is not alluding to a distinction of drinks as intrinsically wholesome
or unwholesome, dangerous or safe, but to certain arbitrary and ceremonial fancies
founded on Jewish ideas of 'clean ' and 'unclean.' Some expositors suppose the
existence at Colosse of a strong pseudo-ascetic party, such as afterward developed
into the Gnostic sect, which affirmed that hulee, 'matter,' was ' inherently evil* ;
and if this conjecture be correct, the caution of St Paul is intelligible, and in perfect
harmony with the Temperance doctrine that whatever God provides for the food
of man is 'very good.' The text, observe, has a dual reading, — for if I am not to
judge my neighbor in eating or drinking, neither must my neighbor judge me in
abstaining from meat or drink. If people would first consider what this text does
not mean, they would more accurately comprehend what is its true scope and
purport. For instance, it cannot be supposed that it forbids that exercise of
reason concerning the quality and consequences of action which the apostle himself
is enforcing. He is bringing a certain wilful self-regarding conduct before the
church for judgment. He cannot, then, mean that the Christian is not to judge in
such matters, for he is himself judging, and has elsewhere, on this very case, come
to a conclusion which he puts as an interrogatory — ' How then walk you charitably,
if you do these things ? ' Still less can the apostle be understood to affirm that we
are to exercise no discrimination as to the qualities of food or drink, for that would
be equal to saying that the laws of physiology are abolished to the Christian ! Nor
can ' the liberty ' so often pleaded for be sustained by this text as being ' the power
to act, or not to act, according to one's own pleasure.' True 'liberty' — Christian
'liberty' — has no such test as 'pleasure' or wilfulness. It must be based upon
'the ought, and be guided by the reasonable and the imperative — the imperative
because the reasonable. The will must be the servant of the reason, not the slave
of the passions. In a Christian sense, we are only ' free to act rightly,' or, as it is
poetically and proverbially expressed, —

' He is the freeman whom the Truth makes free.'

358 COLOSSIANS, II. 20 — 22.

Obey conscience first, for it is God's proximate organ of truth; but, beyond and
above all, seek the truth which gives authority to conscience and direction to the
will. " Looking upon my neighbor's conviction, I say, If you esteem such a course
best (not pleasantest) and right (not comfortable merely), you will do well to pursue
it; but as for me, THE TRUTH seems the highest obligation, and therefore I follow
it, whether it be pleasant or painful."

CHAPTER II. VERSE 20 — 22.

20 Wherefore if ye be dead with Christ from the rudiments of the
world, why, as though living in the world, are ye subject to ordinances,
21 (Touch not ; taste not ; handle not ; 22 Which all are to perish with
the using;) after the commandments and doctrines of men ?

This passage has been foolishly quoted as condemnatory of the Temperance
reform, as thus: — "The language of ver. 22 is at times applied to strong drink;
but St Paul quotes it to condemn it; ergo he condemns the modern application" !
Can anything be more puerile ? By parity of wwreason, if the words were applied
to the common use of laudanum, St Paul would become, logically, ranged on the
side of the opium-eater !

It is said that Temperance advocates, like the persons censured by St Paul,
insist upon self-mortification and compliance with absurd ordinances of restraint ;
but,—

(1) No one can be more emphatic himself than St Paul (l Cor. ix.) in exhort-
ing Christians to self-mastery and subjugation of mere animal desire ; and no one
dealt more copiously than he in the spirit and language of prohibition ; does he
therefore come under his own rebuke ?

(2) It is altogether contrary to truth to affirm that the abstinence principle is
based on the theory of neglecting or emaciating the body ; the opposite is the fact ;
abstinence is expressly founded on the injurious nature of alcohol.

Correctly construed, the passage is favorable to the Temperance reform, for
the apostle repudiates ordinances springing from the theory of a moral or immoral
quality in things themselves, irrespective of their actual effects, — putting super-
stitious fancies in the place of observed results ; whereas the Temperance principle
ascribes Tightness and wrongness solely to responsible agents, and proscribes
intoxicating drinks as unfit for use on the ground of a want of physical appro-
priateness, and their injurious influences upon the body, and only through it upon
the mental and moral nature. Hence the apostle's argument is, that as material
things are perishable, to identify religion with material observances is to degrade
it, with all its immortal treasures ; — an excellent reason, so far as it goes, against
that blind attachment to intoxicating liquors which is the only religion that many
persons acknowledge, while over many men, who profess better things, these
drinks exert a witchery that Christianity fails to command. Truly, 'extremes
meet'; and the superstitious rejection of good or neutral things is well matched
by the senseless and sensual esteem in which bad and dangerous things are
held.

COLOSSIANS. 359

CHAPTER II. VERSE 23.
Which things have indeed a show of wisdom.

This text has sometimes been oddly quoted against the practice of abstinence
from alcoholic liquors, to which it has no relation whatever. An enlightened
Temperance man does not abstain from wine, ' the mocker,' because he believes it
is a good creature, which will strenghten the body, but because he knows it is a
bad article, that will weaken and deprave it. It is a physiological truth, that to
weaken the body is to weaken the brain, the organ of the mind, and thereby to
increase the power of many morbid and depraved feelings. On the other hand,
to keep the body pure, as commanded in the sequel (chap. iii. 4, 5), is the rational
method of aiding the suppression of 'shameful appetites and unnatural desires.'
Hence the propriety of not looking, with desire, upon ' the wine which is red,'
'lest thine eyes look upon strange women, and thine heart dictate perverse
things.'

Christianity, far from discarding either the wisdom of the past, or the science of
the present, should collect and concentrate around its own lofty principles of action
the light of all ages, to induce at once a broader and a truer mode of individual and
social life. Hence alone can the Christian be ' thoroughly furnished unto all good
works.'

THE FIRST EPISTLE OF ST PAUL

TO THE THESSALONIANS.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 6 — 9.

e Therefore let us not sleep, as do others ; but let us watch and be
sober. 7 For they that sleep, sleep in the night ; and they that be
drunken are drunken in the night. 8 But let us, who are of the day,
be sober, putting on the breastplate of faith and love ; and for an
helmet, the hope of salvation. 9 For God hath not appointed us to
wrath, but to obtain salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ.

V. 6. LET us WATCH] Grcegoromen, ' let us be wakeful ' ; in apposition to the
' let us not sleep ' of the preceding clanse.
AND BE SOBER] Kai neepkomen, ' let us be abstinent. '

V. 7. AND THEY THAT BE DRUNKEN ARE DRUNKEN IN THE NIGHT] Kai
oi methuskomenoi nuktos methuousin, 'and those that are making themselves
drunk, drink deep in the night.' A partial reform had been effected since the
days of Isaiah, when men rose up early in the morning to follow strong drink.

V. 8. BUT LET US, WHO ARE OF THE DAY, BE SOBER] Heemeis de heemeras
antes neephomen, 'but let us who are of the day be abstinent.'

Day and night, light and darkness, have been immemorial symbols of truth and
error, holiness and sin. In speaking of the coming of ' the day of Christ ' — the
day of revelation and destiny — the apostle reminds the Thessalonians (ver. 4) that
they were not ' in darkness ' — in a state of depravity, — so that that day should
overtake them ' as a thief.' [Some MSS. read hos kleptas, 'as thieves,' instead of
hos kleptees, 'as a thief.'] As children of the day, then, it was fitting that they
should not sleep, as others did, who were children of the night — /. e. that they
should not be in a state of insensibility and moral unpreparedness for the advent of
the ' great day of the Lord ' ; rather that they should be ever ' wakeful ' and ' sober,'
free from all intoxicating influences and delusions. The use of the word neephomen
seems to have suggested to St Paul another descriptive metaphor — that of drinkers
carousing, which in his age was wholly carried on in the night season, except by
the outrageously intemperate. As those who sleep are insensible of what is passing
and impending, so sinners are insensible of approaching judgment — this is one
comparison. But also, as lovers of strong drink fill themselves in the night, so do
sinners fill and intoxicate themselves with delusive pleasures — those of drink among

CRITICAL REMARKS OX ' NKEPHO,' ETC. 361

the rest, — in contrast to whom the Christian, 'who is of the day,' is both wake-
ful and abstinent, even as those who in the day time go about their business and
keep themselves free from inebriating drinks in order that they may be able to
discharge their duties aright. That the apostle wishes ncephomcn to be taken
literally as well as spiritually may be inferred from the well-known connection of
sobriety with wakefulness, both of the senses and of the mind ; as if he had said,
'The children of the day are to be wakeful; and in order that they may be
wakeful, let them also be sober.' The influence of even small portions of alcoholic
liquor in producing drowsiness is well known, and not a few persons who do not
always abstain, yet abstain during the day in order that they may be the better
qualified for the business of life. The military metaphor which the apostle pro-
ceeds to introduce — ' putting on the breastplate of righteousness ' — supports the
view that he uses neephu in its primary sense, for the Roman soldier on duty was
bound over to the most stringent sobriety, and no other drink but posca, an
acidulous liquor, was supplied to him. Xenophon, in his Cyropadia (vii. 5),
represents Cyrus the Great as addressing his chiefs, and reminding them that their
soldiers were all wakeful and sober (egrecgoratas apantas kai neephontas), while
many of the Babylonians were asleep, and many of them drunken (methuousi).
Plutarch says of Epaminondas, that on one occasion ' he went the round of the
defences and walls, telling the men not to sleep nor to drink (agrupnein kai
neephein), so that the others might have license to sleep and to sot (methuein).'
To the Christian soldier, physical sobriety is as needful as to the literal warrior
when on service, nor can he wisely dispense with the one infallible security of that
state — abstinence from all that can intoxicate.

CRITICAL REMARKS ox 'NEEPHO,' ETC.

I. Since this Greek word and its derivatives henceforth occur repeatedly in the
Apostolic epistles, we will here cite the whole of the eleven passages, with the
renderings of the A. V., and then proceed to consider their meaning.
Cor. xv. 34. Ekneepsate dikaivs, 'awake to righteousness.'
Thess. v. 6. Grcegoromcn, 'let us watch,' kai neephomen) 'and be sober.'
Thess. v. 8. Hcemcis nccphomen, 'let us be sober.''

Tim. iii. 2. (Of a bishop,) let him be neephaleon, 'vigilant,' sophrona, 'sober.'
Tim. iii. II. (Of deacons' wives,) let them be neephaleous, 'sober.'
2 Tim. ii. 26. Ananeepsosin, 'they may recover themselves.'
2 Tim. iv. 5. Su de neephe, 'but watch thou,' in fast, 'in all things.'
Titus ii. 2. (Of aged men,) ncephalious, 'sober.'
I Pet. I. 13. Neephontes, ' be sober.'

i I'et. iv. 7. Suphroneesate oun, ' be ye therefore sober,' kai neefsate, ' and
watch,' tis tas proseuchas, 'unto prayers.'

I Pet. v. 8. Neepsate, 'be sober,' greegoreesate, 'be vigilant.'
In the Lxx. version of the Old Testament neither the verb neepho nor the
adjective neephalios occurs, except in combination in the following places : —

Gen. ix. 24. And Noah exeneepset 'became sober ' = awoke, apo tou oinou
(aittou), ' from his wine.'

I Sam. xxv. 37. Nabal excneepsen, ' became sober '«= awoke, apo tou oinou,
'from the wine.' The Hebrew reads, 'in the going out of the wine from Nabal.'
Joel i. 5. Ekneepsatf, 'become sober' = awake.

Hab. ii. I. Ekncepson, 'awake! ' Hab. ii. 7. Eknefpsousin, 'shall awake.1
Ekneepsin occurs in Lament, ii. 8 and (in some MSS.) in iii. 48.
46

362 CRITICAL REMARKS ON 'NEEPHO/ ETC.

In Homer, neither neepho nor any of its derivatives or combinations occur, to our
knowledge.

2. That the original signification of neepho implies abstinence from intoxicating
liquors, may be safely inferred ( I ) from its etymon, or derivation, and from the
definitions of lexicographers ; (2) from its use by ancient authors ; (3) from its use
in connection with ana and ek, to denote the entire cessation of the vinous influence,
and the restoration of the body to its normal and naturally abstinent condition ;
(4) from its figurative employment to denote perfect and natural watchfulness of
mind, only possible when one abstains from narcotics.

(l) No derivation of neepho is given in the great works of Pollux, Suidas,
Scapula, Stephanus, or in several of the principal modern lexicons. But Apollonius
and Hesychius refer it to neipho = nipho, 'to snow,' which would give neepho
the sense of ' to be cold,' i.e. exempt from the heating or exciting influence of wine.
Scheidius refers it to a supposed mibo, ' to cover ' = numpho / whence numphee,
'a veiled maiden,' or a protected woman ==a bride. Springing from such a root,
neepho would imply ' to protect one's self from danger by avoiding the intoxicating
cup. Schleusner, however, who is followed by some other lexicographers, derives
it from nee, 'not,' andpino (=//<? or pod}, 'to drink' ; a derivation far preferable
to those above named. F. Valpy, M. A., Cantab., has suggested another deriva-
tion, which comes to the same sense : — " Possibly from nee and heepha (perfect of
apto, 'to set on fire ' ), 'not to inflame.' " — ('Fundamental Words of the Greek
Language,' 1826.) Passing from derivation to definition, Pollux, in his 'Ono-
masticon,' vi. 26, has, "For they say that neephaliuein is to sacrifice neephalia,
which is to offer wineless sacrifices (thusiais aoinois) ; those of a different kind
being described as oinospondoiis (connected with libations of wine)." Hesychius
defines neephalioi as neephontes, mee pepokotes, ' those who abstain, who have not
been drinking.' He defines neephalismenon as hudati ouk oino heegnismenon,
'consecrated with water, and not with wine.'

Suidas describes neephalio thusiai as ' sacrifices in which wine is not presented,
but water mixed with honey.' In Stephanus's Thesaurus the neephalios is said to
be ho apechon oinon, ' he who abstains from wine ' ; and neephalia xula are ' pieces
of wood which were burnt in wineless sacrifices.' Schleusner thus defines neepho: —
Sobrius sum, abstineo ab omni aut immoderate vini et omnis potus inebriantis usu,
' I am sober, I abstain from all, or from an immoderate use of, wine and every
inebriating drink.' Excluding the words aut immoderate, this definition would form
a very appropriate Temperance declaration. Schrevelius (Dr Major's ed., 1844)
gives neepso, 'to be sober, abstain, be vigilant.' Bretschneider defines neepho,
' sobrius sum, vino abstineo' (I am sober, I abstain from wine); and neephalios
' sobrius, vino abstinens ' (sober, abstaining from wine). In the Greek Dictionary of
Byzantius, published at Athens in 1839, neephalios is defined ho mee pinon oinon,
enkratees, ' one who does not drink wine, an encratite. Neephalia is defined as
'sacrificial oblations without wine.' And in the Greek-French Lexicon of the
same author, neephaliotees is explained by abstinence de vin, sobriete, ' abstinence
from wine, sobriety.' Liddell and Scott's Lexicon defines neepho, ' to be sober,
to live soberly, especially to drink no wine' ; Maltby's, ' sobrius sum, to abstain
from wine ' ; Dunbar's, ' to abstain from wine ' ; Donnegan's, 'to live abstemiously,
to abstain from wine'; Robinson's New Testament Lexicon, 'to be sober, tem-
perate, abstinent, especially in respect to wine.' Under 'abstemius,' Younge's
English and Greek Lexicon gives ' neephon, without wine, aoinos, neephalios ' /
and under 'without wine,' both aoinos (wine-less) and neephalios are given as
equivalents.

CRITICAL REMARKS OX ' XKEI'IIU,' ETC. 363

(2) The reader will now be prepared for illustrative citations from Greek and
Jewish writers. ./Eschylus, in his 'Eumenides,' v. 108, refers to choas »' aoinous,
neephalia meiligmata, ' winekss oblations, abstemious gratifications.' Paley, in his
Notes on >Eschylus, remarks, ' The reason, probably, was that wine infuriates, and
leads to the commission of those very crimes which arouse the dread goddesses.'
Sophocles, in his 'QEdipus at Colonos ' (v. 101), describes CEdipus as stating to
the Eumenides that he had come to them necphun, aoinois, ' I abstemious, to you
wineless,' where the force of neephon cannot be mistaken. And because their
sacrifices must be neephalioi, the chorus informs him that he must propitiate those
awful powers by oblations of honey and water ; adding (v. 481), met de prosphcrein
metnu, 'be sure not to offer to them inebriating drink.' Aristophanes (Lysist.
line 1228) introduces an Athenian lover of drink as saying, 'When we (Athenians)
drink not (neephontes), we are not in a healthy state,' i. e. are good for nothing; a
character and sentiment which have their parallels in many modern tap-rooms.
Herodotus (book i. s. 133) states concerning the Persians, that they review, when
free from drink (neephousi\ what they have decided when in liquor; and, similarly,
that what they have decided when not drinking (nfephontes\ they review when in
their cups.

Plato, in his 'Philebus' (61), has the following striking passage: — "And now
to us, as it were to butlers, stand two founts ; the one of pleasure, and a person
might guess it to be of honey ; but that of the intellect, hard and healthful, he might
guess to be sober and wineless (neephontikeen kai aoinon)." In his ' Laws ' (b. vi.
733) he remarks, " It is easy to understand that a city ought not to be mixed like
a cup in which the maddened wine (jnainomenos oinos) effervesces when poured
forth; but like one that, being subject to the abstemious other deity (hupo tou
neephontos heterou tkeou), produces a good and moderate drink, after a beautiful
commingling." He here represents Bacchus as combined with another deity,
which he calls neephon thfos, an abstemious god ; and Longinus remarks that this
'other deity' is nothing else than Water, which it was the custom to mix with
wine. In his ' Banquet,' Plato represents Alcibiades as reproaching the guests,
" You seem to me to be not-drinking (neephein = to be teetotalizing) : this must
not be allowed ; but you must drink, for so you have agreed, and I will elect
myself the chairman of the banquet until you have drunk enough." In his
Epistles (vii. 330) Plato refers to the lover of wisdom as making use of that food
for the day which may " make him specially quick to learn and of good memory,
and able to reason in himself by being an abstainer (nfephonta)." Burgess' trans-
lation renders neephonta here, 'abstaining from wine.'

Plutarch (Conviv. Quest, iv. 2) states that the Greeks offer sacrifices which are
abstemious (neephalia}, and with oblations of honey, in distinction from others
where the honey is accompanied with wine.* Elsewhere (De San. Pnrcep.) he
remarks that "we often present to Bacchus himself abstemious oblations
(tieephalia), being very properly not habituated always to seek unmixed wine."
In his ' Life of Romulus ' he mentions a goddess called Rumalia, the protectress
of children, to whom sober sacrifices (neephalia) were made, and on whose altars
libations of milk were poured out. More interesting, however, than all the rest,
and more apt and conclusive, is the use of n??f>h~i and its derivatives by two of St
Paul's Jewish contemporaries — Josephus and Philo. Josephus employs the word

• " Among the Greeks," says Athen*us, " those who sacrifice to the Sun make their libations of
honey, at tkey never brine -ivint to the altars of the gods, saying it is proper that the god who>
keeps the whole universe in order, regulating everything, and a round and superin-

tending the whole, should in no manner be connected with drunkenness" (lib. xv. c. 48).

364 CRITICAL REMARKS ON ' NEEPHO,' ETC.

three times — once figuratively (Wars, b. ii. c. 12, s. i), and twice literally, in
reference to the priests (Antiq. b. iii. c. 12, s. 2): — "They are in all respects
pure and abstinent (neephalioi), being forbidden to drink wine while they wear
the priestly robe" — i. e. when officially on duty, doing God's work. So (Wars,
b. v. c. 5, s. i), in referring to the temple, when restored by Herod, he states
that the priests who were permitted to go up into the inner temple (naos) were
without bodily blemish, and were clothed in linen, and "especially were abstainers
from unmixed wine (apo akratou neephontes}, so that they might not at all trans-
gress in their ministerial service."

Philo is equally explicit in his treatise on 'Drunkenness' (sec. 32). "The
truly wise man," he says, "aims to offer abstemious sacrifices, steadfastly set-
ting himself, in the firmness of his mind, against wine and every cause of folly
(neephalia thuein, oinou kai pantos tou leerein aitou bebaioteeti dianoiari)." In
section 37 he refers to the regenerate soul as denying "that it has made use of
wine and strong drink, boasting that it abstains (neepheiri) continually and during
the whole of its life." He goes on further to speak of such a soul as "sur-
charged with unmixed sobriety (neepseos akratou emphoreetheuta), and both being
in itself, and poured out as, an undivided libation to God."

(3) The texts cited from the Lxx. establish the abstinent meaning of neepho in
combination with ek.

(4) There are numerous passages in the classical authors where neepho and its
derivatives are used in contrast with a state of drunkenness ; some of these are cited
in a note;* but they are chiefly valuable as showing that when an antithesis to
heavy drinking was desired, it was found in the word already in use to designate
the absence of intoxicating fluids. A further use of neepho occurs in ancient authors
as indicating the cool, self-possessed state of a person who has not been drinking ;t
and such a figurative usage is obviously dependent for all its propriety and force
upon the primary and radical signification of the word as separation from wine.

3. The foregoing excursus will cast light upon the apostolic use of neepho and
neephalios. It cannot be supposed that St Paul and St Peter employed these
specific terms without a knowledge of their primary sense ; and it devolves upon
the wine-drinker to show, if he is able, that as used by the sacred writers these
terms mean something short of abstinence from intoxicating liquors.

Dean Alford takes up the position, as a last resort, that, in the apostles' days,
the proper etymological sense of the words neepho and neephalios had become
obsolete ! But it is demonstrated above that this statement is very far from the
truth. The exact contrary is the case. Professor Jowett, and literary history itself,
have been cited to prove that, from the times of Daniel and Pythagoras to that of
the Essenes and Therapeutse, the practice and opinion expressed by the word had
become more pervading and popular, and more closely associated with conceptions

* Theognis, in his Maxims (1. 478), has ' I am neither quite sober (neepho} nor yet very drunk ' (lieen
tnethuo). In 1. 482, he alludes to scandalous words which to the sober (neephosi) are disgraceful : and
in 1. 627 he affirms it 'disgraceful for the tippler (methuonta) to be among sober men (neephosin), and
for the sober man to be among tipplers.' Plutarch quotes the proverb that what is in the heart of the
sober man (neephontos) is on the tongue of the tippler (met A uontos).

Plato, in his 'Laws' (books i. ii.), discusses the question whether drinking- parties might not be
regulated to advantage if put under the control of wise and sober men. Carystius is cited by
Athenaeus for a saying of Philip of Macedon, — ' Let us drink ; it's enough for Antipatrus to be sober '
(neepheiri). In the Anthology an epigram is preserved to the effect that while Okindunos, among
all the tipplers, wished to be sober (neephein), he was the only one who seemed to the others to be
drunk.

t Epicharmus's epigram is famous, naphe kai memnas* apisfein, ' be cool, and don't believe too
fast.' Longinus describes a writer who exercises great restraint in the midst of much ardor — <•«
bakcheumasi neephein. Nero, when urging himself to suicide, exclaimed, Ncephein dti er tou
toioutois, ' it behooves thee to be self-possessed in these critical circumstances.'

I TIIKSSAI.UXIANS, V. 21. 365

of moral purity and religious duty. The extraordinary and philological position of the
Dean, therefore is, that as the fact and faith expressed by the words became more
definite and distinct to the mind, the phrases grew more lax and vague in their
signification ! In other words, it is gravely contended, that when known Greek
abstainers used the very words which ' no doubt primarily referred ' to absti-
nence, those words failed to express the fact ! ' The force of prejudice can no
farther go.'

Long after the apostles' days, excellent Greek writers used the word in the
primary and proper sense of abstinence. For example, Porphyry (De Abst. i. 27)
has to de neephaleon men kai aoinon to poton, 'but to be sober, and drink no wine.'
The Latin paraphrast translates, ' But sobriety will be needful to one who has to
keep much awake, porns sine vino, a drink without wine. ' Even Dean Alford does
not deny the facts, for he concedes that 'the words neephon, neefhaleos, etc*.,
primarily refer, no doubt, to abstinence from wine.'*

Were it even granted that they bear in the New Testament the sense of strict
sobriety and perfect self-possession, the apostolic meaning would be, ' Be as sober
and self-possessed as those who do not touch wine ' — a distinguished compliment
to total abstinence. It will then remain for those who profess to be doers of the
word in its spirit as well as letter, to explain how they can be said to take heed to
such counsel, if they regularly consume alcoholic liquors of a potency entirely
unknown in apostolic times. The practice of the modern abstainer does not exceed
the legitimate import of these ancient words. He is a neephalist, whoever else is
not, and is, in consequence, fully prepared to realize all the moral advantages with
which the habit of abstinence has been associated, in all ages and climes. As a
Christian, he has good reason to expect that his neephalism will increase hi| ability
to appropriate all the blessings of the Christian dispensation, while he works out
his salvation with fear and trembling, but without any vinous hindrance to the,
effectual co-operation of the Holy Spirit of God.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 21.
Prove all things ; hold fast that which is good.

PROVE ALL THINGS] Panta dokimazete, 'make proof of all things.'

Here is a warning against prejudiced and hasty rejection of what is novel or
opposed to previous sentiment and practice. All things should be proved — can-
didly, fairly, freely ; and the method of proof must be adapted to the thing under
examination. If experimental proof be possible, to rest content with theoretical
reasoning is exceedingly unwise : hence the importance of giving total abstinence
a trial rather than arguing about it, and nothing more, as so many do. The prin-
ciple reduced to practice becomes its own most powerful advocate, whenever its
practice is adopted in good faith and for a sufficiently long term. The trial should
also be judicious, — not associated, for example, with other changes of diet which
may prove injurious, and bring discredit on the disuse of intoxicating drinks.
Had abstinence been impartially tried, and held fast when found to be good, it
would long ere this have superseded those drinking habits and usages by which

• The Dean, in the same controversial letter, says, ' Dr Lees is bound to prove that abstinence
means total abstinence ' 1 Now the abstainer is no more bound to prove that tuefW means a little
drinking than that ntestis, ' fasting,' means 'a little eating '(Matt xv. 32).

366 I THESSALONIANS, V. 22.

the most enlightened nations of the world are at once corrupted, scourged, and
enslaved.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 22.
Abstain from all appearance of evil.

The Greek reads, apo pantos eidous poneerou apechesthe, ' from every aspect of
evil hold yourselves aloof.'

This precept is commonly quoted as if by ' appearance ' (eidos) were meant the
semblance of evil as well as the reality, — the sense being ' abstain from everything
that not only is evil, but that looks like evil.' Dean Alford has strongly con-
demned this construction ; but Webster and Wilkinson, in their Greek edition of
the Testament, remark, "Eidos in New Test, has ite primary signification, 'that
which is an object of sight,' 'visible,' 'appearance,' — 'keep aloof from everything
that has an evil appearance,' that looks like evil, 'from all suspicious things'
(Tyndale). The primary object of the injunction probably is to restrain any
unseemly or suspicious exhibitions at the public services of the church, in
doctrine and precept, and in the mode of delivering both ; and hence, of course,
in their practice generally, they are to avoid everything that might bring a reproach
upon the name of Christ."

It may be allowed that the apostle is not referring to apparent evil as opposed to
actual evil, yet he evidently means more than evil generically considered, else he
might have omitted eidos altogether. He conceives of evil as having many forms
or aspects, — some gross and repellant, others subtle and seductive ; and he enjoins
upon Christians that they should hold off from evil, "whatever guise it may assume.
Satan may clothe himself as an angel of light, but he is none the less to be shunned
as the prince of darkness. Owing to the tendency of men to mistake evil for good,
the exhortation is never out of season " to prove all things, hold fast the good, and
to hold aloof from every form of evil, however little of evil that form may directly
express." Possibly some things that look like evil are not so, and therefore should
not be avoided ; yet it is safest to exercise extreme caution in avoiding what seems
evil, rather than rashly to assume that evil is really absent where it is apparently
present. In morals this adage is pertinent, — 'Where there's smoke there's fire.'
Of persons we should judge charitably and hope the best, but of habits we cannot
be too suspicious and circumspect. It is an unquestionable Christian duty to avoid
not only every form of evil, but even whatever is a cause of evil to ourselves or
others, wherever its avoidance is consistent with the claims and purposes of life.
Scientific experiment proves that alcoholic liquor is evil as a beverage, and universal
experience shows that, as a cause of evil — physical, moral, and religious, domestic,
social, and national, — it is altogether unequalled by any other instrument of mischief
ever known to man. It is an article all the more to be dreaded, because, while
generally impressing mankind with confidence in its virtue, in its potency as a
formative element of evil it can be compared to nothing short of the mysterious
and terrible agency ascribed to ' the powers of the air ' and ' spiritual wickednesses
in high places.' Is it possible, then, to keep aloof from it too remotely and too
persistently ?

THE FIRST EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO TIMOTHY,

CHAPTER III. VERSES 2, 3.

• A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife,
vigilant, sober, of good behavior, given to hospitality, apt to teach ;
3 Not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy lucre ; but patient,
not a brawler, not covetous.

V. 2. VIGILANT] Ncephaleon, 'abstinent'; Wiclif and Tyndale have 'sober';
the Vulgate has sobrium. There can be no reason to give to ncephaleon here a
figurative sense ; and if such a sense were supposed, it would be more suitably
expressed by ' self-collected ' than by ' vigilant. ' Codices Aleph, A, and D read
nefphalion (i instead of e\ a mere orthographic difference.

SOBER] Stphrona, ' of sound mind ' = sober-minded. The order of terms is
instructive. The Christian overseer is to be necphaleon, 'abstinent ' — strictly sober
in body, in order that he may be sober in mind. Wiclif has 'prudent ' ; Tyndale
'discrete ' ; the Vulgate \a& prudentcm.

V. 3. NOT GIVEN TO WINE] Mtc paroinon, 'not near wine' =a banqueter.
The composition of this word is para, 'near,' and oinos, 'wine ' ; and the ancient
paroinos was a man accustomed to attend drinking-parties, and, as a consequence,
to become intimately associated with strong drink. As the Christian bishop ( =
overseer) had been previously enjoined to be nefphalion, it is probable that the
apostle intended by this word paroinos not so much the absence of personal inso-
briety, as absence from convivial entertainments where drinking was systematically
practiced, frequently terminating in quarrels and blows. The Christian minister
must not only be himself sober, but he must withhold his presence and sanction
from places and associations dangerous to the sobriety of himself and others.

Section 54 of the 'Law Book of the Ante-Nicene Church' has the following
canon : — " If any one of the clergy be taken (even) eating in a tavern, let him be
suspended, unless he is forced to bait at an inn upon the road."

[See Note on parallel passage, Titus i. 7, 8.]

CHAPTER III. VERSE 8.

Likewise must the deacons be grave, not double-tongued, not given
to much wine, not greedy of filthy lucre.

368 I TIMOTHY, III. 8.

NOT GIVEN TO MUCH WINE] Mee oino polio prosechontas, 'not addicted to much
wine.' The previous Note on ver. 3 will show that the apparent distinction in the
counsel to bishops 'not given to wine,' and to deacons 'not given to much wine/
has no foundation in the terms of the original.

The inference that some use of intoxicating liquor is sanctioned by this interdic-
tion of ' much wine ' will be found, on examination, premature and illusive.

1. Excessive drinking, even of uninebriating drinks, was a vice prevalent in the
days of St Paul, and corresponded to gluttony, also common, — the excessive use of
food, but not of an intoxicating kind. Prizes were often offered with the object,
not of producing inebriation, but of testing the powers of incontinent imbibition
to the utmost. Not a few of the early officers of Christian churches were, probably,
selected from men who had been notorious for such practices (called methusoi,
'topers,' by St Paul in writing to the Corinthians, 1st Epistle, vi. 10, 'and such
•were some of you,' ver. n); and the apostle here reminds them that such conduct
is inconsistent with their ' high calling ' as faithful servants of the Lord Jesus. He
is directing his exhortation against a common vice, and is not pronouncing any
opinion upon the nature of intoxicating liquors.

2. To argue that by forbidding ' much wine ' St Paul approves some use of wine
of any and every sort, is to adopt a mode of interpretation exceedingly dangerous,
and wholly inconsistent with common usage, (i) It is highly dangerous ; for once
lay it down that what is not forbidden is approved, and the Bible becomes a book
of the wildest license : ' Thou shalt do no murder ' becomes a permission to do
violence short of murder ; and ' Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath ' is a
reason for indulging in anger of any kind from sunrise to sunset ! (2) It is incon-
sistent with usage. When the apostle Peter says that the enemies of Christ won-
dered that believers did not go to ' the same excess of riot ' as themselves, he did
not mean that Christians might indulge in any minor excess. The next clause in this
verse illustrates the same point, — mee aischrokerdeis, ' not greedy-of-filthy-lucre,' or
'not meanly-avaricious,' says the apostle, but without any intention of justifying
avarice or trade craftiness in the smallest degree. So in the present day a Christian
may condemn some excess, without implying that a less indulgence would be
commendable ; nay, times without number, teetotalers have blamed men for going
' so much ' to the public-house, without signifying any approval of occasional visits.
Besides, it is morally impossible that St Paul could have intended to approve of
some use of all sorts of wine then made and used. Many wines were drugged ;
did he recommend these ? In his day, also, even sober heathens disapproved of
the use of fermented wine unless considerably diluted with water, — was the Chris-
tian moralist less indifferent than pagans to sobriety ? Various wines, too, were so
nauseous to a modern taste, that no apostolic patronage, however explicit, would
have induced English wine-drinkers to swallow them.

3. If it is asked -why St Paul did not directly forbid all use of wine ? — both a
special and a general answer may be returned. ( I ) The particular answer is, that
the term oinos (wine) included a great variety of drinks made from the juice of the
grape; and as many of these were free from an intoxicating quality, and others
were so weakened by water as to be practically non-inebriating unless voraciously
consumed, a universal proscription would have ignored important distinctions that
were well known to exist. (2) The general answer is, that, for wisest ends, the
apostle refrained from condemning by name much which the development of
Christian light and the operation of Christian love would hereafter show to be
inconsistent with the principles of the Christian system; and which, therefore,
would be renounced by true and enlightened disciples. Slave-holding, arbitrary

I TIMOTHY, IV. 3 — 5. 369

government, bigamy and polygamy, lots and gambling, were not prohibited.
Numerous objectionable customs of ancient times were not forbidden 'in express
terms. The apostles, it is clear, trusted to the effectual working of that Spirit of
truth and grace which dwelt in the Church, for the gradual elevation of human
character, and the progressive extinction of institutions and habits that were in any
degree discordant with the Divine principles of the Gospel. To obey the Father
in all things ; to be like the Son in purity ; to love as brethren ; to do good at all
sacrifices, as we have opportunity ; to suffer, rather than inflict wrong ; to resist
unavoidable temptation, and shun what we can; to make earth spiritually one
with heaven, — these were first principles which, conscientiously lived out, would
cover and comprehend a1! circumstances, and, in the long run, banish evil from
the world. Detailed and specific prohibitions, as under the Jewish theocracy, are
not of the genius of Christianity ; at any rate, we know they were not given ; and
what is most needed now, is an honest wish to apply the unchangeable canons of
Christian morality to every case of conscience as it arises, making such use of the
Old Testament as may enable us to perceive more clearly what is most practically
advantageous to us in this glorious endeavor. Actuated by this spirit, the ques-
tion will be — not whether intoxicating wine is prohibited by name in the New
Testament, but whether Scripture and Experience afford us such a knowledge of its
nature and results as, on Christian principles, binds us to renounce and dis-
countenance its use ?

CHAPTER III. VERSE n.

Even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in
all things.

SOBER] Netphalious, ' abstinent.' The A. V. here renders by ' sober ' the same
•word rendered ' vigilant ' in ver. 2. Among the Romans the use of intoxicating
wine (anciently called feme turn) was rigorously forbidden to all women, who, on
this account, were termed abstemia (from abs, 'from,' and temetum, 'wine'). The
first inhabitants of the seven-hilled City attached more importance to female
sobriety than is done by some professedly Christian nations. In Rome the primi-
tive temperance and chastity were, in lapse of time, superseded by luxurious indul-
gence and intemperance,— so that it was not without cause that in the apostle's
days women were enjoined to practice the strictest sobriety. Not satisfied with
the use of passttm, a sweet raisin-wine, which had been anciently permitted,
fashionable ladies had come to rival men in drinking-orgies ; and Juvenal draws a
disgusting picture of the zest with .which they made even innocent must to pander
to their debauched and morbid tastes. In Austria to this day, the ancient law of
female abstinence has been fostered, with the happiest result : so that, in the whole
kingdom, probably, there are not to be found as many female drunkards as exist
in an English town or an American village.

CHAPTER IV. VERSES 3—5.

3 Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats,
which God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them
which believe and know the truth. 4 For every creature of God is
good, and nothing to be refused, if it be received with thanksgiving :
s For it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer.
47

3/0 I TIMOTHY, IV. 3 — 5.

The 'meats ' (bromata) referred to by the apostle, include the fruits of the earth,
and whatever is fit to be eaten ; but to quote this text, as some have done, in
opposition to the temperance cause, is a lamentable perversion of Divine truth,
(i) Intoxicating liquors are not 'meats,' the amount of nourishment in them being
infinitesimally small.* (2) In their manufacture a great destruction of good food
inevitably occurs. (3) By their consumption, the means of procuring suitable and
sufficient food are denied to tens of thousands of families in our country alone.
(4) Abstinence from them would at once stimulate the demand and supply of food
to an extent hitherto unknown.

Every 'creature of God' (ktisma, created thing) 'is good' in the place where
He has placed it, and for the purpose for which He has designed it; nor is any-
thing He has fitted for food to be refused — cast away — churlishly or super-
stitiously ; but to be accepted with thanksgiving, being sanctified to the user by the
Word of God and by prayer. The fundamental idea of this passage is, that the
broma or ktisma is innocuous, safe, and adapted to the human organism by the
Creator. In regard to intoxicating drink, this idea is not only not realized, but is
essentially reversed. There is an expressive proverb that drinkers well know, but
are very apt to forgot — " God sends us food, and the devil sends us cooks." This
evinces that the common mind quite understands the difference between God's
work and brewers' work — between nature and art — between that which demon-
strates the Divine wisdom, and that which simply proves human perversity and
depravity. Who would tolerate the language made explicit, which, by an abuse
of the words of this passage, makes God not only a ' Creator,' but a brewer and a
gin-spinner? Stripped of its varnished pretence of piety, this is virtually what
the objector contends for, when he foolishly asserts that "alcohol is a creature, and
therefore to be received with thanksgiving." The analyses and experiments of
science prove, beyond all reasonable doubt, that alcohol is not 'meat' or food;
and not less so that Nature, in her laboratory, abstains from producing this special
article and seductive poison. "Nature," said Count Chaptal, the great French
chemist, half a century ago, "never forms spirituous liquors; she rots the grape
upon the branch, but it is art which converts the juice into [alcoholic] wine." Pro-
fessor Turner, in his 'Chemistry,' also affirms the non-natural character of alcohol.
" It does not exist ready formed in plants, but is a product of the vinous fermen-
tation " — a process which must be initiated, superintended, and, at a certain state,
arrested by art. The term ' sanctified ' shows that the apostle is here writing
against those who attached a ceremonial uncleanness to certain meats, or against
the early Gnostics, who ascribed all moral evil to material things. In opposition
to both theories, Paul teaches that nothing which is intrinsically adapted for food
is 'unclean' or 'evil,' and that it becomes, on the contrary, 'sanctified,' set apart
to a sacred use, if its reception is accompanied by devotion and praise. In this
teaching everything is in beautiful accordance with the Temperance principle, but
entirely out of harmony with the drinking system in all its parts ; for alcohol is not

• In an Analytical Report on Wines, published in the Lancet of October 26, 1867, it is said, " In
every 1,000 gram measures of the clarets and burgundies tested, the mean amount of albuminous
matter present was only i>£ grain, while in 1,000 grains by weight of raw beef there are no less than
207 grams of such matter; that is, the quantities being equal, beefsteak is 156 times more nutritious
" than wine. These figures clearly demonstrate the fact that the nutritive properties of the wines
referred to are exceedingly small, and the same statement applies equally to the Hungarian and
Greek wines analyzed : and, doubtless also, though not quite to the same extent, to the heavier and
richer wines, the ports and sherries." We find even so interested a witness as the great wine-
importing firm of Gilbey conceding in their annual circular dated October, 1867, that the fermen-
tation of grape-juice "throws off much of the body and richness of the fruit, so much so, indeed,
that it must be admitted the similarity of the juice of the grape before and after fermentation is
scarcely discernible " !

I TIMOTHY, V. 22, 23. 371

a food, is not a creature of God (in the sense here intended), its acceptance has
never been Divinely commanded, and its tendency to disturb and to destroy the
temple of man's body is not diminished by any thankfulness with which it is
mistakenly received.*

CHAPTER V. VERSE 22.

Lay hands suddenly on no man, neither be partaker of other men's
sins : keep thyself pure.

That we may not partake of other men's sins, we must not place in their path,
but remove from it, all occasions of transgression. An acquaintance with human
nature and social life will not leave us ignorant upon this point ; and who does
not know that the great bulk of the sins and crimes and sorrows of our nation
originate in the use of intoxicating liquors, and the temptations to that use every-
where diffused by fashion and law ? In the vigilant and earnest effort to keep our-
selves 'pure,' we must give a personal application to the knowledge we acquire of
human infirmities, and the sources of human error and failure. Self-confidence
must be repressed, and every impulse towards self-security, where others have
fallen. How often has the Christian professor exclaimed, in regard to intem-
perance, ' Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing? ' — And yet he has
done it, and done it because ' wine is a mocker and strong drink is raging.'
Personal purity cannot, prudently, dispense with any available guard; and it is an
office of Divine grace to indicate what these precautions are, and to incite to their
employment. Hence a knowledge of the deceitful influence of strong drink and
the havoc it has wrought should suffice for its exclusion, by way of negative
protection to that pureness of heart and life which is above all price. Especially
in regard to sexual impurity is the avoidance of alcoholic drink a defence that can-
not be too highly esteemed. Gross licentiousness could hardly be publicly visible
were its alliance with the fiery spirit of the vat dissolved.

CHAPTER V. VERSE 23.

Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy stomach's sake
and thine often infirmities.

DRINK NO LONGER WATER] Mceketi hudrop6teit 'no longer drink water '= no
longer be ' a drinker of water as thy only beverage.' ' To drink water,' and ' to be
a water drinker,' had a special signification among the Greeks, as among ourselves,
that of not using inebriating drinks.

BUT USE A LITTLE WINE] All* oino oligo chro, 'but make use of a little wine,'
probably, as suggested by some commentators, wine mixed with water — the only
way in which sober pagans took even fermented liquors ; at a time, too, when such

• " They thereby [not being content with hit Creature] insult the Creator, who hath bestowed on
man the powers arid faculties of innocent enjoyment. Efffndkosi teen aleethian — meaning, ' those
who have fully known the truth concerning meats ' : a knowledge, as Macknight says, necessary to
render the eating lawful.

" For every creature of God.} These words serve to explain the preceding, ' who know the truth ;
containing, as Hyperius observes, an arrumentum a causa, finali; q. a"., ' who well know, I «*y,
that everything created and supplied by God [for meat] is good and fit to be eaten.' Compare Gen.
i 31 "—(which was quite antecedent to brewing).— Dr S. T. Bloomneld'i Annotation!.

372 I TIMOTHY, V. 23.

liquors could not be ' fortified ' with ardent spirit, as is now done with nearly all
the wines consumed in this country.

FOR THY STOMACH'S SAKE AND THINE OFTEN INFIRMITIES] Dia ton stomachon
sou kai fas puknas sou astheneias, ' on account of thy stomach and thy frequent
weaknesses.' Codices Aleph, A, and D, omit the latter sou, 'thine.' Wiclif's
version runs, — "Nyle thou yit drynke water, but use a littel wyne for the stomak
and for the ofte fallynge in nrmytees." Tyndale has 'thyne often diseases,' which
is followed by Cranmer's and the Geneva version.

The reader will peruse with interest the thoughts of some eminent divines upon
this much abused text : —

CHRYSOSTOM. — "Why did not Paul restore strength to his stomach? Not
because he could not — for he whose garment had raised the dead was clearly able
to do this too, — but because he had a design of importance in withholding such
aid. What, then, was his purpose ? That even now, if we see great and virtuous
men afflicted with infirmities, we may not be offended ; for this was a profitable
visitation. If, indeed, to Paul a messenger of Satan was sent, that he should not
be exalted above measure, much more might it be so with Timothy, since the
miracles he wrought were enough to make him arrogant. For this reason he is
kept subjected to the rules of medicine, that he may be humbled and others may
not be offended, but may learn that they who performed such excellent actions
were men of the same nature as themselves. In other respects also Timothy seems
to have been exposed to disease, as implied by that expression, 'thine often
infirmities,' as well of other parts as of the stomach. He does not, however,
allow him to indulge freely in wine, but as much as was for health and not for
luxury."

CALVIN. — "What is said amounts to this: that Timothy should accustom
himself to drink a little wine for the sake of preserving his health ; for he does not
absolutely forbid him to drink water, but to use it as his ordinary beverage ; and
that is the meaning of the Greek hydropotcin. But why does he not simply advise
him to drink wine? for when he adds 'a little' he appears to guard against
intemperance, which there was no reason to dread in Timothy. I reply, this was
rather expressed in order to meet the slanders of wicked men, who would otherwise
have been ready to mock at his advice, on this or some such pretext : — ' What
sort of philosophy is this which encourages to drink .wine ? Is that the road by
which we rise to heaven ? ' In order to meet jeers of this kind he declares that
he provides only for a case of necessity, and at the same time he recommends
moderation. How few are there at the present day who need to be forbidden the
use of water ; or rather, how many are there that need to be exhorted to drink
wine soberly ! It is also evident how necessary it is for us, even when we are
desirous to act rightly, to ask from the Lord the spirit of prudence, that He may
teach us moderation."

DR GILL. — " Some by 'a little wine,' understand not the quantity but the quality
of the wine; a thin, small, weak wine, or wine mixed with water; and so the
Ethiopic version renders the words, " drink no more simple water (or water only),
but mix a little wine." Not as though there was any danger of Timothy's running
into an excess of drinking, but for the sake of others, lest they should choose such
a direction to indulge themselves in an excessive way ; and chiefly to prevent the
scoffs of profane persons, who otherwise would have insinuated that the apostle
indulged in intemperance and excess ; whereas this advice to the use of wine was

I TIMOTHY, V. 23. 373

not for pleasure and for the satisfying of the flesh, but for health, — 'for thy
stomach's sake,' to help digestion, and to remove the disorders which might attend
it. The Ethiopia version renders it, ' for the pain of thy liver and for thy perpetual
disease ' ; which last might be a pain in his head, arising from the disorder of his
stomach. The last clause we render, 'and thine often infirmities,' or weaknesses
of body, occasioned by hard studies, frequent ministrations, and indefatigable pains
and labors endured in spreading the gospel of Christ."

DR HAMMOND, in his learned 'Annotations' (1653).— " Use a little -wine.
This may be safely done by thee without incurring that danger of pollution,
(ver. 22). Without this way of setting it, it will not be conceivable how that which
immediately follows (ver. 23), should come in, ' Drink no longer water.' Yet this
I say, not to inderdict thee the medicinal use of wine."

DR WORDSWORTH, Canon of Westminster (Introduction and Notes to Greek
New Testament). — " ' Be no longer an hydropotees, ' a water drinker,' showing that
hitherto Timothy had been such. Thus St Paul bears testimony, and (as this
epistle was read in the church) a public testimony, to the temperance of the bishop
of Ephesus. Observe the prudent caution of the apostle's language. He does not
say meeketi hudor pine (no longer drink water), but meeketi hudropotei (be no longer
a water-drinker) ; nor does he say, oinon pine {drink wine), but oind oligo chr$
(use a little wine) ; nor does he say dia teen gasteera (on account of thy belly), but
dia ton stomachon sou (on account of thy stomach)."

Obs. l. The commentators have not got the true key to the passage, and hence
their conjectures and variations. ' Wine is a mocker ' to the judgment as well as
to the hope. The apparent abruptness in the introduction of this verse has induced
in some expositors a suspicion of its genuineness, and has led others (as Calvin and
Doddridge) to suggest that it may have formed at first a private marginal remark,
and been transferred by some transcriber to its present place. The difficulty of
allocation may be removed by supposing that when the apostle had written the
words, ' Keep thyself pure,' he remembered that, for this object, Timothy had con-
formed to the Nazarites' rule of abstinence, and calling to mind Timothy's state
of ill-health, he added, 'Drink no longer water,' etc., the connection of thought
being of this kind: — "Keep thyself pure— do so by all means, but let not thy
laudable anxiety for this end hinder thee using such wine, in small quantities, as
will diminish thy stomachic and frequent disorders."

2. The advice of St Paul is to be regarded as an expression of his paternal
kindness, and not as a peremptory and dictatorial mandate. St Paul did not so
much order his beloved son in the gospel to drink wine as give him permission to
do so, using a persuasiveness without which he doubtless knew Timothy would
not swerve from his rule of life. Timothy was between thirty and forty years of
age, and had probably adhered to this regimen from his earliest youth. Nor is it
fanciful to suppose that the habit had been formed beneath the eye, and aided by
the precept and example of his mother Lois and his grandmother Eunice. Under
their training he had ' known the Scriptures from a child ' ; and those passages
which describe the seductive influence of wine and strong drink had not been
overlooked by the youthful student and his maternal instructors.

3. The apostle does not ground his advice upon those objections to abstinence
so common with opponents of the Temperance Reform. He says not a word
about asceticism, about rejecting the bounties of Providence, about the duty of
encouraging temptation, or the intrinsic virtue of 'moderation,' etc. ; nor does he

374 J TIMOTHY, V. 23.

reflect on the motives of Timothy's abstinence, or insinuate that it was unfitted
for him in health or for men in general; but his language seems specially intended
to guard against any encouragement to a common use of vinous liquors — against,
in fact, the very treatment it has received from the advocates of tippling.

4. Nothing is plainer about this advice than that it was meanty^r Timothy alone,
and for reasons personal to him — his stomach affection and frequent maladies.
St Paul did not set up for physician-general to the Christian world in all ages, nor
did he prescribe wine as a panacea for all the diseases that flesh is heir to. If the
advice was given 'by commandment,' and not as an individual opinion, all its value
was derived from particular knowledge of the case. Of such knowledge, however,
modern drinkers are entirely destitute. They can only guess at the nature of the
disease, and wish for the special remedy to be such wine as they like. But he who,
for himself or others, prescribes a generic remedy for a generic disease — or, in
plain English, makes an unknown complaint, and an unknown remedy recorded in
antiquity, the ground of a modern prescription for a specific ailment, is rather a fool
than a physician.

5. The advice itself would be received with filial respect by Timothy, and acted
upon with an enlightened spirit, (i) He would use 'a little wine,' and as seldom
as needs be ; not for gratification, but for medicinal service. (2) He would have
regard to the end, and not conclude that a medicine once prescribed was to be
continued after it had answered its designed effect. (3) As oinos was the word
used, he would feel at liberty to take oinos (wine) of any species that was most
salutary, preferring, we may be sure, those kinds that were least exciting, and that
ministered least to sensualism and public vice. It is by no means certain that he
would even use an intoxicating sort of wine at all, for Pliny's account of wines
(book xiv.) shows that some sorts in good repute were not fermented; and of
adunamon ('without strength'), one of the artificial vina (wines), he expressly
declares that it was given to invalids when the ordinary wines were deemed likely
to be injurious. In book xxiii. chap. 26 he frankly remarks, that "to treat of the
medicinal properties of each particular kind of wine would be labor without end,
and quite inexhaustible ; and the more so as the opinions of medical men are so
entirely at variance upon the subject." Athenseus also speaks of the 'mild Chian'
and the 'sweet Bibline.' He says, "The sweet wine (glukus), which among the
Sicilians is called Pollian, may be the same as the biblinos oinos" (lib. i. chap. 56).
Of the sweet Lesbian he says, " Let him take glukus, either mixed with water or
warmed, especially that called protropos, as being very good for the stomach" (lib.
ii. chap. 24).*

6. The bearing of this text upon the Temperance Reform can now be distinctly
perceived: — (i) It does not condemn or discountenance abstinence from intoxi-
cating liquor as a rule of life in health, or for the sake of health, much less where
it is practiced from motives of benevolence and piety. (2) It does not sanction the
use of intoxicating liquor by men in general, or by any class or individual in par-
ticular. It marks an exception to a rule ; and since that exception had respect to

* The Materia Medico, of Dr A. Todd Thomson, London, has the following, as to the conditions
for prescribing wine : — " The quantity to be given, and the proper period of exhibiting it, require to
be regulated with much judgment. The quantity to be given depends entirely on the nature of the-
disease, and the intentions for which it is administered " (p. 715). •' Where health abounds, wine is
altogether unnecessary" (p. 716). " In Syria, the juice of ripe grapes inspissated, is used in great
quantities in diseases." It may be observed, that in infirmities dependent either upon excessive wear
and tear, or upon some defective supply of the salts of the blood, pure wine (/. e. the juice of grapes,
unfermented) is the very best restorer, since it is rich in digestible albumen, and in phosphoric acid
and the alkaline carbonates. Dr Curchod, of the wein-cur at Vevey, also says that it restores diges-
tion and acts beneficially in bilious affections.

I TIMOTHY, VI. 10. 375

a lifelong abstainer, it is applicable very indirectly, if at all, to others. /
habitual wine-drinkers, the law of parallelism would indicate that when they are
ill, they should try abstinence from the liquor which at least has not preserved
them from disease. If wine is good as a medicine, then, like other medicine, it
must prove most beneficial to those who are least accustomed to it when in health.
(3) As Timothy had abstained from wines of all kinds, fermented and unfermented,
boiled and unboiled, diluted and neat, he may have complied with the apostolic
prescription without consuming a drop of alcoholic liquor. Even //he partook of
some weak alcoholic wine, and derived benefit, no general conclusion in favor of
using alcohol even in disease — much less in health— could be philosophically
deduced; and recent investigations have shown a great decrease in mortality where
alcoholic liquors have been discarded from the treatment of the very diseases sup-
posed to be best affected by their administration. Allowing — what is beyond
proof — that St Paul advised an abstainer to use a little alcoholic liquor as a
medicine, the records of sophistry can hardly produce a match to the monstrous
conclusion — " Therefore, alcoholic liquors of all sorts are fit to be habitually
taken, by persons of all conditions, whether they are well or whether they are
ill"!!

CHAFFER VI. VERSE 10.

For the love of money is the root of all evil : which while some
coveted after» they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves

through with many sorrows.

1. This passage has been strangely cited in opposition to the statement that
strong drink is the source of much of the evil which afflicts and demoralizes
Society. But no text of Scripture can disprove a fact open to universal observa-
tion ; and it is doing dishonor to the Bible to bring it into even apparent collision
with the experience of mankind.

2. There is a further misapplication of this verse in quoting it as if ' money '
were referred to as the root of all evil, and not the Arcr-of-money, which is
expressed by one word in the original— -philarguria. Hence there is no true
parallel between money — which is the passive object of undue desire and abuse —
and strong drink, the physical action of which on the nerves and brain begets that
craving and appetite for itself which is at once a taint to the body and a tyranny
to the soul.

3. It may be strongly doubted whether the apostle intended to assert what the
A. V. ascribes to him— that love of money (the amor sceleratus habendi of Ovid)
is really the root of all evil. (Or Hammond paraphrases— 'what a deal of mis-
chief.') Covetousness is certainly not the root of all moral evil, nor is all, or a
major part of, human misery attributable to it. St Paul's words are — rhiza gar
pantdn t~m kak'm, ' for covetousness is a root of all the evils ' — /. e. of all the evils
just mentioned in the previous verse,— but not the exclusive root of even these; a
much more moderate proposition, and one confirmed by universal observation.

4. Not the least glaring illustration of the accursed love of mammon is painfully
exhibited by the colossal and retail traders in alcohol. Except for this philargtiria,
that traffic would not exist. The retailers ' go into ' the ' public house ' trade to make
a profit; many expect (to their disappointment) to gain a fortune; and the same
inducement is the mainspring of the wholesale manufacturers and dealers. They
may not intend to do harm, but though they see the infinite mischief inflicted, they

376 I TIMOTHY, VI. 10.

continue to trade in the waters of death. The effect upon themselves and their
families is frequently deplorable. John Wesley said of the drink-dealers of his
time, "All who sell spirituous liquors in the common way to any that will buy, are
poisoners-general. They murder His [God's] subjects by wholesale, neither does
their eye pity or spare. They drive them to hell like sheep ; and what is their gain ?
Is it not the blood of these men ? Who, then, would envy their large estates and
sumptuous palaces ? A curse is in the midst of them. Blood, blood is there ; the
foundation, the floor, the walls, the roof are stained with blood. And canst thou
hope, O thou man of blood ! though thou art clothed in scarlet and fine linen, and
farest sumptuously every day — canst thou hope to deliver down the fields of blood
to the third generation ? Not so ; for there is a God in heaven ; therefore, thy
name shall be rooted out, like as those whom thou hast destroyed, body and soul ;
thy memorial shall perish with thee." (Works, vol. vi. 129.)

THE

EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO TITUS.

CHAPTER I. VERSES 7, 8.

7 For a bishop must be blameless, as the steward of God ; not
selfwilled, not soon angry, not given to wine, no striker, not given to
filthy lucre ; 8 But a lover of hospitality, a lover of good men, sober,
just, holy, temperate.

V. 7. NOT GIVEN TO WINE] Afff paroitton, 'not near wine ' = not a banqueter.
[See Note on I Tim. iii. 3.]

V. 8. SOBER] Sophrona, 'sober-minded.'

TEMPERATE] Enkratee, ' temperate ' = self-restraining (as to the appetites) =
abstinent This word seems to answer to ntephaleon in I Tim. iii. 3. [See Note
on i Cor. ix. 25.]

CHAPTER II. VERSE 2.

That the aged men be sober, grave, temperate, sound in faith, in
charity, in patience.

SOBER] Necphalfous, 'abstinent.' [See Note on I Thess. v. 6.]
TEMPERATE] Stphronas, 'sober-minded.'

These variations of translation in the English version are much to be regretted,
since they hide the nice and just distinctions of the original, which point at once to
a more comprehensive and more specific form of temperance than the world is
willing to practice. These are, ( I ) the general virtue of temperance as self -restraint ;
(2) that moderation of the soul called ' patience,' or ' gentleness ' ; (3) that subjective
virtue called scntnd-mindfdnfss, compounded of right seeing and right willing ; (4)
the personal and specific practice of abstinence from things evil; and, therefore (5),
the discountenancing of drinking-fashions and feasts. To confound all these under
the vague and modern meaning of ' temperance,' is as absurd in criticism as it is
injurious in morals.

CHAPTER II. VERSES 3—6.

3 The aged women likewise, that they be in behavior as becometh
holiness, not false accusers, not given to much wine, teachers of good
things ; 4 That they may teach the young women to be sober, to love

378 TITUS, n. u, 12.

their husbands, to love their children, $ To be discreet, chaste, keepers
at home, good, obedient to their own husbands, that the word of God
be not blasphemed. 6 Young men likewise exhort to be sober
minded.

V. 3. NOT GIVEN TO MUCH WINE] Mee oino polld dedouZomenas, ' not addicted
to much wine.' W. H. Rule, D.D., in his * Brief Inquiry,' admits — " Grape-juice
was chiefly known in antiquity as the casual drink of the peasantry ; when carefully
preserved, as the choice beverage of epicures. The Roman ladies were so fond of
it that they would first fill their stomachs with it, then throw it off by emetics,
and repeat the draught " ( Wetstein in Acts ii. 13). We have referred to Lucian
for ourselves, and find the following illustration : — " I came, by Jove, as those
who drink gleukos, swelling out their stomach, require an emetic " (Philops. 39).
[See Note on I Tim. iii. 8.]

V. 4. THAT THEY MAY TEACH THE YOUNG WOMEN TO BE SOBER] Hina
tophronizosi tas neas, ' in order that they may cause the young women to be sober-
minded.'

V. 5. To BE DISCREET] Sophronas, 'sober-minded.'

V. 6. To BE SOBER MINDED] Sophronein, ' to be sober-minded.

CHAPTER II. VERSES n — 12.

ii For the grace of God that bringeth salvation hath appeared to
all men, 12 Teaching us that, denying ungodliness and worldly lusts,
we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world.

SOBERLY] Sophronois, 'sobermindedly.'

The apostle most appropriately and expressively connects the denial or sup-
pression of wordly lusts with the design of living 'sober-mindedly, righteously,
and devoutly in the present age.' The connection of intoxicating liquor with such
worldly lusts and the absence of sober-mindedness, rectitude, and piety, is too
prevalent and flagrant to be denied. The grace of God — the Divine favor
embodied in the Divine precepts, and impressing their holy dictates on the heart —
is beautifully said to be ' teaching us ' the denial of those lusts. Yet ' teaching '
is too weak a rendering of paideuousa, which signifies 'training' or 'disciplining.'
The office of Divine grace is not to sanction unsafe indulgence, and then prevent
the natural consequences, but to train the soul to the avoidance of all illicit desires
and fleshly tastes, and in short, of whatever is found in practice to interfere with
the highest development of the Christian life. Though gross drunkenness never
be exhibited, yet an appetite for alcohol may exist, pernicious to both body and
soul. The lust for a little may be as truly sinful as the lust for a larger quantity.

THE EPISTLE OF

ST PAUL TO PHILEMON.

VERSES 12, 16.

Whom I have sent again . . . receive .... Not now as a

servant [slave].

In the United States, a few years ago, this text was a favorite argument for the
toleration of slavery ; and the criticism employed might be exactly paralleled by
the arguments of English divines in favor of strong drink. The claim for grati-
tude and obedience made by God upon His people — and allowed in their triumphant
songs — was for deliverance from slavery— deliverance from the house of bondage ;
and the mission of our Lord was announced as that of opening the prison-doors
that the oppressed might go free. Is it credible that the Christian apostle could
mean to approve the institution of slavery ? Is it a correct inference that, because,
in the then state of the world, when the people had no political power to wield, —
when it would have been sheer madness to attempt to disturb the social frame-
work of political despotism, — therefore Paul held that people, under constituted
governments of their own, ought not to abate an infamous and inhuman system ?
He was preaching another Gospel, which, however, held seminally in its principle
the doom of all slaveries ; and even then, in the exhortation to Onesimus to exercise
patience, Paul does not forget to teach Philemon that, in the light of Christianity,
fraternity and fetters are incompatible.

The principle is applicable to the question of drinking. No amount of historical
permission can ever make the use of alcoholic liquor right. Every tree is known
by its fruit, and the fruitage of drinking is evil, and that continually.

THE GENERAL

EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS.

CHAPTER XIII. VERSE 16.

But to do good and to communicate forget not : for with such
sacrifices God is well pleased.

God is well-pleased with well-doing and almsgiving because He is Himself ever
doing good and communicating blessings to his creatures; and in imitation of
Him we should not forget to present Him with such sacrifices, — the most grateful
and becoming that can be offered. We may conclude from this passage, that wise
efforts — such as the Temperance Reform really is, for the prevention of poverty
and suffering, — are well-pleasing to the Most High; for they seek the welfare
of body, mind, and spirit, and they never fail to realize their ends whenever they
are permitted to operate. In the offering of such sacrifices, all Christian churches
and Christian professors would be most consistently engaged; and if so employed,
how immensely would the well-being of the human family be promoted !

John Wesley, in January, 1763, preached a sermon before the revived Society
for the Reformation of Manners, in which he says, " For this end a few persons in
London, toward the close of the last century, united together, and incredible good
•was done by them for near forty years. But then, most of the original members
being gone to their reward, those who succeeded them grew faint in their mind
and departed from the work, so that, a few years ago, the society ceased." As the
formation of this society manifested true Christian zeal and virtue, and the falling
away from its support evinced unfaithfulness and coldness; so to refuse to do
almost ' incredible good ' in the cause of Temperance is to incur the condemnation
of the text ; " He who knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to him */ is sin"

THE

GENERAL EPISTLE OF ST JAMES.

CHAPTER I. VERSES 13—15.

13 Let no man say when he is tempted, I am tempted of God : for
God cannot be tempted with evil, neither tempteth he any man:
14 But every man is tempted, when he is drawn away of his own lust,
and enticed. 15 Then when lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth
sin : and sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death.

Obs. I. As God cannot tempt men to evil, we may be fully assured that He
cannot approve the use of that which is intrinsically an insidious temptation to evil,
involving the ruin of millions of our species. Dr Thomas Reid, Professor of Moral
Philosophy, nearly a century ago, pointed out the true causation of the drinker's
lust and the drunkard's appetite: — "Besides the appetites which Nature hath
given us, for useful and necessary purposes, we may create appetites which Nature
never gave. The frequent use of things which stimulate the nervous system pro-
duces a languor when their effect is gone off, and a desire to repeat them. By this
means a desire of a certain object is created, accompanied by an uneasy sensation.
Both are removed for a time by [the use of] the object desired; but they return
after a certain interval. Such are the appetites which some men acquire for the
use of tobacco, for opiates, and for intoxicating liquors " (Works, Hamilton's Ed.,
p. 553). God creates no deceitful meats or drinks.

2. As subjective temptation lies in human lust (/'. e. illicit or ill-regulated desire
of any degree), it becomes our plain and positive duty to avoid whatever stimulates
this lust ; but who can name a stimulus to the chief vices of mankind comparable
to intoxicating drink ?

3. The craving for drink is most prolific in bringing forth sin, and of sin the
issue is death, physical and moral, temporal and eternal. Strong drink is a
deceitful but ceaseless destroyer ; and as every lust of the flesh finds in it its appro-
priate fuel and fire, its aggregate influence on human seduction and ruin baffles
alike calculation and conception.

CHAPTER III. VERSE 8.

But the tongue can no man tame; // is an unruly evil, full of
deadly poison.

AN UNRULY EVIL] Akatascheton kakon, an 'uncoercible evil.' Codices Aleph,
A, and B reads akatastaton kakon, 'a disorderly (or seditious) evil.'

382 JAMES, IV. I/.

It has been argued that "as the tongue is not to be cut out or unused, although
it is so strongly denounced, therefore wine, though styled ' a mocker,' is not to be
renounced." The reply is twofold : —

1. That St James uses the word * tongue ' figuratively, and as the mere organ
of that evil disposition which he describes as 'a deadly poison.' A child can
perceive that the tongue — the physical instrument — is not meant, and that were it
cut out the evil disposition would remain, and find expression another way. But
when it is said 'wine is a mocker,' the figure does not lie in the 'wine' but in the
word 'mocker,' the force of the figure consisting in the fact that wine itself,
actually and directly, exerts an effect upon the drinker entitling it to the name of
* mocker ' ; so that by the removal of the wine the whole of this effect must cease,
and so much of sin and misery be spared. If instead of ' wine ' we should say
'the cup is a mocker,' we should have a figure corresponding to the one in this
text, as ' cup ' would stand in the same relation to ' wine ' which ' tongue ' holds to
the 'evil heart,' whose venom it gives forth. Hence, —

2. This text, rightly understood, carries with it a conclusion directly opposite to
that of the objector; for as the 'poison ' complained of is not to be tolerated or
tampered with, so neither is the wine whose quality is described in analogous
terms. Get rid of the real moral agent — the bad disposition — and the tongue will
become pure ; so get rid of the real physical agent — the wine — and the cup that
contained it will be harmless.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 17.

Therefore to him that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to
him it is sin.

The original word translated ''good ' is kalon, ' beautiful ' == excellent ; and to
him who knows what is suitable to be done, and does it not, the omission is
counted as sin. (i) No positive act of evil is required — simply the neglect of what
is good. The first and worst neglect of Men is the neglect of the Truth ; and it is
now, as in the days of the Redeemer, the great condemnation, that though truth
has come into the world, men love darkness rather than light. The first duty of
man is truth-seeking, the second truth-ofomg. (2) No positive command is required,
Divine or social ; it is enough that the act would have been excellent or useful to
render the neglect, sin to the neglecter. (3) Knowledge is, of course, presupposed,
for he who does not know what is kalon, cannot consciously do it ; but men are
responsible for the possession of this knowledge, especially where it is easily attain-
able. St Paul had said that "whatever is not of faith," i. e. is not done from a
sense of right, "is sin"; and St James here presents the counterpart truth, that
it is also sin to know what is morally loveable and not to do it. This principle
effectually disposes of the objectors who refuse to recognize the duty of abstinence,
unless an explicit and universal command can be shown for it! Others fondly
think that so long as they do not ' admit ' the duty of abstinence, it is no duty to
them ! — as if idle ' opinions ' could overrule the law of God ! St James affirms a
doctrine quite different from this. According to him, a perception of the excellence
of abstinence — its suitableness and utility — constitutes a rule of duty which cannot
be neglected without guilt. Much care and charity is called for in applying this rule
to others, but wow-abstainers cannot be too candid and faithful in applying it to
themselves. Nor will the plea of want of knowledge avail for the past, unless the
ignorance has been unavoidable, without prejudice, and honest

THE FIRST

GENERAL EPISTLE OF ST PETER.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 13.

Wherefore gird up the loins of your mind, be sober, and hope to
the end for the grace that is to be brought unto you at the revelation
of Jesus Christ.

BE SOBER] Neephontes, 'being abstinent.' Codex B reads nephontes. The
ancient tradition which identifies St Peter with the Nazarites, gives peculiar force
to this use of necphontes ; as also does the figure employed — that of racers who
brace themselves up to their task, and who, exercising a complete control over
their appetites, hope on as they run, looking for the prize. In full accordance
with this view are the injunctions against 'former lusts' (ver. 14); to the practice
of holiness and fear (ver. 15 — 17); the figure of 'a holy priesthood offering up
spiritual sacrifices ' (chap. ii. 5); ' a royal priesthood' (ver. 9); and the warning
against ' fleshly lusts which war against the soul ' (ver. 1 1 ). Why should Christians,
as a race of priests, be found less careful than were the priests of Levi, who were
forbidden to use wine and strong drink when in attendance in the temple, lest they
should transgress and displease God? If fleshly lusts are to be avoided, what
else but common wisdom is it to renounce their most subtle and dangerous excite-
ment ? [On the opposition of the neephonist soul to strong drink, see the quota-
tion from Philo, in Note on I Thess. v. 6. ]

CHAPTER II. VERSES 13, 14.

13 Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord's
sake: whether it be to the king, as supreme; i4Or unto governors,
as unto them that are sent by him for the punishment of evildoers,
and for the praise of them that do well.

If a parenthesis be placed before ' whether ' and after ' by him,' or even a comma
after 'him,' a good sense will be realized, and the contradiction of the doctrine,
that as to some ordinances (' idolatry,' to wit) we must 'obey God rather than men/
will disappear. The word translated ' ordinance ' is literally ' creature ' (ktisis) ;
but the context shows the absurdity of understanding it without limitation. Tested
by the rule of this text (that the institution Christians must contentedly accept, is

384 I PETER, IV. I — 5.

one tkat represses evil-doing and encourages those citizens that do-well), the licensed
liquor traffic must be condemned as a mistake on the part of Government, which
frustrates the very end and aim of righteous law. The purpose of all social
arrangements should be, as Mr Gladstone has hinted, to make it hard to do wrong
and easy to do right.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 21.

For even hereunto were ye called : because Christ also suffered for
us, leaving us an example that ye should follow his steps.

EXAMPLE] Hupogrammos, f a word-or-writing copy ' = pattern for imitation.
This of course implies 'in like circumstances.' In John xiii. 15, we have
hupodeigma, 'a sample set under'' one's eyes for imitation or for warning, as the
nature of the case or the context may determine.

No passage has been more abused than this, when employed to justify the
gratification of our lusts. Men need no solemn exhortations to induce them to do
what is pleasant to the sensuous nature, but only to that which will mortify their
pride or curb their appetites; and in such connection, and for such ends, were
these Divine injunctions given. 'Christ also suffered for us, leaving us an
example,' — suffered patiently, piously, ungrudgingly, for you, that you might do
the same for others. We are to think, feel, and walk as He did; observing
His principles of self-denial, even where our circumstances may not be the same.
"But," as Professor John Brown, D.D., pithily remarks, "His circumstances and
ours are often very different ; so that an action which was right in Him might be
wrong in us. Knowing the hearts of men, for example, he spoke to hypocrites in
a way that it would be presumptuous in us to speak to any man. . . . We
should err if we were to draw the conclusion that we ought to have as little to do
with politics as Jesus Christ had ; for our place, as citizens of a free commonwealth,
is very different from His, who had no political standing at all in the existing
forms of rule, whether Jewish or Roman." — 'Expository Discourses,' x.) Our
Lord had a higher mission than seeking mere political reform by a hopeless local
agitation, for instance, against the corruptions and outrages of the slave-system
then prevalent. In this respect He was no 'example* to Englishmen and
Americans, who, having by Providence been invested with political influence and
privileges, have righteously combined and organized their power for the total
overthrow of the 'sum of all villanies,' thereby paving the way for the possible
practice of Christ's law of universal brotherhood.

CHAPTER IV. VERSES i — 5.

x Forasmuch then as Christ hath suffered for us in the flesh, arm
yourselves likewise with the same mind : for he that hath suffered in
the flesh hath ceased from sin ; 2 That he no longer should live the
rest of his time in the flesh to the lusts of men, but to the will of God.
3 For the time past of our life may suffice us to have wrought the
will of the Gentiles, when we walked in lasciviousness, lusts,

I PETER, IV. 7. 385

excess of wine, revellings, banquetings, and abominable idolatries :
4 Wherein they think it strange that ye run not with them to the same
excess of riot, speaking evil of you : 5 Who shall give account to him
that is ready to judge the quick and the dead.

V. 3. EXCESS OF WINE] Oinophlugials, 'vinous excesses.' Codex B reads
oinophlugiois, and Codex Aleph (first hand) has oinophntgiois, probably a copyist's
error.

REVELLINGS] Ifomois, 'debaucheries,' the rioting and immoralities consequent
on indulgence in wine.

BANQUETINGS] Potois, 'drinkings' =drinking-matches, social tippling. Per-
haps no better English equivalent could be suggested than 'wine-parties,' — a name
given to certain social gatherings very frequent among the undergraduates of our
national universities.

V. 4. THE SAME EXCESS OF RIOT] Teen auteen tees asotias anachutin, ' the same-
outpouring (redundancy) of dissoluteness.' Asutia, translated 'excess' in Ephes.
v. 18, is here rendered 'riot.' Anachusis signifies the act of emptying out, as of a
river pouring itself into the sea.

1. The apostle, in the above passage, draws a dark picture of the times, but the
testimony of contemporary writers corroborates its truth. The profligacy of the
Gentile world was boundless, and associated in all its exercises with the intoxicating
liquors then in use. [See the testimony of Pliny and Philo in the Note on Gal.
v. 19—21.]

2. That separation from all drinking associations which Christianity rendered
imperative, would go far to secure a state of sobriety little short of that now con-
nected with the Temperance movement ; and the spirit of this passage favors the
use of all expedients by which the blot of intemperance may be expunged or —
better still — averted. The surprise of the heathen that Christians did not exhibit
' the same ' profusion of ruinous depravity as themselves, is not to be regarded as
an admission that some profligacy was practiced by true Christians, or permitted by
their religion. Because excess in vice was interdicted, no inference in favor of
any indulgence in what was evil or dangerous could be properly drawn by them
or by us. The flagon may be denounced as a curse without an implicit approval
of the glass as being good or safe.

CHAPTER IV. VERSE 7.

But the end of all things is at hand : be ye therefore sober, and
watch unto prayer.

BE YE THEREFORE SOBER] SOphronffsate oun, 'be ye sober-minded, therefore.'

AND WATCH UNTO PRAYER] Kai neepsate fis fas proscuchas, 'and be abstinent

in order to the prayers.' Codices Aleph, A, and B omit the tas, 'the,' before

proseuchas, 'prayers.' That neepsate is here to be taken to refer to physical

sobriety, is probable from its association with sdfhronizo, denoting mental sobriety,

and from the natural antithesis of such a state to the vices depicted in ver. 3.

Bishop Jebb considers ' watching unto prayer ' as = ' vigilantly guarding against

whatever is unfriendly to devotion ' ; and the term selected (drink not), upon the

386 i PETER, v. 8.

face of it, suggests that ' strong drink ' is specially unfriendly, by destroying watch-
fulness. "The language," says Dr John Brown, "is peculiar. First, what is
meant by watching ? In the original signification it refers to a physical state of
the body and mind rather than to a moral state of the mind. It is descriptive of
that state in which all the faculties are awake and active." This, of course, is the
fit state for watching. Hence Sir B. Brodie, in his 'Psychological Inquiries,' lays
it down as a law, that night-nurses should abstain from the narcotic alcohol. And
it hardly needs argument to show that what antagonizes physical alertness, and
dims the physical eyes, is altogether incompatible with spiritual sensibility and
moral watchfulness, the conditions of enlightened, true, and acceptable prayer.
Wine, ' that tends to drowsiness in the brain,' cannot promote vigilance and piety
in the soul. If neepho is thought to be used frequently in the sense of ' to be calm,
cool, self-collected,' there is an implied reference to the state of body and mind
consequent on abstinence from exciting drinks. The passage may be paraphrased,
"The end of all things draws near; therefore be sober in mind and abstemious
in life, in order that you may be the better able to engage in the exercises of devo-
tion suitable to so solemn a crisis." [As to neepho, see Note on I Thess. v. 6 — 8.]

CHAPTER V. VERSE 8.

Be sober, be vigilant; because your adversary the devil, as a
roaring lion, walketh about, seeking whom he may devour.

BE SOBER] Neepsate, 'be abstinent.' The English translators here render by
' be sober ' the word they had rendered (chap. iv. 7) ' watch. '

BE VIGILANT] Greegoreesate, 'be wakeful.' This corresponds to the language
of St Paul (l Thess. v. 6), ' let us watch (greegoromen) and be sober (neephomeriy ;
and though the order is different, the sense is the same. St Paul mentions mental
wakefulness, and then abstemiousness as the physical condition of it ; St Peter first
names the physical condition, and then the mental result.

FOR YOUR ADVERSARY] Antidikos, 'accuser,' a legal term originally applied to
the plaintiff in a suit.

THE DEVIL] Diabolos, 'devil,' the tempter and calumniator of the good.

SEEKING WHOM HE MAY DEVOUR] Zeeton tina katapiee, 'seeking whom he
may swallow (drink) down.' The contrast between neepsate (from nee pino, ' not
to drink') and katapiee (from katapino, 'to drink down') has not escaped the
observation of Dr Adam Clarke, who thus comments: — "It is not every one that
he can swallow down. Those who are sober and vigilant are proof against him ;
these he may not swallow down. Those who are drunk with the cares of this
world, and are unwatchful, these he may swallow down. There is a beauty in this
verse, and striking apposition between the first and last words, which I think have
not been noticed ; — Be sober, neepsate, from nee, not, and piein, to drink — do not
swallow down — and the word katapiee, from kata, down,, and piein, to drink. If
you swallow strong drink down, the devil will swallow you down. Hear this, ye
drunkards, topers, tipplers, or by whatsoever name ye are known in society, or
among your fellow-sinners, strong drink is not only your way to the devil, but the
devil's way into you. Ye are such as the devil particularly may swallow down."

I PETER, V. 8. 387

Professor John Brown, D.D., in his ' Discourses on the First Epistle of St Peter/
confirms this interpretation of neepsate : — "Its proper signification is ' to be absti-
nent,' etc. The word may be understood either literally or figuratively. If
literally, we are here taught that temperance is necessary, in order to our resisting
the devil. And, certainly, nothing can be more obviously true. The natural
tendency of intoxicating drinks is to diminish the power of conscience and reason,
and to increase the power of the lower principles of our nature, animal appetite and
irascible feeling. It increases the strength of what needs to be restrained, and
weakens the strength of what is fitted and intended to restrain. While this is
undoubtedly tntf, and highly important, [yet] as the corresponding [rather, con-
sequential] term, 'be vigilant,' is plainly to be understood in a figurative sense, we
apprehend the expression before us must also be interpreted figuratively ; an inter-
pretation which substantially includes the literal meaning^ while it includes much
more" (iii. p. 356). This is certainly an oversight on the part of the Professor,
since there is no canon of criticism to compel all words in a sentence to be under-
stood collectively in a literal, or collectively in a metaphorical sense ; and it is here
quite plain that physical intoxication does induce moral narcotism. Indeed, it is
not clear what ' figurative ' temperance can mean in this connection.

THE SECOND

GENERAL EPISTLE OF ST PETER.

CHAPTER I. VERSE 6.

And to knowledge temperance ; and to temperance patience ; and
to patience godliness.

TEMPERANCE] Enkrateian, 'self-restraint* (/. e. as to the appetites). The
Vulgate has abstinentia, which is also followed by Wiclif, 'abstynence.' Tyndale
has 'temperancy.' As to enkrateia, see Notes on Acts xxiv. 25, I Cor. ix. 25, and
Gal. v. 25.

The whole paragraph (ver. 5 — 8) is a beautiful figure drawn from the ancient
choral dance. The question whether the order of the graces here enumerated is
accidental, has been generally answered in the negative, though there is some
difference of opinion as to the purpose of the apostle in the arrangement as it
stands. Some have sought the key in the tendency of one grace to induce the next
in succession — the tendency of true 'faith* to produce 'virtue,' i.e. moral courager
of virtue to induce 'knowledge,' and of knowledge to beget 'temperance,' etc. ;
while others, with perhaps more insight, have sought the clue of connection in the
necessity of so conjoining one grace with another, that a certain tendency to excess
may be arrested ; as if the apostle had said, " In order that faith may not indispose
to active effort, add to it moral vigor; and lest acts of daring absorb you, add to
them knowledge; and lest knowledge render you careless of a pure morality,
exercise self-restraint over bodily desires ; and lest physical continence make you
too self-regarding, add to it patience" — the subjective and objective being so united
as to prevent an undue preponderance of either. The importance attached to
' temperance ' in the great code of Christian ethics cannot be denied ; and experience
has proved that the spirit of temperance cannot be more wisely exemplified than
in promoting abstinence from intoxicating drinks. Knowledge, when sufficiently
comprehensive, prompts to this course ; and temperance, so exhibited, is followed
by practical benefits, which knowledge in itself cannot impart, and is a guard
against evils from which knowledge in the abstract cannot protect. Many are the
warning examples of men who have vainly trusted in ' knowledge ' and intellect to
save them from the insidious and ensnaring influence of strong drink.

THE BOOK OF

THE REVELATION OF ST JOHN.

CHAPTER II. VERSE 14.

But I have a few things against thee, because thou hast there them
that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a
stumblingblock before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed
unto idols, and to commit fornication.

The sin of Balaam consisted in his accursed love of filthy lucre, which led him
to suggest to Balak certain means of tempting Israel to sin. But the Divine
punishment fell not only on the guilty Moabites, but on the still more guilty
prophet The ' wages of unrighteousness ' proved his destruction. Is it not
to be deeply deplored that, for Mammon's sake, tens of thousands of men are
found in our professedly Christian land to set before their neighbors a snare in the
form of temptations to indulgence in intoxicating liquors, by which every kind of
disease and lust is generated or inflamed? And though the Government tax on
these liquors may be regarded as a restriction upon their use, the effect of the tax,
in adding to the revenue, is demoralizing to the State. This was perceived by the
Rev. John Wesley, who, in his 'Thoughts on Scarcity,' published in 1773, after
characterizing ardent spirit as 'poison that destroys not only the strength of life,
but also the morals of our countrymen,' exclaimed, " Oh, tell it not in Constantinople
that the English raise the royal revenue by selling the flesh and blood of their
countrymen."

CHAPTER VI. VERSE 6.

And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, A measure
of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny ; and
set thou hurt not the oil and the wine.

THE OIL AND THE WINE] To elaion kai ton oinon, 'the oil and the wine.'
Hence both oil and wine seem put for the solid fruits, the olive and the grape
yielding the fluid oil and oinon, if, indeed, the olive tree and vine be not intended.
Wetstein gives, as an illustration of this phraseology, an extract from Cicero's
Natura Deorum (ii. 12): — Quid de vitibus olivetisque dicam, quorum ubtrrimi
lactissimiqut fructus nihil omnino ad btstias ftrtinent ? — ' \Vhat shall I say of vines
and olive trees, whose richest and juciest fruits are not the least adapted to the

39° REVELATION, VIII. IO, II.

beasts ?' The notion that Mohammedanism is intolerant of the vine is a Westera
view, though sanctioned by so recent and generally excellent a witness as Dean
Stanley, who says, in his 'Palestine and Sinai,' p. 421, speaking of the vine, that
Christians and Jews alone ' can properly cultivate what is to Mussulmans a for-
bidden fruit'; whereas Mohammed, in the Koran, chap. 16, expressly distinguishes
between the natural produce of the vine and the artificial preparations of the wine-
maker: — "We give you to drink pure milk, which is swallowed with pleasure by
those who drink it. And of the fruits of palm trees and of grapes ye obtain an
inebriating liquor, and also good nourishment;" on which Sale remarks, "Not
only wine, which is forbidden, but also lawful food, as dates, raisins, a kind of
honey flowing from the dates, and vinegar."

CHAPTER VIII. VERSES 10, u.

10 And the third angel sounded, and there fell a great star from
heaven, burning as it were a lamp, and it fell upon the third part of
the rivers, and upon the fountains of waters; n And the name of the
star is called Wormwood : and the third part of the waters became
wormwood : and many men died of the waters, because they were
made bitter.

V. u. WORMWOOD] Ho apsinthos. Dr Alford, in his Note on this passage,
offers the following remarks : — " It is hardly possible to read of this third plague
and not to think of the deadly effect of these strong spirituous drinks, which are, in
fact, water turned into poison. The very name absinthe is not unknown in their
nomenclature, and there is no effect which could be more aptly described by the
falling of fire into water as this which results in ardent spirit, in that which the
simple islanders of the South Sea call fire-water. That this plague may go on to
destroy even this fearful proportion of the ungodly [a third] in the latter days, is
far from impossible, considering its prevalence, even now, in some parts of the
civilized world. But I mention this rather as an illustration than as an interpreta-
tion." It is a curious coincidence that the most deadly form of ardent spirit yet
manufactured in Europe — a veritable ' poisoned poison ' — is called absinthe. It is
of a green color, and, when not adulterated with copper, derives its peculiar hue
and bitter taste from a vegetable production.* The observations of Dean Alford
do him credit as evincing a feeling appreciation of the ravages of ardent spirit ; but
he can scarcely have been ignorant that similar havoc has been caused by other
forms of inebriating liquor. He is pleased to term distilled spirit ' water turned
into poison,' yet (strange inconsistency) the poisonous element in distilled spirit is
identical with the intoxicating agent which, according to the Dean, the Lord
directly infused into the water at the Cana wedding-feast, and thereby converted it
into wine ! In ardent spirit the alcohol formed by fermentation is not so diluted
as in fermented drinks, but chemically it is the same, and operates physiologically
in an exactly similar way. Very much also of the ardent spirit consumed as grog,
punch, and spirits-and-water, is possessed of an alcoholic potency much less than
that of the ports and sherries in fashionable use.

* The chief seat of its manufacture is amongst the Jura mountains, the agents being monks, who
derive an immense revenue from its sale.

REVELATION, XIV. 8, IO, 1 8 — 2O. 391

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 8.

And there followed another angel, saying, Babylon is fallen, is
fallen, that great city, because she made all nations drink of the wine
of the wrath of her fornication.

OF THE WINE OF THE WRATH OF HER FORNICATION] Ek tou oinou tou
thumou tees porncias autees, 'from the wine of the heat [or passion] of her forni-
cation.'

The Christian seer (like the elder prophets of Judaism) employs intoxicating
wine as a striking symbol of spiritual iniquity.* By thumos here is, probably, not
to be understood 'wrath,' since 'the wine of fornication' is not productive of
anger, but of furious illicit desire. Both 'rage' and 'passion' have in English
the sense of mental excitement, taking the form either of anger or vehement
desire. If thumos is interpreted in the sense of 'wrath,' the meaning must be
that the ' fornication ' spoken of is a means of provoking the wrath of God as dis-
played in his punitive dispensations.

CHAPTER XIV. VERSE 10.

The same shall drink of the wine of the wrath of God, which is
poured out without mixture into the cup of his indignation ; and he
shall be tormented with fire and brimstone in the presence of the holy
angels, and in the presence of the Lamb.

OP THE WINE OF THE WRATH OF GOD, WHICH IS POURED OUT WITHOUT
MIXTURE] Ek tou oinou tou thumou tou Thcou, tou kekerasmenou akratou, 'from
the wine, mingled, unmixed (undiluted), of the wrath of God.'

The English translators have missed the true sense and force of the original,
for the wine is kekerasmenon, 'mixed' (not 'poured out'); and also akraton,
1 unmixed ' — that is, it is mixed with powerful drugs to render it more heady, but
4 unmixed ' with water by which its potency would be reduced. This verbal
paradox imparts to the description a startling vividness and lurid glow. [See Note
on Isa. Ixiii. 6.]

CHAPTER XIV. VERSES 18 — 20.

isAnd another angel came out from the altar, which had power
over fire ; and cried with a loud cry to him that had the sharp sickle,
saying, Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and gather the clusters of the vine
of the earth ; for her grapes are fully ripe. 19 And the angel thrust
in his sickle into the earth, and gathered the vine of the earth, and
cast it into the great winepress of the wrath of God. 20 And the
winepress was trodden without the city, and blood came out of the
winepress, even unto the horse bridles, by the space of a thousand
and six hundred furlongs.

• Benson, following Bishop Newton, has this comment : " Th* wint t>f her vrraik— or rather, ' of
the inflaming wine ' of her fornication. Hers was a kind of circean cup. with poisoned liquor to
intoxicate and inflame mankind to spiritual fornication. St John, in these figures, copies the ancient
prophets."

, 392 REVELATION, XVII. I, 2.

V. 1 8. AND GATHER THE CLUSTERS OF THE VINE OF THE EARTH] Kai trugeesOH
tous botmas tees ampelou tees gees, ' and pick the grapes (or grape-clusters) of the
vine of the earth.'

FOR HER GRAPES ARE FULLY RIPE] Hoti eekmasan ai staphulai autees, ' because
her grapes are perfectly ripe.'

V. 19. AND GATHERED THE VINE OF THE EARTH] Kai etrugeese teen ampelon
tees gees, ' and picked the vine of the earth.' The principal MSS. read tees ampe-
lou, 'of the vine.'

THE GREAT WINEPRESS OF THE WRATH OF GOD] Teen leenon tou thumou tou
Theou teen megaleen, ' the press, the great (one) of the wrath of God.'

V. 20. THE WINEPRESS . . OUT OF THE WINEPRESS] Hee leenos . . ek
tees leenou.

This descriptive imagery closely resembles that employed in Joel iii. 13. The
vine of the earth represents earthly-minded corrupt human nature ; and this vine
is stripped of its fruit, — viz. the evil-hearted of our race, who are cast into * the
press of the Divine wrath,' so called because the wrath of God causes it to be
trodden, — a figure of the penal afflictions which Divine Providence will bring upon
the incorrigibly guilty.

CHAPTER XVI. VERSE 19.

And the great city was divided into three parts, and the cities of
the nations fell: and great Babylon came in remembrance before
God, to give unto her the cup of the wine of the fierceness of his
wrath.

THE CUP OF THE WINE OF THE FIERCENESS OF HIS WRATH] To poteerion tou
oinou tou thtimou tees orgees autou.

This metaphor differs from that presented in chap. xiv. 1 8 — 20, for here the
' fierceness of the wrath ' of God is described under the image of a cup of wine,
intoxicating and maddening to those who are compelled to drink it up. [See
Notes on Psa. Ixxv. 8; Isa. li. 17, 22; Jer. xiii. 12, 13; Ezek. xxiii. 31 — 34.]

CHAPTER XVII. VERSES i, 2.

i And there came one of the seven angels which had the seven
vials, and talked with me, saying unto me, Come hither ; I will shew
unto thee the judgment of the great whore that sitteth upon many-
waters : 2 With whom the kings of the earth have committed fornica-
tion, and the inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk with the
wine of her fornication.

V. 2. HAVE BEEN MADE DRUNK WITH THE WINE OF HER FORNICATION]
Emethitstheesan ck tou oinou tees pomeias autees, ' have been made drunk (made
themselves drunk) from the wine of her fornication.'

REVELATION, XIX. 1$. 393

Spiritual whoredom is represented as ' wine ' made enticing to the taste, but
possessed of a terrible power to confuse the understanding and corrupt the heart

CHAPTER XVII. VERSE 6.

And I saw the woman drunken with the blood of the saints, and
with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus : and when I saw her, I won-
dered with great admiration.

DRUNKEN] Methuousan, ' drunk '= filled to the full = gorged. The meaning
of methuo here is clearly one of fulness or satiety, as the ' blood of saints and mar-
tyrs ' could not be supposed to cause even metaphorical intoxication.

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 3.

For all nations have drunk of the wine of the wrath of her fornica-
tion, and the kings of the earth have committed fornication with her,
and the merchants of the earth are waxed rich through the abundance
of her delicacies.

OF THE WINE OF THE WRATH OF HER FORNICATION] Ek tou oitlOU tou thuntOU

tees porneias autees. Codices A and B omit tou oinou, * of the wine ' ; and Codex C
reads, ek tees porneias tou thumou autees, 'of the fornication of her wrath.' If the
A. V. is held to be correct, the term 'wrath' must be regarded as applied
to the cup of fornication prophetically, indicating the consequences which it*
reception should involve. [See Note on chap. xiv. 8.]

CHAPTER XVIII. VERSE 13.

And cinnamon, and odors, and ointments, and frankincense, and
wine, and oil, and fine flour, and wheat, and beasts and sheep, and
horses, and chariots, and slaves, and souls of men.

AND WINE] Kai oinon. Here natural and artificial things are all commingled.

CHAPTER XIX. VERSE 15.

And out of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with it he should
smite the nations : and he shall rule them with a rod of iron : and he
treadeth the winepress of the fierceness and wrath of Almighty God.

AND HE TREADETH THE WINEPRESS OF THE FIERCENESS AND WRATH OF
ALMIGHTY GOD] Kai autos patei teen leenon tou oinou tou thumou tees orgees tou
Theou tou pantokratoros, 'and he treadeth the press of the wine of the fierceness
and of the wrath of the Almighty God.' [See Note on chap. xiv. 18—20.]
50

394 REVELATION, XXII. I/.

CHAPTER XXII. VERSE 17.

And the Spirit and the bride say, Come. And let him that heareth
say, Come. And let him that is athirst come. And whosoever will,
let him take the water of life freely.

THE WATER OF LIFE] Ho hudor zoees, ' the water of life '= the living water.
As the terrestrial paradise was supplied with * a river that went out of Eden to
water it' (Gen. ii. 10), so the vision of the celestial paradise (Rev. xxii. i) pre-
sents the enchanting spectacle of "a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal,
proceeding out of the throne of God and of the Lamb"; and it is of this 'living
water ' — the unpolluted and peerless Truth of God — that the children of men are
now invited to drink, that they may desire those richer and deeper draughts which
heaven will yield. It is not without an instructive design that ' water ' receives the
denomination 'living,' for what of life would remain on earth were water to be
banished from it ? And it is not less significant that the Holy Spirit employs the
' living water ' of earth to typify the truth by which the life of all redeemed and
happy souls is sustained for evermore. Contrasting such an emblem with the
inspired allusions to intoxicating wine, as symbolic of moral seduction, corruption,
and infatuation on the one hand, and Divine indignation and retribution on the
other, we shall have ourselves alone to blame if we mistake the place that ought
to be assigned in our own judgment to these material hieroglyphs of moral and
spiritual realities. To prize and use with thankfulness such water, and to reject
with resolution such wine, cannot be other than the dictate of the wisdom from
above 'which is profitable to direct,' and concerning which it is said, 'Her ways
are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace.' Such 'wisdom is ever
justified of her children ' ; and in the numberless benefits, personal and social,
physical and moral, which have resulted from a faithful adherence to the true
Temperance principle of 'abstinence from all that can intoxicate,' the Divine
benediction is to be traced as clearly as in the great natural processes whereby the
' face of the earth ' is renewed from year to year. Pure, life-giving water is the
representative of the Temperance Reformation, as alcoholic, life-impairing wine is
of the drinking customs of society; and as are the representatives, so are the
effects ; and as are the effects, so should be the choice of all men and women who
delight in purity, who love mankind, and who seek to worship God ' in spirit and
in truth.'

" Wine, like man its maker, flows,

Mirth mixed up with many woes ;

But Water, made by Him above,

For ever flows a stream of Love."

APPENDICES.

The impartial reader is respectfully apprised, that in the Notes of the Commentary every known,
it is believed almost every possible, critical Objection, has been answered by anticipation, thus doing
away with the need for formal and unpleasant controversy. An uncritical and suicidal article against
some of the positions of Dr Lees — founded on partial citation of his writings — has appeared in the
Bibliotheca Sacra, and been reprinted in an Irish (so-called religious) magazine, which has refused
the correction of its errors and inconsistencies. Our last Appendix, however, supplies ample material
of refutation. In reply to the vicious insinuation that the temperance proclivities of Dr Lees have
warped his critical judgment, we need only say that the temperance cause would be better sustained
by viewing tirosh as a species of yayin. We, however, cannot sacrifice principle to party zeal or
personal inclinations: with us Truth is every thing, or nothing.

APPENDIX A.

A SELECTION OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS,

EXHIBITING THE AUTHORIZED ENGLISH VERSION WITH SUGGESTED
EMENDATIONS.

[Of the passages considered in this COMMENTARY, the following are the principal
concerning which it is believed that a Revised Rendering is desirable. The
reason for each version will be found in the Notes upon each Text respec-
tively. The words in parentheses are designed to convey the full sense of the
original terms.]

I.— THE OLD TESTAMENT.

AUTHORIZED VERSION.

GENESIS 9. 20. And Noah began to
be an husbandman, and he planted a
vineyard : 21. And he drank of the
wine, and was drunken ; and he was
uncovered within his tent.

PROPOSED RENDERING.

And Noah began to be a cultivator of
the soil, and he prepared a vineyard.
And he drank of the juice-of-the-grape,
and was filled to repletion ; and he was
uncovered within his tent.

27. 28. Therefore God give thee of
the dew of heaven, and the fatness of
the earth, and plenty of corn and wine.

Therefore God give thee of the dew
of heaven, and the fatness of the earth,
even abundance of corn and vine-fruit.

27. 37. And Isaac answered and said
unto Esau, Behold, with corn and wine
have I sustained him.

And Isaac answered and said unto
Esau, Behold, with corn and vine-fruit
have I sustained him.

35. 14. And he (Jacob) poured a drink And he (Jacob) poured a libation
offering thereon. ' thereon.

[N. B.— In all other places where ' drink-offering ' occurs in the A. V., the
proper translation is ' libation ' — ;'. t. the pouring out of some liquid. ]

398

APPENDIX A.

40. 9. And the chief butler told his
dream to Joseph, and said to him, In
my dream, behold, a vine was before
me; 10. And in the vine were three
branches : and it was as though it bud-
ded, and her blossoms shot forth; and
the clusters thereof brought forth ripe
grapes.

And the chief cup-bearer told his
dream to Joseph, and said to him, In
my dream, behold a vine was before
me. And in the vine were three bran-
ches, and the vine was upon the point
of budding; (then) it burst into flower;
(then) its stalk-clusters ripened into
grapes (fit for gathering).

43. II. And a little honey.

And a little grape-hohey.

43. 44. And they (the brethren) drank,
and were merry with him (Joseph).

And they drank, and were well filled
with him.

49. II. Binding his foal unto the vine,
and his ass's colt unto the choice vine ;
he washed his garments in wine, and his
clothes in the blood of grapes : 12. His
eyes shall be red with wine, and his
teeth white with milk.

Binding his foal to a vine, and his
ass's colt to a sorek-vine, he shall wash
his garments in wine and his clothes in
the blood of grapes. His eyes shall be
purple-stained with wine, and his teeth
white with milk.

And they shall eat the flesh in that
night, roasted with fire, and sweet (=un-
fermented) cakes. Seven days shall ye
eat unfermented cakes ; even the first
day ye shall put away ferment (what-
ever-can-cause-fermentation) out of your
houses : for whosoever eateth what is
fermented from the first day until the
seventh day, that soul shall be cut off
from Israel. And ye shall attend to the
unleavened cakes. In the first month,
on the fourteenth day of the month at
even, ye shall eat unleavened cakes until
the one and twentieth day of the month
at even. Seven days shall there be no
ferment found in your houses; and
every one eating a fermented thing, even
that soul shall be cut off from the con-
gregation of Israel, whether he be a
stranger, or born in the land. Ye shall
eat nothing that has been fermented ; in
all your habitations shall ye eat unfer-
mented cakes.

[N.B. — In all other places where the A. V. gives /unleavened bread,' 'leaven,'
'leavened bread,' and 'that which is leavened,' the preferable readings are —
'unfermented cakes,' 'ferment,' 'fermented cakes,' and 'that which is fer-
mented.']

EXODUS 12. 8 And they shall eat the
flesh in that night, roast with fire, and
unleavened bread. 15. Seven days shall
ye eat unleavened bread ; even the first
day ye shall put away leaven out of your
houses : for whosoever eateth leavened
bread from the first day until the seventh
day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel.
17. And ye shall observe the feast of
unleavened bread. 18. In the first
month, on the fourteenth day of the
month at even, ye shall eat unleavened
bread, until the one and twentieth day
of the month at even. 19. Seven days
shall there be no leaven found in your
houses : for whosoever eateth that which
is leavened, even that soul shall be cut
off from the congregation of Israel,
whether he be a stranger, or born in the
land. 20. Ye shall eat nothing leavened;
in all your habitations shall ye eat un-
leavened bread.

NUMBERS 18. 12. All the best of the
oil, and all the best of the wine, and of
the wheat, the firstfruits of them which
they shall offer unto the Lord, them
have I given thee.

All the choice part of the olive-and-
orchard-fruit, and all the choice part of
the vine-fruit, and of the corn ; the first-
fruits of them which they shall offer unto
the Lord, them have I given thee.

APPENDIX A.

399

28. 7. And the drink offering thereof
shall be the fourth part of an hin for the
one lamb : in the holy place shalt thou
cause the strong wine to be poured unto
the Lord for a drink offering.

And the libation thereof shall be the
fourth part of a hin for the one lamb : in
the holy place shalt thou cause the sweet
drink to be poured out unto the Lord
for a libation.

DEUTERONOMY 7. 13. And he will
love thee, and bless thee, and multiply
thee : he will also bless the fruit of thy
womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy
corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the
increase of thy kine, and the flocks of
thy sheep, in the land which he sware
unto thy fathers to give thee.

And he will love thee, and bless thee,
and multiply thee : he will also bless the
fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy
land, thy corn, and thy vine-fruit, and
thine olive-and-orchard-fruit, the in-
crease of thy kine, and the flocks of thy
sheep, in the land which he sware unto
thy fathers to give thee.

II. 14. That I will give you the rain That I will give you the rain of your
of your land in his due season, the first land in his due season, the first rain and

rain and the latter rain, that thou mayest
gather in thy corn, and thy wine, and
thine oil.

the latter rain, that thou mayest gather
in thy corn, and thv vine-fruit, and thine
olive-and-orchard-fruit.

12. 17. Thou mayest not eat within Thou mayest not eat within thy gates
thy gates the tithe of thy corn, or of thy the tithe of thy corn, or of thy vine-fruit,
wine, or of thy oil. or of thine olive-and-orchard-fruit.

T 't*

Lord

And thou shalt eat before the
God, in the place which he

And thou shalt eat before the Lord
thy God, in the place which he shall

shall choose to place his name there, the choose to place his name there, the tithe
tithe of thy corn, of thy wine, and of of thy corn, of thy vine-fruit, and of thine

thine oil.

olive-and-orchard-fruit.

14. 26. And thou shalt bestow that
money for whatsoever thy soul lusteth
after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine,
or for strong drink, or for whatsoever
thy soul desireth: and thou shalt eat
there before the Lord thv God, and thou
shall rejoice, thou, and thine household.

And thou shalt bestow that money for
whatsoever thy soul loveth, for oxen, or
for sheep, or for wine, or for sweet-drink,
or for whatsoever thy soul desireth : and
thou shalt eat there before the Lord thy
God, and thou shalt rejoice, thou, and
thine household.

16. 13. Thou shalt observe the feast
of tabernacles seven days, after that thou
hast gathered in thy corn and thy wine.

Thou shalt observe the feast of taber-
nacles seven days, with thy gathering
from thy threshing-floor and thy wine
press.

1 8. 4. The firstfruit also of thy corn,
of thy wine, and of thine oil, and the
first of the fleece of thy sheep, shalt thou
give him.

The firstfruit also of thy corn, of thy
vine-fruit, and of thine olive-and-orchard-
fruit, and the first of the fleece of thy
sheep, shalt thou give him.

21. 20.

drunkard.

He is a glutton and a lie is a profligate and a toper.

4OO

APPENDIX A.

28. 51. And he shall eat the fruit of
thy cattle, and the fruit of thy land,
until thou be destroyed : which also shall
not leave thee either corn, wine, or oil,
or the increase of thy kine, or flocks of
thy sheep, until he have destroyed thee.

And he shall eat the fruit of thy cattle,
and the fruit of thy land, until thou be
destroyed ; who also shall not leave thee
either corn, vine-fruit, or olive-and-or-
chard-fruit, or the increase of thy kine,
or flocks of thy sheep, until he have
destroyed thee.

32. 14. And thou didst drink the pure And the fresh-foaming blood of the
blood of the grape. grape thou shalt drink.

32. 32. For their vine is of the vine of
Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah :
their grapes are grapes of gall, their
clusters are bitter: 33. Their wine is
the poison of dragons, and the cruel
venom of asps.

For the vine of Sodom is their vine,,
and of the fields of Gomorrah: their
grapes are grapes of gall, their clustered-
branches are bitter to them : the poison
of serpents is their wine, and the viru-
lent gall of vipers.

32. 42. I will make mine arrows drunk I will soak my arrows in blood, and
with blood, and my sword shall devour my sword shall devour flesh.
flesh.

33. 28. Israel then shall dwell in
safety alone : the fountain of Jacob shall
be upon a land of corn and wine j also
his heavens shall drop down dew.

Israel then shall dwell in safety alone :
the eye (=blessing) of (the God of) Jacob
shall be upon a land of corn and vine-
fruit ; also his heavens shall drop down
dew.

JUDGES 9. 13. And the vine said unto
them, Should I leave my wine, which
cheer eth God and man, and go to be
promoted over the trees ?

And the vine said unto them, Should
I leave my grape-fruit, which gladdens
gods and men, and go to be promoted
over the trees ?

2 SAMUEL 6. 19. And he dealt to And he dealt to every one a cake of
every one a cake of bread, and a good bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a
piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. raisin-cake.

2 KINGS 18. 32. Until I come and
take you away to a land like your own

Until I come and take you away to a
land like your own land, a land or corn

land, a land of corn and wine, a land of and vine-fruit, a land of bread and vine-
bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive yards, a land of the olive tree, of orchard-
and of honey, that ye may live, and not fruit, and of honey, that ye may live, and
die. not die.

I CHRONICLES 16. 13. And he dealt
to every one a loaf of bread, and a good
piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine.

And he dealt to every one a loaf of
bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a
raisin-cake.

2 CHRONICLES 31. 5. The firstfruits
of corn, wine, and oil, and honey.

The firstfruits of corn, vine-fruit, olive-
and-orchard-fruit, and honey.

32. 28. Storehouses also for the in-
crease of corn, and wine, and oil.

Storehouses also for the increase of
corn, and vine-fruit, and olive-and-
orchard-fruit.

APPENDIX A.

401

NEHEMIAH 5. n. Also the hundreth
part of the money, and of the corn, the
wine, and the oil, that ye exact of them.

Also the hundreth part of the money,
and of the corn, the vine-fruit, and the
olive-and-orchard-fruit that ye exact of
them.

10. 37. And the fruit of all manner
of trees, of wine, and of oil.

And the fruit of all manner of trees,
of vine-fruit, and of olive-and-orchard-
fruit.

10. 39. The offering of the corn, of
the new wine, and the oil.

The offering of the corn, of the vine-
fruit, and the olive-and-orchard-fruit.

13. 5. And the tithes of the corn, the
new wine, and the oil.

And the tithes of the corn, the vine-
fruit, and the olive-and-orchard-fruit.

13. 12. Then brought all Judah the
tithe of the corn and the new wine and
the oil unto the treasuries.

Then brought all Judah the tithe of
the corn and the vine-fruit and the olive-
and-orchard fruit unto the storehouses.

JOB 12. 25. They grope in the dark They grope in the dark without light,
without light, and he maketh them to and he causeth them to stray like one
stagger like a drunken man. drunk.

32. 19. Behold, my belly is as wine
which hath no vent ; it is ready to burst
like new bottles.

Behold, my belly, like wine, has no
vent ; like new bottles it is rent.

PSALM 4. 7. Thou hast put gladness
in my heart, more than in the time that
their corn and their wine^ increased.

Thou hast put gladness in my heart,
more than when their corn and vine-fruit
abounded.

16. 4. Their drink offerings of blood Their libations of blood will not I
ill I not offer. pour out.

23. 5. My cup runneth over.

My cup is full to the brim.

60. 3. Thou hast showed thy people
hard things : thou hast made us to drink
the wine of astonishment.

Thou hast showed thy people hard
things : thou hast made us drink the
wine of trembling (or reeling).

69. 12. They that sit in the gate speak They that sit in the gate speak against
against me ; and I was the song of the me ; and songs are made aoout me by
drunkards. the drinkers of strong drink.

75. 8. For in the hand of the Lord
there is a cup, and the wine is red ; it is
full of mixture ; and he poureth out of
the same : but the dretjs thereof, all the
wicked of the earth shall wring them out,
and drink them.

For in the hand of the Lord is a
goblet, and the wine is foaming; it is
full of mixture; and from this he poureth
out: surely all the wicked of the earth
shall suck out the dregs of it, and drink
them up.

402

APPENDIX A.

78. 65. Then the Lord awaked as one Then the Lord awaked as one out of
out of sleep, and like a mighty man that sleep, as a mighty man recovering him-
shouteth by reason of wine. self from wine.

104. 14. He causeth the grass to grow
for the cattle,, and herb for the service of
man : that he may bring forth food out
of the earth ; 15. And wine that maketh
glad the heart of man, and oil to make
his face to shine, and bread which
strengthened! man's heart.

He causeth grass to grow for the cattle,
and grain for the cultivation of man, that
he may bring forth food from the earth ;
and wine which cheers the heart of man,
(so as) to brighten his face more than
oil, and bread which strengthened! man's
heart.

107. 27. They reel to and fro, and
stagger like a drunken man, and are at
their wit's end.

They are giddy, and stagger as a
drunken man, and all their wisdom is
swallowed up.

PROVERBS 3. 9. Honor the Lord with
thy substance, and with the firstfruits of
all thine increase : 10. So shall thy barns
be filled with plenty, and thy presses
shall burst out with new wine.

Honor the Lord with thy substance,
and with the firstfruits of all thine in-
crease. So shall thy barns be filled with
plenty, and with vine-fruit thy presses
shall abound.

20. I. Wine is a mocker, strong drink Wine is a mocker, strong drink is
is raging : and whosoever is deceived raging : and whoever goes astray througk
thereby is not wise. it is not wise.

23. 20. Be not among winebibbers :
among riotous eaters of flesh: 21. For
the drunkard and the glutton shall come
to poverty.

Be not among topers of wine ; among
wasters of their flesh : for the toper and
the waster (= profligate) shall be made
poor.

23. 29. Who hath woe? who hath
sorrow ? who hath contentions ? who
hath babbling ? who hath wounds with-
out cause ? who hath redness of eyes ?
30. They that tarry long at the wine;
they that go to seek mixed wine. 31.
Look not thou upon the wine when
it is red, when it giveth his color in
the cup, when it moveth itself aright.
32. At the last it biteth like a serpent,
and stingeth like an adder. 33. Thine
eyes shall behold strange women, and
thine heart shall utter perverse things.
34. Yea, thou shall be as he that lieth
down in the midst of the sea, or as he
that lieth upon the top of a mast. 35.
They have stricken me, shalt thou say,
and I was not sick ; they have beaten
me, and I felt it not : when shall I awake ?
I will seek it yet again.

Who has lamentation? who has sor-
row ? who has strifes ? who has brawling?
who has unnecessary wounds ? who has
dark-discolored eyes? They that tarry
long at the wine ; they that go to seek
out mixed wine. Gaze not on wine
when it is red, when it gives its bubble in
the cup, when it moves itself straightly ;
for in the end it bites like a serpent
and pierces like an adder. Thine eyes
shall gaze upon abandoned women, and
thine heart shall devise deceits. And
thou shalt be like one lying in the midst
of the sea, and like one' lying on the top
of a mast. [And thou wilt say] They
have stricken me, but I cared not;
they have beaten me, but I knew it not.
When I am aroused I will gather myself
up, and will seek it yet again.

31. 4. It is not for kings, O Lemuel,
it is not for kings to drink wine; nor for
princes strong drink : 5. Lest they drink,

Not for kings is it, O Lemuel, not for
kings is it to drink wine ; nor for princes
to have desire of strong drink : lest they

APPENDIX A.

403

and forget the law, and pervert the judg-
ment of any of the afflicted. 6. (Jive
•strong drink unto him that is ready to
perish, and wine unto those that be of
heavy hearts. 7. Let him drink, and
forget his poverty, and remember his
misery no more.

CAXTICLES 2. 4. He brought me to
the banqueting house, and his banner
over me was love. 5. Stay me with
flagons, comfort me with apples: for I
am sick of love.

drink, and forget what is decreed, and
change the judgment of any of the child-
ren of affliction. Give strong drink to
the perishing one, and wine to those
bitter of spirit. He will drink, and forget
his poverty, and his sorrow he will not
remember again.

He brought me to the banqueting
house, and his banner ov<er me was love.
Sustain me with raisin-cakes, refresh me
with apples : for I am sick with love.

2. it. The fig tree putteth forth her
green figs, and the vines with the tender
grape give a good smell.

The fig tree putteth forth her green
figs, and the vines which are in blossom
give forth a sweet odor.

2. 15. Take us the foxes, the little
foxes, that spoil the vines: for our vines
have tender grapes.

Take us the foxes (= jackals), the
little foxes that spoil the vineyards : for
our vineyards are in blossom.

7. 9. And the roof of thy mouth like
the best wine for my beloved, that goeth
down sweetly, causing the lips of those
that are asleep to speak.

And thy palate like very good wine,
going to my beloved straightly, flowing
over the lips of the sleeping ones.

8. 2. I would cause thee to drink of
spiced wine of the juice of my pome-
granate.

I would give thee to drink of spiced
wine of the fresh juice of my pome*
granate.

ISAIAH I. 22. Thy silver is become
dross, thy wine mixed with water.

Thy silver is become dross, thy boiled*
wine is diluted with water.

5. II. Woe unto them that rise up
early in the morning, that they may
follow strong drink ; that continue until
night, till wine inflame them !

Woe (shall be to) those rising early in
the morning — they pursue strong drink ;
(woe shall be to) those tarrying into
night — (for) wine inflames them.

19. 10. And they shall be broken in
the purposes thereof, all that make sluices
and ponds for fish.

Her pillars are broken down, and
all the hired laborers are grieved in
mind.

24. 7. The new wine mourneth, the The vine-fruit has drooped, the vine
vine languisheth, all the merryhearted has languished, all the merry-hearted
do sigh. have signed.

24. 9. They shall not drink wine with
a song; strong drink shall be bitter to
them that drink it.

With a song they shall not drink wine,
bitter shall be the sweet-drink to those
who drink it.

404

APPENDIX A.

ISA. 25. 6. And in this mountain shall
the Lord of hosts make unto all people a
feast of fat things, a feast of wine on the
lees, of fat things full of marrow, of
wines on the lees well refined.

And in this mountain shall the Lord.
of hosts make unto all people a feast of
fat things, a feast of preserves, of fat
things marrowed out, of well-clarified
preserves.

27. 2. A vineyard of red wine.

A vineyard of foaming juice [or, A
vineyard of delight].

28. I. Woe to the crown of pride, to

Lamentation (shall be to) the crown

mof beauty, the drunkards of Ephraim,
_, .. 0 , eh whose glorious beauty is a fading flower

are on the head of the fat valleys, of which are on the head of the fat valleys
them that are overcome with wine. of them that are smitten by wine.

the drunkards of Ephraim, whose glo-

rhich

28. 7. But they also have erred through
wine, and through strong drink are out
of the way; the priest and the prophet
have erred through strong drink, they
are swallowed up of wine, they are out
of the way through strong drink ; they
err in vision, they stumble in judgment.
8. For all tables are full of vomit and
filthiness, so that there is no place clean.

And these also have wandered through
wine, and by means of strong drink have
strayed ; the priest and the prophet have
wandered by means of strong drink ; they
have been swallowed down by wine ; they
have strayed by means of strong drink;
they have wandered in vision, they have
staggered in judgment; for all (their)
tables are full of voimit
one place is clean.

and filth; not

36. 17. A land of corn and wine.

A land of corn and vine-fruit.

49. 26. And they shall be drunken
with their own blood, as with sweet

And they shall drink to the full of
their own blood, as (though it were)
fresh-juice.

51. 17. Awake, awake, stand up O
Jerusalem, which hast drunk at the hand
of the Lord the cup of his fury ; thou

Awake, awake, stand up, O Jerusa-
lem, who hast drunk at the hand of the
Lord the cup of his hot-wrath ; thou

hast drunken the dregs of the cup of hast drunken the lowest contents of the

trembling, and wrung them out.

cup of trembling, and sucked it up.

62. 8. ... and the sons of the
stranger shall not drink thy wine, for
the which thou hast labored.

And the sons of the stranger shall not
drink thy vine-fruit, for which thou hast
labored.

63. 6. And I will tread down the
people in mine anger, and make them
drunk in my fury, :md I will bring down
their strength to the earth.

And I have trodden the people in
mine anger, and made them drunk with
my hot-wrath, and I have brought down
their strength to the earth.

65. 8. Thus saith the Lord, As the
new wine is found in the cluster, and
one saith, Destroy it not ; for a blessing
is in it; so will I do for my servants'
sakes, that I may not destroy them all.

Thus saith the Lord, As the vine-fruit
is in a (single) cluster, and one saith,
Thou wilt not destroy it, for a blessing
is with it ; so will I do for my servants'
sakes, that I may not destroy them all.

APPENDIX A.

405

65. ii. . . . that furnish the drink
offering unto that number.

And that furnish to Fortune a mix-
ture.

JEREMIAH 25. 15. For thus saith the
Lord God of Israel unto me ; Take the
wine cup of this fury at my hand, and
cause all the nations, to whom I send
thee, to drink iL 16. And they shall
drink, and be moved, and be mad, be-
cause of the sword that I will send
among them.

For thus saith the Lord God of Israel
unto me ; Take the wine-cup of this hot
wrath from my hand, and cause all the
nations, to whom I send thee, to drink
it. And they shall drink, and shall
reel, and shall become maddened, be-
cause of the snare that I shall send
among them.

12. Therefore they shall come Therefore they shall come and sing in

' • 1.1 1 ? _l_ *. ^f *9m-. 1 ^l l • « „ r '*• * * •* *« **

31. :

and sing in the height of Zion, and the height of Z'ion, and shall flow'to-
shall flow together to the goodness of gether with the goodness of the Lord

(viz.), with corn, and with vine-fruit, and
with olive-and-orchard-fruit.

the Lord, for wheat, and for wine, and
for oil.

EZEKIEL 23. 42. And a voice of a
multitude being at ease was with her:
and with the men of the common sort
were brought Sabeans from the wilder-
ness, which put bracelets upon their
hands, and beautiful crowns upon their
heads.

And there was the noise of a countless
multitude in her ; and along with men
of the common sort topers were brought
from the open country; and they put
bracelets on their hands, and beautiful
wreaths upon their heads.

DANIEL 5. 2. Belshazzar, while he
tasted the wine, commanded to bring the
golden and silver vesels which his father
Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the
temple which was in Jerusalem.

Belshazzar, while under the influence
of wine, commanded to bring the golden
and silver vessels, etc.

HOSEA 2. 8. For she did not know For she did not know that I gave
that I gave her corn, and wine, and her corn, and vine-fruit, and olive-and-
oil. or chard- fruit.

2. 9. Therefore will I return, and take
away my corn in the time thereof, and
my wine in the season thereof.

Therefore will I return, and take away
my corn in the time thereof, and my
vine-fruit in the season thereof.

2. 22. And the earth shall hear the And the earth shall hear the corn, and
corn, and the wine, and the oil. the vine-fruit, and the olive-and-orchard

fruit.

3. I. . . .the children of Israel, who The children of Israel, who look to
look to other gods, and love flagons of other gods, and love prcsscd-cakes of
wine. grape-clusters.

4. II. Whoredom and wine and new Whoredom and wine and vine-fruit
wine take away the heart. take away the heart.

4. 18. Their drink is sour.

Their boiled-wine is sour.

406

APPENDIX A.

7. 5. In the day of our king the On the king's (high) day the princes

princes have made him sick with bottles denied themselves through the iuflaming-

of wine ; he stretched out his hand with heat of wine ; he drew out his hand with

scorners. the mockers.

7. 14. ... they assemble themselves For corn and vine-fruit they assemble
for corn and wine, and they rebel against themselves ; they rebel against me.

9. 2. The floor and the winepress
shall not feed them, and the new wine
shall fail in her.

The floor and the wine-press shall not
feed them, and the vine-fruit shall fail
in her.

14. 7. ... they shall revive as the
corn, and grow as the vine : the scent
thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon.

They shall revive as the corn, and
bud forth as the vine : his memorial shall
be like wine of Lebanon.

JOEL I. 5. Awake, ye drunkards, and Awake, ye that fill yourselves, and

weep ; and howl, all ye drinkers of weep ; and howl, all ye drinkers of wine,

wine, because of the new wine; for it is because of the fresh-juice; for it is cut

cut off from your mouth. off from your mouth.

I. 10. The field is wasted, the land
mourneth ; for the corn is wasted : the
new wine is dried up, the oil languisheth.

The field is wasted, the land mourn-
eth ; for the corn is wasted : the vine-
fruit is dried up, the olive-and-orchard-
fruit droops.

2. 19. Behold, I will send you corn, Behold, I will send you corn, and
and wine, and oil. vine-fruit, and olive-and-orchard-fruit.

2. 24. And the floors shall be full of
wheat, and the fats shall overflow with
wine and oil.

And the floors shall be full of wheat,
and the presses shall abound with vine-
fruit and olive-and-orchard-fruit.

3. 13. Put ye in the sickle, for the Put forth the knife, for the vintage is

harvest is ripe : come, get you down ; ripe : come, descend, for the press is

for the press is full, the fats overflow ; full, the presses abound ; for their

for their wickedness is great. wickedness is great.

3. 1 8. And it shall come to pass, And it shall come to pass, that the
that the mountains shall drop down new mountains shall drop down fresh-juice,
wine.

AMOS 9. 13. ... and the mountains
shall drop sweet wine, and all the hills
shall melt.

And the mountains shall drop fresh-
juice, and all the hills shall melt.

PBADIAH 16. . . . yea, they shall Yea, they shall drink, and they shall

drink, and they shall swallow down, and suck up, and they shall be as though

they shall be as though they had not they had not been,
been.

APPENDIX A.

407

MICAH 6. 15. Thou shall sow, but Thou shall sow, bul thou shall not

thou shall nol reap ; ihou shall tread the reap ; thou shah tread the olives, but

olives, but thou shall not anoinl thee Ihou shall nol anoinl thee with oil ; and

with oil ; and sweet wine, but shall not (thou shall tread) the vine-fruit, but

drink wine. shall nol drink wine.

NAHUM I. 10. For while they be For as they are folden together as

folden together as thorns, and while thorns, and as they are soaked with their

they are drunken as drunkards, they boiled-wine, they shall be devoured as

shall be devoured as slubble fully dry. stubble fully dry.

HABAKKUK 2. 5. Yea also, because And, in truth, as wine is a defrauder,

he transgresseth by wine, he is a proud so is the strong man who is arroganl,

man, neither keepeth at home, who and does not rest, who enlarges his

enlargeth his desire as hell, and is as desire as ihe under-world, etc.
death, and cannot be satisfied.

2. 15. Woe unto him that giveth his
neighbor drink, that puttest thy bottle
to him, and makest him drunken also,
that thou mavest look on their naked-
ness ! 16. Thou art filled with shame
for glory : drink thou also, and let thy
foreskin be uncovered : the cup of the
Lord's right hand shall be turned unto
thee, and shameful spewing shall be on
thy glory.

Woe is to him who giveth drink to
his neighbor, pouring out thy inflaming
draught, and even making him drunk in
order to gaze upon his nakedness ! Thou
shall be satiated with shame rather than
with glory ; drink thou also, and be now
(as one) uncircumcised : there shall be
passed to thee the cup of Jehovah's
right hand, and infamy shall be on thy
glory.

HAGGAI i. n. And I called for a
drought upon the land, and upon the
mountains, and upon the corn, and upon
the new wine, and upon the oil, and
upon that which the ground bringeth
forlh, and upon men, and upon cattle,
and upon all the labor of the hands.

And I called for a drought upon the
land, and upon the mountains, and upon
the corn, and upon the vine-fruit, and
upon the olive-and-orchard-fruit, and
upon whalever else ihe ground bringeth
forth, and upon men, and upon cattle,
and upon all the labor of the hands.

ZECHARIAH 9. 15. . . . and they
shall drink, and make a noise as through
wine ; and they shall be filled like bowls,
and as the corners of the altar.

And they shall drink, and rage as
wine ; and they shall be filled as bowls,
and as the corners of the altar.

9. 17. For how great is his goodness,
and how great is his beauty ! corn shall
make the young men cheerful, and new
wine the maids.

For how great is his goodness, and
how great is his beauty ! (his) corn
makes the young men lo thrive, and (his)
vine-fruit the maidens.

10. 7. And they of Ephraim shall be And they of Ephraim shall be like a
like a mighty man, and their heart shall mighty man, and their heart shall be
rejoice as through wine. glad as (they who driok) wine.

MAT. \r»i 3. II. . . . neither shall Neither shall the vine in the field
) our vine cast her fruit before the time be barren to you, saith the Lord of
in the field, saith the Lord of hosts. hosls.

408

APPENDIX A.

II.— THE NEW TESTAMENT.

MATTHEW 5. 29. And if thy right
eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it
from thee. ... 30. And if thy right
hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it
from thee.

And if thy right eye cause thee to
transgress, pluck it out, and cast it from
thee. And if thy right hand cause
thee to transgress, cut it off, and cast it
from thee.

9. 1 7. Neither do men put new wine Nor indeed do they place new wine
into old bottles : else the bottles break, in old skin-bottles ; otherwise the skin-
and the wine runneth out, and the bottles bottles are rent, and the wine is spilled,
perish : but they put new wine into new and the skin-bottles are destroyed ; but
bottles, and both are preserved. they place new wine in new skin-bottles

and both are kept together.

10. 42. And whosoever shall give to And whosoever shall give to drink

drink unto one of these little ones a cup unto one of these little ones a cup only

of cold water only in the name of a dis- of cold water in the name of a disciple,

ciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in verily I say unto you, he shall in no wise

no wise lose his reward. lose his reward.

26. 1 7. Now the first day of the feast
of unleavened bread the disciples came
to Jesus, saying unto him, Where wilt
thou that we prepare for thee to eat the
passover ?

Now the first day of the feast of un-
fermented things, the disciples came to
Jesus, etc.

MARK 2. 22. And no man putteth
new wine into old bottles : else the new
wine doth burst the bottles, and the
wine is spilled, and the bottles will be
marred : but new wine must be put into
new bottles.

And no one places new wine into old
skin-bottles ; otherwise the wine will
rend the skin-bottles, and the wine is
spilled, and the skin-bottles will be de-
stroyed. But new wine should be placed
in new skin-bottles.

LUKE 5. 37. And no man putteth
new wine into old bottles; else the new
wine will burst the bottles, and be spilled
and the bottles shall perish. 38. But
new wine must be put into new bottles;
and both are preserved. 39. No man
also having drunk old wine straightway
desireth new : for he saith, The old is
better.

And no one places new wine in old
skin-bottles ; otherwise the new wine
will rend the skin-bottles, and it will be
spilled, and the bottles will be destroyed.
But new wine should be placed in new
skin-bottles, and both are kept together.
And no one having drunk old wine im-
mediately desires new : for he declares,
The old is better.

21. 34. And take heed to yourselves,
lest at any time your hearts be over-
charged with surfeiting, and drunken-
ness, and cares of this life, and so that
day come upon you unawares.

And take heed to yourselves, lest at
any time your hearts be weighed down
with debauchery, and drinkings, and
cares of this life, and so that day come
unforeseen upon you.

JOHN 2. I. And the third day there
was a marriage in Cana of Galilee ; and
the mother of Jesus was there : 2. And
both Jesus was called, and his disciples,
to the marriage. 3. And when they
wanted wine, the mother of Jesus saith

And the third day there was a mar-
riage in Cana of Galilee ; and the mo-
ther of Jesus was there : and both Jesus
was invited, and his disciples, to the
marriage. And wine running short, the
mother of Jesus saith to him, They have

APPENDIX A.

409

•onto him, They have no wine. 4. Jesus
saith unto her, Woman, what have I to
do with thee ? mine hour is not yet
come. ... 9. When the ruler of the
feast had tasted the water that was made
wine, and knew not whence it was :
(but the servants which drew the water
knew;) the governor of the feast called
the bridegroom, 10. And saith unto
him, Every man at the beginning doth
set forth good wine ; and when men
have well drunk, then that which is
•worse : but thou hast kept the good
•wine until now. u. This beginning of
miracles did Jesus in Cana of Galilee,
and manifested forth his glory; and his
disciples believed on him.

no wine. Jesus saith to her, O woman,
what (object in common) is there be-
tween me and thee? mine hour is not
yet come. When the president tasted
the water that was made wine, and
knew not whence it was obtained (but
the servants who had drawn the water
knew), the president called the bride-
groom, and said to him, Every man
places first (before his guests) the choice
wine ; and when they are well-filled,
then the inferior kind; but thou hast
kept back the choice wine until now.
This beginning of miracles Jesus did in
Cana of Galilee ; and he displayed his
: and his disciples put faith in

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, 2. 13.
Others mocking said, These men are
full of new wine.

But others jeeringly said, that they
were filled with sweet-wine.

EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS, 13. 13.
Let us walk honestly, as in the day ; not
in rioting and drunkenness, not in cham-
bering and wantonness, not in strife and
envying.

Let us walk becomingly, as in the
day ; not in revelries and drinkings, not
in chambering and wantonness, not in
strife and envying.

14. 18. For he that in these things
serveth Christ is acceptable to God, and
approved of men. 19. Let us therefore
follow after the things which make for
peace, and things wherewith one may
edify another. 20. For meat destroy
not the work of God. All things indeed
ar»: pure ; but it is evil for that man who
eateth with offence.

For he that in this matter serveth
Christ is well-pleasing to God and ap-
proves hirrself to men. Let us therefore
pursue the things which make for peace,
and the things by which we may build
up one another. Do not demolish the
work of God for the sake of meat. Every-
thing, indeed, is pure ; but it is evil to
that man whose eating it makes it a cause
of stumbling.

FIRST ErrsTi.E TO THE CORIXTI :
5. 6. Your glorying is not good. Know
ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the
whole lump ? 7. Purge out therefore the
old leaven, that ve may be a new
lump, as ye are unleavened. For even
Christ our passover is sacrificed for us :
8. Therefore let us keep the feast, not
with old leaven, neither with the leaven
of malice and wickedness; but with the
unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.

Your self-glorifying is not good. Know
ye not that a little leaven fcrmenteth the
whole lump? Purge out therefore the
old leaven, that ye may be a new lump,
as ye are unfermented. For even Christ
our paschal-lamb is sacrificed. There-
fore let us keep the feast, not with old
leaven, neither with the leaven of malice
and wickedness; but with the unfer-
mented-things of sincerity and truth.

6. 12. All things are lawful unto me,
but all things are not expedient : all
things are lawful for me, but I will not
be brought under the power of any.

All things are possible to me, but all
things are not of advantage : all things
are possible to me, but I will not allow
myself to be overruled by anything.

8. 13. Wherefore, if meat make my
brother to offend, I will eat no flesh
while the world standeth, lest I make
my brother to offend.
52

Wherefore, if meat cause my brother
to transgress, I will eat no flesh for ever,
in order that I may not cause my brother
to transgress.

APPENDIX A.

9. 25. And every man that striveth for
the mastery is temperate in all things.

And every one who contends (in the
games) controls himself in all things.

10. 23. All things are lawful for me,
but all things are not expedient : all
things are lawful for me, but all things
edify not. 24. Let no man seek his
own, but every man another's wealth.

All things are possible to me, but all
things are not advantageous ; all things
are possible to me, but all things do not
build up. Let no man seek (merely)
his own, but every man another's good.

lo. 32. Give none offence, neither to
the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the
church of God : 33. Even as I please all
men in all things, not seeking mine own
profit, but the profit of many, that they
may be saved.

Be not stumbling-blocks, either to the
Jews, or to the Gentiles, or to the church
of God. Even as I please all men in all
things, not seeking my own advantage,
but the advantage of the many, that they
may be saved.

II. I. Be ye followers of me, even as
I also am of Christ.

Be ye imitators of me, as I also am of
Christ.

II. 21. For in eating every one taketh
before other his own supper ; and one is
hungry, and another is drunken.

For in the act of eating every one
snatches up his own meal : and one is
hungry, and another is filled-out.

THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS,
5. 1 8. And be not drunk with wine,
wherein is excess ; but be filled with the
Spirit.

And be not surcharged with wine, in
which is dissoluteness ; but be filled with
the Spirit.

THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS,
4. 5. Let your moderation be known
unto all men. The Lord is at hand.

Let your forbearance be known unto
all men. The Lord is at hand.

THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSA- Therefore let us not sleep, as do
DNIANS, 5. f
eep, as do
and be sober.

LONIANS, 5. 6. Therefore let us not others; but let us be wakeful and
sleep, as do others ; but let us watch abstain.

5. 21. Prove all things; hold fast that Test all things; hold fast that which
which is good. is good.

5- 22. Abstain from all appearance of Hold aloof from every aspect of evil,
evil.

THE FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY, A bishop then should be blameless,

3. 2. A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, abstinent, sober-

the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, minded.

3. Not given to wine. Not a wine-guest.

3. II. Even so must their wives be Even so must their wives be grave,
grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in not slanderers, abstinent, faithful in all
all things. things.

6. 10. For the love of money is the For the love of money is a root of all
root of all evil. (these) evils.

APPENDIX A.

411

THE EPISTLE TO TITUS, i. 7. For For a bishop must be blameless, not a

a bishop must be blameless, . . . not wine-guest, sober-minded, self-restrain-

given to wine, ... 8. ... sober, ing.
. . . temperate.

2. 2. That the aged men be sober,
grave, temperate.

That the aged men be abstinent, grave,
sober-minded.

2. 3. The aged women likewise, that The aged women also, that they cause

they ... 4. ... teach the young the young women to be sober-minded,

women to be sober. ... 5. To be dis- To be sober-minded,
creet.

2. 12. Teaching us that
should live soberly.

we Teaching us that we should live sober-
mindedly.

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF
PETER, i. 13. Wherefore gird up the
loins of your mind, be sober.

Wherefore gird up the loins of your
mind, being abstinent.

4. 3. For the time past of our life may
suffice us to have wrought the will of the
Gentiles, when we walked in lascivious-
ness, lusts, excess of wine, revelings,
banquetings, and abominable idolatries :
4. Wherein they think it strange that ye
run not with them to the same excess of
riot, speaking evil of you.

For the time past of our life may
suffice us to have wrought the will of the
Gentiles, when we walked in lascivious-
ness, lusts, excesses of wine, debaucher-
ie>, drinkings, and abominable idolatries :
wherein they think it strange that ye run
not with them to the same outpouring of
dissoluteness, speaking evil of you.

4. 7. But the end of all things is at
hand : be ye therefore sober, and watch
unto prayer.

But the end of all things is at hand :
be ye therefore sober-minded, and be
abstinent in order to prayers.

5. 8. Be sober, be vigilant; because
your adversary the devil, as a roaring
lion, walketh about, seeking whom he
may devour.

Be abstinent (=» drink not), be wake*
ful ; because your adversary the devil, as
a roaring lion, walketh about, seeking
whom he may devour (=» drink down).

REVELATION OF ST JOHN, 14. 8. And
there followed another angel, saying,
Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that great
city, because she made all nations drink
of the wine of the wrath of her fornica-
tion.

And there followed another angel,
saying, Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that
great city, because she made all nations
drink of the wine of the passion (= the
raging or inflaming wine) of her fornica-
tion.

14. 10. The same shall drink of the
wine of the wrath of God, which is
poured out without mixture into the cup
of his indignation.

The same shall drink of the wine of
the wrath of God, which is mixed and
undiluted in the cup of his indignation.

17. 6. And I saw the woman drunken
with the blood of the saints, and with the
blood of the martyrs of Jesus.

And I saw the woman glutted with the
blood of the saints, and with the blood
of the martyrs of Jesus.

APPENDIX B.

CONCORDANCE OF HEBREW, CHALDEE, GREEK, AND
LATIN TERMS.

[This List comprises such Terms as tend to illustrate the great object of inquiry
prosecuted in this work, — the testimony of Scripture upon the use and disuse
of intoxicating drinks.]

THE OLD TESTAMENT.

HEBREW WORDS TRANSLATED * WINE ' OR * STRONG DRINK ' IN THE
AUTHORIZED VERSION.

I. YAYIN (by some written Yin, Yain, or Ain) stands generically for the
expressed juice of the grape, — the context sometimes indicating whether the
juice had undergone, or not, the process of fermentation. It is mentioned 141
times, as follows :

GENESIS.

9. 21, 24, Noah drinking it and awaking

from it.

14. 1 8, Melchizedek presenting it.
X9- 32» 33. 34, 35, the daughters of Lot

inducing their father to drink it.
27. 25, offered to Isaac by Jacob.
49. II, 12, named in the blessing on Ju-

dah, as equivalent to the .' blood of

grapes,' and as coloring the eyes.

EXODUS.

29. 40, commanded as a 'drink-offering,'
— /'. e. a libation.

LEVITICUS.

10. 9, prohibited to the priests while
ministering.

23. 13, described as a libation.

NUMBERS.

6. 3 (twice), 4, prohibited to the Naza-
rites.

6. 20, permitted to one ceasing to be a
Nazarite.

7, io,

14,

mentioned as a libation.

DEUTERONOMY.

14. 26, permitted to be purchased in lieu
of tirosh.

28. 39, its absence threatened as a
punishment.

29. 6, referred to as not provided in the

wilderness.
32. 33, compared to the inflaming poison

of dragons.
32. 38, said, figuratively, to be drunk by

heathen gods.

JOSHUA.
9. 4, 13, used by the Gibeonites.

JUDGES.
13. 4, 7, 14 (twice), prohibited to Sam-

son's mother.

APPENDIX B.

413

19. 19, included by a Levite among his
traveling stores.

1 SAMUEL.

I. 14, 15, its use charged upon Hannah,
and repudiated by her.

1. 24, comprised among Hannah's offer-

ings.

10. 3, carried by an Israelite.
16. 20, sent by Jesse to Saul.

25. 18, presented by Abigail to David.
25. 37, described as ' having gone out ' of
Nabal.

2 SAMUEL
13. 28, drunk by Amnon.

16. I, 2, sent to David by Mephibosheth.

1 CHRONICLES.

9. 29, in the charge of the Levites.

12. 40, presented at a feast.

27. 27, enumerated among David's
stores.

2 CHRONICLES.

2. 10, 15, promised to Hiram by Solo-

mon, and accepted by him.

1 1. 1 1, classed among Rehoboam's stores.

NEHEMIAH.

2. I (twice), presented by Nehemiah to
Artaxerxc-,.

5. 1C, received by governors as tribute.

5. 15, 'all sorts' of, forwarded to Ne-
hemiah.*

13. 15, an article of merchandise.

ESTHER.

I. 7, provided by Ahasuerus.
I. 10, making Ahasuerus merry.

« * * fl ( presented at a banquet.
/• 2» 7» °i )

JOB.

I. 13, 1 8, drunk by Job's sons and

daughters.
32. 19, bursting new bottles.

60. 3, ' wine of astonishment ' (or trem-
bling).

75. 8, 'red ' (or foaming).

78. 6<}, associated with (or dispossessed
from) a mighty man.

104. 15, gladdening man's heart.
PROVERBS.

4. 17, procured by violence

9. 2, 5, mingled and offered by Wisdom.

20. I, designated ' a mocker' (or scorner).

21. 17, the lover of, not getting rich.
23. 20, bibbers of, proscribed.

23. 30, tarrying at, condemned.
23. 31, forbidden to be desired when red.
31. 4, not to be drunk by kings.
31. 6, used by the bitter-hearted to pro-
duce oblivion.

ECCLESIASTES.

2. 3, drunk in pursuit of * good.'

9. 7, to be consumed with a merry heart.

10. 19, making merry.

CANTICLES.

1. 2, 4, not equal to virtuous love.

2. 4, 'the house of wine.' [A. V., 'ban-

q ueting-house. ' 1

4. 10, not equal to virtuous love.

5. I, drunk with milk.

7. 9, delicious to the taste.

8. 2, spiced and given to be drunk.

ISAIAH.

5. n, inflaming men.
5. 12, associated with a feast.
5. 22, those mighty to drink it con-
demned.
16. 10, absent from the presses.

22. 13, joined with 'eating flesh.'
24. 9, not drunk with a song.

24. n, clamored for in the streets.
28. I, overcoming men.

28. 7 (twice), causing to err, swallowing

up the priest and prophet.

29. 9, ^drunkenness present without
51. 21, $ it.

55. I, invitation to buy it.

56. 12, drunk to excess.

JEREMIAH.

13. 12, (twice), bottles of, filled.

23. 9, overcoming a man.

25. 15, drunk out of a cup.

35. 2, 5 (twice), 6 (twice), 8, 14, pre-
sented to the Rechabites.and refused.
40. 10, 12, gathered with summer fruits.
48. 33, absent from the wine-presses.
51. 7, making the nations mad.

LAMENTATIONS.

2. 12, asked for by children.

K/KKIEL.

27. 18, 'wine of Helbon.'

44. 21, forbidden to officiating priests.

DANIEL.

I. C, part of the king's provisions.
I. 8, declined by Daniel and his friends.
I. 16, taken away from Daniel and his

friends.
10. 3, not used by Daniel for three weeks.

HOSEA.

4. II, 'taking away' the heart.
7. 5, making the princes 'sick.'

9. 4, not offered to the I

14. 7, 'wine of Lebanon.'

JOEL.

I. 5, drinkers of, called upon to howl
because of its scarcity.

3. 3, bought in exchange for a girL

• Presumably ' good '—not ' the wine of reeling.1

APPENDIX B.

AMOS.
2. 8, belonging to those condemned (or

fined).
2. 12, wickedly given to the Nazarites.

5. II, withheld as a punishment.

6. 6, drunk in bowls.

9. 14, promised to Israel.

MICAH.

2. 1 1, untruly promised by false prophets.
6. 15, withheld as a punishment.

HABAKKUK.

2. 5, described as 'causing transgression'
(or as a defrauder).
ZEPHANIAH.

1. 13, withheld as a punishment.

HAGGAI.

2. 12, named along with bread, etc.

ZECHARIAH.

9. I5> named as causing a noise.

10. 7, said to gladden the heart.

CHALDEE. — The Targumists almost
uniformly render yayin by khamar or
khamrah, the generic Chaldee word for
wine. When yayin is connected with
shakar, however, yayin is distinguished
as khamar khadath, 'new wine.' In
Esth. I. 7> yayin is rendered by kha mar
ahsis, 'fresh wine,' and in Job 32. 19
by khamrah khadath, 'new wine.'

GREEK. — All the versions translate

yayin by oinos, but in Job 32. 19 the
Lxx. reads gltukos, 'sweet wine,' and
Symmachus neos oinos, ' new wine.' In
Esth. I. 10 oinos is absent, and also in
chap. 5. 6, 7. 2, and 7. 7, where 'ban-
quet of wine' is rendered by sumpo-
sios or potos. In Job I. 1 8, oinos is
omitted, and only peinonton, 'drinking,'
given. In Prov. 23. 20, oinopotees, 'a
wine-drinker,' is the rendering of sovai
yayin. In Prov. 23. 30, 31, the plural
oinois is given.

LATIN. — The Vulgate renders yayin
by vinum, but in Esth. I. 19 it has
merum, ' neat (undiluted) wine,' and in
Job 32. 19 mustum, ' fresh grape-juice '
= new wine. In Josh. 9. 4 it renders
' bags of yayin ' by ulresvinarios ; and in
I Chron. 27. 27, ' for the cellars (or stores)
of yayin, ' by cellis vinariis, ' over the
wine-cellars.' In Esth. 5. 6, and 7. 7,
' banquet of yayin ' is rendered locum-
convivii, ' place of feasting '; and in chap.
7. 2, ' after the banquet of wine ' is ren-
dzredpostquam incaluerat-uino, ' after he
was heated with wine.' In Prov. 23. 20
the V. has in conviviispotatorumt ' among
feasts of drinkers.' In Cant. 2. 4, ' house
of wine' [A. V., 'banqueting-house'] is
rendered cellam vinariam, * wine-cellar.'
In Jer. 40. 10 yayin is rendered vindemia,
'vintage-fruit,' but in ver. 12 vinum.

2. TIROSH (pronounced teerosh) is a collective name for the natural produce of
the vine. It is generally associated with dahgan, 'corn,' and yitzhar, the fruit of
the olive and the orchard. Both ancient and modern versions have strangely mis-
conceived the true nature of this famous triad of blessings by regarding tirosh and
yitzhar as liquids; the first as 'wine,' or 'new wine,' and the latter as 'oil.' By
a comparison of texts and contexts the English reader may judge for himself
between the traditional rendering and the one adopted in this work. Tirosh
occurs thirty-eight times in the Hebrew Bible.

GENESIS.
27. 28, joined with corn as promised to

Jacob.
27. 37, joined with corn as above.

NUMBERS.

18. 12, joined with yitzhar and corn as
firstfruits.

DEUTERONOMY.

7. 13, joined with corn and yitzhar as
the fruit of the land.

11. 14, gathered along with corn and
yitzhar.

12. 17, to be eaten as tithes with corn
and yitzhat.

14. 23, thj same.

1 8. 4, joined with corn and yitzhar as

firstfruits.
28. 51, joined with corn and yitzhar as

destroyed by the invader.
33. 28, joined with corn as the produce

of the land.

JUDGES.
9. 13, which the vine claims as its own,

and refuses to leave.
2 KINGS.
18. 32, joined with corn as the produce

of the land.

2 CHRONICLES.
31. 5, joined with corn, yitzhar, and

honey (or dates) as firstfruits.

APPENDIX B.

415

32. 28, joined with corn and yitzhar as
kept in storehouses.
NKHEMIAH.

5. ii, joined with corn and yitzhar as

tribute in kind.
10. 37, joined with the fruit of all manner

of trees.

IO. 39, joined with corn and yitzhar.
13. 5, 12, joined with corn and yilzhar

as tithes.

PSAT.MS.

4. 7, joined with corn as causing joy by
its increase.

PROVERBS.

3. 10, described as ' bursting ' or filling

the presses, in association with

crowded barr.s.

ISAIAH.
24. 7, described as mourning while the

vine languished.
36. 17, joined with corn as produce of

the land.
62, 8, described as not to be drunk

(/. e. its juice) by strangers, but to

be brouglit together and drunk by

the Jews, like as corn was to be

gathered and eaten.
65. 8, described as 'found in a cluster.'

JEREMIAH.
31. 12, joined with corn and yitzhar as

part of the goodness of the Lord.

HOSEA.
2. 8, joined with corn and yilzhar as

given by God.
2. 9, joined with corn as taken away by

God.
2. 22, joined with corn and yitzhar as

•heard" by their mother earth.

4. n, joined with whoredom and wine

(vityiit) as ' taking away ' the heart.
7. 14, joined with corn as the cause of

heathen assemblies.
9. 2, described as failing from the press

in connection with the^corn-floor.

1. 10, described as 'dried up,' as the

corn is ' wasted,' and the yitzhar
4 languished).1

2. 19, promised by God along with corn

and yitzhar.

2. 24, said to 'overflow1 (or alxntml in)
the press, together with yilzhar,
as the floors are full of ' wheat.'

MlCMf.

6. 15, said when trodden to produce

yayin, as olives, when trodden,
yield shfincn (oii).

HAGGAI.

I. II, joined with corn and yitzhar as
suffering from drought.

ZECHARIAH.

9. 17, said to make the virgins cheerful
(or to grow), as corn the young
men.

Obs. I. Tirosh is connected with corn
and yitzhar nineteen times, with corn
alone eleven times, with the vine three
times, and is otherwise named five
times ; in all thirty-eight times.

Obs. 2. Tirosh is translated in the
A. V. twenty-six times by 'wine,'
eleven times by new wine (Neh. 10. 39;
13. 5, 12; Prov. 3. 10 ; Isa. 24. 7; 65.
8; Hos. 4. ii ; 9. 2; Joel I. 10; Hag.
I. ii; Zech. 9. 17), and once (Mican

6. 15) by 'sweet wine,' where the mar-
gin has 'new wine.'

CHALDEE. — The general rendering of
tirosh in the Targum is by khamar, or
kamrah, thus making no distinction
between yayin and tirosh. But in
Numb. 18. 12, Jonathan's rendering, kha-
mar inbah, 'wine of the grape,' indi-
cates a perception of the relation of tirosk
to the grape while ungathered and un-
expressed. The Targum on Hos. 4. n
interprets tirosh by ravyethah, ' drunk-
enness,' or 'satiation,' but in Joel I. 10
by 'vines.'

GREEK. — The Lxx. renders tirosh in
every case but twice byoinos, the generic
name for yayin ; the exceptions being
Isa. 6$. 8, where r/iojc, 'grape-stone,' is
given, and Hos. 4. ii, where the ren-
dering is in(thnsmat. 'strong drink.'
Aquila's version in Deut. 7. 13 has
of>(ii ismon, 'autumnal fruit,' and in Ka.
26. 7, paroi'isinos, ' fruit out of season ' ;
but very possibly paror is a transcriber's
error for ap~>r, the reading in Deut.

7. 13.

LATIN*.— The Vulgate, though ns a
rule translating tirosh by T •////////, ' wine,'
lu«. some exceptions : — Deut. 7. 13, vin-
dcinia, ' vintage-fruit ' ; Neh. IO. 37,
I'indemia ; Isa. 24. 7, vindfinia : I-i.

65. 8, gntniiHi, ' a grain, '=* young grape ;
Hos. 4. n, fbrietas, ' drunken

3. KIIEMER (Hebrew, kh-m-r, pronounced khlmlr) is a word descriptive of the
foaming appearance of the juice of the grape newly expressed, or when undergoing

APPENDIX B.

fermentation. It occurs but nine times in all — including once as a verb, and six
times in its Chaldee form of khamar or khcunrah.

DEUTERONOMY.
applied to the 'blood of
'

32. 14, applied to the 'blood of the
grape,' rendered in A. V. ' pure.'
EZRA.

6. 9, ^occurs in Chaldee decrees of

7. 22, 5 Cyrus and Artaxerxes.

PSALMS.
75. 8, 'the wine is red,' khamar (foams).

ISAIAH.

27. 2, 'a vineyard of khtmerj rendered
in A. V. ' red wine,' but the Hebrew
text is doubtful.

DANIEL.
5. I, 2, 4, 23, named in a Chaldee de-

scription of Belshazzar's feast.
CHALDEE. — In Deut. 32, 14, Jonathan
has khamor sumaq, * red wine. ' In Psa.
75 • 8, the Targum has khamar ashin,

'strong wine.' In Isa. 27. 2, the Tar-
gumists read khemed (fruitful or beauti-
ful), not khemer.

GREEK. — In Deut. 32. 14, the Lxx.
has oinon. Aquila gives austeeron,
'rough.' In Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has
oinos akratos, '(the wine is) pure,' i. e.
undiluted. In Isa. 27. 2, the Lxx. has
kalos, 'beautiful,' following the reading
of khemed. In the otker places oinos is
given.

LATIN. — In Deut. 32. 14, the V. has
meracissimum, 'purest.' In Psa. 75. 8,
and Isa. 27. 2, merum, 'pure (wine).'
In the other passages vinum is used, or
the Hebrew word is not definitely trans-
lated.

4. AHSIS (sometimes written ousts, asis, osis) is specifically applied to the juice
of the newly-trodden grapes or other fruit. It occurs five times.

CANTICLES.

8. 2, applied to ' the juice ' of the pome-

granate.

ISAIAH.

49. 26, compared to blood; rendered
' sweet wine ' (A. V.).

JOEL.
I. 5, represented as cut off; rendered

' new wine ' (A. V. ).
3. 1 8, mountains said to drop ahsis;
rendered 'new wine' (A. V.).
AMOS.

9. 13, the same; 'sweet wine' (A. V.).

CHALDEE. — In Cant. 8. 2, no equiva-
lent to ahsis is given ; but in the other
passages the rendering is khamar marilh
(or marath), 'pure wine.'

GREEK. — In Cant. 8. 2, the Lxx. has
nama, ' spring ' (or juice) ; in Isa. 49. 26,
oinos neos, ' new wine '; in Joel I. 5> it
seems to paraphrase ahsis by euphrosunee
kai chara, ' gladness and joy ' ; and in
Joel 2. 18, and Amos 9. 13, the rendering
is glukasmon, 'sweetness.'

LATIN. — In Cant. 8. 2, and Isa. 49.
26, the Vulgate has mustum, and in the
other passages dulcido, ' sweetness.'

5. SOVEH (sometimes written sole, sobhe) denotes a luscious, and probably
boiled wine (Latin, sapa). It occurs three times. ,

ISAIAH.

I. 22, diluted with water; 'wine'
(A. V.).

HOSEA.
4. 18, turned sour; 'drink' (A. V.).

NAHUM.
I. 10, drink to excess ; 'drunken' (A.V.).

CHALDEE. — Isa. I. 22, khamar,

' wine ' ; Hos. 4. 18, ' feastings ' ; Nah.
I. 10, ' wine.'

GREEK.— Isa. i. 22, the Lxx. and
Symmachus, oinos ; Aquila, swnposion,
' drinking-feast ' ; in Hos. 4. 18, and Nah.
i. 10, the Lxx. has a different reading
of the Hebrew text.

LATIN. — Isa. I. 22, vinum, 'wine';
Hos. 4. 1 8, and Nah. I. 10, fonvrvtwn,
'feast.'

6. MESEK (sometimes written mesecJi) is used with its related forms mezeg and
mimsak to denote some liquid compounded of various ingredients. These word*
occur as nouns four times, in a verbal shape five times.

APPENDIX B.

417

PSALMS.

75. 8, applied to the cup of Divine wrath ;
full of mtsekt 'mixture ' (A. V.).

PROVERBS.

23. 30, referring to them who seek mi
sak, 'mixed wine ' (A. V.).

CANTICLES.
7. 2, mfstgt 'mixture' (A.V.).

ISAIAH.

65. II, mimsak, 'drink-offering' (A. V.).
The verbal form occurs —
PROVERBS.
9. 2, 5, wisdom has ' mingled' her wine.

ISAIAH.
5. 22, men mighty to ' mingle ' strong

drink. Also in
Psa. 102. 9; Isa. 19. 14.

CHALDEE. — In Psa. 75. 8, the Targum
reads mezagath merarthah, 'a mixture
of bitterness '; in'Prov. 23. 30, mimsak
is paraphrased baith mizgah, ' a house of

mixture ' — /. c. a house where a mixed
drink is provided ; in Cant. 7. 2,
is lost in a cloud of allegory; in Isa. 65.
II, the T. has ' who have mixed for their
gods a goblet.' In Prov. 9/2, 5, the
verbal form is mtzagath, ' mixed ' ; and
in I>,a. 5. 22, le-aithrevatht to make
drunk (or drench) themselve>.'

GREEK.— Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has
kerasma, * mixture ' ; Symmachus has
ekchntkeis 'poured out.' Prov. 23. 30,
the Lxx. has potoi, ' drinkings ' ; Theo-
dotion has ktrasmata, ' mixtures.' Cant.
7. 2, the Lxx. krama, ' mixed-liquor ' ;
Isa. 65. II, fcrasma, 'mixture.' In
Prov. 9. 2, 5, and Isa. 5. 22, the I.xx.
uses inflections of the verb kcrannumi,
'to mingle.'

LATIN. — Psa. 75. 8, the V. has
mixtum ; Prov. 23. 30, calicts ; and Cant.
7. 2, pocula, 'cups ' ; Isa. 65. II, Iibatis9
'have made libations.' In Prov. 9. 25,
and Isa. 5. 22, the verb miscuo, 'to mix,'
is used.

7. ASHISHAH (sometimes written tskishah) signifies some kind of fruit-cake,
probably a cake of pressed grapes or raisins. It occurs four times, and in each
case is associated by the A. V. with some kind of drink.

2 SAMUEL. and in the other two places the para-

6. 19, a part of a public donative; 'a
flagon of wine ' (A. V.) — ' of wine '
in italics.

i CHRONICLES.
16. 3, same as above.

CANTICLES.

2. 5, 'stay me with flagons' (A. V.).

HOSE A.

3. I, 'flagons of wine' (A. V. ); but in

the mar. substituted

for ' wine ' ; the Hebrew l>eing ashi-
shah anaht'im, • pressed-cakes of

CHALDEE. — In the first two pn
the Targum has manthah, ' a portion ' ;

and in the other two places the
phrase does not follow the text.

GREEK. — In 2 Sam. 6. 19, the Lx-x. has
legation apo leeganout 'a cake-cooked -
with-oil from the frying-pan '= a pan-
cake or fricasse. In I Chron. lo. 3,
amoritetn, ' a cake ' ; in Cant. 2. 5, mu-
m's, 'with perfumes'; Symmachus,
anthei, 'on a flower'; Aquila, oin •.
'\vithvine-flowers.' In Hos. 3. i, the
Lxx. has/V//////.7/a tneta st&pkidos \
A, staphitfon), ' cakes made v.

v.— In 2 S.am. 6. 19, and 2 Chron.
1 6. 3, the Vulgate has similar j
otto, 'a cake-of-fme-flour fried i;
;t. 2. 5, floribus, 'with fl<>

i, vinaceii uvaru/ti, 'husks
of grapes.'

8. SilEMARIM (pronounced sJttmahrim') is derived from skamar, 'to preserve,'
and has the general signification of things preserved. It occurs five times. Iu
. 12. 42, the same word, differently pointed, is twice translated as signifying
to be kept (observed).

PSALMS. parts of the mixture preserver! from

75. 8, saM to be sucked up by the solution =« the insoluble drc;>

wicked ; ' dregs ' ( A. V. ). rather the drugs.

APPENDIX B.

ISAIAH.

25. 6 (twice), joined with shemahnim,
'fat things,' as the provisions of a
banjquet, and indicating dainties,
answering to our English 'pre-
serves ' or confections.

JEREMIAH.

48. II, the dregs of wine, 'preserved'
by falling to the bottom of the cask ;
'lees' (A. V.).

ZEPHANIAH.
I. 12, the same; 'lees' (A. V.).

CHALDEE. — In Psa. 75. 8, the T. has
'dregs and refuse'; in Isa. 25. 6, the
paraphrase retains the sense of ' dregs '
by representing that though the nations

expect a luxurious banquet, they will be
doomed to mortification, ignominy, etc. ;
in Jer. 48. n, a cognate word, shenah-
rail>, 'his dregs,' is given; in Zeph. I.
12, 'lees' is paraphrased by 'riches.'

GREEK. — Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has
tntgias, 'dregs.' Isa. 25. 6, piontai
oinon, ' they shall drink wine ' ; Sym-
machus, poton tnigion, 'a feast of lees.'
Jer. 48. II, doxee, 'glory'; evidently
another reading of the text or a para-
phrase. Zeph. I. 12, another reading
of the text is followed.

LATIN.— The Vulgate, in Psa. 75. 8,
hasyfe*, 'feculence'; in Isa. 25. 6, vin-
demia, ' vintage produce ' ; in Jer. 48.

• II, ftFcibus, 'in his dregs'; Zeph. I. 12,

I facibus.

9. MAMTAQQIM is derived from mahthaq, 'to suck,' and denotes 'sweetnesses.'

It is applied to the mouth (Cant. 5.
16) as full of sweet things. In Neh. 8.
10, it is said, ' Go your way, eat the fat,
and drink the sweet' — mamtaqqim,
' sweetnesses '=sweet drinks. The Lxx.

\\asglukasmata, 'sweet things,' and the
V. mulsum, 'drink sweet as honey.'
\_Mathaq is most probably allied to the
Saxon methcg and metheglin, liquid pre-
parations from honey. ]

IO. SIIAKAR (sometimes written shechar, shekar) signifies 'sweet drink,' ex-
pressed from fruits other than the grape, and drunk in an unfermented or fermented
state. It occurs in the Old Testament twenty-three times.

LEVITICUS.

IO. 9, forbidden along \v\\h y ay in to the
priests while officiating.

NUMBERS.

6. 3, forbidden to the Nazarites.
6. 3, vinegar of, forbidden to Nazarites.
28. 7, to be offered as a libation to the
Lord (apparently here denoting the
sweet juice of the grape).

DEUTERONOMY.

14. 26, to be bought (probably in lieu of
yilzfiar, orchard-fruit).
6, not drunk in the wilderness.

JUDGES.

4, 7, 14, forbidden to Samson's
mother.

i SAMUEL.
I. 15, its use disclaimed by Hannah.

PSALMS.

12, the drinkers of it (A. V.,
•drunkards') mocked the Psalmist.

PROVERBS.

20. i, pronounced 'raging.'
31. 4, forbidden to princes.
31. 6, the use of, by those ready to

29.
13-

69.

perish, causing forgetfulness of their

misery.

ISAIAH.

5. II, woe to those following after it.
5. 22, woe to those mingling it.
24. 9, becoming bitter to the drinker.

28. 7 (thrice), causing the priest and
prophet to err and stray.

29. 9, staggering in the absence of it.
56. 12, the impious rilling themselves

with it.

MICAH.
2. II, the subject of false prophesying.

Shakar\s uniformly translated ' strong
drink' in the A. V., except in Numb.
28. 7, where it is rendered ' strong wine ';
and in Psa. 69. 12, where instead of
'drinkers of shakarj the A. V. reads
'drunkards.'

CHALDEE. — In the Targum shakar is
usually rendered khamar atriq, 'old
wine,' a rendering indubitably erroneous;
but other renderings ire as follows : —
Marvai, 'strong drink,' in Lev. IO. 9;
Psa. 69. 12. Khamar bekhir, Jerusalem

APPENDIX B.

419

Targuri of Numb. 28. 7, where On-
kelos and Jonathan have khamar attiq.
Marath, 'pure,' or 'neat,1 Jonathan's
rendering in Deut. 29. 6; and sikrah, in
Prov. 20. i.

GREEK. — The Lxx. gives shakar the
Greek garb of sik.-ra (except in Judg.
13. 4, where Codex B, methusma, 'strong
drink '): methusni(it I Sam. I. 15 ; Micah
2. II : oinjn, ' wine,' Psa. 69. 12 ; Prov.
31.4: methee, ' strong liquor,' or ' drunk-
enness,' Prov. 20. I ; 31. 6; Isa. 27. 8
(once, but Codex A has sit era thrice).

Of other Greek versions preserved,
the usual renderings are me thus ma >

'strong drink,' except Theo.Iotion, Isa.
28. 7; methee (once), 56. 12 [a verse
absent from the Lxx. version]

LATIN. — The common rendering of
the Vulgate is sictra, an adaptation from
the Hebrew or Greek, except omne t/uo.l
inebriare potest, • whatever is able to
inebriate,' in Lev. 10. 9; Numb. 6. 3;
I Sam. I. 15 : qnalibet alia potio, 'any
other drink,' in Numb. 6. 3 (second
clause): polio, 'drink,' in Isa. 24. Q:
vinum, 'wine,' in Numb. 28. 7; Psa.
69. 12: cbrictas, 'drunkenness,' in Prov.
20. i; 31. 4; Isa. 5. u; 5. 12; 28. ^
(thrice); 29. 9; 56. 12.

II.

HEBREW WORDS DESCRIPTIVE OF VINEYARD, VINE, ETC.

[VINEYARD] KEREM (pi. KERAH-
MIM).— A term applied at hrst to culti-
vated land appropriated to the growth of
fruit-bearing plants, and at length spe-
cifically to ground set apart for the cul-
ture of the vine, though probably down
to a late period the more general meaning
was not absent from the word. It is
translated ' vineyard ' in the A. V. in
Gen. 9. 20; Exod. 22. 5 (twice); 23. II ;
Lev. 19. 10 (twice); 25. 3 ; 25.4; Numb.
16. 14 [Ileb. sing, 'vineyard']; 20. 17
[Heb. sing, 'vineyard']; 21. 22 [Heb.
sing, 'vineyard']; 22. 24; Ueut. 6. II;

20. 6; 22. 9 (twice); 23. 24; 24. 21 ; 28.
30; 28. 39; Josh. 24. 13; Judg. 9. 27;
II. 33; 14. 5; 15. 5; 21. 20; 21. 21 ;
I Sam. 8. 14; 8. 15; 22. 7; I Kir

i; 21. 2 (twice); 21. 6 (twice); 21. 7;

21. 15; 21. 16; 21. 18; 2 Kings 5. 26;
18. 32; 19. 29; I Chron. 27. 27 (twice);
Neh. 5- 3; 5-4; 5: 5; 5-,i.';9- 25; Job
24. 6 (rendered ' vintage ' in A. V.) ; 24.
18; Psa. 107 37; Prov. 24. 30; 31 16;
Eccles. 2 4; Cant I. 6 (twice); I 14;
2. 15 (twice, and both times 'vines' in
the A. V.); 7. 12; 8. 1 1 (twice); 8.
12; Isa. I. 8; 3. 14; 5. I (twice); 5.

3; 5- 4; 5- 5; 5- 7; s- 10; 16. i°;

27. 2 ; 36. 17; 37. 30 ; 65. 21 ; Jer. 12 ;

10; 31. 5; 32- IS? 35- 7; 35- 9J 39-
10; Ezek. 28. 26; Hos 2. 15 ; Amos
4. 9; 5. n ; 5. 17; 9. 14; Micah i. 6;
Zeph i 13. [See SHKDAMOTH and
KANNAH.] The A. V. includes kerem
as part of a proper name in Neh 3 14,
Btth-haccerem ; Jer 6 I, Beth-haccerem
[literally, baith-hak-kerem^ ' a house of
the vineyard']. From Ktrem comes —

[VlNKYARD-MAN] KORAM (pi. KO-

RAMIM), ' a vineyarder,' a man employed
about a vineyard In the A. V. trans-
lated 'vinedresser' in I Kings 25. 12;
2 Chron 26 10; Isa. 61. 15; Jer. 52.
16; Joel I ii.

[VINE-FIELD] SHF.DAMOTH, used ap-
parently to designate fields planted with
vines, in Deut. 32. 32; Isa 16. 8;
Hah 3. 17.

KANNAH is translated 'vineyard' in
Psa 80. 15, but probably signifies 'a
plant.' Gesenius translates it 'protect
thou '

[VINE] GEPHEN (pi GEPHANIM)
strictly signifies 'a twig,' from gaf>hnant
'to be bent,' and hence applied to the
vine as the most valuable of flexile
plants. It is so applied in the A. V.
as follows : — Gen. 40. 9; 40. 10; 49. Ii ;
Numb 6 4 ; 20. 5 [Hebrew, 'the vine'];
Deut 8 8 [Hebrew, 'the vine']; 32 .32
(twice); Judg. 9. 12; 9. 13; 13. 14;
I Kings 4. 25 ; 2 Kings 4. 37 [gefhen
sadch, 'a vine of the field '=a wild vine];
18. 31; Job 15. 33; Psa. 78 47; 80 8; 80.
14 ; i<>5 33 ; 128 3 ; Cant. 2 1356 1 1 ;
7.8; 7. 12; Isa. 7 23; 16. 8; 16. 9;
24. 7; 32. 12; 34. 4; 36. 16; Jer. 2. 21 ;
5. 17; 6. 9; 8. 13; 48. 32; Ezek 15 2;
15.6; 17. 6 (twice); 17. 7; 17 8; 19.
10 ; Hos 2. 12; 10. I ; 14 7; Joel I 7;
i. 12; 2. 22; Micah 4.4; Hab 3 17;
Hag. 2. 19; Zech 3 IO; 8 12; Mai
3. 1 1 . [See also SORAQ and ZEMORAII ]
4 Vine ' is superadded in the A V. in
Lev 25 5, u.

SORAQ is supposed to be derived from
saraq, ' to interweave ' ; hence soraq, a

420

APPENDIX B.

collection of shoots and tendrils. Some
regard it as applied to a peculiar and
pre-eminent species of vine. It occurs
Gen. 49. II, ' choice vine' ; Judg. 16. 4,
'Sorek,' the name of a 'valley' or ra-
vine; Isa. 5. 2, ' the choicest vine' ; 16.
8, 'the principal plants'; Jer. 2. 21, 'a
noble vine.'

[VINE-BRANCH] ZEMORAH, derived
from zamar, 'to pluck' or 'prune,' is
supposed to denote a vine-branch In
Numb 13 23, 'a branch'; Isa. 17.
10, 'strange slips'; but in Ezek. 8. 17
and 15 2 no definite kind of branch
seems intended. From zamar also
comes —

[VINE-KNIFE] MAZMORAH, the sharp
instrument used for detaching the ripe
grapes from the vine, translated 'pruning-
hook,'Isa. 2.4; 18. 5; Joel 3. 10; Micah

MAGGOL (from nagal, 'to cut') is
translated 'sickle' in Jer. 50. 16; Joel

3- 13-

[VINE-BLOSSOM] SEMADAR is rendered
'tender grape' in the A. V., but may,
perhaps, be more properly rendered
'vine-blossom.' It occurs Cant. 2. 13;
2. 15 ; 7- 12.

NATZ, 'flower,' applied to the vine,
Gen. 40. 12, and rendered ' its blossoms
flourished.'

PARAKH, 'to bud,' applied to the
vine, Gen. 40. 12, 'budded'; Cant. 6.
II; 7. 12, 'flourish'; Hos. 14. 7,
'grow.'

[A GRAPE-BERRY] GARGAR OCCUrS

Isa. 17. 6.

[GRAPE] ANAB (pi. ANABIM — accord-
ing to the Masorite pointing anahv, pi.
anahvini) is derived from a root ' to bind
together ' ; hence the anab or anahv de-
noted a number of grape-berries joined
together = a little bunch. In the He-
brew Bible the singular form occurs but
once (and then in a collective sense),
Deut. 32. 14, and the A. V. uniformly
renders anabim by 'grapes ' : — Gen. 40.
10; 40. 11; 49. II; Lev. 25. 5; Numb.
6 3 (twice); 13 20; 13. 23; Deut. 23.
24; 32. 14; 32 32 (twice); Neh. 13.
15; Isa 5. 2; 5 4; Jer. 8. 13; Hos. 3.
i; 9 10; Amos 9. 13 In Hos. 3.
I anabim is translated 'wine,' but the
margin gives correctly ' grapes '

In the following passages the word
' grape ' or ' grapes ' is supplied by the
English translators, but does not occur in
the Hebrew :— Judg. 8 259 17; Lev.
19. 10 ; 25 II ; Deut 24 31 ; 28. 30; 28.
39; Job 15 33; Cant 7 7; Isa. 5. 2;
5. 4 [after 'wild']; 17.6; 18.5; Jer. 25

3°5 31- 29, 3°; 49- 9J Ezek. 19. 12;
Obad 5

[CLUSTER] ESHKOL (pi. ESHKOLOTH>
primarily denoted a stalk of grapes, and
thence 'a cluster,' / e. an accumulation of
the smaller bunches, anahvim. The A.
V. translates cshkol, eshkoloth, 'cluster,'
"'clusters,' in Gen 40. 10; Numb. 13.23;
13 24; Deut. 32. 32; Cant. I. 14, 'a
cluster of camphire ' (cypress) ; 7 7 ; 7'
8; Isa. 65. 8; Micah 71. In I Sam.
25. 18 and 30. 12 the word 'clusters'
is supplied by the English translators.
Eshkol is retained as a proper name,
'Eshcol,' in Gen. 14 13, 24; Numb.
13 23; 13 24; 32 9; Deut. i 24

[UNRIPE-GRAPES] BOSER and BASER
are used to designate a collection of grapes
still unripe, though fully formed The
A V rendering is once 'unripe grape,'
and otherwise 'sour grape,' — Job 15.
33; Isa. 18 5; Jer. 31. 29, 30; E;ek.
18 2

[VINE-FRUIT] TIROSH, the natural
fruit of the vine, taken collectively In
the order of grmvth came the budding,
perakh ; then the blossom, zcmadar ;
next the unripe fruit, baser ; and lastly
the fully formed fruit, tirosh. In the
order of qitantity came the single berries,
gargarim ; the grape-bunches, anabim ;
the grape-clusters (composed of bunches),
eshkoloth ; and the collective produce of
the vine, tirosh Tirosh, erroneously
translated 'wine' and 'new wine' in the
A. V., occurs thirty-eight times, for which
see page 414.

[RAISINS, dried grapes] TZIMMU
QIM, from tzamaq, 'to dry up,' signi
fies, literally, dried things, and is trans
lated 'clusters of raisins' in I Sam. 2£
1 8 ; 30 12 ; and 'bunches of raisins ' u-
2 Sam 1 6 I ; I Chron. 12 40

[CAKES, made of pressed grane? or
raisins] ASHISHAH (pi AsmsriOi'H),
incorrectly translated in the A. V.
'flagon' and 'flagon of wine/ occurs
2 Sam 6 19; i Chron 16. 3; Cant 2.
5; Hos 3. I See page 41 7

[THE VINTAGE] BATZIR,
'to cut off,' signified the act 01 time of
gathering grapes, which v/as usually per-
formed by cutting then, from the vine.
The word occurs and is rendered ' vint-
age' in the A. V Le/ 26 5 (twice);
Judg. 8 2; Isa 24 i;,; 32 10; Jer 48.
32; Micah 7 I; Zert. n 2

[In Isa. 16 10 the word 'vintage' is
supplied by the translators In Job 24
6 ' vintage ' is the rendering, not of
batzir, but of kr,em.~\

The verb banker, applied to the vint-

APPENDIX B.

421

-age, occurs also in Lev. 25. 5; 25. n ;
Deut. 24. II ; Judg. 9. 27.

QATZIR, generally translated 'harvest'
in A. V., is applied to the vintage in
Joel 3. 13 (probably also Joel I. n).

[VINTAGER, grape-gatherer] BOTZAR
(pi. BOTZERIM) was a cutter (/. e. gath-
erer) of grapes at the time of the
vintage, batzir. The A. V. translates
by ' grape-gatherer ' in Jer. 6. 9 ; 49. 9 ;
Obad. 5.

[GRAPE-GLEANING] OLLALOTH, used
of the vintage season, Judg. 8. 2; i
<>; Jer. 49. 9; Obad. 5, where the A.V.
has 'some grapes,' but 'gleanings' in
the margin.

The verbal form occurs Lev. 19. 10;
Deut. 24. 21 ; Jer. 6. 9 (twice). The
verb lahqash is found Job 24. 6, and is
translated 'they gather,' but some pre-
fer ' they glean.'

[WINE-PRESS] YEQEB (or YEQEV),
the general name for cavity, coop, or
' hollow place ' where the grapes were
first brought together, then trodden, and
their juice collected. The A. V. renders
it press, wine-press, and wine-vat, and
once 'wine,' Deut. 16. 13. It occurs
Numb. 18. 27; 18. 30; Deut. 15. 14;
16. 13 ; Judg. 7. 25 ; 2 Kings 6. 27 ; Job

24. II ; Prov. 3. 10 ; Isa. 5. 2; 16. 10;
Jer. 48. 33; Hos. 9. 2; Joel 2. 24; 3.
13; Hag. 2. 16; Zech. 14 10.

GATH, ' a place of pleasure ' = where
grapes and olives are trodden, Judg. 6. 1 1 ;
Neh. 13. 15; Isa. 63 2; Lam. I. 15'; Joel
3. 13. [See also Pi'KAH and YEOEB.]

As the name of a Philistine city,
'Gath,' it occurs Josh 13 3; i Sam.
6. 17; 21. u; i Kings 2. 39,40. As
included in the names of three Hebrew
towns, — (i) Gath-hepher (wine-press of
the well), Josh. 10. 13, where Jonah was
born; (2) Gath-rimmon (press of the
pomegranate), Josh. 19. 45; and (3)
Githaim (two wine-presses), Neh. 1 1.33.

PURAH, from the root, 'to break,'
occurs Isa. 63. 3, A. V. 'winepress';
Hag. 2. 16, A. V. 'press,' where some
regard it as a denomination of measure.

[GRAPE-TREADER] DORAK, from dah-
rak, to tread, signifies 'a treader,' and
is applied to the treader of grapes in the
wine-press, Neh. 13. 15; Isa. 16. 10
(where the A. V. reads ' treadcrs ' in-
stead of ' treader '); Jer. 25, 30.

The verb is used in reference to tread-
ing grapes in Judg. 9. 27; Job 24. II ;
Isa. 63. 2, 3; Jer. 48. 33; Lam. I. 15;
Micah 6. 15.

III.

HEBREW WORDS FOR LEAVEN (FERMENT), THINGS LEAVENED (FERMENTED),
VINEGAR, AND UNLEAVENED (UNFERMENTED) THINGS.

i SF.OR, derived from a root 'to boil
up,' 'to ferment,' denotes a substance
fermenting, or capable of producing fer-
mentation. In the A. V. it is trans-
lated 'leaven' in Exod. 12. 15; 12. 19;
13. 7; Lev. 2. n ; and 'leavened bread'
in Deut. 16. 4.

2. KHAMATZ, both noun and verb,
denoting whatever is undergoing or has
undergone the fermenting process. The
A. V. translates by 'leavened bread'
in Excxl. 12. 15; 13. 3; 13. 7; 23. 18;
Deut. 16. 3; by ' that which is leavened'
in Exod. 12. 19; by 'leavened' in Exod.
12. 20; 12. 34; 12. 39; Lev. 7. 13
[where the Hebrew is lekhem khamatz,
•bread leavened']; Hos. 7. 4; by 'leaven'
in Exod. 34. 25; Lev. 2. n; 6. 17; 23. 17;
Amos 4. 5; by 'was grieved' in Psa. 73.
21. Analogous words (with a different
pointing) are KHAMUTZ, translated 'op-
pressed1 in Isa. I. 17; KHOMATZ, 'cruel,'

in P-a. 71. 4; KHAMATZ, 'dyed,' hi Isa,
63. I ; and KHAMIIY, 'clean,' in Isa. 30.

24, where something pungent is indicated.

3. KHOMKI/., 'fermented drink,' is
applied to what has undergone the acetous
fermentation, and in the A. V. is trans-
lated ' vinegar ' in Numb. 6. 3 (twice) ;
Ruth 2. 4; Psa. 69. 21 ; Prov. 10. 26;

25. 20.

4. MAT/AH, pi. MATZOTH, signifies
' that which is sweet,' and is contrastively
used to distinguish unleavened articles
from those that have undergone fer-
mentation. In the A. V. it is translated
' unleavened bread ' (though the Hebrew
has the plural form) in Gen. 19. \\
Exod. 12. 8; 12. 15; 12. 17; 12. 18;
12. 20; 13. 6; 13. 7; 23. 15 (twice);
29. 23; 34. 18 (twice); Lev. 6. 16; 8.
2; 8. 26; 23.6 (twice); Numb. 6. 15
(twice); 6. 17; 9. n; 28. 17; Deut. 16.
3; 16. 8; 16. 16; I Sam. 28. 24;

422

APPENDIX B.

2 Kings 23. 9; 2 Chron. 8. 13; 30. 13;
30. 21 ; Ezra 6. 22 ; Ezek. 45. 21. It is
translated ' unleavened cake ' or ' cakes '
in Numb. 6. 19; Josh. 5. ii; Judg. 6.
19; 6. 20; 6. 21 (twice). It is trans-
lated ' unleavened ' in connection with

other Hebrew words translated ' cakes,'
'bread,' 'wafers,' or 'fine flour,' in
Exod. 12. 39; 29. 2 (thrice); Lev. 2. 4;
2. 5; 7. 12 (twice); 8. 26; Numb. 6.
19; I Chron. 23. 29. It is translated
' without leaven ' in Lev. 10. 12.

IV.

HEBREW WORDS TRANSLATED DRUNKEN, DRUNKENNESS, AND DRUNKARD.

1. SHAKRAH, 'fulness,' occurs in
Hag. I. 6, a in le-shakrah, rendered in
the A. V. 'ye are not filled with drink' ;
literally, ' not to fulness ' (or reple-
tion).

2. SHAHKAR — connected as root or
derivative with shakar, ' sweet drink ' —
strictly implies, as Gesenius states, ' to
drink to the full,' generally with an im-
plied sweetness of the article consumed,
whether the sweet juice of the grape or
other fruits. Whenever the juice had
fermented, or had become intoxicating
by drugs, this plentiful use would lead
to intoxication, and give to the verb the
secondary sense of inebriation in the
drinker. Inebriation, however, must not
be inferred unless the context suggests
such a condition. It is translated
* drunk,' 'drunken,' 'drunken man,' or
'drunkard,' in the A. V. in Gen. 9. 21 ;
Deut. 32. 42; I Sam. I. 14; 25. 36;
2 Sam. ii. 13; Job 12. 25; Psa. 107.27;
Prov. 26. 9; Isa. 19. 14; 24. 20; 28. I ;
28. 3; 29. 9; 49. 26; 51. 21 ; 63. 6;
Jer. 23 9; 25. 27; 48. 26; 51. 7; 51.
39; 51. 57; Lam. 4. 21 ; Joel I. 5;
Nah. 3. II ; Hab. 2. 15. It is translated
'were merry ' in Gen. 43. 34; 'drink
abundantly ' in Cant. 5. I. [In Psa. 69.
12, where the A. V. gives 'drunkards,'
the Hebrew is 'drinkers of shakar }~\

3. SHIKKOR (fern, shikkorah, 'drunk,'
occurs in I Sam. I. 13; I Kings 16. 9;
20. 1 6.

4. SHIKKAHRON, or SHIKKRON,
'drunkenness,' occurs Jer. 13. 13; Ezek.

23- 33 5 39- J9 [where the A. V. has ' till
ye be drunken ' — literally, ' to drunken-
ness ']. In Josh. 15. n, Shikron appears
as the name of a town, ' Shicron.'

5. RAHVAH signifies 'to drink largely,'
'to be filled with drink,' without the
reference contained in shahkar to the
sweetness of the liquid imbibed. In the
A. V. it is rendered ' made drunk ' in
Jer. 46. 10 and Lam. 3. 15; but other
renderings, expressive of simple abund-
ance, are given in Psa. 23. 5 ; 36. 8; 65.
10 ['abundantly']; 66. 12 ['wealthy'];
Prov. 5. 19 ['satisfy']; 7. 18; ii. 15
(twice) ; Isa. 16. 9 ; 34. 5 ['bathed ' ] ; 34.
7;43.24; 55. 10; Jer. 31. 14; 31. 25.

6. RAHVEH. — This adjective is ren-
dered ' drunkenness ' — margin, ' the
drunken' — in Deut. 29 I9,==drink-hard;
'watered' in Isa. 58. ii ; Jer. 31. 12.

7. Ri (an abbreviation of REVI) is
rendered 'watering' in Job 37. II.

8. SAHVAH (connected with SOVEH)
signifies ' to suck up,' ' to soak.' In the
A. V. it is rendered 'drunkard,' Deut.
21. 20; 'bibbers,' Prov. 23. 10 ['wine-
bibbers ' — swai-yayin, ' soakers - of -
wine ' ] ; ' drunkard,' Prov. 23. 21 ; 'we
will fill ourselves with,' Isa. 56 12;
' Sabeans' — margin, 'drunkards,' — Ezek
23. 42 ; ' drunken ' and ' drunkards ' in
Nah. i. 10.

9. SHETHI (from shahthah, 'to drink')
is translated 'drunkenness ' in Eccles. 10.
17, where the sense seems to require
some general term, such as ' carousing '
or 'revelry.'

HEBREW WORDS DESCRIPTIVE OF THE NATURE AND EFFECTS OF INTOXICAT-
ING DRINK.

2. 5, 'he transgresseth by wine,' — rather,
'wine is a defrauder.'

Dahlaq, to burn, inflame. Isa. 5. ii,
' wine inflames them.'

Hah?naht to rage. Prov. 20. I, 'strong

Avoi, sorrow. Prov. 23. 29, 'who
hath sorrow?'

Biihla, to swallow down. Isa. 28. 7»
'they are swallowed up of wine.'

Begad, deceiving, defrauding. Hab.

APPENDIX B.

423

drink is raging' ; Zcch 9. 15, 'and they
shall make a noise as through wine,' —
better, ' they shall rage as wine.'

Gakash, to shake, reel. Jer. 25. 16,
'and they shall be moved.'

Halal, to trill, sing, shout, rave. Jer.
25, 1 6, ' and they shall be mad ' ; Jer. 51.
7, 'the nations are mad.'

Khahgagi ' to be giddy.' Psa. 107. 27,
4 they reel to and fro.'

A'hallah, to be sick (ill). Hos. 7. 5, 'the
princes have made him sick.' See below.

Khakliluth, redness, lividness. Prov.
23. 29, 'who hath redness of eyes?'
(livid circles round the eyes).

Khamah, inilaming heat, such as is
produced by poison, and symbolical of
rage, fury. Dent 32. 33, 'their wine
is the poison of dragons'; Isa. 51. 17,
'the cup of his////-/'/ Isa. 51.22, 'the
cup of my fury ' ; Isa. 63. 6, 4 I will
make them drunk with my anger'* ; Jer.
25. 15, ' take the winecup of this/wry ' /
Jer. 51. 39, 'in their heat' ; Hos. 7. 5,
'the princes have made him sick with
bottles of wine* (should be 'with /;/-
flaming-heat of wine'); Hab. 2. 15,
4 that puttest thy bottle to him ' (should
be 'pouring out thy inflaming-drinP).

\Kkamak occurs in the following other
places: — Deut. 32. 24, 'the 60/V0» of
serpents of the dust ' ; Job 6. 4, ' the
poison drinketh up my spirit ' ; Psa. *8.
4, ' their poison is like the poison of a
serpent'; Psa. 140. 3, 'the poison of
adders is under their lips.']

Latz, a mocker, scorner. Prov. 20.
I, ' wine is a mocker,' or ' scorner.'

Midrahminii contentions, strifes. Prov.
23, 29, ' who hath contentions ? '

Nakhash, serpent. Prov. 23. 32, ' it
biteth like a serpent.'

Nua, to sway to and fro, to stag-
ger. Psa. 107. 27, ' and stagger '; Isa.
24.20, ' reel to and fro ' (lit. 'reeling,'

4 shall reel !) ; Isa. 29. 9, ' they stagger,
but not with strong drink.'

Oi and hoi, woe, lamentation. Prov.
23. 29; Isa. 5. ll; Isa. 5. 22; Isa. 28.
I ; Hab. 2. 15.

Petzahim, wounds. Prov. 23. 29,
' who hath wounds without cause ? '

Phahrash, to pierce. Prov. 23. 32,
'and stingeth (pierceth) like an adder.'

Kaal, trembling. Zech. 12. 2, 'a
cup of trembling.' [See t'iralah. ]

Rosht gall, poppy. Deut. 32. 32,
' grapes of gall ' ; Deut. 32. 32, ' venom
(gall) of serpents '; Psa. 69. 21, 'they
gave me also gall for my meat.'

Shahgag, to go astray, to trans-
gress. Prov. 20. i, ' and whosoever is
deceived by it is not wise ' ; Isa. 28. 7,
' they have erred through wine ; . . .
the priest and the prophet have erred
through strong drink ; they err in
vision.'

Shammah, desolation ; Shemahmah,
astonishment. Ezek. 23. 33, 'the cup
of desolation and astonishment.1

Shuk, to bite. Prov. 23. 32, ' at the
last it biteth like a serpent.'

Siakh, brawling, babbling. Prov. 23.
29, ' who hath babbling ? '

Tahah, to wander, to stray. Job 21.
25, 'he maketh them to stagger like a
drunken man'; Isa. 19. 14, 'they have
caused Egypt to err, ... as a drunken
man staggereth in his vomit '; Isa. 28.
7, ' through strong drink they are out
of the way ; . . . they are out of the
way. '

Taralah, reeling, trembling. Psa.
60. 3, ' wine of astonishment ' ; Isa. 51.
17, 22, ' the cup of trembling.'

Tziphoni, a viper. Prov. 23. 32, ' it
stingeth like an adder (viper).'

Yahgon, sorrow. Lzek. 32. 33,
4 thou shall be filled with drunkenness
and sorrow.'

VI.

OTHER HEBREW WORDS EXPLAINED IN THE NOTES.
[The figures refer to the pages of the Commentary.]

Agganoth, bowls, 165.
Ahdam, to be red, 136, 180.
Ahith, languishing, 114.
Ahlaz, to exult, 200.
Ahmah, weariness, sorrow, 143.
Ahmal, to languish, 165, 226.
Ahrah, to be naked, 204.

Ahsaph, to scrape together, to gather,

<2, C6, 198.

Anval, to hang down=to mourn, 165.
Ahvart to cross over, to overwhelm, 187.
A in, eye or fountain, 22, 65, 136, 137.
Anah, wormwood, 203.
Anttshim, fined ones, 229.

424

APPENDIX B.

Atereth, crown, wreath, 169.

Avah, to desire, 54, 142.

Bahsar (or va/isar), flesh, 135, 147,

212.

Bakhttrint, young men, 246.

Bar, fine corn, 227.

Bari, fat, 212.

Bashal, to ripen, 17.

Bath> a measure equal to 7^ gallons

English, 98, 102, 159.
Beer (or baar\ a well, 48, 87, 130.
Belen, belly, 115.

Berakhah (or verakhali), blessing, i%2.
Bethuloth, maidens, 240.
Beushim, wild or vile (grapes), 158.
Bikitrim, firsts = first-ripe, 45.
Bitam, taste, counsel, decree, 214.
Borek, pit, cistern, I, 130.
Dahgan, corn, 15, 52, 53, 56, 93, loo,

104, 1 06, 107, 114, 117, 132, 189, 202,

217, 218, 222, 227, 244, 246.
Dahm, blood, 22, 33, 61, 64, 65, Il8,

176, 198, 206, 209.
Debash (or devash}, honey, whether of

bees or made from grape-juice, 20, 26,

34, 46, 52, 94, 100, 140, 141, 152.
Dem a, a tear, liquor, 31, 161.
Devalah, a cake of figs, 83, 96.
Din, judgment, 142.
Dodim, loves, 131, 150, 152.
Can, a garden, 178.
Gavath, pride, 169.
Geber, a strong man, 124, 1 60.
Goren, the corn-floor, 223.
Gnr, to carry, to assemble, 222.
Hahlam, to smite, 169.
Hahrim, mountains, 228, 232.
Haidad, exaltation, vintage-shouting, 162.
Hi/lulim, songs at vintage-time, 71.
If in, a measure equal to 12 pints English,

32, 46, 49-
Kabod) glory, 141.

Karmel, Carmel, garden, 94, 99, 162.
Keli, vessel, 108, 165.
Keseph, silver, 161.
Khag, a sacred dance = a feast, xviii,

56, 76, 98, 99, ioo. 101.
Khakt the palate, 153.
Khaklili, red, livid, or purple, 22, 136.
Khakmah, wisdom, 127, 131, 147.
K ha lab (or khahlahv\ milk, 21, 26, 46,

61, 68, 152, 177, 203.
Khamas, violence, 130
Khameth, a bottle, 14. [In Genesis

^only ]

Khinnahm, for nothing, 136.
Khisvomoth, inventions, devices, 148.
Khoakh, a thorn, 142.
Kaftan, priest, 170, 209.
Kopher, cypress shrub, 150.
Kos* a cup, 17, 118, 119, 122, 137, 176,

186, 188, 207, 241.

Lckhem, bread, II, 14, 76, 81, 82, 83,

86, 88, 94, 96, 102, 104, 114, 126, 130,

148, 149, 164, 174, 214, 244.
Lua, to swallow down, 233.
Maasar, tithe, 107.
Mahal, to cut off, to dilute, 156.
Mahshak, to draw, to continue, 147.
Maim, water, 14, 26, 29, 48, 51, 52, 74,

82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 94, 102, 114, 119,

140, 141, 156, 157, 164, 234.
Maishahrim, in straight lines, straightly,

137. 154
Masgeh,one who offers drink to another=

a cup-bearer, 'butler,' 16, 103.
Matzah, to suck up, 123, 176, 207.
Mekhaqqaq, decree, 142
Melaah, fulness, firstfruits, 31, 47, 58.
Melek, king, 89, 103, 108, 109, no, ill,

112, 142, 221, 234.

Meni, fortune, 182.
Merorim, bitter herbs, 45.
Migdol, watch-tower, 158.
Mishroth, maceration, 'liquor,' 40.
Mishteh, time or place of drinking, a

feast, drink, 12, 82, 101, no, in,

112, 113, 160, 167, 186.
Misraq, vessel, bowl, 231, 245.
Moiid, appointed time, season, 217.
Nahshak, to bite, 137.
Nahta, to plant, 8, 51, 59, 67, 124, 232,

242.
Nahlaph, to drop down, to prophesy,

228, 232, 235.
Nahvi, a prophet, 170.
Nahzir, a Nazarite, 41, 43, 71, 79, 229.
Nakhal, a ravine, and in time of rain a

watercourse, 45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 75, 89,

127.
Nasak and Nesek, drink poured out as

an act of worship (translated in A. V.

'drink-offering'), 16, 32, 43, 49, 64,

92» 97. 99. 101, 118, 182, 186, 190,

210, 223, 226, 227
Nather, nitre, /' e potash, 140.
Nebel (or nevel\ bottle, skin-bag, 80,

81, 82, 86, 165, 185
Nod, bottle, skin-bag, 66, 68, 82.
Nozlim, streams, 130.
Nub (or mtv\ to cause to grow, to thrive,

206.

Ob (or ov\ bottle, 115.
Oni, affliction, 142.
Obad, perishing one, 143.
Pahthaakh, vent, 115.
Paqqnoth, gourds, cucumbers, 91.
Pathbag, meat, dainties, 211.
Pennanim, corals, ' rubies ' ? 203.
Peri, fruit, 51, 60, 95, 106, 183, 245,

247.
Phahratz, to break down, to abound

with, 129 [not 'overflow']
Qahbatz, to collect, to gather, 180.

APPENDIX K

425

to curse, 71.
Qahpktih, to draw up, to coagulate, 242.
Qub&ath, lowest contents, dregs, 176,

177-

Rod, friend, neighbor, 240.
Radupli, to pursue, 159.
Rahah, to look, to desire, 136, 137.
Rahpad, to refresh, 151.
Raiakh, smell, odor, 151.
Rashish, firsts = firstfruits, loo.
Reqakh, spice, 154.

Rim man, the pomegranate, 52, 81, 154.
Risk, poverty, 143.

Rozenim, weighty men = princes, 142.
J&ln, to overcome, 124.
Sahbah, to soak, to tope, 178.
Sahdeh, a plain, field, 62, 140, 146, 173,

247.
Sahkar, wages, reward, 145 (foot-note),

163.

Sakr (sour), leaven, 220.
SamOUik/i, to be joyful, to make glad, to

cheer, 69, 125, 149, 247.
Saph, a bowl, 247.
Stirim, princes, 221.
Shahkjl, to bereave, to be sterile, 248.
Skakqat, to rest, to settle, 199.
Shahlhah, to drink, 9, 15, 21, 41, 43, 59,

60, 61, 64, 68, 70, 71, 74, 77, 78, 79,

80, 83, 85, 87, 88, 89, 94, 104, 1 06,
t, 113, 114, 120, 122, 127,

142, 143, 148, 152, 160, 164,
i, 228,

III, 113, 114, 120, 122, 127, 131, 140,

' ', 164, 165,
IS8, 191, 192, 207, 211, 228, 229, 231,

179,

232, 236, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245. 248.
\cmen, oil, 96, 98, 101, 1 02, 106, 125,

244.

Shenath, sleep, 200.
Shctkiah, the drinking, 100.

Shinnaim, teeth, 132.

Shiqqui, drinking, 217.

S/iir, a song, 165.

Shuahlim, foxes, jackals, 152.

Shitq, abound [not to overflow], 227.

Simkhah, gladness, pleasure, 96, 117,
134, 148, 164.

Siikkoth, booths, xvii, 156.

Tak mar, palm tree, 153.

Tankhumim, consolations, 186.

Tafmkhim, apples, 151.

Tapukoth, perverse things, deceits, 137.

Theanah, a fig, fig tree, $2, 92, 107, 126,
151, 184, 241.

Tivuah, produce (translated ' increase '),
47, 100.

Tov, good, spoken of the heart when
excited and pleased, 75, 78, 82, 86,
no, 148.

Tzemed, pair, yoke, acre, 159.

Tzenmaah, thirsty one, 61, 121.

Tzevahkah, outcry, 1 60.

Yahb'ish, to be dried up=to perish, 226.

Yahshar, straight, upright, 108.

Yevttl, produce, 241.

Yitzhar, olive and-orchard-fruit (trans-
lated 'oil'), 52, 53, 56, 94, loo, 104,
106, 107, 189, 217, 218, 227, 244.

Zahakv, gold, 108.

Zahroth, strange woman, 137.

Zaith, olive, oliveyard, 31, 52, 67, 74,
81, 91, 94, 114, 128, 241.

Zakt:i\ memorial, 224.

Zarorim, pulse, 212.

Zennth, fornication, 219.

Zoaphim, sad, 'worse liking,' 212.

Zolal, spendthrift, waster, glutton, 57.
'35-

THE NEW TESTAMENT.

I.
GREEK WORDS TRANSLAT STRONG DRINK, AND VINEGAR.

GLE'UKOS, sweet-wine. It occurs once: — Acts 2. 13, the disciples charged with

being 'full of it.'
OlNOS, wine = the juice of the grape. It occurs thirty-two times.

M \TTJIK\V.

9. 17 (thrice), new wine (sinos rtfcs) not
to be put into old, closed skin-bags,
but into new ones.

[27. 34, the received (I reek text has oxos,

mingled with gall, as offered to

Christ on the cross, and rejected ; but

several ancient codices read oincs.~\

MARK.

a. 22 (four times), new wine not to be
put into old, closed skin-bags, but
into new ones.

15. 23, myrrhed wine offered to Christ
on the cross, but rejected.

LtTKX.

I. 15, prediction that John the Baptist
should drink neither wine nor stron-g
drink

5- 37« 38 (thrice), new wine not to be pat
into old skin-bags, but into new ones.

7- 33' Jonn came drinking no wine.

lo. 34, the good Samaritan poured into
the wounds of the half-killed trav-
eler oil and wine.

426

APPENDIX B.

JOHN.
2. 3, wine deficient at the marriage feast

at Can a.
2. 9, the ruler of the feast tasted the wine

made from water.

2. IO, the practice of presenting choice

wine (oinos kalos) first.
I. 10, the bridegroom charged with keep-
ing the choice wine till the last.

4. 46, a reference to the place where the

water was made wine.

ROMANS.

14. 21, good not to drink wine when it
causes a brother to stumble.
EPHESIANS.

5. 1 8, not to be drunk (surcharged) with

wine, in which is dissoluteness.
i TIMOTHY.

3, 8, deacons not to be given to much

wine (pino polio)

5. 23, Timothy to use a little wine (oligu

oino) medicinally.

TITUS.

2. 3, the older women not to be given to
much wine.

REVELATION.

6. 6, the growing wine.

14. 8, Babylon's wine of the wrath (heat)

of her fornication.

14. 10, the wine of the wrath of God.
1 6 19, the cup of the wine of the Divine

wrath.

17. 2, Babylon making the people drunk

with the wine of her fornication.

18. 3, Babylon's wine of the wrath (heat)

of her fornication.
1 8. 13, with food and luxuries.
19 15, the -wine-press.

[In various texts oinos is understood,
though not actually written. This is
noticeably the case in Luke 5. 39, where
it is thrice implied in conjunction with
the adjectives 'old' and 'new.'J

Of compounds into which the word
OINOS enters we have the following : —

Oinopotees, a wine-drinker, one ad-
dicted to wine, Matt. n. 19, and Luke

Paramos, near to wine, a wine-guest,
present at wine-parties, I Tim. 3. 3, and
Titus I. 7.

Oinophhigiais, 'to excesses of wine,'
not indulged in by Christians, I Pet. 4. 2.

SiKERA, strong drink, occurs once — Luke I. 25, in the angel's prediction con-
cerning John the Baptist's abstinence from wine and strong drink.

Oxos, sour wine (oinos, 'wine,' understood )= vinegar, occurs Matt. 27. 28;
Mark 15. 36; Luke 23. 36; John 19. 29, 30, — all refening to the vinegar presented
to Jesus on the cross, and received by Him because unmixed with any stupefying
wine or other drug.

II.

GREEK WORDS TRANSLATED VINE, VINEYARD, FRUIT OF THE VINE, GRAPES,

AND CLUSTERS.
I. AMPELOS, vine, occurs in the following connections : —

MATTHEW.
26. 29, ' fruit of the vine.'

MARK.
14. 25, ' fruit of the vine.'

LUKE.
22. 18, 'fruit of the vine.'

JOHN.

15. I, ' I am the true vine.'
15.4, ' abide in the vine.'

JAMES. 9

3. 12, ' can a vine bear figs ? '

REVELATION.
14. 8, 'clusters of the vine of the earth/

2. AMPELONA, vineyard, occurs in these texts —

MATTHEW.

20. 14, 17, 'laborers into his vineyard.'

21. 28, 'go work to-day in my vineyard '
21. 33, ' a certain man planted a vine-
yard.'

MARK.

12. I, 'a certain man planted a vine-

yard.'

LUKE.

13. 6, ' a fig tree planted in his vineyard.'

20. 9, 'a certain man planted a vine-
yard.'

i CORINTHIANS.

9. 7, 'who planteth a vineyard, and
eateth not the fruit of it ? '

[Atnpelourgos, vine-worker, occurs
Luke 13. 7, and is translated 'the
dresser of his vineyard.']

APPENDIX B.

427

3. To gfneemata lees ampeloit, * the offspring of the vino,' occurs Matt. 26. 29;
Mark 14. 25; Luke 22. 18, and is in each place translated 'the fruit of the vine.'

4. STAPHULEE, ' grapes,' used as a collective term, and translated ' grapes ' in —

MATTHEW.

6. 16, 'neither do men gather grapes
from thorns.'

LUKE.

6. 44, 'nor of a bramble-bush do they

gather grapes.'
REVELATION.
14. 18, 'the grapes are fully ripe' (pi. staphttlai).

5. BOTRUS, 'a cluster,' occurs Rev. 14. 8, 'gather the clusters' (botruos).

III.
WORDS TRANSLATED LEAVEN, UNLEAVENED BREAD, DRUNKENNESS,

DRUNKARD, DRINK, TEMPERANCE, SOBER.
I. ZUMEE, leaven, that which causes fermentation. It occurs nine times.

MATTHEW.
'3- I3> the kingdom of heaven compared

to leaven.
16. 6, the leaven of the Pharisees and

Sadducees to be avoided.
16. 12, the false teaching of the Pharisees
and Sadducees compared to leaven.

MARK.

8. 15, the leaven of the Pharisees and
llerodians to be shunned.
LUKE.

12. i, the leaven of the Pharisees de-
scribed as hypocrisy.

13. 21, the kingdom of heaven like to

hidden leaven.

i CORINTHIANS.
5. 6, a little leaven leavens the whole

lump.

5. 7, the old leaven to be purged out.
5. 8, the Lord's Supper to be kept, not
with the old leaven, the leaven of
malice and wickedness.
GALATIANS.

5. 9, a little leaven leavens the whole

lump.

The verbal form of this word appears
in Matt. 13. 33; Luke 13. 21 ; I Cor. 5.
6; and Gal. 5. 9.

2. AZUMA, translated 'unleavened bread,' properly 'unleavened things,' occurs

MATTHEW.

26. 17, 'the feast of unleavened bread '
(things).

MARK.

14. 21, the first day of unleavened bread
(things).

LUKE.

22. 7, the day of unleavened bread
(things).

ACTS.

20. 6, the days of unleavened bread
(things).

i CORINTHIANS.
5 8, the unleavened bread (things) of

sincerity and truth.
•Unleavened,' as a verb, occurs I Cor.
5-7-

3. METHEE, drunkenness, strictly signifies fulness of drink, and only implies
inebriation when connected with the use of an intoxicating article. It occurs in
Luke 21. 33 (plural); Gal. 5. 21 (plural).

4. METHUON, one drunk, or filled full, occurs Matt. 24. 49 (plural).

5. METHUOSOS, drunkard, a hard and deep drinker, occurs I Cor. 5. II, and 6.
10 (plural).

6. METHUO," to be drunk, or filled to the full; and METHUSKO, to make drunk,
or 'surcharged,' occur —

• In rrnny Ian5uai?e5, word< originally sipufying fulness acquired a §econdary tense. Surenne'*
French Dictionary (1867) affords this illustration:—
Sou!, e. adj. satiated, cloyed, drunk ; full.
Saul, s ant's fill, one's belly fu 1.

, va. toyf//, to satiate ; to fuddle.

428

APPENDIX B.

LUKE.

12 45, ' and to be drunken ' (inethusko-
menos).

JOHN.

2, IO, * and when men have well drunk '
(methusthosi},

ACTS.

2 15, ' these are not drunken ' (niethit-
ousin).

i CORINTHIANS.

II 12, 'and another is drunken' (me-
thueiy filled-out).

i THESSALONIANS.

5. 7, ' they that be drunken (methns-
kontenoi} are drunken (metkuousin)
in the night '

REVELATION.
17, 2, 'and the inhabitants of the earth

have been made drunk' (emethus-

theesari).
17. 6, ' drunken (rnetJntousan = gorged)

with the blood of the saints.'

7. ENKRATEIA, temperance, self-restraint of the passions.

ACTS.

24. 25, ' and as he reasoned of righteous-
ness, temperance.'

GALATIANS.

5. 22, 23, ' but the fruit of the Spirit is
. . . temperance.'

2 PETER.
I. 6, 'and to knowledge (add) tern-

perance.5

[The verbal form, enkrateuomai, oc-
curs I Cor. 9. 25, 'and every man that
striveth for the mastery is temperate
(restrains himself) in all things.'

The adjective enkratee is rendered 'sober' in Titus i. 8.

8. NEEPHO, sober (abstinent).

i THESSALONIANS.
5. 6. Met us watch and be sober.'
5. 8, ' let us who are of the day be sober.'

1 TIMOTHY.

3. 2, let him (the bishop) be vigilant
(abstinent).

3. II, let them (deacons' wives) be sober.

2 TIMOTHY.

4. 5, ' but watch thou. '

TITUS.
2. 2 (of aged men), 'sober.'

i PETER.
I. 13, "be sober.'

4. 7, 'be ye therefore sober (sober-

minded), and watch unto prayer.'

5. 8, ' be sober.'

[The word sophron and its connections
signifying ' sober-minded,' are translated
'sober,' 'soberly,' in the following pas-
sages:— Acts 26. 25; Rom 12. 3; 2
Cor. 5. 13; I Tim. 2. 9; I Tim. 2 15;
I Tim. 3. 2; Titus 2 4, 12; i Peter 4,
7. In Titus 2 2, the translation is
' temperate,' and in ver. 8 it is 'sober-
minded' — the form that should have
been uniformly employed ]

IV.
OTHER NEW TESTAMENT GREEK TERMS EXPLAINED IN THE NOTES.

Adeelos, immediately, 334.
Adokimos, unapproved, rejected, 334.
Adunatos, one who is unable, 327.
Agapee, love, love-feast, 339, 348.
Agonizomai, to struggle, to contend, 333.
Aiphnidios, unforeseen, 299.
Aischrokerdees, eager for unjust gain, 368.
Akataschetosy uncoercible, 381.
Aleetheia, truth, 328.
Aleethinos, true, real, 310.
Aleuron, fine meal, flour, 269.
AmphoteroSy both, 265, 293.
Anthrdpos, a man, 267, 303, 324.
Antleema, a bucket, 309.

Antleo, to draw out, 302.
Apecho, to hold off, to abstain, 366.
Aphormee, a means, occasion, 348.
Apollumi, to destroy, 265, 289.
Aproskopos, not a cause of stumbling, 337.
Architriklinos, the chief guest, president,

302.

Artos, bread, a loaf, 295.
Askeo, to work up, to exercise, 317.
Askos, a skin -bag, a bottle, 265, 289, 293.
Asotia, dissoluteness, 352.
Astheneeina^ weakness, scruple, 317.
Astheneia, weakness, 372.
Ballo, to place, to put, to cast, 265,289,293.

APPENDIX B.

429

£atf~>, to be weighty {passive, weighed

down), 299.

£*rn*d, to be heavy or dull, 299.
Bruma, food, 323, 370.
Brvsis, food, 323
Choice, gall, 287.

Chureij, to give place, to hold, 302.
Chraomai, to use, 371
Chreestoteros, better, 294.
Daimonion, a demon, 267.
Deipnoii, chief meal, supper, 338.
Diachlt'uazo, to jeer outright, 312.
Diakonos, a servant, 302.
Diakrino, to discriminate to be in doubt

of, 326.

Didafkee, teacliing, what is taught, 272.
D.kaiod, to treat as righteous, to show to

be righteous, 295.
JDikaius, righteously, 345.
Dioko, to follow after, to pursue, 324.
£>ipsav, to thirst, 275.
Dokimos, approved, accepted, 324.
Doulagogco, to lead as a slave is led, 334.
Douleuo, to enslave, 332.
jDonloo, to be enslaved to, devoted to,

378.

Duo, two, 302.

Ech ~>, to have, to hold, 302, 309.
Eido, to see, to know, 302.
Eidos, form, aspect, 366.
Eilikrineia, sincerity, 328.
Ekcheo, to pour out, to spill, 265, 289,

293-
Ekneepho, to return to a sober state, to

awake, 345.

Ekpeirao, strongly to tempt, 261.
Elaion, oil, 297.
Elass'tn, inferior, worse, 303.
Eleittheria, liberty, 348.
Enthusneesis, device, 315.
Epieikes, gentleness, forbearance, 355.
Epilcleo, to complete, to perfect, 347.
Est/iin, to eat, 266, 274, 295, 296, 299,

298 (phage), 338 (p/tagein).
Euarestos, well pleasing, acceptable, 324.
Ettfharisteo, to give thanks, 276.
J'^itihee, a vow, 315, 316.
Eufhraiiw, to make glad, 298.
Euscheemenos, becomingly, 322.
Exesti, is possible (in a moral sense),

what it is possible to do with a good

conscience, 330.
ExoHsiazo, to have power over (passive,

to be subject to), 330.
Georgos, a worker of the ground, agricul-
turist, 274, 290.

Greegorev, to be wakeful, to watch, 360.
JIagiosunee, holiness, 347.
Ilecmera, day, 276, 312, 360.
Ilekastos, each one, 338.
Honi. hour, 372.

, as often, 343.

, water, 266, 289, 302.
]{itdriost of water, 302.
Httdropttfdi to be a water drinker, 302.
Hnpodeigma, a pattern, 384.
Hupogrammos, a writing-copy, example,

3^4-
Ihtpolambanv, to take up, to imagine,

312.

1/npopiazu, to press or strike under, 334.
J/nssupos, hyssop, 311.
Hitsterco, to fail, to run short, 301.
lakub, Jacob, 309.
Idios, one's own, 338.
A'ainos, new, superior, 276.
A'akos, evil, 324, 375, 381.
Jfalamos, a cane, a reed, 288, 291.
Kaleo, to call, to invite, 301.
A'a/os, beautiful, good, choice, 303, 383.
A'atiu, Cana, 301.

Kaiakrino, to condemn, 326.

demolish,

A'atharos, pure, 324.
'

A'ataluii, to dissolve, to

342.

A'fiomai, to lie (passive, to be placed),

3"-

Kleptees, a thief, 360.

A' fan os, revelry, 322, 349.

A'raipalte, seizure, debauch, 299.

A'reas, flesh (dead), 324.

A'tisis, creature, ordinance, 383.

A'tisma, created thing, 370.

A'nriakos, of the Lord, 338.

Lambanu, to take, 300.

Leenos, (wine-) press, 273.

Lego, to say, to speak, 312.

Lithinos, of stone, 302.

^lalakee, malady, illness, 263.

Mestov, to fill, 312.

Mctreetets, a measure, 302.

Migniimi, to mix, to mingle, 28/

Mikros, little, 328.

Molusmos, defilement, 347.

Monos, alone, only, 266.

NCOS, new, young, 265, 289, ayj. 378

(tifas),

Nomos, law, 348.
Nosos, sickness, disease, 263.
NIIJC, night, 360 (nuktos).
Oikodespotces, master of the lioase, 273.
Oligos, little, 371.
Oiideis, no one, 294.
Paidftw, to train up, to discip1;ne, 378.
Palaios, old, 265, 289, 293. 294.
J'araJidijnii, to deliver, to betray, 343.
Pas, all, 290, 295, 303, 330, 332, 333,

347, 348, 366, 375-
Patter, father, 276.
Peegee, a spring, 309.

, to hunger, 339.
Peirasmon, state of trial, temptation,

264.

Pcritithtemi, to place round, 291, 311.
Phagos, an eater, a glutton, 267.

430

APPENDIX B.

Phew, to bear, to carry, 302 (eenenkaii).
l^hilargitria, love of money, 375.
PhragnioSy inclosure, fence, 273, 290.
Plireear, a well, 309.
Pimpleeini, to fill, 311 (pleesantes).
Pinny to drink, 266, 274, 276, 290, 291,

292, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 343.
Pletrod, to fill up, 353.
Pnewidy spirit, 353.
Poieuy to do, 343.
Pol us y much, 368, 378.
Poneerosy evil, 264, 366.
Posis, drink, 357.
Poteeriotiy a drinking-vessel, a cup, 266,

275, 289, 290, 300, 343.
Potts, drink, 323.
Potizo, to give to drink, 275.
Prolambanoy to take first, to snatch up,

338.

Prosecho, to give to, be addicted to, 368.
Proskonimciy a stumbling, a cause of

stumbling, 322, 324.
Psuchros, cold, 265.
PuknoSy frequent, 372.
Purges, a tower, 274.
Rhcegnumiy to rend, to burst, 265, 289,

293-

Rkt*at a root, 375.
Sarx, flesh, 346, 348.

Salon (pi. jtf/,7), a measure = 7J£ Eng-
lish gallons, 267.

Skandalizoy to ensnare, to cause to trans-
gress, 263.

Skandalon, a snare, a means of trans-
gression, 273, 322.

S/ceteos, a vessel, 311.

Sinurnizo, to mingle with myrrh, 291.

Sonia, body, 334.

Sophia, wisdom, 295.

Spongon, a sponge, 288, 291, 311.

Stotnachon, stomach, 372.

Suchar, Sychar, 308.

Sumphero, to hold together, to be of
advantage, 330.

Sumpheron, advantage, benefit.

Sunteereo, to watch over, to hold together,
to preserve, 265, 293.

Tcchnee, art, 315.

Technon, child, 295.

Teereo, to watch over, to preserve, 303.

Teleiod, to fulfill, 311.

Thelo, to wish, 294.

Theos, God, 290.

Tis, a certain one, 339.

Titheemi, to place, to set, 303.

Treisy three, 302.

Tritosy third, 312.

y to craunch, to eat, 274.

APPENDIX C.

THE APPLICATION OF 'YAYIN' AND ' OINOS' TO THE UNFERMENTED JUICK

OF THE GRAPE.

Those who are eager tc array the Scriptures in opposition to the Temperance
cause, either avowedly or tacitly reason thus: — "The juice of the grape when
called wine was always fermented, and being fermented, was always intoxicating."
This can only mean that the Hebrew yayin and the Greek oinos were always used
to designate the juice of grape in a fermented state ; and that being so, it was of
necessity possessed of an alcoholic and intoxicating quality. But to sustain these
assumptions it would be requisite for their authors to offer a body of evidence more
voluminous than they have ever attempted to collect, and utterly beyond their
power to adduce. They would need to make it probable (at least) that wherever
these terms occur, in all ancient literature, a fermented and intoxicating substance
is denoted ; and no such probability could be established, even were the stupendous
research demanded for the undertaking to be forthcoming. On the contrary, both
members of the proposition can be disproved, and a single example in disproof
would suffice to destroy the theory, which needs for its special purpose a rule
without an exception.

1. Taking the second assumption first, it is demonstrable that even if all the
ancient wines were fermented, they were not all intoxicating. To suppose that a
fermented article must be intoxicating is an obvious fallacy, in sight of the familiar
fact that though nearly all the bread we eat is fermented not a particle is inebriating,
and that the greatest bread-eater is never known to be in the slightest degree drunk.
The explanation is simple : the alcohol formed in the dough (by the action of the
yeast on the sugar of the flour) is expelled in the baking; and when it is known
that a large class of ancient wines were boiled and reduced to a jelly state, the
conclusion in regard to their non-alcoholic state is clear to any but the most
prejudiced mind. When it is also known that the custom of filtering away the ghiten
of grape-juice was common, in order to break its strength, and that wine was mixed
with two, three, and even four times its own bulk of water, the result of fermentation
must have been to provide (as in ginger beer) a liquid practically unlike what is
conceived of when mention is made of an 'intoxicating drink.' It is, therefore, a
hasty and entirely erroneous conclusion, that even fermented grape-juice must
always have been consumed in the form of an alcoholic and inebriating fluid.

2. But it is no less rash and fallacious to maintain that the Hebrew yayin and
oinos were employed to distinguish fermented grape-juice from the grape-juice in an
unfermented state.

(i) This hypothesis is invested with much antecedent unlikelihood, from the
absence of any corresponding term, either Hebrew or Greek, for unfermented
grape -juice. The Hebrew, it is true, has ahsis, and the Greek gltukos ; but ahsis
is first applied to the juice of pomegranates, and seems to be a poetical expression
for the juice of fruit newly expressed, and doubtless unfermented, but not distin-
guished as such by the name bestowed on it. (See Prel. Dis., xxiii; Notes, 154,
228, 232 ; and Appendix B, 416.) Gleukos is properly an adjective signifying ' sweet,'

432 .APPENDIX C.

and oinos is always implied, so that gleukos is oinos in a certain condition, — one of
great sweetness, frequently but not necessarily free from fermentation. (See PreL
Dis., xxiii, xxxvi; Notes 116, 312—314, 378; and Appendix B.)

(2) If appeal is made to etymology, the balance of evidence as to yayin strongly
supports the view that that term was applied to grape-juice, without any reference,
direct or indirect, to the process of fermentation. As to oinos — its derivation from
yayin, the most probable of all the conjectures on that head, would disengage it
in a similar manner from any necessary connection with the fermentative action
and its results.

(3) When we inquire into the actual usage of these words we shall see how
unfounded is the theory that limits the sense of both terms to the fermented juice
of the grape.

(a) YAYIN. — Though yayin occurs 141 times in the Old Testament, the context,
in a great majority of cases, does not furnish an indication as to its condition,
whether fermented or otherwise. The first time the name occurs (Gen. ix. 21) it is
applied to grape-juice which had fermented; but it is most probable that Noah
was ignorant of the fact; and who supposes that whatever appellation he gave the
expressed juice would have respect to its inebriating quality? In the case
where Jacob brings wine to Isaac, the nature of the yayin is not hinted at, but the
Jewish commentator refers to it as wine that had been ' reserved in its grapes '
since the Creation — a proof that he did not consider either yayin, or the Chaldee
equivalent, khamar, limited to a fermented liquid. The same usage recurs in the
Targum paraphrase of Cant. viii. 2, where the righteous are promised the blessing
of 'drinking old wine stored up in its grapes' since the commencement of the
Creation or present dispensation. Baal Hatturim refers to 'wine in the grapes ' at
Pentecost; and on Deut. xxii. 14, ' the pure blood of the grape,' the Targumists
dwell on the quantity of red wine which should be drawn out from one grape-
cluster. In the prophecy of Jacob, Gen. xlix. n, we have —

" He shall wash his garments in wine,
And (shall wash) his clothes in the blood of grapes " ;

where the genius of Hebrew poetry requires that ' wine ' (yayin) in the first line shall
be considered to answer in sense to 'blood of grapes ' in the second line. In Deut.
xxviii. 39, 'thou shalt plant vineyards, and dress (them), but the yayin thou shalt
not drink, and shalt not gather,' the allusion to 'gathering,' is most probable to
yayin as wine in the grapes, and hence as used collectively for the grapes ; and in
Jer. xl. 10, 12, gathering yayin is, beyond all doubt, spoken of the grapes in
which, as in natural bottles, \\\e yayin is contained. In Isa. xvi. 10, 'the treaders
shall tread (out) no wine in their presses ' ; and Jer. xlviii. 33, ' I have caused wine
to fail from the winepresses: none shall tread with shouting,' the only question
in doubt can be whether the reference is to the grapes holding the wine, or to the
wine as flowing from the grapes : no one can pretend that the term is applied to
the fermented juice of the grape. In Psa. civ. 15, the yayin which 'makes glad
the heart of man ' is classed with products of the earth, to whose natural properties
the Psalmist alludes as indicating the grace and power of the Creator. The con-
nection of yayin with milk (Cant. v. I ; Isa. Iv. i) brings before the mind a rural
image of fresh-pressed juice drunk with fresh-drawn milk; and in Lam. ii. 12, the
plaint of the children — ' where is corn and wine ? ' — is most naturally construed as
pointing to a famine of the fruits of the earth, .including the fruit of the vine in its
vintage state.

(b) OINOS. — As the Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible nearly uniformly
render yayin by oinos, all the above considerations in favor of yayin as embracing

APPENDIX C. 433

unfermented grape-juice apply also to oinos. In Deut. xxxii. 14, also, the Lxx.
renders ' the pure (foaming) blood of the grape' by 'and the blood of the grape
he drank — WINE.' The peculiar use of y ay in for the grape, as containing vine-
juice, is paralleled by the words of Nymphodorus, who speaks of Drimacus as
'taking wine from the fields.' (See p. 198 of the Notes.) Among other argu-
ments against identifying oinos with fermented grape-juice (beyond those of its
derivation from yayin, and the undoubted use of gleukos to signify unfermented
wine), the following may be stated: —

(i.) The intimate relation between oinos and words used for describing the vine
and its appurtenances. The most ancient name for 'vine' was oinee or oina ; and
long after ampclos had become the common name for vine, oina retained its place in
poetry. Euripides has both oina (vine) and oinantha (vine-shoot or blossom). To
this category belong oinopedee (vineyard), oinaron (vine-leaf), oinaris (vine-tendril
or branch), oinophutos (planted with the vine), oinutrop (vine-prop), and many
others. That there is a common etymological relation between these words and
oin-os cannot be doubted ; and the fact of that relation is subversive of the theory
that oinos implies the idea of the ' fermenting ' process.

(ii.) There are a great variety of passages in which wine is spoken of as produced
within the grape and the cluster. Pindar describes wine as the ' child of the vine '
(ampelou pais). /Eschylus (' Agam.', 970) describes Zeus as bringing wine (oinon)
'from the green grape,' which F. A. Paley (in his admirable edition of that poet)
notices as an allusion to the divine action in bringing the grape-juice to maturity at
the vintage.

Euripides ('Phoenix,' 230) refers to a particular vine which distilled 'daily
nectar — a fruitful cluster ' ; and the learned editor illustrates this by the tradition
that a cluster of this vine ripened every day, and supplied the daily libation of wine
for Bacchus.

Anacreon (Ode 49) speaks of the oinos as 'offspring of the vine' (gonon
ampelou), and as 'imprisoned {pcpedecmenori) in fruit upon the branches ' ; and he
sings (Ode 51) of the treaders 'letting loose the wine,' — where the poetical
imagery refers not, as some one has said, to the grape-juice as only figuratively
wine, but to literal wine, as first imprisoned, and then gaining its freedom ; — else
the whole beauty of the figure disappears.

Nonnos, in his 'Bacchanal Songs, '^ refers (xii. 42) to the grape-bunch (fo/rus)
as the wine-producer (oinotokon) ; and he describes the vineyard as flushing with
the wine to which it thus gives birth.

(iii.) The juice of the grape at the time of pressure is distinctly denominated oinos.

Papias, a Christian bishop who lived at the close of the apostolic age, relates
an extravagant current prediction of a time when the vine should grow to a won-
drous size; and each grape should yield, when pressed, twenty-five measures of
wine — OINO.V. (See Notes, p. 276.)

Proclus, the Platonist philosopher, who lived in the fifth century, and annotated
the ' Works and Days' of Hesiod, has a note on line 6n, the purport of which is
to explain that after the grape-bunches have been exposed ten days to the sun, and
then kept ten days in the shade, the third process was to tread them and squeeze
out the WINE — kai triton ontvs epitoun ekthlibontcs ton oinon.

A careful search through classical literature would, no doubt, bring to light
numerous passages where oinos was applied to the juice of the grape before its
fermentation was possible; but the foregoing remarks will be sufficient to indicate
the fallacy of the contrary assumption. The extract from Proclus is in itself
perfectly conclusive.

APPENDIX D.

WINES, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

That intoxicating wines, both fermented and drugged, were in extensive use in
ancient times, is what no one disputes. It would be rank folly to do so. On the
other hand, it is equal folly to affirm, — what multitudes nevertheless constantly do, —
that wwintoxicating wines were unknown in antiquity, or regarded with little favor
by the wise and good. To set this matter at rest, we have prepared a series of
extracts and translations from ancient and modern authors, showing that the class
of substances known under the name of WINE, in various ages and countries, com-
prehended, not only fully fermented wines and drugged potions, the ' poison of
dragons,' but a large variety of drinks from the grape-juice, carefully prepared so
as to keep fermentation at its minimum, to pure or boiled grape-juice absolutely
free from all taint of fermentation or alcohol. In our Preliminary Dissertation and
Appendix C, the mere word question is settled by induction — here we have only to
do with things — things practically and theoretically quite contrasted with port,
sherry, and tent. To deal alike with wines so varied and different, would be a case
of unparalleled fanaticism.

ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES ON ANCIENT WINES.

In the absence of precise knowledge of the nature of the wines and other ' liquor
of grapes,' which the ancient Jews in Palestine were in the habit of using, an
approximation has been sought among those in ordinary consumption by the
Greeks and Romans. Since garbled citations have often been furnished from
classic authors, no apology need be offered for more extended quotations and care-
ful translations, with comments interspersed for the illustration of a subject which,
though familiar enough to the farmer and peasant in the southern lands of the vine,
must unavoidably be obscure even to the educated classes of Britain and America.

Pliny devoted the whole of the I4th Book of his Historia Naturalis (A. D. 60)
to the consideration of potable liquors, and his concluding observations convey a
clear conception as to their universal use in vine countries. (We cite from Jahn's
Leipsic edition. )

Duo sunt liquores humanis corporibus gratissimi, intus vini, foris olei, arborum
e genere ambo prcecipui, sed olei necessarius. Nee segniter in eo vita tlaboravit.
Quanta tamen in potu ingeriiosior adparebit, ad bibendum generibus centum octo-
ginta quinque, si species vero (zstitnentur, pane ditplici numero excogitatis, tantoque
paiicioribus olei — "There are two liquors most grateful to the human body, wine
for internal use, oil for outward application, both of them principally from some
kind of tree, but oil a necessity. The life of man has been employed, and not
sluggishly, in their invention. Yet how much greater is the amount of ingenuity

AITKNDIX I). 43-

bestowed on the drink, will be apparent from there having been 185 kinds invented
for drinking, which, if species were counted in the number, would be nearly
doubled, but of oils there be fewer by far."

The distinction as to genus and species will appear from an extract (xiv. 6. 2)
concerning fashionable wines : — Secunda nobililas Falerno a^ro (rat, ft to maxume
Faustiniano — "The second rank belonged to the Falernian district, and in that
most of all to the Faustian." The Faustian was a subordinate district in the
Falernian, and after describing minutely (by reference to a bridge, the left hand, a
village, and distances by miles) the locality of each, he continues : — Nee «//.
•vino major auctoritas ; solo -'inontm Jlamma accenditur — "No district has greater
note in the matter of wrie; by it alone of all wines, a blaze is lighted up." Tria
tjus genera, austerttm, dulce, tenue. Quidam ita distiiigunt: summis collibus cau-
tinum gigni, m edits Faustinianum, imis Falernum — "There are three kinds, the
rough, the sweet, and the thin* Some persons distinguish them thus: — the Cau-
cinum is produced on the highest range of hills, the Faustinium on the middle,
and the [true] Falernian on the lowest."

Thus when the Patrician host promised his guests 'Falernian,' they might,
according to his reputation for an excellent cellar or otherwise, expect the best or
the worst of the three species.

Some wines, it seems, had a prestige on medicinal grounds, similar to that in
the present day for old Port, London stout, or bitter beer, founded on some
'opinion of the faculty,' in the acquired taste of the individual, or its apparent
want of positive disagreement with his system. Pliny, after noticing with disgust
the discordant recommendations of the faculty as to wine for persons in health, pur-
sues the subject with reference to cases in which health was impaired (xxiii. 2. 24).

Nunc circa trgritudines sermo de vim's erit. Salubcrrimum liberaliler
genitis Campania quodcunqtte tenuissimum : volgo vero quod quemque
maxume juverit validum. Utilissimnm omnibus saeco VIRIBUS fractis.
Meminerimns sitciim esse qui fervendo VIRIS musto sibi fecctit. " My dis-
course upon wines shall now be with reference to conditions of disease. For
the gentry the very thinnest Campanian will be the most wholesome; but to
the common people any full-bodied wine that would most support the person. The
most useful for everybody is that which has its STRENGTH broken by the filter.
We must bear in mind that there is a juice [sucus] which, by fermenting, would make
to itself viris out of the must." The sueus represents the gluten, the detention
whereof in the sackcloth while straining the 'must,' prevents it from fermenting
and acquiring the viris so dreaded, but the filter could never stop it after it had
once generated.

This related to ordinary wines, which must not be confounded with such as were
purposely compounded with medicinal intent. The Romans being ignorant of
distilled liquors, and in the habit of using wines in general of small alcoholic power,
had no need of the powerful tinctures prescribed in the present day, but made thin
common wines, and even more frequently grape symps, the vehicle for the admin-
istration of drugs.

Of wormwood and hyssop, Pliny says (xiv. 16. 5) : — Ex ceteris herbis, fit
absinthitfs in xl. scxtariis musti absinthi Pontici libra decocta ad tertias partis, vel
scopis absinthi in vinum additis . . . Simihtcr hyssopites e Cilicio hyssopo uncits
tribus in duos congios musli cojectis attt tuns is in vinum. "From other herbs,

• Athenseus (i. 48) says, "Galen is represented as saying that the Falernian is fit to drink from its
fifteenth to twentieth year, but after that, is apt to give headaches, and disturbs the nervous system."

436 • APPENDIX D.

wormwood-wine is made by boiling down to one- third a pound of Pontic worm-
wood in forty sextarii of must (a sextarius was nearly a pint and half), or two scopi
(say handfuls) of wormwood added to wine. In like manner hyssop wine, by
throwing three ounces of Cilician hyssop into two congii of must (a congius was
hardly a gallon), or crushing it into wine." Thus, whether must or fermented
wine were used, one of them formed the basis of the compound, and its quantity
was to be in large proportion to that of the drug.

Of myrtle (xiv. 16) : — Myrtiten Cato quern admodum fieri docuerit mox paulo
indicabimus, Gr&ci et alio modo. Ramis teneris cum suis foliis in albo musto
decoctis, tunsis, iibram in tribus musti congiis deferve faciunt, donee duo supersint. — >
"A little further on we shall show how Cato would have instructed for the making
of myrtle-wine. But the Greeks had another method. They beat the tender twigs
with their leaves, put them into white must that had been boiled down, a pound to
three gallons of must ; they caused it to be boiled down until two remained." Of
such wine Columella says, lib. xii. c. 38: — Vinum myttiten ad tormina, et ad alvi
proluviem, et ad imbec ilium stomachum sic facito — "After this manner make myrtle-
wine, for the gripes, and for a purgative of the bowels, and for weakness of the
stomach." *

Of hellebore all that Pliny says is (xiv. 16. 5) : — Sic et helleboriten fieri ex
veratro nigro Cato docet. — " In this way also Cato instructs how hellebore wine is
to be made from the black veratrum" On turning to Cato's own work (cxv) his
recipe is found to run thus : — In vinum mustum veratri atri manipulum conjicito
in amphoram. Ubi satis efferverit de vino manipulum ejicito / id vinum seruato ad
alvum movendam — "Throw a manipulum [a handful] of black hellebore into new
wine in an amphora [full]. When it shall have fermented sufficiently, throw the
manipulus out of the wine; keep that wine for moving the belly [as an aperient]."
The chapter of Pliny which contains these three recipes, relates to artificial wines,
and it is apparent that each composition was intended for a medicine rather than a
beverage. The last of the three must have been about as nauseous as a modern
black draught, t Wormwood might have been used in very small doses by the
glutton, as a provocative to eating.

The existence of dry wines conceded, the taste for sweet wine, and the ingenuity
employed in making it, may be best explained by the recipe left for it, premising,
however, that the article does not correspond with that which the English now
term 'a sweet wine.' The original is in Columella, De Re Rusticat (xii. c. 27) —
Vinum duke sic facere oportet. Uvas legito, in sole per triduum expandito, quarto
die meridiano tempore calidas uvas proculcato, nmstitm lixivum, hoc est, antequam
Pralo pressum sit, qttod in Jacum musti fiuxerit, tollito, cum deferbuerit in sextarios
quinquaginta iridem bene pinsitam nee plus uncia pondere addito, vinum afecibus
eliquatum diffundito. Hoc vinum erit suave, firmum, corpori salubre — " Gather
the grapes in the bunches — spread them out in the sunshine for three days ; on the
fourth day, at the noontide hour, proculcato, tread out the grapes, calidas, while
they are hot [by several hours' exposure to the sun's rays]; take the mustztm
lixivium, that is, such as should flow into the lake of must before it [the mass of

* Mnesitheus, cited by Athenaeus, (ii. 2) says of wine : — " A wholesome physic 'tis ivhen mixed
with potions ', heals wounds as well as plasters or cold lotions." Why do not drinkers think of this
sort of wine when citing the case of Timothy ?
t Alcxus, quoted by Athen«us (ii. 2), says : —

" Wine sometimes than honey sweeter,

Sometimes more than nettles bitter." ,

Alexis, quoted by the same authority (i. 57), says : — " Foreign wine was rare, and that from Corinth.
fautful drinking.''

AITF.XDIX i). 437

grapes] should be pressed by the beam ; cnm deferbuerit, when it shall have cooled
down [the grapes having been trodden while hot], add to every fifty sextarii [of
must] not exceeding an ounce of iris well pounded, rack off the wine by pouring it
from the dregs [this being a more careful operation than straining]. This wine
will be sweet [or smooth], sound-bodied, and wholesome to the body."

Columella knew experimentally what he was teaching, and his plan is theoretic-
ally and practically correct, in accordance with modern science. He first directs
to gather the grapes in the clusters, a direction which might appear superfluous
were it not known from other recipes that the ancients had also a method of gently
twisting the stalks, and stripping off the leaves, so as to allow the grapes to wilter
on the vine. lie here bids you spread out the grapes to the heat of the sun long
enough to thicken the juice to the degree kncnvn to prevent fermentation ; though
this was not the only plan, for sometimes the clusters were hung on poles and
trellis. He next instructs to take the grapes up at noon, after they had been
exposed for six or seven hours to a southern sun, and, while hot, have them
lightly trodden, the naked feet being less likely than a huge wooden beam to break
the little cells containing the gluten, /. e. the fermentable matter which, by action
of the oxygen of the air, would proceed to ferment. It also more easily admitted
of an adjusted pressure, by boys and girls instead of men. The heated state of the
grapes was purposely chosen for treading, because the juice would flow more
readily under gentle pressure than if the grapes were allowed to cool. This was
the second precaution against fermentation. Then as much as fifty sextarii (nine
gallons) of the must in the state of m us turn lixivium, such as came flowing into the
lake before applying the press, are to be taken, and some orris root to be put to it,
finely pounded and not merely crushed, the quantity being carefully specified.
For some reason not stated, but doubtless understood at the time, the juice was
allowed to cool before the iris was mixed with it. Lastly, it was to be racked off,
the mode of doing it being by pouring the wine off the top of the vessel, whereby
it would come away much clearer than by straining, which tends to render even a
clear wine muddy.

The Romans had, likewise, a very luscious wine, of a similar nature, distin-
guished by the name of passum, because made from uva passa, grapes partially
dried. Pliny's description of the mode of making it, is intended rather for the
general reader than the vine-grower (xiv. 9) : — Passum a Cretica Cilicium pro-
batur, ft Africum et in Italia finitimisquc provinciis. Fieri certum est ex uva qrtam
Gr&ci psithiam vocant, nos apianam, item seripulam. Diutius in rite sole adustis
aut ferventi olco. Quidam ex quacumque dulci, dum pracocta, alba, faciunt sic-
cantes sole, donee, pattlo amplius dimidium pondus sitpersit, tunsasque leniter expri-
mnnt—" After the Cretan passum, the Cilician is the most approved, then the
African, and [what is made] in Italy and the neighboring provinces. It is to be
made with the greatest certainty from the grape which the Greeks call Psithiam,
we Apiana, also from the scirpula [grape], the cluster being [either] partially dried
in the sunshine for a longer time upon the vine [by being suffered to hang with the
branch slightly twisted so as to cause it to wither], or else [by being immersed for
a time] in boiling oil. Some make it out of any luscious grape, provided it
be of the white and early ripe sort, drying the clusters in the sunshine
until little more than half [the original] weight remains, and press out [the
juice] by gently crushing [the clusters]." And Columella (xii. 39) gives at full
length the old recipe of Mago, for making passum optimum [the best passum],
whereby he himself had made it, and which commences— U- -a m frtrtoquem benc
maturam It'gcrf, acina arida, aut ritiosa rejicere—" Gather the early species of

438 APPENDIX D.

grape in the cluster when thoroughly ripe, throw aside those grapes that are either
dry or rotten; " and goes on— f ureas, vel palos, qui cannas sustineant, inter qua-
ternos pedes figere, et perticis jngare — "Then fix at intervals of four feet apart
forked sticks or posts, in order to support the reeds, and yoke them together with
cross poles." Turn insuper cannas ponere, et in sole pandere uvas et noctibus tegere
ne irrorentur — "Then lay the reeds on the top, and spread out the clusters in the
sunshine, and cover them every night, lest they should become wet with dew."
Cum deinde exaruerint, acina decerpere, et in dolium, aut in seriam conjicere, eodem
mustnm qtiam optimum, sic tit grana submersa sint, adjicere — " When by this pro-
cess they shall have become dry, pluck off the grapes and throw them together into
a dolium or a seria [vessels holding from sixty to seventy-five gallons] ; throw to
it so much of the very best must that the grains may be drowned under it." Ubi
combiberint iivce scque impleverint, sexto die in fiscellam conferre, et prczlo premerc,
passumque tollere — " When the grapes shall have thoroughly imbibed and filled
themselves [with the must~\, on the sixth day [from the gathering] put them
together into a frail, and squeeze them with a press, and take away the passum."
Further on is the recipe for passum alluded toby Pliny : — Uvam apianam integram
legito, acina corrupta purgato, et secernito ; postea in perticis suspendito, perticce ut
semper in sole sintfacito ; ubi satis corrugata erunt, acina demito, et sine scipioni-
bus in dolim conjicito pedibusque bene calcato — " Gather the Apiana grapes in the
cluster without injuring them; pluck off the rotten grains [berries], and set them
aside; after this, hang up [the clusters] on poles; manage so that the poles may
be always in the sunshine [a variation from Mago's plan of spreading them out on
reeds or straw]; when they have been sufficiently wrinkled throughout, strip off
the grapes, and throw them together, without the stalks, into a dolium, and tread
them well with the feet." Ubi unum tabulatiim feceris, vinum vetus conspergito,
postea alterum supercalcato et item vinum conspergito ; eodem modo teriium calcato
et infuso vino ita superponito ut supernatet, et sinito dies quinque — "When you
shall have made one layer, sprinkle it well with old wine ; after that, tread it
lightly, and a second time sprinkle it thoroughly with wine ; after a third similar
treading and infusion of wine, heap it up so that [the mass of grapes] may float on
the top, and leave it for five days."

The Romans imported wine from other countries, and sometimes even took the
pains to fabricate imitations. Here is Columella's recipe for an ancient Greek
wine (xii. 37) : — Vinum simile Grtzco facere. Uvas prcacoquas quam maturissimas
legito, casque per triduum in sole siccato, quarto die calcato, et must urn quod nihil
habeat ex tortivo, conjicito in seriam, diligenterqiie curato, lit cum deferbuerit, feces
expurgentur: deinde quinto die citm purgaveris mustum, sails cocti et cnbrati duos
sextarios, vel quod est minimum, adjicito unum sextarium in sextarios musti xlix.
Quidam etiam defruti sextarium miscent : nonnulli etiam duos adjiciunt si existi-
mant vina notam parum esse frrmam — "To make Wine like the Greek, gather the
early ripe grapes as thoroughly ripe as may be, and dry them in the sunshine for
three days ; on the fourth day tread [them], and throw the must — which should
not have a particle of that produced by the press — all together into a seria, and use
every diligence and care when it shall have cooled down, that the dregs may be
cleared off; then, on the fifth day, when you shall have cleared the must, add to it
two sextarii of baked and sifted salt, or at the very least one sextarius to forty-nine
sextarii of must. Some mingle a sextarius of defrutum; a few even add two
[sextarii], if they consider the wine has too little body."

This was for making a large quantity ; and although the exact measure of the
seria \ ; not known, it must have held the forty-nine sextarii, or about nine gallons,

APPENDIX D. 439

independent of the salt and defrutum. The kind of Greek wine intended to be
mimicked, though without the specification of a name, was no doubt sufficiently
understood at the time. It was perhaps classable with fassuw, for much the same
directions are given for gathering and drying the clusters ; and although the expo-
sure to the sunshine was curtailed to three days, that might have been in just pro-
portion for an early Italian grape, and have had an effect upon a thick-juiced
one equal to a four or five days' drying on one of thinner juice. The same caution
is given to have all the must produced by 'treading,' none from the press, which
was apt to set at liberty the gluten, which, absorbing oxygen, at once commenced
its work of fermentation. The careful pouring off the must from the settlings at
the earliest practicable s'.age, is a further precaution. The addition of the salt
might be with a view partly to flavor, from the dissolving5 of a portion of it by the
thinner aqueous particles of the wine, which, by that very process of saturation,
were protected from fermentation. If that did not sufficiently answer, — for a wet
or dry season, or other circumstances, might affect the quality of the vintage, — it
was a matter of taste to add the dffrutitm, to give a fuller body. Even if slightly
fermented, this wine could not be intoxicating.

The Greeks and Romans also made from grapes another class of articles distin-
guished amongst the latter by the plural adjective dulcia, emphatically ' the s\\
(that being the chief characteristic without regard to the mode of preparation), since
the word comprised ' boiled-wines ' as well as musts. Some kinds may have been
of a thicker consistency than others, and used for the adulteration of honey, either
in seasons of scarcity, or to meet the necessities of an increasing population, where
the art of extracting sugar from the cane had not been discovered. The two most
notable musts, were the aigleuces (always sweet) and the protropum (before trod-
den) the Greek names of which denote their origin.* All of them are enumerated
by Pliny (xiv. 9): — De dulcinm generibus quatuordecem — "Of fourteen kinds of
dulcia [sweets]." The chapter is worth analysis. The first four are, Fsithiuw
and Melampsithiitm, both of them kinds of passum, having, he says, its flavor, and
not that of wine; Cybilites, a true Galatian Mitlsum ; and Aluntium, from Sicily,
having the flavor of must ; these four being dependent upon the particular grape
and soil. The fifth is " Sirieum, by some called Hepsema, but by us (Romans)
Sapa, of which Defnttum was a variety;" to which he adds, Omnia in adult frium
mellis excogitata. " All [these latter] were contrived for the adulteration of
honey." The next were two kinds of passum differently prepared, and two sorts
of second-rate passum. The tenth, sEigleuces, is thus described : Medium inter
dulcia vinumque, est quod Gntci ccgleucos vacant, hot est semper nutstum. Id rcenit
cuta, quoniam fcrvere prohibetur — sic appellant musti in vina transitum — "There
is an intermediate [article]! between dulcia [sweets] and [what is technically]
wine, which the Greeks call aiglettcos, that is, 'always-w//j7.' It is the result of
care, owing to fermentation being prevented, for so they call the passage of musts
into [common] wines." The means of achieving it was this : Er^v mergunt e lacu
protinus in aqua cades, donee bruma transeat et consue titdo fiat algendi — " To that
end they sink the casks (immediately [after filling] from the lake) into water [of a
pond], until the midwinter has passed and a habit of being cold shall have been
created." The eleventh is a kind of passum from the province of Narbonne, to
which, he says, some add the Diachyton, the difference only arising from various
modes of drying the grapes. The thirteenth sort of s '-tdititcs, different

from mulsurn, the composition of which is explained. ! "•', of which

• Bv others called frrodrpmns. ' first ntnnine '

t Not ' quality,' as the Bibliothtca Sacra absurdly translate*.

440 APPENDIX D.

he says : Ita appellatur a quibusdam mustum sponte defluens, antequam calccnlur
iivce. Hoc protinus diffusum in lagonis suis defervere passi, posted in sole xl. diebus
torrent (zstatis secuta ipso canis ortu — " By this name some people call the must
which flows out of its own accord before the grapes are trodden. This immediately
racked off into flagons [kept] for it, is allowed to cool down ; afterward they roast
it in the sunshine for forty days, from the rising of the dog-star [in July] in the
ensuing summer."

The old Roman law of the twelve tables prohibited intoxicating wine to women,
who, by inference, were permitted any other kind. Pliny's book (xiv. 13) on the
use of wine among the ancients, commences : Non licebat idfeminis Roma bibere —
" It was not lawful to women at Rome to drink that " — he means intoxicating wine,
and relates some instances of the law being enforced, the husband taking upon
himself the office of both judge and executioner. He says (15) t — Lautissima apud
priscos vina errant, murrce odore condita, ut adparet in Plauti fabula qua Petsa
inscribitur quamquam in ea et calamum addijnbet. Ideo quidam aromatite delectatos
maxume credunt. "The ancients had sumptuous wines seasoned with the scent
of myrrh, as appears from the play of Plautus, entitled Persa ; notwithstanding he
orders calamus to be added. For this reason some persons think that they [the
ancients] were very much delighted with aromatics." Pliny further says : " Kins-
folk kissed the women when they met them, to find whether their breath smelled
of Temetum. Hoc turn nomen vina erat, tmde et temulentia appellata"

In the same chapter, he quotes the verses of F. Dossennus —

" Mittebam vinum pulchrum, Murrinam " —
I sent fair wine, yclept Myrrhine.

From the comedy of Acharistione, also —

" Panem et Polentam, vimim Murrinam."

Quibus adparet non inter VINA modo murrinam, sed inter DULCIA quoque nom-
inatum. " From which, it is evident, Myrrhina was classed not only among
WINES, but among DULCIA also."

Henderson, in his 'History of Wines,' commenting on the boiled wine of the
Roman women referred to by Virgil, truly says — "The use of this inspissated
juice became general."* But he errs when he infers, that, because unfermented
wine was distinguished from fermented, it was "never called WINE, nor used as
WINE" (p. 44). We have given many illustrations to the contrary. Pliny,
who attempts this technical distinction, cannot adhere to it ; and he has testified
that an article may come under both classes. Moreover, Pliny is not the Atlas
of Criticism and the infallible Arbiter of Language. Dr W. H. Rule, in his
'Brief Inquiry,' confesses that unfermented grape-juice "was the protropos or
prodromes OINOS, of the Greeks " (p. 7). Dr Rule contends, rightly enough,

* The reference is to Virgil's Georgics, i. 293-295, which describes the occupation of a Farmer'*
wife thus : —

Interea longum cantu soluta laborem,
Arguto conjux percurret pectine telas ;
Aut dulcis musti vulcano decoquit hurnorem,
Et foliis undam tepidi despumat aheni.
The Rev. E. Cobbold thus versifies the passage : —
" The industrious dame anon
Sings to the whizzing wheel she urges on,
Boils the sweet must, slow simmering by her side,
And skims with leaves the cauldron's bubbling tide."

The original, however, is not fully expressed for (i) pecten, refers to the slay of the weaver; (2)
aheni has a peculiar propriety as referring to the brass cauldron, which is the metal best adapted for
the purpose of avoiding a burnt flavor ; (3) tepidis better consorts with simmering than boiling ; (4)
decoquit expresses more than boiling — namely, inspissating, ' boiling down.1 The last two lines may
be thus rendered : — " And is boiling-down over the fire the luscious liquor MUST, and taking off witn
leaves the wavy spume of the tepid brazen cauldron."

A1TENDIX D. 441

that both mustum in Latin and gleukos in Greek, included an intoxicating liquor
in its applications; and the fact is undeniable that fermentation alone con-
verts grape-juice into an intoxicating drink. He allows too, that tirosh (trans-
lated new-wine) "is also spoken of as in the unfermented state." Of the word
ahsis, too, translated oinos neos, he concedes that "it means the simple pure juice
of the grape ; " that the equivalent Greek word is gleukos, sweet-must. The most
ancient (Syriac) version does not translate the word of ' wine,' but by must. The
Ethiopic has ' drink fresh-mads, made from the juice of ripe-fruits.' (Ludolf. Lex.
sEth.) The Chaldee Targum too (Esther i. 7) supposes that Ahasuerus and his
lords were drunken with khamar-ahsis, fresh grape juice; a LUXURY quite in
place on the table of the King of Babylon. Hence two facts appear (l) that to « dis
tinguish ' one wine from another, does not exclude the common property by which
they are entitled to a common name; and (2) that even specific names were much
more vague and general than is often supposed. When Dr Rule asserts that " grape-
juice is not wine, any more than chaff is bread," he tries to overrule the plainest
facts in language, and he confounds a contrast with a comparison. Chaff is the
husk of corn, not the material of bread ; but ' grape-juice ' is the very substance of
wine, — as Thomas Aquinas has it, of ' the specific nature of wine.'

II.
THE PRODUCE OF THE VINEYARD IN- THE EAST.

By Rev. HKNRY HOMES, American Missionary at Constantinople.*

" In a country where wine, as in America, is known as a great promoter of the
crime of drunkenness, and where the vintage is supposed to be gathered chiefly for
the purpose of making wine, it is difficult for the mind to do justice to the common
language of scripture which extols the vine and its products as one of the staffs of
life. Along with corn and oil [yitzhar~\, wine [tirosh] is almost always combined
as the third representative of the three chief blessings of the year." (Deut. vii. 13;
4 fruit of the land' ; Neh. x. 39.)

ll'ine is supposed to be the chief thing obtained from the vine, and there is no
substance now called ' wine ' t by any one that is not intoxicating ; therefore the
mind asks that the propriety and consistency should be shown, of making such a
natural source of evil an emblem of the staff of life along with corn and oil. The
source of embarrassment seems to arise from the supposition that the chief produce
of the vineyard is, and was, that which we at this day universally call ' wine,' and
that the vineyard was cultivated chiefly for its yielding such wine.

Now, as a resident in the East, we believe sufficient facts can be adduced to ren-
der it extremely probable that this supposition is erroneous, and that the fabrication
of an intoxicating liquor was never the chief object for which the grape was cultivated
among the Jews. Joined with bread, fruits, and the olive tree, the three might
well, under the comprehensive words of corn (-.tiigan), wine (tirosh), and oil
[ore hard -fruit}, be representatives of the productions most essential to them, at
the same time most abundantly provided for the support of life.

• Abridged from an article in the Bibliotheca Sacra, of May, 1848. We retain the precise wcrxU
of the author ; any of our own are inclosed in bracket* f ]. All the notes are editorial. It is a
significant fret that while Dr Laurie cites enrbled extracts from Eli Smith, wh< ro first

rate knowledge, he cautiously avoids the adverse testimony of Messieurs Homes and Kobson, who
made special observations on this subject.

t That is, kumr. Of course not, because this word has been in modern times appropriated to
intoxicating wine exclusively. A statement, therefore, of this fact, urged as an argument, is a puerile
quibble.

442 APPENDIX D.

In Asia Minor and Syria, the largest part of the produce of the vine is used for
other purposes than making intoxicating liquor — whether the vineyards are owned
by Moslems, or by the Greek, Armenian, and other Christians. Eli Smith writes
in reference to Syria: — "Wine is not the most important, but the least so, of all the
objects for which the vine is cultivated." — (Bib. Sacra, Nov. 1846.) The amount
made increases near commercial cities. Still, in the vine-growing districts of
Turkey, the grape stands as prominent among the productions of the country, as a
source of comfort and prosperity, as the Bible makes it to have been among the
productions of Judea.

Our practical moralists, in treating on the use of wine, have had no complete
information on the existing varieties of 'liquor of grapes.'

1. The first produce of the vineyard is the Green Grape (Num. vi. 4). It is
used for its verjuice, to give a tart taste to all articles of food that need it, and for
making refreshing drinks. The manner of using it is various, either by putting
the fresh green grapes into the food, or by drying the same in the sun and putting
them up in bags like raisins, or by pressing out the juice, partially evaporating it
in the sun, and carefully preserving it in bottles; or, lastly, after having thoroughly
dried the green grape, it is ground to powder in a mill, and the powder bottled.
These various preparations give thus a fresh tart vegetable juice for all seasons
of the year, for cooking meat and vegetables for the table ; and in regions where
they are never accustomed to see a lemon, they supply the place of lemonade.
A drink made from the juice of the green grape is most reviving to the weary
traveler.

2. The FRESH RIPE GRAPE in the regions where it is cultivated may be had
from three to five months in succession (Lev. xxvi. 5), owing to the difference of
vines, soil, and climate of a particular district. During these months, and indeed
for many following months, combined with bread it is the main reliance of the
people for food to eat, for theirs is a ' land of bread and vineyards ' (2 Kings, xviii.
32). Grapes are not sold in the interior towns at two or three shillings a pound,
but at the astonishingly low price of from one quarter of a cent to one cent [^d.]
a pound; and even in Constantinople, with all the causes of dearness, the common
sorts of grapes can be had for two or three cents a pound. They are so innocuous
that, in general, one may eat of them with greater freedom than any other kind of
fruit, even to satiety. It is not to be wondered at that so luscious a fruit, which
can be obtained at a cheaper rate than potatoes by the poor in Ireland, should form
in some districts, with oil and bread, the chief nourishment of the people; and that
the vine should be extensively cultivated for the sake of its solid fruit merely.

3. FRESH GRAPES ARE HUNG UP IN DRY PLACES in the shade and preserved on
the cluster, with a little wilting, to eat in the winter; so that the time of fresh
grapes is protracted for at least two months longer. Mr Schneider, of Broosa,
remarks that this kind of grapes is sold there as late as February and March ; the
price is nearly as low as freshly gathered grapes.*

4. RAISINS. In the villages the grapes are hung in clusters on the side of the
houses, or strewed on blankets on the tops of the houses to dry, and thus they
prolong the fruits of the vintage for the months when the hung grapes are gone.
Of their use for all kinds of cakes in cookery, as also for an accompaniment to
bread, we need not speak, though it should be kept in mind to aid our estimate of
the value of the whole gathering from the vine, when used in the form of solid-fruit.

* Hence the inconsequence of the objection that at the Passover no grapes were to be had for
lakiug Must-ivine.

APPENDIX D. 443

5. PRESERVES made with fresh grape-juice.* One of the very common uses of
the grape is, to boil the freshly expressed MUST before it is twenty-four hours old,
after having removed the acidity and checked the tendency to ferment by throwing
in calcareous earth, and then to boil with it various kinds of fruits and vegetables
for sauces and preserves for the whole year. The most usual fruits employed are
apples, quinces, plums, and peaches ; and of vegetables, green tomatoes, egg plants,
pumpkins, squashes, and watermelon rinds. Mr Schneider says, "an enormous
quantity of Retchel (the name in Turkish for this kind of preserves) is made in
Broosa."

6. JELLIES and confectionery from grape-juice. Other common but singular
modes of using grape-juice consist in throwing into the juice various preparations,
as of the ground or broken grains of millet, wheat, barley, rice, or almonds and
nuts, and especially the starch of wheat, (i) Starch or flour is thrown into the
boiling juice, and when sufficiently boiled, the syrup is poured out upon cloths to
dry in the sun. Broken pistachios, almonds, or walnuts, are strewed upon the
sheet while the material is yet soft, which is then doubled, dried, and ready for
use. (2) Wheat, and similar grains, soaked in water, are pounded to a pulp or
mash, and left sufficient time to ferment. When this is boiled with the grape-
juice, the mess in the cauldron is made into cakes, which, when dried, have a
sour-sweet taste. (3) Pistachios, almonds, filberts, and the like, having been
strung on strings, are dipt in the boiling mixture of starch and juice, and hung up
to dry, covered with the soft sweet paste of the cauldron. There are many other
similar manufactures, known each by its peculiar name, which are brought to the
large cities for sale. The emigrants from the country to the city, speak with glow-
ing animation and yearnings for home, when they allude to these luxuries of their
native regions,

7. Pickled grapes. Clusters of good ripe grapes are carefully placed in wooden
or earthen vessels, so as to two-thirds fill them. Fresh must, boiled down to one-
half, is then poured in, so as to fill the vessels, which are then carefully closed,
ar.d left to stand from fifteen to twenty days. When ready for use, the grapes and
juice are offered together, to be eaten or drunk.

8. Grape Syrup or Molasses * is made of must that has not been pressed [out]
more than twenty-four hours. Upon the grapes before pressing, Or upon the
expressed juice, calcareous earth is often thrown, to neutralize the acid and purify
the juice. The juice is boiled from five to seven hours, and reduced to one-fifth or
one-fourth of the original quantity. The syrup differs in consistency in different
countries, according to the amount of time employed in boiling, being boiled in
Syria so hard that it does not easily run, while in Turkey it is more liquid than
sugar cane molasses. It is called in Turkish /<•(•///<•;, in Arabic dibs, in !'•

and Armenian rob [probably syret abbreviated], in Greek hepsema, and son.
1:1 Hebrew debash. (So Gesenius.) It is never regarded as a boiled wine
cuit, but as a sweetening-syrup, although in the Persian the word fckmez a;
still to signify ivine. t (See Lexicon of Meninski.) It may sour, but never becomes
wine [in the modern sense]. In cooking various kinds of vegetables with meat
for the table, making all kinds of cakes, etc., it is in most frequent and constant
use with families of every rank. By some method, a process I have not seen,
fresh grape molasses may be made a solid substance like cake or pudding, without

•The Hebrew SHBMARIM, 'preserves,' may correspond to this (Is. «v. 6), or SOBM«, 'boiled

t Syrup or Sherafi, is still one of the Eastern names for ll'inf, like Pekmez. So formerly. Herbert,
:• ;3 in his Persian vocabulary, has ' sfifr,if>, wine.' And Olearius (1637 ) «ays— ' They (the
Ambassadors; received a bottle of scfurab, or Pen»ian H'int " (p. 175).

444 APPENDIX D.

admixture of any thing else. Beaten and stirred up with mustard-seed for several
days, it becomes a paste of whitish color, which, mixed with water, forms a cool-
ing drink like our ginger, molasses, and water.

9. SIMPLE BOILED MUST, OR NARDENK. Simple grape juice, without the
addition of any earth to neutralize the acidity, is boiled from four to five hours, so
as to reduce it to one FOURTH of the quantity put in. The grapes usually chosen
are the species naturally sour, or such as will not ripen. After the boiling, for
preserving it cool and that it may be less liable to ferment, it is put into earthen
instead of wooden vessels, closely tied over with skin to exclude the air. Its color
is dark, its taste an agreeable sour-sweet ; and it is turbid, vegetable gluten being
suspended in it, even when it has been standing for a long time. It ordinarily has
not a particle of intoxicating quality, being used freely by both Mohamedans and
Christians. Some which I have had on hand for two years has undergone no
change ; still, when not sufficiently boiled, if exposed to the air and heat, it under-
goes a degree of fermentation, and becomes exhilarating and perhaps intoxicating.
Nardenk is used as a syrup for a beverage, one part of the syrup to from six to
fifteen parts of water. In the Bebek seminary it has been often used by the boys
to eat with their bread, as in America we use molasses. It is sold by all the
grocers of Constantinople at the same price, or cheaper, than wine. It is not all
made from the grape, but some of it from apples, and some of it ham pomegranate,
whence it originally had its name. As there has been great search for an unfer-
mented wine — a wine that would not intoxicate — as soon as I came upon the trace,
two years since, of such an article as Nardenk, I most perseveringly followed it up,
till I should find out what it was. For although, in the present use of language, an
unfermented wine is an impossibility, yet here is a cooling grape-liquor not intoxi-
cating; and which, in the manner of making and preserving it, seems to correspond
with the recipes and descriptions of certain drinks included by some of the ancients
tinder the appellation 'Wine.'

10. GRAPE SUGAR OR BOULAMA. This article is derived from the boiling of
-grape-juice to make grape molasses. The scum is ladled off into other boilers;
again slightly boiled, cleansed with eggs and poured into barrels for use. It is
used very extensively in all the villages south of the Sea of Marmora as an article
of food in its simple stale, very much^as we use pure honey. It is almost the only
sweetening used by a numerous class of confectioners. There are probably hun-
dreds of shops occupied by the manufacturers of confectionery in Constantinople
from this one article. This sugar is boiled with pounded sesame, or broken wal-
nuts, or certain roots, or starch, and made into solid masses of confectionery or
candy. Natives and strangers are very fond of eating it with bread at breakfasts
and collations, but few strangers are aware of the fact that it is made of this univer-
sal grape-juice. The Turks are most passionately fond of all confectioneries.

11. All the vinegar of these Eastern lands is made from this same bountiful
grape, by pouring water on the juice and leaving it to ferment. Vinegar from sour
"wine would afford but a small portion of the amount needed in commerce. The
Mohamedans have no objection to using vinegar, though it has fermented.

12. Raisin drink. Raisins are boiled for two or three hours to make a
refreshing drink called 'sweet water' (khoshaU)* It has no intoxicating quality,
for the proportion of water is large, and it is drunk only when freshly made.

13. Raisin wine. This wine is always of domestic manufacture. Four parts
of warm water by weight to one of raisins are left to soak two days. Then the

* Literally, khash ob is boiled- water,' and shir ob 'sweet-water.'

AI'I'KXDIX D. 445

raisins arc taken out, bruised and again put in till the fermentation has been
sufficient. The result is a mild liquor of exhilarating qualities. It is called
in Arabic Nebidh, in distinction from A'/tamr, the name for ordinary fermented
wine.*

14. Wine. All that is now called wine in the East is intoxicating. The boiling
of must, for the purpose of securing a wine that will keep better, should n
confounded with the boiling of the same must, for the purpose of making sugar and
molasses. In the former case it is boiled perhaps half an hour, and not reduced
one-twentieth in bulk. By drying the grapes in the sun, or by boiling the must, the
wine is preserved sweeter than it would otherwise be ; such wines are still intoxi-
cating. The boiled wines of Mount Lebanon are stronger than the majority of the
wines of France. The Greeks, in their modern language, call wine krasion or
'mixed,' instead of the more classical term oinos [wine]. Common resin is put in
so as to make their common wines as nauseating to a stranger as a bitter dose of
medicine.

15. BRANDY is distilled, either directly from [fermented] must of good or rotten
grapes, from the mass of pulp and skins remaining after the juice has been pressed
out, from the lees of wine, or from wine. It is called raki, or arrack, in the lan-
guages of the country. Each family in the interior distills his own raki, as they
make their wine, in their houses.

16. THE LEAVES AND STOCKS OF THK VINE. The stock and roots are used
for fuel. E«:ek. xv. 4. The cuttings of the vine and of the leaves are used for
manure to the vineyard, and the leaves for fodder. The leaves are also used for a
vegetable, chopped meat and rice being rolled up together in single leaves, and
boiled for the table.

In what we have said, we have purposely avoided Biblical criticism and contro-
versy, wishing simply, by a contribution of FACTS from an Observer in the East,
to aid those in discussion of controverted points, who have more time and ability.
Still we would suggest whether this array of facts on the utility of the grape-vine,
will not sustain the idea that the greater part of the praises bestowed upon 'wine'
as it is translated in our version, are bestowed upon the [fruit, or the] grape-juice
as freshly expressed, without bringing into view the specific forms in which it may
afterward be manufactured. The idea that tirosh is used in this general sense, and
not in a specific one, easily presents itself, seeing that in nearly all the thirty-eight
cases where the word occurs, it is in connection with corn and [yitzhar, 'orchard-
fruit'] first-fruits or offerings; and the idea becomes more confirmed when we
see how many, and important, are the general uses of the grape.

III.

An article in the Bibliotheca Sacra, for January, 1869, by Dr Laurie, lays great
stress on the statements of some modern missionaries, that there is no UNin-
toxicating substance NOW CALLED 'WINK' in the Kast. The argument is of no
value, (i) Because the various SUBSTANCES anciently called \\ ill plentiful

* Nebidk, as shown by Mr E. W. Lane, the great Arabic scholar and traveler, was originally the
name of an **fermentcd wine. The Arabic word khumr, simply signifies 'turbid' or ' f
which applies to the must in the wine vat, both in its fresh and fermenting state. Mr Lane say»:—
" Nebeedh, a name now given to prohibited kinds of wine, tfebeedk prepared i>
rnonlv sold in Arab towns under tne name of Ztbttb The prophet himself was in the habit of drink-
ing mint of this kind. Other beverages to which the name has been applied are, like Zrbtfb, no
longer called by that name, while under the same appellation have been classed the different kinds
of beer called bootek." [These words seem corruptions of the Hebrew aneb and labka. \

446 APPENDIX D.

in Syria, and, as we have seen, some are still called wine. (2) Because NAMES
and language are undergoing perpetual modifications, and even transformations
and inversions. For instance, sherap is now ' wine ' in the East, but syrup
in the West, and by the same trickery of words, can be proved to have no
existence in the Orient. Nevertheless, there it is, with its new name. In
India, toddi means palm-tree-juice, but in Scotland it has become a word for hot
whisky -and-water. Homes records that krasion, which means ' mixed ' merely,
has supplanted the old scripture word oinos, 'wine.' (4) Because, instead of the
primitive language, we have only the testimony, concerning words, of the mixed
populations of the Syrian cities, which in other cases has led to erroneous conclu-
sions, and must in this instance. The parties appealed to are often no more judges
of the matter submitted to them, than a Londoner would be of old Saxon phrases
to be found in the Yorkshire or Cumberland dialects. As Dr Beard says — " It is
among the native Aramaean population that the old traditions, knowledge, and
NAMES are to be learnt " — not in towns where the language and habits are cor-
rupted with a foreign population. (5) Because the objection equally applies to our
own word '•wine,' where it demonstratively terminates in a. falsity. Ten years
back only a few philologists knew that wine, 100, 200, 300 and 1800 years ago,
included 'unfermented wines,' but that fact is not the less certain, because modern
usage and taste have changed. (6) Because a modern dictionary cannot destroy
the former meaning of antique words, but ought to preserve their respective and
successive senses by careful induction of historical usage. (See Prel. Dis. p. xiv.)
The Bible is not written in technical language, and the Encyclopaedia Americana
(Boston, 1855) concedes that "the juice of grapes, when newly expressed, and
before it has begun to ferment, is called must, and, in common language, sweet
wine." And (7) Because the alleged fact is no fact at all. Peckmez, Nebidh, and
Sakar, in various parts of the East, are still applied inclusively to Z^WFERMENTED
LIQUORS, as they were originally exclusively. — The article in the Bibliotheca is
unworthy of the scholarship of our day.* It begins with a false translation of Pliny
and ends with placing its criticism upon the authority of Gesenius. But in this
age, no criticism can be left to repose upon authority; evidence alone is valid.
Every material objection in the article, however, will be found to have been
anticipated in the Commentary itself. In fact, Dr Laurie assumes all his facts,
and begs all his principles.

* The writer of the article in the Bibliotheca Sacra professes to be an abstainer, and even limits
the use of wine medically to cases where prescribed by other than the patient himself. He describes
wine also as dangerous, and prohibits its use by the young. He also concedes that there are traces
of unfermented wine in classical history, especially as an article of lux-iry amongst the Romans.
On other points, however, he is uncandid, uncritical, and inaccurate. He represents Dr Lees as
having a teetotal bias in favor of interpreting tirosh as ' vine-fruit,' when in fact that bias, if it existed,
would lead him to the theory that it was grape-juice, or ' new wine.' He conceals the fact also, that
Gesenius, more than once, coincides with Dr Lees' view of the word. He conceals also the fact,
that many eminent Hebrew scholars, such as Professor Murphy, of Belfast, and Dr Tayler Lewis, of
Union College, repudiate as fanciful Gesenius' derivation of tirosh, as what ' takes possession of
the head.' We regret that any body's head should have been ' possessed' by a notion that had no
support whatever in the actual usage of the word. As to bias, it is much more evident on the side
where, in addition to mere theory (which holds of both opinions) there is also the instinct of conser-
vatism, the motive of selfjustification, and the bribery of appetite. The Rev. Evelyn Hodgson, of
Exeter College, Oxford, frank1 v confessed this in a recent controversy: — "A person coming to a dis-
cussion of this kind, would be likely to collect the meaning of words, as used in passages, that would
favor my side, and he would be more likely to be biased than the advocate of the other side "
(abstinence). Now, scholars of eminence (some of whom have an admitted bias against teetotalism)
have largely adopted the views of Dr Lees concerning tirosh, such as Professor Eadie, in his ' Bible
Cyclopaedia,' Prof. Douglas, in Principal Fairbairn's ' Imperial Bible Dictionary,' the late Dr
Kitto, in his ' History of Palestine,' and Mr Bastow, in his ' Bible Dictionary.' On the main point,
indeed — the only one which really concerns the Temperance Cause — namely, the generic character
rfyayin — even the ablest critics upon Dr Lees have granted his position. Professors Eadie and
Murphy admit that yayitt does include grape juice within its comprehension, and Bevan, in Dr
Smith's great ' Bible Dictionary,' says : — "!T MAT AT ONCE BE CONCEDED THAT THE HEBREW
TEEMS TRANSLATED 4 WINE,1 REFER OCCASIONALLY TO AN UNFERMENTED LIQUOR."

INDEX.

[The Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.) refer to the paging down to the end of the
Preliminary Dissertation; the c6mmon numerals (i, 2, 3, etc.) refer to the
paging of the Notes and the rest of the work.

Aaron — he, his sons, and successors for-
bidden to use wine and strong drink
during their ministrations, 36. Re-
ferences to this law by Josephus, 209,
364; and by Philo, 2IO, 364.

Abbreviations — marks of, employed,
li.

A'Beckett, Sir W.— lines by, under the
motto, In I'ino Falsitas, 146.

Aben Ezra — on the use of vinegar, 77.
His allusion to Belshazzar's feast, 214.

Abib— the Hebrew civil month (identical)
with the ecclesiastical month Xisan),
and corresponding to part of our
March and April, 31.

Abigail — her gifts to David, 82.

Abimelech — cursed by the Shechemites
when feasting, 71.

Abraham— his defeat of the confederate
kings, ii. Met by Melchizedck, 1 1.
i tains Bagels, 12. Se&dfl forth
Hagar and Ishmacl, 14. Dispute of
lii> servant^ with Abimelech about a
well, 14. : of the Kechab-

Absalom — his plot against Amnon, 86.
Absinthe — its nature ami where manu-
factured, 390 (also foot-note).
Abstainers, eminent, in ancient times —
rites, 44, 203. Samson, 72.
Samuel, 7 itcs, 192. Daniel,

213. Therapeutx, 257. John the
'.ist, 267, 292. Timothy, 272 — 274.
AbstcmiiE — who were so styled, and why,

369-

once from intoxicating drink —
falsely Ji.u^oi u ith
law of Paradise, 7. Practiced by the
Israelites in the desert, 60. Divinely
sanctioned as a safeguard against sin,
38, 44, 320, 347. Conducive to health
and strength, 72, 175, 203, 213. A
guarantee of sobriety, So. Conducive

to mental clearness and vigor, 143.
A doctrine of antiquity, 192, 252. A
powerful instrument of Christian use-
fulness, 263. Of great importance to
the sober, 264. A means of moral
development, 271, 296. A noble form
of Christian self-denial, 272. A mani-
festation of true temperance, 316-7,388.

Abulwalid — on qubaath, 1 76.

Abuse of God's bounties — wherein it
n>. H ow associated with tin-
manufacture of intoxicating drinks, 370.
iiian Church — its use of raisin
wine at the Lord's Supper, 277, 282.

Acharistione— onvintim mnrrinian, 440.

Achilles Tatius — Greek legend related
by, 181.

Achluo and Achlus — their supposed
connection with kkaklili, 23.

Adam and Eve — in paradise, 5, 6, 7.

Adam — ' Book of Adam ' quoted, 1 60.

Adiinamcn (Adynamon)— an unintoxi-
cating wine, 374.

.us — his use of tifephalion and
neephnn, 363. ' MCC to wine

in the grape, 433.

Africanus — his notice of oil-wine, 297.

•>) — their abuse in the
early Church, 339, 342.

Ahasuerus — his sumptuous entertain-
ment, 108. His decree againsi
rule of drinking, 109. His command,
when 'merry with wine," concerning
ti, no. His ! :hei's

honor, drinking with Haman, and
presence at Esther's banquet, ill.

Ansis (fresh-juice) — its derivation and

in Scripture, xxvii, xl. See

Appendices B 416, C 431, and D 441.

AigUutts — Pliny's definition, 439.

Ainsworth — on the Nazarites' vow, 44.

AUohal — a powder for the eyebrows,
supposed to have suggested the name
of alcohol, 23.

448

INDEX.

ascribed to, by

Alcibiades — speech
Plato, 363.

Alcohol — its poisonous action, xii. Does
not exist in grapes, xlii. Theory

that it arrests the transformation of
tissue, xliv (foot-note). Is formed by
the decomposition of sugar, 3. Its
chemical composition not a food, or
an equivalent to food, but a poison and
prolific cause of disease and death, 4.
Supposed derivation of the name, 23.
The physical cause of intemperance,
261. Excites thirst, 275, The quan-
tity annually consumed at the Lord's
Supper in England, 286. A shroud
to the mind, 471.

Alcoholic fermentation — signs of, 136-7.

Aleppo (Helbon) — 209.

Alexander the Great — his drunken mad-
ness, 270.

Alfieri — on vino, etc., xl.

Alford, Dean — on avoidance of the occa-
sions of evil desire, 264. On chreestos,
294. On Luke v. 39, p. 294. His
charges against the Temperance move-
ment in his Notes on the miracle at
Cana, 306. On methud, 341, and the
original sense and apostolic use of
neephoy 364, 365. On the appearance
(eidos) of evil, 366. On the ravages
of ardent spirits, 390.

Alexis — his ' Fanatic ' quoted, xxxvi.

Allen's ' Modern Judaism '—on the wine
of the passover, 283.

Alsop, R. — on the use of grape-juice
syrup in France, xxxviii.

Alliance NeivSy The — quotation from, on
armor-plate rolling without intoxi-
cating drinks, 175.

Amalekites — when feasting, overtaken
by David, 84.

Amen-em-an — his letter to Penta-our on
the use of wine, 20.

Amnon — his murder, when ' merry with
wine,' 86.

Amphictyon — the king of Attica, who
taught his people to mix water with
wine, 54.

Amphora — its size and shape, 81.

Amphis— quoted, xxxvii.

Anacreon — on oinos (wine) in the grape,
22, 70, Appendix €431. His use of
methuoy 341. His exhortations to
vinous indulgence, 344.

Ancient wines — recipes for making, 435.

Anna the prophetess — styled by St
Cyril ' a most religious ascetic,' 317.

Anstie, Dr — on alcohol and other drugs,
xliv ; see also foot-note.

Antediluvians — whether acquainted with
intoxicating drinks, 8. Their sen-
suality, 274, 299.

Apocrypha (The) — quoted (l Mace. vL
34) 181, (i Esdr. iii. andiv.) 187.

Apollonius — on the derivation of neepho,
362.

Apostolic Canons (The) — approved of
asceticism for moral ends, 253.

Appetite for intoxicating drinks — unna-
tural, 381.

Apple — why supposed to be the forbid-
den fruit, 7- Comprehensive meanings
of ancient words translated 'apple,'

I51-

Afsinthos (wormwood), 390.
Aquila — the friend of St Paul, 315.
Aquila's Greek Version of the Hebrew

Bible— quoted, 3, 23, 52, 53, 57, 60,

62, 82, 83, 84, 117, 119, 120, 121, 124,

130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 151,
156, 158, 159, 167, 169, 170, 171, 185,

340 (foot-note).

Aquinas, Thomas — on grape-juice having
the specific nature (species) of wine,
and being therefore properly used in
the Lord's Supper, xxxix, 285.

Arabic Version of the Hebrew Bible —
quoted, 10, 22, 47, 52, 53, 55, 57, 65,
70, 77, 82, 94, 104, 115, 120, 142,
155, 160, 165, 169, 170, 171, 203, 206,
217, 218, 222, 231, 233, 246.

Arcadia — wines as thick as honey, 295.

Aristophanes — compared soldiers with
foxes, 152. His nsQotneephcntes, 363.

Aristotle — quoted, on the wines of Ar-
cadia, 295. Definition of Temper-
ance, 322.

Arrows— drunk (drenched) with blood,
64.

Artaxerxes — his notice of Nehemiah's
sadness, 193, 194.

Asceticism — ancient practice and ap-
proval of, 253. True and false forms
distinguished, 317. Dr Eadie's and Dr
Howson's remarks upon, 317 (foot-
note).

Ashantee — its king's drink-offering of
blood, 1 1 8.

Ashishah — explained, xxxi. See Ap-
pendix B, 417.

Asotia — dissoluteness, 355, 385.

Athenoeus — his Deipnosophistse quoted,
extracts from Alexis, xxxvi; from
Cratinus, Amphis, and Damoxenus,
xxxvii. On the sweet wine of the Mit-
ylenians, xl. On Egyptian wines, 17.
On the voyage of Nymphodorus, 198.
On excessive drinking usages, 23 1 . On
sacrifices without wine offered to the
sun, 363 (foot-note). On a saying of
Philip of Macedon, 364 (foot-note).
On Chian, Bibline, and Lesbian wines,
374. Various sorts of wine, 435-437.

Athens — periodical drunkenness of, 352.

INDEX.

449

Atkenavm — its misrepresentations, 2.

Athletes — ancient and modern training
of, on the abstinence principle, 333 ;
also foot-note.

Atlas works, Sheffield — total abstinence
of workmen employed in, 175.

Augustine, St — his charge of inconsist-
ency against the Manichxans, 251,
253. On Psa. iv. 7, p. 117. Describes
Noah as ebrius, not ebriostis, 275. On
the subjection of the body to the spirit,
296. His exposition of the miraculous
conversion of water into wine at Cana,

3°5-

Austria — abstemious habits of the wo-
men, 369.

Authority — not to be implicitly accepted
in the interpretation of Scripture, x\ii.

Avenanus, Dr — on ahsis, xl.

Baal Hatturim — on 'wine in the grapes'
at Pentecost, xxvi. On the exclusion
of honey from offerings by fire, 34.

Babylon — association of its fall with in-
temperance, 164, 200, 215. Its 'cup'
one of drunkenness and madness, 200.
Its luxuriousness in the time of Daniel,
211. M ystical Babylon and her raging
wine, 391-393.

Bacchanalian festival, 208. Excesses at
Athens, 352.

Bacchus — legend of his interview with a
shepherd, 181. His name of Leenian
from leenos (wine-press), 273. His
Greek name Dionysos, 350. Wineless
sacrifices sometimes offered to him,
363. Unfermented wine poured out
to him, 433.

Bacchylides — on the effects of wine, 159.

Bacon, Lord — on wines gently expressed
compared to Scripture doctrine, xl.

Badatschon wormwood, 203.

Bags with holes — modern illustration of,

243-

r's ' Treasury Bible ' — quoted on
Samsou's abstinence, 72-3. On the
pomegranate, 81. On Jonadab and
the Rechabites, 193.

Balaam — his sin, and its modern coun-
terpart, 389.

Banquetings (f>otoi, ' drinkings '), 385.

Barclay, Dr — his theory thatunfermented
wine cannot be preserved, xxxviii.

B.irsom — a Persian plant, 205.

Bartenora Rabbi — on drinking less of
boiled wine, xxvi, 279. On the tra-
dition that the juices of fruits do not
ferment, 379.

Bate, Julius, M.A. — on tirosh as grapes,
xxviii.

Bath— a Hebrew fluid measure =» 7 gals.

4 pints English, 98, 159.
Beale, Dr — on alcohol not a food, xlvi.
Beefsteak — its nutritious value 156 times

greater than that of wine, 370.
Beer (well), 48.
Beer — supposed reference to, in Isaiah,

163.
Belshazzar— his profane feast and death,

214.
Bengel's Notes — on kainon (new\

On Mary's address to Jesus, 302. On

I Cor. xi. 21, p. 341. On Ephes. v.

18, p. 352.
Benhadad — ' drinking himself drunk,'

88.
Benisch, Dr — his version of Prov. xxxi.

5, 6, p 143. On tirosh, 217. On ashi-

shaht 219. On Hos. iv. 1 8, p. 220.

On Hos. vii. 5, p. 221. On Hab. ii.

5, p. 239. On Hab. ii. 15, p. 240.
Benjamin of Tudela — his account of the

Rechabites in the twelfth century,i95-6.
Benjamites — concealed in the vineyards,

76.

Benson, J. — on figurative wine, 391.
lieth-haccerem, 104, 184.
Bethlehem — the well of, 87.
Beza's Latin Version of the New Testa-

ment — quoted, 267, 275, 278, 287, 295,

353-

Bhadoon — wine-vats in, xxx.

Bible (The) — not accountable for the
errors ami abuses it has been used to
support, ix. How its testimony on
the subject of strong drink is liable to
perversion, xviii. Composed in the lan-
guage of daily life, xxi. Not an
exhausted book, xxxiii.

Bibline wine, 374.

Bioliotheca Sacra — fallacies, 446-7.

Bingham's 'Antiquities of the Ch:
Church '—quoted and examined, 277,
280.

Bishops — cautions addressed to, 367,

368, 377-

Bishop's Bible (1568 A. D.) — quoted,
xxxi.

Bland — his translation of lines by Ibycus,
xxiv.

Blayncy, Dr — on gizrahtham, 204.

Bloomheld, Dr S. T.— Notes on the
training of athletes for the Grecian
games, 333. On the meaning of tri(l/in~>,
341; also foot-note. On 'all things
lawful,' 330. On 'goo'l creatures,'
and 'eating with knowledge,' 370.

Pilount, H — on must as new wine, xli.

Blunt, Professor I. J.— on the sins of
Nadab and Abihu, 37.

Boaz— his treatment of Ruth, 77. His
heart merry, 78.

45o

INDEX.

Bocchoris — said to have reigned in Egypt
766 B. c., and to have permitted kings
to drink wine, 19.

Bode, Baron — on the Persian shire ap-
plied to honey of raisins, xxvi.

Bottles — how made of skins, 186. How
burst by fermenting wine, 116, 266,
289, 293. See also Appendix B,
under khameth, nebel, nod, p. 424.

Boulduc — his hypothesis concerning Re-
chab, 193.

Bowring, Sir J. — on the wines of Leba-
non, 224.

Boyle, R. — on reserved discoveries in
the Bible, xxxiii.

Braga, third council of — its decree
against the use of grape-juice in the
Lord's Supper explained, 280.

Brande, Professor — on the prevention of
fermentation within the grape, 285.

Brandy-and-salt panacea, 297.

Bread — saving of flour when unfer-
mented ; no alcohol present after
baking, 269. See Appendix B, under
lekhern, 424.

Bretschneicler — his definition of neepho,
362.

Brinton, Dr — on the enervating effect
of wine, 262 (foot-note).

British Temperance League — offer of
prize of ^50 for proof that alcohol
exists in grapes, xlii.

Brodie's (Sir B.) 'Psychological In-
quiries ' — quoted, as to the abstinence
of night nurses, 386.

Brown, Professor Dr John — on an
invitation of Christ, 384. On
'watching unto prayer,' 386. On
resistance of the devil by abstinence,

387-

Buckmaster's ' Elements of Physiology '
— quoted, on the connection of ab-
stinence with training, 333 ( foot-
note).

Bunsen, E. — his theory of the Kenites,
192.

Burges — his translation of neephonta,

363-
Butler, Bishop — on undiscovered truths

in the Bible, xxxiii.
Butler (Pharaoh's) dream of, 16, 17,

249.
Butler, S. — his lines on the victims of

the Flood and the wine-cup, u.
Butter and buttermilk, 68.
Buxtorf — his explanation of a Jewish

saying, 170.

Byron, Lord — lines by, on 'Circum-
stance,' 6. On the value of water,

88.
Byzantius's Lexicon — definitions of nee-

phalios> neephalia, neephaliotces, 362.

Cakes unfermented — see Appendix B,
under matzoth, 421.

Cakes of dried grapes — see Appendix B,
under ashishah, 41 7.

Calabria — boiled wines used in, xxviii.

Callimachus — his comparison of wine to
fire, 159.

Calmet — his conjectural reading of Ezek.
xix. 10, p. 206.

Calvin — on Deut. xiv. 26, p. 54. On
'wine of astonishment,' 120. On the
address of Mary to Jesus, 302. On
the meaning of astoia, 352. On ' Use
no longer water,' etc., 372, 373.

Camphire (cypress) — described, 150.

Cana of Galilee — its situation, 301. Nar-
rative of the miracle at, 301-304.

Canaan — Noah's grandson, 10.

Canaan — its fertility, 24, 25, 51, 52, 61,

65, 93-

Candlestick — extended meaning. of the
word, xxii.

Carbonic acid — its explosive power when
not allowed vent, xxxix. 116, 166.
One of the poisonous products of
saccharine fermentation, 3. How
used in making unfermented bread,
269.

Carmel — 94.

Carson, Rev. Dr A. — on the different
senses of the same word in different
situations, xix.

Carthaginian law — favoring the disuse
of wine, contrasted, by Plato, with
the customs of Cretans and Lacedae-
monians, 253.

Carystius — quoted respecting a saying of
Philip of Macedon, 364.

Cato — on vmumpendens (hanging wine),
xxv. On the wine pressed from grape-
husks, 157.

Census Report of 1851— on the means
of prolonging life, 183.

Ceremonial uncleanness — distinguished
from the physical qualities and moral
tendencies of intoxicating drinks, 323,

357-

Cnalybonium vinnm — 209.
Chambers' ' Cyclopaedia ' — on the explo-
sive force of fermenting wine, xxxix.

On the meaning of 'wine,' xl.
Chambers, Dr T. K. — on the action of

alcohol in arresting vitality, 262.
Changes in meaning of Oriental terms,

444-446.
Chaucer — simile concerning temptation,

264 (foot-note).
Cheerfulness — caused by tirosh, 70. The

result of the Divine favor, 117. As

arising from wine, 125.

[NDEX.

451

Cheever, Dr — his work on Slavery
notice. 1, xxxv.

Chemosh— the great idol of the Moabites,
49.

Chian wine, 374.

CHRIST— see under Jr.srs CHRIST.

Christianity — its first principles, and their
power, if carried out, to banish evil
from the world, 369.

Christians — their self-conquest and self-
control, 87, 295. Their duty as Good
Samaritans, 298. Their obligations
toward their brethrer, 321 — 325, 332,
337. To imitate Christ, 327, 338,
346, 384. To avoid evil, 322, 330,
366. To do all possible good, 351,
356. To cultivate the strictest sobriety
and self-restraint, 317, 334, 361.

Christians of St John — their use of raisin-
wine at the Lord's Supper, 280.

Christians of St Thomas — their use of
raisin-wine at the Lord's Supper, 280.

Christian Spectator, The — version of
Hab. ii. 15, 16, p. 240.

Church (The) — has it ever erred in its
interpretation of Scripture? xxxiv. Its
duty to recognize the agreement of
Scripture with science ? xlviii.

Church Article XXI. — quoted, xxxiv.

Church of England Report on Intem-
perance, note, 269.

Chusda, Rabbi — his statement of the
drugged wine given to Jewish crim-
inals, 291.

Chrysostom, St — on the conversion of
water into wine at Cana, 305. On
'living water,' 309. On ntfthttu, 341.
On ' Use no longer water,' etc., 372.

Chwolson, Professor — his translation of
some ancient writings, 192.

Cicero — quoted, concerning olives and
vines, 389.

Civil government — of Divine institution,
and perverted when used to sanction
the traffic in strong drink, 321.

Claret grape — red color of the juice,
180-1 (foot-note).

Clarke, Dr Adam — on rmtzatz, 12. On
the use of unfermentcd wine by the
ancients, 19. On debash (honey), 20.
( )M the prices being prohibited to use
wine during their ministrations, 37.
On the Xa/nrites, 204. On the train-
ing of candidates for the Grecian
games, 333. On the meaning of
ntfthuo, 341. On swallowing down
strong drink and being swallowed
down by the devil, 386.

Caudius Cxsar— his intemperance, 313.

Clemens Alexandrinus — on the benefit
of abstinence, and effects of wine, xliv.
352. On St Matthew as included

among the enkralitcs, 253. On the
sense of tnethitu, 341. On asfitia,
352.

Clergy — forbidden by the ante-Nicene
canons to visit Inns except on a jour-
ney, 367.

Club-feasts — in ancient times, 338, 353.

Codex Aleph (New Testament) referred.
10—265, 267, 274, 276, 287, 289, 290,
291, 293, 294, 295, 299, 300, 301,
302,313,328,367,372,381,385.

Codex A * (N. T.) referred 10—289, 29°.

343.

29i, 294, 3°°» 3*3. 328,
367, 372, 381, 385. 393-
odex B (X. T.) referred to-

Codex B (N. T.) referred 10—265, 267.
274, 276, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293,
294, 299, 300, 313, 328, 357, 381,

383. 38S. 393-

Codex C (N. T.) referred to — 265, 274,
276, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294,
299, 3°°. 3 '3. 328, 393-

Codex D (N. T.) referred to— 261, 263.
265, 266, 274, 276, 287, 288, 289,
290, 291, 293, 294, 295, 298, 300,
313, 328, 338, 348, 367, 372.

Codex Z (X. T.) referred 10—265, z66»
276, 287. [Codex Z includes only St
Matthew's Gospel.]

Colenso, Dr — his quibble as to 'hare,'
xxi. His unsound argument respect-
ing succah, xxi. On the wider sense
of bfchor and khag, xxii. On kha-
mus/iim, xlvi.

Collins' ' Voyages '—quoted, xxvi.

Collins, Wilkie — on the effects of wine,
xliv.

Columella — on dffrutum turning sour,
xxvi, 220. On wine from grape-hu^ks,
157. His receipt for making oil-wine,
297. Other wines, 434-440.

Comus (the t;od of revelry) — 49, 322.

'Comus' (Milton's)— quoted, 13, 317.

Connelly's ' Spanish Dictionary ' — quot-
ed, xxvi.

Conscience — a violation of it sinful, 326,
327. A tender regard for the con-
sciences of others to be cherished, 336.

Conversion of water into wine — at Cana,

302. Annually effected in nature,

305.
Conybeare and Howson's 'Life and

Letters of St Paul' — quoted, on the
nes, 258. On ' Awake to right-

eousness,' 345. On Ephes. v. 18, p.

353- _

• Codex A of the N. T. does not commence
till Matt. xxv. 6, and i* lent frequently referred
to in the bi»dy of thi* Commentary, because
more generally in accordance with the Received
Greek Text of Stephens. Ou p. 265, 1. aj, ' A '
is a misprint for ' Z.

452

INDEX.

Cook, Eliza — lines by, on the value of
water, 127.

Coptic Church (Egyptian) — the wine
used by, at the Lord's Supper, 282.

Corinth — intemperance of, 329.

Corinthian Church — reproved by St Paul
for their manner of celebrating the
Lord's Supper, 338-342.

Corn — waste of, in the manufacture of
alcoholic liquors, 4. This waste more
hurtful than withholding corn, 132.

Coverdale's version of N. T. (A.D. 1535)
— xxxi.

Cowper, W. — his lines on licensed drink-
shops, 321. On the perversion of
Scripture to sensual purposes, 355*

Cranmer's version of N. T. (A. D. 1539)
—quoted, 275, 303, 322, 328, 333,
355. 372.

Cratmus — quoted, xxxvii.

Crashaw, Richard — his lines on the
miracle of Cana, 308.

Cucumbers, wild — 91.

Gumming, Rev. Dr — on the difference
between Divine sufferance and sanc-
tion, xxiii.

Cunningham, Professor — on the use of
raisin-wine at the passover, 283.

Cup — of retribution, 122, 176, 177, 187,
200, 204, 206, 207, 241, 247. Of
'consolation,' 186. Of cold water,
266, 289. Of the Lord's Supper, 275.
290, 300, 343. See also Appendix B,
under kost poteerion, 424, 430.

Cup-bearer — to Pharaoh, 16. To Arta-
xerxes, 103.

Cyclops Works at Sheffield — workmen
employed at, who abstain from strong
drink, 175.

Cyprian, St — his plea for mixing water
with the wine of the Lord's Supper,
279.

Cyrus the Great — the story of his refusal,
when a boy, to taste wine, 215. His
capture of Babylon, 215. His reported
address to his chiefs before Babylon,
361.

Dagleish — his patent for making unfer-
mented bread, 269.

Dahgan, ' corn ' — meaning of, xxix. See
Appendix B, 424.

Damoxenus — quoted, xxxviii.

Daniel — refusing the king's meat and
wine, 211. Successful trial of pulse
and water, and lessons of the experi-
ment, 212, 213. His use of wine in
later years, 215, 2 1 6.

David — his visit to Saul's camp, 82.
His march against Nabal, 82. His

surprise of Saul, 83. His surprise of
the Amalekites, 84. His gifts to the
people, 85, 96. His base treatment
of Uriah, 85. His supplies from Me-
phibosheth, 86. His refusal to drink
the water brought from the well of
Bethlehem — a lesson for Christians,
87. Mocked by the drinkers of s/ia-
kar, 121.

Davidson, Dr — on the uncertainty attend-
ing the use of words, xxiii.

Deacons — may they marry two wives ?
xxxvii. Not 'to be given to much
wine,' 368. Their wives to be ' sober,'

Death — 'in the pot,' 91.

Defilement — promoted by strong drink,
270, 271.

De Foe, D. — on the Englishman's love
of beer, 176.

Defrutum (grape-juice boiled down to a
third of its bulk), xxvii, 439.

Deipnon, 'chief meal,' 'supper,' 214,
337. See also under 'Lord's Supper.'

Delavan, E. C. — his testimony as to the
preservation of fresh grapes in Italy
from season to season, 278. Letter
to, from M. M. Noah, as to the nature
of passover wine, 282.

Demetrius of Ephesus — his craft and
modern disciples, 316.

De Quincey, T. — on undue confidence
in the English Version, xviii. His no-
tice of the Essenes, 254.

Devil (diabolos}, 386.

D'Herbelot — on the derivation of syrup,
etc., xxii.

Dindorf— on the root of yayin, xxv. On
intoxicating yayin, xxvi-vii. On yitz-
har, xxix. On the Hebrew gath, 202.

Diodorus Siculus — on the use of wine by
the kings of Egypt, 19. On the Na-
bathseans, 1 79. On the fall of Nine-
veh, 238.

Dioscorides— on sapa, xl.

Dipsomania, 262, 275.

Doddridge, Dr— on Ephes. v. 18, p. 352.
On the allocation of I Tim. v. 23, p.

Donnegan's Lexicon — definition of nee-

pho, 362.

Donovan, Professor — on the preserva-
tion of ancient wines by evaporation

and concentration, 295.
Dough — waste of, by fermentation, how

avoided, 269.
Douglas, Professor — on the meaning of

aAsis, xxvii. On tirosht xxix. On

ashishah, xxxi.
Dregs of wine, 196, 199, 242.
Drimacus — gathering ' wine ' from the

fields, 198.

[NDEX.

453

Drinking — for mere pleasure, the essence
of intemperance, 322. Not an anti-
dote to trouble, 80, 144.

'Drink no longer water, 'etc. — explained,

3.72-374-

Drink-offering (/. e, an offering of drink,
a libation) — see Appendix B, under
Nlstk, 424.

Drugged wines — whether used by Noah,
lo; or by Lot, 13. Mentioned by
Homer, and common in the East, 13.
Symbolic of the Divine anger, 122,
123. [See under ' Cup '] Said to have
been offered to criminals before execu-
tion, 144, 287 (and foot-note), 291.

Druitt, Dr — on alcohol as a mere drug,
xli.

Drunk, drunken — derivation of the
terms, 10. 'To add to the thirsty,'
61. Use of the terms explained, 303,

339-341-

Drunkard — Jewish law concerning, 57.
The Mishna's definition, 57. Des-
tined to poverty, 135. Solomon's
description of, 135, 136. His hand
pierced with a thorn, 142. Called to
awake and weep, 225. Not to be
associated with by Christians, 329.
Excluded from the kingdom of God,

329-

Drunkenness — of Noah, 9 ; of the As-
syrian marauders, II; of Lot, 13; of
Nadab and Abihu, 36; of Nabal, 83;
of Elah, 89; of Benhadad, 89; of
priests and prophets, 170; of the
Israelites, 159, 160, 169, 178, 221,225,
229, 231, 235, 239; of heathen na-
tions, 214, 233, 238, 245. Threaten-
ing on account of, 188, 20O, 233, 241.
Wherein it essentially consists, 322.

Drusius — on tirosh, xxviii. On khamah,
xlvii.

Du Fresne, Carolo— on I'inum coctum,
etc., xl.

Dunbar's Lexicon — definition of neepho,
362.

Dupuis's 'Journey to Ashantec'— 118.

Eadie, Dr — his 'Bible Cyclopncdia '
quotc'l, xxxi. On the ancient sense
of asceticism, 317. On theapj.
between fulness of wine and of the
Spirit, 353-

Earth — represented as 'hearing' her
offspring, 218.

1 Eating and drinking ' — various appli-
cations of the phrase, 266, 274, 275,
295-6, 298-9.

Ebntu — explained, 9. Distinguished
from (briosnst 275.

The Echo — its foolish criticism, 2.

Eclectic Review — on the blinded under-
standing, xix.

Economy — violated by the manufacture
of intoxicating drinks, 4, 132. Illus-
trated in the miracle of the loaves and
fishes, 309.

Eden, garden of — trial and temptation
in, 5, 6. Abstinence practiced in, 7.

Edomites — drunken, 204. Destroyed,

233-

Edward, Prince (Edw. I.) — some of his
soldiers in Palestine died from ex-
cessive use of honey, 141.

Egypt— culture of the vine, time of vint-
age, and manner of wine-making, 17,
48, 125. Beer of, supposed to be
referred to, 163. An intoxicating
mixture suplied to, 164.

Egyptians, ancient — acquainted with the
vine, 17, 48, 125. Intemperance of,
17. Use of palm wine and beer, 18.
Whether their kings used wine; cus-
toms of their priests ; and exclusion of
wine from the Temple of the Sun, 19.
Their legend of the origin of wine;
letter of Amen-em-an against wine-
drinking, 20. Affection for the Nile,
28. A fainting Egyptian refreshed
with food and water. 81. Remarkable
custom adopted at their feasts, 344.

Ekneepsate — explained, 10, 83, 22<;, 345.

Elah — 'drinking himself drunk,' 89.

Eli — his misapprehension of Hannah's
grief, 79.

Elijah — supplied with water of the
brook, 89. Supposed to have been a
Nazarite, 89.

Ellicott, Bishop — on the danger of im-
porting foregone conclusions into the
exposition of Scripture, xxxii. On

the recognition by modern expositors
of great principles of justice and truth,
xxxiv.

' Encyclopedia P.ritannica ' — on the
>ver wine, 283.

Engedi, vineyards of — Jewish legend
concerning, 151.

Enkratites (temperates = abstainers) —
to have included St Matthew, St
Peter, and St James, 253. Their
opinion of wine.

Epaminondas — address to his soldiers,
361.

Ephraim— drunkard-; of, 160. Its princes
and king corrupted by win.-.

Epicharmus— a maxim of his cite

Epictetus— on the training of candidates
fir the Grecian games, 333.

Epiphanius— on the stoning of St James,
195. On the tnkratitts, 253. On the
Safxeans being Essenes, 256.

454

INDEX.

I Esdras iii.-iv. — on the power of wine,
xliv, 187.

Eshkol — see Appendix B, 420.

Essenes — theories concerning their ori-
gin, 254. Their discipline and regi-
men, as described by Josephus, 254 ;
and by Philo, 255.

Esther — feast in her favor ; her feast to
Ahasuerus, in.

Ethiopic Version — quoted, 120, 124,

372, 373-

Eubulus — on the effect of water and of
wine, xliv.

Eucharist — meaning of, as applied to
the Lord's Supper, 276.

Eudoxus — on the use of wine by the
kings of Egypt, 19. On the Egyptian
tradition of the origin of wine, 20.

Eumenides — wine excluded from their
sacrifices, and why, 363.

Europeans — their intercourse with un-
civilized aborigines often a great curse,
337 (and foot-note).

Eusebius — quoted, 195, 314.

Evangelical Magazine (The) — quotation
from, on allusions to wine in Scripture,
137. On the free use of wine in the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, 281.

Evil communications — corrupt good
manners, 344.

Evil — in all aspects to be avoided, 366.

Ewald — on Hos. iv. 18, p. 221.

Exercise — synonymous with self-disci-
pline, 317.

Expedient — popular mistake as to the
sense in which St Paul uses the word
so translated, 330. What is not ex-
pedient is not lawful, 331, 332.

Experience — its testimony concerning
strong drink, xlv.

Experiment — its evidence as to strong
drink, xlv.

Eyes — ' red with wine,' how to be un-
derstood, 22-24. Colloquial sense
of the words ' eye ' and ' eyes ' illus-
trated, 24. Redness of, a sign of in-
temperance, 136.

Ezra — his abstinence from water, 102.

Fabricius — his report of a legend con-
cerning Noah and the vine, 1 1.

Fabroni — his explanation why grape-
juice does not ferment in the grape,
defective, xxxix.

Fairbairn's ' Imperial Bible Dictionary '
— quoted, xxvii, xxxi.

Feast — provided by Abraham, 12; by
Lot, 12; of unleavened bread, 27,
275; ofNabal, 82; of Ahasuerus, in;
of Job's children, 113; of fat things

and preserves, 167; ofBelshazzar, 214;
of tabernacles, 310. See also Appen-
dix B under khag, misteh, 424.

Felix — his character, and St Paul's ap-
peal to, 318.

Ferment — its use and presence during
the passover season prohibited, 27-29,
3I~39» 45 » 5°-56> 279-281. Its sym-
bolic applications, 27, 269, 271-2, 281,
285, 328. Philo's explanation of the
prohibition, 249. Rabbinical theory
that the juices of fruits do not ferment,
28, 280. The priests of Jnpiter for-
bidden to touch leaven, 29.

Fermentation — does not occur in grapes,
xliii. Not the result of a vital pro-
cess, xliii. The nature of it ex-
plained, 3.. Signs of, 136-7. How
prevented, 168. Not to be ascribed
to the 'fruit of the vine,' 281 ; or to
the wine made at Cana, 304. Deteri-
orating to the richness of grape-juice,
370-

Fermented wine — arguments for and
against the use of, at the Lord's Sup-
per, stated and considered, 377-383.
Whether was permitted at the Jewish
passover, 280-1. Evidence as to its
use and disuse by ancient and modern
communities, 281-283.

Fig tree, 88, 151, 184. See also Ap-
pendix B, under theanah, 425.

Fire waters — to be avoided, 131. A
name justly applied to ardent spirits,

390.

Florence — unfermented wine imported
from, xxxviii.

Food — man's duty in regard to it, 3.
Waste of, in the manufacture of fer-
mented and distilled liquors, 4. Such
waste a great abuse, 10. Food (truly
so called) not to be used so as to en-
danger the consciences of Christians,

3237325,337. .

Forerms — on shemakrim, xxxi.
France — boiled wines extensively used

in, xxviii, xxxviii.
Francis, Dr — his translation of lines by

Horace, 333.

Frey, Rev. C. H. — on exclusion of fer-
mented drink from passover, 282.
Fruit of the vine — the terms explained,

277, 283, 285. In the Lord's Supper,

270, 290, 300. See under tirosh, 414.
Frankland, Capt. — on stone wine-presses

at Solima, xxx.
Forbidden fruit in the garden of Eden

— supposed intoxicating quality and

effects of, 7.

Fortune — goddess of, worshiped, 182.
Foxes (or jackals) — their devastations in

vineyards, 152. Used as food, 152.

INDEX.

455

~~~ -

On Hos. \ii. 14, p. 222. On
223. On hobish, 226.

Gesncr, J. M. — on rinum, etc.,

Giddiness— as of a drunken man, ;

Gilbey — wine merchant's testimony to
injurious effect of fermentation, 370.

Gill, Dr — on khainah, xlvii. On the
phrase 'the kernel to the husk,' 42.
On the tendency of tlvc N.I.MI ues' vow
to promote chastity, 44. On ' a glut-
ton and a drunkard,' 57. On the
milk given by Jael to Sisera, 6S.
vinegar in harvest, 77. On Isa. i. 22,
p. 157. On the inflammatory
of wine, 159. On BelshazzarN
214. On I Cor. xi. 21, p. 341.
'use no longer water,' etc., 372.

Gleaning — not by the owner of a vine-
yard, 39, 59. Very limited, 162, 237.
Described, 166, 185, 200.

Glciikos — sweet wine, xxxix, 312-3. Va-
rious kinds of, 374, 378. See also
Appendix B, 425, C, 431, and D, 440.

Glutton — Mosaic law concerning, 57.
The Talmud (Mishna's) definition, 57.
Condemned to poverty, 135.

Gobat, Dr, Bishop of Jerusalem — his
reference to Abyssinian wine and the
species used at the Lord's Supper, 282.

GOD— described as administering an in-
toxicating potion to His enemies, 122,
176, 177, 180, 185, 188, 199, 200,
391-3. Said to resemble a mighty
man recovering himself from wine,
124. The author of natural bounty,
52, 55, 61, 65, 125-6, 217, 218, 227,
228, 232, 236, 245, 246, 247. Not
responsible for the products of human
art and invention, 148, 315. His
glory to be first sought in all human
action, 337.

Gomorrah — fields of, 62.

Good creatures of God, 370.

Good Samaritan — an application, 297.

Goodwin, C. \V. — his tran>lation of an
ancient Egyptian letter on wine, 2O.

Grace (Divine) — its office in the preven-
tion of evil, 264, 306 (foot-note), 378.

(".rape-cure — called -vein mi;

( ', rape-juice — entitled to the name of wine,
xix, xxxix-xli. See Append;
I '. 4 ',1-446. Theory of the Rabbins
that it would not ferment, xx, xxv, 280.
i of, 180, IM. \ t forbidden
to U mil ilrink under

the Christian dispensation, 343 (foot
note). Injured by fermentation, 370
(foot-note). Drunk by ladi.-
epicures, 378.

Grapes — do not contain alcohol, xlii.
Why their juice does not ferment,
xliii. Blood of, 22. \\hen first

Fraser, Professor — on the Divine ideas
in nature becoming a fact of human
experience, xliii.

Freund, Dr W. — example of the different
senses of arena, xxiii, xxiv. Qn.vinde-
inia, vinum, and mustmn, xli.

Fuerst's Hebrew and Chaldee Concord-
ance quoted — on s/ia/car, xxxi ; on
soraq, 22.

Fury of God — symbolized by intoxicat-
ing wine, 122, 176, 1 88, 200, 204,
241, 391-3-

Full — also drunken; il'ustration from
the French soul, 427. SAatar, in
sense of filled, 9, 152, 243. Mclhuso
=cbrius, as filled or satiated, 9, note;
applied to arrows, 64; to cup, 119;
to fatness, 119; to furrows, 120. [See
422 for raveh, etc. ] Used by Symma-
chus, 132; Septuagint, 152; St John,
3°3» 340-1 J met keen, 243.

Galen — on foxes as food when fattened
on grapes, 152. On oil-wine, 297.

Gall — see Appendix B, under rosk and
choice, 423, 429.

Gardens — greatly valued in the East,

90, 147.

Garments — washed in wine, 22. Dyed
(= made bright), 180.

Gedaliah — his command to gather wine,
(yayin), 193.

Gellius — on the priests of Jupiter being
forbidden to touch leaven, 29.

Gemaras (the two Commentaries on the
Mishna, and constituting with the
Mishna the chief books of the Tal-
mud), 279.

GF.NKKAI. I'KKF.VKS, ix.

Geneva, English Version (A. D. 1557) —
quoted, 303, 322, 328, 333, 335, 372.

Germans, Ancient — their custom of de-
liberating when drunk and deciding
when sober, no.

Gesenius — on tirosh, xxviii. On vitzhar,
xxix. On ytqtb, \\\. On /Adi
( )n dcbash, 20. On khaklili, 23. On
'liquor of grapes,' 42. On L'hcniosh,
49. On rosh, 63. On hillnlitn, 71.
( )n a ski shall, 85. Qnf»at/</twth sahdth,

91. On kiinn. \ ./A//, 117.
•\ihvcth, 119. On nifthron.

( )n ; ; sting out ' with tirosh,

129. On inashshak, 147. On /.'
150. On 'clusters of dates' an«l
£////(•/;,;.•;•, i;;. On tirosh mourning,
165. On Ka. xxv. 6, p. 167.

~.ith kos, I 76. ( >n gathering tirosh,
180. On fcnniniin, 203. On the use
of B.irsom, 205. On ptithlxig, 211.

456

INDEX.

ripe in Palestine, 45. Great size of
the bunches, 46 (also foot note). Value
of, in the East, as food, 93. ' Sour
grapes,' 114, 163, 189. in flower,
152, 154. Wild (vile) grapes, 158.
See also Appendix B, under anahvtm,
eshkeloth, 420; staphulee, botrus, 427.

Grapes in February and March, 443.

Grecian games-»-training of the candi-
dates, 297.

Greenfield W. — on 'the cruel man,' 122.

Grief — not to be cured by strong drink,
80, 1 86.

Grote, G. — on the variable nature of
truth, 326.

Grotius — his rendering of khamah, 240.

Gussetius — on mahal, 157.

Guthrie, Dr — on the Rechabites, 195.

Hall, Bishop (Norwich) — on the con-
version of water into wine at Cana,

3°5-

Halley, Dr — on I Cor. xi. 21, p. 341.

Ham, Noah's son — his shameless con-
duct, 10.

Hammond, Dr — on methuv, 341. On
'use a little wine,' 373. On money
as a root of evil, 375.

Hanna, Dr — on the reconciliation of
Scripture texts, xliv.

Hannah — her prayer and vow, 79. Her
disclaimer of the use of wine and strong
drink, 80.

Harvey, Ven. Archdeacon (Lord) — on
the dream of Pharaoh's butler, 18.

Hassall, Dr — his report on Mr F.
Wright's sacramental wine, xxxviii.
(foot-note).

Havernick — on K-dakmkak, 206.

Haydock and Husenbeth's Notes on the
Douay Version — quoted on Deut. xxix.
19, p. 61.

Hecatceus — on the use of wine by the
kings and priests of Egypt, 19.

Hector — his reply to Hecuba, 73.

Hegesippus — quoted by Eusebius, as to
the stoning of St James, 195. Tra-
dition of the abstinence of St James
from wine and strong drink, 314.

Helbon — wine of, 208-9.

Hellanicus — on the cultivation of the
vine in Egypt, 17.

Henderson, Rev. Dr E. — on Isa. xix. 10,
p. 163. On Isa. xxviii. 9, 10, p. 172.
On qubaath kos hataralah, 176. On
Isa. Ixiii. 6, p. 181. On skin-bottles
at Tifiis, 1 85. On khamah, 188. On
bl-dahmkah, 206. On ashishah, 219.
On Hos. iv. 18, p. 220. On Hos. vii.
5, p. 221. On boqiiq, 223. On Hos.

xiv. 7, p. 224. On ahsis (fresh-juice),
225. On tirosh, 237, 246 (criticised).
On Nah. i. 10, p. 238. On Hab.
ii. 5, p. 239. On Hab. ii. 15, p. 240.
On ishrahkah, 243. On purah, 244.
Henry, Matthew — on the special evil of
drunkenness, 14. On the chief but-
ler's dream, 18. On the Nazarite's
vow, 44. On the profligate and
drunken son, 57. On Samson's mo-
ther's abstinence, 72. On Samson's
strength, 73. On Ahasuerus' drink-
ing with Haman, in.
Herod Antipas — his rash promise, how

probably caused, 270.
Herodotus — on the absence of vines in
Egypt, 17. His reference to oinos
anipelinos, 18. On the use of wine
by the kings and priests of Egypt, 19.
On the love and use of wine by the
Persians, 109, 363. On the fall of
Babylon, 215. On a strange custom
at Egyptian feasts, 344.
Herschel, Sir John — on the different

meanings of the same word, xxiii.
Hesychius — his definition of leenos, xxx.
his definition of neepho, neephalioi,
362.

Hezekiah — an example to Christians, 92.
Hindoos —one of their thirty-two chari-
ties, the provision of water for the
thirsty, 114.
Hippocrates — on glukos, xxxix. His use

of meelhustheenai, 340 (foot note).
History — its voice on the influence of

intoxicating drinks, xlv.
Hobab — his connection with the Re-
chabites, 192.
Hogshead — suggested derivation of the

word, 1 86.
Holyoke, Dr — his longevity and cause

of death, 183.

Homer — on drugged wine, 13. The

colloquy of Hector and Hecuba, 73.

His use of methuousan, 341 (foot note).

Homes, H. — on produce of vineyard in

the East, 441.

Honey — why forbidden to be used in the
sacrifices of fire, 34. Proverbs con-
cerning, 140, 141. See Appendix B,
under dcbash, 424.

Horace — extract from the Delphin edi-
tion of his works, 1 68. Lines on
training for the Grecian games, 323.
Home, Dr T. H. — extract from his
' Introduction to the study of the
Scriptures,' on the nature of passover
wine, 283.

Horsley, Bishop— on the chief butler's
dream, 16. On Hos. Iv. 18, p. 220.
Houses — to be built with battlemented
roofs, 58.

INDEX.

457

Howson, Dr J. S. — on the value of the

ascetic principle, 317 (foot-note).
Howson and Conybeare — see Conybeare

and Howson.
Hungarian vintage — bursting of the ripe

grapes, xxvii.
Hunger — to be stayed before going to

the Lord's Supper, 339.
Huntington, Dr F. D. — on a regard for

the consciences and welfare of others,

336-7-
Hyssop, 288

Ibycus — lines on the vine, translated by
Bland, xxiv.

Idols — burnt, to avert the sin of idolatry,
52. Of Britain, 157.

Index, 447.

Inebriare, ' to inebriate '—explained, 9,
152, 175, 243-

Instinct, natural — none for intoxicating
drink, 5.

Intemperate appetite — caused by the
action of alcohol upon the nervous
system, 261. Testimony of eminent
philosophers concerning, 261-2 (foot-
note). The risk of, to be avoided,
262.

Intoxicating drink — not approved in
Scripture, xvii. An evil thing, xxxi.
Produced by a waste of food, 3. The
cause of enormous evils, 4. Not
desired by the healthy natural appetite,
5. Inflaming the animal passions, 13,
320. Not entitled to the name of
« meats,' 370. (See 'Abstinence,' 'Al-
cohol'.)

Interpreter (The)-- on the Bible as an
unexhausted mine, xxxiii.

Inventions, human — nut necessarily in
accordance with the Divine wi

Isaac — his blessing of Jacob anil

*5-

Isaacs, A. — his letter on the wine used
l>y Jewish families in the celebration
of the passover, 2.V

Isaiah — his description-, and denuncia-
tions of intemperance, 159, 160.

Israelites — forbidden to use ferment at
the 27. Murmuring for

water, 29. 1'crinitted to drink
and s/tat-ar, 53. Did not drink wine
or strong drink in the desert, 60.
Their enjoyment under Solomon's rule,
Their idolatry and sensuality in
the wilderness, 249, 250. Their in-
temperance in the later times of the
monarchy, 159, etc. (See ' Drunken-
ness '.)

Italy — vinegar used in the harvest-field,
77-

Isthmian games (celebrated near Corinth)
— St Paul's allusion to, 333.

Jaazaniah — head of the Rechabites when
visited by Jeremiah, 194.

Jackals — destructive to vineyards, 152.
(See ' Foxes '.)

Jacob — presenting wine to Isaac, 15.
Pouring out a libation, 16. His
blessing on Judah, 23. What is in-
tended by his 'eye' or 'fountain,' 65,
250. His well at Sychar, 368.

Jacob-ben- Ashir, Rabbi — on the neces-
sary use of wine at the passover, 202.

Jael — her gift of milk and butter to
Sisera, 68.

James the Just — stoning of, 195. Re-
puted to have drunk neither wine nor
strong drink, 314.

Jarchi, Rabbi — on the Nazarite's vow,
44. On the use of vinegar, 77. On
Belshazzar's feast, 214.

Jebb, Bishop— on ' watching unto pray-
ers,' 385.

Jehoshaphat — his moral weakness a
warning, 99.

Jehudah (Yehudah=Judah), Rabbi— his
approval of boiled wine, xxvi, 279.
On the absence of a blessing over
things originating in corruption, 218.
The compiler of the Mishna, 277.

Jeremiah — his interview with the Re-
chabites, 190-7.

Jerome, St— on his translation of bar as
'son ' and 'corn,' xxiii. On khamah,
xlvii. On abstinence from wine, 38.
On Psa. iv. 7, p. 117. On Psa. xxiii.
5, p. 119. On 'wine of astonishment,'
120. On Psa. Ixix. 12, n. 121. On
Psa. Ixxiii. 21 and Ixxv. 8, pp. i
On Psa. ciii. 14, 15, p. 125. His
remarkable rendering . ii. 3,

]>. i .

< HKisi — His resistance of temp-
tation, 261. His miracle at ('ana by
the C 'f water into wine, 301

— 303. Nature of the miracle, 304.
nt of the miracle. 306. Primary
objects of the miracle, ; •-. Ids asso-
ciation of .-icaling with the
!. 2'>\. II is command to sacrifice
what is most dear and useful physic-
ally, for the safety of the soul, 263,
273. The prayer He has taught us,
not to be led into temptation, 26<>.
His allusion to new wine and old
. -5, 289. 293 ; and to the pre-
ference of old wine 294-5.
,-11, 368. His refer-
ence to a cup of o-ld water, 266.

458

INDEX.

JESUS CHRIST — ( Continued}. The con-
trast between His mode of life and
John's no proof of His inferior self-
denial, and no argument against the
Temperance reform, 266-268, 295-6.
Satan not divided against himself, 269.
Leaven used as a symbol of Christ's
kingdom, 269 ; and of the corrupt
doctrine of the Pharisees and Sad-
ducees, 271-2. His declaration that
not that which goeth into the mouth
defileth a man, 270-1. Self-denial a
condition of discipleship with Him,
272. His ' woe to the world because
of offenses,' 273. His command to
'gather up the fragments,' 309. His
injunction to eat and drink whatever
is given, 296. Parable of the Good
Samaritan — who is our neighbor ?
296-298. Parable of the sensualist,

298. Warning against sensuality,

299. Parable of the householder,
who planted a vineyard, 273, 290, 299.
Mention of Antediluvian sensuality,
274, 299. The evil and drunken ser-
vant, 274, 298. The reward of shew-
ing love to Christ's afflicted poor, 275.
His comparison of himself to water,
309-310. His institution of the Lord's
Supper, 275-6, 290, 300. What is
meant by ' the fruit of the vine ' blessed
by the Lord, 277, 280-1. His de-
scription of Himself, ' I am the true
vine,' 310. His rejection of wine
mingled with myrrh or gall, 287, 291.
His acceptance of vinegar on the
cross, 287, 291, 300, 310-11. On a
spiritual imitation of Christ, 337. On
not knowing Him after the flesh, 346.
Following Christ wisely as an example,
348.

Jewish legends — of the vine planted by
Noah, 9. Of animal blood poured
upon the root of Noah's vine, II. Of
the wine given by Jacob to Isaac, 15.
Of the cluster of grapes carried away
by the spies, 46. Of the transmuta-
tion of the vessels at Ahasuerus's feast,
108. Of the angel of confusion sent
to that feast, no. Of Rabba and
Rabbi Zira keeping Purim, 112. Of
the wine used in the wilderness, 151.

Job — feasting of his children, and his
sacrifices on their behalf, 113.

John the Baptist — his course of life con-
trasted with the Saviour's no valid
objection to total abstinence, 266-7.
The angelic command that he should
be trained as a Nazarite, 292.

Jonadab, the son of Rechab — his name,
lineage, and history, 191-193.

Jonah, Rabbi — on khamah^ xlvii.

Joseph — his interpretation of the chief
butler's dream, 16. His brethren
making merry with him, 21.

Josephus — on Abraham's defeat of the
confederate kings, 1 1. His version of
the chief butler's dream, 18. On the
Hebrew kin, 32. On the apples of
Sodom, 63. On the milk given to
Sisera, 68. His wrong interpretation
of the name ' Samson,' 72. His ac-
count of Ahasuerus's feast, 109. On
the command to the priests not to
drink wine in the temple, 209, 364.
His account of the Essenes, 254-256.
His use of neepsis, 'abstinence,' 255.
(foot-note). His account of fruits pre-
served fresh for 100 years, 278. His
use of the word neepho, 364.

Jotham — his parable of the trees, 70.

Jowett, Professor — his testimony to the
early and wide adoption of abstinence
principles, 253.

Judah — his blessing by Jacob, 23. Cup
of retribution supplied to, 207.

Julius, Pope — his permission to use
newly pressed wine in the Lord's
Supper, 280.

Justin Martyr — on the adoption of the
name 'Eucharist,' 276.

Juvenal — on the excessive use of sweet
wine by Roman ladies, 138, 369,

Kcempfer— on the thick juice of dried
grapes, 20.

Kalisch, Dr — on the use of the context
in interpretation, xxi. On Melchize-
dek's offering to Abraham, 12. On
the chief butler's dream, 17. On ab-
stinence from fermented wine by the
kings of Egypt, 19. On Exod. xxii.

Kei

29, p. 31.
eil and De

litzch — on ' the impious son,'

58.
Khag — extended sense of, xxii.

) ' heat, ' ' poison ' — enumeration

of passages, xlviii. See Appendix

B, 423.
Khamar — meaning of, xxviii. See Ap-

pendix B, 414-6.
Rhetner — how applied to the juice of the

grape, xx, xxviii. See Appendix B,

416.
Khometz, 'vinegar,' xxviii. See Appen-

dix B, 421.

Kimchi, Rabbi — on Hab. ii. 15, p. 240.
Kindness — enjoined by the law of Moses,

58, 59. Injuriously exhibited by gifts

of strong drink, 275.
Kings — whether those of Egypt used

intoxicating liquor, 19. Indulgence in

INUICX.

459

strong drink by, 88, 214, 270. Xot
lit for them to drink wine, 142.

Kitto's 'Cyclopaedia of Biblical Litera-
ture'— referred to, xxxi (foot-note).

Kitto's ' 1'ictonal Bible ' — on the mean-
ing of tirns/t, xxviii. On Melchizedek
presenting bread and wine, 12.

Knowledge— to be supplemented by
temperance, 388.

Kohl, J. G. — his notice of wormwood
wine, 203.

Kvmoi ' (revellings) —their prevalence and
apostolic condemnation. 349, 385.

Koumiss — sour mare's milk, xxviii.

Kuraji (Koran)— quoted, 390.

Lactantius — his citation from the Sibyl

line Oracle, 233.
Lallemand, Perrin, and Duroy— on the

demarcation between alcohol and food,

xliv.
Lantet (The) —report on the nutritious

value of wines, 370.
Laurie, Dr — fallacies of, 445.
Lavater— use of vinegar in Italy, 77.
Law, Rev. W., M.A.— on the miracle

at Cana, 306. The Saviour's design

in its performance not physical, but

spiritual, 308.
Law-book of the Ante-Xicene Church —

extract from, against the visiting of

taverns by the clergy, 367.
Lawful — actions cannot be such when

not 'expedient'; St Paul's principle

explained, 330.
I.aycock, Professor -on the formation

of drinking habits, 262 (foot-note),
leaven — reason of its prohibition at the

passover and in various sacrifk

34. Symlxjlic use of it in the New
iment, 269, 271-2, 328. See

' Ferment,' and Appendix B, under

j«vr, kkainatZi and ziimst, 421, 427.
Lebanon, wines of, 224.
Lee, Professor Dr S. — on the errors

of lexicographers, xviii, xxxiv. On

bhaklili, 23, 24.
Lees, Dr— on the diminished mortality

of abstainers, xliv.
Legend— of the vines that will grow in

the millenium, 27. - -Jewish

Legends.'

Li-cnos, xx '29.

Lemuel — his name, etc., 14*.
Lesbos — 'innocent wine 'of, 166, 374.
•j.r — on the education of the jews,

xlviii.

Levy, Or M. — on the effect of alcohol
the nervous system, xliv.

!I. — his characterization of

alcohol, 262 (foot-note).

Lewis, Professor Tayler, preface, xi.
Liberality— enjoined on the

55-

liberty— false views of, 326. Not to
hinder offices of good will, 33 J
be regulated by lo\ - >t in-

tended to justify any use of things
irrespective of their qualities and ten-
dencies, 357.

Liddell and Scott's Lexicon— definition
of pkalaginata, 242 ; of ntcpho, 362.

Liebig, Baron von — on the turbidi

vegetable juices before fermentation,
oot-note). On the arrest of vege-
t:il)le decay by heating up to boiling-
]> >int, xxvii. On preventing the
fermentation of wine, xli. The mis-
chief of introducing imagination into
scientific researches, xlii. Vital pro-
's not a cause of fermentation, xliii.
On fermentation, 137. On the waste
of power by wine, 262.

Lightfoot, Dr — on the quantity of wine
used by each person at the pa
241. On I Cor. xi. 21, p. 341.

Liquor traffic — a means of preying on
cty, Il8.

i. 'Lord (Buhvei )— his • Last of the
i '..irons' quoted, xxxvi.

vity — a reward of temperance,

' London Encyclopaedia ' — on Rhenish

must, xli.
Longinus — his explanation of Plato's

' sober deity,' 363. 1 1 is use of neepko,

Lord's Supper — account of, by S'

thew, 275-6; by Mark, 290; by St
Luke, 300; by St Paul, 343. Con-
nected account of, -!>>j-4. Whether
instituted in fermented or unferr.
wine, 277-283. for its cele-

bration in non-into\icating wine at the
present day, 285-6. Ancient custom
of using wine and water in, 276.
cs in the Corinthian church's
Tation of, 338-342.

Lot —his entertainment of angel

His drunkenni from

his history, 13.

— better than wine, 150, 152.
Should prompt to earnest support of
the Tern; -'1-326, 348.

Love-feasts— their origin an«i
the primitive church, 338-340.

Lowth, Bishop— on !

grape-juice by t:. 1 8. On

jwv ;.

Lucke— on the crisis of the miracle at
• 302.

Lucian— his refoi essive

use of gidtkos,

460

INDEX.

Luenoman, Dr — on mustum and wein,

xxxvii.

Lyttleton —definition of mustnm, xl.
Lussac, Guy — his explanation of the non-

fermentation of grape-juice in grapes,

autxix.

i Maccabees vi. 34 — quoted, 181.
McCaul, Dr — his interpretation of suc-

cah, xxi; of bechor and khag, xxii.

On khamushim, xlvi (foot-note).
MacGregor — on the use of sweet wine,

311'
Maimonides — his gloss on the Nazarite's

vow, 41.
Maltby's Lexicon — definition of neepho,

362.

Manahenx, the Essene, 254.
Manasseh ben Israel, Rabbi — on the

absence of ferment from the passover,

282.
Mangey, Dr — his edition of Philo's

works, 210.
Manichseans — their opinion of wine,

xlvi. Referred to by Calvin, 54. Er-

roneously accused of inconsistency by

St Augustine, 308. Differed from

modern abstainers, 307-8.
Mann, Dr — on the craving for alcoholic

liquors, 212 (foot-note).
Mansel, Professor — quoted, on the su-

periority of evidence over authority,

>vii.

Martial — on Falernian wine, 157.
Mary the mother of Jesus — her language

at the marriage of Cana, 301-2.
Mary Magdalene — confounded with ' the

woman who was a sinner,' 307.
Masorites— when they lived and what

they did, and the distinction made by

them between shakar and sahkar, 145

(foot-note). Their correction of 'Sa-

beans,' 207.

Meal — three measures of, 269.
Medhurst, Rev. W. H. — on the meaning

of yayin, xxxiv (foot-note).
Melchizedek — his offering of bread and

wine to Abraham, II.
Meltzar — his enlightened spirit worthy

of modern imitation, 213.
Menander — supposed quotation from, by

St Paul, 344.
Mercenary spirit — shown in the liquor

traffic, 316, 375.
Methuo and methusko — explanation of,

9, 10, 274, 298, 303, 329, 340, 349,
dix B,

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Full text of "The temperance Bible-commentary: giving at one view, version, criticism, and exposition, in regard to all passages of Holy Writ bearing on 'wine' and 'strong drink,'"

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