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lume XXXII, No. 1
March, 1980
PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY
SECTION I
MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
Mathematics, Statistics,
Operations Research
AFFILIATED ORGANIZATIONS
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TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Editor: G. ROLAND VELA, PhD.
Managing Editor: MICHAEL J. CARLO, PhD.
The Journal is a quarterly publication of The Texas Academy of Science and is sent to
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Manuscripts submitted for publication in the Journal should be sent to the Manuscript
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Volume XXXII, No. 1
March, 1980
CONTENTS
Instructions to Authors . . . . 2
Note from the Editor . . . 5
Algebraic Structure of Polars. By Ali R. Amir-Moez and Mohammed Goodarzi ...... 9
Tabosa- Delaware Basin as an Aulacogen. By D. H. Shurbet and S. E. Cebull . . 17
Woody Vegetation of Upland Plant Communities in the Southern Edwards Plateau.
By O. W. Auken, A. L. Ford, A. Stein, and A. G. Stein . 23
The Upper Incisors of the Giant Horse, Asinus giganteus. By Walter W. Dalquest . 37
A Cytological and Histochemical Analysis of the Ovarian Follicle Cells of the South
Texas Squid ( Loligo pealei). By Samuel A. Ramirez and Manuel Guajardo . 43
A Survey of Selected Plants for the Presence of Eukaryotic Protein Biosynthesis
Inhibitors . By Robyn Reynolds and James D. Irvin . . . 55
Reconnaissance Observations of Some Factors Influencing the Turbidity Structure of
a Restricted Estuary: Corpus Christi Bay, Texas. By Gerald L. Shideler . 59
Heavy-Mineral Variability in Fluvial Sediments of the Lower Rio Grande, Southwestern
Texas. By Gerald L. Shideler and Romeo M. Flores . . 73
NOTES SECTION
2-Alkyl-3-(2-Pyridyl)-Cinchoninic Acids. By Eldon H. Sund, Robert E. Cashon,
and Rodney L. Taylor . . 93
Central Texas Breeding of the American Woodcock, Philohela minor. By Doyle T.
Mosier and Robert F. Martin . . . . . 94
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
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NOTE FROM THE EDITOR:
The Texas Journal of Science, in its effort to provide objective and impartial review
of all papers considered for publication, has pioneered the method of anonymity for
both author and reviewer. This has worked wonderfully well and is now established as
the standard operating procedure of the Journal. In maintaining the principle of double
anonymity, the Editor has sought to protect the identity of those reviewers who choose
to remain unidentified and will honor this commitment. As a result of this ‘secrecy’
there is a strong, and very reasonable, concern regarding the reviewers and the review
process. The explanation that follows should answer many questions; if not, please
contact me at your convenience.
Papers are treated as follows:
1. Manuscript (ms.) received at Journal Office
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3. Ms. sent to reviewers
4. Ms. accepted or returned to author
5. Ms. resubmitted by author
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7. Ms. accepted or rejected
The lists that follow show the addresses of reviewers used in 1978 and 1979. It is
hoped that they reveal something of the professional stature and quality of the reviewers
responsible for the contents of the Texas Journal of Science.
G. Roland Vela, Ph.D.
Manuscript Editor
REVIEWERS 1978
Texas: 76 Reviews
7239 Bridle Path
San Antonio, TX 78240 1
840 Mulberry St.
San Antonio, TX 78212 1
2319 Fowler
Denton, TX 76201 1
P.O. Box 13048
Denton, TX 76201 1
M.D. Anderson Hospital & Tumor Inst.
Houston, TX 77030 1
National Marine Fisheries Service
Galveston, TX 77550 1
Other: 49 Reviews
Sea-Arama Marine World
Galveston, TX 77552 1
Texas Archaeological Salvage Project
Austin, TX 78758 1
Abilene Christian University
Abilene, TX 79601 1
Angelo State University
San Angelo, TX 76901 1
Baylor University
Waco, TX 76703 2
Mary Hardin Baylor
Belton, TX 76513 1
6
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
NTSU
Denton, TX 76203 7
Rice University
Houston, TX 77001 2
SMU
Dallas, TX 75275 1
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos, TX 78666 2
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, TX 75961 1
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843 7
Texas A&M Marine Lab
Galveston, TX 77550 1
Texas A&M Research & Extension
Walde, TX 78801 1
Texas Christian University
Ft. Worth, TX 76129 2
Texas Southern University
Houston, TX 77004 1
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409 4
TWU
Denton, TX 76204 2
University of Houston
Houston, TX 77004 6
UTA
Arlington, TX 76019 5
University of Texas
Austin, TX 78712 13
University of Texas Marine Lab
Port Aransas, TX 78373 1
University of Texas Medical School
Houston, TX 77030 1
University of Texas
El Paso, TX 79968 1
University of Texas
San Antonio, TX 78285 2
West Texas State University
Canyon, TX 79016 3
Argonne National Lab
Argonne, IL 60439 1
Bureau of Sports, Fisheries & Wildlife
Fayetteville, AR 72701 2
Consulting Biologist
LaFayette, LA 79598 1
Eason Oil Co.
Oklahoma City, OK 73118 111
Fish & Wildlife
Alberto, Canada 1
Institute of Food & Agric. Science
Gainesville, FL 32611 1
National Marine Fisheries Service
Miami, FL 33149 1
U.S. Nat’l Museum of Nat’l History
Washington, D.C. 20013 1
Arizona State
Tempe, AZ 85281 2'
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT 84602 1
Duke University
Durham, NC 27702 1
Michigan State University
E. Lansing, MI 48824 1
NYU
New York, NY 10003 1
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210 1
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74074 2
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331 1
Purdue University
LaFayette, IN 47907 1
Southwest Oklahoma State Univ.
Weatherford, OK 73096 1
Tulane University
New Orleans, LA 70118 1
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C. Canada V6T 1W5 1
reviewers
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720 2
University of California
Davis, CA 95616 1
University of Charleston
Charleston, SC 29401 1
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602 1
University of Louisville
Water Resources Lab.
Louisville, KY 40208 1
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109 1
University of Natal
Piefermaritzhug, South Africa 1
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27514 1
The University of Oklahoma
Norman, OK 73069 2
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, R I 02881 1
Univ. of Science & Arts of Oklahoma
Chickasha, OK 73018 1
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90007 1
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL 33620 1
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506 1
REVIEWERS 1979
Texas: 49 Reviews
Other: 23 Reviews
7223 Lavendale Circle
Dallas, TX 75230
1
Texas A&I University
Kingsville, TX 78363
1
Shuler Museum of Paleontology
SMU, Dallas, TX 75275
1
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
3
Southwest Foundation for Res. & Ed.
San Antonio, TX 78228
1
Texas Christian University
Ft. Worth, TX 76129
3
Univ. of Texas Health Science Center
San Antonio, TX 78284
1
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409
1
Texas Parks & Wildlife Department
Austin, TX 78701
1
TWU
Denton, TX 76204
1
Univ. of Texas Marine Science Inst.
Galveston, TX 77550
1
University of Dallas
Irving, TX 75061
1
North Texas State University
Denton, TX 76203
5
University of Texas
Arlington, TX 76019
2
Pan American University
Edinburg, TX 785 39
1
University of Texas
Austin, TX 78712
8
SMU
Dallas, TX 75275
3
University of Texas
Dallas, TX 75221
1
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos, TX 78666
3
University of Texas
El Paso, TX 79968
4
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, TX 75962
3
West Texas State University
Canyon, TX 79016
2
8
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
University of Texas Medical School
Houston, TX 77030 1
Clemson University
Clemson, SC 29631 1
Lamar University
Beaumont, TX 77701 1
Montclair State College
Upper Montclair, NJ 07043 1
Northwestern University
Evanston, IL 60201 1
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74074 1
State University of New York
Albany, NY 12222 1
S.W. Oklahoma State University
Weatherford, OK 73096 1
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR 72701 1
University of Connecticut
Storrs, CT 06268 2
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602 1
University of Idaho
Moscow, ID 83843 1
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455 1
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27514 1
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90007 1
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, UT 84112 1
Georgia Inst, of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332 1
Indiana University Medical School
Indianapolis, IN 46202 1
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506 1
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Laurel, MD 20811 1
U.S. Geological Survey
Denver, CO 80225 2
U.S. Fish Wildlife Service
Tulane University Museum Nat’l History
Belle Chase, LA 70037
1
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE OF POLARS
by ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ
Department of Mathematics
Texas Tech University
Lubbock 79409
and MOHAMMED GOODARZI
Departmen t o f Math ematics
University of Teheran
Teheran, Iran
Reviewed by: Dr. E. D. McCune, Dept, of Math. & Stat., Stephen F. Austin State University,
Nacogdoches 75962
ABSTRACT
The idea of pole and polar with respect to a conic is generalized to the polars of a point
with respect to a polynomial hypersurface in a Euclidean k-dimensional space. Then mappings
which transform these polars to each other are studied.
INTRODUCTION
In a Euclidean plane the concept of the polar of a point with respect to a
conic is the study of a function whose domain is the set of points and its range is
the set of lines in the plane. To obtain the polar of a point with respect to a conic,
one employs ideas such as the harmonic mean of 2 real numbers, symmetric
functions of roots of polynomials, and Taylor series. Thus one simplifies tedious
substitutions and algebraic simplifications by applying these ideas.
In this article we start with simple cases and then we give some generalizations.
Finally we study an algebraic structure of the polars.
A SPECIAL CASE
Consider the conic
P(x,y) = ax2 + 2bxy + cy2 + 2px + 2qy + d = 0 (1)
Accepted for publication: January 16, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
10
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
and the line through (x0, y0), i.e.,
x = x0 + tC
y = y0 + tm.
The points of intersection of the line and the conic are obtained from
ax? + 2bx0y0 + cy % + 2px0 + 2qy0 + d
+ 2[(ax0 + by0) C + (bx0 +cy0)m]t
+ [aC2 + 2b Cm + cm2] t2 = 0
which is obtained by substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1).
We observe that Eq. (3) is of the form
(2)
(3)
1 / 32P
2! Idxo8 + 23x09y0
32P „ 32P
8m + I t2 = 0,
(4)
3pk dpk
where — ^ means — ^ (x0,y0), k=l,2.
To explain this fact and exploit it for generalizations we consider the Taylor
Expansion of P(x, y) about (x0 , y0) which is
p(x,y) = p(x0, y0) + +a^(y-yo)
2!
32P
32P
3xf(X-X°>2 + 2 3x03y0
32P
(x-x0)(y-y0) + g^r(y-y0)2
= 0,
and we write Eq. (2) as
x - x0 “ tC
y - y0 = tm.
This substitution will explain Eq. (4).
POLARS
11
POLAR OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO A CONIC
Consider the point (x0, y0) and the conic (1). Let a line through M inter¬
sect the conic in 2 points A and B (Fig. 1). It is clear that A and B correspond to
the roots tj and t2 of Eq. (3). Let H correspond to the hormonic mean of tt and
t2 , i.e., the value of t which satisfies
Then the locus of H as the line changes is called the polar of M with respect to
the conic. One observes that
t _ ~2t ! t2
ti + t2
Since t2 and t2 are roots of Eq. (4) substituting for the sum and product of roots,
we obtain
t =
2P(x0 , y0)
ap n ap
r — Z + - — m
ax0 ay0
Figure 1.
12
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Thus a set of parametric equations for the polar is:
x - x0 = -£
y - y0 = -m
Here the parameters are elements of the ordered pair (£, m), the set of direction
numbers of the line. Thus one may let (£, m) vary in such a way that
3p dp
t — £ + - — m
ox0 oy0
2P(x0,yo)
3p o, »P
a — £ + r — m
dx0 3y0
-1
Therefore the parameters may be eliminated, and we get
a~(x-x0) + ^ (y-yo) = -2P(x0,yo).
Consequently the polar of M is a straight line. A more elementary treatment is
found in Elements of Linear Spaces (Amir-Moez and Fass, 1962).
One observes that when (x0, y0) approaches a point on the curve the polar
tends to the tangent line at (x0, y0).
NOTATIONS
In order to generalize the ideas of Eqs. (1) and (2) we would like to make use
of simpler notations. Let V be a Euclidean space of dimension k. Vectors will be
denoted by Greek letters, for example, £ e V means J^-(x1 , . . ., xk).Thusa poly¬
nomial of degree n in k variables xx , . . ., xk can be denoted by pn(|) or simply P(£)
whenever there is no confusion. When we write
3Pk
dx}
we mean
3pk
3x^
(hi,
..,hk).
DEFINITIONS
Let (tx , . . ., tn} be a set of non-zero real numbers. Then we give these definitions:
POLARS
13
(i) The 1st harmonic mean of this set, u = Uj , satisfies
U1 j=l tj
(ii) The 2nd harmonic mean of this set, u2 satisfies
u2 t 1 ^2 t 1 t3 tn_i tn
= 2
ji < h
where jl5 j2 = 1,2,.. .,n.
In general the m-th harmonic mean of the set, i.e. um, satisfies
J l < • • • <Jm Ji
t* • . . . • t;
, m = 1
'rn
n,
where jj,j2 = 1,2, . . .,n.
INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A POLYNOMIAL HYPERSURFACE
A set of parametric equations of a straight line in a Euclidean k -dimensional
space can be written in a vector form:
£ = r + t«,
where . . ., x^), f**(h1? . . ., h^) which is a fixed vector, and 5^(d1? . . .,dk)
which is a direction vector. The points of intersection of this line and the poly¬
nomial hypersurface P(£) = 0 is obtained very much the same way as in Eq. (1).
For simplicity, again we make use of Taylor Expansion of P(£) and use £ - f = t5.
Thus we get a polynomial equation of degree n in t, i.e.,
Antn + An_jtn 1 + . . . + A0 = 0,
(5)
where
3hj
. . +
4
0)
(P), j = 0, 1, . . n.
The symbolic power is a well-known notation. For example.
14
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
,(2)
ah,
3h,
(P) = df
a2p
3h?
+ 2di d:
a2p
ahidhj
a2p
ah?
THE SET OF POLARS
Let f ^(hj , . . h^) represent a fixed point M in the Euclidean k-dimensional
space V. Let the line £ = £ + t5 through this point intersect the hypersurface
P(£) = 0 in n points M i , . . Mn. These points correspond to tls . . tn, the roots
of Eq. (5). Let N correspond to the vector £ and um, the m-th harmonic mean
of h , . . tn. Then the locus of N is called the m-th polar of M with respect to
P(£) = 0. One makes use of symmetric function of the roots of Eq. (5) and for
the m-th harmonic mean one obtains
urn A0
We only consider cases for which Am ^ 0, m = 1,. ..,n. Special cases should be
discussed and incorporated in.
Thus the m-th polar of with respect to P(£) = 0, in vector form, will be
? = f + (6)
Here 5, the direction vector, is a parameter. One may see that Eq. (6) is equivalent
to a set of k equations
xj = hj + (-l)m T^-dj, j = 1 , . . k.
rim
Since 5 is a direction vector one may choose it to vary such that
i.
Therefore, eliminating the parameter in Eq. (6), we obtain
3 3
(x'-hl)ah7 + -+ (Xk-hk)ah^
(m)
(P) + (-l)m + 1 (m!)Pft) = 0
This is a hypersurface with the equation Q(£) = 0, where Q(£) is a polynomial of
degree m.
POLARS
15
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE OF POLARS
Let the set of polars f with respect to P(£) = 0 be S = {Si , . . ., Sn}, where,
for example, Sm is the m-th polar. As was pointed out in Eq. (6) the m-th polar
Sm was obtained by the use of
um
(-ir
n
(7)
the m-th harmonic mean of the roots of Eq. (5), where we had taken the case
Am ¥= 0, m = 0, 1 , . . ., n. We now consider the set T = (ux , . . ., un). Indeed,
there is a one-to-one correspondence between S and T by um**Sm. We can define
one can
a mapping on T, i.e., up->uq by multiplying up by (-l)p q Thus
Ap
define a mapping on the Euclidean k-dimensional space V such that the p-th
polar would be transformed to the q-th polar. We shall call this mapping Apq.
One observes that
ApqAqr Apr.
The set of mappings has all properties of a group except closure.
QUESTIONS
Since the Taylor Series of P(£) has been very useful, one might wish to inves¬
tigate generalizations of pole and polar with respect to an analytic function of k
real variables.
A very interesting question is: “How can one complete the set of mappings
in Eq. (7) in order to have a group?”
If the point (fq , . . ., hk)<*f approaches P(J) = 0, then the set of polars will
become tangent to the hypersurface. The study of this case should be interesting.
One can maneuver around the cases in which some Am is 0. This is left to the
reader.
The field of real numbers may be replaced by other fields. The investigation
of this is also left to the reader.
LITERATURE CITED
Amir-Moez, A. R., A. L. Fass, 1962 -Elements of Linear Spaces. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
TABOSA-DELAWARE BASIN AS AN AULACOGEN
by D. H. SHURBET and S. E. CEBULL
Department of Geosciences
Texas Tech University
Lubbock 70409
ABSTRACT
The Tabosa-Delaware basin region is located near the rifted boundary of a postulated
late Precambrian-early Paleozoic supercontinent, and cross sections of the region show
structure and tectonic timing similar to that of the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen. Hence,
the Tabosa-Delaware basin succession may be demonstrative of stages of aulacogen develop¬
ment. We suggest that these basins represent the failed arm of a 3-prong fracture pattern,
that the 2 formerly active arms also may have left their signature, and that the Tabosa-Delaware
basin evolution is tied to that of the Gulf of Mexico.
INTRODUCTION
Older, as well as some recent, geologic literature (for example, Wilhelm and
Ewing, 1972) treat the Gulf of Mexico as a feature whose origin and essential
development is of Mesozoic age. Inherently, this view failed to suggest any rela¬
tionship between the origin of the Gulf and the proximal oil-bearing Paleozoic
basins, such as the Tabosa-Delaware succession of basins in West Texas (Fig. 1).
However, if the Gulf of Mexico (or at least the Proto-Gulf) has its origin in the
late Precambrian-early Paleozoic breakup of a supercontinent (Pangaea I), as
we and others have suggested (for example, Valentine and Moores, 1972; Keller
and Cebull, 1973; Shurbet and Cebull, 1975), the Tabosa-Delaware basin is a
Gulf-marginal feature located adjacent to the Paleozoic plate boundary. The
position of the basin with respect to the boundary is similar to that of an aulacogen ,
and that it might be an aulacogen is hinted by Fig. 1 of Hoffman, et al., (1974)
and indicated by Walper (1977). Such a proposal is supported, at least circum¬
stantially, by comparison of independently developed evolutionary cross sections
of the Tabosa-Delaware basin region presented by Horak (1975) with those of
the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen (Anadarko-Oklahoma basin region) as out¬
lined by Hoffman, et al , (1974), which utilizes data by Ham (1969). This com¬
parison, shown in Fig. 2, illustrates the general similarity of structure and timing
of tectonic events in the 2 regions. Clearly, more study of the early development
of the Tabosa-Delaware region is required before its possible aulacogenic affinity
is proclaimed with assurance. For example, the early graben stage of aulacogen
Accepted for publication: June 14, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
18
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
of the Tabosa-Delaware Basin in relation to the Marathon-Ouachita-Appalachian
orogenic belt and the early Paleozoic continental margin (dotted line; King,
1975, Thomas, 1977). The Southern Oklahoma and Reelfoot Aulacogens,
which developed along this margin, also are shown.
LATE CAMBRIAN - EARLY DEVONIAN
TABOSA BASIN
LATE DEVONIAN
LATE DEVONIAN - MISSISSIPPI
DELAWARE BASIN
EARLY PENNSYLVANIAN
\* \
DELAWARE BASIN
Figure 2. Series of schematic cross sections across the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen
(left; from Hoffman, et al. , 1974, utilizing data by Ham, 1969) and the Tabosa-
Delaware basin region (right; Horak, 1975). Depiction of the early “graben
stage” (late Proterozoic-Middle Cambrian) of aulacogen development is omitted
from the succession of cross sections of Hoffman and others; Horak ’s cross
sections are shortened slightly.
development (not illustrated in Fig. 2), which in the southern Oklahoma Aulacogen
is characterized by extrusive and intrusive igneous activity and fault control of the
sedimentary succession, is not documented in the Tabosa-Delaware region.
Nonetheless, the similarities illustrated in Fig. 2 are impressive.
TABOSA-DELAWARE BASIN AS AN AULACOGEN
19
I
Figure 3. Schematic view of (A) possible 3-pronged supercontinent breakup pattern
in region of the Tabosa and Delaware basins (late Precambrian - early Paleozoic)
and (B) Paleozoic margin configuration and crustal-type distribution after
breakup (approximately early-middle Paleozoic) but prior to “compressional
phase” (late Paleozoic).
20
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Our concept of probable plate-boundary configurations at the time of Pangaea
I breakup (Cebull, et al, 1974; Shurbet and Cebull, 1975) is depicted in Fig. 3.
It differs from that of Walper (1977) in a way that necessitates oceanic crust in
the area southeast of the Marathon Mountains, unless continent-continent col¬
lision occurred as the hypothetical Proto-Gulf was closed. In the event of late
Paleozoic -early Mesozoic continent-continent collision, present crustal structure
southeast of the Marathon Mountains could be essentially continental. However,
recent studies by Pinkerton (1978) suggest that crustal structure in this region is
similar to the “filled -ocean” type that characterizes much of the region south of
Ouachita system in Texas. Based on Rayleigh Wave dispersion, he derived amodel
that shows a crustal thickness of 29.6 km. This thickness comprises 19.6 km of
Paleozoic through Cenozoic sedimentary (or metasedimentary) rocks that rest
on 10 km of “basaltic” material.
If supercontinent breakup in the Tab osa -Delaware basin region began by mantle
upwelling and the consequent development of a 3-arm fracture pattern (Fig. 3A),
the position of the active arms may be suggested by the general trend of the
Marathon Mountains and the offset between the Marathon Mountains and the
buried Ouachita system to the southeast (Fig. 3B). The latter has been interpreted
as a possible transform offset (Cebull, et al, 1974, 1976; King, 1975; Thomas,
1976, 1977). In the 3-arm scheme, the Tab osa -Delaware basin represents only
the failed arm, an arm that projects into the continental craton from the ancient
ocean-continent boundary. Our assessment of the approximate former position
of the boundary (for example, Cebull, et al., 1974) is supported generally by
more recent studies of a somewhat different type (Thomas, 1977). The orientation
of the failed arm may be similar to that of a failed arm proposed by Garrison
and Ramirez-Ramirez (1978) for the region of the Llano Uplift of Texas.
If the Tabosa-Delaware Basin is a product ofaulacogen development, a premise
yet to be proven, it is tempting to suggest that the other 2 arms of the tripartite
are responsible, at least indirectly, for the ultimate location and orientation of
the Marfa basin, which fronts the Marathon Mountains, and the Val Verde basin,
which approximately parallels the Marathon-Ouachita offset. In any case, tectonic
speculations concerning this interesting and economically important region must
take fully into account present distributions of apparent crustal types. We believe
our suggestions here, utilizing a “classical” but no doubt greatly simplified 3 -arm
breakup pattern, satisfies this distribution. Furthermore, our view inextricably
ties the development of the Tabosa and Delaware basins, as well as some other
Paleozoic basins, to that of the Gulf (or Proto-Gulf) of Mexico.
LITERATURE CITED
Cebull, S. E., G. R. Keller, D. H. Shurbet, and L. R. Russell, 1974-Transform faults as ex¬
planation for offsets in southern Appalachian-Ouachita tectonic belt (abst.). Geol. Soc.
Am. Abst. with Prog., 6:341.
TABOSA-DELAWARE BASIN AS AN AULACOGEN
21
- , - , - , and - , 1976-Possible role of transform faults in
the development of apparent offsets in the Ouachita-southern Applachian tectonic belt.
J. Geol., 84:107.
Garrison, J. R., Jr., and Ramirez-Ramirez , 1978-The Llano Uplift, Central Texas. Evidence
for a Precambrian triple spreading system (abst.). Geol Soc. Am. Abst. with Prog., 10:106.
Ham, W. E., 1969 -Regional geology of the Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma. Oklahoma Geol.
Survey Guidebook 17, 52 p.
Hoffman, P., J. F. Dewey, and K. Burke, 1974-Aulacogens and their genetic relation to
geosynclines, with a Proterozoic example from Great Slave Lake, Canada. In R. H. Dott
and R. H. Shaver (Eds.), Modem and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation. S.E.P.M.
Spec. Pub. No. 19, p. 38-55.
Horak, R. L., 1975 -Tectonic relationship of the Permian Basin to the Basin and Range
Province. Exploration from the Mountains to the Basin. El Paso Geol. Soc. Guidebook,
p. 61-94.
Keller, G. R., and S. E. Cebull, 1973-Plate tectonics and the Ouachita system in Texas,
Oklahoma, and Arkansas. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84:1659.
King, P. B., 1975 -Ancient southern margin of North America. Geol., 3:732.
Pinkerton, R. P., 197 8 -Rayleigh wave model of crustal structure of northeastern Mexico.
M.S. Thesis, Texas Tech Univ., 52 p.
Shurbet, D. H., and S. E. Cebull, 1975 -The age of the crust beneath the Gulf of Mexico.
Tectono physics, 28 :T25 .
Thomas, W. A., 197 6 -Evolution of Ouachita-Appalachian continental margin. J. Geol.,
84:323.
- - , 1977, Evolution of Appalachian-Ouachita salients and recesses from reentrants
and promontories in the continental margin. Am. J. Sci., 277:1233.
Valentine, J. W., and E. M. Moores, 1972-Global tectonics and the fossil record. J. Geol.,
80:167.
Walper, J. L., 1977 -Paleozoic tectonics of the southern margin of North America. Trans.
Gulf Coast Assn. , Geol. Socs. Mtg., Austin, p. 230-241.
Wilhelm, O., and Ewing, M., 1972, Geology and history of the gulf of Mexico. Geol Soc.
Am. Bull, 83:575.
WOODY VEGETATION OF UPLAND PLANT COMMUNITIES IN
THE SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
by O. W. AUKEN, A. L. FORD, A. STEIN1 , and A. G. STEIN1
Division of Allied Health and Life Sciences
The University of Texas at San Antonio
San Antonio 78285
Reviewed by: Dr. K. L. Carvell, Coll, of Agriculture & Forestry, W.V. Univ., Morgantown 26506
ABSTRACT
The woody vegetation of the cedar brakes of the southeastern Edwards Plateau, Texas
was examined using the point-centered-quarter method to determine major community
relationships. Density, dominance, frequency, and importance values of trees and shrubs
were determined. Two geologically different areas were studied including outcroppings of
both the Edwards and Glen Rose Limestone Formations. Similarity indices based on major
community parameters were calculated and suggest the 2 upland areas are very much alike
in regard to community structure and composition. In all, 24 woody species were identified;
29% were found exclusively on the Edwards Formation, 42% were common to both areas,
and 29% were exclusively on the Glen Rose Limestone. The dominants on both formations,
based on average importance values, were Juniperus ashei (52%), Quercus fusiformis (15%),
and Diospyros texana (11%). The number of species, total density, as well as total dominance
were not statistically different on the 2 formations.
INTRODUCTION
The Edwards Plateau area of west-central Texas covers about 1 X 107 ha of
rough, well-drained land. The southern and eastern boundaries are marked by an
area of faulting known as the Balconies Escarpment. On the north, the Edwards
Plateau blends gradually into both the Rolling Plains and the High Plains and on
the west, into the Trans-Pecos region (Gould, 1969).
A rainfall gradient exists across the Plateau ranging from approximately 38
cm/yr in the west to about 84 cm/yr in the east. Thornthwaite (1948) classified
the western half as semiarid and the eastern half as dry subhumid; however, he
considered the entire area mesothermal. Mean annual temperature for the entire
Present Address: Department of Education, The University of Texas at Austin 78712.
Accepted for publication: June 22, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
24
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Edwards Plateau is approximately 20 C (Arbingast, et al, 1976). Soils are usually
shallow and throughout most of the region are underlain by limestone or caliche
(Gould, 1969).
The cedar brakes region of the Edwards Plateau has been referenced by many
early travelers in Texas, however, ecologically it has been studied very little.
Roemer (1849), while traveling from New Braunfels to San Antonio through the
blackland prairies along the eastern edge of the Edwards Plateau, wrote of the
great fertility of the prairies as well as the cedar covered hillsides. DeCordova
(1858) also wrote about beautiful prairies occurring between Austin and San
Antonio. To the west of these prairies DeCordova (1858) described a chain of
hills covered with a dense growth of mountain cedar and liveoak.
More recently, several investigators have studied the flora of the Edwards
Hill Country. Although their concern was primarily with the geology of the region,
Hill and Vaughan (1898) referred to the oaks, juniper, agarita, and yucca that
occurred on the limestone slopes. Bray (1904a,b; 1906) discussed many of the
timber species both in the bottomlands and in the upland areas. He (Bray 1904a, b;
1906) described dense thickets of both shin oak and Texas red oak in the upland
sites, and made special mention of cedar breaks which are thick growths of
juniper on the crumbly limestone hillsides. Metz (1934) discussed some of the
early studies of Texas vegetation and included keys for species in Bexar County.
A correlation between geologic strata and vegetational dominants was described
by Tharp (1939). He (Tharp 1939) noted Texas red oak on the Walnut Springs
Limestone; open stands of cedar on the Glen Rose; live oak and cedar on the
Edwards; pecan, bur oak, elm, hackberry, and live oak along stream courses; and
mesquite on many high stream terraces. Gould (1969) reported typically a grass
understory with the overstory made up of live oak, shinnery oaks, junipers, and
mesquites. Correll and Johnston (1970) refer to dense growths of Juniperus ashei,
scrub oaks, and mesquite occurring on areas of the Edwards Plateau.
Van Auken, et al, (1979) studied the woody plant communities of the Buda
Formation in the southeastern part of the Edwards and the streamside vegetation
occurring along the intermittent streams in this same area. Van Auken, et al,
(1979) found dominants in the upland areas to be Mexican juniper, live oak, and
Texas persimmon. Dominants in the creekbottoms included the above 3 species
as well as cedar elm and sycamore. Buechner (1944) studied the vegetation of
the midsection of the Edwards Plateau (Kerr Co.) which included some of the
thick cedar areas or the cedar brakes.
While all of the above works are very useful in describing the flora of the Edwards
Plateau, only the work of Buechner (1944) and Van Auken, et al, (1979)
attempt a quantitative ecological description. The purpose of this paper is to
further quantitatively describe the upland woody plant communities occurring
in the Texas Hill Country or the Cedar Brakes Region of the Edwards Plateau.
Phytosociological comparisons are made of the major woody plant species existing
on 2 geologically distinct strata that occur in the southern part of the Edwards
Plateau.
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
25
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted in the extreme southeastern portion of the Edwards
Plateau very near the Balconies Escarpment. The woody vegetation of 18 forest
stands in northwest Bexar County, northeast Medina County, and southeast
Bandera County, Texas was studied. Fig. 1 shows the locations of the stands
sampled with the inset showing their location in relation to the Edwards Plateau
and the State of Texas. After a general visual survey, 12 sites located on the
Edwards Formation and 6 on the Glen Rose Formation were selected.
Figure 1. Location of study sites in Bexar, Bandera, and Medina Counties, Texas. Stands
1-12 are on the Edwards Limestone and Stands 13-18 are on the Glen Rose
Limestone. Inset shows the State of Texas, the Edwards Plateau (stipled) and
Bexar County (black).
Various geological maps as well as site inspection were used to determine if
the stands were located on the Edwards Formation or on the Glen Rose For¬
mation (Sellards, et al., 1932; Sellards and Baker, 1934; Barnes, 1974).
The Glen Rose typically consists of thin to medium bedded hard continuous
limestone and dolomite strata alternating with marl or marly limestone. Hillsides
in this formation weather into a terraced or staircase topography. The Edwards
consists of layers of hard white rudistid limestone, usually crystalline, medium
to massive bedded and containing considerable amounts of calcareous shell de¬
tritus (Sellards, et al, 1932).
All sites were mature stands without visible signs of fire or cutting, however,
some of the stands were recently grazed by cattle and all stands had a prehistory
26
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
of grazing. Stands numbered 1-12 were on the Edwards Formation and Stands
13-18 were on the Glen Rose Formation (Fig. 1).
The point-centered-quarter method (Cottam and Curtis, 1956) was used to
collect quantitative phytosociological data. Transect starting points were ap¬
proximately 50 m inside the stands. A chain was laid out along a predetermined
line through the stand and points were sampled 10 m apart along the chain. At
each point the transect line was divided into 4 equal quarters by placing a rod
across the chain perpendicular to it. For each quarter, the plant closest to the
center point with a circumference of at least 3.0 cm at a point between 0 and 15
cm above ground level was selected. Since many of the woody plants in the
Edwards are shrubby and have multiple stems, making measurements at or near
ground level alleviates most problems relating to a choice of stems or to plants
being excluded when measurements are made at breast height. The plant was
then identified and the circumference and point-to-plant distance were recorded.
Twenty-five points were sampled for each transect giving a total of 100 measure¬
ments/transect. In this manner, 1800 plants were measured and identified during
the course of this study. This data allowed the calculation of total density and
total dominance as well as the density, relative density, average dominance,
dominance, relative dominance, frequency, relative frequency, and importance
for each species. The above values were calculated for each stand and these values
were averaged for each species and a standard deviation was determined (Steel
and Torrie, 1960). Only the average values for importance, density, average
dominance, and frequency are reported in this paper. Analyses of variance and
Student’s t~ tests were also derived from Steel and Torrie (1960).
Plant identification and nomenclature follow from Correll and Johnston (1970).
Species curves and density stability curves (Cox, 1972) were constructed for
each transect but are not reported here. Size class curves (Spring, et al, 1974)
were also plotted for the 3 dominant species.
RESULTS
Twenty -four woody species were encountered during this study. Of this total
number, 7 species or 29% were found exclusively on the Edwards Formation,
including Ulmus crassifolia, Prosopis glandulosa, Dasylirion texanum, Yucca sp.,
Bumelia celastrina , Celtis lindheimeri , and Condalia hookeri . Another 7 species
were encountered only on the Glen Rose Formation including Sophora secundi-
flora , Rhus lanceolata, Celtis sp., Celtis reticulata , Ungnadia speciosa, Bumelia
lanuginosa , and Prunus serotina. The remaining 10 species or 42% were found to
be common to both formations. This group of common species included Juniperus
ashei , Quercus fusiformis , and Diospyros t ex ana, the 3 dominants.
The occurrence of each species expressed as a % of the total number of stands
on each formation may be found in Table 1 . Only J. ashei was encountered in
all stands in both areas. Q. fusiformis and D. t ex ana were present in all Edwards
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
27
stands and in all but one of the Glen Rose stands. Other widely distributed
species on the Edwards Limestone were Berberis trifoliata, Rhus virens, Eysen-
hardtia texana, and Ulmus crassifolia. On the Glen Rose,/?, virens, B. trifoliata,
Quercus texana and S. secundiflora were widely distributed. The remaining species
were less frequently encountered with 7 species occurring in only 1 transect.
TABLE 1
Summary of Presence Data for each Species Encountered Expressed as a % of the Total
Number of Transects on each Geological Formation
Species
Edwards3
Glen Rose13
Juniperus ashei
100
100
Quercus fusiformis
100
83
Diospyros texana
100
83
Berberis trifoliata
75
50
Rhus virens
67
67
Eysenhardtia texana
42
33
Ulmus crassifolia
42
_ c
Quercus texana
33
50
Bumelia celastrina
25
...
Yucca sp.
25
—
P tele a trifoliata
17
17
Prosopis glandulosa
17
—
Celtis lindheimeri
17
—
Dasylirion texanum
17
...
Cercis canadensis
8
33
Acacia gr egg ii
8
17
Condalia hookeri
8
...
Sophora secundiflora
-
50
Bumelia lanuginosa
17
Celtis reticulata
—
17
Celtis sp.
—
17
Prunus serotina
—
17
Rhus lanceolata
~
17
Ungnadia speciosa
--
17
a Total of 12 transects.
bTotal of 6 transects.
cNot encountered in this area.
On the Edwards Formation 3 species appeared as dominants and accounted
for 76.4% of the average importance value. These species were/, ashei (48.0 ± 8.7),
Q. fusiformis (16.9 ± 5.9), and/). texana (11 .5 ± 5.1) (Table 2). All other Edwards
species had importance values less than 10%. The same 3 species were dominants
on the Glen Rose Formation, accounting for 78.4% of the average importance
value. From Table 2, the importance values of these species were:/, ashei (56.3
+ 14.0), Q. fusiformis (12.1 ± 10.1), and/), texana (10.0 ± 10.2). The remaining
14 Glen Rose species had importance values less than 10%.
Average of relative density + relative dominance + relative frequency. Expressed as %.
Plants/ha.
Cm2 /plant.
Two Glen Rose species were unidentified. They had a total importance value of 0.4 ± 0.9.
28
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TOTALS
Prunus serotina
Bumelia lanuginos
Ungnadia speciosa
Celtis reticulata
Celtis sp.
Rhus lanceolata
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Bumelia celastrina
Ptelea trifoliata
Yucca sp.
Dasylirion texanui
Eysenhardtia texa
Prosopis glanduloi
Ulmus crassifolia
Quercus texana
Berberis trifoliata
Rhus virens
Diospyros texana
Quercus fusiformi
Juniperus ashei
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Comparison of the Importance, Density, Average Dominance, and Frequency of all Species
Found on Both the Edwards Formation and the Glen Rose Formation
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
29
On the Edwards Limestone,/, ashei had the highest density with an average
value of 1606 ± 1282 plants/ha. The other 2 dominants had much lower den¬
sities— Q. fusiformis (370 ± 247) and/). texana (310 ± 273). Other Edwards species
with densities exceeding 100 plants/ha were R. virens ( 251 ± 322) and B. trifoliata
(126 ± 174). The pattern on the Glen Rose Formation was somewhat similar.
/. ashei again had the highest density with a value of 1556 ± 1086 plants/ha.
D. texana ranked 3rd in importance but here ranked 2nd in density with 418 ±
544 plants/ha. Q. fusiformis ranked 2nd in importance but ranked 3rd in density
with 224 ± 120, plants/ha. Two other species on the Glen Rose had densities
greater than 100 plants/ha. They were S. secundiflora (214 ± 349), a species not
encountered on the Edwards, and R. virens (160 ± 88). The total density on the
Edwards was 2856 plants/ha and it was 2841 plants/ha on the Glen Rose. When
total density values were compared using a Student’s f-test, they were not found
to be statistically different at the 95% level.
Based on average dominance values from Table 2, the largest species found on
the Edwards Limestone was Q. texana with an average dominance of 995.0 ±
1746.2 cm 2 /plant. The next largest species was Q. fusiformis (355.6 ± 503.3)
followed by/, ashei (156.6 ± 101.5)./). texana , while ranking 3rd in importance,
ranked 10th in average dominance with a value of 21.1 ± 15.4 cm2 /plant. On the
Glen Rose Limestone Q. texana was again the largest species (658.2 ± 730.2 cm2/
plant). However, the next largest species was/, ashei (366.4 ± 305.5) followed
by Q. fusiformis ( 87.2 ± 70.7)./). texana ranked 7th with 21.5 ± 23.2 cm2 /plant.
Q. texana and Q. fusiformis were considerably larger on the Edwards than on the
Glen Rose while /. ashei was much smaller on the Edwards and D. texana was
the same size on both formations; however, these differences were not statistically
significant.
Species with the highest frequency in the Edwards stands were /. ashei
(0.86 ± 0.12), D. texana (0.37 ± 0.15), and Q. fusiformis (0.34 ± 0.12). The pat¬
tern was identical on the Glen Rose with only the numbers changing slightly
(Table 2). In both areas, all other species had frequency values of less than 0.21.
The mean number of species on the Edwards Formation was 7.0 ± 2.2 and 7.2
± 2.0 on the Glen Rose (Table 3). Total dominance in m2/ha was 36.59 ± 29.06
for the Edwards vs. 48.26 ± 21.34 for the Glen Rose. None of the above differ¬
ences were statistically significant.
A size class distribution was prepared for each of the 3 dominant species.
Table 4 shows the % of the total number of trees of each species in the 5 cm di¬
ameter size classes for /. ashei, Q. fusiformis, and D. texana. A large number of
seedlings (1-5 cm diameter) of each species are present on both formations. It is
apparent that these 3 species are successful, reproducing members of both com¬
munities.
Coefficients of similarity (Greig-Smith, 1964) were also calculated for the 2
communities based on data from Table 2 (see Table 5). The coefficient for density
30
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 3
Summary of the Number of Species, Total Density, and Total Dominance for each Transect.
Average Values for each Geological Formation are Shown along with 1 Standard Deviation (s.d.).
Formation
Transect
Number
Number of
Species
Total
Densitya
Total
Dominance^
Edwards
1
5
3812
34.05
2
9
812
8.77
3
10
670
24.89
4
9
1104
12.98
5
9
2066
20.59
6
5
495
5.55
7
5
5021
41.71
8
6
5316
107.66
9
7
3611
30.84
10
8
3708
29.27
11
8
4626
51.25
12
3
3036
71.49
7.0 ± 2.2C
2856 ± 1767
36.59 ±29.06
Glen Rose
13
4
819
51.34
14
7
4411
18.15
15
10
3575
79.89
16
8
2901
32.90
17
8
2387
59.41
18
6
2955
47.86
7.2 ± 2.0C
2841 ± 1210
48.26 ±21.34
a Plants/ha.
bM2/ha.
cx ± 1 s.d.
was highest (0.859) followed by importance (0.828) and frequency (0.821) with
the coefficient for average dominance being the lower (0.630).
DISCUSSION
Bray (1904a) described the Edwards Plateau as a common meeting ground for
species from the Atlantic forest belt, the southern Rocky Mountains, and the
northern Mexican Highlands. Blair (1 950) also considered the Edwards as a special
area and treated it as a separate biotic province containing a number of endemic
species. The eastern species that occur in the Edwards are primarily limited to
the rich bottomlands of the rivers dissecting the plateau. The western and south¬
western species occur mainly in the dry upland areas.
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
31
TABLE 4
Size Class Distribution for Juniperus ashei, Quercus fusiformis, and
Diospyros texana in 5 cm (Diameter) Size Classes Expressed as a %
of the Total Number of Trees of each Species for both Formations
Size Class
Juniperus ashei
Edwards Glen Rose
Quercus fusiformis
Edwards Glen Rose
Diospyros texana
Edwards Glen Rose
1-5
50.3
36.5
43.3
23.1
77.5
83.7
6-10
21.2
24.1
18.7
23.1
18.1
10.5
11-15
9.5
12.7
12.0
29.2
1.4
2.3
16-20
7.8
4.1
11.3
12.3
2.2
-
21-25
4.5
8.6
6.0
7.7
0.7
3.5
26-30
3.0
4.1
2.0
1.5
-
-
31-35
0.8
3.2
3.3
1.5
~
-
36-40
1.6
1.6
-
-
-
-
41-45
0.5
1.9
1.3
-
-
-
46-50
0.5
0.6
1.3
-
-
-
51-55
0.2
0.6
-
-
-
-
56-60
-
0.3
-
-
-
-
61-65
-
0.3
-
-
-
-
66-70
-
0.3
-
-
-
-
70+
-
1.0
0.7
1.5
--
-
TOTAL
99.9
99.9
99.9
99.9
99.9
100.0
TABLE 5
Coefficients of Similarity Calculated for the Edwards and Glen Rose Communities
Coefficient of
Parameter Similarity
Density 0.859
Importance 0.828
Frequency 0.821
Average Dominance 0.630
The vegetation and the plant associations of the central Texas Hill Country
have been only meagerly described. They were divided by Hill and Vaughan (1 898)
into 3 simple topographical elements: 1) the flat-topped summits of the plateau,
2) the breaks and slopes of its borders and canyons, and 3) the streamways or
rivers and their tributaries. Buechner (1944) partitioned the central part of the
32
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Edwards Plateau into 5 separate areas. He (Buechner 1944) considered the flat-
topped summits to be divisible into liveoak-shinoak divides and blackjack divides.
Also, Buechner (1944) considered the erosional areas and the cedar breaks as
separate. The present study deals with the breaks, slopes or erosional areas as
they occur in the extreme southeastern part of the Edwards Plateau.
According to Bray (1904b) the hill and bluff timber of the Edwards includes
cedar, live oak, cedar elm, hackberry, mountain oak, and shin oak as well as other
species. Several species on the Edwards are limited in distribution to central or
south -central Texas and northern Mexico. D. texana , J. ashei, C. lindheimeri,
and U. crassifolia are examples (Brockman, 1968; Correll and Johnston, 1970).
All of the above mentioned species, with the exception of shin oak, were en¬
countered during the course of this investigation.
Similarities may be noted between the vegetation of the upland Edwards
Plateau and the piny on -juniper pigmy forests and sub -montane shrub associations
of west Texas and western North America. Growth patterns are similar in that
closed canopies are rarely observed and trees seldom exceed 9 m in height in
both areas. Species types overlap in both areas as well. Both junipers and oaks
are common on the Edwards Plateau. In the pigmy forests of the west, junipers
are common and oaks are important in some areas (Woodin and Lindsey, 1954).
Rainfall patterns overlap being 38-76 cm/yr on the Edwards Plateau (Gould,
1969), 25-38 cm/yr in the pinyon -juniper forests of Utah and northern Arizona
(Woodbury, 1947), and 33-43 cm/yr in the same type forests in western Texas,
New Mexico, and Colorado (Woodin and Lindsey, 1954). Additional overlap is
indicated when one considers the higher precipitation levels required to support
similar plant communities at lower altitudes and higher prolonged temperatures.
The current study indicates that no real differences exist between the plant
communities of the Edwards Limestone and those of the Glen Rose Formation
in the southeastern portion of the Edwards Plateau. When comparing density,
dominance, frequency, and importance values of plants on both formations, no
statistically significant differences are noted. Although several species were en¬
countered exclusively on one formation or the other, there was insufficient data
to say that these same species are limited to the formation on which they were
found. It is important to note that the 5 most important species on the Edwards
Limestone, i.e.,/. ashei, Q. fusiformis, D. texana, R. virens, and Q. texana , are
also the 5 most important species on the Glen Rose Limestone (Table 2). This
fact serves to point out the vegetational similarity of the 2 geological areas. In
the area of the Edwards Plateau examined, this report did not indicate the kinds
of differences as noted by Tharp (1939) between the plant communities of the 2
geological formations.
In a previous study of the plant communities of the Buda formation, another
limestone formation occurring in the southern Edwards Plateau, we found J. ashei,
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
33
Q. fusiformis and D. texana as dominants accounting for 80% of the total impor¬
tance of all species present (Van Auken, et al., 1979). In the present study they
accounted for 76-78% of the total importance. Also, an average of 8.4 ± 2.7
species were found/stand, which is not significantly different from the number
found on the Edwards or the Glen Rose. Total density values were 3605 ± 1448
on the Buda compared with 2856 ± 1767 on the Edwards and 2841 ± 1210 on
the Glen Rose which are not significantly different.
Comparisons of the density, average dominance, dominance and frequency
for the 3 most important species (J. ashei, Q. fusiformis, and D. texana) on the
Edwards, Glen Rose and the Buda show no significant differences. The above
data suggest that the soils derived from these limestones are very similar and that
the plant communities are very similar because of the above. Data taken from
the various county soil surveys (Taylor, et al, 1966; Hensell, et al, 1977; and
Dittmar, et al, 1977) indicate that the soils from the above stands are in either
the Tarrant-Brackett Association (shallow soils underlayed by limestone) or the
Crawford -Bexar Association (moderately deep, stoney soils also underlaid by
limestone). Although 2 of the stands were on the Crawford -Bexar soils, it should
be noted that these soils were very shallow soils much like those of the Tarrant-
Brackett Association and also very calcareous and slightly basic.
Buechner (1944) studied the cedar brakes in Kerr Co., Texas which is 15-20
mi deeper into the Edwards Plateau than the present study. Kerr Co. also includes
a considerable section of the non -eroded portion of the Plateau and is at a higher
altitude. It is difficult to make direct comparisons to Buechner’s (1944) work
because of the different methods used. Buechner (1944) does state, however,
that cedar comprised 80% or more of the arborescent vegetation.
Coefficients of similarity calculated for the Edwards and Glen Rose stands are
also quite high (Table 5). Again, this suggests the close relationship of the upland
plant communities in the southern Edwards Plateau region. If differences did
exist in the plant communities occurring on these geological formations in the
past, they have been obliterated possibly due to differential cutting, clearing,
grazing, browsing, or fire.
LITERATURE CITED
Arbingast, S.A., L. G. Kennamer, R. H. Ryan, J. R. Buchanan, W. L. Hezlep, L. T. Ellis,
T. G. Jordan, C. T. Granger, and C. P. Zlatkovich, 197 6 -Atlas of Texas. Bureau of Bus¬
iness Research, Univ. of Tex., Austin.
Barnes, V. E., 197 4 -Geological Atlas of Texas, San Antonio Sheet. Bureau of Economic
Geology, Univ. of Tex., Austin.
Blair, W. F., 1950 -The biotic provinces of Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 2:93.
Bray, W. L., 19Q4a-Forest resources of Texas. USD A Bureau of Forestry Bull No. 47.
34
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
- , 1904b -The timber of the Edwards Plateau of Texas; its relation to climate, water
supply, and soil. USDA Bureau of Forestry Bull. No. 49.
- , 1906 -Distribution and adaptation of the vegetation of Texas. Univ. of Tex.
Bull. No. 82.
Brockman, C. F., 1968 -Trees of North America. Golden Press, Racine, WI.
Buechner, H. K., 1944-The range vegetation of Kerr County, Texas, in relation to livestock
and white-tailed deer. Am. Midland Nat., 31:697.
Correll, D. S., and M. C. Johnston, 1910-Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Texas Re¬
search Foundation, Renner, TX.
Cottam, G., and J. T. Curtis, 1956— The use of distance measures in phytosociological sampling.
Ecol., 37:451.
Cox, G. W., 1911-Laboratory Manual of General Ecology . W . C. Brown and Co., Dubuque,
IA.
DeCordova, J., 1858 -Texas: Her Resources and Her Public Men. J. B. Lippincott and Com¬
pany, Philadelphia, PA.
Dittmar, G. W., M. L. Deike, and D. L. Richmond, 1911 -Soil Survey of Medina County,
Texas. USDA Soil Conservation Service.
Gould, F. W., 1969 -Texas plants-A checklist and ecological summary. Texas Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bull. M P-5 85.
Greig -Smith, P., 1964 -Quantitative Plant Ecology, 2nd Ed. Butterworth, London.
Hensell, J. L., G. W. Dittmar, and F. Taylor, 1911-Soil Survey of Bandera County, Texas.
USDA Soil Conservation Service.
Hill, R. T., and T. W. Vaughan, 1898 -Geology of the Edwards Plateau and Rio Grande
Plain adjacent to Austin and San Antonio, Texas, with reference to the occurrence of
underground waters. U. S. Geolog. Survey Ann. Report, 18:193.
Metz, M. C., 1934 -A flora of Bexar County, Texas. Ph.D. Dissertation, Catholic Univ. of
Am., Washington, DC.
Roemer, F., 1849 -Texas with Particular Reference to German Immigration and the Physical
Appearance of the Country. Standard Printing Co., San Antonio, TX (Original, published
in Germany, Trans, by Oswald Mueller. 2nd pub. 1935).
Sellards, E. H., W. S. Adkins, and F. B. Plummer, 1932- The Geology of Texas. Vol. I: Strat¬
igraphy. Bureau of Economic Geology (Bull. 3232), Univ. of Tex., Austin.
- -, and R. L. Baker, 1934-The Geology of Texas. Vol. 2: Structural and Economic
Geology. Bureau of Economic Geology (Bull. 3401), Univ. of Tex., Austin.
Spring, P. E., M. L. Brewer, J. R. Brown, and M. E. Fanning, 1974-Population ecology of
loblolly pin e Pinus taeda in an old field community. Oikos, 25:1.
Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie, 1960 -Principals and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY.
Taylor, F. B., R. B. Hailey, and D. L. Richmond, 1966-Soil Survey of Bexar County, Texas.
USDA Soil Conservation Service.
WOODY VEGETATION-SOUTHERN EDWARDS PLATEAU
35
Tharp, B. C., 1939 -The Vegetation of Texas. The Anson Jones Press, Houston, TX.
Thorn thwaite, C. W., 1948 -An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geogr.
Rev., 38:55.
Van Auken, O. W., A. L. Ford, and A. Stein, 1979 -A comparison of some woody upland
and riparian plant communities of the southern Edwards Plateau. Southw. Nat., 24:165.
Woodbury, A. M., 1947 -Distribution of pigmy conifers in Utah and northeastern Arizona.
Ecol., 28:113.
Woodin, H. E., and A. A. Lindsey, 1954-Juniper-Pinyon east of the Continental Divide, as
analyzed by the line-strip method. Ecol., 35:473.
THE UPPER INCISORS OF THE GIANT HORSE, ASINUS GIGANTEUS
by WALTER W.DALQUEST
Department of Biology
Midwestern State University
Wichita Falls 76308
Reviewed by: Dr. W. S. Strain, Prof. Emeritus, Dept, of Geol, Univ. of Texas, El Paso 79902
INTRODUCTION
In 1901 J. W. Gidley described a new species of horse, Asinus giganteus, based
on a single tooth of relatively enormous size found in southwest Texas (for use
of Asinus rather than Equus for most American Pleistocene horses, see Dalquest,
1979). The tooth (Collection of American Museum of Natural History) had been
referred to Asinus crenidens by Cope (1 899). When sectioned (by Gidley) 35 mm
below the occlusal surface the tooth revealed small, intricately folded lakes, a
short, broad protocone, and small pli caballin.The large size and distinctive features
of the enamel pattern convinced subsequent writers (e.g. Savage, 1951) that the
species was valid, even though based on a single tooth from an indefinite type
locality. Some confusion with Asinus pacificus (Leidy), another large extinct
horse, existed, but Lundelius (1972) noted that A. pacificus had teeth that were
smaller than those of the holotype of A. giganteus , and had long, slender rather
than short, broad protocones.
Although A. giganteus has been known for more than 75 yr, very few specimens
have been referred to the species. These include an upper tooth from the Holloman
local fauna of Oklahoma (Hay and Cook, 1930; Dalquest, 1977) and 2 upper teeth
from the Gilliland local fauna of Knox County, Texas (Hibbard and Dalquest,
1966). Both of these faunas are of earliest Pleistocene age. A lower tooth from
an early Pleistocene deposit in Meade County, Kansas, was questionably referred
to A. giganteus by Hibbard and Dalquest (1966). I am aware of no other fossils
referred to the giant horse.
DISCUSSION
Of interest then is the discovery of horse premaxillaries of enormous size from
the Seymour Formation of Knox County, Texas. The specimen was found on the
Bruce Burnett Ranch, 100 m west of State Highway 267 and a km or less
southwest of the bed of Pearlette ash at the type locality of the Seymour Formation
Accepted for publication: February 19, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
38
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
(Hibbard and Dalquest, 1966: 5, plate 1). The fossil was embedded in a half¬
meter thick layer of brownish, very hard, caliche. The incisors were perpendicular
to the bedding plane, and pressure from the growth of amesquite tree root beneath
the caliche bed caused the caliche to crack along the anterior faces of the incisors,
and “pop up.” Part °f the enamel of the front surfaces of some of the teeth
adhered to the counterpart and were destroyed by weathering. Only the bone of
the terminal 75 mm of the muzzle is preserved, and this is so decayed that it
would scarcely be recognizable were it not for its association with the incisor
teeth. The caliche bed was excavated for 4 m around the site, but nothing else
of interest was recovered.
The specimen (MWSU 11785) includes the incisor teeth held in place by the
caliche matrix. Teeth other than left 1 3 are in their natural positions. Left 1 3 is
displaced downward and outward 2 or 3 mm. A bit of the enamel of the anterior
face of left 13, most of the anterior faces of both I2’s, and the anterior face of
left 17, are lost. The horse was quite young when it died, with the Ii’s just
beginning to wear. Infundibulata were large and prominent but the hard matrix
has not been cleaned from the pits.
In the measurements of individual teeth that follow, the first is the greatest
dimension, transverse to the longitudinal axis of the skull in 17 but almost parallel
to it in 13. The second measurement is taken at right angles to the first. Measure¬
ments were made at the occlusal surface.
Breadth across Ii’s is 1 19.3 mm but, allowing for the displacement of left 13,
the true distance was approximately 116 mm. 17 measures 23.3 x 13.2 mm; 12,
23.0 x about 12.8 mm; 12, 26.0 x 12.4 mm.
The medial edges of 17 ’s are flattened and the 2 teeth are appressed (Fig. 1A).
I2’s are broadly oval. I5’s are almost unworn and the large, oval anterior cusp,
smaller oval middle cusp, and tiny, rounded posterior cusp, are apparent. These
resemble the unworn upper IJ’s of a modern domestic horse.
The shape of the incisors may, to a degree, be a function of age (Olsen, 1964).
Striking is the enormous breadth of the incisor row, and the shape of the row formed
by the teeth. The complete upper incisor row is rarely preserved in Pleistocene
fossil horses, and the lower incisor row only slightly more often (the breadth of
the lower incisor row is usually slightly less than that of the upper row). Exami¬
nation of numerous modern and fossil horse skulls revealed none with the breadth
of the incisor row as great as that of the fossil. Horse incisors are strongly wedge-
shaped. Maximum breadth of incisors and incisor rows is attained at an early
stage of tooth wear, and thereafter wear shortens the transverse breadth of the
incisor row. The fossil probably represents maximum breadth for this individual,
and at a greater age the incisor row would be somewhat shorter.
In the table that follows, the stage of wear of specimens in the Midwestern
State University Collection is approximately that of the fossil, and when more
than 1 specimen was available only the maximum breadth obtained is cited.
As expected, only A. pacificus approaches A. giganteus in size, and the incisor
row of even this very large species is exceeded by that of A. giganteus by 24 mm
UPPER INCISORS OF ASINUS GIGANTEUS
39
Figure 1. A. Upper incisor row of Asinus giganteus Gidley. B. Of a large male African
lowland zebra, Equus burchellii (Gray). Maximum breadth across tooth row of
zebra is 67.5 mm; specimens to scale.
TABLE 1
Breadths of Upper Incisor Rows of Some Large Recent and Pleistocene Horses
Species
Incisor Breadth
Where Found and Authority
Asinus giganteus (Gidley)
116.0
Texas. MWSU Coll.
Asinus paci ficus (Leidy)
92.0
Aguascalientes, Mexico. MWSU Coll.
Asinus pacificus (Leidy)
*90.0
Mexico, Mexico (Hibbard, 1936).
Asinus scotti (Gidley)
*78.0
Texas (Johnson, 1937).
Asinus niobrarensis (Hay)
78.0
Nebraska (holotype, Hay, 1913).
Equus simplicidens Cope
*76.0
Idaho (Gazin, 1936).
Equus caballus Linnaeus
76.0
Texas. MWSU Coll.
Asinus lambei (Hay)
74.0
Yukon Territory (Harington and Clulow, 1973).
Asinus excelsus (Leidy)
73.8
Aguascalientes, Mexico. MWSU Coll.
Asinus calobatus (Troxell)
73.6
Aguascalientes, Mexico. MWSU Coll.
Equus burchelli (Gray)
67.9
Mozambique, Africa. MWSU Coll.
*Breadth of muzzle at posterior alveolar borders of I3’s.
(almost 1 in). Thus the largest known Pleistocene horse other than A giganteus
possessed an incisor row breadth only 79% as great.
40
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
In every Pleistocene or Recent horse or zebra skull examined, the upper incisors
form a smoothly rounded arc. In the Seymour horse the upper incisors form a
trapezoid (Fig. 1 A). The 4 anterior incisors make an almost straight line, with the
I5’s turned sharply backward from the I2’s.
CONCLUSIONS
Because the specimen from the Seymour formation is so very large and comes
from a deposit where teeth referred to A. giganteus are known to occur, it is
referred to that species. The specimen suggests that the head of A. giganteus might
have appeared, in life, quite different from the head of a modern horse. If the
muzzle was stout, as the breadth of the incisor row suggests, the head might have
been short and bulldog-like in appearance.
LITERATURE CITED
Cope, E. D., 1899 -Vertebrate remains from the Port Kennedy bone deposit./. Acad. Nat.
Sci., Philadelphia, PA, 11:193.
Dalquest, W. W., 1977-Mammals of the Holloman local fauna, Pleistocene of Oklahoma.
Southwest Nat. , 22:255.
- , 1978-Phylogeny of American horses at Blancan and Pleistocene age. Annal.
Zool. Fennica, 15:191.
Gazin, C. L., 1936 -A study of the fossil horse remains from the upper Pliocene of Idaho.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 83:281.
Gidley, J. W., 1901-Tooth characters and revision of the North American species of the
genus Equus. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 14:91.
Harington, C. R., and F. V. Clulow, 1973— Pleistocene mammals from Gold Run Creek,
Yukon Territory. Canadian J. Earth Sci., 10:697.
Hay, O. P., 1913-Notes on some fossil horses with descriptions of four new species. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus., 44:569.
- , and H. J. Cook, 1930-Fossil vertebrates collected near, or in association with,
human artifacts at localities near Colorado, Texas; Frederick, Oklahoma; and Folsom,
New Mexico. Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist. , 9:4.
Hibbard, C. W., 1955 -Pleistocene vertebrates from the Upper Becerra (Becerra Superior)
Formation, Valley of Tequixquiac, Mexico, with notes on other Pleistocene forms.
Contr. Mus. Paleo., Univ. Michigan, 12:47.
- , and W. W. Dalquest- 1966-Fossils from the Seymour Formation of Knox and
Baylor counties, Texas, and their bearing on the late Kansas climate of that region. Contr.
Mus. Paleo., Univ. Michigan, 21:1.
Johnson, C. S., 1937-Notes on the craniometry of Equus scotti. J. Paleo., 11:459.
Lundelius, E. L., 1972-Fossil vertebrates from the late Pleistocene Ingleside fauna, San
Patricio County, Texas. Bureau Econ. Geol., Univ. Texas, Rept. Invest., 11 A.
UPPER INCISORS OF ASINUS GIG ANTE US
41
Olsen, S. J., 1964-Mammal remains from archaeological sites, Part 1, southeastern and south¬
western United States. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,
Harvard University, Vol. LVI, No. 1, Fig. 2, p. 7.
Savage, D. E., 1951 -Late Cenozoic vertebrates from the San Francisco Bay region. Univ.
California Pubis. Geol. Set, 28:215.
■
A CYTOLOGICAL AND HISTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE
OVARIAN FOLLICLE CELLS OF THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
(LOLIGO PEALEI)1
by SAMUEL A. RAMIREZ and MANUEL GUAJARDO
Division of Allied Health and Life Sciences,
University of Texas at San Antonio,
San Antonio 78285
ABSTRACT
The oocyte and follicle cell complex of the squid, Loligo pealei, from the South Texas
Gulf of Mexico was studied. Since the processes of oogenesis, vitellogenesis and choriono-
genesis are highly interrelated and coordinated, these are described as a unit. Six stages in
oocyte development and maturation are proposed. The role of the follicle cells (epithelium-
syncytium) is studied by cytological and histochemical techniques. This study indicates that
follicle cells (epithelium-syncytium) undergo a high degree of cytodifferentiation which is
coordinated with oocyte development and have a secretory function that contributes to the
maturation of the oocyte. Oocyte development may be directly dependent on the activity
of the follicular epithelium.
INTRODUCTION
Ovarian follicle cells have different functions during oogenesis in different
organisms (Arnold and Williams -Arnold, 1977; Bloom and Fawcett, 1975; Hoar,
1965, 1969; Sadlier, 1973). Although the specific function of the follicle cells in
many organisms is not fully established, circumstantial evidence suggests some
possible functions such as yolk granule production (Arnold and Williams -Arnold,
1977; Bottke, 1974; Nelsen, 1953), coat formation (Anderson, 1974; Cowden,
1968; Nelsen, 1953), and transport of ions and molecules synthesized in the fol¬
licle cells into the oocyte (Anderson, 1974; Arnold and Williams- Arnold, 1977;
Fujii, 1960; Nelsen, 1953; Raven, 1961, 1967; Selman and Wallace, 1972). The
follicle cells of the squid , Loligo pealei , show a high degree of coordinated dif¬
ferentiation with the oocyte (Arnold and Williams-Arnold , 1976;Cowden, 1968;
Ramirez and Guajardo, 1977; Selman and Arnold, 1978; Selman and Wallace,
1972). Studies have shown that these differentiated follicle cells become secretory
cells (Anderson, 1974; Bottke, 1974; Raven, 1961, 1967; Selman and Wallace,
1972) although their products have not been fully analyzed.
Contribution No. 78-14 from Center for Applied Research and Technology, University of
Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78285
Accepted for publication: August 7, 1978.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
44
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Cowden (1968) and Selman and Arnold (1978) staged the maturing oocytes
of the squid (Loligo brevis and L. pealei) with light and electron microscopic tech¬
niques and have described the ultrastructure of the follicle cells and oocytes. Five to
ten stages have been described according to size and structure of the oocyte and
follicle cells. These stages will be used as a basis for proposing 6 stages in this report.
Cytological and histochemical observations are reported which support earlier
studies (Arnold and Williams- Arnold, 1976, 1977; Cowden, 1968; Ramirez and
Guajardo, 1977; Selman and Arnold, 1978; Selman and Wallace, 1972), and pro¬
vide additional insight on the function of the follicle cells during the oocyte de¬
velopment of the South Texas squid, Lo ligo pealei.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Adult female squid were collected in the Gulf of Mexico, approximately 25
mi from Port Aransas, Texas over a period of 18 mo. Specimens were collected
by a 10.5 m otter trawl aboard the University of Texas R/V Longhorn. The ovaries
of approximately 30 squid were immediately removed and fixed in Bouin’s solu¬
tion (Galigher and Kozloff, 1971) or calcium-formalin (1% calcium in 10% form¬
alin) (Roozemond, 1967). The tissues were routinely processed and embedded in
paraffin. The ovaries were sectioned transversely with 6-8 serial sections/slide.
Tissues were stained with iron-hematoxylin -eosin (Lillie and Fullmer, 1976;
Pearse, 1975) for general morphology, Feulgen reaction (Humason, 1962; Lillie,
1977) for DNA, periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) (Pearse, 1975) for polysaccharides,
Azure B (Flax and Himes, 1952; Swift, 1966) for RNA and DNA, and fast green
(Lillie and Fullmer, 1976) at pH 3.0 for basophilic (mucopolysaccharides) mat¬
erial. Calcium-formalin fixed material was frozen and serially sectioned on a
cryostat. Cryostat sections (4-6 cross sections/slide) were stained for lipids with
Sudan Black B, III, IV and oil red 0 stains (Lillie and Fullmer, 1976), and mounted
with glycerogel (glycerol gelatin) (Lillie and Fullmer, 1976; Pearse, 1975).
Material was examined with a Zeizz research microscope and photographed
with Type 55 P/N Polaroid film. All measurements were made with an occular
micrometer.
RESULTS
The squid ovary is unpaired and supported by a median mesentery to the dorsal
wall at the apex of the coelom. Developing oocytes are clustered around vesicular
tissue and a wide range of developmental stages can be found within each cluster
(Fig. 1). Each oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of follicular epithelial cells
that becomes a syncytium in the mature stages. Six stages of oogenesis can be
recognized based on the structure of the follicle cells and oocyte changes (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5; Table 1). Stage I oocytes are less than 50 pm in diameter and are sur¬
rounded by a single squamous-shaped follicle cell. These immature oocytes have
THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
45
Figure 1. Section through ovary shows 4 stages of oocyte development. A large vessel
(large arrow) can be seen in the middle of the section. (Hematoxylin-eosin stain,
scale 100 /im),
a large germinal vesicle that occupies approximately 40% of the oocyte. As these
oocytes begin to grow, the diameter will increase to 50-100 jum, while the single
follicle cell proliferates to form a contigious layer of squamous-shaped follicle
cells (Fig. 2). The maturing oocyte (Stage II) increases in diameter to 1 00-200 jum
while the follicular cells continue to proliferate mitotically and become cuboidal
in shape (Fig. 1). The follicle cells continue their active mitotic activity during
Stage III forming follicular folds that penetrate into the growing oocyte (Figs. 1 ,
2, 4). These folds eventually occupy approximately 80% of the 200-800 /im in
diameter oocyte. Vitellogenesis marks the beginning of Stage IV (Fig. 3). Yolk
granules begin to form as the cuboidal follicle cells become low columnar cells,
stop dividing and form a follicular syncytium (Fig. 3). With the accumulation of
yolk granules and oocyte growth (800 qm to 1.5 mm in diameter), the follicular
syncytium is pushed out (Stages V, VI) until the chorion is formed during Stage
VI (Figs. 4, 5). After the chorion is formed (Stage VI), the follicular syncytium
begins to slough off, leaving the oocyte enclosed only by its chorion (Fig. 5).
46
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 2. Higher magnification of Stage I oocyte with a large germinal vesicle (GV) and
several follicle cells beginning to form a complete follicular epithelium around
the young oocyte. Note the different Feulgen reaction of the follicle cell nuclei
at different stages of oocyte development as indicated by staining intensity.
(Feulgen reaction, scale 50 /tm).
Cytochemical reactions of the follicular epithelium (syncytium) and oocyte
are given in Tables 2 and 3. The first changes seen in the follicle -ovarian complex
are in the nuclei of the follicle cells. During the transition of the follicle epithelium
from a squamous-shaped single cell to follicular syncytium, the nuclei change
from a dense (heterochromatic) Feulgen positive reaction (Stages I, II, III; Fig. 2)
to a moderate Feulgen positive reaction in Stage IV (Fig. 3) to a dispersed (eu-
chromatic) weak Feulgen reaction in Stage V (Fig. 3) as the follicular epithelium
becomes a syncytium. The Azure B (DNA) reaction shows a similar pattern as
the Feulgen reaction except that the DNA reaction peak occurs later (Stage III).
Within the nuclei, the nucleoli are also undergoing structural and cytochemical
changes. The number of nucleoli increases from 1 in Stage I to several in Stage V
as the Azure B (RNA) affinity also increases (Table 2).
THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
47
Figure 3. Feulgen reaction varies between Stage IV and V follicle cell nuclei, Stage IV
nuclei dense while Stage V nuclei is dispersed (euchromatic). (Feulgen reaction,
scale 50 jJm),
The cytochemical reactions of the follicle cells’ cytoplasm are not easily de¬
tected during Stages I and II due to the squamous-like nature of the follicle cells.
The Azure B (RNA) reaction is weak in Stage III and its intensity increases through
Stage V (Table 2). Sudanophilic reaction (lipids, steroids) parallels the Azure B
reaction indicating an active synthetic period. The sudanophilic material later is
observed increasing in the ooplasm. The polysaccharide (PAS) reaction is not
seen in the follicular cytoplasm until chorionogenesis starts in the oocyte (Stages
IV, V; Fig. 4). Basophilic material (mucopolysaccharides) is first detected in
Stage II and remains at a moderate level through Stage V when the follicular syn¬
cytium begins to slough off.
The ooplasm’s cytochemical reactions parallel and/or interrelate with the
changes seen in the follicle cells (epithelium-syncytium). Activity in the germ¬
inal vesicle was not analyzed due to the dispersed nature of the nucleoplasm
48
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 4. PAS stained section of ovary shows Stage V oocyte with chorion precursor
droplets (arrow) beginning to coalesce to form the chorion. Chorion precursor
droplets and yolk granules are PAS positive.. (PAS reaction, scale 50 /im).
(Davidson, 1976) however, the nucleoli were observed in the Azure B stained
material. The number of nucleoli increases during oogenesis. The nucleoli migrate
to the periphery of the germinal vesicle where they are transported across the
envelope into the ooplasm and have a strong affinity for Azure B. The ooplasm
in Stage I reacts weakly to Azure B (RNA) stain and increases to a strong reaction
in Stage III (Table 3). In Stage IV the RNA reaction is marked by the increase in
yolk granules and basophilic reaction. With the onset of vitellogenesis (Stage IV),
the ooplasm becomes strongly basophilic, sudanophilic and gives a strong PAS
reaction (Table 3; Fig. 4) which is maintained through Stage VI. During Stage V
basophilic and PAS positive droplets begin to accumulate below the follicular
syncytium which gives rise to the chorion in Stage VI (Table 3; Fig. 4, 5). When
the follicular epithelium is completely retracted (Stage VI), the chorion is fully
formed and demonstrates strong PAS and basophilic reactions.
THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
49
DISCUSSION
The highly coordinated development and cytodifferentiation of the squid
oocyte and follicular epithelium is evident in its structural characteristics. The
intimate relationship between the oocyte and follicular epithelium may indicate
that the follicle cells are involved in some control and regulation of the oocyte
development and the synthesis of yolk granules and other substances as in other
animal systems (Anderson, 1974; Raven, 1961). Earlier cytochemical studies
(Arnold and Williams- Arnold, 1976, 1977; Cowden, 1968; Ramirez and Guajardo,
1977; Selman and Arnold, 1978 ; Selman and Wallace, 1972) and the present
study demonstrates that the metabolic patterns in the oocytes of Loligo pealei
are similar to established patterns for oocytes with large amounts of yolk (Ander¬
son, 1974; Davidson, 1976; Hoar, 1965, 1969;Nelsen, 1953; Raven, 1961 ;Sad-
lier, 1973). Selman and Wallace (1972) used tritiated leucine to show that the
Figure 5.
Portion of 2 Stage VI oocytes with the follicular epithelium (fe) beginning to
slough off. The chorion (ch) is well formed. (Hematoxylin -eosin stain, scale
50 /im).
50
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Maturation Stages of Loligo pedlei Oogenesis from the South Texas Gulf of Mexico
Stage
Size
Histological Appearance
I
<50 jUm
Immature oocytes surrounded by a single
squamous follicle cell.
50-100 JJm
Growing oocyte with a large germinal
vesicle (40% of oocyte) surrounded by
several squamous follicle cells.
II
100-200 JJm
Active proliferation of follicle cells and
change from squamous to cuboidal in
shape.
III
200-800 jUm
Follicle cells continue to proliferate and
folds of follicle epithelium penetrate the
growing oocyte. Follicle cells become col¬
umnar and form a syncytium.
IV
800 JJm -1.5 mm
Vitellogenesis is evident and accumulation
of yolk pushes the follicular layer out.
V
800 Jim -1.5 mm
Vitellogenesis continues and chorion be¬
gins to form. Follicular syncytium is
pushed out.
VI
800 JJm -1.5 mm
Chorion formation is complete. Follicular
syncytium is sloughed off.
follicle cells were the site of protein synthesis and that the material initially syn¬
thesized in the follicle cells was subsequently transferred to the oocyte to form
the yolk granules. Oviductal eggs incubated in tritiated leucine showed no direct'
incorporation of the tritiated leucine by the oocyte indicating a dependence on
the synthetic activity of the follicle cells. Electron microscopic studies have
shown that a large amount of microvillar extensions into the oocyte exist but no
pinocy totic vesicles have been seen to indicate transport of synthesized molecules
by this method (Bottke, 1974; Selman and Arnold, 1978). However, a definite
pattern of metabolic activity can be seen cytochemically (Tables 2, 3) which sug¬
gests the transfer of material and close relationship of the follicular epithelium
to the oocyte .
The cytochemical reactions of the follicular cell nuclei and cytoplasm and of
the oocyte support the intimate relationship seen histologically. Initially, as
growth is first seen in the oocyte -follicular syncytium complex, the nuclear ac¬
tivity appears to undergo marked changes as demonstrated in the nuclei’s Feulgen
and Azure B (DNA) staining reaction (Table 2) during the active period of the
follicular epithelium.
THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
51
TABLE 2
Cytochemical Reaction of the Ovarian Follicle Cells of
Loligo pealei from the South Texas Gulf of Mexico
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Oocyte
Stage
Lipid
Stain3
PAS Azure
B
Basophilia
Feulgen
Azure B
DNA
Azure B
RNA
I
-
_b
-
+
+
_b
II
-
-
+
+++
++
+
III
+
+
++
++
+++
++
IV
++
+ ++
++
+
++
+++
V
+++
++ +++
++
+
+
+++
VI
_c
+c ++c
+c
+
+
+
a Sudan Black B, III, IV and Oil Red 0.
bNot visible.
cFollicular syncytium is being sloughed off.
+++Strongly positive reaction
++Moderately positive reaction.
+Weakly positive reaction.
-Negative reaction
TABLE 3
Cytochemical Reaction of the Oocytes of Loligo pealei
from the South Texas Gulf of Mexico
Ooplasm
Chorion
Oocyte
Stage
Lipid RNA
Stain3 Azure B
Basophilia
PAS
Basophilia PAS
I
-
+
-
-
_b
_b
II
+
++
-
-
_b
_b
III
+
+++
+
-
_b
_b
IV
+
+
++
+d
„b
_b
V
++
-
+++
+++d
++c ++c
VI
+++
-
+++
+++d
+++
+++
a Sudan Black B, III, IV and Oil Red 0.
bNot present.
cPrecursor Droplets.
dYolk Platelets.
+++Strongly positive reaction.
++Moderately positive reaction.
+Weakly positive reaction.
-Negative reaction.
52
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The synthesis of RNA, as demonstrated by Azure B staining, shows that some
coordinated activity is occurring. In Stages II and III, the ooplasm shows great
amounts of RNA. This has been reported to be the result of germinal vesicle ac¬
tivity during the lampbrush stage of oogenesis (Davidson, 1976; Raven, 1961,
1967). While this activity diminishes in the germinal vesicle, the RNA synthesis
increases in the cytoplasm and in the nucleoli of the follicular epithelium. This
suggests that ribosomal RNA as well as messenger RNA is being synthesized for
normal metabolic activity of the follicle cells and possibly contributed to the
developing oocyte as suggested by Raven (1967) and Davidson (1976).
The interaction between the oocyte and the follicle cells could also be steroidal
and/or hormonal in nature. This activity has been observed in vertebrate and
mammalian systems (Bloom and Fawcett, 1975;Hoar, 1965, 1969;Sadlier, 1973).
Sudan and Oil Red O stains were used to analyze the follicular-oocyte complex
for sudanophilic material which suggests the presence of steroid (lipid) material
in the cells and in the oocyte. As with some of the other cytochemical reactions,
sudanophilic material was seen in the follicle cells increasing through Stage V as
the ooplasm and yolk granules also increase in their sudanophilic properties
(Tables 2, 3).
The process of vitellogenesis in the squid is a poorly understood process and
subject to conjecture as shown by Seim an and Arnold (1978) in their ultrastruc-
tural studies and by the radioactive tracer studies by Selman and Wallace (1972).
Yolk may be produced by the oocyte itself (autosynthetic), by cells other than
the oocyte (heterosynthetic), or by a combination of these 2 processes (Ander¬
son, 1974). The present cytochemical studies together with previous studies
(Arnold and Williams- Arnold, 1976, 1977; Cowden, 1968; Selman and Arnold,
1978; Selman and Wallace, 1972) support the idea of a heterosynthetic process
in the squid. Results reported here (Tables 2, 3) show an increase of cytoplasmic
basophilia (mucopolysaccharides) in the follicle cells prior to vitellogenesis (Stages
I-III) while the ooplasm does not show any basophilic reaction. With the onset
of yolk granule formation in Stage IV and subsequent stages, an increase in baso¬
philia is seen in the ooplasm (yolk granules) suggesting a transfer of material from
the follicle cells to the oocyte. Likewise, in the formation of the chorion, baso¬
philic droplets are seen first forming between the oocyte and follicular epithelium
that eventually coalesce to form the chorion (Fig. 4). A similar shift in activity
is noted in the production of polysaccharides as demonstrated by the PAS reaction.
PAS positive material is first seen in the follicle cell cytoplasm during Stage IV
prior to vitellogenesis and chorionogenesis. As the PAS positive material increases
in the follicle cells, an increase occurs in the yolk granules and chorion precursor
indicating a flow of material from the follicle epithelium to the ooplasm.
The histological observations show that the follicular epithelium (syncytium)
development is closely coordinated with the 6 stages of oocyte development of
the Loligo pealei from the Gulf of Mexico. Cytochemical data suggests that prod¬
ucts from the follicular epithelium are transferred to the oocyte and may be con¬
tributing to the maturation of the squid oocyte as suggested by Anderson (1974)
THE SOUTH TEXAS SQUID
53
and Raven (1961). The nature of the products has not been fully characterized
other than knowing that the product is basophilic, sudanophilic and PAS positive,
but these findings suggest that oocyte development is under some control of the
follicular epithelium as in other animal systems (Anderson, 1974; Bloom and
Fawcett, 1975 ; Davidson, 1976; Hoar, 1969; Raven, 1961).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was partially supported by the Bureau of Land Management,
Contracts Nos. AA550-CT6-17 and AA550-CT7-1 1 .
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, E., 1974-Comparative aspects of the ultrastructure of the female gamete. In G. H.
Bourne, J. F. Danielli and K. W. Jeon (Eds.), Review of Cytology, Supplement 4. Acad¬
emic Press, New York, pp. 1—70.
Arnold, J. M., and L. D. Williams-Arnold, 1976-The egg cortex problem as seen through
the squid eye. Amer. Zool. , 16:421.
- , and - , 1977-Cephalopoda: Decapoda. In A. D. Giese and J. S. Pearse
(Eds.), Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates, Vol.4. Academic Press, New York, pp. 243-
290.
Bloom, W., and D. W. Fawcett, 1975 -A Textbook of Histology . W. B. Saunders Co., PA,
pp. 805-906.
Bottke, W., 1974-The fine structure of the ovarian follicle of Allotheuthis subulata Lam.
(Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Cell Tissue Res., 150:463.
Cowden, R. R., 1968-Cytological and cytochemical studies of oocyte development and
development of follicular epithelium in the squid, Loligo brevis. Acta Embryol. Morph.
Exp., 10:160.
Davidson, E. H., 1976 -Gene Activity in Early Development. 2nd Ed. Academic Press, New
York.
Flax, M. H., and M. H. Himes, 1952-Microspectrophotometric analysis of metachromatic
staining of nucleic acids. Physiol. Zool., 25:291.
Fujii, T., 1960-Comparative biochemical studies on the egg yolk proteins of various animal
species. Acta Embryol. Morphol. Exp., 3:260.
Galigher, A. E., and E. N. Kozloff, 1911-Essentials of Practical Microtechnique. Lea & Fe-
biger, PA.
Hoar, W. S., 1965 -Comparative physiology: Hormones and reproduction in fishes. Ann Rev.
Physiol, 27:51.
- , 1969-Reproduction. In W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall (Eds.), Fish Physiology,
Vol. 3. Academic Press, New York, pp. 1-72.
Humason, G. L., 1962— Animal Tissue Techniques. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
54
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Lillie, R. D., 1911 -H. J. Conn’s Biological Stains. 9th Fd. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Balt¬
imore.
- — , and H. M. Fullmer, 191 6 -Histopathologic Technique and Practical Histochemistry ,
4th Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Nelsen, O. E., 19 53 -Comparative Embryology of the Vertebrates. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York.
Pearse, A. G. E., 197 5 -Histochemistry , Theoretical and Applied. 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. Churchill
Livingstone, New York.
Ramirez, S. A., and M. Guajardo, 1977-Histological and cytochemical study of ovarian fol¬
licle cells of the squid, Loligo pealei. J. Cell Biol., 75:174.
Raven, C. P., 1961 -Oogenesis: The Storage of Developmental Information. Oxford, Per-
gammon Press, New York.
- -, 1967-The distribution of special cytoplasmic differentiations of the egg during
early cleavage in Limnaea stagnalis. Develop. Biol., 16:407.
Roozemond, R. C., 1967 -Thin layer chromatographic study of lipid extractions from cryo¬
stat sections of rat hypothalmus by same fixatives. 7. Histochem. Cytochem., 15:526.
Sadlier, R. M. F. S., 1913-The Reproduction of Vertebrates. Academic Press, New York,
pp. 1-35.
Selman, K., and J. M. Arnold, 1978-Anultrastructuraland cytochemical analysis of oogenesis
in the squid, Loligo pealei. J. Morph., 152:381.
- , and R. A. Wallace, 1972-A role for the follicle cells during vitellogenesis in the
squid Loligo pealei. Biol. Bull., 143:477.
Swift, H., 1966-The quantitative cytochemistry of RNA. In G. L. Wied (Ed.), Introduction
to Quantitative Cytochemistry . Academic Press, New York.
A SURVEY OF SELECTED PLANTS FOR THE PRESENCE OF
EUKARYOTIC PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS INHIBITORS
by ROBYN REYNOLDS and JAMES D. IRVIN
Department of Chemistry
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos 78666
ABSTRACT
A number of selected plant seeds and leaves were screened for the presence of inhibitors
of eukaryotic protein biosynthesis. All the plant extracts tested contained significant amounts
of inhibitory compounds, most of which were not inactivated by heat treatment. The plant
seed from Aleurites fordii was found to contain the greatest inhibitory activity which was
caused by a protein.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years a number of proteins from various plants have been shown to
be potent inhibitors of eukaryotic protein synthesis but possess varied biological
properties. One protein purified from Phytolacca americana (pokeweed) is a
powerful antiviral agent (Irvin, 1975; Ussery, et al , 1977). The 2 proteins abrin
(from Abrus precatorius) and ricin (from Ricinus communis ) are very potent
toxins (Olsnes and Pihl, 1976). Another protein, alpha sarcin from Asperigillus
giganteus , has been shown to be an anti-tumor agent (Olsen and Goerner, 1965).
The site of action of all of these proteins has been shown to be upon the eukaryotic
ribosome (Dallal and Irvin, 1978; Olsnes and Pihl, 1976; Schindler and Davies,
1977).
In this communication we report the results of a survey of selected plants for
the presence of proteinaceous inhibitors of eukaryotic protein synthesis. The
selection of the plants for this study was based upon previous reports of the pres¬
ence of toxins or lectins in the plant and the ease of obtaining suitable quantities
of material for the purification of potential inhibitors.
MATERIALS
The ground seeds of Caragana arborescens, Cytsus scoparius, Euonymus
europaeus, Laburnum alpinum, Robinia pseudoacacia, Sophora japonica, and
Accepted for publication: June 4, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
56
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Ulex europaeus were purchased from P. L. Biochemicals, Milwaukee, WI. The
leaves of Phoradendron serotinum were harvested locally from wild plants and
those from Jatropha multi fida were obtained from ornamental plants. The fruit from
Aleurites fordii were the kind gift of Dr. James M. Spiers; USD A, Poplarville, MS.
METHODS
All operations were performed at 0-4 C. Solution E consists of 10 mM tris
(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane -HC1 , pH 7.5; 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol; and
0.2 mM ethylenediamine tetraacetate.
Ten grams of ground or chopped seeds were allowed to soak for 15 min in
Solution E containing 100 mM KC1 with the exception of R. pseudoacacia which
were soaked in water. The mixture was homogenized 5 min in a Lourdes homo¬
gen izer followed by centrifugation for 15 min at 8,000 x g in an IEC refrigerated
centrifuge. The supernatant was filtered through cheesecloth and was recentrifuged
for 20 min at 27,000 xg to remove excess lipids. The supernatant obtained from
the 2nd centrifugation was dialyzed against Solution E for 12-14 hr. The activity of
this crude extract was determined by its ability to inhibit in vitro polyphenylalanine
synthesis on Artemia salina ribosomes as previously described (Irvin, 1975).
Crude extracts were also obtained from the leaves and stems of P. serotinum
and from the leaves of/, multifida. In this procedure, 50 g of leaves were homo¬
genized with a Waring blender in 100-200 ml of Solution E, 100 mM KC1, fol¬
lowed by filtration through cheesecloth with mild suction. The filtrate was then
dialyzed against Solution E for 12-14 hr. The crude extracts from these plants
were also tested for inhibitory activity. Protein concentrations were determined
by the method of Kalb and Bernlohr (1977).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results presented in Table 1 demonstrate the presence of heat labile in¬
hibitors of protein synthesis in 3 of the 1 0 plant sources surveyed . The heat lability
of these extracts suggests that the inhibitory factors are proteins and thus may
be similar to abrin, alpha sarcin, the pokeweed antiviral protein, and ricin which
also inhibit protein synthesis and are purified from plants.
The remaining 7 plant extracts also inhibit protein synthesis at fairly low doses
but the failure of heat treatment to destroy the activity suggests that the active
principles are not proteins or very heat stable ones.
Of particular interest is the extract from R. pseudoacacia which is very active
and could only be extracted in the absence of salt in the media. The most potent
inhibitory extract, that from the seeds of the tung fruit {A. fordii), has been chosen
for further investigations and we have partially purified a basic protein from this
source which absorbs to phosphocellulose ion exchange resin and thus appears to
be similar in properties to the pokeweed antiviral protein (Irvin, 1975).
EUKARYOTIC PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS INHIBITORS
57
TABLE 1
Inhibition of Protein Synthesis by Plant Extracts
Source
IDSoa
(fig Protein)
Heat Lability*5
Seeds
Aleurites fordii
0.017
+
Car ag ana arbor escens
1.450
-
Cytsus scoparius
0.220
-
Euonymus europaeus
2.100
-
Laburnum alpinum
5.350
-
Robinia pseudoacacia
0.050
-
Sophora japonica
13.200
-
Ulex europaeus
7.210
-
Leaves
Jatrophia multifidia
0.970
+
Phoradendron serotinum
1.650
+
aThe inhibitory does which produces 50% inhibition of protein synthesis.
^Heat lability is defined as sensitivity (+) to heating at 90° for 15 min.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mrs. Roxie Smeal for her help in preparing the
typescript. This work has been supported by Robert A. Welch Foundation Grant
AI-605 and by Organized Research Funds from the State of Texas.
LITERATURE CITED
Dallal, J. A., and J. D. Irvin, 1978-Enzymatic inactivation of eukaryotic ribosomes by the
pokeweed antiviral protein. FEBS Letters , 89:257.
Irvin, J. D., 1975 -Purification and partial characterization of the antiviral protein from
Phytolacca americana which inhibits eukaryotic protein synthesis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
169:522.
Kalb, V. F., and R. W. Bernlohr, 1977 -A new spectrophotometric assay for protein in cell
extracts. Anal. Biochem., 82:362.
Olsen, B. H., and G. L. Goerner, 1965 -Alpha sarcin, a new antitumor agent. I. Isolation,
purification, chemical composition, and the identity of a new amino acid. Appl. Microbiol. ,
13:314.
Olsnes, S., and A. Pihl, 1976-Abrin, ricin, and their associated agglutinins. In P. Cuatrecasas
(Ed.), The Specificity and Action of Animal, Bacterial and Plant Toxins. Chapman and
Hall, London, pp. 131-173.
Schindler, D. G., and J. E. Davies, 1977-Specific cleavage of ribosomal RNA by alpha sarcin.
Nucl. Acid Res. , 4:1097.
Ussery, M. A., J. D. Irvin, and B. Hardesty, 1977-Inhibition of polio virus replication by a
plant antiviral peptide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 284:431.
RECONNAISSANCE OBSERVATIONS OF SOME FACTORS IN¬
FLUENCING THE TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF A RESTRICTED
ESTUARY: CORPUS CHRISTI BAY, TEXAS1
by GERALD L. SHIDELER
U.S. Geological Survey
P. O. Box 6732
Corpus Christ i 78411
ABSTRACT
Corpus Christi Bay is a shallow restricted estuary that is typical of the Texas Coastal
Plain. On the basis of synoptic reconnaissance measurements of light transmissivity and sus¬
pended-sediment concentrations at 6 monitoring stations, a time sequence of turbidity
structures was determined along the longitudinal trend of the Bay and its tidal inlet. Measure¬
ments were made on 6 observation dates extending over a 16-mo period. Longitudinal
turbidity structures were highly variable in time and space. Structures ranged from avertically
homogeneous water column, to a well-stratified column showing an increasing turbidity
gradient with depth. Mean sediment concentrations also showed high variability.
Wind appeared to be the dominant forcing agent influencing turbidity in the bayhead
sector, where it both generates waves that resuspend bottom sediment and regulates fluvial-
sediment influx from the Nueces River. Turbidity in the baymouth sector appeared to be
mainly influenced by tidal-forcing effects from Aransas Pass inlet. Neither the sediment-
discharge characteristics of the Nueces River nor the mean water density of the Bay had any
discernible influence on Bay turbidity.
INTRODUCTION
The Texas coast along the northwest Gulf of Mexico is characterized by a well-
developed barrier island chain and an extensive backbarrier lagoonal-estuarine
system. These coastal features were formed during the latter stages of the Holocene
rise in sea level that commenced approximately 18,000 yr ago. The drowning of
Pleistocene fluvial channels and subsequent barrier construction during the last
few thousand years resulted in the development of the shallow “bar-built” type
of restricted estuary (Schubel, 1971) along the Texas coast, of which Corpus
Christi Bay is a representative example (Fig. 1).
An estuary’s circulation pattern is greatly influenced by its physical configuration
and by the external driving forces of river flow, tidal flow, and wind stress. As
Approved for publication by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey
Accepted for publication: May 15, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
60
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 1. Location map of the study area showing sites of monitoring stations and bay
bathymetry.
noted by Stommel (1951), any of these external forces can dominantly regulate
the circulation of a particular estuary, and consequently, its resulting patterns of
sedimentation. The purpose of the present reconnaissance study was to establish
a comparative time sequence of estuarine turbidity structures along the longitudinal
trend of Corpus Christi Bay, and to attempt to relate these structures to ambient
environmental conditions. This was done in an effort to gain some insight into
sedimentary processes indigeneous to the shallow bar-built variety of coastal-
plain estuary that is characteristic of the Texas Gulf Coast.
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
Corpus Christi Bay is a relatively shallow estuary, generally less than 5 m deep
(Fig. 1). An exception is the Corpus Christi ship channel that is maintained for
navigation by dredging to a depth of approximately 15 m. The Bay has a slight
northwest-southeast elongation, and is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by the
Mustang Island barrier. The Bay’s main tidal inlet (Aransas Pass) is near the city
of Port Aransas. The main fluvial flow into the estuarine system is from the Nueces
River which discharges directly into satellite Nueces Bay. In turn, shallow Nueces
Bay (< 1 m deep) has water exchange with adjacent Corpus Christi Bay via a
narrow causeway-connected inlet. Bottom sediment within Corpus Christi Bay
is mainly mud in the interior, whereas muddy and shelly sand is concentrated in
the marginal areas (Univ. of Texas, 1974). Observations during the present study
indicate that the composition of the Bay’s suspended sediment is mainly inorganic
silt and clay detritus, with a subordinate organic skeletal fraction dominated by
diatoms.
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
61
Both meteorological forces and astronomical tides substantially influence bay
circulation. Astronomical tides are both diurnal and semi-diurnal; the tidal range
in the adjacent open Gulf during fair weather is generally less than 0.3 m (Marmer,
1954), and decreases bay ward. Local prevailing winds are onshore from the south¬
east, and are most consistant during the summer. During the winter, stronger
northerly winds frequently are associated with the passing of polar cold fronts
southward into the Gulf of Mexico. Visual observations indicate that the response
of the Bay’s circulation system and associated turbidity patterns to changing wind
conditions is rapid (less than a few hours), mainly because of the Bay’s shallowness.
The Bay is susceptible to both “norther” storms during the winter, as well as to
tropical storms and hurricanes during the summer and fall seasons.
METHODS
Reconnaissance field work consisted of obtaining a time sequence of water-
column measurements at 6 monitoring stations (2-7) along the longitudinal
trend of Corpus Christi Bay and its associated tidal inlet (Fig. 1). Field sampling
was conducted on 6 dates that represent all seasons, over a total observational
period of 16 mo. The sampling dates were: October 20, 1975; January 19, 1976;
May 11, 1976; June 7, 1976; August 9, 1976; February 14, 1977. At each moni¬
toring station, vertical transmissivity and temperature profiles were obtained
respectively to determine turbidity structure and thermostructure ; profile measure¬
ments were made by means of a light-beam transmissorneter (2 5 -cm optical
path) and attached temperature sensor. Surface and near-bottom water samples
also were collected by meansof a 3-liter Van Dorn bottle for laboratory analyses.
In addition to bay samples, a surface-water sample was obtained near the mouth
of the Nueces River (Station 1) for approximating the rate of fluvial-sediment
influx during the sampling date.
Surface and near-bottom water samples from each station were analyzed in
the laboratory for salinity using an induction salinometer. Water densities then
were determined from salinity and temperature, and expressed as sigma-T values
[cq = (density - 1) x 1000] . The samples also were analyzed for suspended-
sediment concentrations in terms of total mass (mg/fi). Mass determinations were
determined gravimetrically by filtration on prewashed 0.45 qm Millipore filters.
Mean values and standard deviations of both bay-water density and sediment
concentrations then were determined on the basis of the 12 station measurements
(one anomalous measurement was deleted from the May suite). Because of the
Bay’s shallowness, the mean and standard deviation values of bay -water density
and sediment concentrations were considered to be representative of the water
column along the monitored transect (Table 1).
Comparative vertical-transmissivity cross-sections were constructed to illustrate
the turbidity structure along the longitudinal transect of the Bay during the 6
sampling dates. In addition, statistically significant differences in mean values of
62
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Water-Column Characteristics along the Monitored Transect
and Fluvial-Sediment Influx from the Nueces River
Observation Date
Mean Bay-Sediment
Concentrations
(mg/C)
Mean Bay-Water
Density
(of)
Fluvial-Sediment
Influx
(g/sec)
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Standard
Deviation
October 20, 1975
11.8
6.9
17.9
0.8
80
January 19, 1976
27.3
17.7
22.0
0.1
24
May 11, 1976
14.4
7.0
20.0
0.9
7,504
June 7, 1976
25.0
11.5
18.4
0.7
352
August 9, 1976
14.7
13.1
18.2
4.7
2,774
February 14, 1977
17.7
4.6
17.1
2.8
301
turbidity in terms of suspended-sediment concentrations (mg/C) among the 6
sampling dates were determined by means of a robust t-statistic test at the 95%
confidence level (Table 2), using an SAS computer program (Barr, et al., 1976).
The t-statistic tests also were used to determine significant differences in mean
bay -water density because of its potential influence on suspended -particle set¬
tling velocities and overall turbidity (Table 2). Differences among the 6 sets of
TABLE 2
Results of t-Statistic Tests for Monthly Comparisons of the Bay’s Water
Column in Terms of Mean Sediment Concentration and Density
Compared Months
t-Values for Total Sediment
Mass (rag/C) Comparisons
t-Values for Water Density
(at) Comparisons
October vs. January
2.81*
16.45*
October vs. May
0.89
5.52*
October vs. June
3.40*
1.37
October vs. August
0.68
0.17
October vs. February
2.44*
0.93
J anuary vs. May
2.24*
6.74*
January vs. June
0.37
15.81*
January vs. August
1.97
2.77*
January vs. February
1.82
5.85*
May vs. June
2.63*
4.49*
May vs. August
0.08
1.27
May vs. February
1.33
3.18*
J une vs. August
2.04
0.14
June vs. February
2.05
1.46
August vs. February
0.73
0.65
* Significant difference at the 0.05 level of confidence (degrees of freedom = 22, to.os = 2.07;
for May comparisons, degrees of freedom = 21, to. os = 2.08)
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
63
field measurements along the monitored transect were interpreted in terms of
variations in ambient environmental conditions during the sampling periods.
Local wind data were obtained from the U.S. Weather Service at Corpus Christi,
and local tidal data at the Aransas Pass inlet were obtained from standard tide
tables. Stream-discharge rates (m3/sec) from the Nueces River (Mathis gage) were
obtained from U.S. Geological Survey’s water data reports (1975-1977), Austin
District. Estimates of the relative rates of river-sediment influx (g/sec) during
the sampling dates were based on the measurements of sediment concentration
(mg/C) from the river-water samples and on the average daily stream-discharge
rates (Table 1).
DISCUSSION
The observed longitudinal turbidity structures are the composite responses
to several complexly interrelated environmental variables. Differences among the
observed structures could reflect variations in any of the following: wave and
tidal conditions, wind conditions, Nueces River discharge, and water density.
Under natural field conditions, these environmental factors may represent a
multivariate system. Therefore, the individual influence of each variable on the
turbidity structure may not be totally resolvable. In addition, the actual response
time of the bay turbidity structure to changing environmental conditions is un¬
known. Consequently, it was frequently impossible to distinguish residual effects
generated prior to the monitoring periods. In spite of these limitations, some insight
can be acquired regarding the dominant forcing agents by comparing the observed
sequence of bay -turbidity structures formed under different field conditions.
October 20, 1975/May 11, 1976/February 14, 1977 Structures
An informative comparison can be made of the 3 turbidity structures comprising
this sequence because they occurred under a similar set of ambient field conditions
(Fig. 2). All 3 structures formed during the same tidal phase (waning ebb tide and
accelerating flood tide), with a similar onshore wind direction (southeasterly)
and under similar calm sea state conditions (SS 1 ). The absence of significant waves
during this sequence is especially noteworthy because visual observations indicate
that waves within the shallow bay are highly influential in establishing turbidity
patterns through the resuspension of bottom sediments. Consequently, a distin¬
guishing aspect of these 3 structures is that they were generated largely through
processes not associated with wave activity.
The 3 turbidity structures within the bay interior (Stations 2-5) are basically
similar in that each exhibits some degree of turbidity stratification and an in¬
creasing turbidity gradient with increasing depth. This suggests that the water
column was not vertically homogenized by wave activity. In terms of overall
mean transect turbidity based on sediment concentrations (mg/C), the t-statistic
tests indicate that the only significant difference among the 3 sampling dates is
64
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 2. Comparative sequence of transmissivity profiles illustrating bay turbidity struc¬
tures for the following observation dates: October 20, 1975; May 11, 1976;
February 14, 1977. Contour interval is 10%T/0.25 m. Also illustrated are
ambient tidal-current variations (shaded interval is sampling period) and daily
wind vectors.
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
65
that February was more turbid than October (Tables 1,2); this was not associated
with a corresponding significant difference in mean density (at) of the water
column. Furthermore, significant water density differences do occur between
May and both October and February which were not associated with significant
turbidity differences. These observations indicate that water density had no
discernible influence on bay turbidity.
In attempting to relate the 3 turbidity structures to external forces, the most
prominent environmental variable during the sequence was the fluvial-sediment
influx from the Nueces River (Table 1). Maximum sediment influx was in May
during a high-water stage at an approximate rate of 7, 504 g/sec, whereas minimum
influx was in October (80 g/sec). Although the river-sediment influx was nearly
2 orders of magnitude greater in May than in October, this was not manifested
in a corresponding contrast at Bay Station 2, which is closest to the Nueces River
mouth. The combined average concentration of surface and bottom waters at
Station 2 was 9.5 mg /£ in October, compared with only 13.0 mg /£ in May. Further¬
more, in terms of transmissivity, higher overall turbidity actually occurred at
Station 2 in October when the river influx was minimal. In addition, overall
mean transect turbidity based on sediment-concentration measurements (mg/£)
was not significantly higher in May than in October. These relationships suggest
that river-sediment influx, even during a high-water stage, was not highly in¬
fluential in contributing to the variations observed among the turbidity structures
from the 3 sampling dates.
As a working hypothesis, the apparent absence of river influence on bay turbidity
during these periods is attributed to the entrapment of fluvial sediments within
the adjacent shallow Nueces Bay which functioned as an effective settling basin.
Entrapment within Nueces Bay would have been facilitated by the absence of
significant wave action to maintain sediments in suspension, and by set-up ef¬
fects and wind-drift currents toward the northwest generated by the southeasterly
onshore winds; this would have inhibited the dispersal and mixing of relatively
turbid Nueces Bay waters with the less turbid waters of Corpus Christi Bay.
Northerly flow into Nueces Bay during a period of southeasterly onshore winds
has been indicated by longitudinal turbidity bands on aerial photographs (Fig. 3),
possibly reflecting bottom-sediment resuspension and transport by Langmuir
circulation. Conversely, the outflow of turbid Nueces Bay waters into Corpus
Christi Bay during a time of relatively strong northwesterly offshore winds also
has been documented by aerial photography (Fig. 4). Consequently, it appears
that Nueces Bay may function as a release valve for fluvial-sediment influx into
Corpus Christi Bay — a valve that is regulated mainly by wind direction.
The greatest differences among the 3 turbidity structures are found in the
vicinity of the tidal inlet (Stations 6, 7), ranging from a highly stratified water
column in October to vertically homogeneous conditions in February. These
inlet differences can be reasonably interpreted as the result of tidal forcing effects.
As the inlet stations in all 3 structures were occupied during the same basic tidal
66
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 3. Oblique aerial photograph of Nueces Bay -Corpus Christi Bay Inlet taken on
July 19, 1978. Longitudinal turbidity bands indicate northerly flow into
Nueces Bay (top of photo) from Corpus Christi Bay under conditions of on¬
shore winds; resultant daily wind vector was from the southeast (135 ) with a
speed of 10 knots.
phase (accelerating flood tide), the variations could reflect differences in a com¬
bination of the following: (1) tidal-current velocities, (2) duration of flooding,
and (3) residual effects from previous tidal phases. Turbidity stratification at the
inlet was best developed in October, a period characterized by the relatively
highest tidal-current velocities, the longest duration of flooding, and the longest
previous ebb phase. These tidal conditions also might account for the significantly
lower mean turbidity in October relative to February, possibly reflecting the more
efficient prior seaward flushing of relatively turbid ebb waters and greater sub¬
sequent exchange by cleaner oceanic flood waters. More effective tidal flooding
during October may have been enhanced by stronger onshore winds (12.8 km/hr),
as compared with the weaker February winds (6.7 km/hr). The stronger onshore
winds in October also would have more effectively inhibited the dispersal of
relatively turbid Nueces Bay waters into Corpus Christi Bay, thus further con¬
tributing to the lower overall transect turbidity during October relative to February.
January 19, 1976 Structure
The turbidity structure for January formed entirely during a waning ebb tide,
with a relatively strong (30.1 km/hr) southeasterly onshore wind, and very choppy
seas (Fig. 5). The sediment influx rate from the Nueces River was the lowest
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
67
Figure 4. Aerial photograph of Nueces Bay-Corpus Christi Bay Inlet taken at 12,500 ft
on January 21, 1973. Turbid plume of Nueces Bay water moving into Corpus
Christi Bay under conditions of strong offshore winds; resultant daily wind
vector was from the northwest (290 ) with a speed of 22 knots.
among the 6 sampling dates (24 g/sec). The structure consists of a homogeneously
turbid inner-bay sector (Stations 2-4), becoming somewhat stratified toward the
tidal inlet. Compared with the October/May/February sequence, the main dif¬
ferences in ambient conditions during the January sampling period were much
stronger southeasterly winds, substantial wave activity, and the absence of prior
contiguous flood-tide effects. In addition, the mean water-column density (ot =
22.0) along the transect during January was significantly higher than during all
other sampling periods. Because the strong onshore winds would tend to inhibit
the dispersal of turbid Nueces Bay waters into Corpus Christi Bay, the greater
inner-bay turbidity in January is attributed to a higher degree of bottom-sediment
resuspension and vertical mixing by waves toward the head of the bay ; this bay
sector is especially susceptible to intense wave action generated by strong south¬
easterly onshore winds because of maximum fetch. In terms of overall mean
68
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
figure 5 . Comparative sequence of transmissivity profiles illustrating bay turbidity struc¬
tures for the following observation dates: January 19, 1976; June 7, 1976;
August 9, 1976. Contour interval is 10%T/0.25 m. Also illustrated are ambient
tidal-current variations (shaded interval is sampling period) and daily wind
vectors.
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
69
transect turbidity based on sediment concentrations (mg/C), January had the
highest (27.3 mg/C) and most variable (std. dev. = 17.7) turbidity. January was
significantly more turbid than both May and October. This difference is attributed
both to a greater degree of bottom-sediment resuspension by waves resulting from
the stronger southeasterly winds, and to the absence of contiguous prior replace¬
ment by less turbid flood -tide Gulf waters. The greater mean turbidity in January
relative to May when fluvial-sediment influx was more than 2 orders of magnitude
greater, once again supports the inference that river influx was not particularly
influential on bay turbidity.
June 7, 1976 Structure
The June turbidity structure formed during a complete flood-tide phase and
an accelerating ebb-tide phase (Fig. 5). Winds were from the northeast at 12.5
km/hr, and the seas were slightly choppy. Fluvial-sediment influx from the Nueces
River was at a moderate rate (352 g/sec). Mean water-column density (crt = 18.4)
along the transect was significantly lower than during both May and January. The
June turbidity structure is characterized by a homogeneously turbid bay head
sector (Station 2), with the rest of the Bay showing varying degrees of turbidity
stratification; the degree of stratification increases toward the tidal inlet. Relative
to the previously discussed observation dates, the most distinguishing environ¬
mental variable during June was a change in wind direction, with northeasterly
winds oriented essentially normal to the Bay’s longitudinal trend. In addition, the
tidal conditions during sampling were different.
Of importance are the more turbid conditions (41 mg/C) at the bayhead
(Station 2), relative to May turbidity (12 mg/C) when the rate of river sediment
influx was more than an order of magnitude greater. This is interpreted as being
largely the combined result of both a higher degree of sediment resuspension by
waves, and the more effective dispersal of turbid Nueces Bay waters into Corpus
Christi Bay by set-up effects and wind-drift currents generated by the north¬
easterly winds. It appears that, in addition to offshore winds, alongshore winds
parallel to the Gulf Coast which have strong northerly components also may be
effective agents for flushing out the Nueces Bay settling basin. In terms of sediment
concentrations (mg/C), overall mean transect turbidity was significantly higher
in June than during both May and October. This is attributed to the more effective
dispersal of turbid Nueces Bay water into Corpus Christi Bay, the greater observed
wave activity, and possibly to variations in tidal conditions.
August 9, 1976 Structure
The August turbidity structure formed during a waning flood tide, with
relatively weak (6.7 km/hr) southerly winds, and very calm sea state conditions
(Fig. 5). The sediment influx from the Nueces River was relatively high (2,774 g/sec),
being second only to the high-water stage influx during May. The mean water
density (at = 18.2) along the transect during August was significantly lower than
70
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
during January. The distinguishing environmental variables during August were the
southerly winds, high flu vial -sediment influx, and flood -tide conditions during
the entire sampling period. The August structure is characterized by a high degree
of stratification, apparently reflecting an absence of significant wave homogeni¬
zation. Similar to the May/June comparison, the relatively high fluvial-sediment
influx during August is associated with a lower concentration at Station 2 (20 mg/fi)
compared with the lower fluvial influx but higher Station 2 concentration (41
mg/fi) during June. Once again, this is attributed to the confinement of fluvial
sediments within Nueces Bay by set-up and currents generated by the onshore
southerly winds during June. The overall mean transect turbidity during August
was not significantly different than that of any other sampling period. However,
the tidal-inlet sector (Stations 6,7) had relatively cleaner waters than during any
other period, with transmissivity values (%T/0.25 m) reaching a maximum of
76% at Station 7. These were the most transparent conditions observed during
the study, probably reflecting the relatively long period of exchange by cleaner
flood-tide waters prior to sampling.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Turbidity characteristics along the longitudinal trend of Corpus Christi Bay
were highly variable in time and space. Transmissivity values (%T/0.25 m) of
the water column along the monitored transect ranged from zero to a maximum
of 76%. Longitudinal turbidity structures based on transmissivity ranged from a
vertically homogeneous water column, to a well -stratified column which had an
increasing turbidity gradient with depth; the structures changed with varying
ambient conditions. Sediment concentrations among individual transect stations
showed substantial spatial variability during a given sampling date, with standard
deviations ranging from 4.6 mg/£ in February to 17.7 mg/C in January. Temporally,
mean sediment concentrations along the entire transect ranged from 1 1 .8 mg/C
in October, to 27.3 mg/C in January. Mean transect concentrations were signif¬
icantly lower in October than during January, June, and February; they also
were significantly lower in May than during June and January.
Turbidity toward the bayhead sector appeared to be largely influenced by
wind, whereas the rate of fluvial -sediment influx from the Nueces River had no
discernible influence on bay turbidity. A working hypothesis is suggested whereby
sediment influx from the Nueces River enters adjacent Nueces Bay, which appears
to function as a shallow storage basin that entraps sediment at times when winds
have southerly or southeasterly onshore components. However, during periods
of westerly and northerly offshore or alongshore winds, set-up effects and wind-
drift currents appear to flush and disperse relatively turbid Nueces Bay waters
southward into the head of Corpus Christi Bay. In essence, the influx of fluvial
sediments into the estuarine system could be regulated mainly by wind direction.
Winds further influence turbidity structures by generating waves that resuspend
TURBIDITY STRUCTURE OF CORPUS CHRISTI BAY
71
bottom sediments, especially within the bayhead sector. Turbidity structures
toward the baymouth sector appear to be influenced largely by tidal-forcing
effects associated with Aransas Pass Inlet. Variations in mean density of the Bay’s
water column during the observed periods ranged from a maximum value (at = 22.0)
in January 1976, to a minimum value (at = 17.1) in February 1977; these density
variations had no discernible systematic effect on mean bay turbidity. Winds and
tides appeared to have been the dominant forcing agents influencing the observed
bay -turbidity structures. These observations are of a reconnaissance nature, and
more detailed future long-term monitoring of the Bay would be necessary to
verify the relationships suggested by the present study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author extends his appreciation to F. Firek, C. Stelting, B. Willingham,
and G. Harrison for field and laboratory assistance during the study.
LITERATURE CITED
Barr, A. J., J. H. Goodnight, J. P. Sail, and J. T. Helwig, 1976-/4 Users Guide to SAS-76.
SAS Inst. Inc., Raleigh, N. C., 329 pp.
Marmer, H. A., 1954-Tides and sea level in the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of Mexico, its origin,
waters and marine life. U. S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Bul¬
letin No. 89, pp. 101-108.
Schubel, J. R., 1971 -The classification of estuaries. In Schubel, J. R. (Conv.), The Estuarine
Environment-Estuaries and Estuarine Sedimentation. AGI Short Course Lecture Notes,
pp. II— 1—8.
Stommel, J., 1951 -Recent developments in the study of tidal estuaries. Woods Hole Oce¬
anographic Institution, Technical Report Reference No. 51-33.
Univ. of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, 1974-Environmental geologic atlas of the
Texas coastal zone. Corpus Christi Sheet, 1:125,000.
■
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS OF
THE LOWER RIO GRANDE, SOUTHWESTERN TEXAS1
by GERALD L. SHIDELER
U.S. Geological Survey
Corpus Christi 78411
and ROMEO M. FLORES
U.S. Geological Survey
Denver , CO 80225
ABSTRACT
The variability of heavy minerals in modern fluvial sediments of the Rio Grande between
El Paso and Brownsville, Texas, was studied in an effort to evaluate relative effects of
provenance and stream -transport processes on mineralogical composition. The heavy-mineral
assemblage is characterized as a pyroxene, hornblende, and opaque mineral suite, containing
minor quantities of epidote, tourmaline, garnet, and zircon. The 3 dominant minerals show
the greatest variability, as well as significant downstream trends over a 1400-km transport
distance. Stepforward regression analysis indicates a linear pyroxene trend attributed to
hydraulic shape sorting during transport. A curvilinear hornblende trend is attributed to both
shape sorting and to local hornblende-rich source rocks near El Paso, Texas. A curvilinear
opaque-mineral trend indicates both hydraulic density sorting and the presence of local
source rocks that are rich in opaque minerals within Big Bend National Park. Local variations
in relative mineral abundance are attributed to a combination of local source-rock differences
and hydraulic sorting effects. The heavy-mineral composition of the Rio Grande sediments
does not appear to be greatly affected by tributary influx from either the Pecos River or the
Rio Conchos.
INTRODUCTION
The Rio Grande is one of the major fluvial systems in the southwestern U.S.
The river originates within the southern Rocky Mountains of south-central
Colorado and flows southward through central New Mexico; it then flows south¬
eastward to the western Gulf of Mexico between southwestern Texas and north¬
eastern Mexico (Fig. 1 ). This study was concerned with evaluating the downstream
variability of heavy minerals in modern fluvial sediments along the lower Rio
Grande valley between El Paso, Texas and the Gulf of Mexico. Previous work on
Approved for publication by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
Accepted for publication: April 10, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 1, March, 1980.
74
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
105° 100°
Figure 1. Map of the lower Rio Grande valley study area showing locations of sample
stations.
fluvial heavy minerals near the present study area includes studies of the middle
Rio Grande in central New Mexico (Rittenhouse, 1943, 1944) and of the upper
Pecos River in New Mexico (Sid well, 1941). Heavy-mineral studies also have been
made of Rio Grande delta sediments and of adjacent Continental Shelf sediments
originally derived from the Rio Grande (e.g. van Andel and Poole, 1960; Flores
and Shideler, 1976; and Shideler and Flores, 1976).
The early work of Rittenhouse (1943) on heavy minerals of the Rio Grande
stressed the complex interrelationships between source rock characteristics and
transport processes that determine the heavy mineral distributions in fluvial
sediments. Ever since the introduction of the hydraulic equivalence concept by
Rubey (1933), it has been widely recognized that the hydraulic behavior of heavy
minerals is jointly influenced by their physical properties (size, shape, density),
availability, and the dynamics of the transporting medium. A discussion of the
interrelationships and influence of size, shape, and density on hydraulic sorting
has been presented by Briggs (1965). In his study, Briggs noted that deviations
from expected theoretical relationships among certain minerals observed in some
Tertiary sandstones could be explained on the basis of restricted size availability
of the anomalous mineral groups. The objective of the present study was to
evaluate the downstream variability of heavy minerals in the lower Rio Grande
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
75
over a distance of 1400 km, in an effort to gain insight into the relative importance
of source rocks and stream transport processes in establishing mineralogical com¬
position. Stream processes of particular interest were hydraulic sorting and trib¬
utary dilution.
METHODS
Field Techniques
Samples of modern fluvial sediments were obtained from 8 sample stations
along the lower Rio Grande between the mouth of the river at the Gulf of Mexico
and El Paso, Texas (Fig. 1). The sample stations are: Station 1— east of the city
of Brownsville about 8 km above the river mouth; Station 5— north side of the
City of Laredo; Station 7 --City of Del Rio; Station 9— Pecos River mouth, less
than 2 km above its junction with the Rio Grande Station 10 — Boquillas Canyon
area of Big Bend National Park; Station 11— City of Presidio below mouth of Rio
Conchos; Station 12— City of Presidio above mouth of Rio Conchos ; Station 13—
northwest side of the city of El Paso. The station numbering system is sequential,
but excludes some stations that were occupied for purposes other than heavy
mineral analysis.
At each station, 4 sediment samples were obtained several meters apart to
evaluate “within -station” mineral variability. Vertical channel samples were
acquired from the river bed and/or bank to determine average composition, using
a cylindrical sampling tube (10-cm dia. x 12-cm depth). All field sampling was
done within a 6-day period during a low -water stage of the river.
Analytical Techniques
In the laboratory, the field samples were dispersed and wet-sieved; the
63 jiim-125 jum (3 0 - 40) sand fractionswere then separated by sieving for heavy
mineral analysis. This narrow size range was used so that any mineral variations
resulting from grain-size effects would be constant among the sample stations,
thus accentuating variations resulting from mineral shape and density factors. The
very fine sand fractions were cleaned with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution
(10%), followed by thorough washing. Heavy -mineral separations were then
performed by the centrifuge-frozen bromoform method (e.g. Carver, 1971),
using a liquid nitrogen freezing agent. Heavy -mineral separation efficiency was
standardized by using the following constant conditions: (1) centrifugation at
constant speed (1200 rpm) and duration (20 min), (2) use of a standard bromoform
volume (15 ml), and (3) use of a standard sample size (1-2 gm). The separated
heavy-mineral fractions were weighed, and mounted on glass slides in a Lakeside
70 medium (RI = 1 .54).
Petrographic analysis consisted of identification and point-counts of heavy
mineral grains along random line traverses. A total of 200 translucent grains were
identified and point-counted, and an additional 100 grains were point-counted
to determine the percentage of opaque minerals. All point counting was done by
the same operator.
76
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The heavy-mineral percentages at the 8 sample stations were analyzed statis¬
tically to determine significant local and downstream mineral variations. Mineral
percentages at the individual stations were plotted as a function of distance from
the river mouth. Each mineral group was subjected to a stepforward regression
analysis to determine any significant downstream trends. This analysis consisted
of fitting polynomials in successive stages and testing for significance at each
stage. The mineral percentages were then fitted with the optimum least-square
regression equation at the 0.05 significance level. The regression analysis was
conducted by using a U.S. Geological Survey STATPAC computer program
(D0094). Significant local variations also were determined between individual
sample stations and selected groups of stations (Table 2); this evaluation was done
with a t-statistic test at the 95% confidence level, using aSAS1 computer program
(Barr, et al , 1976). Significant downstream and local variations were then inter¬
preted in terms of known geological conditions within the lower Rio Grande valley.
REGIONAL PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
The studied 1400-km sector of the lower Rio Grande extends from El Paso,
Texas, downstream to the river mouth near Brownsville, Texas. The mean annual
precipitation along the lower Rio Grande valley increases downstream from less
than 8 in (20 cm) near El Paso, to about 25 in (64 cm) near Brownsville. Normal
annual temperatures along the lower Rio Grande range from about 64 F (18 C)
in some sectors upstream from the Pecos River junction, to a high of about 74 F
(23 C) downstream from Laredo (Orton, 1969). Two major tributaries of the
lower Rio Grande are the Rio Conchos and the Pecos River, which respectively
join the Rio Grande near the towns of Presidio and Del Rio. The Pecos tributary
originates in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of northern New Mexico, and the
Rio Conchos originates in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Mexico.
The studied sector of the lower Rio Grande valley traverses 3 separate physio¬
graphic provinces that are progressively lower in relief downstream (e.g. U.S.
Dept. Interior, 1970). The river segment from El Paso to the east side of Big
Bend National Park (Stations 13-10) is within the Basin and Range Province,
which is characterized by mountain ranges and intervening plains. Elevations
above sea level are mostly within the 2,000-5,000 ft (610-1,524 m) range, but
some peaks are higher. The segment from Big Bend to approximately Del Rio
(Stations 10-7) is within the Great Plains Province, which is characterized by a
hilly terrain and elevations within the 1 ,000-2,000 ft (305-610 m) range. From
south of Del Rio to the Gulf of Mexico (Stations 5,1), the Rio Grande crosses
the nearly flat Gulf Coastal Plain Province, which slopes to sea level.
A generalized geologic map of the lower Rio Grande valley and adjacent areas
shows that different bedrock types are found within the 3 physiographic provinces
(Fig. 2). Local bedrock from El Paso to the Big Bend area (Basin and Range
1 Any trade names are used for descriptive purposes only and do not constitute endorsement
by the U.S. Geological Survey.
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
77
105°
100°
Figure 2. Generalized geologic map of the lower Rio Grande valley. Geology adapted
and generalized from the Geological Highway Map of Texas (Amer. Assoc.
Petroleum Geologists, 1973) and the Carta Geologica de la Republica Mexicana
(Sanchez Mejorada and Lopez-Ramos, 1968).
Province) is a relatively heterogeneous assemblage of sedimentary, igneous, and
metamorphic rocks that range in age from Quaternary to Precambrian. Abundant
Tertiary intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks are found in this province, and are
essentially absent from the provinces further downstream. As noted by Maxwell,
et al , (1967), a large concentration of these igneous rocks, which are composed
mainly of alkali basalt, riebeckite rhyolite, and granite, occurs within the Big
Bend area. These workers also noted the partial or complete alteration of the mafic
minerals from these rock types into limonite and brown opaque grains. Local
Precambrian rocks between El Paso and Presidio consist of metasedimentary
greenschist facies and amphibolite facies that are extensively veined by pegmatite
(King and Flawn, 1953). Several areas of outcropping Paleozoic carbonate and
clastic sedimentary rocks also occur near the Rio Grande, mainly on the northern
side; the only nearby Paleozoic outcrop in Mexico is in a small uplift traversed
by the Rio Conchos. The local bedrock is more homogenous near the Rio Grande
between the eastern Big Bend area and the Del Rio area (Great Plains Province)
than further upstream. The province is underlain mainly by Cretaceous strata
78
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
dominated by carbonate rocks (Figs. 3A, 3B). Downstream from the Cretaceous
outcrop belt lies the Gulf Coastal Plain; this province is underlain mainly by
heterogeneous Tertiary (Pliocene, Miocene, Eocene) and Quaternary clastic
sediments that decrease in age gulfward. In general, the lower Rio Grande valley
includes source rocks of a wide variety in terms of both age and lithology.
Figure 3. A. View toward Mexico of Rio Grande incised in Cretaceous strata of the Great
Plains Province just above the junction of the Pecos River; B. Upstream view
of Pecos River near its junction with the Rio Grande; C. Downstream view of
Rio Grande from small spillway near Presidio (Station 11) that causes local
turbulence; D. Local heavy-mineral concentration (dark band) along sand/gravel
river bank at Station 11, reflecting local hydraulic sorting effects immediately
downstream from spillway turbulence.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Total Heavy-Mineral Percentages
The total heavy-mineral content in fluvial sediments along the lower Rio
Grande varies greatly. The mean weight percentages of heavy minerals within the
studied size fraction (63-125 gm) at the 8 sample stations range from 0.8-18.3%.
Mean weight percentages at individual stations are as follows: Station 1 - 1.0%,
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
79
Station 5 - 2.6%, Station 7 - 15.2%, Station 9 - 0.8%, Station 10 - 5.1%, Station
11 - 18.3%, Station 12 -2.3%, Station 13 - 7.2%.
No well-defined downstream trend in total heavy -mineral percentages is
apparent, and most of the variability is probably attributable to local hydraulic
sorting effects. An illustrative example is Station 11 at Presidio, which has the
highest heavy mineral content (Figs. 3C, 3D). At this station, turbulence resulting
from a small man-made spillway has resulted in the local fractionation and con¬
centration of heavy minerals immediately downstream from it. Similar effects
from natural turbulence probably have contributed to the variability at other
sample stations. The lowest heavy -mineral content occurs at Station 9, suggesting
that effluent from the Pecos River tributary is relatively deficient in heavy minerals
compared to that of the Rio Grande.
The heavy -mineral assemblage of the lower Rio Grande is differentiated into
8 mineral groups: pyroxene, hornblende, epidote, tourmaline, garnet, zircon,
opaque minerals, and miscellaneous minerals. The miscellaneous group includes
minerals that occur in very minor quantities and consists of rutile, kyanite,
staurolite, and micas.
The mean percentages of each mineral group at individual sample stations are
given in Table 1 . Quantitatively, the opaque minerals represent the most abundant
group; they consist mainly of limonite, ilmenite, hematite, and magnetite. The
opaque -mineral content ranges from 37.0% at Station 1 to 66.0% at Stationll.
The pyroxene group is second in abundance, and contents range from 13.8% at
Station 9 to 27.9% at Station 1. The pyroxene group consists mostly of augite,
but also contains a minor amount of hypersthene. The hornblendes are the next
most abundant group, ranging from 5.8% at Station 10 to 27.5% at Station 1.
The hornblendes consist of both brown and subordinate green varieties. On the
average, the brown variety constitutes about two-thirds of the hornblende group.
The remaining 5 mineral groups are much less abundant, and no individual group
exceeds 8% at any of the sample stations. Of these minor groups, zircon is most
abundant, and tourmaline is genetically significant. The tourmaline group consists
of both brown and blue (indicolite) varieties; the latter variety is derived chiefly
from pegmatites (Krynine, 1946). On the basis of the foregoing, the lower Rio
Grande heavy-mineral assemblage is dominated by opaque minerals, pyroxene,
and hornblende.
TABLE 1
Mean Percentages of Mineral Groups at Individual Sample Stations
Station
Pyroxene
Hornblende
Epidote
Tourmaline
Garnet
Zircon
Misc.
Opaque
1
27.9
27.5
0.5
2.5
1.1
0.9
1.8
37.0
5
22.2
12.1
3.9
2.0
2.4
5.1
1.7
50.0
7
16.0
6.1
2.5
1.2
1.6
6.3
0.9
64.5
9
13.8
24.2
3.3
3.7
2.3
7.2
1.8
43.0
10
22.1
5.8
1.7
0.8
1.2
5.1
1.3
61.0
11
19.4
5.9
1.7
0.7
1.0
3.6
1.2
66.0
12
16.8
9.8
1.9
1.0
1.6
4.0
2.2
62.2
13
13.9
19.0
2.2
2.0
1.6
5.6
1.3
53.7
80
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
In terms of the more abundant components, the lower Rio Grande suite is
similar to the middle Rio Grande suite of central New Mexico, as described by
Rittenhouse (1944). The more abundant heavy minerals of the middle Rio
Grande suite are magnetite, ilmenite, pyroxene, epidote, and hornblende. The
only significant disparity is epidote, which is subordinate to zircon in the lower
Rio Grande suite.
Total Variability
The total percentage variability of each of the 8 identified heavy mineral
groups is illustrated by longitudinal plots of mineral mean percentages at the 8
sample stations along the studied 1400-km length of the Rio Grande (Fig. 4).
Station 9 is included in the plots to illustrate differences in heavy -mineral assem¬
blages between the Rio Grande channel and the mouth of the Pecos River tribu¬
tary. The total percentage variability illustrated by the longitudinal plots is the
net result of combined downstream, local, and random variation effects. Greatest
total percentage variability is shown by the opaque minerals, hornblende, and
pyroxene groups, which are also the most abundant constituents. Local variations
in abundances of opaque minerals and hornblende tend to be greatest in the
vicinity of the Pecos River junction (Station 9). In comparison with nearby suites
from the Rio Grande, the suite from the Pecos River is rich in hornblende, and
deficient in opaque minerals and pyroxene. Variations in the relative abundance
of the remaining 5 mineral groups are minor, partially reflecting their uncommon
occurrence.
In general, only minor chemical weathering effects on ferromagnesian minerals
were noted petrographically during this study. The relatively minor influence of
both selective weathering and abrasion on minerals of the Rio Grande assemblage
during transport also had been previously noted by Rittenhouse (1943). Therefore,
it appears that the observed mineral variability is mainly attributable to source
rock and hydraulic effects.
Downstream Trends
In an effort to differentiate significant systematic downstream trends in mineral
composition, the mineral percentages of 33 individual samples obtained at the
8 stations were plotted as a function of distance from the river mouth. The data
were then fitted with an optimum least-square regression equation by using
stepforward regression analysis. The regression analysis indicates that only the 3
most abundant mineral groups (pyroxene, hornblende, opaque minerals) show
significant downstream trends at the 0.05 probability level along the 1400-km
segment of the Rio Grande from El Paso to Brownsville (Fig. 5).
The pyroxenes show a trend of increasing percentages downstream. This trend
is best characterized by the linear regression equation (Y = 25 .07 - 1 .22X), which
suggests that 31% of the total pyroxene variability can be accounted for by distance
of transport. Because the most prolific source of pyroxene is probably crystalline
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENT
81
%
if) °
LU ,o
ft 0
DOWNSTREAM
Km
Miscellaneous
Zircon
Garnet
Tourmaline
Epidote
l
Brownsville
5 79 10 II 12
SAMPLE STATIONS
13
El Paso
Figure 4. Longitudinal graphs illustrating total variability of mineral mean percentages
between El Paso and Brownsville; Station 9 is the Pecos River mouth.
bedrock of the upper Rio Grande, the systematic downstream increase in pyroxene
is interpreted as a trend resulting largely from fluvial suspension-transport proc¬
esses. Hydraulic sorting by shape during suspension could result in the preferential
transport and downstream concentration of the relatively bladed pyroxene grains.
82
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
-« — DOWNSTREAM
0 500
I ■ ■ . i _ I
k m
1^ 5 7 9 10 II 12 _ 13
STATION LOCATIONS
Figure 5. Least-square regression curves illustrating significant regional trends along the
lower Rio Grande at the 0.05 probability level; Station 9 is the Pecos River
mouth. A. Pyroxene trend; B. Hornblende trend; C. Opaque-mineral trend.
The independent variable (X) values in the regression equations are in hundreds
of mi.
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
83
The remaining 69% of unexplained pyroxene variability is attributed to a combi¬
nation of local hydraulic sorting and source-rock effects, sampling and analytical
variability, and random error.
The downstream trend in the percentages of hornblende-group minerals is
best characterized by a 5th -degree polynomial equation (Y = 25.37 - 3.50X +
0.00045X5), in which distance of transport accounts for 42% of the total horn¬
blende variability. The observed curvilinear trend shows a percentage minimum
in the Big Bend area (Station 10,11 , 12), and both an upstream and a downstream
increase in hornblende. Similar to the pyroxene trend, the downstream increase
in hornblende below the Big Bend area is interpreted as mainly reflecting hydraulic
shape sorting during suspension that resulted in a downstream concentration of
bladed hornblende grains. The increase in hornblende upstream from the Big Bend
toward El Paso (Station 13) is attributed to provenance; it could reflect the local
influx of a hornblende-rich mineral assemblage derived from Tertiary volcanic
source rocks near El Paso and farther north within the New Mexico drainage
basin. The remaining 58% of unexplained hornblende variability is attributed to
a combination of local hydraulic sorting and source-rock effects, sampling and
analytical variability, and random error.
The downstream trend of the opaque-mineral group is best characterized by
a 7th-degree polynomial regression equation (Y = 38. 28 + 4.20X- 0.000005 IX7),
in which distance of transport accounts for 43% of the total opaque-mineral
variability. The curvilinear downstream trend shows a percentage maximum near
the Big Bend area, and is largely the inverse of the hornblende trend. The opaque-
mineral trend, like the hornblende trend, is interpreted as the combined result
of both provenance and suspension-transport processes. The high percentages
within the Big Bend area (Station 10, 1 1 , 12) are attributed to the local abundance
of opaque minerals derived from Tertiary igneous source rocks. However, the
subsequent downstream reduction in opaque minerals is attributed mainly to
hydraulic density sorting during transport. The relatively high -density opaque
minerals would tend to be concentrated locally near the prolific Big Bend source
area, and to decrease in abundance with transport downstream. The remaining
57% of unexplained opaque-mineral variability is attributed once again to a
combination of local hydraulic sorting and source -rock effects, sampling and
analytical variability, and random error.
The reason for the absence of significant downstream trends among the other
5 mineral groups is conjectural, but is probably related to their minor quantitative
importance. At such low levels of occurrence (<8%), any downstream trends
may be completely obscured by local and random variation.
The observed downstream trends of the pyroxene, hornblende, and opaque
minerals are in agreement with similar trends exhibited by amphiboles and opaque
minerals in the Godavari River of India (Naidu, 1964), and by hornblende and
pyroxene in some short -headed streams of western New York (Flores, 1971).
These studies attributed trends in these mineral groups to hydraulic sorting by
shape and density factors. However, the observed hornblende and pyroxene
84
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
trends along the lower Rio Grande are in contrast to the situation along the lower
Mississippi River. The same 2 heavy mineral groups are major components of the
Mississippi River assemblage, but they exhibit no downstream trends over ap¬
proximately a 900 -km transport distance between Cairo and New Orleans
(Russell, 1937; Davies and Moore, 1970). The reason for this contrast between
the 2 fluvial systems is conjectural. However, some possibilities include: 1) dif¬
ferences in hydraulic characteristics of the 2 rivers, 2) differences in availability
of the 2 mineral groups along the length of the drainage basins, or 3) a combi¬
nation of the 2 forgoing factors.
Local Variability
In an effort to gain additional insight into local sources of heavy -mineral
variations, the mineral mean percentages at individual sample stations were selec¬
tively grouped and compared. Significant compositional differences were then
established at the 95% confidence level by a t-statistic test (Table 2), and dif¬
ferences were interpreted in terms of known geologic conditions. Comparisons
were made at 3 levels: 1) source-rock province comparison, 2) stream-sector
comparisons, and 3) individual station comparisons.
Source-rock province comparison : The lower Rio Grande sample stations
were grouped into 2 provinces characterized by basically different bedrock
materials. A downstream province extending from Brownsville to Del Rio (Stations
1+5+7) is essentially a sedimentary province. These sedimentary deposits range
in age from Quaternary to Cretaceous, and are predominantly clastic sediments;
the province is essentially devoid of crystalline igneous-metamorphic source
rocks. In contrast, an upstream source -rock province extending from Boquillas
Canyon in the Big Bend National Park to El Paso (Stations 10+11+12+13)
contains a relatively large proportion of crystalline rocks, largely Tertiary igneous
rocks. The collective mineral assemblages from sample stations within these 2
provinces were statistically compared to evaluate the influence of their contrasting
local source rocks (Table 2).
The comparison indicates that significant differences between the 2 source-
rock provinces are found in only 2 of the 8 mineral groups, namely, the opaque-
mineral group and the tourmaline group. The mineral assemblage from the up¬
stream crystalline-rich province is significantly higher in opaque minerals and
lower in tourmaline than the assemblage from the downstream province. Individual
station comparisons indicate that these differences are not the result of tributary
influx, as discussed in a subsequent section. The higher content of opaque minerals
in samples from the upstream province is in agreement with the opaque -mineral
downstream trend, suggesting provenance effects reflecting the local abundance
of opaques derived from igneous source rocks within the Big Bend area, as well
as reinforcing secondary downstream effects from subsequent hydraulic density
sorting. The higher concentration of tourmaline in the downstream sedimentary
province could be anticipated from the recycled nature of the sedimentary clastic
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
85
Results of t-:
TABLE 2
statistic Tests for Station Comparisons of Mean Mineral Percentages
STATION COMPARISON: 1+5+7 vs 10+11+12+13
(d.f. = 28,^05 = 2.04)
Significant Mineral
Differences
Mean Percentages
t-value
Tourmaline
Opaque
^1+5+7 = 2.40, ^10+11+12+13 = 1.55
xl+5+7 = 50.50, x10+ll+12+13 = 60.77
2.69
2.82
STATION COMPARISON: 1+5+7 vs 10+11
(d.f. = 20, 1.05 = 2.08)
Hornblende
xl+5+7 = 15.29^10+11 = 5.90
3.02
Tourmaline
xl+5+7 = 2.40, x10+ll = 1.29
3.49
Garnet
3 1+5+7 = 1.73, XJ_0+11 = 1.15
2.13
Opaque
xl+5+7 = 50.50, x10+ll = 63.00
STATION COMPARISON: 1+5+7 vs
(d.f. = 18, t.05 = 2.10)
12+13
2.84
Pyroxene
X1+5+7 = 22.08, x12+13 = 15.37
STATION COMPARISON: 10+11 vs
(d.f. = 16, 1.05 = 2.12)
12+13
2.73
Pyroxene
Xio+11 = 21.05^x12+13 = 15.37
3.00
Hornblende
x10+ll = 5.90, x12+13 = 14.41
STATION COMPARISON: 1 vs
(d.f. = 6, 1.05 = 2.44)
7
4.22
Pyroxene
xl = 27.97, x7 = 16.05
4.96
Hornblende
xl = 27.55^7 = 6.15
11.58
Epidote
X1 = 0.57,32 = 2.57
3.24
Garnet
X1 = 1.12X7= 1.65
2.48
Zircon
X1 = 0.90, x7 = 6.30
6.95
Opaque
xl = 37.0037 = 64.00
5.97
STATION COMPARISON: 5 vs 7
(d.f. = 6, ^05 = 2.44)
Hornblende
35 = 12.1737 = 6.15
3.82
Opaque
x5 = 50.00, x7 = 64.50
2.94
STATION COMPARISON: 1 vs 5
(d.f. - 6, t.05 = 2.44)
Hornblende
3l = 27.5535= 12.17
10.24
Epidote
X1 = 0.5735 = 2.92
7.86
Garnet
3l = 1.12,35 = 2.42
2.70
Zircon
31 = 0.90, x£= 5.12
9.47
Opaque
xl = 37.00, x5 = 50.00
2.88
86
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Table 2 (Continued)
Significant Mineral
Differences
Mean Percentages
t-value
Pyroxene
STATION COMPARISON: 9 vs 10
(d.f. = 8, t.05 = 2.30)
x9 = 13.87, x10 = 22.11
5.42
Hornblende
x9 = 24.25, x10= 5.85
3.84
Epidote
x9= 3.30, x10 = 1.78
2.64
Tourmaline
x9= 3.75, x10 = 0.83
4.64
Garnet
x9 = 2.35, x10= 1.23
2.31
Opaque
x9 = 43.00, x10= 61.00
2.85
Hornblende
STATION COMPARISON: 10 vs 11
(d.f. = 8, 1.05 = 2.30)
No Significant Mineral Differences
STATION COMPARISON : 1 1 vs 1 2
(d.f. = 6, t.05 = 2.44)
xll = 5.97, x12 = 9.80
3.00
Hornblende
STATION COMPARISON: 12 vs 13
(d.f. = 6, f05 = 2.44)
x12 = 9.80, x13 = 19.02
3.34
Garnet
STATION COMPARISON: 7 vs 10
(d.f. = 6, f 05 = 2.44)
x7 = 1.65, x10= 1.12
3.13
deposits. This local source-rock effect might have been augmented by transport
effects resulting froiji shape sorting, whereby the elongated tourmaline grains
would tend to be concentrated downstream. These 2 conditions working in concert
could explain the significant downstream increase in the relatively minor tourmaline
group. The blue indicolite tourmaline variety found in fluvial sediments from the
downstream sedimentary province was probably derived from pegmatitic source
rocks between El Paso and Presidio within the upstream crystalline -rich province.
The absence of significant provincial differences among the quantitatively
important pyroxene and hornblende groups is noteworthy. If provincial source-
rock composition was the dominant factor in controlling their variability, signifi¬
cantly higher concentrations of both pyroxene and hornblende should be found
in sediments from the upstream province where crystalline rocks are abundant.
However, since thisisnot true, hydraulic sorting appears to have been the dominant
factor controlling the well-defined downstream trends of pyroxene and hornblende.
In essence, any local provincial variations in pyroxene and hornblende that might
have been attributed to provenance appear to have been obscured by opposing
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
87
effects resulting from subsequent transport processes; the bladed pyroxene and
hornblende grains were probably concentrated downstream by hydraulic shape
sorting. The absence of detectable provincial differences among the other minor
mineral groups (epidote, garnet, zircon, misc.) might be partially attributed to
the low levels of their occurrence; however, their absence also supports the infer¬
ence that provincial variations in source rocks were of only minor importance in
establishing the total heavy -mineral variability.
Stream-sector comparisons . A second method of evaluating local variability
in mineral percentages along the Rio Grande is to compare mineral content in
3 geographic sectors of the river channel, arbitrarily defined as follows: 1. lower
sector- -from the mouth of the Rio Grande at Brownsville to Del Rio (Stations
1+5+7); 2. middle sector-- the Big Bend area, from Boquillas Canyon to just
below the mouth of the Rio Conchos tributary at Presidio (Stations 10+11);
and 3. upper sector — from just above the mouth of the Rio Conchos tributary
at Presidio to El Paso (Stations 12+13). Statistical comparisons of the collective
mineral assemblages from the 3 stream sectors were conducted to determine
significant differences. A comparison of the lower and middle sectors showed
significant differences in the following 4 mineral groups: hornblende, tourmaline,
garnet, and opaque minerals. Relative to the middle sector, the lower sector
contains significantly more hornblende, tourmaline, and garnet, but significantly
less opaque minerals. The relationships of both hornblende and opaque minerals
in these sectors are in agreement with their respective downstream trends, which
indicate hydraulic sorting according to shape and density during suspension
transport. Shape sorting could also explain the tourmaline relationship, although
the significance of the garnet relationship is enigmatic.
A comparison of heavy minerals in the middle and upper sectors of the Rio
Grande showed significant differences in both pyroxene and hornblende. The
middle sector has a higher pyroxene content and a lower hornblende content
than the upper sector, thus agreeing with the downstream trends of the 2 minerals.
The higher pyroxene content in the middle sector is attributed to downstream
concentration by shape sorting, whereas the lower hornblende content might be
attributed to anomalously high local concentrations of hornblende in waters
in fluxing from near and above El Paso.
Individual-station comparisons . A third method of evaluating local mineral
variability is to compare selected pairs of individual sample stations for significant
differences. Within the sedimentary province of the lower sector of the Rio Grande
(Stations 1+5+7), comparisons were made between each pair of sample stations.
Sediment samples from the Del Rio Station (7) are significantly lower in hornblende
and higher in opaques than those from both the Laredo (5) and Brownsville (1)
Stations; the Del Rio samples are also significantly lower in pyroxene than are
Brownsville samples. These relationships are consistent with the opaque mineral,
88
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
hornblende, and pyroxene downstream trends that indicate hydraulic sorting by
shape and density; this interpretation is further supported by a significantly
higher content of opaque minerals and a lower content of hornblende in samples
from the Laredo Station relative to samples from the Brownsville Station. The
Del Rio samples are also significantly higher in zircon, epidote, and garnet than
are samples from the Brownsville Station; these differences could be caused by
local hydraulic sorting effects, local source rock effects, or a combination of
both. A comparison of sediment samples from the Laredo (5) and Brownsville (1)
Stations also shows the same significant upstream increase in zircon, epidote,
and garnet. Inasmuch as the Laredo and Brownsville Stations both occur in basically
similar bedrock (Cenozoic clastic sediments), this consistent relationship suggests
that the variability of the minor mineral groups also may be controlled dominantly
by hydraulic sorting.
A comparison of sediment samples from the Pecos River Station (9) and from
the Big Bend area Station (10) shows substantial differences in the 2 mineral
assemblages. Sediments from the Pecos are significantly richer in hornblende,
epidote, tourmaline, and garnet; whereas the Big Bend sediments are richer in
pyroxenes and opaque minerals. These differences could reflect provenance
and/or distance of transport. It should be noted that the regional trend reversals
in opaques and hornblende occur downstream from the Pecos River mouth, and
would be compatible with dilution effects from the influx of Pecos sediment.
Therefore, in order to evaluate this possibility, a comparison was made of samples
from Rio Grande Stations immediately below (Station 7) and above (Station 10)
the mouth of the Pecos River. Any net downstream changes in the Rio Grande
mineral assemblage resulting from Pecos dilution effects should be most pronounced
between these 2 stations. However, this comparison shows that the only statistically
significant difference is in garnet content, which is higher downstream from the
Pecos River junction, in agreement with the station 9-10 comparison. The notable
absence of significant differences among the major mineral groups (pyroxene,
hornblende, opaque minerals) illustrates that net mineralogical effects of Pecos
River sediment influx on the Rio Grande assemblage are minimal. In view of the
substantial contrast in the opaque-hornblende-pyroxene contents of the 2 assem¬
blages, the absence of local net downstream changes in these dominant minerals
suggests that the quantity of sediment influx from the Pecos was insufficient to
modify the basic characteristics of the Rio Grande assemblage. This inference is
supported by surface measurements of suspended sediment concentrations taken
concurrently with the heavy -mineral sampling which showed only 20 mg/1 of
Pecos influx at Station 9, compared to 2356 mg/1 of Rio Grande sedimen t measured
upstream at Station 10. This great contrast in sediment load (2 orders of magnitude)
could explain the inability of the Pecos influx to significantly modify the pro¬
portions of the more abundant mineral species within the relatively turbid Rio
Grande. If any Pecos River dilution effects have contributed to the regional
opaque and hornblende trends, they appear to be subordinate to the hydraulic
sorting effects.
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
89
Within the middle and upper Rio Grande sectors, a comparison of sediment
samples from the Big Bend Station (10) with samples from the Presidio Station
below the mouth of the Rio Conchos (1 1) shows no significant differences, thus
suggesting relatively uniform conditions throughout the Big Bend area. A com¬
parison of samples from the 2 Presidio Stations (11 and 12) is used to evaluate
the influence of sediment influx from the Rio Conchos. The only observed dif¬
ference between samples from the 2 stations is that sediments from the station
above the Rio Conchos have a significantly higher content of hornblende. This
suggests possible local dilution of the Rio Grande mineral assemblage by a horn¬
blende-deficient Rio Conchos assemblage; however, the Rio Conchos does not
appear to have any other significant effect. A comparison of sediment samples
from the upper Presidio Station (12) with samples from the El Paso Station (13)
indicates only a significantly higher content of hornblende at El Paso, which is
consistent with the downstream hornblende trend.
CONCLUSIONS
The heavy -mineral assemblage of the Rio Grande between Brownsville and
El Paso, Texas is dominated by opaque minerals, pyroxene, and hornblende.
Minor components include epidote, tourmaline, garnet, and zircon. The 3 dominant
mineral groups have the greatest total variability , including significant downstream
trends over a 1400 -km transport distance. A downstream linear trend of increasing
pyroxene accounts for 31% of the total pyroxene variability; it appears to reflect
hydraulic sorting by shape during suspension transport. The downstream curvilinear
trend of hornblende, which accounts for 42% to total hornblende variability,
shows lowest percentages within the Big Bend area. A downstream increase in
hornblende content below the Big Bend is attributed to hydraulic shape sorting,
whereas an upstream increase is attributed to local hornblende-rich volcanic
source rocks near El Paso and in New Mexico. The downstream curvilinear trend
of opaque minerals accounts for 43% of the total opaque -mineral variability.
The trend shows maximum contents within the Big Bend area, reflecting a local
abundance of opaque minerals derived from igneous source rocks. A downstream
reduction in opaque minerals is attributed to hydraulic density sorting during
transport. The unexplained downstream variability of the 3 dominant mineral
groups (pyroxene - 69%, hornblende - 58%, opaque minerals -57%) is attributed
to a combination of local hydraulic sorting and source -rock effects, sampling
and analytical variability, and random error. The minor mineral groups show
relatively low variability and no significant downstream trends. In the establish¬
ment of downstream trends, the effects of hydraulic sorting during transport
appear to dominate the effects of regional source rocks. Local mineral variability
along the Rio Grande is partially attributed both to local source rock differences
and to local hydraulic sorting effects. Dilution effects resulting from the influx
of sediment to the Rio Grande from both the Pecos River and Rio Conchos ap¬
pear to be of only minor importance in contributing to the total variability of
the Rio Grande heavy -mineral assemblage.
90
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The observed downstream trends have relevance to stratigraphic studies of
ancient fluvial sandstones, especially in relation to provenance determinations
and lithostratigraphic correlations based on relative proportions of heavy minerals.
The initial proportions of heavy minerals in the source area, as established by
source rock composition, can be progressively modified down paleoslope because
of the cumulative effects of hydraulic sorting by shape and density. Consequently,
these effects must be considered when formulating inferences regarding source
rock composition. In addition, caution must be exercised in establishing litho¬
stratigraphic correlations based on mineral percentages. It is apparent that proximal
and distal sections of the same fluvial sandstone can exhibit substantially different
proportions of heavy minerals, with the proximal sections most closely reflecting
the true composition of the original source rocks. Lastly, this study illustrates
the potentially “noisy”nature of fluvial heavy-mineral assemblages within the
stratigraphic record, whereby much of the regional variability actually may result
from nonsystematic and indeterminable causative factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writers express their appreciation to A. T. Miesch, U.S. Geological Survey,
for assistance in the application of computer programs used in this study. Appre¬
ciation is also expressed to D. K. Davies, Texas Tech University, for reviewing
the manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1973 -Geologic Highway Map of Texas, Map
No. 7.
Barr, A. J., J. H. Goodnight, J. P. Sail, and J. T. Helwig, 1976-/J User’s Guide to SAS-76.
SAS Inst. Inc., Raleigh, N. C., N. N., 329 pp.
Briggs, L. I., 1976-Heavy mineral correlations and provenances. J. Sed. Petrol , 35:939.
Carver, R. E., 1971 -Heavy mineral separation.//? R. E. Carver (Ed.), Procedures in Sediment¬
ary Petrology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y., 653 pp.
Davies, D. K., and W. R. Moore, 1970-Dispersal of Mississippi sediment in the Gulf of Mexico.
J. Sed. Petrol, 40:339.
Flores, R. M., 1971 -Variations in heavy -mineral composition during transport of short¬
headed stream sands (abst.). AAPG-SEPM Ann. Mtg. Program, Houston, Texas, pp. 338.
- , and G. L. Shideler, 1976-Concentrating processes of heavy minerals on the outer
continental shelf off southern Texas, Gulf of Mexico (abst.). Geol. Soc. Am. Prog., 8:868.
King, P. B., and P. T. Flawn, 195 3 -Geology and mineral deposits of Pre-Cambrian rocks of
the Van Horn area, Texas. Univ. of Texas Pub. 5301, Austin, Texas, 218 pp.
Krynine, P. D., 1946-Tourmaline group in sediments./. Geol. , 54:65.
HEAVY-MINERAL VARIABILITY IN FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
91
Maxwell, R. A., J. T. Lonsdale, R. T. Hazzard, and J. A. Wilson, 1967-Geology of Big Bend
National Park, Brewster County, Texas. Univ. of Texas Publ. 6711, Austin, Texas 320 pp.
Naidu, A. S., 1964— Lithologic and chemical facies changes in the recent deltaic sediments
of the Godavari River, India. Deltas in Their Geologic Framework . Houston Geol. Soc.,
pp. 125-157.
Orton, R. B., 1969-Climates of the States-Texas. Climatography of the United States, U.S.
Dept, of Commerce, 46 pp.
Rittenhouse, Gordon, 1943 -Transportation and deposition of heavy minerals. Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. , 54:1725.
- , 1944-Sources of modern sands in the middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico.
J. Geol, 52:145.
Rubey, W. W., 193 3 -The size-distribution of heavy minerals within a water-laid sandstone.
J. Sed. Petrol. ,3:3.
Russell, R. D., 1937 -Mineral composition of Mississippi River sands. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.,
48:1307.
Sanchez Mejorada, S. H., and Ernesto Lopez-Ramos, 1968-Carta geologica de la Republica
Mexicana. Comite de la Carta Geologica de Mexico, 1 : 2,000,000.
Shideler, G. L., and R. M. Flores, 1976-Maps showing distribution of heavy minerals of the
South Texas Outer Continental Shelf. U.S. Geol. Survey, Misc. Field Studies Map MF-84 1.
Sidwell, R. G., 1941 -Sediments of Pecos River, New Mexico./. Sed. Petrol., 11:80.
U.S. Department of Interior, 1970 -Physiographic divisions of the United States. The National
Atlas of the United States. Washington, D. C., 417 pp.
van Andel, Tj. H., and D. H. Poole, 1960-Sources of recent sediments in the northern Gulf
of Mexico. J. Sed. Petrol. , 30:91 .
NOTES SECTION
2 -ALKYL -3-(2-PYRIDYL)-CINCHONINIC ACIDS. Eldon H. Sund, Robert £
Cashon, and Rodney L. Taylor, Department of Chemistry, Midwestern State University,
Wichita Falls 76308.
Seven 2-alkyl-3-(2-pyridyl)-cinchoninic adds (2-alkyl-3-(2-pyridyl)-4-carboxyquino-
lines) were prepared by the interaction of the requisite l-(2-pyridyl)-2-alkanone with isatin
under Pfitzinger conditions (W. Pfitzinger, 1886,/. Prakt. Chem. , 33(2): 100) as modified
by Henze and Carroll (H. R. Henze and D. W. Carroll, 1954,/. Amer. Chem. Soc., 76:4580).
Table 1 lists yield, decomposition temperature, and elemental analyses for these 2-alkyl-3-
(2-pyridyl)-cinchoninic acids.
TABLE 1
2-Alky 1-3 -(2-Pyridyl)-Cinchoninic Acids
R
%
Yield
Decomposition
Temperature
°C±1%
C
Calculated
H N
C
Analyses
Found
H
N
ch3
49
234
72.73
4.55
10.61
72.26
4.67
10.90
c2h3
43
228
73.38
5.04
10.07
73.14
5.29
9.94
«-c3h7
60
202
73.97
5.49
9.59
74.01
5.65
9.41
iso-C3H7
88
207
73.97
5.49
9.59
73.89
5.61
9.31
n- C4H9
69
190
74.48
5.93
9.15
74.18
5.78
9.01
iso-C4H9
44
176
74.48
5.93
9.15
74.38
5.99
8.95
ft-CsHi 1
83
112
75.00
6.25
8.75
74.70
6.24
8.47
Experimental
The l-(2-pyridyl)-2-alkanones were synthesized (T. L. Gore, H. N. Rogers, Jr., R. M.
Schumacher, E. H. Sund and T. J. Weaver, 1971,/ Chem . Eng. Data , 16:491), while the re¬
mainder of the reactants were obtained commercially and used without further purification.
Elemental analyses were performed by the Huffman Microanaly tical Laboratories, Wheatridge,
CO. Melting points determined in either open or sealed capillaries resulted in a slow, indistinct
decomposition over a wide temperature range which varied with rate of heating. Sharp de¬
composition points were recorded using a PTC melting point meter (Hot Bench). The ac¬
curacy of the meter is ± 1%. The following example illustrates the general procudure for the
synthesis of the 2-alky l-3-(2-pyridyl)-cinchoninic acids.
2-Pen tyl-3-(2-Pyridyl)- Cinchoninic A cid
A mixture of 7.3 g (0.05 mole) isatin, 10.0 g (0.05 mole + 5% excess) of l-(2-pyridyl)-
2-heptanone, and 25 ml of a 34% KOH in a 50% ethanol-water solution and 40 ml of water
was stirred on a steam bath for 72 hr. The solvent was removed by a water aspirator until a
moist paste remained, which was dissolved in water, and the solution extracted with ether to
94
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
remove any unreacted ketone. Addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid to pH 8.0 produced
a small amount of brownish gray, noncombustible matter, which was discarded. Further
addition of concentrated HC1, to pH 5.5, resulted in the formation of a thick, yellow-tan
precipitate which was removed by filtration. The 6.6 g (83%) of the crude 2-pentyl-3-
(2-pyridyl)-cinchoninic acid, thus obtained, was treated with activated charcoal and recrys¬
tallized from 95% ethyl alcohol (dec. point 112 C).
We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the Robert A. Welch Foundation (Grant
No. AO-413 ). -Reviewed by: Dr. John Fitch, Southwest Texas State University, Department
of Chemistry, San Marcos 78666, and Dr. G. A. Crowder, Department of Chemistry, West
Texas State University, Canyon 79016.
CENTRAL TEXAS BREEDING OF THE AMERICAN WOODCOCK, PHILOHELA
MINOR. Doyle T. Mosier and Robert F. Martin, Texas Memorial Museum and Dept, of
Zoology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin 78705.
Few breeding records for the American Woodcock ( Philohela minor) exist for Texas.
Peterson (1960, A Field Guide to the Birds of Texas , Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston, MA,
304 pages) characterized the species as a rare breeder in the eastern portions of the state, and
Oberholser (1974-77ze Bird Life of Texas. E. B. Kincaid, (Ed.), Univ. Texas Press, Austin TX,
1096 pp.) recorded only 7 instances of its nesting in east Texas. Additional records for eastern
Texas (Brazos County, Feb. 27, 1959) were provided by Davis (1961, Auk, 78:272). Recently,
Pulich ( 1977 , Bull. Tex. Ornith. Soc., 10:44) reported 2 nests, each with 4 eggs, on Feb. 27,
1977 near Van, Smith County, in northeast Texas, and Cain, et al., (1977, Bull. Tex. Ornith.
Soc. , 10:46) provided a south Texas observation of an adult with 2 young on Mar. 19, 1977.
Only a single early record (eggs collected; Jan. 28, 1888, G. B. Benners) cited in Oberholser
(1974), exists for the Edwards, Plateau in the central portion of the state.
Here we confirm breeding of this species in central Texas with the following observations
made by the authors in a suburban area on Feb. 27, 1979: The site is located 0.6 km E.
Austin, Travis County, approximately 0.4 km S. of the Highway 290 bridge over Walnut
Creek. At 11:00 hr., Mosier flushed an adult P. minor from the proximity of 4 downy young.
The adult landed approximately 10 m distant, and moved away from the area. The young
initially were grouped together in a shallow gully with short grass and leaf litter in a pecan
( Carya illinoinensis ) bottomland, approximately 30 m E. Walnut Creek. Uttering low vocal¬
izations, the young began slowly to move away from the site and from one another while in
our presence.
After leaving the site, we returned at 16:00 hr. After a brief search, Martin located the
adult in crouched position with 2 young beneath and concealed by a small shrub, approxi¬
mately 7 m from the site of initial observation. The adult flushed when Mosier approached
to within 0.7 m; it feigned injury while moving away from the site after landing.
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THE CARLEMAN-FOURIER TRANSFORM OF A PRODUCT
by RONALD M. ANDERSON
Department of Mathematics
Texas Tech University
Lubbock 79409
and ROBERT L. SARTAIN
Department of Mathematics
Howard Payne University
Brownwood 76801
ABSTRACT
A formula is derived for the Carleman-Fourier transform of a product, Q:T, where aeO-y
and T € S#. Simplifications are obtained for the case where the transform of a is a rational
function.
INTRODUCTION
Bremermann (1965) defines a generalized Fourier transform for the space S'
of tempered distributions. The definition is an extension of the generalized Fourier
transform introduced by Carleman (1944) and in a later paper, Bremermann (1967)
renames the transform the Carleman-Fourier transform. This transform is useful
from a computational standpoint since if T e S', then the Carleman-Fourier
transform of T is an analytic representation of the Fourier-Schwartz transform
of T (Bremermann, 1965).
In this paper a formula is derived for the Carlemen-Fourier transform of a
product, aT, where a e O^, for some 7 and T e S'. The result is a convolution
type integral in the complexplane.lt is shown that the resulting complex integral
can be evaluated by residues in the case where the Carleman-Fourier transform
of a is a rational function. Also, it is shown that the complex integral reduces to a
standard result when T is a regular distribution. The paper concludes with several
examples.
Accepted for publication: October 3, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
100
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The notation and definitions used in the paper are found in Bremermann (1965).
In particular, the Carleman-Fourier transform is defined as follows:
Definition: The Carleman-Fourier transform of a function f is given by
/ f(t)eiztdt, Im z = y > 0
F(f,z) = ^0Q
-/ f(t)eiztdt, y < 0
provided the above integrals exist. The definition is extended to S' by noting that
if T e S', then there exists a tempered function f such that f^-* = T. Thus define,
F(T,z) = (-iz)mF(f,z) for Im z f 0.
Note that F(T,z) will always be defined since the above integrals will exist when
f is tempered.
The space 0^ is the set of C°^functions a(t) on (-<», oo) such that a(t) = 0(| 1 1^)
and D^a(t) = 0(| 1 1^) for all k (Bremermann, 1965). Clearly, if a e 0^, then a
has a Carleman-Fourier transform.
THE MAIN RESULTS
Before stating and proving the main result, we mention one other well known
property of tempered distributions. T e S\ if and only if, there exists a constant
Ce and an integer 2 such that,
|F(T,z)| < Ce |z|C for | Imz| > e, (Vladimorov, 1967).
In the following theorem we set z = x + iy and £ = £ + irj.
Theorem 1: Let a(t) e 0y and T e S\ Let £ be an integer such that | F(T,^)|
< Ce | £ | ® for | 77 | > e. If m = max{0, C + 2}, then
F(«T,z) = -r- f +1^F(T, 5) [F(a, z-5) - A(z, 5)] d 5
Z7i -00 4.^
for | r] | > e > 0, where,
m-1 m-l ■
A(z,C)= 2 a<k>(0) 2 d)(-icr1_J(iz)J-k
k=0 j=k k
CARLEMAN-FOURIER TRANSFORM
101
Proof: Define a function f(t) as follows:
f(t) =
r°°+iy
Ott J
ZTr -oo+iy
F(T,z)
(-iz)m
^Tizt dz
where m = max{0, 2 + 2} , | y | > e and t • y > 0. The following results can be
seen using the techniques of Beltrami and Wohlers (1966).
(1) f(t) is continuous on (-00,00).
(2) e^f^) is a bounded function of t for fixed y provided yt > 0 so that the
Carleman-Fourier transform of f exists.
(3) F(f,z) = F(T,z)/ (-iz)m of F(T,z) = (-iz)mF(f,z) so that,
(4) T = f(m)
Define the function g(t) by
g(t) = a(t)f(t)-m /ac'(t1)f(t1)dt1
0
m t 1 1 t •
+ 2 om-iy; / .../j",f(ti)aCi)(tj)dtj...dt1.
j=2 00 0
Then g(t) is continuous, has a Carleman-Fourier transform, and a straightforward
calculation shows that g(m) = af(m) = aT. Thus, F(aT,z) = (-iz)mF(g,z), and,
therefore, for y > 0, the definition of the Carleman-Fourier transform gives
/\ oo • ,
F(«T,z) = (-iz)m / g(t)elztdt.
0
Substituting for g(t) in this integral and integrating by parts then gives
^ oo m
F(aT,z) = (-iz)m f f(t) 2 (?) (-l)J (-iz)-JaCJ) (t)elztdt
0 j=0
or,
S* OO
F(aT,z) = / f(t) (-l)mDtm [a(t)elzt ] dt
0
F(T rte-'?1 1
- - ^ del D.m [a(t)eizt]dt
(-i?)m j
OO OO+jp A
(_l)m j- j F(f, ^)e~i^tDtm [a(t)eizt] d^dt
= 2tt 0 "°°+ic
/ (-Om
0
27 r f
°° +ic
■ oo+ic
(-1)"1
2t t
?°+ic ^ oo
f F(f,.£) / e-^D™ [a(t)eizt]dtd<;.
-oo+ic 0
(0
102
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
We justify the above interchange in the order of integration as follows:
oo -|- jp oo . . A
/ / |e-‘C‘Dtm [a(t)elzt] I ■ I F(f, r) I dtdr
-°°+ic Q
oo+ic 2M
< / 7 -
-°°+ic y-c
— i — d£, for y>c>0.
Cl 2
which clearly exists. This inequality follows because
-(y-c)t
| [Q,(t)eizt] | < M e 2 fory>c>0
and therefore
Also
/ [a(t)eiz,]dt| <
2M
y-c
F(f,?)|
F(T,c)|
e+2
Thus, the iterated integral (1 ) is absolutely convergent and interchange is justified
by the Tonelli-Hobson Theorem.
In the inner integral of (1),
oo
/ e_iCtDtm [a(t)eizt ]dt,
set s = i£ and use standard Laplace transform results to obtain
(_nm
/V V X / 00 4- j p /s
F(aT,z) = / F(f, 5) (ii;)m [F(a,z-g) -A(z, 5)]d^
Z7T -00-F jc
= 7~ /°+'C F(T, s) [F(a,z-g)-A(z, 5)]dg
2n -oo+ic
for y> c> 0, where
m-1 rn-1
A(z,?)= 2 a<k>(0) 2 (i) (_ic)-H (iz)j'k.
k=0 j=k
A similar analysis will yield the corresponding result for y < 0. By making the
change of variables xj - z- £ and changing the order of summation in A(z, £)
we can obtain the following alternate form of Theorem 1 .
CARLEMAN-FOURIER TRANSFORM
103
Theorem 2: Let a(t) e 0^ and T e S1. Let 9. be an integer such that | F(T, l)
1 Ce | ^ for | 77 | > e. If m = max {0 , 9 + 2} , then
F(aT,z) = T+'Vo F(T,z-?) [F(a, 5) -B (z, 5)] d<;
v 5 J 2n -°°+i770
for I T7o I > e > 0 where
(- 1 )m m m
B(z, S) = ~TZ - 77^“ 2 a(k_1)(°) 2 (7)(iz)m-j(-ic)j-k-
[-i(z-?)]m k=l j=k J
For an alternate proof of Theorem 2 see Sartain (1972).
Before proving the next result, we obtain an estimate for the integrand in the
formula in Theorem 1 .
Lemma: Under the conditions and notation of Theorem 1 we have
F(a,z-5) -A(z, 5) = 0(r7un ) for Imz ^ lm ?•
Proof: For Im z > Im £ > 0, by repeated integration by parts we obtain,
A oo
F(a,z-^) = f e-1^ [a(t)elzt] dt
0
m-l j
= 2 (ic)-J-1 2 (J ) a (0) (iz)J-k
j=0 k=0
1 oo m
+ - f ei(z-i;)t 2 (ni)a(j) (t)(iz)m-jdt
(i?)m 0 j=0 1
m-l m-l
= S a(V(0) 2 (^)(ic)“j_1 (iz)j“k
k=o j=k
1 oo . m
+ - / e'(z~Ot 2 (n?)a0)(t)(iz)m-Jdt,
0c)m 0 j=o J
where the last equality has been obtained by a change in the order of summation.
Thus, we have,
A 1 oo m
F(a,z-?)-A(z, c) = - f 2 (™) a 0) (t) (iz)m-Jdt.
0c)m o j=o J
104
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Hence,
/s , 1 oo , , m
I F(a,z-£)-A(z, £) < - — - — / e^2"^)1 Z ("A a 0) (t)(iz)m-J
Ur o j=o j
where C depends on Im(z-^). A similar computation yields the result for
Im z < Im £ < 0.
A
Theorem 3: Suppose F(T,z) satisfies the conditions of Theorem 1 and that
F(a,z) is a rational function of z. Then, for Im z > 0,
k
F(aT,z) = i 2 a.j n
n=l
where a_i n is the residue of F(T, £) F(a,z-<;) at £ = £n, n=l , . . ., k and £n
’ A
are the poles of F(a,z-£), Im(^) > 0. Similarly, for Im(z) < 0,
F(aT,z) = -i 2 a_x n
n=l
A /\
where a_1>n is the residue of F(T, rf) F(a,z-£) at £ = £n, n=l , . . ., j and £n
are the poles of F(a,z-£), Im(^) < 0.
Proof: From .Theorem 1 we have
F(aT,z) = — / +1C F(T, ?) {F(a,z-^)-A(z, 5)} d 5
27 r -°°+ic
for Im z > c > 0.
From the above lemma
F(«,z-C)-A(z, 5) = 0
and by hypothesis F(T, 5) = 0(| 5 |®) so that tl
consider the integral,
/ F(T, 5) {F(a,z-£)-A(z, 5)} d 5
C
where C is a closed contour in the upper-half plane which consists of a half¬
circle of radius R and a line segment from -R + i7?o to R + ipo • Denote the half¬
circle by T and choose R sufficiently large so that all the poles of F(a,z-^) are
CARLEMAN-FOURIER TRANSFORM
105
enclosed in C. We assume the usual orientation for C and observe that z lies above
the line segment from -R + i?7o to R + i?7o , inside of C. Thus,
lim f F(T^){F(a,z-C)-A(z,c)}dc
R-»oo Q
R+ii?o a a
= lim / F(T,g) {F(a,z-5)-A(z, c)}d 5
-R+ii?o
+ lim / F(T, 5) {F(a,z-5)-A(z, 5)}d5.
r-*°° r
The 2nd integral converges to zero since the integrand is 0
1
and thus,
277 -°°+i770
rin o F(T,?){F(a,z-C)-A(z)?)}dC =
i lim
R”>°°
— — / F(T, O {F(q:)z-5)-A(z, <;)}d5
2tti c
= i lim
R-+o°
k
2
n=l
a
-1, n
i
k
2
n=l
a
-1, n
where we have applied the residue theorem to the last integral and dropped the
limit as R->°° since the residues do not depend on R. Flere a.^ n is the residue of
F(T, F(a,z-£) at £ = £n' the poles of F(a,z-£). (The term involving
F(T, c) A(z, is analytic inside C and hence does not contribute to the residue.)
Finally, we note that if T is a regular distribution , then T = f where f is tempered .
It follows that F(T,z) = 0( | z | _1 ) for | Im z | > e > 0 and consequently, we
may take m= 1 in Theorem 1 . Thus we have shown
Theorem 4: If a e Cfy and T e S/ is a regular distribution, then
A 1 OO -f i -r) AV
F(aT,z) = — - / v F(T,?) F(a,z-5)d5
277 -°°+i77
for | 77 1 > e > 0 where 77 = Im z.
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Let a(t) = sin t, and consider the distribution
106
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
f(t)
tvH(t)
r(v+i)
tn+VH(t)
Dt
r(n+v+l)
Re v > 0
, Re v < 0
where v is complex and n is a positive integer such that n + Re v - 0, and H(t)
is the Heaviside Function.
Case 1: Re v > 0. If Im £ > 0, we have
F
/ tvH (t)
lr(v+i)’
c =
- — — and F(sin t, r) = —
(-i?)v+1 U 1-i
which is a rational function with poles at £ = ±1 . By Theorem 3 we have
f tVH(0 ,
F (sin t • — — — , z)
r(v+i)
= i J lim
-1
lim
-1
C-+Z-1 [?-(z+l)l (-i?)v+1 5^-z+l [s-(z-l)] (-i?)v+1
1 1
2 ) [-i(z-l)]v+l [-i(z+l)]v+l
Case 2: Re v — 0. Since rj + Re v — 0 for Im 5 > 0 we have
F(D?
tn+vH(t)
r(n+v+l)
= 0?)n
(_i?)n+v+l
C) = (-iS)"F
- = (-i?rv“
tn + vH(t)
r(n+v+l)
From Case 1 we have
F(sin t, £)
1
- - for Im £ > 0.
i-r
Thus, calculating residues as before yields:
tn+vH(t)
F(sin t • Dn{
r(n+v+l )
c) = — - [-i(z+l)2-v_1}.
CARLEMAN-FOURIER TRANSFORM
107
It is interesting to note that we could have obtained the same value in Case 1 by
the use of tables, but values are not readily available from tables in Case 2 since
Re v < 0.
Example 2: Again let ce(t) = sin t, but consider T(t) = [tH(t)]^, the vth
fractional derivative of tH(t), where v is a complex number such that Re v - 1
(Bremerman 1965). Then,
F([tH(t)](v), C) = (-i?)vF(tH(t), 5) = —
(-■s)2_v
then, again using Theorem 3 and calculating residues we have
1 1
F(sin t • [tH(t)]v, z) = —
[-i(z-l)]2-v [-i(z+l)]2‘V
a value which cannot be obtained directly by use of tables.
LITERATURE CITED
Beltrami, E. J„, and M. R. Wohlers, 1966 -Distributions and the Boundary Values for Analytic
Functions. Academic Press, New York and London.
Bremermann, H. J., 1965 -Distributions, Complex Variables, and Fourier Transforms.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
- , 1967-Some remarks on analytic representations and products of distributions.
SIAMJ. Appl. Math., 15:929.
Carleman, T., 1944 -L ’integrate de Fourier et Questions Qui s’y Rattachent. Almquist and
Wiksell, Uppsala.
Sartain, R. L., 1972-Computational techniques for a generalized fourier transform. Doctoral
Dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX.
Vladimorov, V. S., 1961-Methods of the Theory of Functions of Several Complex Variables.
M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, MA.
■
MAXIMA OF FUNCTIONS
by DR. JOHN D. MILLER
Dept, of Mathematics
Texas Tech University
Box 4319
Lubbock 79409
Reviewed by: Dr. E. D. McCune, Department of Mathematics, Stephen F. Austin State Univ.,
Nacogdoches 75962
INTRODUCTION
Two theorems on the extrema of real valued functions defined on the unit
interval are established. The 1st theorem, which is a classical and well known
result, states that a function can have at most a countable number of proper
relative maxima, and the 2nd asserts that any function that takes on a relative
maximum at each point must have at most a countable range. Several corollaries,
propositions, and examples are also considered.
DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS
In this section definitions and notations are given for the most essential concepts
used in the sequel.
In this paper, the word function will mean real valued function of a real variable.
The symbol N(x,5) represents the set {y: | y - x | < 5}.
The symbol N* (x,5), the deleted symmetric neighborhood of a point x, rep¬
resents the set {y: 0 < | y - x | < 5} .
A function f is said to have a proper relative maximum at a point x0 if and
only if there exists a 5 >0 such that if x e N'(x0,5), then f(x) < f(x0).
A function f has a non-proper relative maximum at a point x0 if and only if
there exists a § > 0 such that if x e N(x0 ,5), then f(x) £ f(x0), and there exists
at least one xY 4^ x0 in every N(x0 ,5) such that f(xj ) = f(x0).
A function f is said to be upper Semico ntinuous at a point x0 if and only if
for every e > 0 there exists a § > 0 such that for every x e N(x0 ,5), f(x0) + e > f(x).
A function is upper semicontinuous on I if and only if it is upper semicontinuous
at each point of I. The property of upper semicontinuous functions that will be
Accepted for publication: March 20, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
110
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
pertinent for this paper is that such functions take on their maximum value on
closed and bounded sets. That is, if I is a closed and bounded interval on which f
is upper semicontinuous there is an x0 el such that f(x0) > f(x) for all x in I.
EXAMPLES
Before proceeding to the proofs of the main theorems 4 examples are given of
functions exhibiting properties we wish to highlight. The 1st of which is
Example 1
The function f defined by
fx sin— for x e [0,1]
f(x) = < x
[0 for x = 0
2
has a proper relative maximum at x = — , n = 1 , 2, . . . .
Example 2
The function f(x) = 1 for xe [0,1] has a nonproper relative maximum at
every point of the closed interval [0,1].
As the next example shows it is quite possible for a function to have proper
maxima on a set that is countable infinite and, interestingly enough, everywhere
dense in the domain.
Example 3
The function f defined on [0,1] by the rule:
f0, when x is any irrational number;
f(x) =< 1/q, when x = p/q, where p/q is in (0, 1) and reduced to lowest terms;
(l if x = 0, or 1 .
This function takes on a proper relative maximum at each rational number.
The last example of this section shows that the closure of the image of a
function taking on a maximum at each point of its domain can be a closed interval.
Example 4
Let Kj be the open middle third of the interval [0,1], and let K{ , K? be the
open middle thirds of [0, 1]-Kq. In general, let K^, K„, . . ., K„ be the open
k 2n-l
middle thirds of [0, 1] - U U K„. The Cantor ternary set E is the set
n=0 k=1
MAXIMA OF FUNCTIONS
111
E= [0,1]
oo 2n
U U Kn- We define a function f on [0, 1] as follows:
n=0 k=l
1 Tr\c i
if x e Kn, and
2 if x e E.
This function has a relative maximum at every point of the interval [0,1] and
its image is everywhere dense in the interval [0,2].
MAIN THEOREMS ON MAXIMA
The 1st theorem mentioned in the introduction is a theorem which seems to
be rediscovered over and over again, perhaps because it is a natural question to
ask in that part of calculus having to do with finding extrema of functions using
the derivative function.
Theorem 1
Every function f defined on the unit interval [0,1] can have at most a countable
number of proper relative maximum points.
Proof: To each proper relative maximum point x of f associate a neighborhood
N(x, 1/n) such that for every y e N'(x, 1/n), f(y) < f(x), and let Sn be the set of
such points whose associated neighborhoods have a radius of at least 1/n units
long. We claim that Sn has at most n + 1 points. To see this, partition the half-open
interval [0, 1) into the n equal half-open subintervals [0, 1/n), [1/n, 2/n), . . .,
[— ^- , 1). Evidently at most 1 point of Sn can be in any one subinterval. The
oo
theorem follows from observing that Sn, which is a countable set, is the
n=l
set of proper relative maxima of f.
Before proving the final theorem we need the following lemma.
Lemma
A function f which takes on a relative maximum at each point of its domain
I is upper semicontinuous. Consequently, if I is closed and bounded, f takes on
its maximum value over I.
Proof: Let x0 e I. By hypothesis there is an N(x0,5) such that for x e N(x0 ,§),
f(x0) 2 f(x). Therefore for any e > 0 and x e N(x0 ,5), f(x0) + e > f(x). Thus f
is upper semicontinuous at x0, and since x0 was arbitrarily chosen the 1st part
of the lemma follows.
112
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
An outline of a proof of the 2nd part of the statement, which is due originally
to Weierstrass, proceeds as follows: First, if f were not bounded from above, there
would be a sequence xn of numbers from I with the property that f(xn+1) > f(xn)+ 1.
Now, since 1 is closed and bounded, the sequence xn has a limit point x0 in I
where f cannot be upper semicontinuous. Thus the set of values f(x) with x in
I has a least upper bound. Secondly, if b is that least upper bound, there is a
sequence of real numbers xn from I such that f(xn) > b-l/n. Finally, as before,
the sequence xn has a limit point x0 in I, and using the upper semicontinuity of
f it is readily shown that f(x0) = b.
Theorem 2
Let f be defined on the unit interval [0, 1] . If f takes on a relative maximum
for every x e [0,1], then the range of f is countable.
Proof: First divide [0, 1] into 2 equal, closed, and abutting intervals Ij and
I2 . Next divide 1} and I2 into 2 equal, closed and abutting intervals ij, if , I3,
and I4 . Continue this process of subdivision by halving the previous subdivision
and so generate a sequence of sub intervals of [0, 1 ]. At the nth stage there are 2n
equal, closed, and abutting intervals I?,l5, . . ., I^n each of length l/2n units long.
Secondly, this sequence of intervals defines a sequence of real numbers Mj,
Mj, . . M?, M", . . ., where Mp is the maximum value of f over the
interval Ip which f takes on by the lemma.
Finally, we claim for x e [0, 1] , f(x) = Mp for some n and p. To show that
this is true, let x e [0, 1] . By hypothesis there is a 5 >0 such that if y e N(x,5),
f(y) < f(x). No\y by the decomposition of the interval [0, 1] there are integers
k and i such that x e 1^ ?=N(x,5). This is so because the length of N(x,5) is 25
and the lengths of the intervals go to 0. If y e 1^ is such that f(y) = M^, then
f(y) > f(x). But C.N(x,5) and so f(y) 1 f(x). Hence f(x) = and the
theorem follows.
As a corollary to the above theorem we have the following.
Corollary 1
If the range R of a function which takes on a relative maximum at each point
of its domain of definitions is closed, then R is nowhere dense in the set of real
numbers Y.
Proof: Suppose the range R is somewhere dense. Then there exists an interval
J in Y such that every subinterval contains a point of the range R. Let y e J,
then for every 5 > 0 there exists ayj e Nr(y, 5) such that yx e R. Hence y is a
limit point of R, and R closed implies y e R, which in turn implies JCR. But
this contradicts Theorem 2. Hence R must be nowhere dense as asserted.
Functions that satisfy the hypothesis of Theorem 2 can be characterized by
properties of the inverse maps of certain subsets of the range of the function.
This fact is demonstrated by the following proposition.
MAXIMA OF FUNCTIONS
113
Proposition 1
A function defined on a closed interval I can have a relative maximum at every
point of I, if, and only if, for every real number a the set A = {x: f(x) > a} is
closed .
Proof: Let f take on a relative maximum at every point of a closed interval I,
and let y be a limit point of A = {x: f(x) > a}. Since (y, f(y)) is a relative max¬
imum of f and y is a limit point of A, there exists a 5 > 0 and an x in A such that
x e N'(y,5), and the relationship f(y) > f(x) holds. But this implies f(y) > a,
which in turn says that y e A and so A is closed.
Conversely, suppose f does not take on a relative maximum at every point of
I. Then there exists an x0 e I such that for every 5 > 0 there exists an x e N(x0 ,5)
such that f(x) > f(x0). Consider the set B = {x: f(x) > f(x0)}. This set is not
closed because x0 is a limit point of B and x0 4 B.
NEW SPECIES OF CAPROTINID RUDISTS FROM THE FREDERICKS¬
BURG GROUP (ALBIAN) OF NORTH CENTRAL TEXAS
by ELIZABETH ROSE DAVIS
715 Lake Air
Waco 76710
ABSTRACT
Rudists, extinct marine bivalves, dominate the fauna of the Fredericksburg Group
(Albian). Geologists have studied the contents of this suite of rocks for over 100 yr but only
now has the Caprotinid rudist Sellaea been assigned specific names.
Morphological changes in the Family Caprotinidae have produced the genera Caprotina,
Pachytraga, and Sellaea in the study area. The first 2 are rare. Poor preservation of Caprotina
found within the area do not give specific internal characters. New species are described,
using variations in valve volume ratios, overall size, decoration of outer shell, structure of
the inner shell, type and disposition of the accessory cavities and position of the ligament.
Investigations of surface exposures indicate that the caprotinid fauna of the Edwards
Formation bioherms and biostromes was immigrant and that changes in the environment
produced forms that were able to compete with Eoradiolites , a radiolitid rudist, for dominance.
INTRODUCTION
Rudists are a group of extinct marine bivalves found worldwide in Cretaceous
rocks that represent reef,perireef and biostromal deposits. Of the 7 rudist families,
5 are found in the Edwards Limestone where caprotinids are second only to radio-
litids in abundance . The morphology of caprotinids is unusual and will be discussed
in detail (Fig. 1).
Sellaea is the most abundant caprotinid in the Edwards and is typically Albian.
Caprotina was previously known from the Cenomanian of Sicily and North Africa
and has been found in the Edwards of Central Texas by Coogan (1977). Pachytraga
was restricted to the Urgonian (mainly Barremian) facies in Europe and the Benbow
Member, Jubilee Limestone of the Lower Cretaceous of Jamaica until now; its
occurrence in Texas is rare.
Occurrences of Caprotinids are not isolated. Roemer (1888) apparently first
recognized their existence. Both Roemer (1888) and Adkins (1929) assigned them
to Plagioptychus (?) cordatus (Roemer)but Adkins (1930) did not mention them
further. MacGillavry (1937) did not refer to the Texas fauna although he recognized
Accepted for publication: February 27, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
116
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
a sharp distinction between Caprotina and Sellaea in the material he studied
from Camaguey and elsewhere. Perkins (1965, 1967, 1969), in a series of studies
of the Texas material, mentioned caprotinids ( Sellaea ) and they are known to
petrochemical paleontologists but are not yet described specifically from Texas
or the Gulf Coast (Coogan, 1969, 1977). This paper describes Pachytraga davisarum,
Sellaea elongata, S. globosa, S. minuta , and S. ziczac (Davis, 1976).
o c
O
oc
Hi
DORSAL
Figure 1. Morphological terminology for caprotinid rudists. (Magnification X .8.) Refer
to Appendix I of this article for explanation of abbreviations.
DISCUSSION
When early Texas paleontologists referred to the Caprotina limestone, Caprotina ,
or Caprina horizon they may have been referring to a Monopleura, Toucasia,
Requienia, or Sellaea limestone. Requienids and monopleurids were formerly
designated as Caprotina.
The Edwards Formation (Fig. 2), upper member of the Fredericksburg Group,
varies in thickness from 3-8 m in North Central Texas. A traverse was made across
exposures of the Edwards in Bosque, Hamilton, Coryell, Bell and McLennan
counties. Approximately 4.5 m of surface exposures in quarries, caves and over¬
hangs were studied (Fig. 3). All caprotinids are calcified.
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
117
CL
ZD
O
DC
cr
cs
QT.
=)
PQ
CO
o
hH
DC
LL!
Q
UJ
or.
ll
EDWARDS FORMATION
COMANCHE PEAK
FORMATION
WALNUT FORMATION
Figure 2. Stratigraphic position of the Edwards Formation within the Fredericksburg
Group in Central Texas.
Classification of the Texas caprotinids to species depends on the following.
Appendix I of this article contains an explanation of the abbreviations.
1 . Internal Characteristics
a. Position of the ligament
1 . Internal or external
2. Anterior or posterior to tooth of AV
b. Size and type of teeth
c. Size and site of myophores
d. Position and extent of AC
e. Thickness of inner shell wall
2. External Characteristics
a. Relationship of orientation of valves to vertical axis
b. Ornamentation
c. Shape of the AV
1 Straight
2. Spirally twisted
d. Shape of the FV
1. Coiled
2. Capuloid
3. Operculiform
3. Volume Ratios of the 2 Valves
The genera Caprotina and Sellaea externally resemble each other closely. The
abundant internal molds found in the Edwards Limestone community show the
118
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
accessory and body cavities of the FV, particularly those that are long and deep.
Frequently the curved BC of the FV is mistaken for Monopleura in study collections.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE HARD PARTS
Rudist valves are referred to as lower, right or attached valve (AV) and upper,
left or free valve (FV). The valves are conical and the AV may be curved or twisted.
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
119
The FV may be capuloid, curved or loosely coiled. The plane of commissure is
not always straight; it may be fluted ( S . ziczac ) or it may fold slightly to show
placement of the siphons. The teeth are large in S. ziczac but generally interpre¬
tations must be made to accommodate for the valves being articulated (Fig. 4).
The ligament may be external of submerged into the inner shell wall (Fig. 4 a,b).
Figure 4. Unequal plane of commissure of caprotinid valves. (Magnification X .645.)
(a) Sellaea ziczac (interpretation of cardinal area), (b) Sellaea ? ligament recessed
into inner shell, (c) S. minuta expression on posterior side for siphons. Refer
to Appendix I of this article for an explanation of abbreviations.
Pachytraga is regarded by Reingarten (1950) and MacGillavry 1937) as a
caprinid because of the presence of canals in the anterior wall of the AV, however,
the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology places it in the caprotinids, as does
Chubb (1971). Chubb (1971) also found it to have but a single tooth.
Speciments have been numbered and stored in the Texas Memorial Museum,
University of Texas at Austin.
SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY
(A list of the localities where specimens were collected is given in Appendix II of this article.)
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
CLASS BIVALVIA
ORDER HIPPURITOIDEA
SUPERFAMILY HIPPURITACEA
FAMILY CAPROTINID AE Gray, 1848
Genus Pachytraga Paquier, 1900
Genus Pachytraga davisarum n. sp.
Plate 1 , Part 1
120
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
PLATE 1
Part 1. Pachytraga davisarum n.sp.TMM 1245TX4. Holotype from Coryell County, TX.
(Magnif. X .243.) (a) Posterolateral view; (b) Transverse section of AV; (c) Trans¬
verse section of FV; (d) Anterolateral view, ligament anterior.
Part 2. Sellaea elongata n. sp. TMM 1252TX1. Holotype from McLennan County, TX.
(Magnif. X .511.) (a) Ventral view; (b) Dorsal view; (c) Posterolateral view; (d) Top
view of FV showing large anterior AC.
Part 3. S. globosa n. sp. TMM 1245TX5. Holotype from Coryell County, TX. (Magnif. X
.487.) (a) Posterolateral view of both valves; (b) Transverse sections of FV;
(c) Transverse section of AV.
(Refer to Appendix I of this article for explanation of abbreviations.)
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
121
Description. The shell is massive, exterior smooth, outer shell thin, growth
ruga weak, ligament anterior, external. AV slightly flattened oval laterally, rounded
AV with umbo, no obvious point of attachment, valve slightly curved (Plate 1,
Part 1), body cavity small.
Teeth unknown, hinge of AV strong, posterior muscle insertion on thick plate
extending from cardinal area to ventral wall forming slender AC. Anterior muscle
insertion on thickening of anterior area of cardinal area, anterior AC similar to
posterior, shallow, undivided. Ligament exterior, FV is capacious, cap-shaped,
not coiled but curved over the cardinal area toward the anterior; anterior AC deep,
posterior shallow, posterior muscle insertion on slender plate that sets off posterior
AC (Plate 1 , Part 1c).
Holotype. TMM 1245X4
Location . Coryell County -3 1°33.5'N, 97°45.6W (Locality #2).
Remarks. The specimens are not assignable to Monopleura because of accessory
cavities in the valves. The massive shell is unlike species of Caprotina or Sellaea.
Caprotina has a spirally twisted AV; Sellaea has divided AC in AV; Chaperia
is small; the AV of Horiopleura is exogyriform, and no other members of this
family are recorded from this continent.
Regarding similar forms, Pachytraga jubilensis from the Jubilee Limestone of
the Benbow Member, lower Cretaceous of Jamaica, is not spirally twisted (Chubb,
1971) nor is P. ka'fenensis (Reingarten, 1950). P. kafenensis from the Lower
Barremian of Armenia and Arapek has an operculiform FV but the AV is similar.
Sellaea elongata n. sp.
Plate 1 , Part 2 ; Figs . 5 a, 6a
Figures. Transverse sections near aperture across valves of holotypes of (a) Sellaea
elongata: TMM 1252TX1, (b) 5. globosa: TMM 1245TX5, (c) S. minuta :
TMM 1243TX1 , (d) S. ziczac: TMM 1246TX4. Refer to Appendix I of this
article for explanation of abbreviations.
122
TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 6. Posterolateral views of holotypes of Sellaea : (a) S. elongata n. sp. TMM
1252TX1, (b) S. globosa n. sp. TMM 2345TX5, (c) S. minuta n. sp. TMM
1243TX1 and (d) S. ziczac n. sp. TMM 1246TX4, showing relationships of the
two valves and differences in overall shape. Refer to Appendix I of this article
for explanation of abbreviations.
Description. AV outer shell unknown, inner shell thick, calcareous, test mas¬
sive in early stages, AV irregular conical, long, slender, ventral edge of valves
acute to plane of commissure. Anterior muscle insertion on slightly thickened
myophore plate, small canals near S, tooth grooved; posterior muscle insertion
on vertical plate separating thin, deep posterior AC from shell wall (Fig. 5a).
BC very long and slender. No canals in anteroventral wall (Plate 1 , Part 2).
Broken internal molds of AV are common, they are elongated and curving, no
juveniles have been found.
FV is long, arching, BC irregular, large; 3 AC, 1 anterior, 2 posterior (Plate 1,
Part 2d; Figs. 5b, 6a).
Holotype. TMM 1252TX1. University of Texas, Austin.
Location. 31°21/N, 97°31/W (Locality #4).
Remarks. Dimensions of the holotype are:
AV FV
Length 9 cm 7 cm (PC to break)
Width 5 cm -
Thickness 4.4 cm 6.25 cm
S. elongata is most like S. globosa in the FV but it is slender; it is unlike S.
minuta which is smaller and not misshapen. The AV is similar to that of the holo¬
type of S. globosa in that the inner wall is thick but S. globosa is not long and
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
123
distorted.. The name S. elongata refers to the elongated AV and slender, slightly
curving FV.
Sellaea globosa n. sp.
Plate 1 , Part 3; Plate 2, Part 1 , Figs. 5b, 6b
Description. Valves compact, FV larger than AV coiled toward anterior.
Shell material finely striated on AV, smooth on FV, which is coiled; growth ruga
irregular. Middle layer thick (Plate 1 , Part 3b, c).
AV conical, straight, irregular; ligament internal; AM on wide extension of
cardinal platform, PM inserted on posterior vertical plate which is subdivided into
several large cavities or canals. Anterior socket small, lunate; posterior socket
seems to be in one with posterior AC; tooth moderate, BC irregular bell -shaped.
Small canals are found around ventral wall in edge of inner shell (Plate 1 , Part 3b).
FV plain spirally coiled towards anterior, shell material smooth, ligament
internal, AM on wide extension of cardinal platform and separate from shell
wall by long subdivided AC; PM on vertical plate which extends to ventral shell
wall. Teeth small, posterior tooth larger, socket small. Posterior AC large, undi¬
vided, lunate, extending through shell (Plate 1 , Part 3).
Holotype. TMM 1245TX5.
Location. 31°33.5'N, 97°45.6/W (Locality #2).
Remarks. Dimensions of the holotype are:
Length
Width
Thickness
AV
11 cm
6.3 cm
5 cm
FV
19 cm
6 cm at PC
5.8 cm
Internal molds, from Locality 10 (Plate 2, Part 1) show the posterior AC of
the AV beginning at a very early stage making the AV stubby. It is equal in the
FV. The anterior inner wall is subdivided and shows many tubules in these internal
molds. The anterior AC of FV is very slender and short.
This robust type has only 1 (posterior) AC in the AV and 1 in the FV with an
AC separating the cardinal area from the shell wall in the FV (Plate 1, Part 3).
The teeth are small. The thickness of the inner wall and the presence of the canals
in the ventral shell wall in the AV make it unlike S. minuta or S. elongata. FV
much larger than AV, inflated.
S. globosa differs from S. elongata n. sp. in having ventral marginal canals;
from S. cespitosa in having few rounded divisions of the anterior AC, not divisions
by vertical plates. It resembles Caprotina quadripartita (7‘Orbigny (Woodward,
1854). S. globosa best describes the inflated or globose valves.
Sellaea minuta n. sp.
Plate 2, Parts 2,3,4; Figs; Figs. 5c, 6c
124
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
PLATE 2
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
125
(Plate 2 Continued)
Part 1. Sellaea globosa n. sp. TMM 1245TX6, from Coryell County, TX. (Magnif. X .574.)
(a) Posterolateral view showing deep AC of both valves; (b) Anterolateral view of
both valves showing shallow AC of FV.
Part 2. S. minuta n. sp. TMM 1243TX1. Holotype from Bosque County, TX. (Magnif.X
.77.) (a) Ventral view of AV showing striations and growth ruga; (b) Dorsal view
of FV, posterior AC deep; (c) Posterolateral view of both valves; (d) Anterolateral
view.
Part 3. S. minuta n. sp. TMM 1243TX3. Specimen from Bosque County, TX. (MagnihX
.738.) (a) Ventral view showing striated shell material of both valves; (b) Top view
of FV; (c) Top view of both valves.
Part 4. S. minuta n. sp. TMM 1243TX2. Specimen from Basque County, TX. (a) Basal
view of AV showing constriction at base (Magnif. X .738.); (b) Top view showing
posterior AC of FV (Magnif. X .738.); (c) Posterolateral view of both valves
(Magnif. X .82.).
Description. This type is small, compact, erect. Shell material is striated. Vol-
umetrically the FV is slightly larger than the AV (Plate 2, Parts 3a, b, 4; Fig. 5c).
The AV conical, short; shell material thin in inner and middle layers; thin vertical
posterior plate. Some 6 moderate cavities comprise the anterior AC of the holotype
separating AM from shell wall, posterior AC large and curving. AC separates
cardinal area from wall, tooth moderate, ligament internal (Plate 3, Part 1).
The FV is only slightly larger than the AV, has a large posterior AC, BC, large
shell curves sharply over cardinal area (Plate 2, Parts 3c, 4b, c).
Holotype. TMM 1243TX1.
Location. 31°44,N, 97°25.5/W (Locality #1)
Remarks. Dimensions of the holotype are:
AV
FV
Length
8.5 cm
9.5 cm
Width
6.5 cm
-
Thickness
4.2 cm
est.
Several specimens appear spirally twisted but inspection of the internal molds
does not reveal enough to place them in the Caprotina. These grow in close asso¬
ciation with each other.
S. minuta n. sp. is most like S. globosa but does not attain as large a size. The
shell, inner and outer, is much thinner; details of cardinal area also differ. External
shape and decoration are not alike, while the FV of S. globosa is very large and
may be directed anteriorly or posteriorly and the AC of FV is nearly as large as
BV. S. minuta is like S. ziczac in that it is symmetrical but unlike in that the FV
of S. ziczac curves very sharply and has 3 AC while the posterior AC of the AV
is large. S. minuta has the least variation in size; at maturity, is compact and sym¬
metrical at a plane of symmetry through both valves.
126
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
dorsal
PLATE 3
Part 1. Sellaea minuta n. sp. TMM 1243TX4. from Bosque County, TX. Transverse
section cut at a slight angle to PC (Magnif. A .132.)
Part 2. S. ziczac n. sp. from Bell County, TX. Internal mold of FV (on right). Approx¬
imately life size. Note convolution (ziczac) of shell at plane of commissure.
(Magnif. X .79.)
Sellaea ziczac n . sp.
Plate 3, Part 2; Figs. 4a, 5d, 6d
Description. AV is straight, conical, anterior AC is preserved as tubules indi¬
cating it was subdivided; posterior AC capacious, long, undivided; BC irregular.
Teeth very large, ligament in outer shell.
FV is conical, curved toward anterior, anterior AC is large; irregular winglike
AC parallels center of BC. Posterior AC large, extending length of shell. A 3rd
CAPROTINID RUDISTS
127
long narrow AC lies between posterior AC and the BC extending the length of
the FV (Fig. 6d).
Internal molds with no shell material remaining and part of AV broken. Valves
are oblique at PC and dorsally they ziczac vertically along the hinge (Plate 3,
Part 2; Figs. 5d, 6d) in the same plane.
Holotype. TMM 1246TX4.
Location. 3106.5'N, 97°54'w
Remarks. Dimensions of the holotype are:
AV
Length 4.5 cm (broken)
Width 5 .6 cm
Thickness 4 cm
The unusual ziczac of the dorsal area, moderate size, unusual shape of the
anterior AC of the FV set this apart from other Sellaea as is indicated by the
specific nomenclature.
Comparisons of transverse sections of S. elongata, S. globosa, S. minuta,
S. ziczac are given in Fig. 4 and posterolateral views of both valves are given in
Fig. 6.
FM
13 cm
CONCLUSIONS
Representatives of the Family Caprotinidae from an area in north-central
Texas comprising 15,000 sq mi, differ morphologically although their ecological
habitat varies but little. Specimens classified as Pachytraga differ from Caprotina
and Sellaea although they do not have canals in the AV. Caprotina , so far only
found in poor condition in the northern part of the study area, represents the
oldest occurrence in the Texas strata. Sellaea has developed 4 species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Alan Coogan, Department of
Geology, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio for his encouragement in the initial
stages of the investigations and to Dr. Gustavo Morales, Department of Geology,
Baylor University, Waco, Texas for his advise in the preparation of the original
manuscript.
APPENDIX I
List of Abbreviations
BC - Body Cavity
FV - Free Valve
S - Socket
T - Tooth
GR - Growth Ruga
TMM - Texas Memorial Museum
PM - Posterior Muscle Scar
AM - Anterior Muscle Scar
AC - Accessory Cavity
PA - Point of Attachment
BU - Baylor University
L - Ligamental Groove
AV - Attached Valve
128
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
APPENDIX II
Locality 1. Bosque County. Bed of Childress Creek. 1/2 km from junction Hogans Creek;
under old wooden bridge southwest bank (31 44'N, 97 25.5'W). About 3.3 m of Edwards
exposed, locality of holotype S. minuta.
Locality 2. Coryell County. Quarry at top of scarp, south side of FM 2955, 2+ km east
of junction Hwy 36 (31 33.5'N, 97 45.6/W). Most specimens collected as float near north
wall (S. globosa, P. d avis arum).
Locality 3. Coryell County. Quarry at top of hill on east side of Hwy 190 at junction
FM 116, past trailer park (Mickans); (31°06.5,fN, 97°54/W). Approximately 4.6 m of Edwards
exposed, Sellaea biostrome mixed with Texicaprina.
Locality 4. Coryell County. Lime City Quarry, 1.8 km south Oglesby, TX (31°21/N,
97 31^W). Property of Universal Atlas Company. Holotype S. elongata collected as float;
specimens rare, associated with Praeradiolites .
LITERATURE CITED
Adkins, W. S., 1929-Handbook of Texas Cretaceous fossils. Univ. of Texas Bull 2838, p. 143.
- , 1930-New rudistids from the Texas and Mexican Cretaceous. Univ. of Texas
Bull. 3001, p. 77.
Chubb, L. J., 1971-Rudists of Jamaica. Palaeontographica Americana, Vol. VII, No. 45,
pp. 161-257.
Coogan, A. H., 1969— Evolutionary trends in rudist hard parts. Treatise of Invertebrate
Paleontology , Part N, Vol. 2, Mollusca 6, Bivalvia . Geol. Soc. Am. and the Univ. of Kan.
Press, Lawrence, KA, pp. N766-776.
- , 197 7 -Cretaceous carbonates of Texas and Mexico, applications to subsurface
exploration. Bur. Econ. Geol, Rept. of Inv. 89, 32 pp.
Davis, Elizabeth Rose, 1976-Paleoecology and distribution of Albian rudists of north-central
Texas with special emphasis on the Edwards Formation in Bell, Bosque, McLennan and
Coryell Counties. Unpubl. MS Thesis, Baylor Univ., Waco, TX, 161 p.
MacGillavry, H. J., 1937-Geology of the Province of Camaguey, Cuba with revisional studies
in rudist paleontology, Utrecht Rijks-Univ. Geol. Meded., Phys. Geol, 14:1, pi. 1-10.
Perkins, B. F., 1965 -Analysis of a caprotinid growth series. Abst. of papers submitted for
meeting in Kansas City, MO, p. 125-126 GSA of Am. Inc., N.Y. 10017.
- , 1967-Rudist faunas in the Comanchean Cretaceous of Texas. Comanchean
Stratigraphy of the Fort Worth- Waco-Belton Area. Shreveport Geol. Soc. 33rd Ann.
Field Trip, pp. 121-127.
- , 1969-Rudist morphology. Treatise of Invertebrate Paleontoloty, Part 6, Vol 2,
Mollusca, Bivalvia, pp. N75 1-764.
Reingarten, B. P., 1950-Major rudist forms. Inst. NAUK. Bull 130, No. 51, 93p, 16 pis.
Roemer, F. A., 1888 -Uber eine durch die Hauflgkeit Hippuritenartiger Chamiden ausgezeichnet
Fauna der oberturonen Kreide von Texas. Palaeont. Abh, Vol 4.
Woodward, S. P., 1854-On the structure and affinites of the Hippuritidae. Quart. J. Geol
Soc. , London, England, 11:40, Figs. 17, 18.
THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND PHOTOPERIOD ON THE
TERMINATION OF SPAWNING IN THE ORANGETHROAT
DARTER (. ETHEOSTOMA SPECTABILE ) IN CENTRAL TEXAS1
by EDIE MARSH
Department of Zoology
College of Natural Sciences
University of Texas at Austin
Austin 78712
ABSTRACT
In central Texas, Etheostoma spectabile ordinarily breeds from November to April. How¬
ever, a population exposed to the continuously cold waters released from the hypolimnion
of Canyon Lake (Comal County, Tx.) continued to breed well into the summer of 1976.
This prolonged breeding season in a thermally altered environment suggested that a thermal
cue is important in the termination of the spawning season of E. spectabile in central Texas.
Breeding individuals of E. spectabile were exposed to 1 of the following 4 combinations
of temperature and photoperiod: 24 C, 14 light (L) : 1 0 dark (D); 24 C, 10L.14D; 14 C,
14L:10D; 14 C, 10L:14D. Females exposed to warm treatments had significantly lower
gonad weight (GW)/adjusted body weight (ABW) ratios than did females exposed to cold
treatments. Females exposed to different photop°riods showed no significant differences
in GW/ABW ratios. Males exposed to warm temperatures for 12 days had significantly lower
GW/ABW ratios than did males exposed to cold treatments. Photoperiod had no significant
effect on male GW/ABW ratios.
INTRODUCTION
In central Texas, the orangethroat darter, Etheostoma spectabile, normally
breeds from late November to April or early May (Hubbs, 1961; Hubbs and
Armstrong, 1962; Hubbs, et al. , 1968) with individual females probably spawn¬
ing repeatedly over this interval (pers. observ.). In the summer of 1976, however,
females from the Guadalupe River directly below Canyon Lake (Comal County,
Tx.) were found to have ripe eggs in June, July and August (Robert J. Edwards,
pers. comm.; pers. observ.). Canyon Lake is a deep-storage reservoir with ahypo-
limnion release, and the water temperature in the tailrace rarely exceeds 20 C
(Hannan and Young, 1974), while water temperatures in other Texas streams
routinely reach 25 C by late May and 30-35 C by mid July (Goines, 1967).
Portions of this research were presented to the Texas Academy of Science, March 1977,
Waco, Texas, and to the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, June,
1977, Gainesville, Florida.
Accepted for publication: January 17, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
130
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The occurrence of a prolonged breeding season in this unusually cold environ¬
ment suggested that a thermal cue is important in the seasonal termination of
reproduction in central Texas populations of E. spectabile, whereas photoperiod
is not critical. The purpose of the present paper is to examine the effects of a
thermally altered environment on the normal reproductive cycle of female E.
spectabile and to investigate the roles of temperature and photoperiod in the
seasonal termination of reproduction.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field Comparisons
In order to assess the impact of an altered temperature regime on the repro¬
ductive cycle of female E. spectabile , darters were collected from the hypolimnic
Figure 1. Collection localities for Etheostoma spectabile.
ORANGETHROAT DARTER ( ETHEOSTOMA SPECTABILE )
131
release waters of Canyon Lake in the Guadalupe River just below Canyon Dam
and, for comparative purposes, from 2 locations (5 km apart) on Onion Creek
(FM 973, Del Valle, Tx., and U.S. HWY 183 near Austin, Tx., Travis County)
(Fig. 1). The collection sites on Onion Creek are typical of the habitat occupied
by E. spectabile in central Texas: both consist of riffle areas alternating with
shallow moving pools and, more importantly, both undergo typical seasonal
temperature fluctuations (Fig. 2).
30.
ONDJ fmamjjasondj fmamjjaso
1974 1975 1976
Figure 2. Monthly water temperatures of Onion Creek near Del Valle, Tx., Oct. 1974 -
Sept. 1976. Compiled from USGS Water Data Reports TX-75-1 and TX-76-1
(1976; 1977).
Darters were collected by seine and either preserved in the field in 10% form¬
alin or returned to the laboratory.
The % of adult females in a collection which had ripe eggs was used as an assay
of reproductive activity by the population. Although this index underestimates
the number of females actually committing resources to egg development, it
serves as an objective way to quantify the probability of reproduction at different
times of the year.
For this purpose, all females larger than 26 mm standard length were considered
to be adults, although this size criterion is somewhat arbitrary when applied to
fishes collected at all seasons and from different locations. Twenty-six milli¬
meters was chosen as the threshold size because it is the size of the smallest female
which showed evidence of vitellogenesis.
132
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The presence of ripe eggs was determined either by stripping eggs from live
females in the manner described by Strawn and Hubbs (1956) or by dissecting
ovaries from preserved fish. Eggs were considered to be ripe if they were large,
yellow and translucent with a conspicuous oil drop.
Experimental Analysis
Fish used in the investigation of the effects of temperature and photoperiod
on the termination of spawning were collected from Onion Creek (FM 973) on
Feb. 2, 1977. Fifty female and 21 male if. spectabile in breeding condition were
returned to the laboratory and exposed to 1 of the 4 temperature -photoperiod
combinations shown in Fig. 3. Females and males were kept in separate 55 £
aquaria, and the modal temperatures and the maximum daily fluctuations (mdf)
in temperature for each sex are shown in the cell corresponding to each treatment.
COLD
WARM
SHORT LONG
10 light :14 dark 14 light :10dark
mode mdf
’ 14.0 0 „c
a 14.5 0.5
mode mdf
9 14.0 0.5 .
cf 14.0 0.5 U
? 24.0 1.0 o
d-22.5 1.0
? 24.0 0.5 0c
cr24.0 1.0
Figure 3. Experimental treatments. The modal temperature and maximum daily fluctua¬
tion in temperature for each treatment are shown in the corresponding cell.
Males and females were kept in separate aquaria.
The warm temperatures were chosen to correspond to river temperatures in late
spring, while the cold temperatures would likely be encountered by darters during
the winter breeding season. Darters were fed frozen brine shrimp, once daily,
ad libitum.
Two or 3 females were removed from each treatment and preserved every 3
days for 12 days. Two males were removed from each of the temperature treat¬
ments (10 light: 14 dark photoperiod) after 6 days, and 2-5 males were removed
from each of the 4 treatments after 12 days.
ORANGETHROAT DARTER (. ETHEOSTOMA SPECTABILE)
133
The weight of the gonad (GW) relative to the weight of the body was calculated.
Gonads of both sexes were dissected and dried to constant dry weight at 50 C in
a vacuum oven and weighed to the nearest 0.01 mg. The remaining body was
eviscerated, dried and weighed to the nearest mg. The latter weight is hereafter
termed the adjusted body weight (ABW).
Although de Vlaming and Paquette (1977) have cautioned against the use of
gonosomatic indices to assay gonadal activity, changes in GW/ABW ratios rep¬
resent changes in relative investments in reproductive and somatic tissues and, in
the case of females, large differences in GW/ABW were usually associated with
gross differences in egg morphology.
Differences between experimental samples in GW/ABW ratios were tested
using analysis of variance (Sokal and Rolf, 1969).
Two-way analysis of variance (temperature X photoperiod) was performed
on arcsin transformed GW/ABW ratios for females subjected to experimental
treatments for 3, 6 and 9 days. For sample of males and for females exposed
to experimental conditions for 12 days, 1-way analyses of variance were per¬
formed because of unequal sample sizes among treatments. Samples were con¬
sidered to be significantly different at p < .05.
RESULTS
Laboratory Experiments
The results of 2-way analyses of variance for females subjected to the 4 pos¬
sible temperature -photoperiod combinations for 3,6 and 9 days are shown in
Table 1 .
In all cases, the variance attributed to different photoperiod treatments was
non-significant. After 3 and 6 days of exposure, the variance attributable to dif¬
ferent temperature treatments was also non-significant, but after 9 days of
exposure there was a significant difference between the GW/ABW ratios of females
from different temperature treatments. In no case was there a significant inter¬
action between temperature and photoperiod.
The differences among the GW/ABW ratios of females exposed to the 4 treat¬
ments for 12 days had to be tested using 2 separate 1-way analyses of variance
(Table 2) because several females were lost and there were not equal sample sizes
among treatments. In light of the insignificant interaction between temperature
and photoperiod, the use of 1-way analysis on each variable independently was
considered legitimate. There was no significant difference between GW/ABW
ratios of females exposed to different photoperiods, but there was a highly sig¬
nificant difference between females in the different temperature treatments.
The ovary weight/adjusted body weight (OW/ABW) ratios of females kept
at different temperatures for different lengths of time are shown in Fig. 4.
There is a rapid decline in OW/ABW at the warm temperature, whereas OW/ABW
remains relatively constant over a 12-day period in females from the cold treat¬
ment.
134
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Females Exposed to Experimental Conditions for 3, 6, or 9 Days
TWO WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source
SS
DF
Variance
Estimate
F
3-Day Exposure
Photoperiods
20.82
1
20.82
1.22
N.S.
Temperatures
6.82
1
6.82
0.39
N.S.
Interaction
(Phot operiod X Temperat ure) 10.19
1
10.19
0.60
N.S.
Error
136.69
8
17.09
6-Day Exposure
Photoperiods
126.29
1
126.29
0.67
N.S.
Temperatures
283.73
1
283.73
1.52
N.S.
Interaction
(Photoperiod X Temperature) 19.26
1
19.26
0.10
N.S.
Error
1,492.22
8
186.53
9-Day Exposure
Photoperiods
144.84
1
144.84
5.38
N.S.
Temperatures
522.61
1
522.61
19.42
*
Interaction
(Photoperiod X Temperature) 38.82
1
38.82
1.44
N.S.
Error
107.60
4
26.90
*p <.05
TABLE 2
Females Exposed to Experimental Conditions for 12 Days
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source
SS
DF
Variance
Estimate
F
Photoperiods
0.25
1
0.25
.002
N.S.
Error
829.22
5
165.84
Temperatures
787.71
1
787.71
94.340
* *
Error
41.76
5
8.35
* *p < .01
ORANGETHROAT DARTER (E THEO STOMA SPECTABILE )
135
Figure 4. Comparison of OW/ABW ratios of females exposed to different temperatures.
Mean OW/ABW ratios of females exposed to cold are connected by the solid
line; those of females exposed to warm by the dashed line. Ranges of cold
samples are indicated by solid vertical lines with flags to the left; those of warm
samples by dashed vertical lines with flags to the right. Photoperiod treatments
within a temperature treatment were pooled.
The OW/ABW ratios of females exposed to different photoperiods are shown
in Fig. 5. As shown by the analysis of variance, there were no consistent trends
in OW/ABW that could be attributed to exposure to a particular photoperiod.
One-way analyses of variance were performed on testes weight/adjusted body
weight (TW/ABW) ratios of males exposed to different temperatures for 6 days
and those of males exposed to different temperatures and photoperiods for 12
days (Table 3). As with the females, there was no significant difference in GW/ABW
ratios that could be attributed to photoperiod exposure, but there was a highly
significant difference in GW/ABW ratios of males exposed to different temperature
treatments for 12 days. Changes in TW/ABW ratios for males from different treat¬
ments are shown in Fig. 6.
These results indicate that exposure to a warm temperature significantly affects
the reproductive condition of E. spectabile and acts as a cue for the termination
of reproduction in as short a time as 9-12 days; exposure to a long or short photo¬
period, however, has no effect within this interval.
136
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
LABORATORY FEMALES
PHOTOPERIOD
Figure 5. Comparison of OW/ABW ratios of females exposed to different photoperiods.
Mean OW/ABW ratios of females exposed to a short photoperiod are connected
by the solid line; those of females exposed to a long photoperiod are connected
by the dashed line. The ranges of OW/ABW measurements for “short” females
are indicated by the solid vertical lines with flags to the left; those for “long”
females by dashed vertical lines with flags to the right. Temperature treatments
within a photoperiod treatment were pooled.
Field Comparisons
The normal reproductive cycle of female E. spectabile, as assayed by the
presence of females with ripe eggs, is shown by the solid line in Fig. 7. At Onion
Creek, no females had ripe eggs from June 1976 through Oct. 1976, and only 1
out of 23 females collected Dec. 17, 1976 had ripe eggs. No Onion Creek collec¬
tions were made in Nov. 1976, but the low % of females with ripe eggs in December
suggests that breeding probably did not start until late November to early Decem¬
ber of that year, as indicated by the dotted line from Oct. -Dec., 1976 in Fig. 7.
During the winter months and until early May, a large % of adult females in any
one collection had ripe eggs. By June 1977, breeding activity had again stopped
and did not resume until the following December (pers. observ.). An examination
of Onion Creek water temperatures (Fig. 2 and 7) shows that the peak of breeding
ORANGETHROAT DARTER (E THE OS T OMA SPECTABILE)
137
TABLE 3
Males Exposed to Experimental Conditions for 6 or 12 Days
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source
SS
DF
Variance
Estimate
F
6-Day Exposure
Temperatures
0.56
1
0.56
0.880
N.S.
Error
0.64
1
0.64
12-Day Exposure
Photoperiods
0.02
1
0.02
0.003
N.S.
Error
72.91
12
6.07
Temperatures
37.89
1
37.89
12.980
* *
Error
35.04
12
2.92
* *p < .01
TEMPERATURE
PHOTOPERIOD
DAYS OF EXPOSURE
Figure 6. (Left) Comparison of TW/ABW ratios for males exposed to different temper¬
ature regimes. Means of males exposed to cold treatments are indicated by “c”
and connected by the solid line; those of males exposed to warm treatments
are indicated by “w” and connected by the dashed line. Ranges of TW/ABW
for cold treatments are indicated by solid vertical lines with flags to the left;
those for warm treatments by dashed vertical lines with flags to the right.
Photoperiod treatments within a temperature treatment were pooled.
(Right) Comparison of TW/ABW ratios for males exposed to short (“s” solid
lines) and long (“1”, dashed lines) for 12 days. Temperature treatments within
a photoperiod were pooled.
138
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
’pooled collections
Figure 7. Seasonal variation in reproductive activity for 2 populations of Etheostoma
spectabile in central Texas. Collections from Onion Creek are indicated by
crosses and connected by solid lines (except Oct. -Dec., 1976; see text for ex¬
planation). Collections from the Guadalupe River below Canyon Dam are
indicated by dots and connected by dashed lines. The temperatures (or tem¬
perature ranges) at the time of each Canyon Dam collection are recorded above
the datum for that collection. The collection from Onion Creek, Apr. 1977,
represents a pooled sample including FM 973 and Hwy 183 collections made
on Apr. 1 and Apr. 8, respectively. The June 1977 sample from Onion Creek is
also pooled, and represents collections made June 5 (FM 973) and June 15
(Hwy 183). Collections from Onion Creek on July 2 and July 27 were also
pooled for the July 1977 sample. The June 1976 collection from below Canyon
Dam includes individuals collected June 13 and June 19, 1976.
activity occurs during the coldest months, and that the termination of spawning
corresponds to the time when water temperatures increase to near 25 C.
Below Canyon Dam, where the water temperature has been artificially lowered
by the release of hypolimnic waters, the reproductive cycle of E. spectabile is
displaced in time, apparently dependent upon temperature changes (dashed line,
Fig. 7). During the summer of 1976, water temperatures remained below 20 C
until mid August and females with ripe eggs were found in June, July and early
August. In Sept. 1976, however, there were no ripe individuals collected, and
ORANGETHROAT DARTER (. ETHEOSTOMA SPECTABILE )
139
none appeared reproductive. The temperature recorded at the time of collection
was 21.5 C and, in fact, water temperature had reached 22 C by mid August
1976 (Bell Fuchs, pers. comm.).
A prolonged breeding season also occurred in the summer of 1977. Over 1/3
of the females collected on May 24, 1977 had ripe eggs. No collections were
made in June and July. In Aug. 1977, when the temperature at the time of col¬
lection was 19 C, none of the females collected had ripe eggs, but 2 females had
large, yolked, but not yet ripe, eggs. One of 7 females captured on Sept. 12, 1977
(the latest collection included in this study) had ripe eggs.
It is interesting to note that before the impoundment of the Guadalupe River
and the subsequent release of hypolimnic waters, if. spectabile collected from
the Guadalupe River in Comal County during the summer (Aug. 1951, Texas
Natural History Collection 4 5574 and July 1954, TNHC$7701) showed no
evidence of reproductive 'activity (Clark Hubbs, pers. comm.) and had only
quiescent gonads (pers. observ.).
Although both the laboratory experiments and the field comparisons suggest
that elevated water temperature acts as a cue for the cessation of reproduction,
the actual temperature required may vary among different locations or different
times of the breeding season; that is, the critical temperature may be influenced
by the immediate thermal history of the individual.
Below Canyon Dam, where the water temperature remains consistently cool
for most of the summer, a rise in water temperature to 22 C appears to be suf¬
ficient to induce reproductive termination. At Onion Creek, however, where
water temperature is continuously increasing throughout the spring months, the
actual temperature at the time of reproductive cessation is closer to 25 C. The
critical temperature may be influenced by the rate of temperature change, the
length of exposure to a given temperature or the magnitude of daily fluctuation
in temperature. Data to test these hypotheses, however, are not available at this
time.
DISCUSSION
Only recently have the means by which poikilothermic organisms time the
seasonal end of reproduction been examined in detail (de Vlaming and Paquette,
1977). These mechanisms for turn-off fall broadly into 2 categories: 1) depen¬
dence upon some environmental cue, in the absence of which reproduction may
continue indefinitely or until “reproductive fatigue” occurs (de Vlaming and
Shing, 1977), or 2) the occurrence of endogenous changes which cause gonadal
regression even under conditions known to be conducive to gonadal recrudescence
and/or reproduction. However, these 2 mechanisms are not exclusive since en¬
vironmental cues may serve to turn off reproduction before endogenous changes
can occur.
140
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Among fishes, the use of environmental cues for the seasonal termination of
reproduction seems to be widespread (see de Vlaming and Paquette, 1977 for a
brief review and references). This phenomenon has been shown both by direct
experimental evidence (de Vlaming, 1972) and by the indirect evidence of ex¬
tended breeding seasons when normal environmental cues are absent or displaced
in time (Verghese, 1967;Hubbs and Bailey, 1977).
Although the use of environmental cues for gonadal regression is documented,
the dependence on these cues is less well so (but see Hubbs and Strawn, 1957).
In fact, the alternative to this dependence, the existence of endogenous cues
and rhythms, may be easier to demonstrate. Endogenous rhythms for the turn¬
off of reproduction have been shown to occur in some fishes (e.g. see Kaya, 1973;
Sundaraj and Vasal, 1976) and lizards (Crews and Licht, 1974;Cuellar and Cuellar,
1977).
In the present study, the laboratory experiments clearly show that increased
temperature alone is a sufficient cue for the termination of reproduction in central
Texas Etheo stoma spectabile. Photoperiod, however, seems ineffective as a cue
for turning-off as evidenced both by the lack of response to photoperiod under
the experimental conditions, and by the continuation of breeding into the summer
by the population below Canyon Dam, despite the relatively long photoperiod at
that time.
Although the present study does not rule out a possible endogenous cue for
the termination of reproduction by E. spectabile , the presence of females with
ripe eggs in the Guadalupe River below Canyon Dam during 2 consecutive sum¬
mers suggests that if such a rhythm does exist, it is obscured in this thermally
altered environment. One could argue that the presence of females with ripe eggs
during the summer months is the result of reinitiation of spawning by individuals
that had previously (that spring or summer) undergone gonadal regression in
response to an endogenous cue. In fact, females collected in July from Onion
Creek (when gonads are quiescent) and exposed to a cool (19 C) temperature in
the laboratory will initiate vitellogenesis by August (pers. observ.). So, reinitiation
of reproductive activity in response to the cool temperatures below Canyon Dam
during the summer may be possible. However, if the mechanism acting to ter¬
minate reproduction initially were an endogenous change, one would expect a re¬
fractory period (preventing an immediate reinitiation of spawning) to be part of
the endogenous cycle.
Further evidence for dependence on an environmental cue for the seasonal
termination of reproduction is given by Hubbs and Strawn (1957). They have
shown that a closely related darter from central Texas, E. lepidum, will spawn
indefinitely (until death) under constant temperature laboratory conditions.
Thus, it appears that the seasonal termination of reproduction in if. spectabile
in central Texas occurs in response to increasing water temperatures in the late
spring, and that, in the absence of this cue, reproduction could potentially con¬
tinue indefinitely.
ORANGETHROAT DARTER {ETHEOSTOMA SPECTABILE )
141
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks to Robert J. Edwards for bringing the population below Canyon
Dam to my attention and to Dr. Clark Hubbs for his help throughout the course
of this study. David S. Marsh, Robert J. Edwards, Deborah Edwards, S. Michael
Dean and Gary P. Garrett aided in the field work. I am also grateful to Robert F.
Martin (TNHC) for allowing me to examine specimens under his care.
LITERATURE CITED
Crews, D., and P. Licht, 1974-Inhibition by Corpora Atretica of ovarian sensitivity to en¬
vironmental and hormonal stimulation in the lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Endocrin., 95(1): 102.
Cuellar, H. S., and O. Cuellar, 1977-Retractoriness in female lizard reproduction: a probable
Circanftual clock. Set, 197:495.
de Vlaming, V. L., 1972— Environmental control of teleost reproductive cycles: A brief re¬
view . J. Fish Biol. , 4:131.
- , and G. Paquette, 1977 -Photoperiod and temperature effects on gonadal regres¬
sion in the golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas. Copeia 1977, 4:793.
- , and J. Shing, 1977 -Effects of long-term exposure to constant photoperiod-
temperature regimes on gonadal activity and energy reserves in the golden shriner, Note¬
migonus crysoleucas. Copeia 1977, 4:774.
Goines, W. H., 1967 -Temperature of Texas streams. Tex. Water Devel. Board Rep., 65:232.
Hannan, H. H., and W. J. Young, 1974-The influence of a deep-storage reservoir on the
physicochemical limnology of a central Texas river. Hydrobiologia, 44:2.
Hubbs, C., 1961 -Developmental temperature tolerances of four Etheostomatine fishes oc¬
curring in Texas. Copeia, 196 1(2): 195.
- •, and N. E. Armstrong, 1962-Developmental temperature tolerance of Texas and
Arkansas-Missouri Etheostoma spectabile (Percidae, Osteichthys). Ecol., 43:742.
- - , and H. H. Bailey, 1977-Effects of temperature on the termination of breeding
season of Menidia audens. Southw. Nat., 22(4) :5 37.
- , M. M. Stevenson, and A. E. Peden, 1968-Fecundity and egg size in two central
Texas darter populations, Southw. Nat., 1 3(3) : 30 1 .
- , and K. Strawn, 195 7 -The effects of light and temperature on the fecundity of
the greenthroat darter, Etheostoma lepidum. Ecol., 38(4) :5 96.
Kaya, C. M., 1973 -Effects of temperature and photoperiod on seasonal regression of gonads
of green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus. Copeia, 1973:369.
Sokal, R. R., and R. J. Rolf, 19 69 -Biometry. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA, 776 pp.
Strawn, K., and C. Hubbs, 195 6 -Observations on stripping small fishes for experimental
purposes. Copeia, 1 956(2): 114.
Sundaraj, B. I., and S. Vasal, 1976 -Photoperiod and temperature control in the regulation
of reproduction in the female catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.,
33:959.
142
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
USGS Water Data Report, 1976-Water resources data for Texas, Water Year 1975, USGS
Water Data Report TX-75-1, 3:5 10.
USGS Water Data Report, 1977-Water resources data for Texas, Water Year 1976, USGS
Water Data Report TX-76-1, 3:553.
Verghese, P. U., 1967 -Prolongation of spawning season in the carp, Cirrhina reba (Ham.),
by artificial light treatment. Curr. Sci., 36:465.
THEORY OF OPTIMAL SELECTION OF PREY SPECIES
by C. R. RAO
Department of Industrial Engineering
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces 88003
INTRODUCTION
In the study of population dynamics, the predator-prey system is recognized
as a vitally important aspect in natural population control. The act of predation
has been the subject of numerous theoretical and experimental investigations in
recent years. Wide attention has been focused on optimization theories for
determining the choices an idealized predator should make in order to optimize
some measure of effectiveness. Notable among these contributions are the works
of MacArthur and Pianka (1966), Emlen (1966, 1968), Levins and MacArthur
(1969), Tullock (1970), Rapport (1971), Marten (1973), Katz (1974), and
Pulliam (1974, 1975).
Pulliam (1974) developed a model which determines the optimal diet of a
predator faced with a choice of 2 prey species. In this model, the time required
to locate the food ration and the optimal searching locations for a predator were
considered. However, as the number of available prey species increase, the number
of possible diet combinations increase considerably and the exhaustive search
method employed by Pulliam (1974) becomes computationally intractable. In
this article, Pulliam’s model (1974) is extended to multiple prey species and a
solution algorithm is proposed in which it is possible to consider only a fraction
of the total number of choices without sacrificing the optimum value to a great
extent.
GENERAL THEORY
The basic procedure for determining the optimal utilization of time or energy
budgets is very simple. An activity should be enlarged (an additional species added
to the diet) as long as the resulting gain in time spent/unit of food exceeds the
loss in time spent in search and pursuit of food. When any further enlargement
would cause a greater loss than gain, no diet enlargement should take place. The
problem is to find the increase or decrease in the time spent when certain prey
species are included in the diet.
Accepted for publication: February 13, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2 June, 1980.
144
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Assuming that all the prey species are distributed randomly (non-clumped) in
the environment, consider the problem of obtaining the optimal number of types
of prey species in the diet. The time spent in acquiring a unit of ration can be
divided basically into 2 phases: (1) the time spent in searching, and (2) the time
spent in pursuit, handling and eating.
Assume that the predator is proceeding in its search along a reasonably straight
path with a constant speed. Let n different types of prey species with equal food
value be available for the predator, and let each of the prey species be distributed
randomly with density X'(i = 1,2, . . ., n). This assumption leads to a negative
exponential probability distribution for the random variable TS, time required
to find a prey item. Thus,
Prob £TS = tj = Xe'Xt, for t > 0, X > 0, (1)
where t is the time since the search initiation and X = 2X (Xj is the product of
prey density X'and the area covered/unit time by the predator). Thus, the expected
value of the random variable TS is
E(TS) = b. (2)
The time required to locate one prey item must be added to the time TP required
to successfully pursue one prey item in order to obtain the total time, T, required
to locate and eat one prey item. Thus, if t . is the time required to eat the i-th
prey type and if the predator is eating only this prey species, then
E(T) = E(TS) + E(TP)
(3)
However, if the predator is eating at random among the n prey species, then
E(TP) is more complicated. As all the n species of prey are distributed randomly,
the probability that a prey encountered is of the species ‘i’ is proportional to the
relative abundance of prey species ‘i\ Thus,
Prob
(4)
The probability that the pursuit time is equal to t is given by the abundance of
prey of species ‘i’ in the environment. Hence, the expectation of TP is
n
E(TP) = 2
i= 1
n
= 2
i= l
t. Prob
■X
(TP = tj
(5)
THEORY OF PREY SPECIES
145
Combining Eqs. (6) and (9) yields
(6)
In the 2-species case considered by Pulliam (1974), only 3 possible strategies
exist. However, when the number of prey species is more than 2, the number of
possible strategies increase in a geometric proportion. In n different prey species
are available in the environment, the predator has several possible strategies:
(a) to generalize and eat n types of prey in the same proportion as they are en¬
countered in the environment, or (b) specialize on particular prey species, and/or
their combinations. Theoretically, the possible number of strategies is
For n = 10 thq number combinations is Ng = 1023. Thus, it soon becomes im¬
practical to compute all the N$ possible strategies to select the optimum strategy
which yields the minimum value for E(T). Therefore, an attempt is made to
arrive at the optimum choice by considering fewer than N$ possible strategies.
Even though it is not possible to arrive at the optimum choice 100% of the time
by adopting the proposed selective search algorithm, the optimum value can be
obtained nearly 100% of the time.
SELECTIVE SEARCH ALGORITHM
With n prey species available, the expected time to capture any single species
‘i’is given by Eq. (3) and, for any subset of size n, by Eg. (6). The steps of the
selective search algorithm, for reducing the number of combinations to be evalu¬
ated, are as follows:
Step 1. Select from the individual species expected capture times the minimum
value and label it Si . That is,
“n + lk$, k= 1, . . n.
Si = — ^ — + t. = min
K 1 v
(8)
If the predator is to specialize on 1 prey species, the optimal choice has been
obtained.
Step 2. For 2 prey species, select species'j', in addition to speciesVfrom Step
1 , such that
146
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
= min
k
\ 1 + Vi + xk‘k
1 Xi + V
(9)
The value of S2 gives the minimum expected time spent /unit of prey captured
for a predator specializing on 2 prey species, given that species ‘i ’ is to be included
in the diet. This need not be the optimal 2-species combination and an improve¬
ment for this step is presented later.
General Step. Given the species composition from r previous iterations, for
notational convenience let these species be indexed by the set Ir and the remaining
species by N-Ir, the r + 1-st species combination is chosen as
S
r+1
min
keN-Ir
1 + i?i Vi + Vk
& xi + v
(10)
The set Ir+1 = If + {k}* where k; is the optimizing k from Eq. (10).
The general step is repeated until all n species are included in the last combi¬
nation. The best combination from the select search algorithm is, thus,
S = min {Sk >
k = 1 , . . n (11)
The total number of strategies considered in the selective search is n(n+ 1)/2.
ALGORITHM EFFICIENCY
Random samples were generated to compare the choices of the selective search
algorithm with the optimal species compositions. A 5 -species problem was re¬
peated 500 times to obtain the experimental comparisons. It was observed that
in 93.4% of the cases the optimal choices are the same in both selective and
exhaustive search methods. When the optimal values are not the same, the average
error encountered in the selective search was 17.55%, and the average error for
the whole sample was 1.15%, i.e., the minimum time/unit capture was 1.15%
higher than the minimum time in the exhaustive search. A comparison of the
number of strategies to be considered is given in Fig. 1 , where the number of
different types of prey species available range from 1-10. It is observed from
Fig. 1 that the % of the strategies to be considered in the selective search method
reduces at a rapid rate with the increase in the number of different prey species
available .
THEORY OF PREY SPECIES
147
NUMBER OF TYPES OF PREY SPECIES AVAILABLE
Figure 1. Percentage number of strategies to be considered in the selective search when
compared to the exhaustive search as a function of the number of types of
prey species available.
MODIFIED SELECTIVE SEARCH ALGORITHM
It was noted that Eq. (9) need not yield the optimal 2-species combination.
In fact this 2-species error accounted for most of the experimental trials errors
(6.6% of the cases being nonoptimal). However, generally 1 of the 2-species
combination selected in Step 2, either ‘i’ or ‘j’, is in the optimal pair. Thus, an
improvement step can be added with little loss of computational efficiency.
Given that ‘i’ is the species selected from Step 1 and the pair ‘i’ and ‘j’ from Step 2,
then interchange the roles of ‘i’ and ‘j’ and repeat Step 2. Select the best of the
2-species combinations obtained from Step 2. The procedure is continued as in
the previous algorithm.
It was observed that the exact optimum value was obtained in 99.6% of the
cases. When the optimal values were not the same, the average error encountered
was 2.71%, and the average error for the whole sample was only 0.01%. As the
error encountered is comparatively negligible, the procedure may be terminated
after the modification is made at the 2 prey species level.
One of the assumptions in the development of the algorithm is that all of the
different prey species have equal caloric content. This assumption could be very
easily relaxed by assuming c. to be the caloric content of the i-th prey species
n 1 n
and by replacing 2 X.t. with 2 cXt. in all the previous equations.
i=T 11 i=i 1 1 1
148
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Optimality in this paper is with respect to the time spent/unit ration of food.
Whether there exists any predator species which actually does this, or comes
closer to this is of course difficult to verify. If a predator chooses certain prey
species, why it does so, and how it does so are interesting questions. But, these
are difficult questions to answer. One way of making some headway in this area
is to assume possible optimality criteria, evolve the optimal strategies corresponding
to each optimality criteria and to see which of the strategies should be employed
by the predator. This might yield some clues as to how the predator’s evolutionary
process works. From this, it is possible to determine the predator’s efficiency in
the selection of the available diet, which gives a comparison of the actual predator’s
choice to the theoretical optimum.
One interesting aspect of the non-modified search algorithm is that it consists
of an improvement strategy that could easily be followed via evolution. This
single addition strategy is conceivably more likely to be employed than a total
optimization method as it requires only small variations from ‘current’ strategies.
The 93.4% optimal accuracy of the policy and the experimental problems asso¬
ciated with evaluating any policy in its true environment leave this as an un¬
answered thesis.
SUMMARY
A selective search algorithm was developed in this paper relating to the prediction
of an optimal diet, when a predator is faced with a choice of more than 2 different
prey species. Utilizing this algorithm, the choices available for the predator can
be narrowed down and the minimum time spent/unit capture can be obtained.
Even though the exact optimum may not be obtained 100% of the time with
these search algorithms, the saving in computational time offsets the slight dif¬
ference in the optimum value.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation and
Environmental Protection Agency, through a grant (NSF GB-34718) to the
University of California. This work was in cooperation with ARS-USDA, and
funded in part under USDA Coop. Agr. No. 12-14-100-11, 194(33).
LITERATURE CITED
Emlen, J. M., 1966-The role of time and energy in food preference. Amer. Natur. , 100:611.
- , 1968-Optimal choice in animals. Amer. Natur., 102:385.
Katz, P. L., 1974-A long term approach to foraging optimization. Amer. Natur., 108:758.
Levins, R., and R. H. MacArthur, 1969- An hypothesis to explain the incidence of monophagy.
Ecology, 50:910-911.
THEORY OF PREY SPECIES
149
MacArthur, R. H., and E. R. Pianka, 1966-On the optimal use of patchy habitat Amer.
Natur. , 100:603.
Marten, G. G., 1973-An optimization equation for predation. Ecology, 54:92.
Pulliam, H. R., 1974-On the theory of optimal lists. Amer. Natur., 108:59.
- , 1975-Diet optimization with nutrient constraints. Amer. Natur., 109:765.
Rapport, D. J., 1971 -An optimal model for food selection. Amer. Natur. , 105 :575.
Tullock, G., 1970-Switching is general predators. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer . ,51:21.
-
\
m m
CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIPASE FROM CARY A ILLINOENSIS
by D. C. WHITENBERG
Department of Biology
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos 78666
and CHING I PAO
Box 6146
College Station 77844
Reviewed by: Dr. Jaime Delgado, School of Pharmacy , Univ. of Texas, Austin 78712
ABSTRACT
An active lipase system was present in homogenates prepared from ungerminated Carya
illinoensis seeds. The enzyme was associated with the particulate fraction of the preparations.
Kinetic studies indicated maximum activity at pH 9 and 30 C, and the enzyme had a Vmax
of about 0.6 m mole of ester bond hydrolyzed/3 min/mg protein with tributyrin as substrate.
The seeds contained a water soluble lipase inhibitor that was nondialyzable and stable to heat
but unstable to ashing.
INTRODUCTION
Pecan seeds (Carya illinoensis [Wang.] K. Koch) germinate poorly and seedling
growth is slow. The stimulating effect of gibberellic acid on pecan seed germination
was reported by Wiggans and Martin (1960), but no mechanism of action was
determined. Smolenska and Lewak (1974) found that light stimulated germination
of dormant apple embryos by promoting the synthesis of gibberellin A4 via the
phytochrome system, and the gibberellin A4 in turn increased the activity of an
alkaline lipase. Because lipid is the principal storage food in pecan seeds, gibberellic
acid possibly promotes the synthesis or activation of lipase, which in turn degrades
food reserves to supply energy for the germination processes.
Since there is no information available on the characteristics of pecan lipase,
the work reported in this paper was undertaken in an effort to isolate and charac¬
terize this enzyme, and to compare it with other plant lipases.
Accepted for publication: July 16, 1979
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1979.
152
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pecan seeds were gathered locally from October-December and were stored
in their shells until used.
Preparation of Crude Enzyme
Pecan kernels were ground in cold 0.05M tris buffer made to 0.05M with
cysteine and 0.05M with CaCl2 . A ratio of 1 g of pecan kernels to 4 ml of cold
buffer was used. The grinding vessel was immersed in an ice bath, the material
was ground 1 min, and the procedure was repeated 3 times. The homogenate was
filtered through 2 layers of cheesecloth and the filtrate was centrifuged for 30 min
at 10,800 g and 0 C. Centrifugation of the filtrate produced a fatty layer, a
supernatant liquid and a pellet. No enzyme activity was found in the fatty layer
or supernatant liquid, and subsequently they were discarded. The pellet was sus¬
pended in Vi the amount of buffer used previously, a portion was reserved for
protein determinations, and the rest was kept in an ice bath until assayed for
lipase activity.
Measurement of Lipoly sis
Stock substrate was prepared according to Barron (1964), except that tributy rin
was substituted for olive oil. The substrate preparation was composed of 82.5 ml
10% gum acacia in deionized water, 7.5 g crushed ice, and 10 ml tributy rin. The
mixture was homogenized for 2 min in an ice bath. For the enzyme assay, 10 ml
of stock substrate (3.42 m moles of tributy rin) and 19 ml deionized water were
combined in a beaker, the beaker was placed in a water bath, a pH electrode was
inserted into the mixture, and a small stream of C02-free N2 was bubbled
through the mixture. The pH of the mixture was adjusted to the desired point,
1 ml of the enzyme preparation was added (10 mg protein; reaction rates were
linear between 5 and 14 mg protein), the pH was adjusted again, and 0.01 N
NaOH was added from a microburet to keep the pH at a constant value for 3 min.
Enzyme preparation that had been boiled for 5 min at 100 C was used in the
control assays. The enzyme was assayed at various temperatures in order to deter¬
mine the optimum temperature.
Protein Determination
The pellet from buffer preparations was hydrolyzed in 1 N NaOH for 15 min
and the solubilized protein was determined by the method of Lowry, et al. , (195 1)
as modified by Potty (1969) or Bensadoun and Weinstein (1976) to prevent
interference from phenols and tris buffer, respectively. Crystalline bovine serum
albumin was used as a reference standard.
Effect o f I mb ib i tion
Pecan seeds were surface sterilized in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite solution for
10 min and rinsed several times with deionized water. The shells were scarified;
CARY A ILLINOENSIS
153
then 6 pecans were placed in each of 4 petri plates, partially covered with 50 ml
of deionized water, and allowed to imbibe for 1-4 days. The kernels were then
removed and assayed for enzyme activity, and the water in which the seeds had
soaked was saved for further assay.
Inhibitor Assays
Crude homogenates did not contain an active lipase, but if the homogenate
were centrifuged as described previously, lipase activity could be detected when
the pellet was suspended in fresh buffer. Water in which the pecan seed had been
soaked during imbibition (soak water) also inhibited fresh enzyme preparations.
Samples of the supernatant liquid from homogenates and soak water were dialyzed
against buffer, boiled, or ashed, and recombined with fresh enzyme preparations
to test for inhibitory effect.
RESULTS
Effect of Buffer Composition on Enzyme Activity
Addition of cysteine and CaCl2 to tris buffer increased the activity of the
enzyme about 3 times as compared to its activity in tris buffer alone. Reaction
rates were doubled by 0.05M cysteine alone and were increased by 25% with
0.05 M CaCl2 alone.
Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
The pH profile is shown in Fig. 1. Maximum activity was found at pH 9,
indicating that the enzyme is an alkaline lipase. The peak was quite sharp, and
lipolytic activity was drastically reduced below pH 8.5 and above 9.
Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity
The effect of temperature on initial reaction rates'is shown in Fig. 2. A rather
sharp peak is seen at 30 C, and assays were subsequently conducted at 30 C and
pH 9.
Maximum Rate of Hydrolysis
Calculation of Vmax from a Lineweaver-Burk plot (Fig. 3) gives a value of
0.6 m mole of ester bond hydrolyzed/3 min/mg protein. The value of Km was
not calculated since it varies according to the droplet size of the substrate, whereas
Vmax is independent of droplet size (Brockerhoff and Jensen, 1974).
Imbibition Experiments
Unexpectedly, lipase activity did not increase in imbibed seeds as is usually
the case (Rimon, 1957; Muto and Beevers, 1974; Opute, 1975; Sanders and
Pattee, 1975). Instead, the specific activity of lipase preparations from pecans
that were soaked in water for 1 day decreased by 50%. No further inhibition
resulted if the pecans were soaked for 2-4 days.
154
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure
Lipase activity as a function of pH. Activity was assayed at pH 9 and 30 C in
reaction mixtures composed of 1 ml tributyrin, 9 ml 10% gum acacia, 19 ml
deionized water, and 1 ml of enzyme.
Figure 2. Lipase activity as a function of temperature. Activity was assayed at pH 9 in
reaction mixtures composed of 1 ml tributyrin, 9 ml 10% gum acacia, 19 ml
deionized water, and 1 ml of enzyme.
CAR YA ILLINOEN SIS
155
Figure 3. Lipase activity as a function of substrate concentration (Lineweaver-Burk plot).
The activity was assayed at pH 9 and 30 C, and the mixture contained 1 ml
enzyme.
Inhibitor Studies
The enzyme was strongly inhibited when water that had been used to soak the
pecans was included in the assay mixture (Table 1). One -half milliliter of the
TABLE 1
The Inhibition of Pecan Lipase by Water Used to Soak Pecans during Imbibition.
The Reaction Mixture Contained 10 mg Protein, and Was Assayed at pH 9 and 30 C.
Soak Water
ml
Lipase Activity
meq NaOH x 103 /3 min
Relative Activity
0.0
2.5
100
0.5
1.5
60
1.0
1.0
40
1.5
0.7
28
2.0
0.5
20
156
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
soak water in the 30 ml assay mixture inhibited the lipase by 40%, and 2 ml caused
80% inhibition. Dialysis of the soak water did not reduce its inhibitory effect
and the inhibitor(s) was stable to boiling but not to ashing.
DISCUSSION
Pecan seeds contain an alkaline lipase, or a group of lipases, that is tightly
bound to the particulate fraction of crude homogenates. The acid lipase of castor
beans is associated with the spherosomes (Ory, et al., 1968), but the alkaline
lipase is bound to the glyoxysome (Muto and Beevers, 1974). Since no lipase
activity was found in the fatty layer (where spherosomes would concentrate)
produced by centrifugation of pecan seed homogenates, it is possible that pecan
lipase is also bound to glyoxysomes. The pecan enzyme was quite unstable and
could not be solubilized by techniques employed. Resuspended pellets from the
homogenates lost their activity in 6-8 hr in an ice bath. Activity was also lost
rapidly if the tris buffer was not fresh.
The pH optimum of 9 is rather high, but is identical to that of the alkaline
lipase of castor beans (Muto and Beevers, 1974). Most alkaline lipases from plants
have pH optima between 7.5 and 8.5 (Wills, 1965). No acid or neutral lipase
could be detected.
As is the case with a number of other lipases (Wills, 1965), pecan lipase is
activated or stabilized by calcium ions and sulfhydryl group protectants. This
study does not establish an absolute requirement for these agents, however.
Calcium ions may simply remove free fatty acids formed in hydrolysis as insoluble
calcium soaps, and the general opinion is that lipases do not contain sulfhydryl
groups as part of their active site (Wills, 1965). Cysteine may act by preventing
the oxidation of sulfhydryl groups away from the active site, and thereby help
to prevent changes in protein conformation.
The endogenous lipase inhibitor(s) was not identified, but probably is an
organic compound since it was not stable to ashing. Pecan shells and kernels
contain large amounts of phenolic compounds, and it may be that the inhibition
of lipase is due to the action of these compounds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This investigation was supported in part by state funds appropriated to South¬
west Texas State University for organized research.
LITERATURE CITED
Barron, E. J., 1964— Enzymes of fat metabolism. In H. F. Linskens, B. D. Sanwall, and M. V.
Tracey, (Eds.), Modem Methods of Plant Analysis, Vol. 7. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pp. 448-464.
CAR YA ILLINOENSIS
157
Bensadoun, A., and D. Weinstein, 1976— Assay of proteins in the presence of interfering
materials. Anal. Biochem. ,70:241.
Brockerhcff, H., and R. G. Jensen, 1974 -Lipolytic Enzymes . Academic Press, New York,
N. Y., pp. 13-14.
Lowry, O. H., N. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr, and R. H. Randall, 1951 -Protein measurement
with the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193:265.
Muto, S., and H. Beevers, 1974— Lipase activities in castor bean endosperm during germination.
Plant Physiol. , 54:23.
Opute, F. I., 1975 -Lipase activity in germinating seedlings of Cucumeropsis edulis. J. Exp.
Bot, 26:319.
Ory, R. L., L. Y. Yatsu, and H. W. Kircher, 1968— Association of lipase activity with the
spherosomes of Ricinus communis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 123:255.
Potty, V. H., 1969— Determination of protein in the presence of phenol and pectin. Anal.
Biochem 29:5 35.
Rimon, D., 1957 -Lipase activity of germinating lettuce seeds. Bull. Res. Council Israel
(Sect. D), 6:53.
Sanders, T. H., and H. E. Pat tee, 1975 -Peanut alkaline lipase. Lipids, 10:50.
Smolenska, G., and S. Lewak, 1974 -The role of lipases in the germination of dormant apple
embryos. Plant a, 116:36.
Wiggans, S. C., and L. W. Martin, 1960-The effect of gibberellic acid on germination and
seedling growth of pecans. Pro. Am. Hort. Set, 77:295.
Wills, E. D., 1965 -Lipases. In R. Paoletti and D. Kritchersky, (Eds.), Advances in Lipid
Research, Vol. 3. Academic Press, New York, N. Y., pp. 197-240.
HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY OF COMMON
PHARMACEUTICALS: AN UNDERGRADUATE EXPERIMENT
FOR INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS LABORATORY
by JOSEPH M.PALKOWETZ, JR.
and ROBERT J. PALMA, SR.
Department of Chemistry
Midwestern State University
Wichita Falls 76308
ABSTRACT
An undergraduate' experiment with a simple apparatus has been developed for the
determination of the optimum parameters to effect a high pressure liquid chromatographic
separation of some common pharmaceuticals. The experiment also demonstrates the
quantitative assay for the active ingredients.
INTRODUCTION
High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) has rapidly become an in¬
valuable analytical tool. Several excellent reviews of the theory and applications
of HPLC have recently been published (Snyder and Kirkland, 1974; Brown, 1973;
Simpson, 1976; Veening, 1973). Because of its ability to separate nonvolatile
or thermally unstable compounds, it is an excellent complement to gas chromato¬
graphy (GC). In fact, it is rapidly replacing GC in separations that require derivative
formation. HPLC separations can be carried out by reverse or normal phase
elution with isocratic or gradient mode, at ambient or high temperatures. Ion
pairing techniques or the use of HPLC ion exchange columns, and HPLC gel
permeation columns and other specialty columns, have permitted HPLC to be
widely adapted into clinical, pharmaceutical and natural product analysis.
Although numerous detectors based on the measurement of physical properties
of solutions have been developed, the uv detector is the most commonly used.
HPLC has become a very rapidly developing technique. It is surprising that
only 3 undergraduate experiments have been published (Haworth and Liv,
1976; Kissinger, et al., 1977; Bastian, et al. , 1977). As late as 1974, the A.C.S.
Analytical Chemistry Curriculum Committee, (She rren,ef al, 1974), recommended
either “hands-on” or theoretical exposure to a minimum of 33 instrumental
techniques, but never mentioned HPLC. Reverse phase HPLC with uv detection
is very commonly employed in the analysis of pharmaceuticals, therefore we have
developed an experiment with a simple apparatus to study some of parameters
Accepted for publication: October 18, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
160
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
in the separation and analysis of some common mouthwashes and nasal sprays.
Care was taken to keep the cost of the equipment to a minimum.
EXPERIMENTAL
Instrumentation
A single reciprocating pump (Series 2, Perkin-Elmer) was used as the solvent
delivery system. The fixed coil injector was removed from the system simply to
reduce the cost of the equipment. Mouthwashes, nasal sprays and synthetic
standards were injected neat by Hamilton syringes directly through an injector
with teflon septums. A 25 cm coil of 1.6 mm o.d. x 1.0 mm i.d. stainless steel
was fitted 3 cm before the column inlet and the entire column, coil and a
thermometer were wrapped with heating tape for themostatting. A Glenco 5480
dual wavelength detector, (254 nm and 280 nm), and a Cary 118-C spectro¬
photometer with 1 mm cells were used for detection and peak identification.
The 2 C18 bonded silica columns that were used were selected for their differ¬
ences in particle size and homogeneity (Perkin-Elmer HC-ODS-SIL-X, 10 qm,
0.26 x 25 cm; Perkin-Elmer Octadecycl Sil-X-I, 15 jum, 0.26 x 25 cm). Aceto¬
nitrile (ACN) and water were used as the moving phase. The 15 pm column was
used throughout, except for the particle size study, and the detector was set for
0.25 AUFS at 254 nm except as noted.
Solutions
Water was double distilled and all other solvents were reagent grade. All
solvent mixtures were passed through 0.45 p filters (Millipore) and degassed prior
to use. The commercial mouthwashes K-Mart, Listerine, Cepacol, Micrin, Scope,
and Cepastat, and the nasal sprays Duration and Afrin were used untreated. The
oxymetazoline hydrochloride powder (Plough Inc., Memphis, TN) was assayed by
U.S.P. XIX procedures and dissolved in 60% methanol and 40% 0.05 M H3P04
to provide the standard stock solution. The standard stock phenol solution was
prepared from phenol and 45% ACN with water. Two mixtures containing the
uv absorbing compounds existing in the mouthwashes were prepared from the
purified compounds and 45% ACN. Cetylpyridinium chloride was omitted from
1 mixture because its Vr was identical to benzoic acid. The synthetic stock
was 2.01 mm in benzoic acid, sodium saccahrin, phenol, annisole, thymol,
methyl salicaylate and cetylpyridinium chloride. All solutions were prepared to
3 significant figures.
PROCEDURE
Determination of Optimum Operating Parameters
Effect of flow rate. A fast flow rate of the mobile phase decreases analysis
time and produces sharper peaks. However, if the equilibrium time is too short
HPLC OF COMMON PHARMACEUTICALS
161
resolution will degrade. A slow flow rate generally increases resolution and
lowers operating pressures but produces broader peaks. In order to optimize flow
rate, 4-/ifi samples of the Listerine mouthwash were studied at successively
lower flow rates until the efficiency or resolution degraded. Resolution (Rs),
is estimated from Rs = V2 - Vi/(W2 + Wi)1^ and efficiency from H. where H
= L/N and N = 16 (V/W)2. H is the height equivalent of a theoretical plate, L
is the length of the column in m, N is the number of plates, V is the corrected
retention volume and W is the width of a particular peak. W is measured by the
peak width at the base from the intercept of the 2 tangents drawn to the in-
flexion points from the base line. The corrected retention volume is measured by
subtracting the solvent front volume from the volume required to elute a
constituent.
Effect of temperature . Temperature variations are very significant in reverse
phased HPLC because of changes in the viscosity of the mobile phase. Higher
temperatures can increase the solubility of the components on the column,
decrease the pressure and H, and increase Rs. For many separations however,
increased temperature does not appreciably increase Rs, even up to the out-
gassing temperature, of the mobile phase. A variac was used to vary the temper¬
ature which was accurate to ± 1 C. Listerine samples of 4 p9. were eluted at 1
ml/min with 40% ACN, while the detector was set at 0.25 AUFS. Each pair
of students eluted 2 samples at 23 C and 2 samples at 30 C.
Effect of mobile phase composition. In reverse phase chromatography the
solvent is generally a mixture of water and a miscible, but less polar, solvent.
Separation is accomplished by partitions between the nonpolar column and the
polar mobile phase. Polar solutes elute faster than nonpolar solutes. If the mobile
phase consists of a very high concentration of the more polar solvent, the more
polar solutes may elute very close to each other and separation will be difficult.
In order to obtain an optimum solvent polarity, the students varied the ACN:
water concentration from 65:35 down to 20:80. Listerine samples of 4 ju£
were eluted at 1.0 ml/min with the temperature at 30 C and the detector
setting of 0.25 AUFS at 254 nm. This type of elution, with constant solvent com¬
positions is called isochratic elution. When the solvent composition is changed
during the elution the effect is similar to temperature programming in gas
chromatography. This is called solvent programmed HPLC.
Effect of detector wavelength, column particle size and injection mode. Samples
of 4 ju£ of Listerine, K-Mart, Scope and Cepastat mouthwashes were eluted at 1
ml/min, 30 C, 280 nm at 0.25 AUFS, with 45% ACN. A significant increase in
the sensitivity during the analysis of Scope and Cepastat was noted. In order to
elute Scope and Cepastat, the sample size must be decreased to 2p£ or the sensi¬
tivity decreased to 1.00 AUFS in order to keep the chromatograms on scale.
162
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Listerine samples of 4/ifi were eluted under the conditions above, except
that the detector wavelength was at 245 nm. Three successive samples were in¬
jected while the mobile phase was being pumped, then 3 successive stop flow
injections (stop flow, inject and restart pump) were made. The advantages of
a fixed coil injector became apparent to the student because the high-back
pressure on the syringe with the flow on caused most students to have difficulty
injecting samples.
The 10 /dm particle column was substituted for the 15 /im column. Listerine
was eluted in flow mode under the conditions above.
Qualitative and Quantitative Procedures
Qualitative . Samples of 4/iP. of the mouthwashes and the synthetic mixtures
were injected until the resultant chromatograms of each indicated no further
change in symmetry, peak heights or Vr. The moving phase was 45% ACN, the
flow rate was 1 ml/min and the detector was set at 254 nm with AUFS at
0.25. The temperature was 23 C . The compounds in some of the eluting peaks
were identified by collecting the eluted fraction and running a uv spectrum of it
against the mobile phase as the reference. These were then compared with
spectrums of authentic compounds. The students then identified the constit¬
uents in each mouthwash, and with comparison to the peak areas of the synthetic
standard, could make an estimate of the concentration of each. The peak areas
were measured with a planimeter.
Quantitative assays. Phenol is the active ingredient in Cepastat mouthwash
and oxymetazoline hydrochloride is the active ingredient in Duration and
Afrin nasal sprays. The phenol was eluted at 1.0 ml/min, 30 C, on 10 jum C18
packing with 20% ACN. The oxymetazoline hydrochloride was eluted under the
same conditions except the mobile phase was 60% methanol and 40% 0.05 M
phosphoric acid.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows that the students found 1.0 ml/min to be optimum for the
elution of methyl salicylate in Listerine. Table 1 also indicates that 20% ACN
seems to be the best concentration for the mobile phase. However, the thymol
peak does not elute at 20% ACN, and tails considerably up to 45% ACN. The
effects of temperature are also indicated on Table 1 and show that when the
students increased the temperature from 23 C to 30 C, the efficiency increased.
However, when the temperature was increased beyond 35 C, the noise from the
detector increased, and caused such erratic baseline that the measurement of W
was prone to considerable error. This effect was not noted on another instrument.
The students also reported an average increase in H of 105% when using
stop flow injection. As expected, the 10 nm particle column gave an average
HPLC OF COMMON PHARMACEUTICALS
163
TABLE 1
Study of HPLC Parameters3
Flow Rate
(ml/min)
Temperature
(°C)
Solvent
% ACN
Nb
0.50
23
40
680
1.00
23
40
987
2.00
23
40
836
1.00
30
40
1070
1.00
30
65
554
1.00
30
45
1061
1.00
30
35
1116
1.00
30
20
2724c
^Results are the mean of 14 students reports.
°Number of theoretical plates for methyl salicylate.
cThymol peak does not elute off columns.
decrease in H of 48%. When the detector was set at 280 nm, a significant in¬
crease in the sensitivity during the analysis of Scope and Cepastat was noted. No
appreciable increase in total sensitivity was noted for K-Mart or Listerine at
280 nm although the symmetry and relative peak heights did change. This is
due to the differences in formulation of the mouthwashes. Figure 1 shows
the results of the qualitative studies with the chromatograms of Listerine mouth¬
wash and K-Mart's Listerine type mouthwash. Although both mouthwashes
have nearly the same ingredients, it is apparent that the K-Mart brand has sig¬
nificantly lower quantities of each.
Because of the very sharp and symmetrical peaks for phenol and oxymeta-
zoline hydrochloride, peak height was plotted against concentration of the
standards to obtain the working curves on Figure 2. Correlation coefficients
for each plot were 1.00. The phenol and oxymetazoline hydrochloride concen¬
tration of Cepastat and Duration were read from the working curves. Average
relative standard deviations for 4 injections each were 1.21% and 0.90% re¬
spectively. The phenol content of Cepastat was found to be 14.2 mg/ml (14
mg/ml on label) while the oxymetazoline content of Duration was found to be
0.507 mg/ml (0.5 mg/ml on label).
SUMMARY
This experiment is compatible with any simple pumping system and can be
completed in 2 lab sessions. While we used a commercially available pumping
system, the pump is rather simple and an equivalent system can be fabricated
from component parts. Therefore, most students should be able to have “hands-
on” exposure to HPLC.
ABSORBANCE
164
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TIME IN MIN
Figure 1. Liquid chromatograms for (a) Listerine and (b) K-Mart mouthwashes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Petroleum Research Fund, administered
by the American Chemical Society, through a grant (9041-B3-C) to one of the
authors (R.J.P.).
The authors wish to thank Roy D. Crowder, Plough Inc., Memphis TN,for
his assistance in the analysis of the nasal sprays.
HPLC OF COMMON PHARMACEUTICALS
165
CONCENTRATION IN mg/ml
Figure 2. Standard working curves for (a) oxymetazoline hydrochloride and (b) phenol.
LITERATURE CITED
Bastian, D.W., M.L. Miller, A.G. Hailine, F.C. Sentileber, and H. Veening, 1977 -High
performance liquid chromatography,/ Chem. Educ., 54:766.
Brown, P.R.. 1913-High Pressure Liquid Chromatography , Biochemical and Biomedical
Application, Academic Press, New York, NY.
Haworth, D. T.,and T. Liv, 1976-Acetylation of Ferrocene monitoring by high pressure
liquid chromatography, / Chem. Ed., 53:730.
Kissinger, P.T., L.J. Felice, W.P. King, L.A. Pachia, R.M. Riggin and R. Shoup, 1 977 —
High performance liquid chromatography experiments for undergraduate laboratories,
/ Chem. Educ., 54:50.
Sherren A.T., A.L. Beilby, C.H. Bryce, R.L. Grob, W.B. Guenther, W.M. Hanson, L.G.
Hargis, R.L. Hirsch, B.E. Jones, J.P. Martin, R.L. Olsen, R.J. Palma, J.M. Pappenhaggen,
K.H. Pearson, G.P. Puerschner, R. Rowan, E.J. Smith, E.C. Stanley, F.C. Strong and E.L.
Wehry, 19 74 -Analytical chemistry subcommittee report-Part II, J. Chem. Educ.,
51:647.
Simpson, C.F., 1976 -Practical High Performance Liquid Chromatography, Heyden and
Son Ltd., New York, NY.
166
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Snyder, L. R.,and J. J. Kirkland, 197 4 -Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography,
Interscience, New York, NY.
Veening, H., 1973-Recent developments in instrumentation for liquid chromatography, J.
Chem. Ed., 50:(A429) (A481) (A529).
ANALYTICAL SCF WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR EXCITED STATES
OF DY2+
by M. SYNEK
Division of Earth and Physical Sciences
The University of Texas at San Antonio
San Antonio 78285
and R. RAMIREZ
Research and Development Department
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation
Arizona Division
Licht field Park 85340
ABSTRACT
Analytical self-consistent-field (SCF) wave functions were calculated for certain excited
states of the Dy2+ ground configuration. These calculations were done by the analytical
SCF expansion method, with full exchange effects included for all of the 64 electrons. The
basis function exponents of the f orbital for the individual quintet states were independently
optimized. The results for the triplet and singlet states were obtained as convergent SCF
results using the basis function exponents of the ground state. The results presented are the
only wave functions for excited states of Dy2+ available at this time.
INTRODUCTION
Analytical self-consistent-field (SCF) calculations were carried out for certain
excited states of the Dy2+ (Z = 66) 4f10 ground configuration. It has been shown
that Dy2+ is an effective tuneable laser-active material. (Pressley and Wittke,
1967; Birnbaum, 1964). The wave functions included in this presentation will
also prove useful in the calculation of certain transition probabilities.
Our calculations satisfy the need for a description of the electronic structure
of Dy2+. As in the past (Synek, et al. , 1969; Synek and Timmons, 1969; Synek
and Grossgut, 1970; Synek and Ramirez, 1971), these results are expected to
facilitate continued progress of analytical atomic structure calculations of the
rare earth ions.
Accepted for publication: September 13, 1978.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 2, June, 1980.
168
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
This presentation includes 16 excited states of the Dy2+, 4f10 (Z = 66), ground
configuration. The calculations were performed by the analytical expansion
method. (Roothaan and Bagus, 1963). The state designation used to uniquely
classify the excited states is v2S+1LU, where the v is the seniority (Racah, 1943)
quantum number, the 2S + 1 L refer in the usual way to the multiplicity and total
orbital angular momentum, and the U are the quantum numbers of Racah (1949),
U = (uj , u2).
The exponents for these calculations were obtained from the accurate
results of the ground state, namely Dy2 + , 4f10, 4 5 1(20). (Synek and Ramirez,
1971). The exponents of the basis functions for the f orbital of the quintets
were subjected to careful and repeated optimizations. Hence the description of
the f orbital for these states is an accurate one. The exponents of the basis
functions for the triplet and singlet states were not optimized. The open -shell
states 4f10, v2S+1L U were characterized by the vector coupling coefficients
. (Malli and Olive, 1965). The computations were done with a program
(Roothaan and Bagus, 1963) written for the IBM-7094-7044-11 (direct-channel¬
coupling) computer system.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The terminology, the atomic units (Hartree, 1957), and the notation (Roothaan
and Bagus, 1963; Synek and Ramirez, 1969) used are customary (Synek and
Grossgut, 1970).
All the SCF results for the total energy E are compiled in Table 1 . We described
each state of the 4f10 configuration by a set of the 4 quantum numbers v, S, L
and U= (u2 , u2); each set of such 4 quantum numbers is then characterized by a
set of 4 vector-coupling coefficients (Malli and Olive, 1965) which then
lead to a particular SCF energy value listed in Table 1 . One can see that a change
TABLE 1
Calculated Total Energies of Certain Excited States of Dy2+, 4f10,
and their Dependence on the Quantum Numbers S and L and
Racah’s (1943, 1949) Quantum Numbers v and U=(ui , u2).
State
V2S+1LU
Energy
E (a.u.)
State
2S+1 T TT
V LU
Energy
E (a.u.)
4 5 1 (20)
-11640.884
2 3H (11)
-11640.498
4 5G (20)
-11640.762
4 3F (30)
-11640.673
4 5F (10)
-11640.806
4 3F (21)
-11640.620
4 SD (20)
-11640.682
4 3F (10)
-11640.666
4 5S (00)
-11640.806
2 3F (10)
-11640.492
4 3M (30)
-11640.726
4 (22)
-11640.444
4 3H (30)
-11640.617
4 !H (21)
-11640.649
4 3H (21)
-11640.644
4 *F (21)
-11640.511
4 3H (11)
-11640.655
—
—
SCF WAVE FUNCTIONS
169
of any 1 of the 4 quantum numbers mentioned, while keeping the remaining 3
quantum numbers constant, usually results in a significant change in the total
energy E. In particular, Table 1 demonstrates that Racah’s quantum numbers
(Racah 1943, 1949) v and U ^(ux , u2) are energetically about as important as
the quantum numbers S and L. The differences represent several eV; hence they
are significant for solid-state and chemical binding applications.
Tables 2, 4 and 6 give the total energy E, the Virial Theorem values and the
orbital energies for the states 4 5G(20), 4 5 F(10), and 4 SD(20), respectively.
TABLE 2
The Total Energy E (a.u.), the Virial Theorem and The Orbital
Energies (a.u.) for Dy2+, 4f10, 4 SG (20).
Quantity
Value
E
-11640.762
EP/Ek
-2.0000032
Is
-1863.015
2s
-303.343
3s
-69.237
4s
-14.643
5s
-2.407
eiX
2p
-288.592
3p
-62.565
4p
-11.928
5p
-1.595
3d
-50.296
4d
-7.057
4f
-1.152
(The states 4 SF(10) and 4 5S(00) have identical vector-coupling coefficients,
hence their wave functions are the same. Therefore, separate tables for 4 5S(00)
are not included.) Tables 3, 5 and 7 show the orbital exponents and eigenvector
components [for the states 4 5 G(20), 4 5 F(1 0) and 4 5 D(20)] , needed to construct
the orbital wave functions, required by the analytical SCF expansion technique.
We are using the usual and the convenient Slater-type orbitals, almost identical
with Slater’s original suggestions, (Slater, 1930) as basis functions. Tables 8-31
-of Synek and Ramirez (1979) give the total energies, the virial theorem, the orbital
energies, and the eigenvector components for the triplet and singlet states. Table
32 of Synek and Ramirez (1979) gives the basis function exponents for all the
triplet and singlet states. These tables may be requested from a depository agency
(Synek and Ramirez, 1979).
It is assumed here that the Hartree-Fock total energy is represented to about
5 significant figures for all cases. The virial theorem (Lowdin, 1959) is satisfied
to at least 5 significant figures for all cases.
170
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 3
The Orbital Exponents of the Basis Functions and the
Eigenvectors of Coefficients C.^ for Dy2+, 4f10, 4 SG (20)
Basis
Function
Exponents
Eigenvectors
Is
2s
3s
4s
5s
Is
67.10260
0.90824
-0.01075
-0.01264
0.00502
-0.00100
Is
46.45181
0.10219
-0.53460
0.27798
-0.13149
0.04781
2s
29.44448
-0.03832
1.19053
-0.08255
-0.07264
0.05031
2s
23.83466
0.03458
0.03444
-0.92258
0.62869
-0.27051
3s
17.60208
-0.01356
0.02952
1.09687
-0.62722
0.26824
3s
12.79274
0.00939
-0.01646
0.36690
-0.49763
0.18713
4s
9.99703
-0.00434
0.00615
-0.01838
0.93523
-0.40319
4s
7.14948
0.00223
-0.00295
0.00693
0.43590
-0.31164
5s
5.64555
-0.00066
0.00082
-0.00113
0.00856
0.50645
5s
3.46370
0.00012
-0.00014
0.00003
0.00043
0.73139
2p
3p
4p
5p
2P
38.16673
0.27927
-0.06430
0.02291
-0.00446
2p
27.66711
0.73533
-0.51980
0.26118
-0.09528
3p
16.66818
-0.03001
0.58969
0.01568
0.05746
3p
15.17547
0.03093
0.56101
-0.81022
0.21774
4p
10.25753
-0.00448
0.04692
0.66241
-0.22066
4p
7.07623
0.00224
-0.01070
0.60538
-0.36308
5p
5.38075
-0.00068
0.00264
0.00768
0.46894
5p
3.05032
0.00013
-0.00043
0.00319
0.75988
3d
4d
3d
24.99401
0.19524
-0.08995
3d
15.52559
0.80429
-0.40050
4d
10.12162
0.05563
0.43622
4d
7.06601
-0.01368
0.55907
4d
4.84741
0.00342
0.17135
41
16.84269
41
0.05533
4t
10.10418
0.27857
41'
7.45632
0.17059
41'
5.42747
0.38274
41'
3.34227
0.24594
41'
2.11084
0.08455
TABLE 4
The Total Energy E (a.u.), the Virial Theorem and the Orbital
Energies e.^ (a.u.) for Dy2+, 4f 10, 4 SF (10)
Quantity
Value
E
-11640.806
E /Ei
p' k
-2.0000008
Is
-1863.013
2s
-303.337
3s
-69.231
4s
-14.639
5s
-2.406
eiX
2p
-288.587
3p
-62.560
4p
-11.924
5p
-1.594
3d
-50.291
4d
-7.053
4f
-1.159
-L
SCF WAVE FUNCTIONS
171
TABLE 5
The Orbital Exponents of the Basis Functions and the
Eigenvectors of Coefficients C.^ for Dy2+, 4f 10, 4 5 F (10)
Basis
Function
Exponents
Eigenvectors
Is
2s
3s
4s
5s
Is
67.10260
0.90823
-0.01076
-0.01265
0.00503
-0.00102
Is
46.45181
0.10219
-0.53458
0.27798
-0.13149
0.04783
2s
29.44448
-0.03834
1.19046
-0.08259
-0.07257
0.05009
2s
23.83466
0.03459
0.03452
-0.92254
0.62856
-0.27016
3s
17.60208
-0.01357
0.02946
1.09683
-0.62713
0.26788
3s
12.79274
0.00940
-0.01641
0.36694
-0.49761
0.18737
4s
9.99703
-0.00434
0.00612
-0.01840
0.93506
-0.40333
4s
7.14948
0.00224
-0.00293
0.00695
0.43600
-0.31121
5s
5.64555
-0.00066
0.00082
-0.00114
0.00862
0.50570
5s
3.46370
0.00012
-0.00014
0.00003
0.00042
0.73184
2p
3p
4p
5p
2p
38.16673
0.27927
-0.06429
0.02290
-0.00446
2p
27.66711
0.73533
-0.51981
0.26118
-0.09525
3p
16.66818
-0.03002
0.58980
0.01538
0.05744
3p
15.17547
0.03095
0.56089
-0.80982
0.21767
4p
10.25753
-0.00448
0.04694
0.66217
-0.22059
4p
7.07623
0.00224
-0.01071
0.60550
-0.36284
5p
5.38075
-0.00068
0.00265
0.00774
0.46832
5p
3.05032
0.00013
-0.00044
0.00318
0.76026
3d
4d
3d
24.99401
0.19524
-0.08995
3d
15.52559
0.80429
-0.40044
4d
10.12162
0.05563
0.43612
4d
7.06601
-0.01368
0.55896
4d
4.84741
0.00341
0.17156
4f
4f
16.76791
0.05854
4f
9.85054
0.30723
4f
7.36593
0.13954
4f
5.35972
0.39178
4f
3.33358
0.23613
4f
2.08422
0.08480
TABLE 6
The Total Energy E (a.u.), the Virial Theorem and the Orbital
Energies (a.u.) for Dy2+, 4f 10, 4 5 D (20)
Quantity
Value
E
-11640.682
E /E,
P k
-2.0000050
Is
-1863.025
2s
-303.351
3s
-69.246
4s
-14.650
5s
-2.409
eiX
2p
-288.600
3p
-62.574
4p
-11.935
5p
-1.597
3d
-50.305
4d
-7.063
4f
-1.141
172
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 7
The Orbital Exponents of the Basis Functions and the
Eigenvectors of Coefficients C-^ for Dy2+, 4f10, 4 5D (20)
Basis
Function
Exponents
Eigenvectors
Is
2s
3s
4s
5s
Is
67.10260
0.90823
-0.01073
-0.01266
0.00502
-0.00100
Is
46.45181
0.10219
-0.53463
0.27800
-0.13150
0.04784
2s
29.44448
-0.03833
1.19066
-0.08264
-0.07269
0.05040
2s
23.83466
0.03459
0.03428
-0.92249
0.62880
-0.27075
3s
17.60208
-0.01356
0.02962
1.09680
-0.62726
0.26855
3s
12.79274
0.00939
-0.01656
0.36696
-0.49781
0.18702
4s
9.99703
-0.00434
0.00620
-0.01841
0.93564
-0.40315
4s
7.14948
0.00223
-0.00298
0.00695
0.43566
-0.31227
5s
5.64555
-0.00066
0.00083
-0.00114
0.00850
0.50774
5s
3.46370
0.00012
-0.00014
0.00003
0.00044
0.73059
2p
3p
4p
5p
2p
38.16673
0.27927
-0.06430
0.02292
-0.00446
2p
27.66711
0.73533
-0.51981
0.26120
-0.09536
3p
16.66818
-0.03001
0.58973
0.01597
0.05774
3p
15.17547
0.03094
0.56098
-0.81068
0.21762
4p
10.25753
-0.00448
0.04692
0.66275
-0.22068
4p
7.07623
0.00224
-0.01071
0.60522
-0.36362
5p
5.38075
-0.00068
0.00265
0.00757
0.47010
5p
3.05032
0.00013
-0.00044
0.00320
0.75917
3d
4d
3d
24.99401
0.19523
-0.08997
3d
15.52559
0.80430'
-0.40059
4d
10.12162
0.05562
0.43639
4d
7.06601
-0.01369
0.55924
4d
4.84741
0.00342
0.17101
4f
4f
16.2441 1
0.06459
41'
10.15931
0.23235
4f
7.55942
0.24533
4f
5.28644
0.33831
41'
3.42728
0.24442
41'
2.11126
0.09398
The cusp condition (Lowdin, 1954; Roothaan, et al. , 1960; Roothan and Kelly,
1963, 1964) restriction on the choice of the basis set was not imposed in these
calculations. This restriction would have required additional basis functions, thus
consuming a great amount of costly computer time.
Basic interpretation of the results is inherent in the analytical SCF expansion
method and Racah-type coupling coefficients (1943, 1949).
We have not found any other analytical or numerical wave functions for excited
states of Dy2+ in the literature, whether accurate or approximate ones. Hence, a
comparison with other authors could not be done at this time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The assistance of The Robert A. Welch Foundation of Houston, Texas is
appreciated.
The authors acknowledge the use of the computer program whose initial version
was constructed mainly at the Laboratory of Molecular Structure and Spectra,
The University of Chicago, under the direction of Professor C. C. J. Roothaan.
SCF WAVE FUNCTIONS
173
LITERATURE CITED
Birnbaum, G., 1964 -Optical Masers. Academic Press, New York, N. Y.
Hartree, D. R., 1957 -The Calculations of Atomic Structures. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New
York, N. Y.
Lowdin, P. 0., 1954-Studies of atomic self-consistent fields. II. Interpolation problems.
Phys. Rev. , 94:1600.
- , 195 9 -Scaling problem, virial theorem and connected relations in quantum me¬
chanics. J. Mol. Spectry , 3:46.
Malli, G. L., and J. P. Olive, 1965 -Vector coupling coefficients for atomic self-consistent-
field (SCF) calculations./. Chem. Phys. , 43:861.
Pressley, R. J., and J. P. Wittke, 1967-CaF2 :Dy2+ Lasers. IEEE J. of Quant. Electr. , QE-
3:116.
Racah, G., 1943-Theory of complex spectra. Ill .Phys. Rev., 63:369.
- , 194 9 -Theory of complex spectra. IV. Phys. Rev., 76:1352.
Roothaan, C. C. J., and P. S. Bagus, 1 963 — Methods in Computational Phys. Academic Press,
New York, N. Y.
- , and P. S. Kelly, 1963 -Accurate analytical self-consistent-field functions for atoms.
III. The Is2 2sm 2pn states of nitrogen and oxygen and their ions. Phys. Rev., 131:1177.
- •, and P. S. Kelly, 1964 -Accurate analytical self-consistent-field functions for atoms.
III. The Is2 2sm 2pn states of nitrogen and oxygen and their ions. Phys. Rev., 133:1 1(E).
- -, L. M. Sachs, and A. W. Weiss, 1960— Analytical self-consistent-field functions
for the atomic configurations Is2 2s and Is2 2s2. Rev. Mod. Phys. , 32:186.
Slater, J. C., 19 30 -Atomic shielding constants. Phys. Rev., 36:57.
Synek, M., and P. Grossgut, 1970-Accurate analytical self-consistent field wave functions
for Nd3 , Series 3 . Phys. Rev. ,1:1.
- , - — , and F. Schmitz, 1969 -Accurate analytical self-consistent-field wave
functions for Ag . Phys. Rev., 178:73.
— , and R. Ramirez, 1969— The energy significance of Racah’s quantum numbers in
Dy2 Phys. Lett. , 30 A: 332.
- , and - 1971 -Accurate analytical self-consistent-field wave functions
for Dy2 . J. Chem. Phys. , 55 : 1946.
- , and - , 1979-National Auxiliary Publications Service, c/o Microfiche
Publications, P. O. Box 3513, Grand Central Station, New York, NY 10017, NAPS Docu¬
ment No. 00000, Tables 8-32a.
, and W. Timmons, 1969 -Accurate analytical self-consistent-field wave functions
for Pr 3+.Phys. Rev., 185:38.
aSee NAPS Document No. 03682 for 25 pages of supplementary material. Order from NAPS,
Microfiche Publications, P.O.Box 3513, Grand Central Station, New York, NY 10163. Remit
in advance in U.S. funds only $6.25 for photocopy or $3.00 for microfiche. Outside of the
United States and Canada add postage of $3.00 for photocopy and $1.00 for microfiche.
NOTES SECTION
CANNIBALISM AND POSSIBLE FRATRICIDE IN JUVENILE BARN OWLS.
Kirk L. Hamilton, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington 76019.
(Present address: Department of Biology , UMC53, Utah State University, Logan 84322).
Numerous accounts of cannibalism in juvenile raptors have been documented (Ingram,
1959, Auk, 76:218). Hawbecker (1945, Condor, 47:161) and Hoekstra (1975, Limosa, 47:118)
have identified osseous remains of the barn owl ( Tyto alba ) in regurgitated pellets of barn owl
nestlings. This note also reports on cannibalism, and possible fratricide, in juvenile barn owls.
During the spring of 1977, bi-monthly observations were made of a nest in an abandoned
water tower 16 km NE of Fort Worth, Tarrant County, TX. On March 25, a full clutch of
5 eggs had been laid. By April 8, 4 owlets were present; 1 egg failed to hatch. At age 2 mo
(June 1), the owlets were banded and all appeared to be healthy. On June 22, however, only
2 owlets were present in the nest. One owlet had apparently fledged; but the remains of the
other, the youngest bird, were found at the nest. These included the skull, bones and band.
The owlet’s bones were completely stripped of flesh and the bird’s feathers were scattered
throughout the nest area. The presence of the bones at the nest site precludes the possibility
of an intervention by aground predator which in all likelihood would have removed the prey
from the nest and transported it elsewhere. Thus, this author believes that the owlet was
consumed, and possibly killed by its siblings. Pellets from the juvenile owls, however, did
not reveal barn owl bone remains, but it has been shown that young owls exhibit a high
digestibility of bone which meets their calcium and phosphorus demands (Raczynski and
Ruprecht, 1974, Acta Ornithol. , 14:25).
This author contends that the 2 owlets were forced to cannibalize their sibling due to
the decline in parental feeding. Parental care appeared to decrease from April-June as evi¬
denced by decreasing numbers of adult pellets collected from the nest site. In addition, low
numbers of small mammals were trapped from March-July in a known barn owl foraging
area adjacent to the nest site. This suggests that food was limited during the nesting period.
Baida and Bateman (1976, Condor, 78:562) speculated that low temperatures and heavy
snow cover prevented efficient foraging of pinbn jays ( Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus ), thus
reducing survival rates. The adult jays cannibalized their young in order to meet energy
requirements. Similarly, it is suggested here that barn owlets will consume and possibly kill
their siblings which permits them to survive periods of low food availability.
I thank C. D. Marti, W. F. Pyburn, W. R. Pilz, R. P. Baida, M. V. Stalmaster and one
anonymous reviewer. A special thanks is given to A. E. Boodee-Hamilton. This study was
supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid of Research award from Sigma Xi Society .-Reviewed
by: Dr. Hudson S. Winn, State University of New York, Albany 12222.
AN OCCURRENCE OF CYCLESTHERIA HISLOPI IN NORTH AMERICA.
Stanley L. Sissom, Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos 78666.
While conducting a routine examination of temporary ponds 3 km south of Sarita, Kenedy
County, TX, along U.S. Highway 77, a thriving population of Cyclestheria hislopi Baird,
1859 was discovered in October, 1974.
After the discovery of this large population, 4 other smaller secondary populations were
discovered within a 32 km radius. Since U.S. Highway 77 is being widened to 4 lanes on either
side of the primary discovery site, it is doubtful that this site will survive. This species of
clam shrimp is cosmotropical having been reported from Asia, Africa, Australia, and India
(Nayar and Nair, 1968, Hydrobiologia, 32:219), Sri Lanka, Paraguay, Venezuela, Brazil,
176
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
and New South Wales (Daday, 1926, Ann. Des. Sci. Nat. Zool., 10(9) :5 78), and Indonesia
(Barnard, 1929, Ann. So. Afr. Mus., 29:250). C. hislopi is in the family Cyclestheridae, the
only conchostracan family not reported from North America (Mattox, 1957, Am. Mid. Nat.,
58(2):367).
Subsequent field observations have indicated that this clam shrimp spends most of its
life in close association with the thick algal mat on the bottom of this temporary pond. The
mature males rarely stray from the algal mat, and average 1.3 mm in diameter. Mature females
average 3.5 mm in diameter and, more frequently than the males, may be found swimming
weakly just above the algal mat. Males were, at first, considered to be rare in this population.
A more careful examination of the algal mat produced a male/female ratio of 1-4. Collection
methods for this species need to take into account the sexual differences in life style and size.
This clam shrimp is distinctly different in its reproductive habits from other North
American Conchostraca in that it possesses many cladoceran characteristics. Unlike other
Conchostraca the females were observed, both in the field and in the laboratory, to retain
embryos in an ephippium-like brood pouch between the body and carapace. This species,
in common with other Conchostraca, produces shelled eggs that survive in the algal mat when
the pond is dry.
The swimming movements of this species are jerky and the carapace covers the body of
this clam shrimp only when the body is flexed. Both Marqalef (1949, P. Inst. Bio. Apt.,N\A\)
and Tasch, (1963, Museum Comp. Zool., Sp. Pub. p. 145) indicate that C. hislopi could be
represen tive of the transitional form relating the cladocerans to the conchostracans.
There are 2 logical methods by which C. hislopi may have been introduced into North
America. The primary discovery site is bound on the east and west by the King ranch. The
King ranch has extensive land holdings in Australia, South America, and Africa. This species
may have been introduced into the United States with eggs on the feet of cattle imported
from ranches where this species naturally occurs. Since the locality of C. hislopi is well within
the central flyway, the other method is that they may have been introduced on the feet of
migratory birds. Specimens of this population of C. hislopi are in the National Museum of
Natural History (U.S.N.M. 1 7 1402). -Reviewed by: Dr. Denton Belk, 840 E. Mulberry St.,
San Antonio 78212.
AN EQUIVALENT CONDITION FOR THE CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION.
V. K. Srinivasan, Department of Mathematics, University of Texas at El Paso 79968.
ABSTRACT
Let K denote either the field of real or complex numbers. Let f: K— >K. An equivalent
condition for the continuity of f on K is given.
INTRODUCTION
Let K denote either the field of real or complex numbers. Let f be a function of K to
itself. It is well known that f is continuous on K, if and only if, whenever a sequence {xn}
in K converges to x € K, the sequence {f(xn)} converges to f(x). Let A =(an?ic), k, n =
0, 1,2,. ... be an infinite matrix method. In summability theory, if A is a regular matrix
method, A transforms all convergent sequences into convergent sequences and also preserves
the limits of convergent sequences. Such a regular method transforms in general some non-
convergent sequences also into convergent sequences. In general the concept of A-sum-
mability of a sequence is much weaker than the convergence of the sequence itself.
The temptation to generalize being a strong inducement, the following possibility of a
generalization suggests itself. Let A be an infinite matrix regular summability method. A
NOTES
177
function f: K — HC is called A-continuous, if whenever the sequence {xn} in K converges to
x £ K, the image sequence {f(xn)} is A-summable to f (x). This note shows that this apparently
weaker definition of continuity of f is actually equivalent to the usual concept of continuity
of f.
In this section we prove the equivalence of A-continuity of f on K and the continuity of
f on K. The main tool used is the following theorem of R. C. Buck (1943, Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc., 49:898).
Theorem 1: (R. C. Buck, 1943) A sequence is convergent if there exists a regular matrix
summability method A, which sums every subsequence of the given sequence.
We now state and prove our main result in the next theorem.
Theorem 2: Let f: K — HK. Let A = (an be a regular matrix summability method. The
following conditions are equivalent:
(1) f is continuous on K.
(2) f is A-continuous on K.
Proof: Let f be continuous on K. Hence for any sequence {xn} converging to x £ K, the
image sequence {f(xn)} converges to f(x). As A is a regular transform, {f(xn)} is clearly
A-summable to f(x). This shows that (1) implies (2).
Conversely let f: K -*K, be such that for every sequence {xn} converging to x, {f(xn)}
be A-summable to f(x). Since every subsequence {xn^} of {xn} also converges to x, by def¬
inition of A-continuity of f, the sequence {f(xn^)} is A-summable to f(x). Thus all sub¬
sequences {f(xn ) } of {f(xn)} are A-summable to f(x). Hence from Theorem 1, it follows
that {f(xn)} is itself convergent, and since the limit of a convergent sequence is unique,
{f(xn)} converges to f(x). Thus f is continuous on K. This proves that (2) implies (1). The
proof of the theorem is complete.
'
ABSTRACTS
OF
TEXAS BRANCH
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MICROBIOLOGY
Fort Worth Hilton Inn
Fort Worth, Texas
November 1-3, 1980
SPECIAL EDITOR - ASM ABSTRACTS
Rex Moyer, Ph.D.
Biology Department
Trinity University
715 Stadium Drive
San Antonio, TX 78284
1 1
Abstracts: Texas Branch American Society for Microbiology
Fort Worth Hilton Inn, Fort Worth, Texas
November 1-3, 1980
SURGICAL SITE CONTAMINATION DURING A CANINE HYSTERECTOMY AND AN
EQUINE CARPAL SURGERY. Michael F. Blankenstein, Department of Allied Health
and Life Sciences, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio 78285.
In order to investigate sterile surgery technique by veterinary practitioners the periphery
of 2 surgical incisions were sampled for microbiological analysis. Samples were taken during
a canine hysterectomy at 5 min intervals and during an equine carpal surgery at 15 min
intervals, each taken immediately prior in time to incision until surgery termination. From
the canine hysterectomy large populations of Staphylococcus epidermidis were found along
the surgical incision until suturing when a nitrofuran powder was applied which greatly
reduced these populations. From the equine carpal surgery S. aureus was cultured from the
surgical site sample taken just prior to incision and again just after completion of the surgery.
S. epidermidis was cultured from samples taken during the surgery.
EFFECT OF PROTEASES ON ADHERENCE OF PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA TO
MAMMALIAN CELLS. D. E. Woods, D. C. Straus, W. G. Johanson, Jr., and J. A. Bass,
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio 78284.
A previous correlation has been demonstrated between the in vitro adherence to upper
respiratory epithelium and colonization of the respiratory tract by Pseudomonas aeruginosa
in seriously ill patients. Although the specific in vivo alterations in the cell surface which
permits the adherence of P. aeruginosa have not been defined, we have demonstrated in vitro
that P. aeruginosa adherence can be correlated with the removal of a large molecular weight
glycoprotein, fibronectin, from the cell surface by brief protease treatment. The object of
the present study was to correlate in vitro adherence of P. aeruginosa with in vivo levels of
cell surface fibronectin and salivary proteases. A direct radioimmune binding assay was
developed to measure cell surface fibronectin. Protease activity in secretions was measured
by I release from an insoluble fibrin matrix. Adherence of radiolabelled P. aeruginosa
was correlated with decreased cell surface fibronectin (p < 0.001) and increased salivary
protease levels (p < 0.001) in study patients. Further, when compared to controls, patients
demonstrated significant differences in all 3 parameters tested.
URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS: QUANTITATION OF ANTIBACTERIAL ANTIBODIES
IN URINE BY RADIOIMMUNOASSAY. J. Ratner, V. Thomas, B. Sanford, and M. I’orland,
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio 78284.
Urine specimens from 65 patients with symptomatic urinary tract infections were tested
for antibody-coated bacteria by direct immunofluorescence. Unbound antibody to the
homologous infecting bacteria was quantitated by RIA. Results were compared to urinary
protein levels. Results of positive urine fluorescent antibody (FA) tests and elevated levels
of unbound antibody were associated with acute pyelonephritis, while negative FA tests and
low levels of unbound antibody were associated with cystitis. However, there were patients
with acute pyelonephritis who had negative FA tests and low amounts of unbound antibody,
and there were patients with cystitis with negative FA tests and elevated amounts of unbound
antibody.
182
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Antibacterial antibody levels quantitated by RIA were significantly higher in urines from
patients with acute pyelonephritis compared to urines from patients with cystitis, although
there was overlap in the RIA binding ratio values of these 2 groups. Urine from patients with
acute pyelonephritis which were associated with positive FA tests had significantly higher
levels of antibody than urine associated with negative FA tests.
Comparing FA tests and levels of unbound bacteria-specific antibody with urinary protein
levels indicated that (1) FA results are independent of protein levels, and (2) that while
elevated protein levels are associated with high levels of urinary antibody detected by RIA,
not all specimens containing elevated levels of antibody contain increased protein.
TOXIC PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA EXOPRODUCTS IN THE LUNGS OF ACUTE
RESPIRATORY FAILURE PATIENTS: DEMONSTRATION BY IMMUNOFLUORES¬
CENCE. K. E. Crowe, D. E. Woods, J. A. Bass, W. G. Johanson, Jr., and D. C. Straus,
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio 78284.
We have shown previously in our laboratory that patients with cystic fibrosis and cancer
who are infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa develop antibodies against the Exotoxin A
of this organism and 2 Pseudomonas proteases. This report is the initial phase of a study
examining lung tissue of patients who have had P. aeruginosa isolated from their tracheal
secretions subsequent to the onset of Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) for
the presence of these exoproducts. The Pseudomonas Exotoxin A and 2 proteases were
isolated and used to develop rabbit antiserum. These antisera were then employed in an
indirect immunofluorescence assay designed to detect the presence of these products in
human lung tissue. Pulmonary sections from 2 patients were examined. One patient presented
with classical ARDS and active acute pneumonia, as well as a massive inflammatory response
with polymorphonuclear cells. The other patient also presented with classical ARDS, but
showed no evidence of pneumonia or PMN infiltration. We were able to demonstrate the
presence of Pseudomonas Exotoxin A and 1 protease of 34,000 mol wt in pulmonary tissue
of the patient presenting with active acute pneumonia, but were unable to detect the elabora¬
tion of any of these exoproducts in lung sections of the individual whose lungs were merely
colonized with P. aeruginosa.
CAROTENOIDS OF A DEMATIACEOUS FUNGUS. P. A. Geis and P. J. Szaniszlo, Depart¬
ment of Microbiology , The University of Texas, Austin 78712.
Carotenoid production was investigated in the dematiaceous fungus Wangiella dermatitidis
8656. Demonstration of the carotenoid nature of the pigmentation of pink, melanin-deficient
mutants suggested that such pigments might be present in the black, parental strain. The
organism was grown with constant illumination at room temperature and ballistically homoge¬
nized in acetone. Sterols were precipitated and the extract chromatographed on a celite-MgO
column. Carotenoid identification was performed by comparison to standard pigments of
Rhodotorula glutinis by 3 critical criteria: first, order of elution from the celite-MgO column;
second, cochromatography with standard compounds on thin-layer, silica gel sheets; and lastly,
visual, spectral maxima. The carotenoids torulene and torularodin were identified in the
extract from the dematiaceous fungus W. dermatitidis. This is the first isolation of carotenoid
compounds from any of the black yeast and may indicate the taxonomic value of this
characteristic for these fungi.
CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INTERACTIONS WITH QUINOLINE DERIVATIVES. H. Lund,
D. Speelman, and T. Albrecht , Department of Microbiology , University of Texas Medical
Branch, Galveston 77550.
Reduction of a proximal carcinogen to a presumed ultimate carcinogen in viral infected cell
lysates was demonstrated. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) inactivation by 4-nitroquinoline-l-oxide
ASM ABST.j, FALL 1979
183
(NQO) has been previously shown to be directly concentration-dependent over a range of
5- 200 jUg/ml. Suitable controls showed inactivation to be a direct effect of chemical upon
virus. No photodynamic component in the inactivation of virus was seen, though such a
component would have been expected due to the chemical structure of NQO and prior investi¬
gations using NQO. The reduction of NQO to 4-hydroxyaminoquinoline-l -oxide (HAQO)
was postulated to explain these results. Cell lysates of NQO experiments were examined for
the presence of HAQO and prior experimental protocols with NQO were repeated using
HAQO. These experiments demonstrated: (1) CMV inactivation by HAQO is more rapid
than with NQO, (2) virus inactivation curves with addition of either HAQO or NQO have
no photodynamic component, and (3) NQO treated cell lysates demonstrated reduction of
NQO to HAQO. This latter point was shown by thin-layer chromatography and high pressure
liquid chromatography which separated NQO and HAQO. Chemical identities were demon¬
strated by comigration with known standards and confirmed by fluorescence spectra. It is
therefore presumed that virus inactivation by addition of NQO to cell lysates is due almost
entirely to HAQO. Virus inactivation curves were bimodal with the second component
possibly showing host cell mediated reactivation of the chemically damaged virus.
MUTAGENICITY SCREENING OF SOME ANTIVIRAL AGENTS AND COMMON DRUGS
IN THE SALMONELLA /MICROSOME ASSAY. R. L. Morrow, L. B. Allen and E. F. Harris,
Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine, Fort Worth 76107.
Eighteen miscellaneous drugs were tested in the standard Salmonella/ microsome assay
using Testor Strains TA98 and TA100. The enzyme activation system contained 8 jumoles
MgCls, 33 /imoles KC1, 5 /tmoles glucose-6-phosphate, 4 /jl moles NADP, 100 /imoles sodium
phosphate (pH 7.4), and 0.1 ml Aroclor 1254-induced rat liver enzyme S9/ml. Compounds
were screened at concentrations of 0.2, 20, 200, and 500 jdg/plate; dose curves were done at
appropriately higher or lower concentrations for those compounds showing mutagenicity
and/or toxicity. Isoniazid, Levamisole, and Methapyrilene were negative for both stains.
Hydralazine HC1 was mutagenic at 500 /tg/plate for TA100 without S9 and Chlorambucil
(500 /ig/plate) was also positive for TA100 but activation was required. Of the 13 antiviral
compounds, Ara-HXMP, Ara-A and Ara-C were negative for both strains, as were the anti¬
influenza drugs Amantadine HC1 and Rimantadine HC1. The broad-spectrum antiviral,
Virazole (Ribavirin), was also negative for TA98 and TA100. Other compounds which were
not mutagenic for either strain were Amphotericin-j3-methyl ester, 2-deoxy-D-glucose, and
6- azauridine. Disodium phosphonacetate was negative for TA98 but toxic for TA100 at
20 /ig/plate. Triflurothymidine, and IdUR analog, was mutagenic for TA100 at 200 /ig/plate.
3-Deazaguanine and 7-rib-3-deazaguanine were mutagenic forTAlOO at 500 and 100 /ig/plate
respectively without activation; with activation, both were toxic to TA100 at 5 /ig/plate.
Without activation, 3-deazaguanine was mutagenic for TA98 at 500 /ig/plate.
HEMAGGLUTINATION OF URINARY PATHOGENS: A QUANTITATIVE ASSAY FOR
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMAN ERYTHROCYTES AND [3H] -LABELED
ESCHERICHIA COLI. C. Green and V. Thomas, University of Texas Health Science
Center, San Antonio 78284.
A quantitative test was developed to assess the interaction between Escherichia coli
urinary isolates and human Type O erythrocytes. The test organism was inoculated into
nutrient broth along with a mixture of [3H] -labeled amino acids and incubated at 37 C for
18 hr. The labeled-bacteria were washed and resuspended to the original volume of nutrient
broth. Varying amounts of the bacteria were mixed with a 3% suspension of human Type O
erythrocytes and incubated at 4 C for varying time periods. The mixture was centrifuged at
500 rpm to pellet the erythrocytes and attached bacteria. Unattached bacteria remained in
the supernatant. The erythrocyte-bacteria pellet was washed. The resulting supernatants were
added to the original supernatant containing the unattached bacteria; these cells were
184
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
pelleted at 1500 rpm. The erythrocyte-bacteria pellet and the unattached bacteria pellet
were counted in the scintillation counter to determine the extent of the/T. co/z-erythrocyte
interaction. A dose-response relationship was observed when increasing amounts of bacteria
and erythrocytes were incubated together. Incubation time did not affect the bacteria-red
blood cell interaction. Saturation kinetics were observed when 800 (8.8 X 108) E. coli
were incubated with 100 JJ&( 3.3 X 102) erythrocytes. Inhibition experiments were performed
using a-D-methyl mannoside concentrations ranging between 10’1 - 105 jUg/ml. One urinary
tract isolate Serogroup 04 was completely inhibited at all a-D-methyl mannoside concentra¬
tions. Another urine isolate, £. coli Serogroup 086, exhibited a mannose-resistant interaction
with the erythrocytes. The E. coli hemagglutinin was found to be heat labile. Hemagglutination
of human erythrocytes was inhibited when the test bacteria were heated to 76 C. Hemag¬
glutination of sheep erythrocytes was inhibited when the bacteria were heated to 65 C.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS IN PATIENTS WITH IDIOPATHIC RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
C. W. Suits and E. F. Harris, Texas College of Osteopathic Medicine, Fort Worth 76107.
Several in vitro immunological cell functions as well as various mediators of inflammation
were investigated in a preliminary survey of individuals with chronic inflammatory joint
disease. A control group of 10 persons with no history of rheumatic disease and 4 patients
who had definite rheumatoid arthritis (exhibited 5 of the 11 criteria for RA as defined by
the American Rheumatism Association) and were rheumatoid factor negative were tested
with a battery of assays for immune function: % T cells by the E-rosette method, PHA-
induced blastogenesis, migration inhibition factor by the direct agarose method, eosinophil
count, C-reactive protein, clotting time, % low -affinity E-rosetting cells and the Chang cell
51Cr-release cytotoxicity assay for natural killer cells. All patients and controls had normal
clotting time and were negative for C-reactive protein. There was no significant difference
between the responses of the 2 groups to nonspecific mitogens in the MIF test or the blasto¬
genesis assay. Patients exhibited significantly lower levels for eosinophils (P < 0.005) and
fewer T cells than the controls. Percent T cells ranged 70-88 for the control group while the
range for rheurhatoid patients was 52-66 (P < 0.01). A sharp increase in both absolute
number (low-affinity E-rosettes) and function of natural killer cells was also observed
(P < 0.005). The significance of this finding in relationship to pathogenesis is being investigated.
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BACK ISSUE ORDER FORM
EXECUTIVE COUNCIL
President:
President-Elect:
Vice President:
Immediate Past President:
Secretary- Treasurer:
Sectional Chairpersons:
I - Mathematical Sciences: A. D. STEWART, Prairie View University
II -Physical and Space Sciences: KATHERINE MAYS, Bay City High ISD
III -Earth Sciences: DONALD H. LOKKE, Richland College
IV -Biological Sciences: WILLIAM VAN AUKEN, University of Texas at San Antonio
V -Social Sciences: BILLY J. FRANKLIN, Stephen F. Austin State University
VI -Environmental Sciences: CARL E. WOOD, Texas A & I University
VII -Chemistry : MARVIN W. ROWE, Texas A & M University
VIII -Science Education: H. DALE LUTTRELL, North Texas State University
IX -Computer Sciences: CHARLES ADAMS, North Texas State University
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R. H. RICHARDSON, University of Texas at Austin
ANN BENHAM, University of Texas at Arlington
ELRAY S. NIXON, Stephen F. Austin State University
J. L. POIROT, North Texas State University
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Manuscript Editor: G. ROLAND VELA, North Texas State University
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TEX A S JO URNAL OF SCIENCE
Editor: G. ROLAND VELA, PhD.
Managing Editor: MICHAEL J. CARLO, PhD.
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Volume XXXII, No. 3
September, 1980
CONTENTS
Instruction to Authors . 186
Altitude Vectors and Matrices. ByAliR. A mir-Moez, RamziBaransi, andM.D. Griffin . . . 189
An Algebraic System Pertaining to a Loop. By Ernest Ratliff . 195
Geographical Analyses of Temperature and Precipitation in Forested East Texas.
By Mingteh Chang, Steven P. Watters, and Jose R. Aguilar . 199
Rhizocorallium in the Upper Austin Chalk: Ellis County, Texas. By William C. Dawson
and Donald F. Reaser . .207
The Value of Electrical Resistivity Surveys in Geotechnical Investigations in
North-Central Texas-A Case History. By Robert G. Font . 215
Lost Creek Gneiss in the Purdy Hill Quadrangle, Mason County, Texas. By Emilio
Mutis-Duplat . 223
A New Genus of Syringophilid Mites from Galliform Birds in Texas. By Stanley D. Casto . . 233
Cellulase Activities of Soil Fungi. By J. Ortega . 241
Establishment and Growth of Grass Species Transplanted on Dredged Material.
By James W. Webb, J. D. Dodd, and Benjamin H. Koerth . . . 247
Analysis of Particulates by Scanning Electron Microscopy and Ion Probe. By Robert W.
Gray, Howard G. Applegate, and Walter R. Roser . 259
Formation of Tar Balls in a Simulated Oceanic Front. By Monteith G. Heaton,
Richard J. Wilke, and Malcolm J. Bowman . 265
Forestry Knowledge and Attitudes of Texas Sierra Club Members. By Hershel C. Reeves,
Erik R. Beard, and Joy B. Reeves . 269
NOTES SECTION
Definitions of Pornography: A Pre-test of the Importance of Content and Context.
By Sheila G. Sheinberg, Dwayne Smith, and Harold A Nelson . 279
A Note on the Distribution of Spermophilus variegatus in Sinaloa, Mexico.
By Andre A. Antinori . . 281
The Fleas of the Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrels of Wichita County, Texas.
By Richard Roberts and Norman V. Horner . . . 281
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'
ALTITUDE VECTORS AND MATRICES
by ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ, RAMZI BARANSI,
and M. D. GRIFFIN
Department of Mathematics
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409
ABSTRACT
Let {£1 , . . be a set of linearly independent vectors in En, a unitary space of di-
n n
mention n. We look for a vector 5 of the smallest norm which satisfies 5=2 pftj , 2 ^ pj = 1
and obtain its norm. The problem is also solved for a set of matrices with complex entries.
INTRODUCTION
Let {Ai , . . An} be a set of linearly independent linear transformations on
En. Consider
h h
D = 2 PjAp 2 Pi = 1,
1=1 1=1
where pi is a real number for i = 1 , . . ., h. Then D is said to be in the hyperplane
generated by these transformations. Under the Hilbert norm we try to obtain
a particular D of minimum norm. Even though D may not be in the convex hull
of these transformations it may be useful in some applications. The transformation
D may be called the altitude transformation for the set {Als . . ., Ah}. Other
norms such as Frobenius norm can be employed.
DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS
Standard notations of linear algebra (Amir-Moez and Fass, 1962) and (Amir-
Moez, 1971) shall be used. Let En denote a unitary space of dimension n. Vectors
will be denoted by Greek letters. The inner product of vectors % and 77 is represented
by ft, 77). The norm of the vector £ is defined by I I £ I I = ft,
Accepted for publication: October 8, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
190
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Let A be a linear transformation on En. Then, the Hermitian adjoing of A,
denoted by A*, is defined by (A|,7?) = (£, A*r?), see Amir-Moez and Fass (1962).
If one chooses an orthonormal basis in En, then the matrix of A* will be the
conjugate transpose of the one of A. Capital letters denote both linear transfor¬
mations and matrices.
THE ALTITUDE VECTOR
Let {£1 , . . £n } be a set of linearly independent vectors in En. Let
6 = £ P&, £ Pi = 1, (El)
i=l i=l
where pj is a real number for i = 1 , . . ., n, and
(Mi-?j)= 0, i, j= l,...,n. (E2)
Then 5 is the altitude vector.
Next | | 5 | | 2 shall be computed. The equality (E2) implies
(5,fi) = («,Jj), for alii andj. (1)
One observes that,
(fi.fi) = 2 Pk (fk.fi)
k=l
= (6,£j) = 2 Pk(?k>?j)> i,j = l,---,n.
k=l
On the other hand
I | 6 | |2 = (S Pjfi. .2
i=l i=l
= Pi [2 Pkftk,?,)] +... + Pn [ 2 Pk(lk.fn)]-
k=i k=i
n
Using Eqs. (1) and (2) and considering 2 pk = 1 , one gets
k=l
(2)
ALTITUDE VECTORS AND MATRICES
191
which is a set of n linear equations in pj , . . pn. Therefore, one obtains,
| | 5 | | 2 det
^ det A
(3)
where
di.ii) ■
■■ (in.il)
(ii.in) ■
• • «„,*„)
and Mj is the matrix obtained from A by replacing the elements of its i-th column
by l’s. The fact that {£t, . . .,£n} is linearly independent guarantees det A f 0.
n
Finally, making use of 2 pj = 1 and Eq. (3) one obtains
i=l
det A
_
2 det
i=l
Now it shall be shown that 5 is unique. Suppose there is another vector 7
such that
n n
2 qfii, 2 q;
1=1 1=1
1,
where qA is a real number for i = 1 , . . n, and
(t> ?i - !j) = o, i,j = 1... .,n.
Then one gets | 1 7 | | = | | 5 | | . On the other hand one has
| | T | | 2 = 2 qk (lk>?i)> »= 1. ••
k=i
Also observe that
(5,7) = (| PA,
n
2 qA) =
5
2
Similarly one obtains (7, 5) = I I 7 I I2. Therefore
192
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
I | ^ “ T | |2 = | | ^ | |2-(S,7)-(t,6) + | | 7 | | 2 = 0
which implies 7 = 5.
In order to show | | 5 | | is less than the norm of any other vector satisfying
the equality (El), one must study the orthogonal projection on 5. Let
n n
a = 2 a^, 2 aj = 1,
i=l i=l
where a^ is real for i = 1, . . n. Then, as was done for (7, 5), one gets
5
(“’Tht)= 1 |s| 1
which implies | | 5 | | £ | | a | | (Schwarz inequality).
THE ALTITUDE MATRIX
Here is generalized the idea of the previous section for square matrices of
complex entries and linear transformations on En.
Let {Ai , . . ., Ah) be a set of linearly independent n-by-n matrices with
complex elements. Let,
h h
0=2 PiAi> 2 Pi = >.
1=1 1=1
where pj is a real number for i = 1 , . . ., h, and
D*(Ai-Aj) = 0, i,j= l,...,n.
Then for I I D
the Hilbert norm of D one has
detH
D
where
H =
h
2 det K:
i=l
(A.f.A,© ... (A.i.Ani)
(Ah£. A, £)
(Ah£,Ah£)
ALTITUDE VECTORS AND MATRICES
193
and Kj is the matrix obtained from H by replacing the i-th column of H by a
column of l’s and £ is a unit proper vector of D*D corresponding to the largest
proper value.
Proof: The equality D*(Aj -Aj) = 0 implies
D*Aj = D*Aj, i,j = l,...,h. (PI)
On the other hand,
h
D*Aj = 2 pkA*kAj, i=l,...,h. (P2)
k=l
Furthermore,
h h
D*D = Pl [ 2 PiA* A, ] +... + ph[ 2 Pi A* Ah ] .
i=l i=l
h
Since 2 pj = 1, using Eqs. (PI) and (P2) one gets
i=l
h
D*D = 2 pi A*j A; , j = 1, . . .,h.
i=l
From these equations one obtains,
h
(D*DJ,{) = 2 Pj(A* A;^, |)
i=l
or
h
| | D | |2 = 2 Pi (Aj|, Ajf), j =
which is a set of linear equations in p! , . . ph. As was done in the previous
section one gets
detH
2 det Kj
i=l
Note that det H f 0 since the set of matrices is linearly independent.
194
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
If one replaces matrices by linear transformations on En, then the same
theorem will be true.
As was mentioned before, other norms may be employed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the referee for his help and important sug¬
gestions.
LITERATURE CITED
Amir-Moez, A. R., and A. L. Fass, 1962 —Elements of Linear Spaces. Part III. Pergamon
Press, Oxford.
- , 1969 -Extreme Properties of Linear Transformations and Geometry in Unitary
Spaces (Part II). Texas Tech Math Series 2 & 3.
AN ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM PERTAINING TO A LOOP
by ERNEST RATLIFF
Mathematics Department
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos, TX 78666
Reviewed by: Dr. V. K. Srinivasan, Dept, of Mathematics, Univ. of Texas, El Paso, TX 79968
ABSTRACT
This is a study of a system (L, +, • ) such that (L, +) is a loop, (L, • ) is a semigroup and
a(b + c) = a • b + a • c for any elements a, b and c in L.
INTRODUCTION
This report deals with a mathematical system that is similar in structure to a
near-ring. Instead of beginning with a group we will begin with a loop.
Let A be a nonempty set and let + be a binary operation defined on A. If
L is a subset of A satisfying the following conditions:
(1) If a and b belong to L then a + b belongs to L;
(2) There is an element 0 in L such that if a belongs to L then a + 0 = a and
0 + a = a;
(3) If a and b belong to L then there is a unique x in L such that a + x = b;
(4) If a and b belong to L then there is a unique y in L such that y + a = b;
then (L, +) is a loop. Whenever it is convenient we will simply say that Lis a loop.
A subset M of a loop L is a subloop of L if M is a loop when using the binary
operation of L. It is easy to see that every group is a loop but not every loop is a
group. The loop of smallest order that is not a group has 5 elements. This loop
can be illustrated using L = {0, a, b, c, d}and with binary operation + defined by
the following table.
+
0
a
b
c
d
0
0
a
b
c
d
a
a
0
c
d
b
b
b
c
d
0
a
c
c
d
a
b
0
d
d
b
0
a
c
Accepted for publication: November 12, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
196
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Observe that M = {0, a} is a subloop of L. Furthermore notice that a + (b + c)^
(a + b) + c and that b has no inverse.
Loops have been studied for a long time and the reader can find more infor¬
mation about them in Bruck (1971).
LORINGS: EXAMPLES AND PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Now we move on to the subject to be discussed. Let A be a nonempty set and
let + and • be binary operations defined on A. If L is a subset of A satisfying the
following conditions:
(1) (L, +) is a loop;
(2) (L, • ) is a semigroup;
(3) If a,b,and c belong to Lthen a. (b + c) = a. b + a. c;
then (L, +, • ) is a bring. Whenever convenient we will simply refer to L as the
loring.
As a 1st example of the system defined above let L be the loop defined by
the table given earlier. If x and y belong to L then define x • y =y. With this
definition it is easy to show that L is a loring. Furthermore this loring is not a
near-ring. Any loring that is of order less than 5 must also be a near-ring. This
follows since any loop that is of order less than 5 is in fact a group.
As a further example of a loring let (L, +) be a loop. Then let T(L) = {f: f is a
function with a domain L and codomain L). We define + and o on T(L) in the
usual way. If f and g belong to T(L) and if a is any element of L then define
(1 ) (a)(f + g) = (a)f + (a)g and
(2) (a)(fog) = ((a)f)g.
The following theorem is an immediate consequence of some of the preceeding
definitions.
Theorem 1: Let (L, +) be a loop and let T(L) be the set of functions defined on
L. Then (T(L), +, o) is a loring.
Proof: The proof is routine and is omitted.
One consequence of the definition of a loring is that x • o = o for each element
x in the loring but as the 1st example shows 0 • x need not be 0.
A subset M of a loring Lisa subloring if M is a loring using the binary operations
of L.
Now let (L, +) be a loop. Define T(L, 0), T(L, c) and T(L, 0, c) in the following
way:
T(L, 0) = (f : f belongs to T(L) and (0)f = 0}
T(L, c) = (f: f belongs to T(L) and there is an element a in L such that (x)f = a
for each x in L)
A LOOP ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM
197
T(L, 0, c) = {f: f belongs to T(L, 0) and there is an element a in L such that
(x)f = a for each nonzero x in L}.
Theorem 2: Let (L, +) be a loop. Let T(L), T(L, 0), T(L, c)and T(L, 0, c)be the
sets previously defined. Then:
(1) T(L, 0) is a subloring of T(L);
(2) T(L, c) is a subloring of T(L);
(3) T(L, 0, c) is a subloring of T(L, 0).
Proof: We will prove Part (1). Let f and g belong to T(L, 0) then (0)f = 0 and
(0)g = 0. Then (0)(f + g) = (0)f + (0 )g = 0 + 0 = 0 and (0)(f o g) = ((0)f)g = (0)g = 0
so f + g and fog belong to T(L, 0). Note that the zero function 0 belongs to
T(L, o) since (x)0 = o for each x in L. Since f and g belong to T(L) then there is
a unique function h in T(L) and a unique function k in T(L) such that f + h = g
and k + f = g. It remains only to show that h and k belong to T(L, 0).
(0)h = 0 + (0)h = (0)f + (0)h = (0)(f + h) = (0)g = 0
(0)k = (0)k + 0 = (0)k + (0)f = (0)(k + f ) = (0)g = 0
Thus h and k belong to T(L, 0). The other loring properties hold because T(L) is
a loring.
For a treatment of near-rings that correspond to the lorings of the previous 2
theorems the reader is referred to Berman and Silverman (1959).
A DECOMPOSITION THEOREM
It has been shown that the Peirce-Decomposition of Rings also holds for near¬
rings. We shall show that this decomposition can be extended to lorings.
Now let L be a loring. Let L(0) and L(c) be defined by:
L(0) - {a: a belongs to L and 0 • a = 0} and
L(c) = (b: b belongs to L and 0 • b = b}.
These sets are helpful in determining the structure of L.
Theorem 3: If L is a loring then L(0) and L(c) are sublorings of L.
Proof: We will again prove only part of the theorem. Let a and b belong to L(0).
Then 0(a + b) = 0a+ob = 0 + 0 = 0 so a + b belongs to L(0). 0 • 0 = 0 so 0 £ L(0).
Since a and b belong to L(0) then a and b belong to L.Thus there are unique elements
c and d in L such that a+c = b and d+ a = b. Then 0c = 0 + Oc = oa+Oc = 0(a+c) =
0b = 0 and Od = Od + 0 = Od + 0a = 0(d + a) = 0b = 0 so c and d belong to L(0).
We are now prepared to show that a Peirce-Decomposition holds for lorings.
Theorem 4: Let L be a loring and let L(0) and L(c) be the subrings defined above.
Then for each a in L there exists unique elements b in L(0) and c in L(c) such that
a = b + c.
198
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Proof: Let a belong to L. Then for a and Oa there is an element b in L such that
a = b + Oa. Notice that 0(0a) = (00)a = Oa so Oa belongs to L(c). Then Oa = 0(b + Oa)
= Ob + 0(0a) = Ob + Oa. However Oa = 0 + Oa so by uniqueness Ob = 0 so b belongs
to L(0). Now suppose that a = w + x and a = y + z where w and y belong to L(0)
and where x and z belong to L(c). Then w + x = y + zso 0(w + x) = 0(y + z) or
Ow + Ox = Oy + Oz and finally 0 + x = 0 + z and x = z. It follows then that a = w + x
and a = y + x so by uniqueness w = y and the proof is complete.
SUMMARY
Each result established in this article is a generalization of a fact known about
near-rings and rings. The study of near-rings has been very fruitful and it is my
hope that the study of tarings can also be useful in the study of algebraic structures.
For a fairly complete treatment of near-rings the reader is referred to Pilz (1977).
LITERATURE CITED
Berman, G., and R. S. Silverman, 1 95 9 -Near-rings. A mer. Math. Monthly, 66:23.
Bruck, H., 1971 — ^4 Survey of Binary Systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
Pilz, G., 1977 -Near-rings, The Theory and Its Applications. North Holland Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, Holland.
GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSES OF TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPI¬
TATION IN FORESTED EAST TEXAS
by MINGTEH CHANG and STEVEN P. WATTERS
School of Forestry
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, TX 75962
and JOSE R. AGUILAR
Department of Forestry
National University of Honduras
Tegucigaipa D.C., Honduras, C.A.
Reviewed by: Dr. Robert D. Baker, Dept, of Forest Sci., TAMU, College Station 77843
ABSTRACT
Spatial variation analysis of 30-yr (1941-70) records at 39 weather stations in the forested
portion of East Texas afforded equations for predicting annual temperature and precipitation
with standard errors of less than 4.5%. Temperatures in this area decrease with latitude, but
more rapidly than the increase with longitude. The effect of latitude is greatest in winter.
Annual precipitation was negatively affected by longitude and by distance from Orange,
the point of greatest precipitation. The prediction of annual precipitation was significantly
improved when latitude zone was used as a dummy variable in a covariance analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The Texas forest region embraces some 23 million acres, extending from the
Gulf coastal prairies in the South to the Red River and from the Sabine on the
East to an irregular line near the 96th meridian. The Texas Water Development
Board (1968) indicated “The average annual runoff from the State (1924-1956
average) is about 39 million acre-ft, about 3/4 of which originates in the eastern
1/4 of the State.” The 14% of Texas that constitutes the forested region receives
the State’s heaviest rainfall, and may account for 1/2 its annual runoff.
Management of East Texas water resource and the timber resources interde¬
pendent with it requires estimates of long-term climatic data applicable to rather
Accepted for publication: November 7, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
200
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
large ungaged areas. Such estimates must be based on the limited network of
gaging stations with long-term records. This study investigated the spatial varia¬
tions of temperatures and precipitation in the forested East Texas and developed
models for estimating these variables for practical application at ungaged sites.
AREA, DATA, AND METHODS
The study area is located roughly between 29° and 34° N latitude and 93.5°
and 97.0° W longitude. It is characterized by a humid subtropical climate with
persistent southerly and southeasterly air from the westward extension of the
Azores High. Precipitation is heaviest in late spring with a peak in May; tempera¬
ture is hot in the summer and mild in winter. Elevations range from sea level to
about 400 ft; gently rolling slopes with broad flat valleys make the surface runoff
in the area relatively slow and prolonged.
Thirty-nine temperature and 39 precipitation stations (Fig. 1) with a record
of 30 yr (1941-70) were used in the study. Data from the National Weather
Service (NWS) were provided by the Texas Water Development Board on magnetic
tapes. Deleted from the study were stations for which data were missing for more
than 24 mo, which had been moved more than 5 mi during the period, or whose
instruments were affected by obstructions. Missing monthly data were estimated
using the “normal-ratio” method (Linsley, et al. , 1975). Simple statistics for the
normal temperature and precipitation are presented in Table 1.
The observed data from the 39 percipitation stations were tested for consist¬
ency by use of the computerized objective double-mass analysis developed by
Chang and Lee (1974). Adjustments were insignificant and did not improve
statistical predictability; unadjusted data were used in the analyses. No attempt
was made to adjust data consistency for the 39 stations’ temperature records.
The normal (1941-70) temperature and precipitation data, monthly as well
as annual, were then used in a series of simple and multiple regression analyses
with station latitude, longitude, elevation, and distance to a reference location as
independent variables. Possible effects of small-scale topographic features and
gage exposure on the climatic data were not studied.
TEMPERATURE
The final equation for estimating normal monthly and annual air temperature
(T, °F) at screen height (6 ft above the ground) in East Texas was in the following
form:
T = A0 + AjX + A 20 (1)
where X and 0 are station longitude and latitude (in degrees), respectively, and
A0, Ai , and A2 are regression constants. Table 2 shows values of each constant
FORESTED EAST TEXAS
201
Figure 1. Locations of temperature and precipitation stations used in the analyses.
in Eq. 1 for estimating monthly and annual air temperatures, with predictability
statistics for each estimate. Mean temperatures increase with longitude and decrease
with latitude. The greatest standard error of estimates of Eq. 1 is less than 1 F
(January); the coefficient of multiple determination (R2) ranges from 0.500
(August) to 0.965 (December).
Standard errors of estimate (SE) and coefficient of determination (R2) are
both higher for winter than for summer months. Thus Eq. 1 accounts for a much
higher proportion of observed variation for winter than for summer temperatures,
although its predictions for winter months are less precise. This is unusual, since
in homogenous populations SE tends to decrease as R2 increases. Obviously,
temperatures in East Texas vary in different patterns during winter and summer
months in such a way that they are less closely related to geographic location in
summer.
202
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Simple Statistics for the Normal (1941-70) Temperature (39 Stations)
and Precipitation (39 Stations) of Forested East Texas
Seasons
Temperature (°F)
Precipitation (in)
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean Standard Deviation
J anuary
48.0
3.89
3.51
0.346
February
51.4
3.48
3.65
0.183
March
57.3
3.06
3.57
0.491
April
66.8
2.09
4.95
0.348
May
73.6
1.68
5.28
0.266
June
80.2
0.93
3.61
0.713
July
83.4
0.86
2.83
0.784
August
83.5
0.96
2.76
0.190
September
77.7
1.35
3.70
0.131
October
68.6
2.11
3.33
0.095
November
57.5
2.99
3.64
0.162
December
50.5
3.76
3.86
0.501
Annual
66.5
2.07
44.60
4.460
TABLE 2
The Constants and Simple Statistics of Eq. 1 for Estimating Normal
Temperature (1941-70) at Ungaged Locations in East Texas
Time of Year
Ao
Ai
a2
SE%
R2
J anuary
126.640
—
-2.501
1.84
0.950
February
122.031
—
-2.244
1.53
0.951
March
119.075
—
-1.962
1.30
0.942
April
108.554
—
-1.327
0.88
0.923
May
106.749
—
-1.053
0.75
0.896
June
58.161
0.382
-0.459
0.73
0.620
July
16.282
0.702
—
0.74
0.501
August
8.557
0.784
—
0.83
0.500
September
66.972
0.378
-0.808
0.74
0.828
October
75.774
0.370
-1.353
0.84
0.928
November
118.121
—
-1.927
1.19
0.949
December
127.310
—
-2.441
1.41
0.965
Annual
89.451
0.202
-1.343
0.75
0.945
The greater sample standard deviation in the cold months is probably associated
with general wind patterns and air-mass movements of the area. Fig. 2 shows
wind roses for the 12 mo, based on records from August 1948 to July 1956
observed by NWS at the Lufkin Airport, TX. In the cooler months winds flow
predominantly from the northwest and southeast quadrants; in summer winds
from the northwest are infrequent. Winter temperatures are thus controlled by
FORESTED EAST TEXAS
203
OCCURRENCE, %
Figure 2. Average monthly wind roses (August 1948-July 1956) observed at the Lufkin
Airport, TX (compliments of Dr. J. E. Coster, USFS).
movements of warm and cold fronts from southeast and northwest, respectively,
and so are closely related to geographic location. Summer temperatures are pre¬
sumably controlled more locally, and thus are less determined by latitude and
longitude.
204
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The effect of latitude on temperature decreases as temperatures increase. It
ranged from -2.5 F/deg latitude in January to -0.5 F/deg latitude in June. In
the 2 hottest months, July arid August, the effect of latitude was not significant
at the 95% level. Sellers (1965) showed that the lapse rate of air temperature in
the northern hemisphere is greater at middle and high latitudes. The lapse rate
of annual air temperature is about 1.34 F/deg latitude in East Texas, 1.45 F in
West Virginia (Boyer, 1976), and 1 .98 F in the 12 northeastern states (Lee, 1969).
The effect of longitude on air temperature is smaller than that of latitude and
limited to the 5 summer months. The longitudinal effect in August (0.78 F/deg)
is about twice as much as in June, September, and October. In fact, longitude was
the only parameter significantly affecting air temperature in the 2 hottest months
(July and August). For the annual temperature, the change rate is about 0.2 F/deg
longitude.
PRECIPITATION
The final relationships obtained between the normal annual precipitation
(P, in) and the geographic parameters were of the following form:
P = 587.764 + 0; - 54.095 X’/2 - 1.169 D1/2 (2)
where D is the horizontal distance1 , in miles, between the station in question and
Orange, TX, a term selected to reflect a known area of heavy rainfall; X is station
longitude, in degrees; and 0i? station latitude zone, is a dummy variable obtained
in a covariance analysis. Values of the adjustment (dummy) variable are given in
Table 3 for 5 latitude zones.
TABLE 3
Values of the Dummy Variable 0j in Eq. 2 for 5 Latitude Zones
Latitude
(degrees) 0 j
28.00 -29.00
0.000
30.00- 30.99
-2.164
31.00-31.99
-3.819
32.00 - 32.99
close to 0.000
33.00 - 33.99
3.672
1 The D value can be measured from a map or estimated as great circle segment by the equation:
D = Cos 1 [Sin (pi Sin 02 + Cos 01 Cos 02 Cos (X2 - Xi)] x 69 mi/deg
where the subscripts i and 2 refer respectively to the station in question and Orange (X= 93.78?
0= 30.12°).
FORESTED EAST TEXAS
205
Eq. 2 explains about 87% of the precipitation variation with a standard error
of estimate 1.96 in (4.4% of the mean). All the independent variables, including
the latitude zones, contained in Eq. 2 were statistically significant at a < 0.01.
Stepwise improvement of the estimate is tabulated below:
R2
SE (in)
1 -variable (A)
0.525
3.49
2 -variable (A, D)
0.703
2.80
3-variable (A, D, 0j)
0.866
1.96
About 50% of the variation is attributed to the longitude A alone, making it by
far the most important of the variables analyzed. The inclusion of D and in
the covariance analysis improved the predictability from R2 = 0.52 to 0.87, and
from SE = 3.49 to 1 .96 in.
The relationships in Eq. 2 reveal that the normal annual precipitation in East
Texas decreases from east to west and with distance from Orange. The square -root
of A and D further indicates that the rate of decrease is decelerated as values of
these variables increase. On the average, the decrease of annual precipitation with
longitude is about 2.27 in/deg, or about 25 mi/in.
Latitude, 0, was insignificant at the 95% level when it was employed as an
independent variable with A and D in a multiple regression analysis. However the
R2 and SE values of Eq. 2 were significantly improved when it was used as a
dummy variable, as shown in Table 3, in a covariance analysis, but it is difficult
to explain this improvement on the basis of physical data available.
Monthly precipitation is not meaningfully correlated with any of the tested
geographic parameters in East Texas.
CONCLUSION
Annual temperature in East Texas decreases with latitude and increases with
longitude. The lapse rate of mean (1941 -70) annual temperature is about -1.34 F
and 0.2 F/deg latitude and longitude, respectively. Effect of latitude on temper¬
ature is greater in the colder than in the warmer months; longitudinal effect is
greatest in summer and early fall and insignificant in winter and spring.
A 3-variable equation satisfactorily predicted mean annual precipitation from
latitude, longitude and distance from Orange, TX, the station with highest recorded
mean precipitation in the period. Mean annual precipitation decreases longitudi¬
nally from east to west and with distance from Orange. No meaningful relationship
was found between monthly precipitation and the geographic parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was partially supported by State of Texas appropriations for water
pollution research as administered by the Stephen F. Austin State University.
Climatic data were provided by the TNRIS of Texas Water Development Board.
206
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
LITERATURE CITED
Boyer, D. G., 1976— The climatological water balance in a mountainous terrain. M. S. Thesis,
West Virginia Univ., 97 pp.
Chang, M., and R. Lee, 1974 -Objective double-mass analysis. Water Resources Research,
1046): 1123.
Lee, R., 1969— Latitude, elevation and mean temperature in the Northeast. The Professional
Geographer, 21(4): 227.
Linsley, R. K., Jr., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulus, 1975 -Hydrology for Engineers.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 482 pp.
Sellers, W. D., 1965 - Physical Climatology . Univ. of Chicago Press, 272 pp.
Texas Water Development Board, 1968 —The Texas Water Plan. The State of Texas, Austin,
TX.
RHIZOCORA LLIUM IN THE UPPER AUSTIN CHALK: ELLIS
COUNTY, TEXAS1
by WILLIAM C. DAWSON
Department of Geology
University of Illinois
UrbanaJL 61801
and DONALD F. REASER
Department of Geology
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington , TX 76019
ABSTRACT
Rhizo cor allium is apparently absent from the other Cretaceous chalks of North America
and Europe, but is abundant along the upper disconformable contact of the Austin Chalk
(Campanian) in northeast Texas. This Rhizo corallium horizon overlies a Cruziana assemblage
composed of Chondrites, Planolites, Thalassinoides, and Pseudobilobites.
The succession of ichnofossils in the upper Austin Chalk represents a shallowing-upward
(regressive) marine sequence. The lower part of the sequence is interpreted as a shallow, sub-
wave base, carbonate shelf with a thixotropic substrate dominated by deposit feeders. The upper¬
most Rhizocorallium horizon formed in a current-agitated environment with a firmground
substrate conducive to suspension feeding.
INTRODUCTION
Trace fossils and nonspecific bioturbation structures are widespread in the
Austin Chalk of northeast Texas. Despite their abundance, Austin Chalk trace
fossils have not been studied in detail. These structures are the fucoids, organic
disturbances, borings, and worm burrows that are mentioned in early studies of
the Chalk (Feray and Plummer, 1949; Overmeyer, 1953; Smith, 1955; Durham,
1957). More recently, Cloud (1975), Champlin (1976), and Files (1977) also
noted the presence of burrows in the Austin Chalk.
Biogenic structures are characteristic of Holocene and ancient chalks (Bromley,
1967, 1975; Kennedy, 1967, 1970, 1975; Frey, 1970; Warm e,etal., 1973; Hakansson,
et al, 1974; Kennedy and Garrison, 1975; Ekdale and Berger, 1976; Ekdale, 1977;
Presented at the 82nd Annual Meeting of the Texas Academy of Science, March 1979, at
Arlington, TX.
Accepted for publication: May 30, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
208
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Bottjer, 1979). Nevertheless, the discovery of Rhizocorallium in the Austin Chalk
is significant because Rhizocorallium is conspicuously absent from the other chalks
of North America and Europe (Kennedy, 1975).
Herein, specimens of Rhizocorallium from the uppermost part of the Austin
Chalk in Ellis County, TX, are described and illustrated. Also, the depositional
environment of the upper Austin Chalk is briefly discussed.
DESCRIPTION
In the study area near Ike, TX (Fig. 1), Rhizocorallium occurs only at the top
of the Austin Chalk along the discomformable contact with the overlying Ozan Marl.
Figure 1. Outcrop of upper Austin Chalk along Grove Creek, approximately 5 mi north¬
east of Waxahachie, near Ike, Ellis County, TX. Rubbly surface in the lower
right (C) is the contact of the Austin Chalk with the overlying Ozan Marl.
Likewise, Bottjer (1980) reports the presence of Rhizocorallium at the Austin -
Taylor contact in the vicinity of Waco and Temple, TX. This contact is scoured,
rippled, limonite-stained, pitted, and mantled by a thin phosphorite conglomerate.
Rhizocorallium from the uppermost Austin Chalk consist of horizontal to slightly
oblique, nonbranching, straight, U-shaped, sprieten-bearing burrows (Figs. 2,3,
4, 5, 6). These individuals are from 4.0 - 5.9 cm long and from 1.5- 2.2 cm wide.
RHIZOCORALLIUM IN THE UPPER AUSTIN CHALK
209
Figure 2. Limonite-fllled Rhizocorallium. Bar scale - 1 cm.
Figure 3. Chalk-filled Rhizocorallium. Note scratch markings on arms. Bar scale - 2 cm.
Figure 4. Limonitic mold of Rhizocorallium. Bar scale - 3 cm.
The average diameter of the burrows is 0.5 cm. Limonitic molds are the most
abundant form; several chalk-filled Rhizocorallium- bearing “scratch markings”
are also present. Other specimens are filled with clay and phosphatic pebbles.
A Cruziana assemblage composed of Chondrites, Thalassinoides, Planolites, and
Pseudobilobites and large inoceramid dams occurs in the upper Austin Chalk
beneath the Rhizocorallium horizon.
210
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 5. Limonitic molds of Rhizo cor allium. Bar scale - 2 cm.
Figure 6. Chalk-filled Rhizocorallium. Bar scale - 3 cm.
DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION
Specimens of Rhizocorallium from the uppermost Austin Chalk are morpho¬
logically similar to R. jenense, which Fursich (1974) interprets as domichnia of a
suspension feeder. The ripple-marked surface at the top of the Austin, on which
RHIZOCORALLIUM IN THE UPPER AUSTIN CHALK
211
Rhizo cor allium occur, records a current-agitated depositional environment. Hence,
it is probable that the Rhizo cor allium trace maker adopted a suspension feeding
habit. Rhizocorallium are generally considered to be burrows of crustaceans.
Although crustacean body fossils have not been recognized in this study area,
remains of decapods are common in the Austin Chalk at other localities (Stenzel,
1944; Beikrich and Feldman, 1980).
The trace fossil content of the upper Austin Chalk is equivalent to Kennedy’s
(1975) Thalassinoides-Chondrites-Planolites shallow water chalk trace fossil suite.
According to Kennedy (1970, 1975), shallow water chalks accumulated at depths
ranging from 50 - 300 m. Hakansson, et al., (1974) and Kennedy and Garrison
(1975) suggest similar depths for chalk deposition. However, Hancock (1975)
opts for depths of up to 600 m. Scholle and Kling (1972) report that Holocene
coccolith-rich carbonate muds of the British Honduras are deposited in water less
than 43 m deep, and they cautioned against the use of ancient coccolith limestones
as indicators of deep marine conditions. From a study of benthonic foraminifers,
Vormelker (1962) concluded that the upper Austin Chalk of Ellis County, TX, is
a shallow marine deposit. The morphology and diversity of ichnofossils in the
upper Austin Chalk are comparable to those of many well-documented shallow
marine sequences (Farrow, 1966; Ager and Wallace, 1970; Frey and Howard,
1970; Sellwood, 1970; Hattin, 1975; and Kennedy, 1975). Therefore, by analogy
these authors deduce that the upper Austin is indeed a shallow marine lithofacies.
The majority of Rhizocorallium are reported from siliciclastic rocks. Hence,
the paleoenvironmental significance of the Rhizocorallium horizon which marks
the top of the Austin is more difficult to interpret than the underlying chalk.
Basan and Scott (1979) state that Rhizocorallium is a lower-to-upper shoreface
indicator. Whereas, Crimes (1977) reports the occurrence of Rhizocorallium in a
deep sea fan. According to Sellwood (1972), Jurassic-aged Rhizocorallium-bearing
coccolith limestones represent agitated shallow marine environments. The paleon-
tologic content and the sedimentary features of the uppermost Austin Chalk
reported herein are identical to those described by Sellwood (1972). Hence, these
authors suggest similar depositional conditions for the uppermost Austin. The
authors also infer that the uppermost part of the Austin Chalk which contains
Rhizocorallium accumulated near normal wave base on an open marine shelf.
This Rhizo cor allium-c overed surface apparently records the shallowest conditions
of chalk deposition in northeast Texas. The shallowing was probably the result
of the Campanian regression which terminated Austin Chalk deposition.
Bathymetry is not always the main control on trace fossil distributions. In
addition to depth, texture, composition, and stability of the substrate may influ¬
ence faunal distributions (Rhoads and Waage, 1969). Because the arenites and
shales which bound the Austin Chalk contain Cruziana assemblages similar to
that of the Chalk, the authors believe that variations in substrate mineralogy and
texture had minor influence on the distribution of ichnofaunas in this study area.
212
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The effects of a change in substrate firmness cannot, however, be easily dis¬
missed in this case. Most of the upper Austin Chalk is intensely burrowed by
deposit feeders which indicates a soft well-oxygenated substrate that had a rela¬
tively high organic content. The occurrence of large thin-shelled Inoceramus in
association with the burrows of deposit feeders confirms that in general the Austin
Chalk substrate was a thixotropic carbonate mud (Rhoads, 1970; Bottjer, 1978).
Yet, the thin horizons within the upper Austin that contain well-preserved burrows
of suspension feeders, such as Rhizo cor allium, represent the temporary develop¬
ment of firmground bottom conditions. Although parts of the Austin substrate
were firm, the absence of borings and encrustations indicates that these surfaces
were not true hardgrounds.
CONCLUSIONS
1 . Well-preserved specimens of Rhizo corallium, a trace fossil that is absent from
other Cretaceous chalks in North America and Europe, are abundant along
the upper contact of the Austin Chalk in Ellis County, TX.
2. The Cruziana trace fossil assemblage in the upper Austin Chalk is indicative of
a shallow sublittoral, normal marine, sedimentary environment.
3. A Rhizocorallium-covered firmground marks the top of the Austin Chalk.
4. The upper Austin Chalk in northeast Texas is a shallowing-upward (regressive)
sequence which culminated in a near-wave-base environment, as evidenced by a
change in the behavior of infaunal organisms from deposit to suspension feeding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. James Cooper for guiding us to exposures of the Austin Chalk
in the vicinity of Ike, TX. Also, we express our gratitude to the Editors and the
anonymous reviewers of the Texas Journal of Science for their critical review and
suggestions for improvement of the original manuscript.
LITERATURE CITED
Ager, D. V., and P. Wallace, 1970-The distribution and significance of trace fossils in the
uppermost Jurassic rocks of the Boulonnais, Northern France. In T. P. Crimes and J. C.
Harper (Eds.), Trace Fossils. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 1-18.
Basan, P. B., and R. W. Scott, 1979-Morphology of Rhizocorallium and associated traces
from the Lower Cretaceous Purgatorie Formation, Colorado. Paleo., Paleo., Paleo., 28:5.
Beikrich, D. W., and R. M. Feldman, 1980-Decapod crustaceans from the Pflugerville Member,
Austin Formation (Late Cretaceous: Campanian) of Texas. J. Paleo., 54:309.
Bottjer, D. J., 1978— Comparison of two chalk bivalve faunas (Upper Cretaceous, southwest
Arkansas). GSA Abst., 10/7:370.
RHIZOCORA LLIUM IN THE UPPER AUSTIN CHALK
213
- , 1 979- Ichno logy and depositional environments of Upper Cretaceous chalks,
SW Arkansas (Annona Formation; Chalk Member, Saratoga Formation). Am. Assoc. Pet.
Geol. Bull., 63:422.
- , 1980-Paleoenvironmental analysis of disconformity and condensed bed at contact
of Austin and Taylor Groups (Upper Cretaceous) East-central and northeastern Texas.
Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 64:679.
Bromley, R. G., 1967-Some observations on burrows of thalassinoidean Crustacea in chalk
hardgrounds. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, 123:157.
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Fossils. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, pp. 399-428.
Champlin, M. A., 1976-Geology of the Mertens quadrangle, Ellis, Hill, and Navarro Counties,
Texas. MS Thesis, Univ. of Texas, Arlington, TX, 90 pp.
Cloud, K. W., 1975 -The diagenesis of the Austin Chalk. MS Thesis, Univ. of Texas, Dallas, TX,
71 pp.
Crimes, T. P., 1977-Trace fossils of an Eocene deep-sea fan, northern Spain. In T. P. Crimes
and J. C. Harper (Eds.), Trace Fossils 2. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 71-90.
Durham, C. O., Jr., 1957-The Austin Group in central Texas. Ph.D. Thesis, Columbia Univ.,
54 pp.
Ekdale, A. A., 1977-Abyssal trace fossils in worldwide Deep Sea Drilling Project cores. In
T. P. Crimes and J. C. Harper (Eds.), Trace Fossils 2. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 163-182.
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ate deposits, western equatorial Pacific. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 60:668.
Farrow, G. E., 1966 -Bathymetric zonation of Jurassic trace fossils from the coast of York¬
shire, England. Paleo., Paleo., Paleo., 2:103.
Feray,D. E.,andH. J. Plummer, 1949 Seventeenth Annual Field Trip Guidebook. Shreveport
Geol. Soc., 106 pp.
Files, N. E., 1977-Geology of the Italy quadrangle, Ellis and Hill Counties, Texas. MS Thesis,
Univ. of Texas, Arlington, TX, 136 pp.
Frey, R. W., 1970— Trace fossils of the Fort Hays Limestone Member of Niobrara Chalk
(Upper Cretaceous) west-central Kansas. Univ. Kansas Paleo. Inst., Art. 53(2), 41 pp.
- , and J. D. Howard, 1970-Comparison of Upper Cretaceous ichnofaunas from siliceous
sandstones and chalk, Western Interior Region, U.S.A. In T. P. Crimes and J. C. Harper
(Eds.), Trace Fossils. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 141-166.
Fursich, F. T., 1974-Ichnogenous Rhizocorallium. Palaont. Z., 48:16.
Hakansson, E., R. Bromley, andK. P. Nielsen, 1974-Maastrichtian Chalk of northwest Europe-
pelagic shelf sediment. Spec. Publ. Int. Assoc. Sed., 1:211.
Hancock, J. M., 1975-The petrology of the chalk. Proc. Geol. Assoc., 86:499.
Hattin, D. E., 1 975 -Stratigraphy and depositional environment of Greenhorn Limestone
(Upper Cretaceous) of Kansas. Kansas Geol. Sur. Bull. 209, 128 pp.
Kennedy, W. J., 1967-Burrows and surface traces from the Lower Chalk of southern England.
Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Geol. Bull., 15:127.
214
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
- , 1970-Trace fossils in the chalk environment. In T. P. Crimes and J. C. Harper
(Eds.), Trace Fossils. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 263-281.
- , 1975-Trace fossils in carbonate rocks. In R. W. Frey (Ed.), The Study of Trace
Fossils. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, pp. 377-396.
- , and R. E. Garrison, 1975 -Morphology and genesis of nodular chalks and hard-
grounds in the Upper Cretaceous of southern England. Sedimen., 22:311.
Overmyer, D. O., 1953-Geology of the Pleasant Grove area, Dallas County, Texas. Field
and Lab, 21:112.
Rhoads, D. C., 1970-Mass properties, stability, and ecology of marine muds. In T. P. Crimes
and J. C. Harper (Eds.), Trace Fossils. Seel House Press, Liverpool, pp. 391-405.
- , and K. M. Waage, 1969-Sediment control of faunal patterns in Late Cretaceous
marginal marine deposits of South Dakota. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 5 3:738.
Sellwood, B. W., 1970-The relation of trace fossils to small scale sedimentary cycles in the
British Lias. In T. P. Crimes and J. G Harper (Eds.), Trace Fossils. Seel House Press, Liverpool,
pp. 489-504.
- , 1972-Regional environmental changes across a Lower Jurassic stage boundary
in Britain. Paleo., 15:125.
Scholle, P. A., and S. A. Kling, 1972- Southern British Honduras lagoonal coccolith ooze.
J. Sed. Petrol., 42:195.
Smith, C. I., 1955-Stratigraphy of the Upper Austin in the vicinity of Dallas, Texas. MS Thesis,
Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA, 30 pp.
Stenzel, H. B., 1944-Decapod crustaceans from the Cretaceous of Texas. Univ. Texas Publ.,
4401:401.
Vormelker, R. S., 1962-Vertical distribution of Foraminifera in the upper chalk member of
the Austin Formation, northern Ellis County, Texas. MS Thesis, Southern Methodist Univ.,
Dallas, TX, 58 pp.
War me, J. E., W. J. Kennedy, and N. Scheidermann, 1973- Abyssal sediment burrowers,
trace fossils in Caribbean chalks and marls, Deep Sea Drilling Project cores. Am. Assoc.
Pet. Geol. Bull., 57:811.
THE VALUE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYS IN GEO¬
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN NORTH-CENTRAL TEXAS —A
CASE HISTORY
by DR. ROBERT G. FONT
Baylor University
Department of Geology
Waco, TX 76703
ABSTRACT
This paper illustrates the value of electrical resistivity techniques in geotechnical studies
using a case history of a landsite located north of Waco, TX, in the outcrop belt of the
Eagle Ford Shale. The property is the future building site of a large structure with a pier
and beam foundation design. Resistivity surveys of the landsite were conducted as part of
the investigation. The resistivity data:
1. Allowed the determination of the depth to the unweathered shale and consequently,
the combined thickness of the soil and weathered zone;
2. Correlated accurately with water content fluctuation and shear strength variation as a
function of depth.
The results document the potential value of the technique in predicting the engineering
properties of the unstable clay-shales throughout the north-central Texas region.
INTRODUCTION
Electrical resistivity surveys have proven to be a valuable geophysical technique
when applied to geotechnical investigations in north-central Texas. Resistivity
studies have been successfully applied to a variety of field problems, including the
location of subsurface lithologic contacts, water tables, buried landslide slip
surfaces, and subsurface faulting.
Foundation problems are a common occurrence in the Eagle Ford Shale of
north-central Texas. Damage to roads, structures, and installations adds up to
millions of dollars annually within the region. Much of this damage can be
avoided or greatly minimized through on-site geotechnical analyses prior to con¬
struction. Electrical resistivity surveys have proven to be a valuable tool in such
studies.
The case history discussed in this paper illustrates the value of the resistivity
technique in the geotechnical analysis of a landsite located north of Waco, TX,
Accepted for publication: January 17, 1980
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
216
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
in the outcrop belt of the Eagle Ford Shale. The property is the future building
site of a large structure with a pier and beam foundation design. A geotechnical
analysis of the site was conducted upon the request of the land owner. Of critical
importance to the study was the determination of the geotechnical properties of
the Eagle Ford Shale at the specific landsite. Especially important was the deter*
mination of the changes in shear strength, water content, and potential volume
change as a function of depth. It was also imperative to determine the combined
thickness of soil and weathered shale in order to establish the depth to which the
piers must extend. The results of the study are described below.
GEOLOGIC SETTING AND DESCRIPTION
The prospective building site is located approximately 25 air miles north of
Waco, TX, on the clay soils that overlie the Eagle Ford Shale. The topography of
the area is essentially flat. Locally, the shale is 50 m thick.
The approximate mineralogical composition of the shale at the site was obtained
through x-ray diffraction analyses. Based on these, the shale is composed of 40%
montmorillonite, 15% illite , 15%kaolinite, 10%calcite, 10% quartz, and 10%other
constituents.
RESISTIVITY SURVEYS
Five separate surveys were conducted across the prospective building site. The
surveys were conducted with a standard R-40 Strata Scout resistivity meter
manufactured by Soil Test Incorporated. The Strata Scout was designed to use
the Wenner electrode configuration with equal spacing between all electrodes. All
surveys were conducted to a depth of 20 m below the surface . Electrode spacing was
increased by a distance of 1 m between every reading for each survey. Resistivity
values were then calculated using the formula:
P = 2?ras Ap (1)
where p is the resistivity, as is the electrode spacing used in the survey, AV is the
recorded potential difference for each reading, and I is the electric current intro¬
duced into the ground. (A detailed discussion of the theory and interpretation
of electrical resistivity surveying is given by Griffiths and King, 1975.)
Fig. 1 illustrates the average resistivity values obtained from the 5 surveys. The
composite curve shows a combined thickness of soil and weathered shale of 5 m.
Values within the weathered zone are highly variable, ranging from 150-920
ohm~cm. Values in the unweathered shale remain essentially constant ranging
from 80-100 ohm-cm.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYS
217
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES
Geotechnical studies concerning the north-central Texas region have been
conducted by Font (1969, 1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1979), and Font and Williamson
(1970). These studies proved helpful in outlining the steps that were taken for the
on-site analysis of the property in question. Standard engineering tests were
conducted on samples collected from a borehole extending from the surface
down to a depth of 10 m. A discussion of the geotechnical properties of the
samples is given below.
A tterberg Limits and Indices
The Atterberg limits and indices for the clay samples are listed in Table 1.
Values of liquid limit range from 56-66, while values of plasticity index range
from 30-44. (Note that liquid limits greater than 40 and plasticity indices
greater than 20 are indicative of highly plastic clays.) These high values are in¬
fluenced by the large content of montmorillonite and bentonite found in the clays.
Potential Volume Change
The potential volume change ^shrink-swell potential) of the clays was de¬
termined using the standard F.H.A., P.V.C. meter manufactured by Soil Test
218
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Geotechnical Properties of the Eagle Ford Shale
Potential Volume Change
Sample Depth
Meters
Liquid Limit
Plasticity
Index
Category
Minimum Expected
Swell Pressures
(kg/ cm2)
3
64
31
Very
Critical
2.65
5
60
40
n
2.48
6
62
30
n
2.45
7
66
44
n
2.93
8
57
35
n
2.43
10
56
30
n
2.37
Incorporated. Values of minimum swell pressures have been obtained for all the
clay samples. Pressures can easily exceed these values along specific zones where
the montmorillonite and bentonite content is higher. Minimum expected swell
pressures have been found to range between 2.37 and 2.65 kg/cm2. It must be
noted, however, that along bentonite seams, pressures in excess of 15 kg/cm2
have been recorded. In any case, all of the swell pressures recorded in this study
fall within the “very critical” potential volume change category.
Strength Properties
Unconfined compressive strength tests have been conducted for all the clay
samples using the standard U-560 unconfined compressive strength apparatus
manufactured by Soil Test Incorporated. Each sample was tested at its natural
water content. Figs. 2 and 3 show, respectively, the variation of natural water
content and unconfined compressive strength values for the clay as a function
of depth. Values of unconfined compressive strength fluctuate considerable above
the 5-m depth. Below the 5-m depth, the strength remains essentially constant;
this correlates well with the fluctuation in water content. Within the upper few
meters, fluctuation in water content is noticeable. Below the 5-m depth, in the un¬
weathered shale, water content fluctuation is negligible. In general, values of un¬
confined compressive strength range from a maximum of 2.35 kg/cm2 at the 3-m
depth, to a constant value of 1 .50 kg/cm2 below 5-m. Since the unconfined com¬
pressive strength is, by definition, twice the undrained shear strength, the un¬
drained shear strength of the Eagle Ford clays ranges from 1.175 - 0.750 kg/cm2.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The resistivity surveys precisely determined the depth to unweathered shale.
This critical depth was found to be 5 m across the landsite. Thus, piers must
extend down to a depth exceeding 5 m. The resistivity surveys also correlated
accurately with the water content fluctuation and the variation in shear strength
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYS
219
Figure 2. Variation in water content as a function of depth.
as a function of depth. This is illustrated in Fig. 4. The near perfect correlation
establishes the potential value of the resistivity technique in the determination
of the geotechnical properties of earth materials within the region. These results,
coupled with previous experience, show that it is possible to estimate, with an
acceptable degree of accuracy, the shear strength of various unstable clay-shales
within the north-central Texas area from their electrical resistivity values.
CONCLUSIONS
Electrical resistivity surveys have proven to be a valuable exploration technique
in local geotechnical studies. The near perfect correlation between electrical re¬
sistivity characteristics and shear strength values establishes the resistivity tech¬
nique as a powerful tool in the prediction of geotechnical properties in future
engineering endeavors and applied field problems in north-central Texas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere appreciation goes to Ted Gawloski, Patti Fassauer, Brian Anderson,
Ken Herring, Chuck Dye, and David Hilton for their help in the laboratory. I
DEPTH IN METERS
220
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN Kg/cm2
Figure 3. Unconfined compressive strength as a function of depth.
Figure 4. Correlation between water content, unconfined compressive strength, and
electrical resistivity.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYS
221
am thankful to Dr. Peter Allen for his valuable advice. My special thanks go to
Mrs. Viola Shivers for typing the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Font, R.G., 196 9 -Engineering geology of the greater Waco area. M.S. Thesis, -Baylor Univ.
- , 1976 -Relationship between the geologic history and engineering properties of
two Cretaceous shales. Tex. J. of Sci., 27(2): 267.
- , 1977a-Influence of anisotropies on the shear strength and field behavior of
heavily overconsolidated plastic and expansive clay-shales. Tex. J. of Sci., 29(1 and
2) : 2 1 .
- , 197 7b -Engineering geology of the slope instability of two overconsolidated
north-central Texas shales Geol. Soc. of Amer. Rev. in Eng. Geo., 3:205.
- , 1979-Geotechnical properties of unstable clay-shales in north-central Texas.
Tex. J. of Sci., 31(2): 119.
- , and E.F. Williamson, 1970 -Geologic factors affecting construction in Waco, in
urban geology of greater Waco-Part IV. Baylor University Geological Studies, Bull. 12.
Griffiths, D.H., and R.F. King, 1975-Theory of electrical resistivity surveying and the
resistivity survey and its interpretation. Applied Geophysics for Engineers and Geologists.
Pergamon Press, New York NY, pp. 8-65.
■
LOST CREEK GNEISS IN THE PURDY HILL QUADRANGLE,
MASON COUNTY, TEXAS
by EMILIO MUTIS-DUPLAT
Faculty of Earth Science
The University of Texas of the Permian Basin
Odessa, TX 79762
ABSTRACT
The Lost Creek Gneiss, a Precambrian formation that has been recognized only in the
northwestern part of the Llano region, lies stratigraphically above the Valley Spring Gneiss
and below the Packsaddle Schist. The contact of Lost Creek Gneiss with Valley Spring Gneiss
is sharp everywhere, but that with Packsaddle Schist ranges from sharp to gradational. The
Lost Creek Gneiss is a quartz-feldspar-hornblende-biotite gneiss which grades into augen
gneiss and migmatite, and in the Purdy Hill quadrangle it has a thickness of about 1-1.2 km.
Its texture varies from granitic to gneissic porphyroblastic (=augen gneiss). The augen or
porphyroblasts, up to 3 cm in diameter, are composed of microcline and perthite, and are
elongated parallel to the foliation. The presence of augen gneiss is indicative of nearby igneous
intrusions or migmatites. Most of the augen are believed to have been formed by potassium
metasomatism, and the migmatites were produced by injection of magma into fractures
developed during tight folding. Suggested precursors of the Lost Creek Gneiss are illitic
shale, predominantly arkosic sedimentary rocks, or rhyolitic sheets.
INTRODUCTION
The Lost Creek Gneiss has been recognized only in the northwestern part of
the Llano region. It was named and defined by Ragland (1960), and later redefined
by Mutis-Duplat (1972, 1980). This paper presents a detailed description of the
field occurrence and petrography of the Lost Creek Gneiss in the Purdy Hill
quadrangle.
OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE PURDY HILL QUADRANGLE
The Purdy Hill quadrangle, located in the northwestern part of the Llano
region (Fig. 1), is a 7 .5 -min quadrangle that lies between latitudes 30o45,00,/
and 30°52'30" N, and longitudes 99°07;30” and 99° 1 S'OO” W. A detailed descrip¬
tion of the geology of the area is given by Mutis-Duplat (1980). In order to provide
a geologic setting for the Lost Creek Gneiss, however, a short review of the geology
of the quadrangle is presented below.
Accepted for publication: February 15, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
224
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
□ 1 i □
Valley Spring Gneiss Pocksaddle Schist Meta- igneous rocks Granitic rocks Paleozoic and younger rocks
Figure 1. Geologic map of the Llano region, central Texas, showing location of the Purdy
Hill quadrangle. After Muehlberger, et at (1967), slightly modified.
Rocks that crop out in the Purdy Hill quadrangle are Precambrian metamorphic
and igneous rocks and Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
Precambrian metamorphic rocks from oldest to youngest include Valley Spring
Gneiss, Lost Creek Gneiss, Packsaddle Schist, and a few meta-igneous rocks.
Valley Spring Gneiss is composed of biotite-rich, hornblende-rich, muscovite-rich,
or epidote-rich quartz-feldspar gneiss alternating with biotite-rich, hornblende-
rich, or muscovite -rich schist. The lower part is characterized by the presence of
a few thin layers of marble and amphibolite, the middle part by the presence of
quartzite, and the upper part by the predominance of quartz -muscovite schist.
About 2.4 km of Valley Spring Gneiss crop out in the quadrangle; the base of
the formation is not exposed. Lost Creek Gneiss is a quartz-feldspar -homblende-
biotite gneiss which grades laterally into augen gneiss and migmatite, and in the
Purdy Hill quadrangle it has a thickness of about 1-1.2 km. Packsaddle Schist is
composed of quartz-feldspar-biotite gneiss with layers of marble, calc-silicate
gneiss, amphibolite, and quartzite, followed upward by biotite-homblende
schist and gneiss with some layers of amphibolite and muscovite schist. About
2.4 km of Packsaddle Schist are exposed in the quadrangle, the upper part of
the formation having been removed by erosion. Meta-igneous rocks range from
ultramafic rock to metagranite and meta-aplite.
The metamorphic rocks of the quadrangle are both concordantly intruded
and discordantly cut by unmetamorphosed Precambrian igneous rocks which
LOST CREEK GNEISS
225
range in composition from granite through granodiorite, quartz syenite, and
monzonite, to diorite, with granite predominating.
The Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks are unconformably overlain
by alternating sequences of sandstone and limestone that range in age from Late
Cambrian to Early Cretaceous.
The contacts between the Precambrian metamorphic formations are conform¬
able, and the rocks seem to have had a common deformation history. The structural
features in the quadrangle are a fan anticline with satellite tight and overturned
folds that plunge northwest in Valley Spring and Lost Creek Gneisses, grading
upward to open and normal folds with the same trend in Packsaddle Schist,
and a series of mostly northeast- and east-trending Paleozoic normal faults.
Well-developed foliation, parallel to original bedding, is present almost everywhere
in the metamorphic rocks. Locally the foliation is accentuated by color banding
or layering which is somewhat discontinuous. Lineation is rarely observed except
in schistose rocks.
Rank of regional metamorphism corresponds to the amphibolite facies, and
mineral assemblages do not show increase of rank with increasing stratigraphic
depth in exposed rocks.
HISTORICAL REVIEW
Barnes, et al (1942) described a sample of augen gneiss collected about 15 km
northeast of Mason, TX. Barnes brought this sample of gneiss to the attention
of Paul C. Ragland, suggesting “that it might correlate with the meta-igneous
Red Mountain Gneiss of the southeastern part of the Llano region” (Barnes and
Schofield, 1964).
Ragland (1960) mapped the distribution of the augen gneiss in Mason and
McCulloch Counties, and found that it did not seem to be genetically related to
the Red Mountain Gneiss. It is a distinct lithologic unit that can be separated
from the underlying Valley Spring Gneiss and the overlying Packsaddle Schist,
and he concluded that it is metasedimentary. Therefore, Ragland (1960) proposed
the name Lost Creek Gneiss for the augen gneiss of Mason and McCulloch Counties.
The gneiss was named after a small creek immediately north of the Purdy Hill
quadrangle. The formation was defined as follows in Ragland (1960):
The Lost Creek Gneiss is a medium- to coarse-grained quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with
pink porphyroblasts of microcline up to 2 cm in diameter. In general, the Lost Creek
Gneiss contains a higher % of mafic minerals (biotite and hornblend) than does the
Valley Spring Gneiss. Banding and foliation are very well developed to the north in
the Lost Creek Gneiss and are poorly developed to the south; i.e., the rock becomes
more granitic in appearance to the south.
Bames (in Bames and Schofield, 1964) presented a geologic map of the north¬
western part of the Llano region that was the first published map in which the
Lost Creek Gneiss was included. Barnes and Schofield (1964) also gave a short
description of the Lost Creek Gneiss which was reproduced in Keroher (1970).
226
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Mutis-Duplat (1972, 1980) mapped the detailed distribution of the Lost Creek
Gneiss in the Purdy Hill quadrangle, and confirmed the stratigraphic position of
the formation as well as the usefulness of the new name. He also found that the
presence of microcline augen is restricted to the vicinity of intrusive bodies, and
that migmatites are as widespread within the gneiss as microcline augen. Moreover,
the definition of the Lost Creek Gneiss as given by Ragland (1960) leads to the
misconception that the gneiss is everywhere an augen gneiss. Therefore, the for¬
mation was redefined as follows in Mutis-Duplat (1980):
The Lost Creek Gneiss is a fine- to medium-grained, nonfoliated to very well foliated
quartz-feldspar-hornblende-biotite gneiss grading into augen gneiss and migmatite. The
Lost Creek Gneiss lies stratigraphically between the Valley Spring Gneiss and the Pack-
saddle Schist. In general, the contact with the Valley Spring Gneiss is sharp, but the
contact with the Packsaddle Schist varies from sharp to gradational. This definition em¬
phasizes the main characteristics of the Lost Creek Gneiss, i.e., granitic composition,
presence of augen gneiss and migmatite, and variation in the development of the foliation.
Mutis-Duplat (1972, 1980) also suggested that the 40 m of augen gneiss at
the top of Valley Spring Gneiss in the southeastern Llano region (McGehee, 1963)
correspond stratigraphically to the Lost Creek Gneiss of the northwestern Llano
region.
Mutis-Duplat (1972, 1980) and Droddy (1978) mapped independently of
each other the distribution of Lost Creek Gneiss in the Fly Gap quadrangle, the
quadrangle immediately east of the Purdy Hill quadrangle. The outcrops are
limited to the southwest corner of the quadrangle and cover an area of about
1.5 km2.
Recent publications (Morrow, 1971; Barnes, etal., 1972; Renfro, etal., 1973;
Garrison, et al, 1979) list or briefly mention the Lost Creek Gneiss among the
Precambrian formations in the Llano region of Texas. A detailed description,
however, is not available in the published literature.
FIELD OCCURRENCE
The Lost Creek Gneiss crops out mainly in the eastern half of the Purdy Hill
quadrangle (Fig. 1). To the south the contacts with the underlying Valley Spring
Gneiss and the overlying Packsaddle Schist are relatively well exposed and sharp
where observed, and at places the Lost Creek Gneiss interfingers with both Valley
Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist. To the northeast the contact with the Valley
Spring Gneiss is sharp where exposed, and the contact with the Packsaddle Schist
is gradational for the most part. In this area the augen of Lost Creek Gneiss
become more lenticular and finally grade into quartzo-feldspathic layers of
uniform thickness which constitute the base of the Packsaddle Schist.
The composition of the gneiss is granitic throughout the area. Marble, calc-
silicate , amphibolite , quartzite, and schist layers (which are characteristic of Valley
LOST CREEK GNEISS
227
Spring Gneiss and Packsaddle Schist) were not observed in the Lost Creek Gneiss.
The minerals typically present in the Lost Creek Gneiss are quartz, mi crocline,
plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, and accessory epidote and garnet.
The gneiss is predominantly pink, but locally it is gray or green because of
concentrations of biotite or hornblende. Weathering has produced smooth and
rounded surfaces which are typical of the Lost Creek Gneiss and contrast with the
sharp projections on the weathered surfaces of the other Pre Cambrian metamorphic
rocks.
Grain size varies between 0.2 and 2 mm. Microcline porphyroblasts, up to 3 cm
in diameter, are observed at many outcrops (Fig. 2), stand out on some weathered
surfaces, and are abundant in the soils developed on Lost Creek Gneiss.
Figure 2. Typical augen gneiss of Lost Creek Gneiss. Porphyroblasts composed of
microcline. Pen provides scale.
The texture varies from granitic to gneissic porphyroblastic (=augen gneiss)
(Fig. 2). Fine-grained, granitelike, poorly foliated gneiss when followed along
the strike is seen to grade smoothly into medium-grained, coarsely porphyroblastic
gneiss. The presence of augen gneiss is indicative of nearby igneous intrusions
or migmatites. Wherever the gneiss is well foliated, the foliation is accentuated
either by parallel alignment of microcline porphyroblasts or by parallel to sub-
parallel orientation of mafic minerals. At many localities intensive plication or
contortion of the gneiss does not permit accurate determination of the general
attitude of the foliation. To the northeast the rock is nonfoliated, and granitelike
knobs are common. Banding is locally displayed in the outcrop by segregation of
thin layers alternately rich in quartz and feldspar, and in biotite and hornblende.
Lineation, produced by parallelism of axes of small folds, is observed at some
outcrops.
Migmatites are abundant in the Lost Creek Gneiss in the southern part of the
quadrangle and absent in the northeastern part. These migmatites characteristically
show agmatic or breccia structures (Fig. 3). In the southern part of the quadrangle
the Lost Creek Gneiss was folded into a series of tight and overtumed-to-the-
southwest folds that developed during deformation as a consequence of ductile
228
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 3 . Agmatic or breccia structure of migmatite. Dark rock is biotite-rich metamorphic
rock. Light-colored rock is igneous rock of granodioritic composition.
behavior of the gneiss. At many places the gneiss flowed during tight folding, but
at other places fractures were produced. Magma was injected into these fractures
producing the migmatite s, which are aligned parallel to the fold axes and located
at those places where the limbs of the folds underwent maximum extension
(Mutis-Duplat, 1978). The transition from augen gneiss to migmatite is always
gradual although poorly exposed at many places.
PETROGRAPHY
In 19 samples from the Lost Creek Gneiss, quartz content ranges from 10-49%
and averages 33%; microcline ranges from 15-45% and averages 33%; plagioclase
of composition An23_34 ranges from 10-73% and averages 24%; biotite ranges from
1-18% and averages 6%; hornblende averages l%;and accessory minerals include
epidote, garnet, muscovite, magnetite, sphene, apatite, and zircon. The average
composition of Lost Creek Gneiss (33% quartz, 33% microcline, 24% plagioclase,
6% biotite, 1% hornblende, and 3% accessories) is that of granite.
Quartz grains are anhedral, subparallel, and elongated parallel to the foliation.
Undulatory extinction of quartz is observable throughout. Quartz porphyroblasts
ranging from 1 .5-3 mm in length are not uncommon. Microcline occurs both as
matrix and as porphyroblasts ranging from 1.8-30 mm in diameter. Microcline
grains in the matrix are anhedral and commonly exhibit well-developed grid
twinning. Porphyroblasts are composed of single microcline or perthite grains,
aggregates of microcline or of perthite grains, or microcline and perthite aggregate
together in a single grain. The porphyroblasts are generally disc-shaped and the
long diameter parallels the foliation, which commonly bends around the porphyro¬
blasts as if it had been pushed apart during growth of the grains. Microcline in
porphyroblasts shows poorly to well-developed grid twinning. Inclusions of other
minerals in microcline, particularly quartz and plagioclase, are common. The
outline of porphyroblasts varies from ragged and irregular to smooth and regular.
LOST CREEK GNEISS
229
The sharper the outline the less the number of inclusions and the better the twin¬
ning. Plagioclase grains are anhedral, subparallel, and commonly exhibit poorly
developed twinning making it difficult to determine composition with the flat
stage. Plagioclase inclusions in microcline are generally rimmed by albite,and
composition of plagioclase in the groundmass and inclusions is the same . Myrmekite
is abundant at the contact between microcline and plagioclase, and also occurs as
inclusions in the microcline porphyroblasts. Biotite flakes are pleochroic from
light to dark brown and contain abundant inclusions of apatite and zircon. Green
and slightly pleochroic hornblende occurs in minor amounts and at places has
been partially replaced by biotite. Sericite is the common product of alteration
of plagioclase, particularly where myrmekite is abundant.
ORIGIN
Ragland (1960) made a detailed geochemical and petrological study of the
Lost Creek Gneiss, and on the basis of zircon morphology he concluded that
the gneiss is metasedimentary. As the original rock, he suggested a shale with high
illite content.
The formation of microcline porphyroblasts is outlined by Ragland (1960) as
follows:
1. Introduction of potassium-rich solution and poikilitic enclosure of plagioclase and
quartz.
2. Solution of plagioclase and quartz and crystallization of potash feldspar (‘clearing
the core’)
3. Change of conditions of temperature, pressure, or composition, which could cause
recrystallization of plagioclase (oligoclase) and quartz simultaneously as myrmekite.
4: Enrichment of residual solution in sodium, causing crystallization of albite around
the rims of myrmekitic plagioclase and within porphyroblasts (which forms inter¬
growth with potash feldspar resembling replacement perthite).
5. Continued crystallization of potash feldspar to develop porphyroblasts from initial
poikilitic anhedral masses with ragged outlines to porphyroblasts with smooth,
ellipsoidal outlines which are practically free from inclusions.
This investigation of the Lost Creek Gneiss in the Purdy Hill quadrangle was
limited to field observations and study of several thin sections. Fieldwork indicates
that augen in the Lost Creek Gneiss are limited to the vicinity of igneous intrusions
and migmatites. Petrographic observations indicate that the augen grew in the
solid rock. Consequently, potassium metasomatism is the most likely mechanism.
Potassium metasomatism, however, tends to destroy myrmekite (Barker, 1970).
Therefore, Step 3 above does not seem probable. It is more likely that myrmekite
was formed after the augen were fully grown. Furthermore, the plagioclase in
samples of augen gneiss is always sericitized. Consequently, sericitization of plagio¬
clase could have released sodium and calcium which by replacement of potassium
in small grains of microcline produced the myrmekite (Barker, 1970).
230
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Potassium metasomatism, on the other hand, does not explain the origin of
the lenticular augen that grade into quartzo-feldspathic layers at the base of the
Packsaddle Schist in the northeastern part of the quadrangle; neither does if
explain the paucity of microcline augen in Valley Spring Gneiss or Packsaddle
Schist. Moreover, the field occurrence and petrography of the Lost Creek Gneiss
in the Purdy Hill quadrandle is consistent with a precursor composed of either
predominantly arkosic sedimentary rocks or rhyolitic sheets, or both, as suggested
by Mutis-Duplat (1972, 1980). Therefore, the origin of the Lost Creek Gneiss
is still the subject of speculation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Virgil E. Barnes and Stephen E. Clabaugh critically read and made suggestions
that improved the manuscript. Their advice is gratefully acknowledged.
LITERATURE CITED
Barker, D. S., 1970-Compositions of granophyre, myrmekite, and graphic granite. Geol.
Soc. Amer. Bull. , 81:3339.
Barnes, V. E., W. C. Bell, S. E. Clabaugh, P. E. Cloud, Jr., R. V. McGehee, P. U. Rodda, and
Keith Young, 197 2 -Geology of the Llano region and Austin area. Guidebook 13, Univ.
of Texas Bureau Econ. Geol., 77 pp.
- , R. F. Dawson, and G. A. Parkinson, 1942-Building stones of central Texas.
Univ. Texas Pub. 4246, 198 pp.(1947).
- , and D. A. Schofield, 1964 -Potential low-grade iron ore and hydraulic-fracturing
sand in Cambrian sandstones, northwestern Llano region, Texas. Rept. Inv. 53, Univ. of
Texas Bureau Econ. Geol., 58 pp.
Droddy, M. J., Jr., 1978-Metamorphic rocks of the Fly Gap quadrangle, Mason County,
Texas. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 179 pp.
Garrison, J. R., Jr., L. E. Long, and D. L. Richmann, 1979-Rb-Sr and K-Ar geochronologic
and isotopic studies, Llano Uplift, central Texas. Contrib. Mineral and Petrol. ,69 :361.
Keroher, G. C., 1970-Lexicon of geologic names of the United States for 1961-1967. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Bull. 1350, 848 pp.
McGehee, R. V., 1963-Precambrian geology of the southeastern Llano Uplift, Texas.
Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 290 pp.
Morrow, E. H. (Ed.), 1971 -Geology of the Llano region and Austin area, Texas. 1971 Field
Trip Guidebook, Shreveport Geol. Soc., 88 pp.
Muehlberger, W. R., R. E. Denison, and E. G. Lidiak, 1967-Basement rocks in continental
interior of United States. Amer. Assoc, of Petroleum Geol. Bull. , 5 1 :235 1.
Mutis-Duplat, Emilio, 197 2 -Stratigraphic sequence and structure of Precambrian meta-
morphic rocks in Purdy Hill quadrangle, Mason County, Texas. Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 154 pp.
LOST CREEK GNEISS
231
- , 197 8 -Origin of Precambrian migmatites in Purdy Hill quadrangle, Mason County,
Texas (abst.). Geol. Soc. Amer. Abst. with Progr. , 10:23.
- , 1980-Geology of the Purdy Hill quadrangle, Mason County, Texas. Geol. Quad.
Map, Univ. of Texas Bureau Econ. Geol., In Press.
Ragland, P. C., 1960 -Geochemical and petrological studies of the Lost Creek Gneiss,
Mason and McCulloch Counties, Texas. Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Rice Univ., 99 pp.
Renfro, H. B., D. E. Feray,andP. B. King (Comp.), 197 3 -Geological Highway Map of Texas.
Amer. Assoc, of Petroleum Geol., US. Geol. Highway Map Ser. Map 7.
■
A NEW GENUS OF SYRINGOPHXLID MITES FROM GALLIFORM
BIRDS IN TEXAS
by STANLEY D. CASTO
Department of Biology
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
Belton , TX 76513
ABSTRACT
Kalamo try petes colinastes gen. n., sp. n. (Acarina: Syringophilidae) is described from a
Bobwhite Quail, Colinus virginianus (Galliformes: Phasianidae), collected at Millett, La Salle
County, TX. A related form, Kalamotry petes pavodaptes sp. n. is described from a Wild Turkey,
Meleagris gallopavo (Galliformes: Meleagrididae) collected near Killeen, Bell County, TX.
INTRODUCTION
It was previously reported (Casto, 1976) that Bobwhite Quail, Colinus virginianus,
and Scaled Quail, Callipepla squamata, from southwest Texas were infested by
the syringophilid mite Colinophilus wilsoni and a 2nd species of an undescribed
genus. The study of additional specimens from Bobwhite Quail and new specimens
from the Wild Turkey has resulted in the descriptions which follow. Syringophilid
mites have not been previously reported from the Wild Turkey.
The anatomical terminology and setal designations used in the descriptions
follows Kethley (1970, 1973). All measurements are in microns (ju). The range
and mean of selected metric values for paratypes follow in parentheses those of
the holotype and allotype. The descriptions and illustrations are based on the study
of the female holotype , male allotype , 1 0 female paratypes and 1 0 male paratypes.
KALAMOTRY PETES GEN. N.
Kalamo try petes gen. n. may be distinguished from Aulobia Kethley (1970)
by the absence of hypostomal ornamentation and a stylophore which is constricted
and extends below the propodosomal plate. It may be distinguished from the
closely related Niglarobia by the presence of a full complement of leg setae and
claws without a basal angle.
Type Species. Kalamotrypetes colinastes gen. n., sp. n. from the primaries,
secondaries and coverts of Colinus virginianus, Bobwhite Quail (Galliformes:
Accepted for publication: February 20, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
234
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Phasianidae), were found DOR 25 December 1979 at Millett, La Salle County,
TX. Numerous other specimens were collected from Bobwhite Quail during the
1970-1973 hunting seasons at Millett, TX. Specimens determined as conspecific
were also taken from Callipepla squamata, Scaled Quail (Galliformes: Phasianidae),
collected at Millett, TX, during the 1970 hunting season.
Derivation of Name. K alamo try petes m. sing, is derived from a conjugation
of the greek words kalamos meaning reed and trypetes meaning borer. This name
is given in reference to the habitat in which syringophilid mites occur and their
production of holes in the wall of the quill through which they pierce the tissue
of the feather follicle to obtain food. The specific name, colinastes m. sing., is
derived by the conjugation of colin (Ab. Am.) meaning partridge and nastes (Gr.)
meaning inhabitant.
FEMALE. (1) Hypostomal apices slightly rough, but without ornamentation.
(2) Lateral hypostomal teeth absent. (3) Cheliceral digit edentate. (4) Peritreme
M-shaped; lateral branches with 1-3 chambers; longitudinal branches with 4-12
chambers. (5) Stylophore constricted, extending below propodosomal plate.
(6) Palpal tibiotarsus rounded on distal margin. (7) Dorsal idiosomal setae minutely
spinose; other setae smooth. (8) Propodosomal plate entire; lateral margins parallel.
(9) Hysterosomal plate extending anterior to level of setae 12 • (10) Setal pattern
of propodosomal plate as illustrated. (11) Setae 12, ls,d3 long; <7 3 closer to 12
than to 13. (12) Setae <74, 74 long;<75, 15 short. (13) Genital series with 2 pairs
of setae; anal series with 2 pairs of setae. (14) Paragenital series with 2 or 3 pairs
of setae. (15)MCA1 parallel to weakly divergent, not fused to MCA2. (16) Coxae
III and IV as illustrated. (17) Cuticular striae as illustrated. (18) Legs I thicker than
legs II, III, and IV. (19) Legs with a full complement of setae. (20) Setae a' and a"
multiserrate; 4-11 tines. (21) Antaxial and paraxial members of claws subequal;
claws 1/3 length of empodium. (22) Order of hosts: Galliformes. (23) Types of
feathers inhabited: Remiges, coverts, and body feathers.
MALE. As in female except: (5) Stylophore rounded. (7) All setae smooth.
(11) 7 3 and<i3 short. (17) Cuticular striae as illustrated.
KALAMOTR Y PETES COLINASTES SP. N.
FEMALE (holotype). Length 750 (650-750, 717); propodosomal width 150
(120-170, 148). Gnathosoma: Hypostomal apices rough, but without ornamenta¬
tion (Fig. lb). Each lateral branch of peritremes (Fig. 1 c) with 2-3 chambers; each
longitudinal branch with 7-12 chambers. Chelicerae 153(153-167, 160) in length;
edentate. Stylophore 195 (189-206, 200) heavily sclerotized, constricted posteri¬
orly and extending below propodosomal plate. Dorsal Idiosoma (Fig. la): Setae
minutely spinose, tapering gradually from base to tip. Propodosomal plate bearing
SYRINGOPHILID MITES FROM GALLIFORM BIRDS
235
setae vi, ve, sci, il5 and dx. Ratios vi:ve:sci:sce, 1 :1 .8:2.9:53. Hysterosomal plate
extending anteriorly to setae l2-d5 and ls subequal. Ratio <74:74, 1:1.2. Ventral
Idiosoma (Fig. Id): All setae smooth. Setae la extending 5/6 way to 3 a. Ratios
pgl :pg2:pg3, 1.2: 1.0 :1.8. Striae parallel with longitudinal axis, extending from
3a to pgl . Legs: Legs I thicker then II; length legs IV, trochanter to tip of claws
109 (102-111, 107). a and a " of legs I with 4-5 tines, a and a' of legsII-IV
with 6-8 tines. Setae dF of legs I and II with prominent refractive halo around
setal bases; length dF legs I and II, 122 and 93, respectively, extending well past
Figure 1. Kalamo try petes colinastes gen. n., sp. n. Female, (a) Dorsum, (b) Dorsal view
of hypostome, (c) Peritreme, and (d) Venter.
236
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
end of legs. 3c and 4c subequal. Claws legs I, 9; claws legs II, 7. Chaetotaxy of
legs: coxae 2-1 -2-2, trochanters l-l-l-l , femora 2-2-1 -1 , genua 3-2-1 -1 , tibiae
5-4-3-3, tarsi 11-8-6-6.
MALE (allotype). Length 500 (480-510, 499); propodosomal width 160 (160-
180, 170). Gnathosoma: Hypostomal apices without ornamentation. Each lateral
branch of peritremes with 2-3 chambers; each longitudinal branch with 7-12
chambers. Chelicerae 155 (147-155, 151) in length; edentate. Length stylophore
162 (151-164, 158) extending below propodosomal plat q. Dorsal I dio soma (Fig. 2a):
All setae smooth. Propososomal plate bearing setae vi, ve, sci, i^and^ . Ratios
vi:ve:sci:sce, 1:2:23:2.5. Ratios d3:l3:d^, 1:1:1. 5. d4 slightly shorter to sub¬
equal i4. Hysterosomal plate weakly sclerotized and highly variable, often appearing
Figure 2. Kalamotrypetes colinastes gen. n., sp. n. Male, (a) Dorsum, and (b) Venter.
SYRINGOPHILID MITES FROM GALLIFORM BIRDS
237
to be absent; greatest extent of hysterosomal plate as shown in Fig. 2a. Ventral
Idiosoma (Fig. 2b): Setation as shown. Three pairs of paragenitals. Aedeagus 58
in length. Legs: Setae d F I and II with weak refractive halos around bases, not
extending past tip of legs.
Types . 9 holotype, 6 allotype, 19 paratype and Id paratype USNM Acarology
Coll. No. 3969; remaining specimens in collection of author.
Remarks
K. colinastes is often found in association with the syringophilid Colinophilus
wilsoni. Both species may occur on the same bird and even occupy some of the
same quills. K. colinastes is found more frequently in the secondaries whereas C.
wilsoni occurs more frequently in the primaries.
KALAMOTRYPETES PA VODAPTES SP. N.
K alamo try petes pavodaptes sp. n. may be distinguished from K. colinastes by
the presence of 2 rather than 3 pairs of paragenital setae and a reduced number
of chambers in the peritremes.
Type Species. Kalamotrypetes pavodaptes sp. n. from the body feathers and
wing coverts of Meleagris gallopavo, Wild Turkey (Galliformes: Meleagrididae),
collected 29 April 1979 on the Ft. Hood Reservation near Killeen, Bell County, TX,
by George Harmeyer. Additional specimens were examined from a Wild Turkey
collected by Dennis Rose near Marble Falls, Burnet County, TX, on 20 November
1975.
Derivation of Name. The specific name, pavodaptes m. sing., is derived by the
conjugation of pavo meaning either peacock (L.) or turkey cock (Span.) and
daptes (Gr.) meaning eater of blood (or tissue fluid) by sucking.
FEMALE (holotype). Length 650 (630-680, 656); width 210 (150-230, 184).
Gnathosoma: Hypostomal apices slightly rough, but without ornamentation
(Fig. 3b). Each lateral branch of peritremes (Fig. 3c) with 1-2 chambers; each
longitudinal branch with 4-7 chambers. Chelicerae 135 (133-142, 136) in length;
edentate. Stylophore 178 (173-178, 178) constricted posteriorly and extending
below propodosomal plate. Dorsal Idiosoma (Fig. 3a): Setae minutely spinose
under high magnification, tapering gradually from base to tip. Propodosomal plate
weakly sclerotized bearing setae vi, ve, sci, 1 1 , and dp, weakly lobed in region of
setae vi and ve. Ratios vi:ve:sci:sce, 1 :2.7 :3.5 :6. Hysterosomal plate extending
anteriorly to setae 12- d § and i5 subequal. d4 and i4 subequal. Ventral Idiosoma
(Fig. 3d): All setae smooth. Striae longitudinal to axis, extending from pgl to
setae 3a. Setae 1 a extending 2/3 way to 3a. Ratios pgl :pg2, 1 :2.1 . Legs: Legs I
238
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
F igure 3. Kalamotrypetes pavodaptes sp. n. Female, (a) Dorsum, (b) Dorsal view of hypostome,
(c) Peritreme, and (d) Venter.
thicker than legs II; length legs IV, trochanter to tip of claws 1 1 1 (107-1 18, 1 13).
a! and a' of legs I-IV with 9-1 1 tines; sigma solenidia of genua I club-shaped and
set in a small pit; 3c and 4 c subequal. Chaetotaxy of legs: coxae 2-1 -2-2, trochanters
l-l-l-l , femora 2-2- 1 - 1 , genua 3-2-1 - 1 , tibiae 5 -4-3-3, tarsi 11-8-6-6.
MALE (allotype). Length 500 (500-540, 518); width 170 (170-220, 197).
Gnathosoma : Hypostomal apices without ornamentation. Each lateral branch of
peritremes with 1-2 chambers; each longitudinal branch with 3-5 chambers (Fig. 4b).
Chelicerae 122 (122-122, 122) in length; edentate. Stylophore 144(144-144,144)
extending below propodosomal plate. Dorsal Idiosoma (Fig. 4a): All setae smooth.
Propodosomal plate weakly sclerotized and weakly lobed in region of setae vi and ve.
Ratios vi:ve:sci:sce , 1:1. 3:2. 1:3. Ratios d3 :i3 :d4, 1:1:1.2.<74 1/7 length of 74.
Hysterosomal plate extending anterior to setae 12, becoming striate along anterior
SYRINGOPHILID MITES FROM GALLIFORM BIRDS
239
margin. Ventral Idiosoma (Fig. 4c): Setation as shown. Striae longitudinal to axis,
extending from pg\ to 3a. Two pairs of paragenitals. Aedeagus slightly curved, 78
in length. Legs: As in females, a and a" with 6-9 tines.
Figure 4. Kalamotrypetes pavodaptes sp. n. Male, (a) Dorsum, (b) Peritreme, and (c) Venter.
Types. 9 holotype, 6 allotype, 19 paratype and Id paratype USNM Acarology
Coll. No. 3970; remaining specimens in collection of author.
Remarks
The major variation observed in the chaetotaxy of K. pavodaptes was the uni¬
lateral loss of a seta on the tibiae of legs IV. Seven of 47 (15%) females and 7 of
26 (27%) males had only 2, rather than the usual 3, setae on tibiae IV. The missing
seta was usually dT. In other male specimens the bilateral loss of setae dG on leg II
and the unilateral loss of 1G on legs II were observed.
240
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
LITERATURE CITED
Casto, S. D., 1976-Host records and observations of quill mites (Acarina: Syringophilidae)
from Texas birds. Southw. Entomol., 1:155.
Kethley, J.B., 1970- A revision of the family Syringophilidae (Prostigmata: Acarina). Contrib.
Amer. Ent. Inst., 5(6): 1.
- , 1973- A new genus and species of quill mites (Acarina: Syringophilidae) from
Colinus virginianus (Galliformes: Phasianidae) with notes on developmental chaetotaxy.
Fieldiana Zool, 65(1):L
CELLULASE ACTIVITIES OF SOIL FUNGI
by J. ORTEGA
Department of Biology
Pan American University
Edinburg , TX 78539
ABSTRACT
The cellulase activities of 8 isolates of fungi obtained from agricultural soils of Hidalgo
County, TX were investigated by measuring the changes in the viscosity of a buffered
solution of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), produced by the fluids obtained from liquid
cultures of these isolates. The change in the viscosity of the reaction mixture incubated at
constant temperature (30 C) was measured with Cannon-Fenske routine viscometers. A
buffered cellulase solution was used as a control.
Due to the variability that existed among the isolates investigated, it was possible to select
active producers of cellulase with the method followed in this investigation. The cellulase
activities of 7 of the isolates were higher than the activity of the cellulase control solution.
The production of cellulase by the fungi was higher when the isolates were grown in liquid
media containing CMC than when glucose was used as the carbon source. Whereas all isolates
produced detectable cellulase in the presence of CMC, only 7 of 8 did so in the presence of
glucose.
INTRODUCTION
Soils under cultivation are the usual habitat of many species of fungi which
may live there as saprophytes, parasites of the root systems of cultivated crops,
or in mycorrhizal associations with the roots of some species of perennial plants.
While most of the fungi that form ectotrophic mycorrhizae do not have the ability
to decompose cellulose or lignin (Garrett, 1956) many other species of fungi
from the soil are strongly cellulolytic (Alexander, 1961).
Some of the plant pathogenic fungi that live permanently in the soil or over¬
winter in this medium are capable of direct penetration into the root tissues of
their respective hosts (Agrios, 1978). When plant pathogens that have the ability
to decompose cellulose come in close contact with the roots of susceptible plants,
penetration into the root tissues may be accomplished by the softening or de¬
struction of the plant cell walls by cellulase s or lignin degrading enzymes (Agrios,
1978).
Accepted for publication: February 11, 1980
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
242
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The main objectives of this investigation were : (1 ) to isolate cellulase-producing
species of fungi from agricultural soils, and (2) to assess the cellulase activity of
these species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil Samples
Several soil samples were collected from agricultural fields of Hidalgo County,
TX. Samples were taken from the upper 2.5 cm of the ground and placed in
sterile test tubes (150 x 16 mm) which were covered with plastic caps. The soil
collections were allowed to dry at room temperature for 1 wk.
Selective Medium
Dried soil samples were pulverized in a mortar and transferred to petri plates
containing a selective medium of the following composition: 0.55% KNO3,0.16%
KC1, 0.10% KH2P04, 0.04% MgS04-7H20, 1% carboxymethylcellulose sodium
salt (CMC by U.S. Biochemical Corporation, Cleveland, OH), 1.5% agar and dis¬
tilled water to make 1 C. A small amount of pulverized soil (0.01 -0.10 g) was
taken up on the flattened end of a nichrome needle and mixed directly in 10 ml
of the cooled medium (Warcup, 1950).
Fungi Isolates
Isolations from the fungal colonies that grew on the selective medium were
made, identified, and then maintained in test tubes of selective medium or
potato-dextrose -agar, PDA Difo (B13). All cultures were incubated at 25 C.
The growth of all isolates was excellent when cultivated on PDA or in liquid
media containing glucose instead of CMC and all other components as described
below for the cellulase production medium.
Liquid Cultures
Fungal isolates were cultivated in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 50
ml of a liquid medium for cellulase production of the following compostion:
0.55% KN03, 0.16% KC1, 0.10% KH2P04, 0.04% MgS04-7H20, 0.04% ZnS04-7H20,
0.02% MnS04*H20, 1.0% CMC, and distilled water to make 1 £: Before sterilizing
(121 C, 15 min, 15 psi) the medium had a pH of 5.5. Each isolate was aseptically
transferred into a separate flask of sterile liquid medium. The inoculum consisted
of a 5 -mm disk containing hyphae and spores that was cut from a 7-day-old
culture of the isolate grown in a PDA petri plate (Reid, 1966). The culture of
each isolate was replicated twice.
Culture Fluid Samples
Samples of the culture medium used to grow each isolate were taken after
5, 10 and 15 days of growth by pipetting 8 ml/sample. The fluids were then
SOIL FUNGI
243
centrifuged at 6650 x g, at 20 C for 15 min. After centrifugation the upper 5 ml
of the fluids were decanted into sterile test tubes and frozen until the cellulase
assays were made.
Cellulase Assays
Samples were assayed for cellulase activity be measuring the change caused
in the viscosity of a cellulose derivative test solution when the fluid obtained from
each isolate was mixed with it and the mixture was incubated at constant
temperature (Levinson and Reese, 1950). The test solution consisted of 1%
CMC dissolved in 0.05 M sodium citrate buffer. The changes in viscosity of the
reaction mixture were determined with Cannon-Fenske routine viscometers
(Induchem Lab Glass Co., NJ). The reaction mixture consisted of 8 ml of the
CMC test solution and 2 ml of the culture fluid. All tests were made at 30 C,
at 20-min intervals for 60 min. After each incubation time, the viscosity of the
reaction mixture was determined by the time in seconds required for the meniscus
to fall from the upper to the lower line of the viscometer (Kelman and Cowling,
1967). Each assay was repeated twice. The existence of 2 cellulose degrading
enzymes (Ci and Cx) has been suggested before (Levinson and Reese, 1950). (Ci
acts on cellulose to allow further enzymatic hydrolysis. Cx hydrolyzes soluble
cellulose derivatives.) In this work only the activities of the Cx enzyme were de¬
termined. Each unit of enzyme activity represents 1% decrease in the viscosity
of the reaction mixture after 60 min of incubation at 30 C (Ferrari and Arnison,
1974; and Pesis, et al, 1978).
Cellulase Control Solution
A 1 .25% cellualse control solution was prepared with Cellulase (ICN Nutritional
Biochemicals, Cleveland, OH) dissolved in 0.05 M sodium citrate buffer.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fungal isolates were identified to 5 genera and 7 species (Table 1). A code
number for identification was assigned to each isolate.
The cellulase activity of the fluids obtained from each of the isolates after 5
days of growth in the liquid medium and after 60 min of incubation in the reaction
mixture was compared (Table 1) with the activity of the cellulase control solution.
The cellulase activity of 4 of the isolates investigated was higher than the activity
(75.72 units) determined for the cellulase control solution. Isolate 12351-4 of
Fusarium oxysporum had the highest cellulase activity (87.25 units) measured in
this work, whereas the lowest activity (6.18 units) corresponded to isolate
7132-2 of Aspergillus niger.
The cellulase activity of the culture fluids obtained after 5 days of growth of
the isolates was determined after 20, 40 and 60 min of incubation in the reaction
mixture (Table 1). The maximum increment of cellulase activity was observed
244
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Cellulase activities3 of Soil Fungi Grown for 5 Days in Liquid Medium Containing
Carboxymethylcellulose and After 20, 40, and 60 Min of Incubation at 30 C
Genus and Species
Code Number
Incubation Time (Min)
20 40 60
Fusarium oxysporum
12351-4
71.04
83.61
87.25
Fusarium solani
12351-5
60.20
76.63
82.85
Aspergillus terreus
7131-4
66.00
74.00
78.00
Fusarium episphaeria
12351-6
50.04
65.22
75.80
Cellulase control solution
65.72
72.86
75.72
Mucor sp.
5112-3
53.91
65.80
73.25
Alternaria humicola
12331-2
26.60
43.52
54.95
Chaetomium globosum
8311-1
32.05
46.16
53.85
Aspergillus niger
7131-2
2.47
3.71
6.18
aCx units. Each value is the mean of 4 determinations.
during the first 20 min of incubation of the fluids obtained from all isolates.
Maximum cellulase activity in all isolates was measured after 60 min of incubation
in the reaction mixture.
The cellulase activity of the fluids obtained from each of the isolates of this in¬
vestigation was determined after 5,10 and 15 days of cultivation and after 60 min
in the reaction mixture (Table 2). The activity of 5 of these isolates reached its
maximum level during the first 5 days of cultivation. The activity of these isolates
was reduced at the end of 15 days of growth, from a reduction of 2.10% of
isolate 12351-5 ofF. solani to 30.40% of isolate 51 12-3 of Mucor sp. The activity
of the other 3 isolates increased after the first 5 days of growth in liquid medium
(Table 2). After 10 days of growth, the activity of isolate 7131-2 of A. niger
TABLE 2
Cellulase Activities3 of Soil Fungi Grown for 5, 10 and 15 Days in Liquid Medium
Containing Carboxymethylcellulose and After 60 Min of Incubation at 30 C
Growth Period (Days)
Genus and Species
Code Number
5
10
15
Fusarium oxysporum
12351-4
87.25
76.75
76.32
Fusarium solani
12351-5
82.85
74.41
81.11
Aspergillus terreus
7131-4
78.00
80.77
87.30
Fusarium episphaeria
12351-6
75.80
72.52
72.80
Cellulase control solution
75.72
75.72
75.72
Mucor sp.
5112-3
73.25
50.82
50.98
Alternaria humicola
12331-2
54.95
40.63
42.65
Chaetomium globosum
8311-1
53.85
77.78
82.50
Aspergillus niger
7131-2
6.18
9.80
7.50
3Cx units. Each value is the mean of 4 determinations.
SOIL FUNGI
245
increased 58.57% over the previous determination. Isolate 7131-4 of A. terreus
increased its activity by 1 1.92% at the end of 15 days of cultivation, while isolate
8311-1 of Chaetomium globosum increased its activity by 53.20% at the end of
15 days of growth.
Attempting to determine if the production of cellulase was induced by the
carbon source of the medium, each isolate was grown in liquid medium of the
mineral composition described above, with glucose (1.5%) instead of CMC.
The cellulase activities of the isolates grown for 5 days in this medium were de¬
termined after 60 min of incubation at 30 C.
Mandels and Reese (1957) and Norkrans (1963) indicated that glucose used
as a carbon source in the medium does not induce the synthesis of cellulases in
most species of fungi. However, the results of this experiment (Table 3) indicated
that in 7 of the isolates investigated the synthesis of the enzyme (Cx) in measur¬
able amounts proceeds when glucose is incorporated as the sole carbon source in
the growing medium. The production of cellulase in isolate 12351-4 of F.
oxysporum seems to be strictly dependent on induction by a cellulosic sub¬
strate. A comparison between the results of Table 1 and Table 3 indicates that
in 7 of the isolates, CMC is stronger than glucose as an inducer of cellulase pro¬
duction. However, isolate 7131-2 of A. niger produced over 3 times as much
cellulase (20.29 units) when grown in the medium containing glucose than when
cultivated in the medium containing CMC (6.18 units).
TABLE 3
Cellulase Activitiesa of Soil Fungi Grown for 5 Days in Liquid Medium
Containing Glucose and After 60 Min of Incubation at 30 C
Genus and Species
Code Number
Cellulase Activity (%)
Cellulase control solution
75.72
Chaetomium globosum
8311-1
42.35
Alternaria humicola
12331-2
20.84
Aspergillus niger
7131-2
20.29
Mucor sp.
5112-3
7.15
Fusarium solani
12351-5
5.59
Aspergillus terreus
7131-4
4.11
Fusarium episphaeria
12351-6
1.41
Fusarium oxysporum
12351-4
0.00
aCx units. Each value is the mean of 4 determinations.
LITERATURE CITED
Agrios, G. N., 197 8-Plant Pathology, 2nd Ed. Academic Press, New York, NY, pp. 33-35,
51-54.
Alexander, M., 1961- Introduction to Soil Microbiology . John Wiley andSons, Inc., New York
NY, p. 168.
246
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Ferrari, T. E., and P. G. Arnison, 1974-Extraction and partial characterization of cellulases
from expanding pea epicotyls. Plant Physiol., 54:487.
Garrett, S. D., 1956 -Biology of Root Infecting Fungi. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, M A,
pp. 96-97, 131.
Kelman, A., and E. B. Cowling, 1967 -Measurement of cellulase activity of plant pathogens
using a viscometric technique. In A. Kelman, et al., (Eds.), Source Book of Laboratory
Exercises in Plant Pathology. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisoco, CA, pp. 190-192.
Levinson, H. S., and E. T. Reese, 1950-Enzymatic hydrolysis of soluble cellulose derivatives
as measured by changes in viscosity. J. Gen. Physiol , 33:601.
Mandels, M., and E. T. Reese, 1957-Induction of cellulase in Trichoderma viride as influenced
by carbon surces and metals. J. Bacteriol., 73:269.
Norkrans, B., 196 3 -Degradation of cellulose. In J. G. Horsfall and K. F. Baker (Eds.), Annual
Review of Phytopathology. Annual Reviews, Inc., Palo Alto, CA, pp. 325-350.
Pesis, E., Y. Fuchs, and G. Zauberman., 197 8-Cellulase activity and fruit softening in avocado.
Plant Physiol. , 61:416.
Reid, C. P. P., 1966- A simple device for uniform transfer of fungus inoculum. Plant Dis.
Reptr., 50:345.
Warcup, J. H., 1 95 0-The soil-plate method for isolation on fungi from soil. Nature, 166:117.
ESTABLISHMENT AND GROWTH OF GRASS SPECIES TRANS¬
PLANTED ON DREDGED MATERIAL
by JAMES W. WEBB1, J. D. DODD,
and BENJAMIN H. KOERTH2
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station
College Station, TX 77843
ABSTRACT
Two fertilizer and control treatments were applied to transplant plots of Cynodon dactylon,
Panicum amarum, and Andropogon perangustatus on sandy dredged material, Bolivar Peninsula,
TX. Andropogon perangustatus transplant survival was low in both summer and winter plant¬
ings. Survival and growth of Cynodon dactylon and Panicum amarum, which were planted
only in the summer, were good. Low and wet elevations were detrimental to all 3 species.
In contrast, growth was satisfactory at high elevations. Biomass production of Cynodon
dactylon and Panicum amarum increased with 1st and 2nd year applications of fertilizer.
INTRODUCTION
The feasibility of developing marshland and upland plant communities on
dredged material from the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway was studied on Bolivar
Peninsula located along Galveston Bay, TX. Three categories of plants, trees,
shrubs, and grasses, were selected based on their potential for habitat development
of various wildlife species at the higher elevations of the study area. Response to
transplantation and fertilization of 3 grasses were evaluated. Companion studies
were conducted on soil characteristics, aquatic biota, and wildlife resources
prior to and following plant establishment.
This investigation was part of the dredged material research program derived
from the 1970 River and Harbor Act. The Environmental Effects Laboratory of
the Waterways Experiment Station (WES), Corps of Engineers at Vicksburg, MS
was assigned to assess the problems of and develop a research program for the
disposal of dredged material. The Texas Agricultural Experiment Station at College
Station, TX was concerned with that portion of the dredged material program
considering habitat development on dredged material along the upper Texas Gulf
Coast. The Range Science Department of Texas A&M was assigned the vegetative
portion of the study.
Present address: Texas A&M University, Galveston, TX 77550.
2 Present address: Texas Tech University, Wildlife Department, Lubbock, TX 79404.
Accepted for publication: February 15, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
248
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The objective of the habitat development investigation was to determine if
selected grass species could be transplanted successfully to develop ground cover
and habitat for different types of wildlife. Effects of fertilizer on initial establish¬
ment and maintenance of plant growth were evaluated.
DESCRIPTION OF AREA
The study site, 7.3 ha in size, was located between Marsh and Baffle Points
near the west end of Bolivar Peninsula, TX. The site was exposed to Galveston
Bay on the north. A narrow land mass separated the site from the intracoastal
waterway at mile 345. The last dredged material disposal occurred in 1974.
Elevations of the planting sites ranged from 0.66 m - 1.14 m above mean sea
level (msl). Although plants were normally above tidal influences, tides can be
wind-pushed to 0.9 m above msl (Lankford and Rehkemper, 1969).
Sediment chemistry studies were made prior to planting. The substrate ranged
from 88 - 98% sand to a depth of 107 cm. Total organic carbon was generally
less than 0.2% of the dry weight of the sediment, except where evidence of some
plant residue occurred. Extractable ammonium and orthophosphate were variable,
but generally present in low quantities. The pH values of the sediment ranged
from 7.00 - 8.50. Total inorganic nitrogen present in interstitial water samples
did not exceed 6.14 mg /£. Total orthophosphate concentrations in interstitial
water were less than 3.3 and 0.6 mg/C, respectively. Total dissolved carbon ranged
between 2.0 and 9.6 mg/C (Dodd, et al. , 1978).
Weather conditions at the site were similar to Galveston Island located 13 km
to the southwest. The climate of Galveston is predominantly marine, with periods
of modified continental influence during the winter months. Humidity is normally
high throughout the year. Normal monthly maximum temperatures range from
about 15.6 C in January to 31.1 C in August while minimums range from about
9.4 C in January to about 24 C throughout the summer season. An average rainfall
of 107.2 cm is well distributed over the year. However, rainfall during the summer
months may vary greatly on different parts of the island as most of the rain is
from local thunderstorm activity (NOAA, 1976, 1977).
Temperature means were 1 - 2 C below the average during January through
March 1977. Otherwise, temperatures were normal throughout the study period.
Rainfall fluctuated greatly throughout the study period with some months of
average rainfall and others below or above average.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Development of the Bolivar Peninsula site consisted of grading the dredged
material to a specific slope (0.69%) and constructing a fence around the site to
preclude grazing. A “rabbit proof’ fence constructed of 45.8 cm high chicken
wire with 2.5 cm mesh openings was placed at the base of the livestock fence in
TRANSPLANTATION OF GRASSES ON DREDGED MATERIAL
249
March 1977. Grading of the dredged material to the desired slope was initiated
29 January and completed 5 March 1976. After grading, runoff from the adjacent
upland resulted in both erosion and deposition, with corresponding changes
(6 - 36 cm) in elevations.
The upland area (above 0.6 m elevation) was divided into 3 elevational tiers.
The upper 2 tiers were planted with trees and shrubs. The results of those trans¬
plantings are not reported in this paper.
The lower tier was planted with 3 grass species, Panicum amarum (bitter
panicum), Cynodon dactylon (coastal bermuda- Alicia variety), and Andropogon
perangustatus. The grass tier was divided into 3 rows in which each species was
randomly transplanted. Each species was planted in 9 plots in each row (Fig. 1).
Each plot was 4 X 1 5 m in size. Each row of plots was divided into 3 replications
of 3 plots each. Elevations were measured in each half of each plot to the nearest
0.01 ft, converted to cm, and considered in analyzing data. Plots were randomly
selected for fertilizer treatment. Two plots, randomly selected in each replication,
received fertilizer treatments and the 3rd plot (control) received no fertilizer.
Initial fertilizer treatment rates applied on 30 June 1976 were: (1) F0 - no
fertilizer; (2) - low rate 25 kg/ha N, 50 kg/ha P2Os , and 40 kg/ha K20; and
(3) F2 - high rate, 25 kg/ha N, 100 kg/ha P205, and 80 kg/ha K20. For each
plot the 3 fertilizers were weighed separately, mixed into a homogeneous sample,
and sealed in a heavy-walled polyethylene bag to prevent caking prior to applica¬
tion. After the plants were established, a 2nd application of nitrogen only was
made on 30 September 1976. The rates in the 2nd application were: F0 - no
fertilizer, Ft - 100 kg/ha N, and F2 - 200 kg/ha N.
A ' B a I B a I B
IflWtWll lfi7.1 D 76.21 1732 f, 2 85.31
rA 4. B A j B A i . B
1823*1823 1 l7Qgf?823l Iss^ *p884 I
baaf2853l ba2f08&3l baa.* *9451
REP 2 i REP 3
PANICUM AMARUM J
A 1 B A ; B A ■ B , A j B A j B A j B
1853*) 914 1 1914 f2 9U] [94.5*p94slj l9Z5ff1od bg ,!°94sJ IsBfl *,l9zd
CYNODON DACTYLON i ‘ .
A i B A j R A i B , A | A j B A j B
I914 *|29Z5 1 bz5 *'oiQad ho97* iiiaal | lii2ft*,iiiaa.l liaapfood
ANDROPOGON PERANGUSTATUS
I925 iCHoael [1036*11067! tioaz* 2ioai ! lii5af0iQd Ii067> hod
Figure 1. Plot arrangement, fertilizer treatments, and elevations (in cm) in grass experi¬
mental plots on Bolivar Peninsula dredged material site. Elevations are indicated
in each half of each plot. A = plots fertilized in 1976 only while B = plots
fertilized in 1976 + 1977. Symbols F0, F1} and F3 indicate fertilizer rates.
During 1976 each row of plots was prepared for fertilization with a spring¬
toothed harrow. The fertilizer was broadcast applied and plots were reharrowed
to mix the fertilizer with the substrate. After initial fertilization a total of 240
plants/plot were transplanted by hand on 1-8 July 1976. Holes were opened with
a sharpshooter shovel, plants inserted, and heeled in. Each plot contained 8 rows
with 30 plants/row with a 0.5 m spacing between plants and rows.
P. amarum transplants were dug from the sand dunes along the Gulf of Mexico
several km away. Single stems with the accompanying roots were sprigged into
250
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
plots. Roots were planted about 7.5 cm deep. The rhizomatous growth form or
variety utilized in this study was P. amarum (Hitchcock, 1971).
C. dactylon sprigs were dug from a coastal bermuda field in West Columbia,
TX about 64 km to the west. Sprigs consisted of an approximate 5-cm-diameter-
clump of stems and leaves plus the accompanying roots. They were planted to a
depth of about 7.5 cm. A. perangustatus plants were collected 250 m away from
a natural stand growing in dredged material deposited several years earlier.
Material planted included several stems plus accompanying roots. This plant, at
the time of planting, was in the early flowering stage and no new tillers were
evident. Depth of planting corresponded to the ground line on the plant. Survival
of Andropogon in 1976 was poor and plots were completely replanted on 21
January 1977. The other grass species had established stands and replanting was
not necessary.
During the 2nd year after transplanting half of each P. amarum and C. dactylon
Fx and F2 plots received additional fertilizer. The remaining half of each plot
was not treated (Fig. 1). Fertilizer was broadcast on the surface and not incorpo¬
rated into the soil. On 18 January 1977 a mixture of triple superphosphate and
potassium sulphate was applied to the half plots designated to receive fertilizer.
Phosphorus was applied at the rate of 25 kg/ha and 50 kg/ha of P2Os at the Fx
and F2 rates, respectively. Potassium was applied at 20 and 40 kg/ha of K20.
Nitrogen was applied 15 April 1977 as (NH4)2 S04 at 50 and 100 kg/ha of N and
was again applied to half of each of the Cynodon and Panicum plots on 27-28 July
1977.
Replanted A. perangustatus plots received K and P fertilizer treatments on
18 January 1977 at the same rates as Fx and F2 half-plots above. Nitrogen was
applied on 15 April 1977. A second application of N, P, and K was applied on
27-28 July 1977.
Nondestructive evaluations were made 9 November 1976, 21-22 June 1977,
and 22 September 1977 - 5 October 1977. One sample quadrat (1X3 m) was
randomly located in each 3rd of each plot. Measurements included: (1)% survival,
(2) plant height (the average height of extended leaves on 3 randomly selected
plants), (3) density (the number of stems/quadrat), and (4) vegetative reproduction
(number of tillers/surviving transplant). Height was not measured on C. dactylon
plots because of the growth form.
Destructive sampling was conducted 10-12 November 1976. In 1977 it coin¬
cided with the 22 September 1977 - 5 October 1977 nondestructive sampling
dates. Sampling consisted of randomly selecting 3 transplants for determination
of root and shoot biomass. Only 3 plants were selected to preclude excessive
damage to plots. A 35.6-cm-diameter X 24-cm-deep cylinder was centered
around each plant, driven into the ground, and the cylinder with plant material
and soil core were extracted. Roots were washed free of soil with a stream of
water at the site. The washed plant was placed in a plastic bag, sealed, and trans¬
ported to the lab. Roots were separated from the shoots and both were dried at
TRANSPLANTATION OF GRASSES ON DREDGED MATERIAL
251
83 C for 30 hr and weighed. Root: shoot ratios were determined. Only plots of
A. perangustatus with greater than 20% survival were sampled in 1976.
Quadrats were used in 1977 to evaluate effects of the fertilizer treatments.
On 19 May 1977 foliage from five 0.1 m2 quadrats (which were harvested at a
height of 2 cm) in each half plot was combined, dried at 83 C for 30 hr, and
weighed. Production was expressed as g/m2 .
Analyses of variance were run to test differences between species and the 3
fertilizer rates F0, Fi , and F2 for each species. Analyses also were made to test
effects of fertilizer applications in 1976 and 1977 versus applications in 1976 only.
RESULTS
Comparison of Species
At the December 1976 evaluations there was no significant difference in %
survival between P. amarum (77.5%) and C. dactylon (98.1%) (Table 1). A.
perangustatus had significantly (P < 0.05) lower survival (6.8%) than the other
2 species. A. perangustatus had produced no tillers while there was no significant
difference between P. amarum and C. dactylon in % plants with tillers. Although
no statistical differences existed in the root, shoot and total biomass, the root: shoot
ratio was significantly different (P < 0.05). The range was from 0.5 for P. amarum
to 1.9 for C. dactylon. Total biomass ranged from 51 g/m2 in A perangustatus
to 153 g/m2 in P. amarum and 359 g/m2 inP. dactylon. Apparently, there were
no statistically significant differences between species because of variations in
elevation between plots. Some plots in Replication 1 were approximately 15 cm
TABLE 1
Means for Various Characteristics Measured on 13 December 1976
on Three Grass Species. Grasses were Transplanted 1-9 July 1976.
Parameter
Species
Panicum
amarum
Cynodon
dactylon
Andropogon
perangustatus
Survival (%)1
77.4ac2
98.1a
6.8bc
Plants with tillers (%)3
89.8a
99.7a
0.0b
Tillers/plant with tillers
2.4
Root biomass (g/m2)
45.0
237.0
17.0
Shoot biomass (g/m2)
108.0
121.0
33.0
Total biomass (g/m2)
153.0
359.0
51.0
Root: shoot ratio1
0.5a
1.9a
0.7a
Seed biomass (g/m2)
0.0
0.0
0.0
Analysis of variance F-test for differences between species was highly significant (P < 0.05).
2Means with different letters (a,b, c) across parameters were significantly different as tested
by Student-Newman-Keuls’ multiple range test (P<0.05).
Analysis of variance F-test for differences between species was highly significant (P < 0.01).
252
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
lower in elevation than Replication 2 (Fig. 1). Elevations in Replication 2 also
were generally lower than in Replication 3 by 6 - 15 cm. Some differences in
elevation did exist within replications. In Replication 1 a difference of about
1 5 cm in elevation existed between plots.
At the June 1977 evaluation A. perangustatus survival was only 5.4% following
replanting in January 1977. Mean survival of P. amarum in June had declined to
85%, while C. dactylon had declined to 8 1%. This lower survival than in December
1976 reflected death of plants in Replication 1 due to the wetter conditions
existing at the lower elevations. Survival was only 38% in some of the lower
elevation plots as compared to a mean of over 80% for all plots of P. amarum and
C. dactylon. A. perangustatus tillers were difficult to count due to the dense
growth of invading plants. Over 6.7 tillers/surviving transplant of P. amarum were
recorded. Tillers were not recorded in C. dactylon due to its growth form.
High tides from Hurricane Anita in early September 1977 flooded some plots
at lower elevations, particularly those in Replication 1 . This resulted in C. dactylon
leaves turning brown. However, this species recovered within a few weeks.
P. amarum did not appear to be adversely affected by tidal inundation. No
A. perangustatus plants were surviving in the inundated area at the time of
inundation. Sand, which was blown into the south side of plots, was effectively
trapped by vegetation. The sand deposition appeared to enhance growth of both
P. amarum and C. dactylon. Elevation in C. dactylon plots also increased 15 cm
on the side of sand accumulation.
In September 1977 differences in density and height between P. amarum and
A. perangustatus were not significant (Table 2). However, there were 21.3 stems/m2
of P. amarum as opposed to 7.4 stems/m2 for A. perangustatus. This difference
was apparently not significant due to missing data, which resulted from the low
survival of A. perangustatus. Density and height were not measured for C. dactylon
due to growth form. Root biomass was significantly different (P < 0.05) among
the 3 species. C. dactylon averaged 707 g/m2 , P. amarum 356 g/m2, and A.
perangustatus 106 g/m2. Shoot biomass was 486 g/m2 forP. amarum , 290 g/m2
TABLE 2
Means for Characteristics Measured for Panicum amarum , Cynodon dactylon,
and Andropogon perangustatus on 26 September 1977
Species
Panicum Cynodon Andropogon
Parameter amarum dactylon perangustatus
Density (No/m2)
21.3
( 2.0) 1
—
(--)
7.4
( 3.3)
Height (cm)
68.0
( 3.6)
—
(--)
65.7
( 3.2)
Root biomass (g/m2)2
356.0
( 72.0)
707.0
(73.0)
106.0
(26.0)
Shoot biomass (g/m2)
486.0
(131.0)
290.0
(24.0)
267.0
(61.0)
Total biomass (g/m2)
842.0
(200.0)
997.0
(78.0)
372.0
(--)
Standard deviation of mean.
2 Highly significant differences (P< 0.05) occurred between species.
TRANSPLANTATION OF GRASSES ON DREDGED MATERIAL
253
for C. dactylon, and 267 g/m2 for A. perangustatus. Total biomass was 997 g/m2
for C. dactylon, 842 g/m2 for P. amarum, and 372 g/m2 for A. perangustatus.
However, neither the shoot nor total biomass was significantly different between
species.
Comparison of Fertilizer Treatments
At the December 1976 evaluation there were no differences in parameters
measured on P. amarum resulting from fertilizer treatments. Significant differences
in shoot biomass due to fertilizer treatment occurred with C. dactylon. The highest
fertilizer rate (F2) resulted in a significantly greater shoot weight (160 g/m2) over
the F0 (72 g/m2)andF! (132 g/m2) treatments. No other significant differences
in parameters measured reflected the fertilizer treatment. In A. perangustatus
no statistical differences due to fertilizer occurred in the 3 parameters measured.
Data from P. amarum plots refertilized in 1977 and evaluated 26 September
1977 (Table 3) indicated differences in stem density (P < 0.10), height (P < 0.05),
root biomass (P < 0.05), shoot biomass (P < 0.10) and total biomass (P < 0.10).
F2 plots were greater than F0 plots in all parameters measured except root:shoot
ratio. Root:shoot ratio remained the same (0.9) in all 3 fertilizer treatments. Seed
production was not significantly different (P < 0. 1 0) between fertilizer treatments.
TABLE 3
Means for Characteristics Measured for Panicum amarum by Fertilizer
Treatment for Applications in 1977 (September 1977 Evaluation)
Parameter
Fertilizer Treatment
Fo
F i
f2
Density (No/m2)1
18.0
32.3
38.7
Height (cm)2
63.6
77.3
98.0
Root biomass (g/m2)2
16.2
323.0
716.0
Shoot biomass (g/m2)1
184.0
487.0
789.0
Root: shoot ratio
0.9
0.9
0.9
Total biomass (g/m2)1
336.0
811.0
1505.0
Seed biomass (g/m2)
3.0
5.0
9.0
Analysis of variance F-test significant at P < 0.10.
2 Analysis of variance F-test significant at P < 0.05.
In C. dactylon plots refertilized in 1977 and evaluated in September 1977,
fertilized plots produced greater biomass than F0 plots. plots produced more
root and total biomass than F2 plots but shoot biomass was greater in F2 plots
(Table 4). However, none of the parameters examined were significantly different
(P< 0.10). Means for A. perangustatus , as a result of fertilizer treatments, were
not significantly different.
Single Versus Annual Fertilizer Applications
In 1977 the initial response of C. dactylon to refertilization was a dark green
leaf color. On 19 May 1977 mean biomass production of C. dactylon was twice
254
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 4
Means for Characteristics Measured for Cynodon dactylon by Fertilizer
Treatment for Applications in 1977 (September 1977 Evaluation)
Parameter
Fertilizer Treatment1
F0
F
l
F
2
Root biomass (g/m2)
556.0 ( 79. 0)2
1336.0
(434.0)
1009.0
(298.0)
Shoot biomass (g/m2)
313.0 ( 41.0)
413.0
( 57.0)
488.0
(106.0)
Root: shoot ratio
1.9 ( 0.3)
3.0
( 0.5)
2.1
( 0.6)
Total biomass (g/m2)
869.0 (109.0)
1749.0
(477.0)
1497.0
(365.0)
differences were not significant (P < 0.10).
2 Figures in parenthesis are standard deviations of the mean.
as great in refertilized plots (99.9 g/m2) as in plots fertilized only (42.4 g/m2)
in 1976 (Table 5). Production in C. dactylon F2 plots fertilized in 1976 and 1977
was 2-fold greater than in plots fertilized only in 1976 (P< 0.10). Production
was 3-fold greater in F x plots (P < 0. 1 0). There was little difference in production
between F0 plots between years. C. dactylon production was better at the 1977
F2 fertilizer rates at the highest elevations (1 .01 m) within the 9 plots. However,
with Fi applications, response was better at the lowest elevations (0.75 m).
There appeared to be a negative response to the F2 treatment at the lowest
elevations.
TABLE 5
Dry Herbage Production (g/m2) on 19 May 1977 of Cynodon dactylon (Alicia Variety),
and Panicum amarum in Response to Number of Fertilizer Application
Fertilizer Treatment
F0
F i
f2
Mean
Species
1976
1976-1977
1976
1976-1977
1976
1976-1977
1976
1976-1977
Cynodon dactylon
27.0
( 14.2) 1
35.2
(19.0)
42.6
(21.7)
145.9
(67.2)
57.7
(16.9)
118.5
(104.2)
42.4
(10.0)
99.9
(39.9)
Panicum amarum
26.5
20.7
11.6
42.3
78.5
87.2
38.9
50.1
(7.2)
(5.2)
(4.1)
(18.7)
(37.4)
(30.9)
(15.0)
(14.4)
Standard deviation of mean.
At the September 1977 evaluation significant differences (P < 0.10) in shoot
biomass of C. dactylon occurred (Table 6) due to times of fertilizer application
(1976 vs. 1976 + 1977). Shoot biomass was 405 g/m2 in 1976 + 1977 plots and
290 g/m2 in plots fertilized in 1976 only. Total biomass, 1,372 g/m2 with the
repeat application, exceeded the 997 g/m2 for single applications. Root biomass
for repeat application was 967 g/m2 and 707 g/m2 for the single application in
1976. Root.shoot ratio was greater than 2 in both treatments.
TRANSPLANTATION OF GRASSES ON DREDGED MATERIAL
255
TABLE 6
Means for Characteristics Measured 26 September 1977 for Repeat (1976 + 1977)
vs. Only Single (1976) Application of Fertilizers on Cynodon dactylon
Times of Fertilization
Parameter 1976 1976 + 1977
Root biomass (g/m2)
707.0
(73. 0)1
967.0
(182.0)
Shoot biomass (g/m2)2
290.0
(24.0)
405.0
( 43.0)
Total biomass (g/m2)
997.0
(78.0)
1372.0
(208.0)
Root: shoot ratio
2.7
( 0.3)
2.3
( 0.3)
figures in parentheses are standard deviations of the mean.
2 Significant differences (P <0.10) between times of fertilization by analysis of variance F-test.
For P. amarum (Table 5) there was slightly greater biomass with additional
fertilizer treatments in 1977 (50.1 g/m2) as compared to 1976 only (38.9 g/m2).
However, in Fx plots refertilized in 1977, herbage production in May was almost
4 times greater than in plots fertilized only in 1976. However, the standard error
of the mean was almost half the value of the mean itself indicating large variations
between samples. The level of probability for differences between dates of appli¬
cation was P < 0.29. On 26 September 1977 no differences in density, shoot
biomass, total biomass, root: shoot ratio, or seed biomass between fertilizer appli¬
cation dates (1976 vs. 1976 + 1977) on P. amarum plots occurred. Height of plants
and root biomass were significantly different however (Table 7).
TABLE 7
Means for Characteristics Measured 26 September 1977 for Panicum amarum for
Repeat (1976 + 1977) vs. Single (1976 Only) Application of Fertilizers
Parameter
Times of Fertilization
1976
1976 + 1977
Density (No/m2)
21.3
( 2.0)1
29.6
( 2.9)
Height (cm)2
68.0
( 3.6)
79.6
( 3.8)
Root biomass (g/m2)3
356.0
( 72.0)
410.0
( 72.0)
Shoot biomass (g/m2)
486.0
(131.0)
499.0
( 92.0)
Total biomass (g/m2)
842.0
(200.0)
909.0
(158.0)
Root: shoot ratio
1.0
( 0.1)
0.9
( 0.1)
Seed biomass (g/m2)
3.0
( 1.0)
0.5
( 0.1)
xStandaid deviation of mean.
2
Significant differences (P < 0.05) by analysis of variance F-test as a result of amounts (times)
of fertilization.
3 Sampled to a depth of 30 cm.
The evaluation on 26 September 1977 of P. amarum indicated that the addi¬
tional 1977 application of fertilizer had resulted in highly significant differences
256
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
(P < 0.05) in stem density and height from those plots fertilized only in 1976
(Table 7). Density was 29.6 stems/m2 in plots fertilized in 1976 + 1977 compared
to 21.3 stems/m2 in plots fertilized only in 1976. Plant height was 79.6 cm in
1976 + 1977 fertilized plots and 68.0 cm in plots fertilized only in 1976. However,
biomass produced was not significantly different.
DISCUSSION
The summer planting did not seem to affect initial survival of the 3 species.
Survival of A. perangustatus transplanted in July was low but it was not much
higher with January transplants. Survival was relatively high in both C. dactylon
and P. amarum despite the hot summer planting date.
Large differences in elevation within and between replications of each species
affected the adaptability of and fertilizer effects on each species. All 3 grass
species apparently were adapted for dry sandy areas. Short periods of below normal
precipitation did not adversely affect either P. amarum or C. dactylon. However,
the 3 species did not appear well adapted to poorly drained areas repeatedly wet
from tides or precipitation. Plots in elevationally lower Replication 1 were
particularly affected by abnormally high tides and drainage following precipitation.
The flow of water from higher areas through Replication 1 restricted survival,
growth, and tiller production of all 3 species. A. perangustatus was most severely
affected followed by C. dactylon. The salinity of tidal waters did not appear to
affect P. amarum but did cause C. dactylon to temporarily turn brown. The
large standard error of many parameter means was due mostly to the differences
in elevation. Although P. amarum is normally considered a dune species, survival
and growth was better than the other 2 species in the mesic habitat of the lower
plots.
Green growth at the point of accumulating sand in C. dactylon plots indicated
that the sand contained some nutrients, particularly nitrogen, and benefited
growth. Soils data did indicate that the substrate contained some nitrogen and
phosphorus (Dodd, et al. , 1978). Growth of C. dactylon in response to sand
accumulation and the accompanying increase in elevation indicated that C.
dactylon did serve as a stabilizer for windblown sand. There was a definite response
by P. amarum and C. dactylon to additional fertilizers (1976 + 1977). However,
they apparently responded differently to the heaviest rate (F2).P. amarum pro¬
duced more biomass at the F2 rate than at other rates. In contrast, C. dactylon
production was lower at the F2 rate than at the Fj rate. Optimum fertilizer rates
for the 2 species appear to be different.
Repeat applications of fertilizer may not be necessary for established stands
of P. amarum and C. dactylon on dredged material. However, fertilizer applications
during the 2nd growing season definitely enhanced growth and vegetative repro¬
duction of the 2 species. Use of fertilizer as well as plant species selected will
depend on whether erosion control, wildlife habitat, grazing, human useage, or a
TRANSPLANTATION OF GRASSES ON DREDGED MATERIAL
257
combination of the above are the objectives of the planting. In this study, neither
initial nor repeated applications of fertilizer appeared necessary to produce stands
of C. dactylon or P. amarum. However, these stands included many invading
plants (Webb, et al., 1980). However, to achieve dominant stands of these 2
species where other species are prevented from establishing, repeated applications
of fertilizer may be necessary. Cost of fertilizer and its application certainly will
determine the feasibility of accomplishing some objectives of the transplantings.
Presently, the cost would be about $89.00 for 1 application of 25 kg/ha of N,
80 kg/ha of K2 0, and 100 kg/ha of P2 05 . The price may be prohibitive to grazing
and wildlife habitat development but may be necessary in critical erosion areas.
CONCLUSIONS
C. dactylon (Alicia variety) and P. amarum are well adapted for survival and
growth in sandy dredged material along Bolivar Peninsula. A. perangustatus did
not survive well after transplanting in summer 1976 or in winter 1977. Low wet
elevations appeared detrimental to both survival and production of all 3 species.
In contrast, survival and production were better on the higher, drier areas.
C. dactylon and P. amarum responded well to fertilization. More biomass was
produced with applications in both the 1st and 2nd growing seasons than with
fertilization in only the 1st. However, overall differences between a single appli¬
cation (1976) and repeat applications (1976 and 1977) were not significant for
P. amarum. For P. amarum best production was at F2 fertilizer rates. For C.
dactylon, F x rates produced more biomass than F2 fertilizer rates. Fx rates applied
during the 1st and 2nd year produced significantly more herbage than applications
during the 1st year only.
Blowing sand was trapped by C. dactylon and P. amarum indicating both
species were suited for stabilizing bare sandy dredged material areas. Blowing
sand appeared to actually enhance growth of both species. A. perangustatus
survival was too low to evaluate its sand trapping abilities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredge Materials
Research Program under contract No. DACW 39-76-C-0109. The authors wish
to express their appreciation to A. T. Weichert, G. T. Tanner, and numerous
student laborers who worked on the project.
LITERATURE CITED
Dodd, J. D., D. J.Herlocker, B. W. Cain, B. J. Lee, L. R. Hossner, andC. Lindau, 1978-Habitat
development field investigations, Bolivar peninsula upland and marsh habitat development
site, Galveston Bay, Texas, Appendix B: Baseline inventory of terrestrial flora, fauna,
and sediment chemistry. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station TR
D-78-15. Vicksburg, Mississippi.
258
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Hitchcock, A. S., 1911-Manual of the Grasses of the United States. 2nd Ed Dover Publi¬
cations, Inc. New York, pp. 699-700.
Lankford, R., and L. J. Rehkemper, 1969- The Holocene Geology of the Galveston Bay Area.
Houston Geological Society, Houston, TX.
NOAA, 1976, 1977-Local climatological data, Galveston, Texas. National Climatic Center,
Asheville, N. C.
Webb, J. W., J. D. Dodd, and B. H. Koerth, 1980-Plant invasion on upland dredged material.
Unpublished paper.
ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATES BY SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY AND ION PROBE
by ROBERT W. GRAY and HOWARD G. APPLEGATE
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, TX 79968
and WALTER R. ROSER
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, TX 79968
Reviewed by: Dr. Gerald Cagle, Alcon Laboratories, Inc., NPR Microbiology, P.O. Box 1959,
Fort Worth, TX 76101.
ABSTRACT
The analysis of particulates using a combination of scanning electron microscopy and
x-ray spectrum is described. The use of the 2 instruments enabled natural particles to be
distinguished from man-made particulates. In addition, once the source of the man-made
particles was known, specific particles could be linked to various processing steps of the source.
INTRODUCTION
The linking of particulate emissions to specific sources is an important but
difficult task in environmental studies. Emissions from an oil-fired power plant
were distinguished from emissions from a coal-fired power plant by scanning
electron microscopy and x-ray analysis (Cheng, et al. , 1976). The same technique
can be used to not only associate a particulate with a specific source but also to
link the particle to a process step within the source.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Particles were collected downwind from a copper-lead smelter with an Anderson
Sampler, Model 0705. Small strips of adhesive tape were mounted upon a series
of glass plates within the sampler to provide a surface for impaction. The tape
Accepted for publication: January 28, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
260
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
was removed and processed by evaporative carbon shadowing to provide the
conductive specimen necessary for examination by electron optics.
The shadowed particles were examined using a spot analysis with an accel¬
erating voltage of 25 kV. The x-ray diffraction analysis was obtained using a
lithium drifted silicon detector with a resolution of 169 eV (MnKct). An EDIT/
NOVA mini-computer containing the EDIT/7.EP program1 was used to interpret
the x-ray spectrum. The specimen stage was always tilted at 45°, and the spot
analysis was taken from a point on the particle closest to the beam source for a
period of 200 sec. Surrounding particles were also analyzed to estimate their
contribution to the spectrum of the desired particle. In virtually every case, their
interference was minimal or non-existant. The tape upon which the particles
were secured was of organic composition and did not affect the analysis.
Computation of % composition was obtained using the ZAF-automatic
program. Peak overlapping was corrected using the standard peak generation and
subtraction portions of the program. This was necessary in cases such as the
S KA and Pb MA in order to simulate an appropriate S KA peak before %
computations were made.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The 1st step in identification was to differentiate a particle with respect to
natural origin or association with anthropogenic processing. Shape was used to
separate the particles into 2 broad classes, round and angular. In most cases,
particles considered angular were directly or closely related to natural sources
while those which were rounded were often the results of anthropogenic processes.
Next, the particles were examined for elemental composition. The mineralogy
of the El Paso region consists largely of various limestones, clays and sands,
resulting from ancient ocean deposits, river alluvium and outcrops of volcanic
rocks. Thus, most natural particulates can be distinguished quite readily by the
existance of smooth crystalline surfaces whose composition is primarily of
elements such as aluminum, silica, potassium, calcium, sulfur and iron.
The following particulates display anthropogenic characteristics and are
examples of the identification procedure.
Particle 1 is angular with a smooth surface decorated with many smaller
adhering particulates (Fig. 1). The elemental composition displays a high concen¬
tration of lead with significant sulfur content and traces of iron and zinc (Table 1).
The morphology is typical of a naturally occuring particle. However, a geological
survey of the El Paso-Cd. Juarez area reveals no sources of high-concentrate
lead minerals. Therefore, this particle is considered to have been blown from a
stock pile of a nearby smelter.
Particle 2 is angular with multiple flat surfaces but the overall surface charac¬
teristic indicates the particle to be a loose aggregate of small platy materials
Copyright by EDAX International Corporation.
ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATES
261
200 m
| - - - H
Figure 1 . An angular particle from a stock pile of raw ore.
TABLE 1
Elemental Analysis of Particulates by Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis Relative Percentages1
Particle
No.
Lead
Copper
Iron
Zinc
Sulfur
Silicon
Other2
1
67
_
5
5
15
7
1
2
48
4
25
7
6
5
5
3
50
25
21
3
1
4
99
1
--
5
90
--
4
4
--
2
Elements below Z=ll are not detected by this methodology. Percentages are normalized
to 100% so the above figures are relative and not actual percentages, i.e., Particle 4 is
probably copper oxide but oxygen is not detected by this methodology.
2
Includes magnesium, aluminum, cadmium, chloride, manganese and titanium at concentra¬
tions less than 2% for each element.
ranging in size from 0.1-1 .0 m (Fig. 2). The morphology is also typical for natural
particulates since clay and other related minerals are aggregations of small platelets
stacked in a tight laminar configuration. However, the element present is chiefly
lead with secondary but significant concentrations of zinc and iron (Table 1).
One of the 1st processes in smelting is finely grinding the ore followed by a
flotation step. This results in the coagulation of high-concentrate ore material.
The loose, random association of the smaller composite particulates together with
the elemental composition suggest this particle arose during the flotation process.
The shape of Particle 3 is rounded with a lumpy surface described as fused
and globular (Fig. 3). The elements present are mostly copper and iron with a
significant concentration of sulfur (Table 1). From these characteristics, the
particle appears to have been exposed to a high temperature which brought about
an amorphic structure. In the refining of copper, one of the steps involves a vat
262
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 2. A loose aggregation of platy materials arising from a flotation process.
40 11
I— - H
Figure 3. An amorphic globular particle resulting from high temperature.
of molten copper and iron sulfides which are later separated. Identification based
on the fused appearance and similar composition to the vat contents suggests
this to be the source ,of the particle.
Particle 4 is an aggregation of small spheres ranging from 0.2-1 .0 /jl in diameter
(Fig. 4). Since they are spherical and completely amorphic, it is believed that
they resulted from a high temperature and possible molten process. The analysis
indicates that the composition is essentially pure copper (Table 1). This particle
could well have originated from 1 of the later stages in the refining of copper.
Particle 5 is rounded with surface features indicating a loose aggregation of
very small granular material (Fig. 5). The granules are much less than 0.1 fj. in
diameter and the composition is essentially lead with small or trace amounts of
zinc and sulfur (Table 1). The appearance is quite distinctive as that of coagulated
ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATES
263
20 fi
» - 1
Figure 4. Spheres of essentially pure copper oxide (probable).
40 JU
» - •
Figure 5. A particle of coagulated fumes of very small granular material.
fumes. In the final purification of lead, the molten metal is heated to vaporize
the remaining zinc. During this process, the vaporization of lead oxide is very
significant. The fumes must be condensed and collected through a bag house
filtration system to minimize material loss. This particle is quite possibly a fugitive
from this condensation process.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of a scanning electron microscope together with an energy dispersive
x-ray analyzer enables the separation of particulates that occur naturally from
those that are produced by industrial processes. In addition, in one case at least,
264
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
it is possible to pin point steps within the industrial process at which the fugitive
emissions occurred. Information generated by this technique should be of value
to both governmental and industrial environmental engineers. Governmental
engineers can locate sources of emissions; industrial engineers can locate steps
in their processes from which materials are lost.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported in part by a grant from the Gulf Universities
Consortium on Air Pollution.
LITERATURE CITED
Cheng, R. J., V. A. Mohnen, T. T. Shen, M. Current, and J. B. Hudson, 1976 -Characterization
of particulates from power plants. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 26(8) :787.
FORMATION OF TAR BALLS IN A SIMULATED OCEANIC FRONT
by MONTEITH G. HEATON, RICHARD J. WILKE,
and MALCOLM J. BOWMAN
Marine Sciences Research Center
State University of New York
Stony Brook, NY 11794
ABSTRACT
Tar balls, formed by an accretion of No. 6 home heating oil residue, were grown in a
small laboratory tank in which a strong, two-sided surface convergence was established.
The growth rates and appearance of the balls suggest that tar balls can form and grow in
those oceanic or estuarine fronts where the necessary conditions of strong surface convergence,
accretion nucleii, and turbulent agitation exist.
INTRODUCTION
Tar balls are found floating on the surface waters of all oceans. The observed
density of occurrence is particularly high along major oceanic frontal systems
such as the Kuroshio and Gulf Stream which support strong surface convergences
but they are also commonly found in local waters near major shipping lanes. It is
widely assumed that these tar balls are agglomerates of oil residue deliberately or
accidentally released from passing ships (Blumer, 1972, 1973).
Since oceanic surface convergence zones trap and concentrate floating organic
and inorganic matter (Bowman and Esaias, 1978), a simple experiment was
designed to test the hypothesis that in situ tar ball formation from oil slicks
might occur in such zones. Convergence regions may provide sites favorable for
growth by maintaining a high concentration of oil as source material, including
small objects that can act as nucleii around which tar balls can form, and a
vigorous and turbulent stirring motion at the surface front.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
A sketch of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1 . Two counter-rotating vortices
with horizontal axes were established in a 100£ aquarium. Two small pumps
Contribution No. 276 of the Marine Sciences Research Center of the State University of
New York at Stony Brook, NY.
Accepted for publication: December 19, 1979.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
266
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 1. Sketch of 100# aquarium showing oil slick captured in surface convergence.
Not shown is the pumping system to withdraw water from the central drilled
tube and eject water from the 2 outer tubes.
circulated the 35 0/00 seawater through a simple plumbing system that ejected
water upward through a series of small orifices drilled in 2 tubes lying along the
opposite bottom corners of the tank. Water was removed at the bottom of the
tank through a similar centrally located drilled tube.
The flow rate was adjusted such that the surface convergence velocities were
- ±10 cm/sec which is a reasonable value for mid-ocean fronts (Voorhis, 1969).
The diurnal insolation cycle was simulated with a 12- hr on/ 12- hr off tungsten
floodlamp supported above the tank and adjusted to an average illumination of
- 350 cal/cm2 • day, a value appropriate to - 40° latitude.
The experiment was initiated by adding 0.25C of No. 6 home heating oil to
the tank, plus an assortment of objects such as plastic cigarette filters and some
small pieces of kitchen grease.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After a few hours, several small conglomerates began to form around the
nucleii. The buoyancy of the balls was such that they lay almost completely
submerged and rolled vigorously around on the undersurface. This rolling
motion, once initiated, appeared to be a key mechanism for maintaining a spherical
shape and favorable coating conditions. Figs. 2 and 3 show the appearance of
several balls after 16 and 18 hr, respectively. The ball on the far left (Fig. 3),
formed around a plastic cigarette filter insert, was almost spherical in shape.
FORMATION OF TAR BALLS
267
Figure 2. Photograph taken after 16 hr of tar balls forming in the experimental tank.
(Photo taken through side of tank, actual size.)
Figure 3. Photograph taken after 18 hr of tar balls formed around various nucleii. The
spherical ball (far left) is formed around a plastic cigarette filter and the irregular
objects around pieces of kitchen grease.
268
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The other objects are irregular blobs of material formed around the kitchen grease.
The composition was quite soft; presumably the texture would harden with
continued weathering as increased proportion of lower molecular weight hydro¬
carbons are either dissolved or volatilized (Blumer, 1972, 1973). The experiment
was terminated after 5 days when several spherical balls had reached diameters of
1 - 2 cm.
Once a tar ball begins to form, it should grow rapidly. Theoretically and
assuming spherical growth, if the ball accretion is at a constant rate (c), then the
mass (m) will increase according to the relationship m= 4/3pc37rt3 where p
is the density and t is time. The ball will grow until shear stresses in the flow
or wave breaking cause it to rupture. Football-sized chunks are sometimes re¬
covered from swimming beaches on Long Island’s (New York) south shore,
but the average size is about 6 cm in diameter.
If this experiment is meaningful in terms of simulating oceanic conditions,
then a 10-cm diameter ball should form in about 25 days. Obviously, this implies
that a persistent convergence and supply of oil residue would be necessary to
allow this growth rate to continue long enough to account for the observed sizes.
This work raises the possibility that oceanic surface convergences may play an
important role in tar ball formation. A carefully controlled experiment needs to
be performed to assess the relative significance of the seawater solution, the
insolation cycle, the convergence rate (as opposed to a more random stirring
motion), and the type of source oil used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Marine Ecosystem Analysis (MESA) program
of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
LITERATURE CITED
Bowman, M.J., and W.E. Esaias (Eds.) 197 S-Oceanic Fronts in Coastal Processes. Springer-
Verlag, Heidelberg, p. 114.
Blumer, M., 1972-Oil Pollution: Persistence and degradation of spilled fuel oil. Set,
176:1120.
- , 1973-The environmental fate of stranded crude oil. Deep Sea Res., 20:239.
Voorhis, A.D., 1969-The horizontal extent and persistence of thermal fronts in the Sargasso
Sea. Deep Sea Res., Supp. to V. 16, p. 331.
FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES OF TEXAS SIERRA
CLUB MEMBERS1
by HERSHEL C. REEVES, ERIK R. BEARD2
and JOY B. REEVES2
Associate Professor
School of Forestry
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, TX 75962
ABSTRACT
Americans are aware that an environmental crisis exists, and responsible scientists and laymen
are increasingly searching for solutions. Almost every environmental crisis is a value conflict.
If productive change is to take place, the attitudes of people who enter into the environmental
value conflict must be determined empirically. Reported is a study designed to ascertain the
attitudes of an active environmentalist group and assess their level of comprehension with
regard to forestry concepts. The results indicate communication problems exist between
the sampled environmental group and representatives of the forestry profession. Suggestions
for improving communication are presented.
INTRODUCTION
Americans are becoming increasingly aware that an environmental crisis exists.
Plant and animal species are disappearing in large numbers in many parts of the
world, and at a particularly alarming rate in tropical regions due to exploitation
of the natural forest cover. Many environmentalists in the United States are
concerned that modem society’s unprecedented industrial development poses a
serious threat to the ecological relationships which are important to all life forms.
Almost every environmental issue is a value conflict. A choice must be made
between unlimited growth and controlled growth in order to preserve the quality
of life and even life itself. Among the large number of organizations concerned
with the environment, conflicts arise over definition of the problem, for whom
the problem exists, and strategy necessary to best solve the problem. Philosophical
differences do exist between segments of the forestry profession and some of
the other environmental groups, such as Sierra Club or Wilderness Society. For
example, there is the perennial controversy about the role of clearcutting as a
1 Much of the data for this paper were from a Master of Forestry thesis completed by Erik Beard
at Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX 75962.
2 Respectively, Public Affairs Forester, Westvaco Corporation, Summerville, SC 29483; and
Chairman, Department of Sociology, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX
75962.
Accepted for publication: March 11, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, September, 1980.
270
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
management technique and the more recent dispute over wildfire in the manage¬
ment of wilderness areas. Some environmentalist groups do not understand what
the forestry profession is attempting to do with the potentially scarce forest
resources entrusted to their care (Fazio and Gilbert, 1972; Glascock, 1973;
Plumb, 1973; Beard, 1974).
In order to reduce and/or resolve value conflicts, a change in attitudes of 1 or
more parties entering the conflict is necessary. Any effective plan to implement
change must start with the attitudes people presently hold toward an issue. There
is no one-to-one relationship between attitudes and behavior, but if behavior
does change it is because a change in attitude of a person or group also occurred.
The purpose of this paper is to report the results of a study designed to
(1) determine the attitudes of an active environmentalist group with regard to
environmental concerns, and (2) assess the level of comprehension members of
the group have with regard to natural resource concepts used by foresters. Sug¬
gestions for bridging the communcation gap between environmentalist groups
and forestry professionals are also presented.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
It is the thesis of the authors that a communication gap exists between certain
forestry groups and environmentalists. The communication gap exists because
each group holds different attitudes toward solving the “quality of life” problem
so vital today. If conflict is to be reduced between these 2 groups a change in
attitude must occur. According to Neulinger (1976) 3 distinct but interrelated
aspects of attitude change are: the communicator, the communication, and the
audience.
The communicator can be either a person, group, or the mass media. One factor
influencing the effectiveness of an attitude change attempt is the nature of the
communication. Effective communicators are generally of high status, high
prestige, and well-liked. An immediate problem then is identifying the appropriate
communicator in regard to the environmentalist-forestry conflict.
The communication refers to the message sent and received. If true communi¬
cation occurs, the recipient receives the message as intended. Most people do not
communicate as effectively as they would like. Sometimes the communicated
attitude differs from that of the recipient of the communication which results
in the so-called “communication discrepancy.” Neulinger (1976) tells us that
too large a discrepancy in the communication leads to an entrenchment of one’s
original attitude. Therefore, if effective change is to take place, it would seem
wise to determine where the people in conflict are coming from and then try to
come up with a plan that would fit closer to the opposing group’s attitudinal
structure or mind-set. In practical terms, the basis of similarity between the
forestry and environmental groups is conservation.
FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES
271
Lastly, attitude change theory suggests that change agents tailor their com¬
munication and communicator to the specific audience involved. Different ap¬
proaches are needed for many audiences. The fact the general public as well as
environmentalist groups do not understand what the forestry profession is doing
with forest resources suggests an educational program is sorely needed (Plumb,
1973).
METHODS
Selected for study were 150 members of the Sierra Club who resided in Houston,
Dallas, and Fort Worth, TX (Beard, 1974). These members were selected because
the Club in which they hold membership is known to be politically influential
with regard to environmental issues. A questionnaire of closed (objective, as
“Yes” or “No”) and open-ended (subjective or discussion) inquiries was personally
administered to club members. Of the 150 questionnaires distributed, 83 were
completed and returned in self-addressed envelopes.
RESULTS
The respondents were asked questions that involved both environmental and
forestry-related issues. In order to better understand the positions of the respond¬
ents on these issues, responses were compared to those responses of the general
public summarized by the Gallup Organization and reported by Plumb (1973).
The authors make no assumption about the propriety of the industry’s practices
referred to in the national questionnaire.
Environmental Issues
One question asked was “Do you think the U.S. Government’s laws and reg¬
ulations with regard to the pollution or our natural surroundings are too strict,
about right, or not strict enough?” Seventy-five percent of the Texas Sierra Club
members indicated that present laws are not strict enough. The same response
was true of the public. However, when members were asked to rate industry’s
handling of air and water pollution, resource conservation and solid waste prob¬
lems, far more of the Club members than the general public were critical (See
Table 1). No more than 47% of the public rated any industry “poor” on any of
the 4 problems, while maximum percentages of Club members rating individual
industries “poor” ranged from 55-89.
Forestry Issues
In response to the question “Taking into account the need to conserve our
forests and timberlands and, at the same time, the need for lumber and paper, do
you think there is too much, too little, or about the right amount of emphasis
on the conservation of our timberland?” Far more Texas Sierra Club members
272
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 1
Rating of Industries on Environmental Problems - Percent
of Respondents Rating Industries “Poor”
Air
Water
Conservation
Solid
Pollution
Pollution
of Resources
Wastes
Texas
Texas
Texas
Texas
General
Sierra
General
Sierra
General
Sierra
General
Sierra
Industry
Public
Club
Public
Club
Public
Club
Public
Club
- Percent -
Oil
24
50
40
66
30
67
18
46
Automobile
31
52
21
23
27
77
31
83
Paper
20
55
31
73
27
51
42
89
Lumber
15
28
20
46
26
60
12
28
Plastics
15
29
19
49
14
46
47
93
Electric
14
17
14
27
13
51
4
7
Electronics
5
1
8
7
7
7
--
*Data for “General Public” are from Forest Industries Council, 1972.
asked for increased emphasis on conservation of timberlands than did the general
public. About 56% of the public and 94% of the Club members thought current
emphasis was too little. Only 4% of the Club respondents considered the emphasis
“about right.” In response to the question “Do you think the U.S. Government’s
laws and regulations with regard to the proper use of our forests and timberlands
are too strict, about right, or not strict enough?,” 87% of the Club members as
compared to 47% of the public felt that laws and regulations on the use of forests
are not strict enough.
Respondents were given the following statement to peruse: “The forest
practice of clearcutting involves cutting down all the trees over a large area.”
Then they were asked the question “Do you think this is a good or bad practice?”
Ninety-three percent of Club respondents and 75% of the public called the
practice bad.
In order to determine their attitude about wilderness areas the following
statement was made, followed by a question, “Suppose a wilderness area was an
area owned by the government where timber cutting for lumber and paper was
not allowed and motor vehicles were excluded. Do you think we need more such
wilderness areas than at present or not?” Almost all Texas Sierra Club members
indicated a need for more wilderness areas, compared to 52% of the public.
Respondents were asked “Do you think the public should have access to the
forests owned by paper and lumber companies for recreational purposes or not?”
Over 63% of the Club members thought that forests owned by paper and lumber
companies should be open to access for recreational purposes. In contrast, 53%
of the public replies did not favor access, apparently reflecting a strong awareness
of the traditional rights of private ownership. In practice, most industry land is
open to public use.
FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES
273
In response to the query “Do you think the lumber and paper companies own
too much of the country’s forests and timberlands or not?,” 27% of the Gub
members believed the companies owned too much of the country’s forests, 39%
did not object to the present acreage, while 34% gave no opinion. More than 1/2
of the public respondents had too little information to form an opinion.
Club and public respondents answered similarly to the following question,
“Do you think the lumber and paper companies should be allowed to use the
forests they own in any way they wish or should the government control how
they use their forests?” A large percentage of both the public (60%) and Gub
respondents (70%) thought government should control how companies manage
their forests. Less than 1/3 of each group considered management exclusively a
company prerogative. Almost 1/2 of both groups believed the lumber and paper
companies should be given a tax incentive if they spend money for conservation
and care of the forests.
Understanding Forestry Concepts
Sierra Club members were asked to write appropriate definitions for 19 terms
relating to forestry. Their responses were compared to responses given by a
sample of educated, affluent suburbanites in representative American cities
studied by the Forestry Industries Council (FIC, 1972) and cited in Plumb (1973).
Answers were judged against identical definitions widely accepted in the forestry
profession (Table 2).
TABLE 2
Proportion of Respondents Giving Definitions Accepted
by Forest Industry and Forestry Profession1
Term
General Public
Texas
Sierra Club
Virgin forest
- Percent —
86
81
Hardwoods
82
71
Wilderness
71
85
Softwoods
65
71
Multiple use
10
81
Sustained yield
19
54
Climax forest
0
32
Forester
81
51
Ecology
41
71
National forest
78
51
Timber industry
76
54
National park
58
76
Managed forest
33
56
Even-age management
12
32
Allowable cut
19
37
Slash
7
17
Timber stand improvement
28
37
Forest products industry
51
54
Second growth
43
42
!Data for “General Public” are from Forest Industries Council, 1972.
274
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The term “ecology” was understood by 71% of Texas Sierra Club members
and 41% of the FIC public. However, 3 other key terms were defined acceptably
by a much larger proportion of the FIC public sample than by the Club members.
These were “national forests,” “forester” and “timber industry.” Many Club
members defined national forests as areas for preservation of trees rather than for
multiple uses. The term “forester” was often identified primarily as a timber
harvester, sometimes as an exploiter, but not as a resource manager. The “timber
industry” was depicted as an exploiter of natural resources. Its contributions of
needed products to the economy and its role in forest perpetuation were seldom
mentioned. Most of the other concepts were defined more acceptably by the Club
members than the FIC public; however, some concepts were not asked to be
defined by the FIC public. These concepts were: conservationist, prescribed
burning, monoculture, and biological desert. Among the Club members, less than
50% defined acceptably the following terms : climax forest, evenage management,
allowable cut, slash, timber stand improvement, second growth, and biological
desert.
In the event a communication problem exists between Club members and
non-club members, it was considered reasonable and practical to ascertain the
confidence Club members had in particular information sources. To measure
this confidence, Club members were asked to respond to this statement: Suppose
each of the following people or organizations -- conservation groups, a repre¬
sentative of the U.S. Forest Service, Ralph Nader, your congressman, your daily
newspaper, or a representative of a lumber or paper company - - made statements
about how our forests should be used. How much confidence would you have in
each one? The choices from which to choose were “a great deal,” “a fair amount,”
“not very much,” “no confidence,” and “can’t say.” Club members had the most
confidence in conservation groups and the least confidence in a lumber or paper
representative. A Forest Service representative and Ralph Nader received less
confidence than conservation groups but considerably more than the respondent’s
congressman or daily newspaper (Table 3).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It may be inferred from the data that values of the Sierra Club members
conflict with those of the lumber and paper industries. Both are competing for
the use of scarce forest resources. This value conflict cannot begin to be resolved
until communication occurs between the 2 competing groups which would in
turn make it possible for constructive change to occur. The data clearly demon¬
strates the existence of a communication problem. The fact that Club members
have high confidence in other conservation groups suggests that conservation
groups serve as a reference group for Club members. If representatives of the
forestry industry use industry as their reference group, then it is reasonable to
assume that communication between and within these conflict groups is partial.
Proportion of Respondents with Indicated Degrees of Confidence in Various Sources of Information
FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES
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276
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Members of each group hear only what reinforces their values and they tell or
transmit to others only that which suggests their position on environmental
matters. If a change in values and behavior is to occur for both groups, then the
communication channel must be altered. Altering values and behavior with regard
to environment is a complex problem to solve; however, it is the thesis of the
authors that alteration of the present communication channel is basic to social
change. To bring this basic alteration, the authors recommend the following:
1 . The sampled Sierra Club members, though better informed than the
public, lacked familiarity with some, key forestry facts such as the low
proportion of forestlands owned by industry, the accessibility of most
private forests to the public, and the effectiveness of seeding or planting
after clearcutting in regenerating forest stands. They are evidently not
aware of the contribution of forest industry to the current high level
of forest management in the South, nor do they seem to recognize that
production losses from areas withdrawn from cutting, like the Texas
Big Thicket, will increase cutting pressures on remaining lands. In spite
of these weaknesses, Sierra Club members have conservation viewpoints
paralleling much that is essential to forestry; therefore, this group,
though critical of some current practices, could be effective commu¬
nicators of opinion favorable to forestry programs, and at the same
time serve as critics of poor forestry practices.
2. Selected foresters trained in communication should disseminate more
widely the key forestry concepts to the general public as well as to
environmental groups. Television spots such as those produced by the
Society of American Foresters and companies such as Weyerhauser
and Potlatch are designed to be educational.
3. It is the authors’ opinion that Sierra Club criticism of forestry oper¬
ations in Texas and elsewhere stems in part from the indefensible
action of some woodland managers who fail to follow harvest operations,
particularly the technique of clearcutting, by effective measures for
prompt regeneration. Foresters can improve relations with Sierra
Club members and the public in general by reducing such poor practice.
4. Extension service (the forestry component especially) within land-
grant universities should expand educational activities, including dem¬
onstrations on public and private land that have both conservation
value and merit for industrial forestry operations. It is the authors’
opinion that university extension services are highly respected commu¬
nicators of information. Their primary mission is unbiased public
education.
5. Forest industry leaders should invite environmental groups to partici¬
pate in educational programs sponsored by industry to facilitate
communication.
FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES
277
6. Environmental groups such as the Sierra Club and Nature Conservancy
should cooperate more with foresters by inviting them to regularly
scheduled meetings for dialogue and thus enhance communication
between the 2 groups.
7. Influential members of both groups should encourage editors of their
respective journals to publish articles that give opposing viewpoints.
This is especially important to foresters since conservation-oriented
publications are an important vehicle for informing Sierra Club mem¬
bers. Articles on forestry which are well prepared and unbiased are
usually acceptable to such publications.
LITERATURE CITED
Beard, E. R., 1974-The state of communication with an environmentalist group regarding
forest land-use management. Unpub. MF Thesis, Stephen F. Austin State University,
Nacogdoches, TX, 64 pp.
Fazio, J. R.,andD. L. Gilbert, 1972-Communications education: Closing the gap. J. Forestry,
70:676.
Forest Industries Council, 1972-Forest Industries Council 1972-74 Communications Program.
Washington, D.C.
Glascock, H. R., Jr., 1973-What do forestry professionals profess. J. Forestry , 71:130.
Neulinger, J., 1976 -An issue of attitude change. Leisure Today, Mar:4.
Plumb, J. W., 1973-Public attitudes and knowledge of forestry. /. Forestry, 71:217.
§
■
NOTES SECTION
DEFINITIONS OF PORNOGRAPHY: A PRE-TEST OF THE IMPORTANCE
OF CONTENT AND CONTEXT. Sheila G. Sheinberg, Dept, of Sociology, Univ. of
Houston, Houston, TX 77004; Dwayne Smith, Dept, of Sociology , Duke Univ., Durham,
NC 27706; and Harold A. Nelson, Dept, of Behavioral Sciences , Pan American Univ.,
Edinburg, TX 78539.
INTRODUCTION
Research on pornography has been weighted toward exploring its relation to various
kinds of social and personal harm (e.g., crime and sexual deviance). Such research fails to
deal with the important socio-legal issue of what is “tolerable” sexual material. Yet it is
this which has been established by the Supreme Court as central to discussions of pornography
and its intrusion into local communities.
As both courts and social researchers acknowledge, the problem of definition, of concep¬
tualization, remains the thorniest issue. Jurors, courts and legislatures appear unable to get
much beyond the “pointing definition” implicit in such statements as “I may not be able to
tell you what it is but I know it when I see it.” While possibly a method for determining
how sexually explicit materials come to be defined as pornographic, it provides little substance
for the idea of “community standards.” The “I-cannot-tell-you-what-it-is-but-I-can-point-
it-out” school of thought thus only serves to emphasize the need to search for regularities
in these pointing definitions. This note summarizes research designed to accomplish this end.
Such regularities may appear in any of 3 areas: the content of the stimulus (i.e., the
alleged pornographic material), its context or media and the social characteristics of the
observers.
Content
A centerpiece in the legal struggle over pornography has been that kind of nudity which
is “easily accessible” in the community, the kind found commonly on newsstands: pulp
books, national tabloids, “men’s” magazines, and so forth. This “fringe pornography”
occupies a central position in the effort to formulate community standards in accordance
with judicial decisions (Gagnon and Simon, 1967, Transaction , 14:17). Nudity has been a
constant theme in pornography controversies and the amount or degree of nudity has been
assumed to be the prime point of contention. Nudity was treated as the content variable in
this research by utilizing pictures portraying varying degrees of female nudity ranging from
the breast area alone to that of full body, frontal view.
Context
Two Supreme Court cases, Roth (Roth vs. United States, 354 US 476 1957) and Ginzburg
{Ginzburg vs. United States , 354 US 476 1966) raise the issues of “redeeming context” and
intent rather than simply the content of the material in question. Context was treated as a
variable in this research by controlling for amount of nudity and pose and presenting materials
drawn from 3 separate sources: recognizable works of art, pictures taken from a popular
“men’s” magazine, and candid snapshots. On this dimension, it is not (degree of) nudity
which is at issue but the context or setting in which that nudity occurs.
Social Characteristics
Most research to date indicates that such variables as gender, religious activity and edu¬
cational status are related to judgments about pornography. Respondents were asked to
provide these data.
280
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
In sum, the idea of community standards rests finally on the ability to identify the bases
for judgments about what is and what is not pornographic material. These bases may be in¬
formed by regularities in content, context and/or social characteristics. Research hypotheses
were formulated from general hypotheses that (1) the greater the degree of anatomical
exposure, the greater the number of rater responses as pornographic, (2) rater responses
defining sexual stimuli as pornographic increase as one moves from art work to magazines to
snapshots, and (3) rater responses to sexual stimuli are differentially affected by social
characteristics of raters.
The design involved 3 sets of slides with each set consisting of 3 slides. Each set was
composed of females located in (1) a well-known work of art, (2) a photograph from the
above mentioned magazine, and (3) a non-professional snapshot. The amount of anatomical
exposure and the pose in each picture were matched as much as possible. Each of the 3 sets
emphasize a different degree of nudity: breast exposure, full body exposure, frontal view
but with covered pubic area or full body exposure, frontal view with uncovered pubic area.
This procedure provided a constant medium (degree of nudity) across sets of slides while
permitting the context to vary. Consistency of anatomical exposure was maintained within
sets, each set constant in degree of nudity while differing in media setting. Slides were
presented for a period of 15 sec each. Subjects were asked to identify by number on an
answer sheet any slide they defined as pornographic. In this manner, a pointing definition of
pornography was provided by each subject. The subjects were drawn from a community of
university students sharing common academic interests. In intentionally selecting a seeming
comparatively homogeneous sample of 57 persons, an effort was made to ease the process
of developing commonly agreed “community standards.” In this way, variables involved in
failure to agree (should this occur) would be highlighted. On the other hand, for the results
to have impact these subjects could not be radically different from those who had participated
in the bulk of previous research on pornography. Assurance could be implied from a finding
that the relationships between social characteristics and pornography judgments for this
sample were essentially the same as those reported in earlier research.
More than half the respondents (57.9%) identified no slide as pornographic indicating
that for them, neither content (nudity) nor context (media) elicited a pornographic evaluation.
For the remainder, the following conclusions may be drawn. It is not degree of nudity but
nudity per se which differentiates along the content dimension; evaluations as pornographic
did not increase as amount of nudity increased. Context (media setting) represents a very
different situation, however. Each member of the 42% of the sample which did offer porno¬
graphic evaluations defined at least 1 snapshot as pornographic. The nearly % of the total
sample which identified magazine pictures and the slightly more than 10% which identi¬
fied works of art as pornographic also identified snapshots as well. (Those who so identified
works of art in each case similarly identified magazines and snapshots; those who identified
magazines but not art works in each case identified snapshots as well.) Therefore, while
degree of nudity is not an important differentiating factor, the context in which that nudity
takes place is critical in determining what a population points to as pornographic. It is not
the object which is critical but the setting for the object which leads to definitions as por¬
nographic. Within the realm of “fringe pornography” which is central to the controversy
surrounding “explicit” material and community standards, counter to what is popularly
believed, it seems quite possible that it is not the content of the presentation but the context
which spurs definitions as pornographic or not pornographic.
Analysis by social characteristics reveals a sample similar to those of earlier research.
Gender differences in number and kind of evaluations are especially clear. In every instance,
more females than males evaluated a presentation as pornographic. Rates varied from 2.5-9
times greater evaluations for females than males. The most dramatic picture which emerges
is of relatively young (17-19 yr) religiously active females as the most active evaluators of
pornography. (No differences were found between Protestants and Roman Catholics but
NOTES
281
Jews, Atheists and those declaring “none” for religious preference recorded the fewest evalu¬
ations as pornographic.) This gender-oriented profile is consistent with previous investigations
and should come as no surprise given American socialization of women which encourages a
sexual timidity and passiveness, if not outright disinterest in sexually explicit materials
(Chafetz, 197 4, Masculine /Feminine or Human? Peacock Publishers, Itasca, IL).
To the extent that an extrapolation may be made to community standards from this
data, it seems clear that analyses of the substance of usual conflicts over a least “fringe
pornography” have themselves pointed in the wrong direction. Nudity, the most common
impetus to local conflicts, may be of importance so long as we understand this to mean
solely its presence or absence rather than the extent to which its exists. Degree of nudity
appears to be of no great importance no matter what the recorders of community struggles
suggest. We are dealing not so much with offensiveness of content as appropriateness of
context for the content. The legal problem is simply not one of defining pornography but of
attempting to determine what a community may take to be unacceptable. It seems clear
that both courts and social analysts should spend considerably less attention on whether the
subject is somehow pornographic and considerably more on shared understandings of settings.
It seems equally clear that much of what is considered pornographic today would probably
not so be defined by these same people if the settings were altered.
A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SPERMOPHILUS VARIEGATUS IN
SINALOA, MEXICO. Andre A. Antinori, Dept, of Geography, California State University,
Northridge, CA 91330. (Present address: P. O. Box 4394, North Hollywood, CA 91607).
The rock squirrel Spermophilus variegatus (Erxleben) is, according to Howell (1938, North
Amer. Fauna, 56:139), recorded in Sinaloa, Mexico, from Sierra de Choix, 50 mi NE Choix.
Previously unreported specimens in the collection of the Museum of Natural History of the
University of Kansas provide additional insight into the distribution of this species in Sinaloa.
Distributional Summary. S. variegatus ranges throughout most of southwestern North
America. In Sinaloa it is found from Sierra de Choix (Howell’s locality) to near Santa Lucia.
The Santa Lucia specimen (KU 94394) extends the known Pacific slope range of this squirrel
some 450 km to the south-southeast of Howell’s locality (Howell, 1938).
Specimens Examined. 26 mi NE Choix, 1300 ft, 1 (75267); 10 mi NE Choix, 1 (75268);
15 mi SW Choix, 1 (75269); 1 mi SE Presa Miguel Hidalgo, 1 (89256); 6 km NE El Fuerte,
150 m, 2 (95280-81); 2.5 mi NE El Fuerte, 1 (75270); 2 mi N San Bias, 50 ft, 2 (89251-52);
3 mi NE San Miguel, 300 ft, 1 (85100); 1 mi N, 0.5 mi E San Miguel on Rio Fuertes, Sin., 1
(67579); 44 km NNE Sinaloa, 600 ft, 1 (90020); 10 mi NNW Los Mochis, 1 (61313); 1 mi
S Pericos, Sin., 1 (61314); El Salado, 300 ft, 1 (103745); 1 km NE Santa Lucia, 3700 ft, 1
(94394).
The author wishes to thank Dr. Robert S. Hoffmann of the University of Kansas for access
to specimens preserved in the Museum of Natural History. -Reviewed by: Jerry N. McDonald,
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968.
THE FLEAS OF THE THIRTEEN-LINED GROUND SQUIRRELS OF WICHITA
COUNTY, TEXAS. Richard Roberts and Norman V. Horner, Dept, of Biological and
Life Sci., Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX 76308.
Fifty thirteen-lined ground squirrels, Spermophilus tridecemlineatus tex ensis (Merriam),
were trapped between April 15 and June 12, 1978 in Wichita County, Texas and checked
for fleas. The ground squirrels were caught at 3 sites in the county: Weeks Public Golf
Course, 27 specimens; Sheppard Air Force Base Golf Course, 20 specimens; and Midwestern
State University Campus, 3 specimens. Specimens were removed within seconds after capture
in snap traps, wrapped in white flannel cloth and chilled in a styrofoam ice bucket. As body
282
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
temperatures of carcasses dropped, fleas left the host and became enmeshed in cotton fibers.
Specimens were refrigerated for 24-48 hr, carcasses combed, all fleas placed in vials of 70%
ethanol, cleared and mounted. Identifications were made using chaxacteristics listed by Eads
(1950, The Fleas of Texas , Texas State Health Department, 85 pp.) and Stark (1970, A Revision
of the Flea Genus Thrassis (Jordan) 1933, Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley, CA, 184 pp.).
All of the 133 fleas (81 $9 and 5266) collected from the 50 ground squirrels were Thrassis
fotus (Jordan). Every specimen of S. t. texensis had at least one flea and one had 20 (1499
and 6c&3).
Tomlinson, et al., (1966, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 15(52):453) showed
that T. fotus was a vector of the plague bacillus in New Mexico. Rail, et al ., (1969,/. Med .
Entomol., 6:92-94) showed S. spilosoma (Bennett) was almost exclusively (99%) parasitized
by T. fotus in Chaves County, NM. Davis (1960, The Mammals of Texas. Game and Fish
Comm Bull. No. 41.) showed the ranges of S. tridecemlineatus and S. spilosoma to be sym-
patric in much of the Texas panhandle. Considering these facts, the range of the flea parasite
and the often close association of these squirrels with man, plague transmission to man is
possible in the north-central Texas area.
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HUNTSVILLE, TEXAS 77340.
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EXECUTIVE COUNCIL
President:
President-Elect:
Vice President:
Immediate Past President:
Secretary- Treasurer:
Sectional Chairpersons:
I -Mathematical Sciences: A. D. STEWART, Prairie View University
II -Physical and Space Sciences: KATHERINE MAYS, Bay City High ISD
III -Earth Sciences: DONALD H. LOKKE, Richland College
IV -Biological Sciences: WILLIAM VAN AUKEN, University of Texas at San Antonio
V -Social Sciences: BILLY J. LRANKLIN, Stephen L. Austin State University
VI -Environmental Sciences: CARL E. WOOD, Texas A & I University
VII -Chemistry: MARVIN W. ROWE, Texas A & M University
VIII -Science Education: H. DALE LUTTRELL, North Texas State University
IX -Computer Sciences: CHARLES ADAMS, North Texas State University
X -Aquatic Sciences: DARRELL D. HALL, Sam Houston State University
Manuscript Editor: G. ROLAND VELA, North Texas State University
Managing Editor: MICHAEL J. CARLO, Angelo State University
Board of Science Education Chairperson: PAUL COWAN, North Texas State University
Collegiate Academy Counselors: SHIRLEY HANDLER, East Texas Baptist College
HELEN OUJESKY, University of Texas at San Antonio
Junior Academy Counselor: RUTH SPEAR, San Marcos
Junior Academy Assoc. Counselor: PEGGY CARNAHAN, San Antonio
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
R. H. RICHARDSON, University of Texas at Austin
ANN BENHAM, University of Texas at Arlington
ELRAY S. NIXON, Stephen F. Austin State University
J. L. POIROT, North Texas State University
EVERETT D. WILSON, Sam Houston State University
R. H. RICHARDSON, University of Texas at Austin
ANN BENHAM, University of Texas at Arlington
J. L. POIROT, North Texas State University
ELRAY S. NIXON, Stephen F. Austin State Univerisity
EVERETT D. WILSON, Sam Houston State University
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DAVID J. SCHMIDLY, Texas A & M University
KEITH YOUNG, University of Texas
JAMES R. CRAWFORD, Southwest Texas State University
FRED S. HENDRICKS, Texas A & M University
COVER PHOTO
Geographical Analyses of Temperature and Precipitation in Forested East Texas
by Mingteh Chang, Steven P. Watters, and Jose R. Aguilar, pp. 199-206.
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Volume XXXII, No. 4
December, 1980
CONTENTS
Editor’s Choice . . . . . . . . 285
Instructions to Authors ..................................... 287
Al-Biruni, Al-Tusi, and Newton. By A. R. Amir-Mo ez and J. C. Aghayani ........ 289
On the Space-Varying Spectral Tensor of Inhomogeneous Turbulence. By G. Trevino . . . 293
Propagation of Shear Waves Across Fossil Plate Boundaries. By D. H. Shurbet ...... 305
Bioeconomic Assessment of a Poultry Sewage and Tilapia Aquaculture System.
By W. L. Griffin, R. G . Anderson, R. R. Stickney, and R. E. Whitson ......... 311
Plant Communities of the Zachry Ranch in the South Texas Plains. By D. L. Drawe
and I. Higginbotham, Jr. ............................ . . . 319
A New Ptychodontid Shark from the Upper Cretaceous of Northeast Texas. By
N. MacLeod and B. H. Slaughter .............................. 333
Woody Vegetation of a Wet Creek Branch in East Texas. By E. S. Nixon, J. W. Higgins,
P. L. Blanchette, and F. A. Roth .............................. 337
Highway Mortality of Vertebrates in Southeastern Texas. By K. T. Wilkins and
D. J . Schmidly . . 343
Analysis of Air Samples for Lead and Manganese. By R D. Compton and L. A Thomas ... 351
Photochemical Investigations of 4-(N-Methylanilino)-Pent-3-En-2-One. By D. Watson,
E. T. Kennedy, and D. R. Dillin .............................. 357
NOTES SECTION
Summer Movement of a Male Armadillo in Central Texas. By W. D. Thomas ...... 363
ASM ABSTRACTS: FALL 1980 ............................... 367
INDEX Volume XXXII - 1980 ................................ 373
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AL-BIRUNI, AL-TUSI, AND NEWTON
by ALI R. AMIR-MOEZ
Texas Tech University
Lubbock , TX 79409
and JAFAR CHAVOSHI AGHAYANI
Teheran, Iran
ABSTRACT
For the construction of a regular nonagon, al-Biruni obtains the equation x3 - 3x = 1.
He gives an accurate root for this equation, and the algorithm is found in the work of al-Tusi.
This algorithm has been rediscovered by Sir Isaac Newton who gives a rigorous proof for
it.
INTRODUCTION
In his paper, “Al-Biruni et l'Algebre,” Rashed (1976) gives an algorithm for
approximating a real root of a polynomial equation. Rashed’s (1974) extensive study
of the works of al-Biruni and Sharaf-al-Din al-Tusi indicates that this procedure
is due to al-Biruni. But this technique is found in a book called Fi-al-mu'adalat
(about equations) due to Sharaf-al-Din al-Tusi (Rashed, 1978). The example of
al-Tusi is x3 - 3x = 1 which is the equation obtained by al-Biruni trying to construct
a regular nonagon. This confirms Rashed’s (1976) work.
The algorithm makes use of derivatives of polynomials without a formal defini¬
tion of it. In this article we would like to study the method and give a geometric
interpretation which is due to Newton.
The prupose of this article is to give a short history and an example of Newton’s
method of solving polynomial equations. Indeed, the mathematics involved is
extremely simple.
REGULAR NONAGON
Let BC be the side of a regular nonagon in a unit circle (Fig. 1). Then BC = 2 sin 20°.
If we choose BC to be x, then considering
sin 60° = sin 3(20°) = 3 sin 20° - 4 sin3 20°
Accepted for publication: May 7, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
290
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
we obtain
/3 = 3x -x3 .
It seems that having /3 in the equation had not pleased al-Biruni. Thus he chose
AB = 2 cos 20° to be x and by the formula
1 /2 = cos 60° = 4 cos 20° - 3 cos 20°
he obtains
x3 -3x= 1.
Al-Biruni’s solution in sexagesimal fraction is:
x= 1 - 52 -45 -47 - 13
which is equivalent to 1 .8793852418.
Figure 1. A unit circle containing a regular nonagon whose side BC = 2 sin 20°.
THE ALGORITHM
Let f(x) = N, where f(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients whose constant
term is zero and N is a positive integer. Then one is interested in a positive number
x0 such that f(x0) = N. These authors choose Xj < x0 and use the algorithm
AL-BIRUNI, AL-TUSI, AND NEWTON
291
and let
xn + l=xn+xn + l’n=1>2’----
For more details see Rashed (1976) where he gives another numerical example.
This procedure works when the graph of y = f(x) is concave downward (Fig. 2).
Note that this is essentially Newton’s technique.
In case the graph of y = f(x) is concave upward (Fig. 3), one has to alter the
algorithm as follows. Choose Xi > x0 and let
_ f(xn)-N
n + 1 f'(xn) ’
_ /
xn+l - xn xn+l *
Probably al-Tusi has employed this algorithm since f(x) = x3 - 3x is concave
upward around x0.
SHARF-AL-DIN’S EXAMPLE
Consider the equation x3 - 3x = 1 . Here f(x) = x3 - 3x and f'(x) = 3(x2 - 1).
We note that f( 1.8) = 0.432 < 1 and f(l .9) = 1 .1 59 > 1. So choose xt =1.9. Thus
X2 =-x,1> ~ 1 = = 0.0203065.
f (x ) 7.8 30
292
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
From this one gets x2 = 1 .9 - 0.0203065 = 1 .8796935. Carrying the computation
one more step,
x' = f( 1.8 796835) - 1
3 f'(l. 8796935)
0.002342
7.59974296
0.000308.
Thus x3 = 1.8796634.
The next steps are left to the reader.
LITERATURE CITED
Rashed, R., 1976 - Al-Biruni et ^Algebre. The Commemoration Volume of Birani International
Congress in Teheran, pp. 63-76.
- , 197 4 -Resolution des Equations Numeriques et Algehre: Sharaf-al-Din al-Tusi,
Viete, Vol. 12, No. 3. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, pp. 244-290.
- 1978 -l! extraction de la Racine N-leme et l' Invention des Fractions Decimoles
(Xl-XII Ieme Siecle), id., Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 191-243.
ON THE SPACE- VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR OF INHOMO¬
GENEOUS TURBULENCE
by GEORGE TREVINO
Associate Professor
Departments of Physics and Mathematics
Del Mar College
Corpus Christi, TX 78404
ABSTRACT
The spatial variation in the functional form of the spectral tensor of inhomogeneous turbu¬
lence is formulated for the “fundamental” cases where the turbulence contains spatial vari¬
ations in the magnitude of either the intensity of the turbulence or the integral scale. It is
shown that the space-varying spectral tensor is determined, in the general case, by evaluating
a multi-dimensional convolution of the spectral density of the turbulence intensity with the
spectral distribution of the normalized correlation function of the turbulence. For the case
of turbulence with varying scale only, the space-varying spectral tensor is formulated by
convoluting the sum (of the spectral tensor for homogeneous turbulence, whose integral scale
is necessarily constant, and a tensor which describes the spatial variation in the scale) with
the spectral density of the (constant) turbulence intensity. For the case of turbulence with
varying intensity only, the space-varying spectral tensor is formulated by convoluting the
spectral tensor for homogeneous turbulence with the spectral density of the spatially varying
intensity. Particular examples are discussed for turbulence whose integral scale exhibits a “step”
increase at some point in space and for turbulence whose intensity varies sinusoidally in space.
The extension of the “fundamental” formulations to include turbulence with both varying
scale and varying intensity is discussed. Two additional formulations of the scale variation
(each more general than the fundamental formulation) are presented and briefly discussed,
and the corresponding space-varying spectral tensors are determined. The notion that the
space-varying spectral tensor can be represented in terms of a “generalized spectral tensor”
is introduced and analyzed. It is suggested that the physical significance of the generalized
spectral tensor is that this tensor is in some way related (in a 6-dimensional space) to the
(possibly) complex amplitudes of fundamental “washboard” wave patterns in that space,
wave patterns whose collective superposition results in the functional form of the space-varying
correlation function for inhomogeneous turbulence.
INTRODUCTION
Inhomogeneous turbulence is defined in the literature as turbulence whose
statistics are functions of spatial position. The sequel will focus on the space-
varying spectral tensor of inhomogeneous turbulence and in particular on formu¬
lating the variation, from point to point in space, which results in the functional
Accepted for publication: February 18, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1 980.
294
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
form of the tensor as a consequence of the presence in the turbulence of spatial
changes in the magnitude of either the turbulence intensity or the integral scale.
Theory
The space-varying spectral tensor, i|Uj (*,£), is defined here as the multi¬
dimensional Fourier transform1
= / Cy Hi:)exp(- 1 k»r)dr (1)
of the space-varying correlation function Cj(x,/;), where i (iota) = /T*. Clearly,
the space-varying spectral tensor is a function of both the wave number vector k
and the position vector x while the space-varying correlation function, defined
as the mean value
CjjCx.r) = <Uj(x-f )Uj(x+f)> (2)
of the turbulence velocity component m, i = 1,2,3, measured at the spatial point
Xi -y-f and the turbulence velocity component m, j = 1,2,3, measured at the
spatial point x2= x+ j-, is a function of the vectors r andx In Eq.(2)it is understood
that the mean value of the turbulence is itself zero, i.e., <Uj(x)> = 0, i = 1,2,3.
The objective at hand can be better addressed if the correlation function is
expressed in the form2
Cy (x,r) = °j(x-f)aj(x+f (3)
Where cu is the intensity of the turbulence, and Q.j is the “normalized” correlation
function of the turbulence satisfying the conditions Qjj(x,r)^l and Q.j(x, 0) = 1.
Indeed, in this form the effects on the spectral tensor of changes in the intensity
manifest themselves entirely through the function cr (.) while the effects on the
spectral tensor of changes in the scale manifest themselves entirely through the
function The corresponding form of i|u is the multi-dimensional convolution
%fx,k) = (4)
where3
and4
ij (-T ,k) = T 1 Qy (x >?)e x p( ■ - ' t k ,
(5)
Sijfe,A:) = /oi(x-{)a.(x+|)exp(-i^-f)dr. (6)
1 Unless stated otherwise, the limits on all integrals are -oo to +°o.
1 hor a complete derivation of Eq. (3) see Appendix A.
3The mathematical condition for which there exists a function (p^j(x,k), as defined in Eq. (5),
is that Qy(x,A-) be integrable over all r\ for real turbulence this will always be the case since
there is no physical reason to expect appreciable correlation between any 2 points in the
turbulence which are separated by a large value ot>.
The condition for which there exists a function Sjy(x, k), as defined in Eq. (6), is discussed in
Appendix B.
SPACE- VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR
295
Eq. (4) indicates that the space-varying spectral tensor of inhomogeneous turbu¬
lence is functionally dependent upon the spectral distribution of the turbulence
intensity as well as the spectral distribution of Q^x,/;).
SPECTRAL TENSOR OF TURBULENCE
Varying Scale
In view of the suggested form of (^(x,?), Eq. (3), the integral scale of the tur¬
bulence is defined as
Aij:fe) = /Qij(x,/(i))dr> (7)
where ^ = (r,0,0) for 1 = 1 , = (0,r ,0) for 1 = 2, and ^ = (0,0,r) for 1 = 3.
Note that inhomogeneous turbulence not only has 27 different scales but also
that each one of them is a function of position. A formulation of the spatial vari¬
ation in the functional form of the spectral tensor for this type of turbulence
can be effected by decomposing the function into the form
Q ij (x.r) = Q'/jV) + Q($(x,r), (8)
where qQ) is a function of r only, describing the spatially constant part of the
integral scale, and Qy)(x,E) is a function of both x and r, describing the spatially
varying part of the integral scale, while writing the integral scale as
Aijlfe) = A$ + A®(s), (9)
where AW is a constant. Combining Eqs. (7), (8), and (9) it then follows that
AilE/QVNt^dr, (10)
and that
A^(n=/Q<y)fe(1))dr. (11)
If now it is assumed that Qfr) can be written in the form5
Q®(w) = £ij(x)Yij(r:), (12)
where Y.j(0) = 0, the spatial variation of the integral scale can be described entirely
through the function ^(x) since Eqs. (11) and (12) together yield
Ajjife) = Ejjfe)/ Yij^(l)^r- 0 3)
5 A suggested name for this type of turbulence is “inhomogeneous turbulence with uniformly
modulated changes in the integral scale.”
296
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The resulting functional form of the space-varying spectral tensor is
% Qs,k) = o2 toft® + eijfe)rij©] , (14)
where
r y© = /Yy(Oexp(- 1 k .t)dr, (15)
^yy© is the spectral tensor for homogeneous turbulence, i.e., turbulence whose
statistics are constant in space, and a is the (constant) turbulence intensity.
Varying Intensity
The intensity of turbulence is defined as
ai©=<ui©ui (x)>1/2. (16)
The form of Eq. (3), and the form of Q^, Eq. (8), suggest that the space-
varying correlation function for this kind of turbulence can be written as
Cylx ,r) = Oj(x - | )a(x + 1 )Q ^(r)- ( 1 7)
This subsequently results in the form
fjCx© = (jL)3 fSyixA - (1 8)
for the space-varying spectral tensor. Note that the correlation function for this
kind of turbulence is not a uniform modulation of the function Qff(r) but indeed
reduces to that form whenever the spatial variation of cl is such that
CTi& - i )°jfe + ?) - a,fe)ajfe). (19)
i.e., whenever the changes in cl are not “too rapid,” in which case
Cyfe.r) - cri(x)aj(x)Q(A)(r), (20)
and
'Pij(x,k) a a.©^©^©. (2 1 )
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Consider the simple case of 1-dimensional inhomogeneous “upwash” turbulence
whose correlation function is
SPACE-VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR
297
C33(x,L) = cr3(x - y)a3(x + |)Q33(x,r), (22)
where x and r are now simple scalar variables.6
If the turbulence is turbulence with varying scale only the function is
chosen to be that given by the Dryden formulation for homogeneous isotropic
turbulence, i.e.,
Q(1)(r) = (1 - 4^\)e~r/2A> (23)
A being the so-called “lateral” scale of the turbulence, while the functional form
of is chosen to be
Q^(x,r) - e(x)[l - cos(-^p-)] , I r I < a A = 0,1 r I > a A, (24)
aA
where “a” is a constant. Defining the variation in the integral scale to be that
given by
A(x) = A+ AAU(x) (25)
where U(x) is the unit step function, the space-varying spectrum for this type of
turbulence is
<Kx,fl) = 2Ap2G + ^2 + ^fU(x)(21)
AA
27T \2
sin a <7
(1 +
- Q2]
(26)
where = Ak is the non-dimensionalized wave number, and 2Ag2 = (f (x,0) when
x < 0. Note that the spectrum for this type of turbulence has the classical Dryden
form (for homogeneous isotropic turbulence) for values of x < 0, but for values
of x > 0 the spectrum has the form given by Eq. (26) with U(x) set equal to unity.
Specifically, for values of a = 4tt, p = A A/A =0.10, and x > 0 the spectrum has
the shape depicted in Fig. 1 where the slight “dip” in the shape of the spectrum
immediately to the left of the so-called “knee” is due to the fact that an increase
in the magnitude of the integral scale of the turbulence has occurred at x = 0.
Clearly, the magnitude of this dip depends on the magnitude of “p” while the
location of it, on the fi-axis, depends on the value of “a.” On the other hand, if
the turbulence is turbulence with varying intensity only, the function is also
chosen as before and, for an intensity variation defined by
g(x) = a + Aasin(-^A-) (27)
c A
6 In the discussion pertaining to this section the subscript “3” will be omitted for brevity from
the notation, and it will be tacitly assumed that the turbulence component of interest is
always the up wash component.
i p(x,Q.)
~2Ko^
298
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
io-2 ict1 io° io1
Dimensionless Wave Number, ft
Figure 1. Spectrum of inhomogeneous turbulence with effect of “step” increase in the
magnitude of the integral scale, at some point in space, included.
where “c” is a constant, the space-varying spectrum is
l(x,a ^a2{<t>(1)(n)+(^)[<l>(1)(n --£■)+$<% + f)]sin(4)},' (28)
where it has been assumed that (A a/a) is small enough that terms involving (A a/a)2
are negligible and that “c” also is small enough that the functional form of the
turbulence spectrum does not reduce to the uniformly modulated case. Eq. (28)
indicates that the shape of the spectrum for this kind of turbulence oscillates
about the shape of ^^(ft), obtaining its maximum whenever sin(2TTx/cA) = 1 and
its minimum whenever sin(2iTx/cA) = -1 . Fig. 2 is a representation of the shape of
SPACE-VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR
299
Figure 2. Spectrum of inhomogeneous turbulence with maximum effect of sinusoidal
variation in intensity included.
the spectrum for the case when q = (A a/a) = 0.1 0, c = 0.50, and sin(2iTx/cA) = 1.0.
The peaks on the large wave number side of the knee are due to the presence of
sinusoidal variations in the intensity of the turbulence.
EXTENSIONS AND GENERALIZATION
The obvious extension of the ideas of the foregoing is to the case of inhomo¬
geneous turbulence with both varying scale and varying intensity. Clearly, for this
case
cij (x,r) = a.(x - f )ajfe +|)tQ(j1j)(d + eij&)Yij(d] .
(29)
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THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
and
%j(x,k) = (±)3 fSij(x,k-k')[<t><jlj\k') + eii(x)T..(k')}<lk'. (30)
A distinct feature of this type of turbulence is the presence of scale-intensity
coupling, represented in Eq. (30) by the convolution of Sjj(- ) and Iy(« ), although
the effect of this feature is negligible whenever the magnitudes of the spatial vari-
tions in the intensity and the scale are both “small.” A second extension is provided
in the case of turbulence with varying scale only when Q&) is of the form
= (31)
J n=l J J
This case is particularly adaptive to the case where the scale variation is defined
by a polynomial in x since for that case
A$(s) =jhnx«j> = S e^fe)/ Y<Jn)(r0))dr, (32)
where the XW are constants. The form of <Py(x,fc) for this case is obviously
% Cs.fc) = a2 {<*,]>(*) + L(’’>(x)r<f©}. (33)
A third extension is posed by the case where
Q(2)(x,0 = 2B(")5(")fe/-), (34)
1J n=l 1J 1J
where the 3^ are constants. This is the extension of the previous case to the case
where the shape functions, Y^(r), are now functions of position and are denoted
as £^(x,r). Eq. (34) is perhaps the most general form of Q^j(x,r) and , when vari¬
ations in intensity are allowed, consequently provides the most general form of
^ij(x,A:), that form being
V*'*) = (^f)3/Sij&,* - fc')!^*') +Jb^Z<J>Cj,*')] d*', (35)
where the definition of Z^\x,k) is obvious.
An interesting generalization of the central idea of this paper (i.e., the idea of
describing inhomogeneous turbulence by describing the functional form of the
space-varying spectral tensor of the turbulence) is provided by introducing the
notion of a “generalized” spectral tensor, i.e., a tensor which does not vary in
space but rather is a function of 2 wave-number vectors (say k and k) which are
distinct and independent. Accordingly, the space-varying spectral tensor itself
can then be defined in terms of yet another tensor, viz. the generalized spectral
tensor, as
SPACE-VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR
301
'(;ijfe.^) = (^-)3/fij(K^)exp(iK-jc)dK, (36)
where is the required generalized spectral tensor. Recalling the develop¬
ments of the second and third sections of this paper, the generalized spectral
tensor for inhomogeneous turbulence with varying scale only has the form
tf2 [(2tt)3 4>(A)(£)S(k) + E.j(fc)r.j(fc)] , (37)
where
Eij(K) = /eijfe)exp(-iK*x)4x (38)
and 6 ( * ) is the Dirac Function, while that for inhomogeneous turbulence with
varying intensity only has the form
Vjjfe,*) = (^r)3/Tijfe,4 - (39)
where
Tjj (Ktk) = /Sij(x,/:)exp(-iK •x)dx. (40)
Although the physical interpretation of ^(k,^) is not altogether clear and the
mathematical conditions for which Eq. (36) is valid are here unspecified, it is
nevertheless intuitive to think of inhomogeneous turbulence as the superposition
(in a 6-dimensional space) of fundamental “washboard” wave patterns of various
orientations in that space (orientations determined by the value of the vector K
whose components are and of various wavelengths (wavelengths
determined by the value of L = 2tt/ \K\). It therefore appears that the generalized
spectral tensor is in some manner related to the (possibly) complex amplitudes,
dYjj^), of the described fundamental wave patterns in such a way that the
correlation function for inhomogeneous turbulence can be written as
Cjj (R) = (^r)6;exp(i^)dYij®, (41)
where R is a vector whose components are (x,y,z,rx,ry ,rz), in the very same way
that the correlation function for homogeneous turbulence can be expressed (in
3-dimensional space) as the superposition of fundamental waves of (necessarily)
real amplitudes. The problem of describing the space-varying spectral tensor of
inhomogeneous turbulence in the most general case is thus reduced to the problem
of describing the amplitudes dY^/p and subsequent substitution into Eq. (41).
Recalling the discussion relevant to Eqs. (34) and (35) this ultimately reduces to
finding the functions K^(x,r), and the value of N, necessary to describe the
required functional form of Q&(x,r).
302
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The contents of this paper are the results, in part, of research conducted by the
author while he was a Senior Postdoctoral Fellow (1975-1976) at the National
Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, CO, and also of results of currently
ongoing research conducted by the author for NASA-Langley Research Center.
The author is grateful to both of these agencies for their respective support in
this research effort.
APPENDIX A
The correlation function C- is defined as the mean value
cij(*l,*2)= <uiC^ i )uj(hc2)> (A. 1)
of the 2-point velocity product Uj(x 1)Uj(v2). For 3-dimensional inhomogeneous turbulence,
this quantity is a 2nd-order tensor with 9 distinct components, each component being formed
by one of the various combinations of i,j = 1,2,3.
The Schwartz inequality
<[AUj(Xj) + Uj(y2)]2> > 0
(A. 2)
for inhomogeneous turbulence demands that
C{fxvx2) < [Cii&1jt1)Cjj(x2,*2)]I/2
(A. 3)
and since
[Cjjfej.Jfj)] 1/2 = [ <Uj(x1)uiCx1)>] 1/2 = CJjfej)
(A. 4)
it follows that
Cijkl"*2> % j
^(^l)Clj(x2)
(A. 5)
Eq. (A. 5) represents 9 expressions and each one can be written as
(A. 6)
From Eq. (A. 6) it follows that
(A. 7)
where 0 i jC^i»^2) the “normalized” correlation function satisfying
Eq. (A. 6) and Qjj(A,.x) = 1. The transformation
the conditions of
= x
/
2
A ^ A
?
reduces Eq. (A. 7) to the functional form presented in the text of this paper.
(A. 8)
SPACE-VARYING SPECTRAL TENSOR
303
APPENDIX B
Since the produce 0^(x - ^)Oj(x + is not always integrable over all/, the device that is
adopted here to assure the existence of the function Sjj(x,A:) is one that is widely used in
the literature (Batchelor, 1967; Papoulis, 1965).
Defining the function
Wjj(x,Z,d4)
r r 3 sin(r dk )
^ ^n=l rn
(B.l)
this function is clearly Fourier transformable, and furthermore
dWjj(x ,£,(!£) = /wjj(x,^d^)exp(-l^» r)dr.
Dividing both sides of Eq. (B.2) by dk and taking the limit as dk 0 provides
where
lim
d£~*0
{
dWjj(x,^,d^)
d k
}=Sij(x,fc),
(B.2)
(B.3)
Urn
d^O 1 dk
}= o^-pa^x+j).
(B.4)
In Eq. (B.3) it is understood that if the limit does not exist then neither does Sjj(x,&).
LITERATURE CITED
Batchelor, G. K., 1967 -Theory of Homogeneous Turbulence. Cambridge University Press,
London, pp. 28-33.
Papoulis, A., 1965 -Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes. McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY, pp. 465-69.
■
PROPAGATION OF SHEAR WAVES ACROSS FOSSIL PLATE
BOUNDARIES
by D. H. SHURBET
Seismological Observatory
Texas Tech University
Lubbock , TX 79409
ABSTRACT
Shear waves (Sn) which cross the Gulf of Mexico to be incident at the fossil plate boundary
(Ouachita Trend) between Texas and the Gulf are partially refracted into the crust. This
refracted energy arrives at Lubbock, TX, slightly delayed with respect to the Sn energy which
continues beyond the Ouachita Trend to Lubbock as Sn. However, Sn energy which enters the
continent from the Atlantic across the fossil plate boundary in the vicinity of the Appalachians
is reported (Stevens and Isacks, 1977) to be converted to Lg. These different effects of fossil
plate boundaries upon propagation of Sn may reflect the differences in the plate boundaries
themselves.
INTRODUCTION
A published model (Shurbet and Cebull, 1975; Cebull,ef #/., 1974) explaining
the origin and development of the Gulf of Mexico in terms of plate tectonics is
shown schematically as Fig. 1. This model, as well as others, defines the buried
Ouachita orogenic belt as a fossil plate boundary, and such an interpretation gives
new impetus to study of the trend. However, deep burial of much of the Ouachita
Trend beneath the Gulf Coastal Plain makes study difficult. The following dis¬
cussion examines the effects of the fossil plate boundary (Ouachita Trend) upon
the propagation of shear waves (Sn) traveling horizontally beneath the ocean along
the M-discontinuity and contrasts these effects with effects attributed to the
fossil plate boundary marked by the Appalachians.
Shurbet (1964, 1976) showed that there are 2 distinct arrivals in the Sn phases
recorded at Lubbock, TX, from earthquakes in Central America. The same Sn
phase appears as a single arrival at Junction, TX, which is at a shorter epicentral
distance than Lubbock along the same great circle path. The division of the single
signal into 2 parts occurs near Junction and is related to the presence of the fossil
plate boundary (Ouachita Trend) (Shurbet, 1976). No phase conversion takes
place for the earlier arriving signal in the Sn phase at Lubbock, which represents
continued propagation as Sn along the M-discontinuity beyond Junction to
Lubbock (Shurbet, 1976).
Accepted for publication: February 11, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
306
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 1. Inset B depicts subduction formation of the Ouachitas as the Proto-Atlantic,
shown in A, closed. C illustrates that the Gulf of Mexico probably remained
partially open at the time of continent-continent collision in the region of the
Appalachians.
The evidence is overwhelming that the 2nd part of the Sn signal at Lubbock,
which is larger than the 1st part, is refracted and scattered into the continental
crust as it enters North America across the fossil plate boundary in the vicinity
of the Ouachita Trend.
For example, an earthquake which occurred on 20 July 1966 about 100 mi north
of Lubbock and another which occurred on 14 August 1966 about 100 mi SSW
of Lubbock each generated Lg waves which were recorded at Albuquerque with
amplitudes large as compared to Lg amplitudes observed at Lubbock. This observa¬
tion illustrates that Lg propagates from the vicinity of Lubbock to Albuquerque
with very slight attenuation and yet comparison of many Lubbock seismograms
of the 2nd part of Sn with seismograms made at Albuquerque (Shurbet, 1964)
shows that this energy is so strongly attenuated, along the path which is very close
to the same Lg path mentioned above, that it is rarely recorded at Albuquerque.
Certainly the 2nd part of Sn is not Lg.
As a matter of fact, the displacement amplitude profiles of Lg in continental
crusts presented by Knopoff, et al. (1973, 1974) show that, for higher modes in
Lg, displacements approach uniformity throughout the continental crust. That is,
particle displacements are about the same at every level within the crust. There¬
fore, stimulation in the continental crust almost entirely at a single level, the
approximate depth of M--discontinuity beneath the ocean, say 15 km, would not
PROPAGATION OF SHEAR WAVES
307
be (particularly) effective in generating Lg. This reasoning is strengthened by the
observation of Shurbet and Ewing (1957) that the short-period component in Lg
is converted to T as the energy crosses from continent to ocean rather than to Sn.
It is concluded here that a part of Sn is refracted and scattered into the conti¬
nental crust as it enters North America across the fossil plate boundary in the
vicinity of the Ouachita Trend. However, since Isacks and Stevens (1975) conclude
Figure 2. Upper cross-section illustrates the possibility that Sn energy is refracted by the
continental remnant into the Appalachians to emerge as Lg, the energy of which
is evenly spread through the continental crust. Lower cross-section illustrates
oceanic Sn partially refracted into the crust by the Ouachita and partially
continuing as Sn.
308
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
that oceanic Sn is converted to Lg as it enters North America across the fossil
plate boundary in the vicinity of the Appalachian Mountains, these 2 fossil plate
boundaries are different in their effect upon Sn. These different effects could
reflect some difference in the geologic histories of the 2 plate boundaries, and
several authors have postulated a late Paleozoic collision between North America
and Africa in the southern Appalachian region which may not have occurred in
the Ouachita region (a point first suggested by Keller and Cebull, 1973). Simplified
models of plate boundary development, for example those of Dewey and Bird
(1970), do not obviously indicate how continental collision, or the lack of it, would
affect the plate boundary in a way which would later affect the propagation of Sn.
Fig. 2, however, schematically indicates differences in the fossil plate boundary
generally considered to represent the Appalachian boundary and a fossil plate
boundary considered to represent the Ouachita boundary. These schematic cross-
sections are adapted from Dewey and Bird (1970) and the difference is primarily
the presence of the remnant of the 2nd continent, seaward of the Applachians, left
behind as the Atlantic reopened after collision. It seems barely possible that if
that remnant was deformed during collision then its presence might cause some
refraction of Sn energy as it left the ocean to enter the continental crust. This
energy then might be spread vertically through the continental crust by the
Appalachians to become Lg as postulated by Isacks and Stevens (1975). This
possibility is indicated schematically in Fig. 2 which relates the effects upon Sn
propagation of different geologic histories of the plate boundary.
LITERATURE CITED
Cebull, S. E., G. R. Keller, D. H. Shurbet, and L. Russell, 1974-Possible role of transform
faults in the development of apparent offsets in the Southern Appalachian-Ouachita
tectonic belt. J. Geol., 84:107.
Dewey, J. F., and J. M. Bird, 1970-Mountainbelts and the new global tectonics. J. Geophys.
Res., 75:2625.
Isacks, B. L., and C. Stevens, 1975-Conversion of Sn to Lg at a continental margin. Bull.
Seism. Soc. Am., 65:235.
Keller, G. R., and S. E. Cebull, 1973-Plate tectonics and the Ouachita system in Texas,
Oklahoma and Arkansas. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84:1659.
Knopoff, L., F. Schwab, and E. Kausel, 197 3- Interpretation of Lg. Geophys. J. R. Astr. Soc.,
33:389.
- , - , K. Nakanishi, and E. Chang, 1 974- Evaluation of Lg as a discriminant
among different continental crustal structures. Geophys. J. R. Astr. Soc., 39:41.
Shurbet, D. H., 1964-The high-frequency S phase and structure of the upper mantle. J. Geophys.
Res., 69:2065.
— , 1976-Conversion of Sn at a continental margin. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 66:327.
PROPAGATION OF SHEAR WAVES
309
- , and S.E.Cebull, 1975— The age of the crust beneath the Gulf of Mexico. Tectonophys.,
28:T25-T30.
- , and M. Ewing, 1957 — T phases at Bermuda and transformation of elastic waves. Bull.
Seism. Soc. Am., 47:251.
Stevens, G., and B. L. Isacks, 1977-Toward an understanding of Sn: Normal modes of love
waves in an oceanic structure. Bull Seism. Soc. Am., 67 :69.
BIOECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF A POULTRY SEWAGE AND
TILAPIA AQUACULTURE SYSTEM
by W. L. GRIFFIN, R. G. ANDERSON,
R. R. STICKNEY1, and R. E. WHITSON2
Agricultural Economics Department
Texas A &M University
College Station, TX 77843
ABSTRACT
Economic relationships of a commercial laying hen production facility with a liquid manure
handling system were evaluated with respect to the desirability of incorporating a fish produc¬
tion component. The fish selected for the system were tilapia because of their herbivorous
nature and excellent tolerance for degraded water quality. Linear programming incorporating
input data available from the commercial poultry industry and experimental work with tilapia
was used to analyze various situations and make decisions upon when fish production should
be initiated as an alternative to field manure disposal. The model predicted that tilapia pro¬
duction would be economically desirable at a price of $0. 233/kg when poultry manure was
considered to have no value. Higher values for tilapia would be required in cases where poultry
manure was assigned a value. If tilapia were to be used for fish meal rather than human con¬
sumption, no profit could be made even if the manure had no value.
INTRODUCTION
Intensive production systems for terrestrial animals of all species face a similar
problem — waste disposal. Current technology often involves the employment of
sewage lagoons to receive and treat domestic livestock wastes. Such lagoons may
be aerobic or anaerobic and are characterized by heavy loads of organic material.
The placement of livestock wastes directly into water or washing feeding floors
into a lagoon or tank-type receiving area helps reduce odor and fly problems,
thus slotted feeding floors over settling tanks are common in the swine production
industry. Poultry manure, on the other hand, is often allowed to accumulate on
the floor of the chicken house, thereafter being removed and spread as fertilizer
on crops or pasture.
Poultry managers have found waste disposal to be an increasing problem while
aquaculturists have seen animal wastes as a potential resource. With declining
supplies of fresh water and increasing water pollution problems, the idea of utilizing
1 Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A & M Univ., College Station, TX 77843.
2 Agricultural Economics and Range Sciences Departments, Texas A&M Univ., College Station,
TX 77843.
Accepted for publication: February 15, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
312
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
sewage wastes in aquaculture has increasing appeal (Kildow and Hugenin, 1974).
Waste disposal associated with the poultry industry is far from an insignificant
problem. The average 1 .8 kg laying hen produces about 225 g of fecal material
daily (Ostrander, 1974) and hen houses may contain tens or even hundreds of
thousands of birds.
The nutrients in animal waste enhance algal growth in ponds, providing the
basis of a source of food for cultured herbivorous fish. Research to find fish species
which can be cultured under conditions which exist in aerobic sewage lagoons has
identified the genus Tilapia (family Cichlidae), fish native to the Middle East and
Africa, as candidates (Schroeder, 1975; Buck,effl/., 1976; Meyers, 1977;Stickney,
etal., 1977; Stickney and Hesby, 1978; Stickney, et al, 1979).
Tilapia are especially suited for use in sewage/aquaculture facilities since the
fish feed directly on phytoplankton. Thus, the need for supplying expensive
prepared feeds, as is done in trout and catfish culture, is eliminated. The incorpo¬
ration of tilapia into ponds used for sewage treatment may actually improve water
quality (Schroeder, 1975). The entire fish culture and sewage treatment system
can be considered an integrated one, with fish aiding in the treatment of sewage
and the sewage increasing the yield of fish (Meyers, 1977). The purpose of this
paper is to analyze the economic feasibility of adding a tilapia production unit
to a poultry operation, thereby converting poultry waste into fish flesh through
and algal intermediate. The analysis utilized the technique of linear programming
(LP) to evaluate a poultry fish production model. The solutions obtained are based
on known waste production and economic figures obtained from the poultry
industry and on fish growth data available from research conducted in Texas under
conditions similar to those used in the LP model. Previous studies which have
examined the interactions of poultry sewage and tilapia production include those
of Schroeder (1975), Boyd (1976), Rappaport,<?f a/. (1976), Stickney, etal. (1977),
and Burns and Stickney (1980).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of the Facilities
The study incorporated a 10,000 hen commercial egg production facility with
liquid poultry sewage system which provided for the rearing of tilapia. The facility
is located in the southern United States, allowing a 5 month (June through October)
production period for tilapia and 7 idle months when only tilapia brood stock are
maintained. Pond characteristics and costs were developed from data obtained
from catfish producers (Forster and Waldrop, 1972) and would be virtually iden¬
tical if tilapia, rather than catfish, were the target culture species. The model in¬
corporated a single tilapia production pond, but allowed for variation in pond
size from 0.4-2. 0 ha in increments of 0.4 ha.
The 10,000 bird poultry operation was assumed to produce 160,290 6 of
sewage/mo or a total of 1,923,480 6/yr. No storage in excess of 160,290 6 was
POULTRY SEWAGE AND TILAPIA AQUACULTURE SYSTEM
313
allowed. Poultry sewage could be used in pond fertilization for tilapia production
or as manure slurry. The latter would be applied to agricultural lands. Additionally,
operation of the pond as a typical sewage lagoon was allowed when tilapia were
not being produced. Thus, the facility allowed 4 alternative methods of poultry
sewage disposal: (a) field disposal, (b) pond disposal (c) utilization in pond with
tilapia and (d) combinations. Additionally, the facility allowed an initial choice
of tilapia production pond sizes. The necessary labor and equipment were supplied
as required to operate the tilapia production system. Values for these aspects of
the model were taken from current rates and prices.
Field disposal of the manure slurry was assumed to be the present method.
Therefore, it was assumed the producer owned a tractor, storage tank and sewage
dispersal equipment. Disposal of manure slurry on agricultural land required the
filling of a 3,785 £ vacuum loaded wagon, transportation to the agricultural land
and dispersal of the slurry.
For each poultry producer, the manure generated may be an asset or a liability,
depending on the producer’s ability to effectively utilize the sewage as manure
slurry. The average nutrient analysis of 3,785 £ of slurry (85% moisture) is 29.0
kgN, 12.7 kg P, and 26.8 kg K (Adolph, 1973). The 1978 market price determined
for an equivalent amount of commercially available fertilizer was $25.00 maximum.
Progressively lower values were assigned manure slurry containing fewer nutrients
and that which could not be effectively utilized as fertilizer due to land or labor
restrictions. The variable cost of collecting, transporting and applying manure
slurry was estimated to be $1. 25/wagon load of 3,785 £ (Sweeten, et al., 1975).
Poultry sewage input was dependent on 5 concentration levels associated with
different levels of tilapia production (Table 1). The predicted levels of tilapia pro¬
duction relative to manure inputs were based on experimental works in Texas by
Burns and Stickney (1980). Monthly, 160,290 £ of poultry sewage were available.
If the tilapia production pond did not utilize all of the poultry sewage in 1 mo,
the remainder was disposed of on the fields. When tilapia were not being produced ,
the pond could be utilized as an aerobic lagoon.
TABLE 1
Tilapia Production for Given Levels of Poultry Sewage Utilization,
Five-Month Growing Period
Tilapia
Utilization of
Production
Poultry Sewage
Level
(kg/ha)
(£/ha)
1
243
0
2
1,089
41,000
3
1,114
79,500
4
1,856
158,900
5
1,881
238,400
314
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Modeling Inputs
The LP model was designed to maximize the producer’s profit from operations
with restrictions on availability of poultry waste, storage capacity for sewage, pond
size and prices. Each production period contained 5 activities representing the sup¬
ply of fingerlings, nets, chemicals and holding tanks for the 5 levels of poultry
sewage concentration utilized in the tilapia production ponds (Table 1). Each of
the 5 activities resulted in costs to the producer which were expressed in the objec¬
tive function. Each production activity utilized monthly labor, annual labor,
management labor, operating capital, land and poultry sewage. Each activity also
produced tilapia for harvest.
For each production activity of tilapia, the model examined ponds ranging
from 0.4-2.0 ha. Activities for pond construction were contained in a separable
program portion of the LP model. Pond construction costs were included in the
objective function and were specified to enter the solution in 0.4 ha increments.
“Added costs” associated with increasing pond size included both fixed (deprecia¬
tion and interest) and variable costs (pump operation and pond maintenance).
Pond building and operating activities used the resources well water, annual labor,
management labor, operating capital and land. Additional activities provided for
the harvesting and sale of tilapia, hiring of additional labor and field disposal of
manure. In all instances, current values and prices were utilized so that the model
would assist in decision-making based upon actual, rather than theoretical, value
functions.
Parametric programming was utilized to identify changes in optimal firm organ¬
ization. The live weight price of tilapia was allowed to range from $0.00-$l .32/kg.
Test marketing by various commercial tilapia producers and the sale of tilapia pro¬
duced under research conditions at Auburn University indicate that the actual value
of tilapia on the retail market parallels that of channel catfish (R. 0. Smitherman,
pers. comm.). Thus, the range of tilapia values assigned for purposes of the LP
model are within the expected wholesale range and are conservative for retail
marketing, a technique practiced by many Texas catfish farmers.
Six alternative poultry operator situations were represented by the model. Each
depended on alternative values associated with manure slurry ($0.00, $1 .25, $2.85,
$4.25, $16.25, and $25.00/wagon load of 3,785 £). The manure slurry values
were assigned based on an excalating scale of costs to provide the same amount
of nutrient through the use of inorganic fertilizers. For all values of slurry a stocking
density of 1 2,500 tilapia/ha was used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To maximize profits, poultry sewage was utilized at Level 5 (Table 1) for gross
value of manure slurry up to $1 .25/3,785 £ and at Level 4 for gross value of manure
slurry above $1.25/3,785 C. The potential profit obtained from both tilapia pro¬
duction and manure slurry disposal was considered for 5 pond sizes (Table 2). In
POULTRY SEWAGE AND TILAPIA AQUACULTURE SYSTEM
315
O
CO
Os
co
CO
so
i
CO
o
o
o
co^
ci
co
CN
so
so
so
SO
Os
Os
SO
Os
Os
o
O O TS
‘Level 5 is equal to supplying 238,400 C/ha over 5 mo.
’Level 4 is equal to supplying 158,900 2/ha over 5 mo.
Not an LP Solution. No pond has been constructed.
*The non-production alternative use of a 0.4 ha pond is represented in this row.
316
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
the absence of a pond (pond size 0), all of the manure would be disposed of on
fields. In this situation 80 1 ,450 £ were disposed of in the summer and 1 ,222 ,030 £
in the winter. If a pond were not built and the manure slurry had no value, the
total cost of manure disposal would be $635.00 (Table 2, Col. 1). If the value of
manure slurry was $25.00/3,785 £ its value with disposal on agricultural land would
be $12,071.00 (Table 2, Col. 18).
With a $0.00 value for manure slurry, cost can be reduced by utilizing a 0.4 ha
pond as a sewage lagoon (no tilapia production). Manure slurry disposal, both
summer and winter, at a cost of $472.00 (Table 2, Col. 1) represents the basic LP
optimal system for a 0.4 ha pond when the price of tilapia is below $0.1 34/kg.
With a $0.00 value for manure, when the price of tilapia reaches $0.1 34/kg
production in a 0.4 ha pond will be initiated since profit will be the same as for a
0.4 ha sewage lagoon. Loss from tilapia production is $191.00 (Table 2, Col. 2)
which results in a total loss of $472.00 (Table 2, Col. 3) for a 0.4 ha pond. For a
2.0 ha pond, the loss from manure slurry and tilapia was $109.00. This figure
represents $428.00 less cost than from field disposal alone.
When the gross value of manure slurry is $1.25/3,785 £, profit from manure
slurry is $0.00 for all pond sizes since the value of slurry (Table 2, Col. 4) is equal
to the cost of application. The price necessary to initiate tilapia production is
$0.233/kg. At this price tilapia production in a 0.4 ha pond will result in no profit
or loss (Table 2, Col. 5). Larger pond sizes will produce profits, with the 2.0 ha
pond being the most profitable, returning $996.00.
When the value of manure slurry was increased to $2.85/3,785 fi, the price
necessary to initiate tilapia production rose to $0 .308/kg and the poultry sewage
addition rate decreased to Level 4. Profit from tilapia would range from $110.00-
$1,623.00 (Table 2, Col. 8). As pond size increases, less manure slurry is disposed
of on the fields so profit from manure slurry disposal decreases from $786.00-
$676.00 when tilapia are produced (Table 2, Col. 7).
Two trends are apparent from the analysis. First, as the price of manure slurry
increases it takes a higher price of tilapia to initiate production in a 0.4 ha pond.
The relationship between increasing manure slurry price and increasing tilapia
price is not proportional since the production of tilapia actually decreases slightly
for increased values of manure slurry. Secondly, there is a response of profit to
increased pond size. For given manure slurry and tilapia prices, maximum income
is obtained with the largest pond size due to economies of scale associated with
construction costs.
Previously, the price necessary to initiate production of a 0.4 ha pond was used
to calculate profit from tilapia production for all pond sizes from 0.4-2 .0 ha. How¬
ever, it is important to determine the behavior of the equivalent price of tilapia
for initiation of tilapia production for each pond size. Table 3 illustrates equivalent
prices at alternative values of manure slurry and pond sizes.
Trends that were apparent in Table 2 are further illustrated in Table 3. As the
value of manure slurry increases, the equivalent price of tilapia increases. For a
POULTRY SEWAGE AND TILAPIA AQUACULTURE SYSTEM
317
2.0 ha pond the equivalent price goes from $0 .095/kg when manure slurry is
valued at $0.00/3,785 C to $0. 352/kg when slurry is valued at $25.00/3,785 C.
Also, equivalent price decreases as pond size increases.
TABLE 3
The Equivalent Price Necessary for Tilapia Production, to Return an Income
Equal to Agricultural Usage of Pond Disposal
Pond
Size
(ha)
Value of Manure Slurry (Dollars/3,785 £)
0.00
1.25
2.85
4.25
16.25
25.00
<e/i™
0.4
0.134
0.233
0.262
0.275
0.385
0.462
0.8
0.112
0.154
0.194
0.207
0.316
0.396
1.2
0.103
0.145
0.167
0.180
0.290
0.370
1.6
0.103
0.138
0.161
0.174
0.284
0.363
2.6
0.095
0.128
0.147
0.163
0.273
0.352
In conclusion, if a poultry operator considers installation of a tilapia rearing
pond, initiation of fish production will depend primarily on the available price
of the fish and the value of manure. Economies of scale associated with pond size
affect the price of tilapia at which production would be initiated.
Tilapia produced under conditions similar to those assumed for this study may
be sold for human consumption, ground into fish meal, or destroyed. In the latter
instance, increasing waste management imposed by regulation may become prac¬
tical for the poultry producer who would not be able to handle the amount of
slurry volume produced unless fish or some other harvestable crop were a result.
The use of tilapia for fish meal will not be economical in most cases not only be¬
cause of the low value of fish meal (in the vicinity of $0. 08/kg) but also because
transportation costs would be prohibitive. In cases where the fish meal plant was
well removed from the producer, the fish might be buried or fed to livestock on
the farm after minimal processing.
The human market provides by far the best option as tilapia compare favorably
with channel catfish from a price standpoint. Public health and aesthetic objections
can be overcome through modification of the culture system. The fish could either
be grown in secondary ponds receiving nutrient-rich water from a holding lagoon,
depurated in well water following harvest, or produced under both techniques. In
any case, the utilization of animal wastes in fish production appears to have promise
and may become common practice in the future.
LITERATURE CITED
Adolph, R., 1973-Poultry manure as a fertilizer. Cooperative Agricultural Ex tension Publica¬
tion, University of California.
318
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Boyd, C., 1976-Nitrogen fertilizer effects on production of tilapia in ponds fertilized with
phosphorus and potassium. Aquacult., 7 : 385 .
Buck, D. H., R. J. Baur, and C. R. Rose, 1976-Experiments in recycling swine manure in
fishponds. FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan.
Burns, R. P., and R. R. Stickney, 1980-Growth of Tilapia aurea in ponds receiving poultry
wastes. Aquacult., In Press.
Forster, T., and J. Waldrop, 1972-Cost-size relationships in production of pond-raised cat¬
fish for food. Mississippi State University Bull. 792, Agricultural and Forestry Experiment
Station.
Kildow, J., and J. Hugenin, 1974-Problems and potentials of recycling wastes for aquaculture.
MIT-SG-74-27.
Meyers, S., 1977-Use of agricultural wastes in aquaculture. Feedstuffs, Mar 14:34-H.
Ostrander, C., 1974-Surmounting the poultry waste problem. Poultry Digest, 35:234.
Rappaport, A., S. Sarig, and M. Marek, 1976-Results of tests of various aeration systems
on the oxygen regime in the Genosar experimental ponds and growth of fish therein.
Bamidgeh, 28:35.
Schroeder, G. L., 1975-Some effects of stocking fish in waste treatment ponds. Water Res.,
9:591.
Stickney, R. R., and J. G. Hesby, 1978-Tilapia production in ponds receiving swine wastes.
In R. O. Smitherman, W. L. Shelton, and J. H. Grover (Eds.), Symposium on the Culture of
Exotic Fishes. Fish Culture Section, American F isheries Society, Auburn, AL, pp. 90-101.
- , L. O. Rowland, and J. H. Hesby, 1977-Water quality — Tilapia aurea interactions
in ponds receiving swine and poultry wastes. Proc. World Maricult. Soc., 8:55.
- , J. H. Hesby, R. B. McGeachin, and W. A. Isbell, 1979-Growth of Tilapia nilotica
in ponds with differing histories of organic fertilization. Aquacult., 17L189.
Sweeten, J., D. Forrest, A. Novosad, and A. Gerlow, 1975-Profits from dairy manure applica¬
tions. Texas Agricultural Extension Service, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
PLANT COMMUNITIES OF THE ZACHRY RANCH IN THE SOUTH
TEXAS PLAINS1
by D. LYNN DRAWE
Welder Wildlife Foundation
P. O. Drawer 1400
Sinton, TX 78387
and IRA HIGGINBOTHAM, JR.
P O. Box H
Duncan, AZ 85534
ABSTRACT
Four plant communities were described on the H. B. Zachry Randado Ranch located in the
South Texas Plains vegetational area: (1) a Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland, (2) a Mesquite-
Bunchgrass-Annual Forb Savanna, (3) a Blackbrush Shrubland, and (4) a Mesquite-Bristlegrass-
Forb Woodland. All 4 communities were in low to intermediate stages of secondary succession
with a diversity of both woody and herbaceous species. Number of woody and herbaceous
species varied from 24 and 49, respectively, in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland to 13
woody and 43 herbaceous in the Mesquite-Bunchgrass- Annual Forb Savanna, 18 woody and
1 8 herbaceous in the Blackbrush Shrubland, and 24 woody and 46 herbaceous in the Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland. Herbage production varied from 792 kg/ha in the Blackbrush
Shrubland to 2,812 kg/ha in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland.
INTRODUCTION
Southern Texas has been included as part of the desert plains grassland by Allred
and Mitchell (1955). Kuchler (1964), however, described it as a Ceniza Shrub
climax and divided the area into 2 separate types, (1) a Mesquite-Acacia Savanna
and (2) a Mesquite-Live Oak Savanna. Weaver and Clements (1938) described this
area as a grassland or prairie climax. Thomas (in Gould, 1975) referred to the area
as the South Texas Plains.
Early records indicate that at least portions of this area might have been grass¬
land many years ago (Allhands, 1931). Honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var.
glandulosa2) has been common in this area for at least 100 yr (Allhands, 1931).
JThis paper is part of a thesis presented by the junior author as partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Master of Science degree, College of Agriculture, Texas A & I University,
Kingsville, TX 78363.
Scientific nomenclature is according to Correll and Johnston, 1970.
Accepted for publication: December 19, 1979.
The Texas J ournal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1 980.
320
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Vegetative composition apparently has shifted toward brush dominance and this
trend in succession seems to be continuing (Bogusch, 1952).
Few vegetational studies have been conducted in the western portion of south
Texas. Published studies have dealt mainly with brush control (Davis and Winkler,
1968) or brush invasion (Bogusch, 1952). Brush control has played a significant
role in shaping the area’s present plant communities (Davis and Spicer, 1965).
Wildlife populations on the study area have been examined recently. These
studies concerned white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) food habits (Everitt
and Drawe, 1974; Arnold and Drawe, 1979) and productivity (Leal, 1973). However,
an inventory of the vegetation was needed to aid in interpretation of these and
future studies on the area.
The study was conducted on the 3,045 ha H. B. Zachry Randado Ranch in Jim
Hogg and Zapata Counties, TX (Fig. 1 ). The climate of the area is semiarid. Average
annual rainfall for Hebbronville is 52 cm (NOAA, 1972). Temperatures are high
with a January average of 16 C, a July average of 21 C, and a minimum of -13 C.
The average growing season is 288 days (NOAA, 1972).
The study area has a long history of domestic animal grazing dating back to an
original land grant in 1836 (Webb, 1952; Lehmann, 1969). Because of a long history
of overgrazing and brush control, by the 1 960’s the area supported less than 25% of
the original climax vegetation (Warren Proctor, U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service,
Hebbronville, TX, pers. comm.).
Figure 1. Location of study area on the Jim Hogg-Zapata County line in south Texas.
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
321
The U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service (1972) lists 8 soil types and 6 range sites
for the ranch. Soils include McAllen fine sandy loam (fine-loamy, mixed, hyper¬
thermic family of Mollic Cambrothids), Zapata fine sandy loam (fine carbonatic,
hyperthermic, shallow family of Ustollic Paleorthids), Delmita fine sandy loam
(fine-loamy, mixed hyperthermic family of Ardic Petrocalcic Paleustalfs), Ramadero
sandy clay loam (fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic family of Cumulic Argiustolls),
Brennan fine sandy loam (fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic family of Typic Haplu-
stalfs), Nueces-Sarita soils (Nueces = loamy, mixed, hyperthermic family of Aquic,
Arenic Paleustalfs; Sarita = loamy, mixed, hyperthermic family of Grossarenic
Paleustalfs), Garceno loam (fine-mixed, hyperthermic family of Ustollic Cam¬
brothids), and oil wasteland. Range sites include sandy loam, shallow ridge, red
sandy loam, Ramadero, deep sand, and oil wasteland. The topography of the ranch
is level to rolling.
The objectives of this study were to delineate the major plant communities and
determine the vegetative composition and herbage production of the communities.
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
This study was conducted from fall 1970 through winter 1972. Aerial photo¬
graphs supported by ground surveys were used to delineate the major plant
communities of the ranch. Detailed sampling later verified community differences.
Plant community names were derived from the dominant woody and herbaceous
species in each community.
Line transects (Canfield, 1941) were used to determine % cover of woody
species. Ten permanent lines, each 30.5 m long, were located by a systematic
random method within each plant community. Herbaceous species composition
was determined seasonally by the point frame method (Tothill and Peterson,
1962). The 10-point frame with points 5 cm apart was placed about 3.05 m along
each line transect at right angles to and centered over the line, thus a total of 1 ,000
points/community were sampled.
Herbage production was determined seasonally in each plant community.
Seasons included spring (April-June), summer (July-September), fall (October-
December), and winter (January-March). During fall 1970, portable wire cages
were used to exclude cattle grazing. During the remainder of the study, permanent
fenced exclosures were used. In each plant community, forty 0.89 m2 herbage
production plots divided into quarters were clipped to ground level and the herbage
dried and weighed to determine grass and forb production.
A modification of the method described by Davis and Winkler (1968) was used
to determine woody plant annual production. All green vegetation up to 1 .8 m
tall on each of ten 0.89 m2 plots was sampled seasonally. A representative branch
of each woody plant within the plot was removed and an estimate made of per¬
centage of green vegetation. All portions of the branch considered current season
production (such as leaves, flowers, fruit, and young tender shoots) were clipped,
placed in bags, dried, and weighed.
322
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Percent composition contributed by each forage class was calculated by weight
for the period from spring 1971 through winter 1972. These calculations provided
a comparison of the relative amount of herbage produced in each community for
each season. A factorial design was used in the analysis of variance to analyze
herbaceous and woody plant production data.
Interpretations of climax percentage of the communities are based on the
method described by Dyksterhuis (1949). Composition of climax communities
has been described by the U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service (1972).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Four major plant communities were defined: (1) the Mesquite-Mixed Brush
Shrubland Community associated with Ramadero soils; (2) the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb Savanna Community associated with Nueces-Sarita soils; (3) the
Guajillo Shrubland Community associated with Zapata soils; and (4) the Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland Community associated with McAllen, Brennan, and
Garceno soils. These 4 communities comprised greater than 95% of the ranch.
Detailed descriptions of these communities can be found in Higginbotham (1975).
Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland Community
A total of 24 woody species was encountered in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush
Shrubland, but only 10 species made up 1% or more of the cover (Table 1). Of
these species, 2 were dominant: whitebrush ( Aloysia lycoiodes) and honey mesquite
(Table 1). Other common species wereguayacan ( Porlieria angustifolia), granjeno
{Celt is pallida ), hogplum (< Colubrina texensis), desert yaupon {Schaefferia cuneifolia),
and Berlandier wolfberry ( Lycium berlandieri var. berlandieri). The remaining 17
species were encountered in trace amounts.
Total woody cover for the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland varied from 64%
during summer 1970 to 44% during spring 1971. Average cover of whitebrush
was 23% with 17% cover for mesquite. A potential for total cover to exceed 100%
occurs as a result of the mesquite overstory and an impenetrable understory of
whitebrush and other woody species.
Total percentage woody cover for this community tended to be greatest during
summer and fall, probably reflecting the timing of sampling, shortly after late
spring and early fall rainy seasons. Many species were deciduous and were not in
leaf during winter and early spring sampling periods. Several species, particularly
whitebrush, desert yaupon, and wolfberry, shed leaves during periods of moisture
stress. These factors could directly affect the percentage cover at any given time.
In the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland, 49 herbaceous species occurred, in¬
cluding 21 grasses and 28 forbs (Table 2). Only 10 were encountered during every
season; others were encountered in trace amounts. This community was found
to contain 43% of the original climax composition (Table 2).
The more common grasses comprising greater than l%of the composition (Table
2) were Texas bristlegrass {Setaria texana ), plains bristlegrass {S. leucopila ), Aizona
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
323
TABLE 1
Percent Cover of Common Woody Species on 4 Plant Communities on the
Zachry Randado Ranch Near Hebbronville, TX. Data Are Averaged Over 6
Seasons During 197 0-7 2. Woody Species Are Either Not Present or Add Only a
Trace to the Climax Community (U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, 1972).
Species
Plant Community
Mesquite-
Mixed Brush
Shrubland
Mesquite-
Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb
Savanna
Guajillo
Shrubland
Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-
Forb
Woodland
Acacia berlandieri
a
—
20
*b
A cacia greggii
2
2
Acacia rigidula
6
Acacia tortuosa
1
Aloysia lycioides
23
*
*
2
Celtis pallida
3
1
--
2
Colubrina texensis
1
--
Condalia warnockii var. warnoikii
*
*
1
*
Diospyros texana
1
*
Ephedra antisyphilitica
1
--
1
Eysenhardtia texana
*
1
*
Gochnatia hypoleuca
1
--
Karwinskia humboldtiana
1
*
Larrea divaricata
11
Leucophyllum frutescens
*
4
*
Lycium berlandieri var. berlandieri
1
*
1
Porlieria angustifolia
3
1
2
Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa
17
8
*
5
Salvia ballotaefolia
1
--
*
*
Schaefferia cuneifolia
1
*
*
2
Zanthoxylum fagara
1
*
*
Ziziphus obtusifolia
1
1
Other Species
2(9)C
1(4)
1(4)
4(8)
Totals
56(24)
13(13)
47(18)
23(24)
aSpecies not encountered in this community.
Species comprised 0.4% cover or less.
cNumber of species involved in parenthesis.
cottontop ( Digitaria calif ornica) , gummy lovegrass (Eragrostis curtipedicillata),
pink pappusgrass (Pappophorum bicolor ), common sandbur ( Cenchms incertus),
multiflowered false rhodegrass ( Chloris pluriflora ), and hooded windmillgrass
(C. cucullata).
The more common forbs comprisingmore than 1% of the composition (Table 2)
were western ragweed {Ambrosia psilostachya), Riddel daisy (Aphanostephus
riddellii ), groundcherry ( Physalis viscosa var. cinerascens), and false ragweed
(. Parthenium confertum).
324
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 2
Percent Composition for Common Herbaceous Species in 4 Plant Communities
on the Zachry Randado Ranch Near Hebbronville, TX. Data are Averaged Over
6 Seasons During 1970-72. Parenthesis (c) Following Species Names Indicate
the Plant Was Present in the Climax Community (U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation
Service, 1972). Current Climax Percentages Based on the Dyksterhuis (1949)
Method Are Indicated at the Bottom of the Table.
Plant Community
Species
Mesquite-
Mixed Brush
Shrubland
Mesquite-
Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb
Savanna
Guajillo
Shrubland
Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-
Forb
Woodland
GRASSES
Aristida purpurea
*a
2
b
*
Bouteloua trifida
*
2
*
Brachiaria ciliatissima
*
13
*
Buchloe dactyloides (c)
*
*
*
2
Cenchrus incertus
4
26
6
4
Chloris cucullata (c)
6
2
9
10
Chloris pluriflora (c)
6
*
Digit aria calif or nica (c)
12
2
Eragrostis curtipedicillata
4
*
*
3
Eragrostis oxylepis
8
Eragrostis secundiflora
4
Pappophorum bicolor (c)
3
*
Paspalum setacum var.
ciliatifolium (c)
*
18
_
_
Setaria firmula (c)
*
3
16
Setaria leucopila (c)
8
4
Setaria texana (c)
25
*
3
20
Tridens muticus
*
2
Other grasses
1 3(6)C
8(4)
0(1)
10(7)
Total grasses
81(21)
84(15)
20(6)
69(21)
FORBS
Ambrosia psilostachya
6
*
Aphanostephus riddellii
4
35
10
Callirhoe involucrata
5
Coldenia canescens
*
4
Dyssodia tenuiloba
r- -
2
*
Lantana macro poda
*
*
11
7
Parthenium confertum
3
19
4
Physalis viscosa var.
cinerascens (c)
3
4
3
Rhynchosia americana (c)
2
Senico longilobus
*
3
*
Thamnosma texana
6
Verbena plicata
*
3
Zornia bracteata
3
Other forbs
3(20)
2(23)
0(5)
4(17)
Total forbs
19(28)
16(28)
8002)
31(25)
TOTALS
100(49)
100(43)
100(18)
100(46)
Climax Percentage
43
18
13
37
aSpecies encountered but comprised 1% composition or less.
^Species not encountered in this community.
cNumber of species involved in parenthesis.
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
325
In this community the grasses, particularly those regarded as climax decreaser
species such as Arizona cottontop, multiflowered false rhodes grass, and plains
bristlegrass (U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, 1972), were dominant and quite
dense where woody cover provided protection from grazing. In grazed open areas
the less desirable grass species such as common sandbur, gummy lovegrass, hooded
windmillgrass, and red grama and forbs, particularly western ragweed, Riddel
daisy, and false ragweed, were prominent. Herbaceous ground cover was generally
sparse where whitebrush was extremely dense.
Because of the high percentage of woody cover, this community contained
many shaded bedding areas that cattle, deer, and javelina (Pecan tajacu ) used during
the hotter parts of the day. These open areas were severely overgrazed. In contrast,
the more desirable grasses grew in dense stands where brush was moderately dense
to dense.
Grasses constituted the larger portion of herbage during spring, summer, and
fall seasons in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland, comprising 70%, 70%, and
63%, respectively, while during winter forbs became dominant at 54% composition
(Fig. 2). Forbs were prominent during spring (21%) but were lower during summer
and fall. During spring and winter, browse made up only a small portion of the
composition at 9% and 2%, respectively. Browse was important during summer
and fall at 22% and 24% of the herbage composition.
Herbaceous plant production in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland was
greater than for any other site during all seasons except one (Table 3). This is
attributable primarily to the higher fertility of Ramadero soils when compared
to other soils on the ranch (U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, 1972). In addition,
TABLE 3
Mean Herbaceous Plant Production (kg/ha)/Season for the 4 Plant
Communities on the Zachry Randado Ranch Near Hebbronville, TX.
Plant
Community
Fall
1970a
Winter
1971 a
Spring
1971
Summer
1971
Fall
1971
Winter
1972
Overall
Community
Means
Mesquite-
Mixed Brush
2,865
1,782
966bcd
l,336fg
1,762 hi
1,907 i
1,493W
Mesquite-
Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb
1,154
732
890 c
864 c
l,453g
l,668h
1,216X
Guajillo
Shrubland
807
559
175a
224a
585b
458b
361 Y
Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-
Forb
2,136
1,329
1,037 cde
l,260fg
825 c
l,162def
1,072 Z
Ove rail
Seasons
Means
1,741
1,101
767W
921 X
1,153Y
1,299 Z
aMeans for first 2 seasons were not included in the statistical analysis because of a change in
the experimental design.
°Means followed by different letters are significantly different (P<0.05).
326
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Percent
Composition
Percent
Compos i tic
Percent
Compos i t ic
Percent
Composition
Figure 2. Percent composition of vegetation by weight on the Zachry Ranch in south
Texas, where W = woody species, G = grasses, and F = forbs. Top to Bottom:
Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland, Mesquite-Bunchgrass-Annual Forb Savanna,
Blackbrush Shrubland, and Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland.
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
327
these communities receive runoff from the adjacent Guajillo Shrubland. During
fall, total herbage production was 2,865 kg/ha (fall 1970) and 1,782 kg/ha (fall
1971) (Table 3). When compared to the other communities, production was
relatively high regardless of season, with lowest production during spring 1971.
Woody plant production in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland was greatest
during summer and fall sampling periods. Production was greatest in fall 1971
(599 kg/ha) followed by summer 1 970, with lowest production in winter (Table 4).
Nearly all species were deciduous and accordingly would have little or no green
material during winter. Production was intermediate at spring sampling because
growth had occurred but maximum production had not been attained. These same
seasonal trends occurred in all communities other than the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-
Forb Shrubland. These trends reflected the rainfall pattern which occurred during
the study. Normally, hot dry summers would alter the trends because some brush
species shed leaves as a moisture conserving measure.
TABLE 4
Mean Woody Plant Production (kg /ha) /Season for the 4 Plant
Communities on the Zachry Randado Ranch Near Hebbronville,TX
Plant
Community
Fall
1970a
Winter
1972a
Spring
1971”
Summer
1 97 lb
Fall
1 97 1 b
Winter
1972b
Overall
Community
Means”
Mesquite-
Mixed Brush
527
35
93
371
559
42
267cd
Mesquite-
Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb
310
7
244
238
104
17
151c
Guajillo
Shrubland
1,440
97
241
563
788
365
490e
Mesquite-
Bristlegrass-
Forb
449
15
78
804
535
119
384de
Overall
Season
Meansc
694
38
165a
494b
497b
136a
aMeans for first 2 seasons were not included in the statistical analysis because of a change in
the experimental design.
uNo significant differences occur between means (P > 0.05).
cMeans followed by different letters are significantly different (P< 0.05).
Mesquite-Bunchgrass-Annual Forb Savanna Community
Only 13 woody species were encountered on the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-Annual
Forb Savanna; of these, mesquite was dominant (Table 1). Other important species
were catclaw acacia ( Acacia greggii ), granjeno, and lotebush {Ziziphus obtu si folia).
Nine species were encountered in trace amounts.
328
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Total woody cover for the Mesquite-Bunch grass- Annual Forb Savanna was
low, ranging from 5% (winter 1971) to 17% (summer 1971). Mesquite contributed
an average cover of 8%, whereas other species were represented by a much lower
percentage cover.
Most of the woody vegetation was concentrated in occasional mottes or clumps
dominated by mesquite with an understory of shrubs. Few woody species occurred
outside the mottes.
Forty-three herbaceous species were encountered in the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb Savanna (Table 2). Although forbs (28 species) were about twice as
numerous as grasses (15 species), the latter contributed a greater percentage of
the composition. Many forbs occurred in small quantities and usually only during
one season. Many were short-lived annuals. This community was found to contain
18% of the original climax composition (Table 2).
The more common grasses (Table 2) were fringed signalgrass ( Brachiaria cili-
atissima ), common sandbur, thin paspalum ( Paspalum setaceum var. ciliatifolium),
tumble lovegrass {Eragrostis sessilispica), red lovegrass ( Eragrostis secundiflora),
knotgrass (Setaria firmula), hooded windmillgrass, and purple threeawn ( Aristida
purpurea ). Grasses such as Texasgrass ( Vaseyochloa multinervosa) and sand drop-
seed, generally considered to be more desirable forage species (U.S.D.A. Soil
Conservation Service, 1972), were encountered in small amounts and only where
woody species afforded them protection from grazing. Common species of forbs
were groundcherry, American snoutbean (Rhynchosia americana), bracted zornia
( Zornia bracteata), and poppymallow ( Callirhoe involucrata) (Table 2).
This community lacked the diversity of spring forbs typical of similar areas in
south Texas (cf. Drawe, et al., 1979). During the single spring sampling period,
moisture conditions were not favorable for growth. In addition, the abundance of
perennial grasses added to the suppressive effect of the drought on the component
of annual forbs.
The season of greatest herbaceous plant production for the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb Savanna was winter 1972, with 1,668 kg/ha, followed by fall 1970
and 1971 (Table 3). The season of lowest herbaceous plant standing crop was
winter 1971 .
Woody plant production was low during all seasons in the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-
Annual Forb Savanna relative to other communities (Table 4). This was expected
because of the sparsity of woody vegetation. In this community, soil fertility
and soil moisture relationships restrict the growth of woody vegetation (Box,
1959). Fall 1970 had greatest production (310 kg/ha), followed by spring 1971
(Table 4). Again, production in the 2 winter periods was lowest.
Grasses comprised most of the herbage in the Mesquite-Bunchgrass-Annual
Forb Savanna during all seasons, ranging from 52% during winter to 77% during fall
(Fig. 2). Values for spring and summer were similar at 62% and 63%, respectively.
Forbs were most abundant during winter (47%), but were less abundant during
spring (17%), summer (16%), and fall (17%). Woody species comprised 21% of
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
329
the total composition during spring and summer compared to 7% during fall and
1% during winter.
Guajillo Shrubland Community
In the Guajillo Shrubland, 18 species of woody plants were encountered;
several occurred only on this site (Table 1). Of the 18 species present, guajillo
( Acacia berlandieri ) and creosote bush ( Larrea divaricata) were dominant. Black¬
brush acacia ( Acacia rigidula) and cenizo ( Leucophyllum frutescens) also were
common. Other common species found were Condalia warnockii var. warnockii,
guayacan, Texas kidneywood (Ey senhardtia texana), Gochnatia hypoleuca, and
coyotillo (Karwinskia humboldtiana).
Total woody cover was near 50% during most seasons (Table 1). The 4 dominant
species, guajillo with an average cover of 20%, creosote bush with 1 1%, blackbrush
acacia with 6%, and cenizo with 4%, comprised about 88% of the total. Most of
these species lost leaves during winter, and many did so during times of moisture
stress. This, combined with the fact that most species also were characterized by
small leaves and high stem density, resulted in no great change in total cover
between seasons.
Herbaceous ground cover in the Guajillo Shrubland was very sparse. Only 18
herbaceous species (12 forbs and 6 grasses) were sampled (Table 2). A few species
were seasonally abundant, increasing when moisture conditions were favorable.
Predominant grass species were Texas bristlegrass and red grama (Table 2). These
generally were rare and found only where shrubs afforded them protection from
grazing. Common forb species (Table 2) were Riddel daisy, false ragweed, veiny-
leaf lantana, Dutchman’s britches (Thamonosma texana ), oreja de perro ( Coldenia
canescens), threadleaf groundsel (< Senecio longilobus ), and bristleleaf dogweed
( Dyssodia tenuiloba). The combined average of Riddel daisy, false ragweed, and
white lantana was 74% of the total herbaceous composition. This community
was found to contain 13% of the original climax composition (Table 2).
Woody species made up most of the composition in the Guajillo Shrubland
(Fig. 2). Woody composition was greatest during summer (72%) and lowest during
winter (44%). During spring, woody species comprised 57% of the compositon
compared to 5 8% during fall. Forbs were the dominant plant class in winter (5 2%),
while during other seasons their presence was moderate, at 42% in spring, 26% in
summer, and 39% in fall. Grasses were never a significant portion of the herbage
composition, ranging from 2% during spring to 5% during winter.
Herbaceous plant production in the Guajillo Shrubland was low during all
seasons with highest production (807 kg/ha) in fall 1970 followed by fall 1971
(Table 3). The lowest production was recorded in spring and summer 1971. Woody
plant production in the Guajillo Shrubland was relatively high during all seasons
(Table 4). This was expected in view of the large amount of woody vegetation
present. Fall production was highest with 1 ,440 kg/ha during 1970 (Table 4).
330
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Mesq u ite-Bristlegrass-Fo rb Woodland Community
A total of 24 woody species was encountered in the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb
Woodland (Table 1). Mesquite was the dominant species, and 15 less abundant species
were about equally represented. Of 15 lesser species, catclaw acacia, guayacan, gran-
jeno, lotebush, desert yaupon, Berlandier wolfberry, vine ephedra, and whitebrush
were most abundant (Table 1).
In spite of the large number of woody species on this site, total woody cover
during all seasons was relatively low (Table 1). No season stood out with a decidedly
greater total percentage cover. Mesquite had an average cover of 5%.
In the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland, 46 herbaceous species were
sampled, consisting of 21 grasses and 25 forbs (Table 2). Herbaceous ground
cover varied from dense to very dense in some areas, particularly in areas protected
from grazing by woody cover. Although herbaceous cover was not as great in
protected areas as in the Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrubland, there was less evidence
of overgrazing in open areas. Grass species included Texas bristlegrass, knotgrass,
hooded windmillgrass, gummy lovegrass, Arizona cottontop, and common sandbur
(Table 2). A few forbs made up a consistently large portion of the herbaceous
composition (Table 2). These were groundcherry, Riddel daisy, white lantana,
false ragweed, and groundsel. Slender verbena ( Verbena plicata var . plicata) and
bristleleaf dogweed were locally abundant. This community was unique in that it
had some species characteristic of each of the other communities, but there were
species found only in this community and not in the others. This community
was found to contain 37% of the original climax composition (Table 2).
The percentage composition of herbage classes varied greatly between seasons
in the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland (Figure 2). During spring, grasses
comprised 72% of the herbage, forbs 21%, and woody species 7%. During summer,
grasses comprised 50%, forbs 20%, and woody species 40% of the composition.
During winter, grass contribution declined to 26%, while forbs were highest at
65% and woody species were 9%.
Herbaceous plant production in the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb Woodland was
relatively high during all seasons with little fluctuation between seasons (Table 3).
McAllen, Brennan, and Garceno soils are relatively fertile, level to rolling, with
good soil moisture relationships (U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, 1972), thus
partially explaining the high productivity. Greatest herbage production occurred
in fall 1970 (2,131 kg/ha), while fall 1971 was lowest (Table 3). Summer and fall
1971 had highest woody plant production in the Mesquite-Bristlegrass-Forb
Woodland (Table 4). The winter sample was higher than the spring sample.
CONCLUSIONS
The South Texas Plains is noted as an area of rainfall extremes (Gould, 1975),
and extended droughts can have a profound effect on the vegetation (Young,
1956; Cham rad and Box, 1965). Therefore, conclusions about the successional
ZACHRY RANCH PLANT COMMUNITIES
331
stage of a small area such as the Zachry Randado Ranch are to a certain extent
subject to interpretation based on short-term rainfall patterns. Perhaps the best
gauge of overall health of vegetation on an area is trend of change either toward
or away from climax (Weaver and Clements, 1938). Proctor (U.S.D.A. Soil Con¬
servation Service, Hebbronville, TX, pers. comm.) indicated that in the 1960’s
the study area supported less than 25% of the original climax composition. In
the current study, the most extensive community (Mesquite-Mixed Brush Shrub-
land) supported 43% of climax vegetation while the 3 other communities supported
an average of 23% of climax vegetation. Therefore, the trend in succession of the
vegetation is stable to upward.
LITERATURE CITED
Allhands, J. L., 1931 -Gringo Builders. Privately printed, 283 pp.
Allred, B. W., and H. C. Mitchell, 1955-Major plant types of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma,
and Texas and their relation to climate and soils. Tex. J. Sci., 7 :7.
Arnold, L. A., and D. L. Drawe, 1979-Seasonal food habits of white-tailed deer in the South
Texas Plains. /. Range Mgmt., 32:173.
Bogusch, E. R., 1952-Brush invasion in the Rio Grande Plains of Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 4:85.
Box, T. W., 1959- Relationships between soils and vegetation of four range plant communities
on the Welder Wildlife Refuge in south Texas. Ph.D. Dissert., Texas A & M University,
College Station, TX, 100 pp.
Canfield, R. H., 194 1-Application of the line interception method in sampling range vegetation.
J. For., 39:388.
Chamrad, A. D., and T. W. Box, 1965-Drought-associated mortality of range grasses in south
Texas. Ecology, 46:780.
Correll, D. S., and M. C. Johnston, \910-Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Tex. Res.
Found., Renner, TX., 1881 pp.
Davis, R. B., and R. L. Spicer, 1965— Status of the practice of brush control in the Rio Grande
Plain. TX Parks and Wildl. Dept. Paper No. 46, 40 pp.
- , andC. K. Winkler, 1968 -Brush vs. cleared range as deer habitat in southern Texas.
J. Wildl. Mgmt., 32:321.
Drawe, D. L., T. W. Box, and A. D. Chamrad, 1979-Plant communities of the Welder Wild¬
life Refuge. Welder Wildl. Found. Contrib. No. 5, Series B, Revised, 38 pp.
Dyksterhuis, E. J., 1949-Condition and management of rangeland based on quantitative
ecology./. Range Mgmt., 2:104.
Everitt, J. H., and D. L. Drawe, 1974-Spring food habits of white-tailed deer in the South
Texas Plains. J. Range Mgmt., 27:15.
Gould, F. W., 1975-Texas plants - A checklist and ecological summary. TX Ag. Expt. Sta.
Paper No. MP-585, 121 pp.
332
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Higginbotham, I., Jr., 1975-Composition and production of vegetation on the Zachry Ranch
in the South Texas Plains. MS Thesis, Texas A & I University, Kingsville, TX, 131 pp.
Kuchler, A. W., 1964 -Potential Natural Vegetation of the Conterminous United States.
American Geographical Society, New York, NY, 153 pp.
Leal, R., 197 3- Female reproductive potentials and productivity of the Randado herd of white¬
tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus texanus Mearns). MS Thesis, Texas A & I University,
Kingsville, TX, 62 pp.
Lehmann, V. W., 1969 -Forgotten Legions; Sheep in the Rio Grande Plain of Texas. Texas
Western Press, El Paso, TX, 226 pp.
NOAA, 1972-Local climatological data: Annual summary with comparative data, Hebbronville,
Texas. National Climatic Center, Fed. Bldg., Asheville, NC, 4pp.
Tothill, J. C., and M. L. Peterson, 1962-Botanical analysis and sampling: Tame pastures. In
Amer. Soc. Agron., Amer. Dairy Sci. Assn., Amer. Soc. of Animal Prod., Amer. Soc. of
Range Mgmt. (Eds.), Pasture and Range Research Techniques. Comstock Publ. Assoc.,
Ithaca, NY, pp. 109-134.
U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service, 1972-Technical guides for local range sites, Jim Hogg
County, Hebbronville Work Unit, Hebbronville, TX.
Weaver, J. E., and F. E. Clements, 1938 -Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., New York,
NY, 601 pp.
Webb, W. P., 1952-The Handbook of Texas, Vol. 2. TheTX State Hist. Assn., 953 pp.
Young, V. A., 1956-The effect of the 1949-1954 drought on the ranges of Texas. J. Range
Mgmt., 9:139.
A NEW PTYCHODONTID SHARK FROM THE UPPER CRETACEOUS
OF NORTHEAST TEXAS
by N. MacLEOD and BOB H. SLAUGHTER
Shuler Museum of Paleontology
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, TX 75221
INTRODUCTION
Isolated teeth of Ptychodus are common in rocks from the Texas Gulf Coastal
Plain ranging in age from upper Albian to the Santonian. Until now none younger
have been reported, although the range in Europe has been extended into the
Campanian (Herman, 1978). In 1975, Reed Hoover and Ronald Ritchie recovered
a ptychodontid tooth from a fossil locality near Bonham, TX (Fannin County)
that is definitely in the Campanian Roxton Member of the Gober Chalk. The
specimen differs radically in morphology from all other known members of the
Family Ptychodontidae and hereby is designated as a new species of Ptychodus.
Being the youngest known specimen of the genus from the Coastal Plain, it is
interesting to note that it is also by far the most advanced of the group toward
the myliobatoid ray type of crushing dentition.
Class Condrichthys
Order Hybodontiformes
Family Ptychodontidae (Woodward, 1932)
Genus Ptychodus (Agassiz 1833-43)
Ptychodus connellyi new species
Holotype. SMP-SMU 69031, lower lateral tooth near the medial tooth row.
The only specimen known.
Etymology. Named for Jack C. Connelly in recognition of his life-long interest
and activity in the field of natural history.
Locality and Age. Roxton member of the Gober Chalk exposed in the banks of
Brushy Creek, 1-1/2 mi southeast of the town of Barkley Woods, Fannin County,
TX.
Diagnosis. Crown extremely flat, lacking coronal knob typical of most species
of the genus; transverse ridges thin and extending to the lateral crown boundary
(Fig. la). The crown boundary forms a steep escarpment which tightly articulates
with neighboring teeth.
Accepted for publication: August 21, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
334
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Description and Comparisons. The surface of the enameloid is finely punctate,
typical of teeth with the dental osteons oriented perpendicular to the surface.
This type of histology occurs in other speices of the genus as well as in teeth of
several other fish with crushing dentitions (Radinsky, 1961).
The surface of the crown is quite flat, and in this respect is quite distinctive from
other ptychodontid species known. Other species have elevated crowns to varying
degrees, most with distinct high rounded central portions. The occlusal surface is
marked by 8 transverse ridges separated by grooves of similar dimensions (Fig. lb).
These extend to the periphery. This eliminated the relatively smooth marginal area
so characteristic of other species of the genus. The extreme flatness of the crown is
not due to wear. Wear facets are not common on teeth of ptychodontid species and,
when they do occur, they eliminate the transverse ridges.
Figure 1. Ptychodus connelleyi n. sp. tooth from the Roxton Member of the Gober Chalk
(Companian) SMP-SMU 69031 : (a) Occlusal view, X2, (b) Anterior view, X2.
The anterior and posterior crown surfaces are flattened, the anterior being the
wider. The anterior surface also presents a long lateral sulcus for interlocking with
the posterior face of the proceeding tooth. This is clearly to disallow movement of
individual teeth within the dental battery. In a more typical species, like/! rugosus ,
the lateral surfaces of the marginal areas over- or underlap the transverse neighbor¬
ing teeth. In the new form the teeth simply abutted tightly. The root is simple,
roughly shaped like the crown with and without suggestion of any bipartition
manifest in the teeth of rays. Also there is no evidence of foramina at the junction
of the crown and the root as is the case in other species of Ptychodus , but this
could be owing to preservation.
A NEW PTYCHODONTID SHARK
335
DISCUSSION
This species seems to represent an end result of the ptychodontid evolution
of dental crushing batteries among the group. The genus appears and disappears
rather suddenly worldwide. Three general evolutionary trends seem to begin with
P. decurens which is rather low-crowned and generalized. From this, the group
diversified into widely divergent forms of P. rugosus, P. whippleyi, P. mortoni,
and/! polygyrus during theTuronian. As these latter species all have some develop¬
ment of a high knob-like central area,/! connellyi in some ways is more like the
probable stem, P. decurens. Although P. decurens is low-crowned, its anterior,
posterior, and lateral faces are rounded and overlapping and not tightly abutted
as in the new form. P. connellyi could, therefore, derive directly from/! decurens
or from 1 of the more vaulted forms only by a reversal of the high crown trend.
The flat crown plus tight articulation between teeth is not unlike the dental bat¬
teries of myliobatoid rays. This type of relationship between members of the
dentition is probably superior to the antero-posterior intertonging and overlapping
found in other species as far as protection of the periodontal material from hard
parts being ground.
Although Woodward (1911) suggested a possibility of ptychodontids giving
rise to Tertiary myliobatid rays, it is now generally accepted that ptychodontids
are hybodonts and not closely related to batoids (Casier, 1953). Therefore, the
ray-like articulation of P. conne fly i is apparently due to convergence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication was supported by the National Science Foundation Grant
EAR-7903728.
LITERATURE CITED
Casier, E. M., 1953-Origine des ptychodontes. Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Belg., 2:49:1.
Herman, J., 1978-Selachians from the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene rocks of Belgium
and from the neighbouring regions: Elements of an intercontinental biostratigraphy.
Mem. Geol. Belg. (Brussels), 15:75:1.
Radinsky, L., 1961 -Tooth histology as a taxonomic criterion in cartilageneous fishes. J. Morph.,
109:73.
Woodward, A. S., 191 1- Fossil fishes of the English Chalk. Paleon. Soc. London, Monograph,
Part VII.
I
WOODY VEGETATION OF A WET CREEK BRANCH IN EAST
TEXAS
by E. S. NIXON, J. W. HIGGINS,
P. L. BLANCHETTE, and F. A. ROTH
Department of Biology and School of Forestry
Stephen F. Austin State University
Nacogdoches, TX 75962
ABSTRACT
The woody vegetation of a wet creek branch was analyzed by the plot method. Based on
importance value, Magnolia virginiana L. and Nyssa sylvatica March were overstory dominants.
Prevalent shrubs were Sambucus canadensis L., Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd., Vaccinium
arkansanum Ashe, and Itea virginica L. The community closely resembles the Sweetbay-Swamp
Tupelo-Red Maple Forest Cover Type found in shallow ponds, muck swamps, and along
smaller creeks and branches in the southeast.
INTRODUCTION
Central East Texas is an area of gently sloping, partially forested hills commonly
referred to as the Pineywoods (Gould, 1969). Creek and branch bottoms are fre¬
quent and vary considerably in vegetational composition. Some woody plant
communities associated with these bottoms have been analyzed (Sullivan and
Nixon, 1971 ; Nixon and Raines, 1976) but other studies are needed to describe
the variations that exist. This study documents the woody vegetation occupying
a rather hydric branch bottom, a vegetation habitat type not adequately described
in East Texas.
The wet creek branch community selected for study occurred in Nacogdoches,
TX. It was a small, rather undisturbed community covering about 0.3 ha. The
creek branch, which flowed eastward, was fed intermittently by surface run-off
and ground water at its head and ground water seepage along its course. Vegetation
on the gentle slopes adjacent to the branch bottom had been variously modified.
The East Texas region has a mild, humid climate. Temperatures rarely exceed
41 C in the summer or fall below -12 C in the winter. The mean relative humidity
is 72%. Precipitation, mostly in the form of rainfall, averages 1 19 cm annually and
is usually quite uniformly distributed throughout the year. The last killing frost in
the spring is around 22 March, whereas the first in the fall is around 1 3 November.
Average length of the growing season is about 236 days.
Accepted for publication: March 26, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
338
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
METHODS
Woody vegetation with a diameter at breast height (dbh) of 0.5 cm or greater
was sampled in 5 X 5 m quadrats. The dbh and basal area of each plant was measured
to the nearest cm. Quadrats were located in 2 belt transects running parallel to
the creek bottom margins. Seventy plots were analyzed and frequency, density,
basal area, and importance value data were calculated for each species. Importance
value was equal to the sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative
basal area. Soils were analyzed for texture (Bouyoucos, 1962), pH* color, K, Na,
Ca, and Mg. Exchangeable cations were determined by atomic absorption spectro¬
photometry after extraction with pH 4.2 ammonium acetate (Soil Conservation
Service, 1972).
To compare the woody vegetation of this study with that of other studies, a
polar community ordination was made (Cox, 1980). This procedure included the
determination of community similarity coefficients using the formula C = 2W/a + b
where W is the sum of the lower of the 2 importance values for species shared by
the 2 communities, a is the sum of all importance values for the 1st community
and b is the sum of all importance values for the 2nd community. Field work
was accomplished during fall 1977. Nomenclature followed Correll and Johnston
(1970).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soils
Soils of the study area were formed from parent material of the Sparta Sand
Geologic Formation (Bureau of Economic Geology, 1968) and were of the Osier Series.
This series is a member of the siliceous, thermic family of Typic Psammaquents.
Although the site was rather hydric, the water table in the slightly higher western
portion was below 30 cm. The water table in the middle of the site was at a depth of
about 30 cm, while in the lower eastern portion the water table was at the surface.
In the upper and middle areas of the site a layer of light yellowish brown sand
had been recently deposited from higher adjacent areas to a depth of 7 - 9 cm
(Table 1). This layer was absent from the lower portion of the site.
The pH of the soils was uniformly very strongly acidic to extremely acidic
except for the sand deposited in the upper portion of the site which had a pH of
about 5.6. Cation content generally increased with depth. The saturated soils
associated with seepage areas in the lower portion of the site held higher levels of
exchangeable cations than those in the middle or upper portions. It should be
mentioned that these seepage area soils were generally covered with ferns such as
Lorinseria areolata, Onoclea sensibilis, and Osmunda cinnamomea.
Magnolia virginiana - Nyssa sylvatica Community
The woody community analyzed was basically 2-layered with Magnolia virginiana
and Nyssa sylvatica dominating the overstory (Table 2) .Acer rubrum mdLiquidamber
WOODY VEGETATION IN EAST TEXAS
339
TABLE 1
Physical and Chemical Properties of the Soils
Exchangeable Cations
Location
(cm)
Texture
Color
pH
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Upper Western
Portion
0-9
Sand
Light Yellowish
Brown
10YR6/4
5.6
20
3
38
10
9-19
Sandy Loam
Dark Grayish
Brown
10YR4/2
4.3
36
5
82
30
19-30
Loamy Sand
Very Dark
Grayish Brown
10YR3/2
4.6
14
5
68
25
30+
Sandy Loam
Very Dark
Gray
10YR3/1
4.8
28
8
128
70
Middle Portion
0-7.5
Sand
Light Yellowish
Brown
10YR6/4
4.5
20
3
38
15
7.5-13
Loam
Dark Grayish
Brown
10YR4/2
4.3
52
15
172
70
30+
Sandy Loam
Very Dark
Grayish Brown
10YR3/2
4.7
38
14
225
95
Lower Eastern
Portion
0-10
Loamy Sand
Very Dark
Brown
4.8
96
76
705
355
10YR2/2
styt'aciflua were the only additional upper canopy species. Compositionally, the
community closely resembled the Sweetbay (M. virginiana) — Swamp Tupelo
(N. sylvatica var. biflora )— Red Maple (A. mb rum) Forest Cover Type (Type 104), a
type found in shallow ponds, muck swamps, and along smaller creeks and branches
from Virginia to Texas (Society of American Foresters, 1954).
The shrub layer of the community studied consisted chiefly of Sambucus
canadensis , Alnus serrulata, Vaccinium arkansanum, Itea virginica, and Ligustrum spp.
With the exception of Ligustrum spp., these are common wet bottom species
(Correll and Johnston, 1970). Ligustrum spp. are introduced taxa and thus not natural
components of East Texas vegetation. Interestingly, the vine Smilax laurifolia was
among the 10 most dominant species (Table 2).
The community, which contained 26 species, was fairly open averaging 8 woody
plants/plot. Most of these plants (83%) had dbh between 1 — 10 cm. Of those stems
340
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 2
Frequency, Density, Basal Area, and Importance Value Data
For the Dominant Woody Plant Species
Species
Frequency
%
Relative
Frequency
%
Density
No./Plot
Relative
Density
%
Relative
Basal Area
%
Importance
Value1
Magnolia virginiana
70.0
15.9
1.00
12.4
65.4
93.7
Nyssa sylvatica
40.0
9.1
0.60
7.4
31.5
48.0
Liquidamber styraciflua
41.4
9.4
0.70
8.7
0.9
19.0
Ligustrum spp.
41.4
9.4
0.76
9.4
0.1
18.9
Sambucus canadensis
37.1
8.4
0.59
7.3
T2
15.7
Alnus serrulata
27.1
6.2
0.74
9.2
0.2
15.6
Acer rubrum
32.9
7.5
0.50
6.2
1.3
15.0
Vaccinium arkansanum
32.9
7.5
0.51
6.4
0.1
14.0
Smilax laurifolia
27.1
6.2
0.56
6.9
0.2
13.3
Itea virginica
7.1
1.6
0.93
11.5
0.1
13.2
Others3
18.5
1.14
14.8
0.1
33.4
Total
99.7
8.03
100.2
99.9
299.8
1 Sum of relative frequency, relative density, and relative basal area.
2 Less than 0.05.
3Other species present listed in order of decreasing importance value were: Rhododendron
canescens, Rubus spp., Viburnum nudum, Berchemia scandens, Callicarpa americana, Ulmus
americana, Smilax rotundifolia, Ulmus rubra, Ilex opaca, Morus rubra, Juniperus virginiana,
Carya aquatica, Lonicera japonica, Myrica heterophylla, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Prunus
serotina.
greater than 10 cm, 91% were stems of M. virginiana and N. sylvatica. These 2
species were the only ones to display a good size distribution.
Community Comparisons
Several creek bottom communities have been analyzed in Eastern Texas. A
polar community ordination of these communities indicated 3 assemblages. A
cluster of mesic site communities occurred. These were generally dominated by
Carpinus caroliniana, L. styraciflua, Quercus nigra , Q. alba, and Ostrya virginiana
(Sullivan and Nixon, 1971; Nixon and Raines, 1976). Within this cluster (but
indicating a slight divergence) was a creekside community inhabiting a more hydric
site within the floodplain of the Angelina River. This community differed mainly
as a result of the co -dominance of Planera aquatica and Q. lyrata (Nixon and
Raines, 1976). Community similarity coefficients involving this bottomland
community indicated only a slight semblance (0.27 - 0.43) to the more mesic
area communities.
The Magnolia-Nyssa Community of this study and a hydric creek bottom
community analyzed by Nixon and Willett (1974) were dissimilar to each other
and to the mesic site communities. These 2 communities varied as a result of
WOODY VEGETATION IN EAST TEXAS
341
contrasting dominant species. The Nixon-Willett Community, which was located
within the Trinity River Basin, contained a preponderance of N. aquatica and
Taxodium distichum , a forest cover type commonly found within swamps of the
alluvial flood plains of major rivers (Society of American Foresters, 1954). The
community under study was dominated by M. virginiana and N. sylvatica. The
distinctiveness of this community is likewise emphasized by very low (0.25 or less)
community similarity coefficients.
LITERATURE CITED
Bouyoucos, G. J., 1962-Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses of
soil. Agron. J., 54:464.
Bureau of Economic Geology, 1968 -Geologic Atlas of Texas, Palestine Sheet. Univeristy of
Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, Map.
Correll, D. S., and M. C. Johnston, 1910-Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Tex. Res.
Found., Renner, TX, 1881 pp.
Cox, G.W., 1980- Laboratory Manual of General Ecology. William C. Brown Co., Dubuque, I A,
195 pp.
Gould, F. W., 1969-Texas plants - A checklist and ecological summary. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bull. No. M P-585, 121 pp.
Nixon, E. S., and J. A. Raines, 1976-Woody creekside vegetation of Nacogdoches County,
Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 27:443.
- , and R. L. Willett, 1974- Vegetative Analysis of the Floodplain of the Trinity River,
Texas. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District, Fort Worth, TX, 267 pp.
Society of American Foresters, 1954-Forest cover types of North America (Exclusive of
Mexico). Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC, 67 pp.
Soil Conservation Service, 1972-Soil survey laboratory methods and procedures for collecting
soil samples. U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, DC, 63 pp.
Sullivan, J. R., and E. S. Nixon, 1971 -A vegetational analysis of an area in Nacogdoches
County, Texas. Tex. J. Sci., 23:67.
■
.
HIGHWAY MORTALITY OF VERTEBRATES IN SOUTHEASTERN
TEXAS
by KENNETH T. WILKINS1 and DAVID J. SCHMIDLY
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences
Texas A & M University
College Station, TX 77843
ABSTRACT
Highway mortality data were gathered for vertebrates found along regularly surveyed
stretches of 3 highways in Southeastern Texas during 1975-1976. A total of 286 carcasses
were observed within the 1,768 km of highway examined. Mammals comprised 65% of the
casualties. More mammals, reptiles, and amphibians were killed during spring than during
any other season; avian carcasses were more common in spring and summer than in other
seasons. Seasonal mortality patterns for many mammalian species generally do not appear
to be associated with breeding activities. Mammalian highway mortality was greatest on the
highway with an intermediate traffic volume, intermediate at high volume, and lowest on
the lightly travelled roadway. Mortality rates for birds, reptiles, and amphibians varied little
over the traffic volumes sampled.
INTRODUCTION
Many authors have documented mortality of vertebrates associated with high¬
ways (Spiker, 1927; Cottam, 1931 ; Davis, 1940). These reports are simple listings
of carcasses observed along roadsides. Only recently have investigators attempted
to monitor road-killed animals systematically and to demonstrate relationships
of highway mortality with traffic volumes and speeds (Allen and McCullough,
1976; Case, 1978) or with features of the roadway such as right-of-way (ROW)
width (Oxley, etal., 1974). This paper presents data collected during 1975 and 1976
concerning deaths of vertebrates along 3 Southeastern Texas highways differing
in design and in traffic usage patterns.
METHODS
A total of 1 ,768 km of roadway was observed for dead animals from October
1975 through August 1976. One survey line was established along each of 3 highways
1 Present address: Department of Zoology and Florida State Museum, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 3261 1.
Accepted for publication: April 30, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
344
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
in Southeastern Texas: FM (Farm--to -Market) 2818 (west bypass around Bryan-
College Station, Brazos Co., TX), a 2 -lane undivided highway; and Interstate 45
(1-45, Madisonville, Madison Co., TX)and Highway 6 (Hwy 6, east bypass around
Bryan-College Station), both 4-lane divided highways with 2-lane frontage roads.
The Hwy 6 line (22.4 km long) was driven 50 times (5 times monthly). The 1-45
(15.2 km long) and FM 2818 (9.6 km long) lines were surveyed 5 times/season
for fall (October-November), winter (December-February), spring (March-early
May), early summer (late May-June), and late summer (July-August) for a total
of 25 surveys/roadway. Whereas 20 surveys were conducted in fall, spring, and
winter (10 for Hwy 6 and 5 each for FM 28 18 and 1-45), lines were driven 40 times
during summer (20 for Hwy 6 and 10 each for FM 2818 and 1-45). Therefore, to
allow direct comparison of seasonal data, the numbers of carcasses of each species
observed during summer were halved to yield the number seen/20 surveys.
The highway segments were surveyed during early morning for carcasses of all
types of wildlife killed during the previous 24 hr. After recording the identity,
locality, and traffic lane for each animal, carcasses were removed from the pave¬
ment to prevent recounting. Records of weather conditions and phase of moon
during survey periods were not maintained.
Population density data are available for only 1 of the species (cotton rats)
found as highway mortality victims (Wilkins and Schmidly, 1980). No significant
differences (P< 0.05) existed between seasonal densities of cotton rats on similarly
maintained (mowed vs. unmowed) stretches of the 3 highways. Although seasonal
variation in population densities of other vertebrates was not examined, densities
of other wildlife species in adjacent habitats are expected to be similar for all 3 road¬
ways because the 3 survey lines were bounded by approximately equal proportions
of comparable habitats (e.g., pastures, cultivated fields, old fields, residential areas).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Reptiles and Amphibians
Reptiles and amphibians comprised 17% of the total vertebrate losses (Table 1).
Over half (54%) of these victims were turtles. Anurans (32%) and 4 species of
snakes comprised the remainder. The only winter fatality was an unidentified frog.
Frogs and toads died on roadways in all seasons with half of their losses (8 indi¬
viduals) during spring. No turtles or snakes were killed during winter; 26 of 27
turtle fatalities were divided evenly between spring and summer. Three dead snakes
were noted during spring and 4 during summer.
Most seasonal variation in fatalities of vertebrates may be explained by examin¬
ing general aspects of their life history. McClure (1951), Hodson (1966), and others
have suggested that an increase of fatalities during spring could be due to dispersal
of breeding individuals. Relatively higher mortality rates would be expected during
summer when population densities are greater and when young are dispersing.
Reptiles and amphibians were expected to exhibit less mortality during cooler
HIGHWAY MORTALITY OF VERTEBRATES
345
seasons because they are ectotherms; only 1 individual was found killed during
winter. The observed decrease of fatalities in autumn may be attributed to cooler
weather.
Birds
Avians accounted for 17% of the observed losses (Table 1). Species frequenting
roadsides as part of their feeding and nesting activities (robin, scissortail flycatcher,
mockingbird , house sparrow, eastern meadowlark, mourning dove) were frequently
killed, although vultures which commonly fed along the roadsides rarely died on
the roadways. Other species killed (green-winged teal, painted bunting) were
transients. The number of individuals and species found dead increased steadily
from fall through spring. Three individuals of 2 species, 9 birds of 4 species, and 14
individuals of 7 species died during fall, winter, and spring, respectively. Fourteen
individuals of 4 species were killed during summer.
Mammals
Mammals comprised the majority (65%) of animals killed (Table 1). Armadillos
and opossums accounted for 49% of the mammalian casualties, whereas an addi¬
tional 33% was comprised of striped skunks, cottontail rabbits, and domestic dogs
and cats. Cotton rats composed 6% of the kill, while 8 other species represented
the balance.
Seasonal mortality was examined separately for each mammalian species (Table 1)
in efforts to corroborate the contention that highest seasonal highway mortality
occurs during a species’ breeding season (Haugen, 1944; Davis, 1946; Jahn, 1959;
Brockie, 1960; Beilis and Graves, 1971). Breeding seasons for Southeastern Texas
populations (Davis, 1974) and seasonal losses are presented in Table 1. Only the
losses noted for cotton rats and opossums tend to support this argument. The
smallest seasonal casualty total for cotton rats occurred during winter, their only
period of reproductive inactivity. Similarly, casualties during the opossum’s 3
breeding seasons comprised 83% of the annual losses.
For the other 13 species, however, there is no evidence that seasonal variation
in mortality corresponds with breeding activities (Table 1). These data suggest
that highway mortality patterns for most mammals in Southeastern Texas may
be associated with other factors. Year-round activity patterns characterize the
most frequently killed mammals (opossum, striped skunk, cottontail rabbit, arma¬
dillo). Armadillos were killed in all seasons except winter. Mortality in armadillos
corresponds with seasonal shifts in their daily activity patterns. Whereas armadillos
are nocturnally active during warmer months, their peak activity period in winter
is daytime. Davis (1940) suggested that competition between grazing species
(cottontail vs. cattle) for forage in pastures adjacent to highways could result in
exclusion of the rabbits into the ROW. Residing close to pavements enhances the
likelihood of becoming a traffic victim. Additionally, the occurrence of a large
portion of mammalian fatalities in autumn suggests a possible relationship with
346
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
movements of subadults as they disperse to establish territories (e.g., opossums,
Davis, 1940).
Relationship Between Fatalities and Volume and Patterns of Traffic
Mortality rates (number of carcasses/km of highway surveyed /day) were calculated
for mammals, birds, and reptiles and amphibians to allow comparison of data
between highways (Table 2). Projected annual wildlife losses/km were computed
TABLE 1
Total Numbers of Each Species Killed by Vehicles Along Stretches of 3 Highways in
Southeastern Texas. For Mammals Seasonal Losses are Shown in the First Column
and Breeding Seasons for Local Populations are Indicated Following Common Names
Where F, W, Sp, and Su Represent Fall, Winter, Spring, and Summer, Respectively.
As Noted in Methods, Summer Data is Standardized to Permit Direct Comparisons.
Species F, W, Sp, Su Hwy 6 1-45 FM 2818 Total
MAMMALS
Armadillo (F)
Dasypus novemcinctus
9,
0,
19,
7
30
8
3
41
Opossum (W, Sp, Su)
Didelphis virginiana
8,
12,23,
4
37
9
5
51
Striped skunk (Sp)
Mephitis mephitis
7,
2,
5,
3
13
4
3
20
Eastern cottontail (F, Sp, Su)
Sylvilagus floridanus
3,
6,
3,
3
14
2
1
17
Jackrabbit (F,W,Sp, Su)
Lepus californicus
0,
1,
o,
0
1
_
_
1
Domestic cat (Sp)
Felis domestica
7,
0,
2,
3
12
1
1
14
Domestic dog (Sp)
Cards familaris
5,
0,
5,
0
8
2
_
10
Coyote (W, Sp)
Canis latrans
2,
1,
0,
0
3
_ _
_
3
Gray fox (Sp)
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
0,
0,
1,
0
1
_
_
1
Raccoon (Sp)
Procyon lotor
4,
o,
2,
1
6
2
_
8
White-tailed deer (F)
Odocoileus virginianus
2,
1,
2,
1
6
_
_
6
Cattle
Bos taurus
1,
o,
0,
0
_ _
_ _
1
1
Plains pocket gopher (Sp)
Geomys bursarius
1,
o,
o,
0
1
_
_
1
Fox squirrel (W, Sp)
Sciurus niger
1,
o,
o,
1
2
_
_
2
Hispid cotton rat (F, Sp, Su)
Sigmodon hispidus
2,
1,
4,
2
10
1
11
Total Mammals
144
29
14
187
HIGHWAY MORTALITY OF VERTEBRATES
347
Table 1 Continued
Species
Hwy 6
1-45
FM 2818
Total
BIRDS
Mockingbird
Mimus polyglottos
10
10
Eastern meadowlark
Sturnella magna
3
1
1
5
Robin
Turdus migratorius
4
1
_
5
Sparrows
Family Fringillidae
4
1
1
6
Scissortail flycatcher
Muscivora forfic
3
_
1
4
Mourning dove
Zenaidura macroura
2
1
1
4
Cardinal
Richmondena cardinal is
2
_ „
_
2
Common crow
Corvus brachyrhynchos
1
_
_
1
Green-winged teal
A nas carolinensis
1
_
_
1
Brown thrasher
Toxostoma rufum
1
_
_
1
Painted bunting
Passerina ciris
1
..
1
Domestic chicken
Gallus gallus
_
_
1
1
Unidentified
6
1
1
8
Total Birds
37
6
6
49
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
Frogs and toads
Order Anura
13
1
2
16
Box turtle
Terrapene ornata ornata
8
3
5
16
Other turtles
Order Chelonia
7
2
2
11
Speckled kingsnake
Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki
2
_
_
2
Prairie kingsnake
Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster
2
_
_ -
2
Eastern coachwhip
Masticophis flagellum flagellum
2
_
_
2
Southern copperhead
Akistrodon contortrix contortrix
1
—
1
Total Reptiles and Amphibians
35
6
9
50
TOTAL ALL ANIMALS
217
41
30
286
348
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
TABLE 2
Highway Mortality Data for Each Highway for Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles and
Amphibians. Mortality Rate Expressed as Number of Individuals Killed/km of
Roadway/Day; Projected Annual Kill Expressed as Number of Individuals/km.
1-45
Hwy 6
FM 2818
Transect Length (km)
Total Distance Surveyed (km)
15.20
381.00
22.40
1,187.00
9.60
200.00
Mammals
Carcasses observed
29.00
147.00
14.00
Mortality rate
0.08
0.12
0.07
Projected annual kill
29.20
43.80
25.60
Birds
Carcasses observed
6.00
37.00
6.00
Mortality rate
0.02
0.03
0.03
Projected annual kill
7.30
11.00
11.00
Reptiles and Amphibians
Carcasses observed
6.00
35.00
9.00
Mortality rate
0.02
0.03
0.05
Projected annual kill
7.30
11.00
18.30
for each highway by multiplying mortality rates by the number of days in a year
(Table 2). Mean daily traffic volume as determined from traffic counters and high¬
way department traffic maps for the section of FM 2818 surveyed was 2,800 vehicles;
for Hwy 6, 8,000 vehicles; for 1-45, 20,000 vehicles. Seasonal variation in traffic
volumes was negligible.
For each highway, more mammals than other vertebrates were killed. Birds had
the lowest mortality rate (0.03) for FM 281 8, whereas they were about as common
as reptile and amphibian carcasses on Hwy 6 (0.03) and 1-45 (0.02). Because
mortality values for birds and reptiles and amphibians were similar for all highways
they appear not to depend on traffic volume. For mammals, however, mortality
rates were similarly low for facilities with heavy (1-45) and light (FM 2818) usage
and greatest at the intermediate volume (Hwy 6).
One explanation for this pattern of mammalian mortality may pertain to high¬
way design. Busier roads generally possess more lanes of pavement within wider,
more intensively maintained (e.g., mowed) ROW. Such ROW probably cannot
support such high population densities of medium- to large-sized species as are
characteristic of less disturbed habitats. Wider ROW further amplify the separation
of formerly continuous native habitat into discontinuous areas by what may be a
complete barrier to some species and probably discourages road crossing by most
others.
Alternatively, the increase in mammalian mortality rates from low to inter¬
mediate volumes may be attributed to the increased probability of animal-vehicle
HIGHWAY MORTALITY OF VERTEBRATES
349
encounters with increasing traffic volume. This assumes equal numbers of individuals
attempted crossing both FM 2818 and Hwy 6, and that no differences in vulner¬
ability exist in animals at the 2 sites. The difference in mortality rates between
Hwy 6 and 1-45 may indicate that mammals along 1-45 sensed increased traffic
volume and, therefore, avoided crossing or exercised greater care in crossing.
CONCLUSIONS
Highway mortality for the taxa of vertebrates examined was found to vary in
ways suggesting responses to a number of parameters, both physical (e.g., traffic
volume, roadway design) and biotic (e.g., season of year as pertains to breeding
activities and dispersal). The relative importance of these features may differ by
taxa. Comparing these results with those in the literature indicates that geographic
locality of these studies is another important consideration. For a particular species,
seasonal mortality trends may vary due to different seasonal activity patterns in
response to climatic differences associated with different geographic localities. In
future studies investigators should attempt to control as many of these variables
as possible to assess the effects of a particular factor on highway mortality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
W. J. Boeer’s assistance in the field is gratefully appreciated. The data reported
herein were gathered in conjunction with a project (TTI-2-8-76-197) sponsored
by Texas Transportation Institute (Texas A & M University) in cooperation with
the Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transportation (SDHPT)
and the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA). The contents of this paper reflect the views of the authors who are soley
responsible of the facts and accuracy of data reported herein. The contents do not
necessarily reflect official views or policies of the SDHPT or FHWA. This paper
does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. This paper represents
contribution number TA- 16461 of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.
LITERATURE CITED
Allen, R. E., and R. McCullough, 1976-Deer-car accidents in Southern Michigan. J. Wildl.
Mgmt., 40:317.
Beilis, E. D., and H. B. Graves, 1971 -Collision of vehicles with deer studied on a Pennsylvania
road section. Hwy. Res. News, 43:13.
Brockie, R., 1960-Road mortality of the hedgehog ( Erinaceus europaeus L.) in New Zealand.
J. Zool, London, 134:505.
Case, R. M., 1978-Interstate highway road-killed animals: A data source for biologists. Wildl.
Soc. Bull., 6:8.
Cottam, C., 1931 Birds and motor cars in South Dakota. Wilson Bull., 43:313.
350
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Davis, W. B., 1940-Mortality of wildlife on a Texas highway. J. Wildl. Mgmt., 4:90.
- - 1946- Further notes on badgers. /. Mamm. , 27:175.
- , 1974-The mammals of Texas. Bull. 41, Texas Parks and Wildl. Dept., Austin, TX.
Haugen, A. O., 1944-Highway mortality of wildlife in Southern Michigan./ Mamm., 25:177.
Hodson, N. L., 1966 -A survey of road mortality in mammals (and including data for the
grass snake and common frog). J. Zool., London, 148:576.
Jahn, L. R., 1959-Highway mortality as an index of deer population change. J. Wildl. Mgmt.,
23:187.
McClure, H. E., 1951-An analysis of animal victims on Nebraska’s highways. J. Wildl. Mgmt.,
15:410.
Oxley, D. J., M. B. Fenton, and G. R. Carmody, 1974-The effects of roads on populations
of small mammals. J. Appl. Ecol., 11:51.
Spiker, C. J., 1927-Feathered victims of the automobile. Wilson Bull., 39:11.
Wilkins, K. T., and D. J. Schmidly, 1980-The effects of mowing of highway rights-of-way on
small mammals. Proc. Second Natl. Symp. of Environ. Concerns in Rights-of-Way Mgmt.,
Cary Arboretum, New York Botanical Gardens, Bronx, NY. In Press.
ANALYSIS OF AIR SAMPLES FOR LEAD AND MANGANESE
by ROSS D. COMPTON and LINDA A. THOMAS
Department of Chemistry
Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos, TX 78666
Reviewed by: James E. Cunningham, 2403 Arpdale, Austin, TX 78704.
ABSTRACT
The results of atomic absorption analysis of air samples for lead and manganese in November
1978 are in good agreement with those of the Texas Air Control Board which used x-ray
fluorescence analysis of samples collected in a similar method. This data shows that there is
good correlation between traffic density and lead and manganese concentrations in air. When
the 1978 data is compared with data from 1977, a decrease in manganese and an increase in
lead concentrations is observed.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years a growing concern has developed with respect to air particulate
contaminant levels that result from motor vehicle exhausts. Also, the use of lead-
containing gasoline in motor vehicles with catalytic converters had to be prohibited
to prevent fouling of the catalyst in the converters. The United States Environ¬
mental Protection Agency (EPA) set standards such that refiners of gasoline had
to adjust the average lead content of their gasoline pool (both leaded and unleaded
grades) down to 0.8 g/gal by 1 January 1978, and 0.5 g/gal by October 1979
(Anderson, 1978).
In order to retain the octane rating of the leaded gasoline many replacements
for the lead alkyls were tried, but within the year just previous to this study about
half of the lead-free gasoline sold at gasoline stations contained a manganese
compound, methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) ( Chemical
and Engineering News, 1978). Without lead to boost the octane rating, more
extensive refining processes were necessary unless a substitute for lead was used.
As gasoline production of MMT-containing unleaded gasoline was increasing, auto¬
mobile manufacturers noticed that MMT-containing gasoline built up deposits in
the combustion chamber of gasoline engines along with an increased hydrocarbon
emission from engine exhausts (Anderson, 1978).
Accepted for publication: June 3, 1980.
The Texas J ournal of Scienee, Vol. XXXII, No. 4, December, 1 980.
352
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
The additive MMT is by no means a new octane boosting innovation . It has been
utilized since 1958 as an octane supplement along with the use of lead alkyls. It
has been only since 1977 that manganese has been suspected as a gasoline-related
pollutant. On several occasions since this time the allowable manganese levels in
gasolines have been repeatedly lowered (Anderson, 1978). In the fall of 1978 the
EPA banned the use of MMT in gasoline altogether ( Chemical and Engineering
News , 1978). More crude oil is required for the extra refining necessary to boost
the octane rating of the gasoline without using additives.
At the time of the collection of air samples for this study there was a large
amount of gasoline in storage which contained MMT so that it was expected that
some manganese would still be found in the air.
Both lead and manganese are dispersed from the motor vehicle exhausts as
oxides and have been collected as particulate matter from air samples (Pierson,
et al., 1978; Provenzano, 1978). The extremely small concentrations of lead and
manganese in air necessitated the use of a method of analysis for the detection
of such small amounts. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was the method available
for this study. One purpose of this study was to determine whether there was any
correlation of manganese levels to traffic density, and if so, was there any decrease
in the level to match a decrease in use of MMT in gasoline. It could be ascertained
if there was any decrease in manganese levels by comparing the new data to data
collected earlier by the Texas Air Control Board (pers. comm.). In order to insure
that the data was consistent with that from the Air Control Board, especially since
the manganese levels were certain to be very low, it was decided to also measure
lead, which would be in much higher concentration.
EXPERIMENTAL
Air samples were obtained with the use of a Misco air sampler similar to the
high volume air samplers described by Blanchard and Romano (1978) as used in
their research on more effective sampling techniques. Along with the air sampler,
Misco cellulose filters with dimensions of 20 cm X 25 cm were used to collect the
suspended particulate contaminants. The air sampler was allowed to run for 24-hr
periods at various locations in the San Marcos, TX area from 10 November 1978
through 30 November 1978. Calibration of the air sampler was performed with an
anemometer from Taylor Instrument Company of Rochester, NY. Although the air
sampler was supposed to maintain a constant flow of air through the filter, it was
found the rate dropped off over a 24-hr period. An average value of 49 ft3 /min,
found by taking 10-min readings at various times during four 24-hr periods, did not
vary much from one 24-hr period to another and was used for all samples collected.
The total volume for each 24-hr period was calculated to be 2.00 X 103m3. There¬
fore, a sample found to contain 4.0 jug of manganese would correspond to an air
sample of 4.0 jug/2.00 X 103m3 or 0.002 jig Mn/m3. During each 24-hr sampling
ANALYSIS OF AIR SAMPLES FOR Pb & Mn
353
period no rainfall occurred and the sampler was placed at ground level to help
increase reliability of results. Exposed filters were handled with tongs to prevent
contamination and were stored in air-tight containers until analysis.
The sample preparation procedure utilized was one adapted from a procedure
found in Perkin-Elmer (1 973). Some changes necessary in the referenced procedure
resulted from the use of cellulose sample collection filters rather than fiberglass
filters. Because of the rapid degradation of the cellulose filters in the concentrated
acids, a tedious sequence of slow gravitational filtrations was required as outlined
below.
1 . The exposed cellulose filters were cut into 2-cm squares.
2. The squares were digested in 100 ml of concentrated HC1 for 30 min over
low heat.
3. The mixture was filtered through Whatman #42 filter paper.
4. The filter paper and residue was digested with 100 ml of deionized water
for 30 min over low heat.
5 . The resulting mixture was filtered and the filtrate combined with the filtrate
from the first filtration.
6. The combined filtrate was evaporated to approximately 100 ml, filtered (to
remove finely suspended particles), and evaporated almost to dryness.
7. Ten milliliters of concentrated HC1 and 10 drops of concentrated HN03
were added to the residue from the evaporation.
8. The resulting solution was transferred to a 100 ml volumetric flask and
diluted to volume with deionized water.
A blank filter was prepared according to the same procedure as the samples in
order to correct for any material extracted from the cellulose filters.
The instrumental analysis was conducted with the use of a Perkin-Elmer 103
spectrophotometer. The light source used was a hollow-cathode tube lamp for
lead and manganese, respectively. The fuel used for the analysis of both lead and
manganese was acetylene with air as an oxidant to produce a lean blue flame.
The concentrations of lead and manganese were determined by utilizing the
routine procedure as described in the general information section of Perkin-Elmer
(1973). The lead stock solution was prepared by dissolving 1 .598 g of lead nitrate in
1% (v/v) nitric acid and diluting to 1 £ with 1% (v/v) nitric acid. The manganese stock
solution was prepared by dissolving 1.000 g of manganese metal in a minimum
volume of 50% (v/v) nitric acid and dilution to 1 £ with 1% (v/v) hydrochloric
acid.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As was anticipated, the results of this research indicated that atmospheric con¬
centrations of lead and manganese are directly related to traffic density and, thus,
to motor vehicle exhaust emissions (Table 1 ). It was also shown that analysis using
354
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
high-volume air samples and atomic absorption spectroscopy could be used to
detect and determine the low levels of manganese present in air without resorting
to more elaborate techniques or the use of the more expensive instruments such
as the x-ray fluorescence instrument used by the Texas Air Control Board.
TABLE 1
Air Sampling Sites and Data for the Analysis of Lead and Manganese
Concentration
(jUg/m3)
Date Sampling Location Traffic Density Pb Mn
Nov. 10, 1978
Residential District in
San Marcos, TX
Low
0.092
0.003
Nov. 11, 1978
Pasture near
Martindale, TX
Very Low
0.074
0.002
Nov. 29, 1978
Fire Station in Down¬
town San Marcos, TX
Moderate to High
0.544
0.011
Nov. 30, 1978
Texas Research Institute
Grounds Near City Limits
of Austin, TX
Moderate
0.176
0.006
TABLE 2
Analysis of Air Samples by the Texas Air Control Board
1978a
1977a
Sampling Location
Traffic Density
Pb
Mn
Pb
Mn
Edge of Business District
in San Marcos, TX
Moderate
0.43b
0.002b
0.37b
0.024 b
Average of All Samples
0.42
0.009
0.32
0.030
Interstate Highway in
Downtown Austin, TX
Very High
0.93b
0.004b
0.38 c
0.0075 c
aConcentratrations in jltg/m3.
^Average of 5 samples collected on different days during the month of November 1977 and
1978 (some Mn samples were reported as zero).
cAverage of 4 samples collected on different days during month of November 1977.
The results of this research correlate well with those of the Texas Air Control
Board (Table 2). It can be seen from comparing the results in Tables 1 and 2 for
1978 with those in Table 2 for 1977 that manganese levels were definitely reduced
from 1977 to 1978 while the lead levels are up somewhat. This increase in lead
may seem contradictory, but can be explained in terms of increased traffic from
1977 to 1978, which was only partially offset by the gradual change from leaded
to unleaded gasoline during this period.
ANALYSIS OF AIR SAMPLES FOR Pb & Mn
355
The low levels of manganese in the air do not appear to pose a health threat,
but because of the adverse effects on the motor vehicle engines with resulting
increased hydrocarbon emission the oil industry is investigating the substitution
of nonmetallic compounds such as methyl tert-butyl ether for the organometallic
compounds such as MMT ( Chemical and Engineering News, 1979).
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that lead and manganese particulate levels in air samples related
well to motor vehicle traffic density. It was also found that there was a drop in
manganese levels from 1977 to late 1978 but that there were still measureable
amounts of manganese present even though the federal government had banned
production of gasoline containing manganese. An increase in lead levels from
1977 to 1978 was found. This finding was unexpected since unleaded gasoline
has been taking a bigger share of the market each year.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Jim Middleton in setting up
the instrumentation used in this study, and the Physics Department at Southwest
Texas State University for the loan of the air sampler.
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, E. V., 1978-Phasing lead out of gasoline: Hard knocks for lead alkyls producers.
Chem. & Engine. News, 56(6): 12.
Blanchard, G. E., and D. J. Romano, 1978-High volume sampling: Evaluation of an inverted
sampler for ambient TSP measurements. J. of the Air Poll. Control Assoc. , 28(1 1): 1142.
Chemical and Engineering News, 1978-EPA bans further sale of MMT octane booster. Chem.
& Engine. News, 56(38): 7.
- , 1979-MTBE production is soaring. Chem. & Engine. News, 5 7(5 2): 7 .
Perkin-Elmer, 1978- Analysis of metallic air pollutants. Analytical Methods for Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometry , EN-5; 1-1.
Pierson, W. R., D. E. McKee, W. W. Brachaczek, and J. W. Butler, 1978-Methylcyclopentadienyl
manganese tricarbonyl: Effect on manganese emissions from vehicles on the road .J. of
the Air Poll. Control Assoc. , 28(7) : 692 .
Provenzano, G., 1978-Motor vehicle lead emissions in the Univted States: An analysis of
important determinants, geographic patterns and future trends. J. of the Air Poll. Control
Assoc. , 28(12): 1 193.
.
.
PHOTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF
^(N-METHYLANILINOJ-PENT-S-EN^-ONE1
by DARRELL WATSON, EILEEN T. KENNEDY,
and D. R. DILLIN
Department of Chemistry
University of Mary Hardin-Bay lor
Belton , TX 76513
ABSTRACT
The non-oxidative photocyclization of 4-(N-methylanilino)pent-3-en-2-one (V) resulted
in the formation of 1 ,2-dimethylindole (VIII) with the loss of acetaldehyde. A mechanism
for this reaction was proposed which involves a nitrogen ylide as the intermediate.
INTRODUCTION
One of the more productive areas of synthetic organic chemistry, in recent years,
has been the study of the chemical reactions of atoms or molecules due to the
absorption of photons of light. Investigations in the field of photochemistry have
produced many useful and novel photoreactions occurring from a wide range of
excited state chromophores. Of particular interest are the photochemical reactions
of divinylamines, in which photocyclization is the predominant excited state
pathway. This unique reaction pathway is apparently due to the non-bonding
electrons on the nitrogen. Such photochemical reactions occur with a high degree
of stereoselectivity. A good example of this photochemical reaction type is
reported by Chapman, et al. (1971), and shown in Fig. 1, in which the N-aryl
enamine I undergoes stereoselective cyclization to form the trans-indoline product
II.
The study of heteroatom-directed photoarylation of divinylamines was extended
(Schultz and Chiu, 1978; Schultz and Hagman, 1978a ,b) to systems in which one of
the TT-moieties was an a-(3 unsaturated carbonyl. Schultz studied the photochemical
rearrangement of the cross-conjugated N-aryl enamino ketone III, shown in
Fig. 2.
It is important to note that in this type of system the carbonyl group is not
conjugated with the rest of the tt -moiety. Irradiation of 1 1 1 resulted in the for¬
mation of the trans-indoline compound IV as the major product. This observed
^his paper was presented at the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Texas Academy of Science on
March 7, 1980, Corpus Christi State University, Corpus Christi, TX 78412.
Accepted for publication: April 25, 1980.
The Texas Journal of Science, Volume XXXII, No. 4, December, 1980.
358
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
hv
- >
Et20
kv
>
product was consistent with the photoproducts of non-carbonyl analogs. Many
examples have been reported in the literature of the photochemistry of cross-
conjugated a-p unsaturated ketones (Schultz and Chiu, 1978); however, there
are very few references to work done on the photochemistry of completely con¬
jugated acyclic enamino ketones. The goal of this research was to investigate the
photochemistry of such systems. For this purpose 4-(N-methylanilino)pent-3-
en-2-one (V) was prepared . Irradiations of V were performed under both oxidative
and non-oxidative conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Ultraviolet spectra were recorded on Perkin-Elmer double beam, Coleman 124
spectrophotometer. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra were obtained on a
Perkin-Elmer Model R-24B 60 MHz spectrometer and chemical shifts are reported
as 6 values relative to TMS as an internal standard. All infrared spectra were
recorded on a Perkin-Elmer Model 700 spectrometer; melting points were deter¬
mined with a Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus and are uncorrected. A Hanovia
450-W medium pressure mercury vapor lamp with a water-cooled quartz immersion
well was utilized for all irradiations.
4-(N-METHYLANILINO)PENT-3-EN-2-ONE
359
Preparation of the Enamino Ketone V
N-methylaniline (32.1 g, 0.3 mol) and 2,4-pentanedione (50 g, 0.5 mol) were
dissolved in benzene (250 ml) and refluxed in the presence of p-toluenesulfonic
acid (1 .0 g) until an appropriate amount of water was obtained. Vacuum distilla¬
tion of the crude product gave 20.7 g (36% yeild) of the pure enamino ketone:
m.p. 63-64 C; uv (solvent acetonitrile) X max 307 nm;ir (CC14) 3025, 1625, 1 520,
1490, 1405, 1190, 1095, 950, and 700 cm-1; nmr (CDC13) 6.5-7 .2 (m, 5 H,
aromatic), 5.3 (s, 1 H, vinylic), 3.2 (s, 3 H, NCH3), 2.3 (s, 3 H, allylic), 2.1 (s, 3 H,
-ff-CH3).
0
Irradiation of Enamino Ketone V Under Oxidative Conditions
A benzene solution of V(2.0 X 10-4M)was placed in pyrex tubes, purged with
oxygen, sealed and irradiated for 5 hr. Evaporation of the solvent left an oily
residue which was purified by column chromatography using alumina and eluting
with CC14 and CHC13 . The major product of the photoreaction was characterized
as 3-acetyl- 1 ,2 -dimethylindole; ir (CHC13) 3050, 1640, 1515, 1410, 1220, and
780 cm"1, nmr (CDC13) 7.0-7.2 (m, 4 H, aromatic), 3.5 (s, 3 H, N-CH3), 2.6 (s,
3 H, -£-CH3), 2.4 (s, 3 H, allylic).
0
Irradiation of Enamino Ketone V Under Anaerobic Conditions
A benzene solution of V (2.0 X 10-2M) was placed in pyrex tubes, purged
with nitrogen, sealed and irradiated for 5 hr. Evaporation of the solvent left an
oily residue which was purified by column chromatography using alumina and
eluting with CC14 and CHC13. The major product was characterized as 1,2-dimethyl-
indole (30% yield), uv (solvent acetonitrile) X max 232 nm; ir (CC14) 3050, 1600,
1540, 1470, 1400, 1340, 1200, 740, and 660 cm-1; nmr (CC14) 6.5-7. 1 (m, 4 H,
aromatic), 6.2 (s, 1 H, vinylic), 3.3 (s, 3 H, NCH3), 2.3 (s, 3 H, allylic).
A small sample of the irradiated solution was extracted with water to separate
the acetaldehyde. The water layer was tested with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
and the formation of orange crystals (mp 1 64-1 66 C) proved the presence of
acetaldehyde.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The irradiation of V under oxidative conditions yielded as the major product
3-acetyl-l ,2-dimethylindole (VU). In this case the starting material rearranged
to form the heterocyclic compound with the loss of 2 hydrogen atoms. However,
under anaerobic conditions, a totally different reaction was observed. The major
products obtained from the non-oxidative photocyclization were 1 ,2-dimethyl¬
indole (YHI) and acetaldehyde. Although both reactions produce the indole ring,
only under anaerobic conditions is the cleavage of acetaldehyde observed. It is
the authors’ opinion that in each of these cases, the reaction proceeds via the ylide
360
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
intermediate VI shown in Fig. 3. Similar ylide intermediates have been detected
directly using flash photolysis and spectroscopic techniques (Schultz and Chiu,
1978), and indirectly by trapping with dipolarophiles (Schultz and DeTar, 1974).
Figure 4.
4-(N-METHYLANILINO)PENT-3-EN-2-ONE
361
Under the proposed mechanism the ylide apparently rearranges via 2 consecutive
1,2 hydrogen shifts followed by the loss of acetaldehyde to give the observed
products (Fig. 4). This mechanism is consistent with previous work done by
Chapman, et al (1971) on analogous non-carbonyl compounds. At the present
time the authors are in the process of investigating the generality of this novel
photochemical reaction, with various substitutions on the nitrogen and the aro¬
matic ring, utilizing both electron withdrawing and electron donating groups. If
this reaction pathway is indeed a general one, this may prove to be an interesting
and novel method for the synthesis of indoles which serve as the backbone of
many biochemically interesting molecules.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation to Danny E. Kirby for his help in
this research.. This work was made possible by the Robert A. Welch Foundation,
grant number AY-674.
LITERATURE CITED
Chapman, O. L., G. L. Eian, A. Bloom, and J. Clardy, 1971-Nonoxidative photocyclization;
of N-aryl enamines. A facile synthetic entry to mzws-hexahydrocarbazoles. / A mer. Chem.
Soc., 93:2918.
Schultz, A. G., and I-Ching Chiu, 1978-Heteroatom directed photoaryliation; an approach
to the synthesis of Aspidosperma alkaloids./. C. S. Chem. Comm., 29.
- , and M. B. Detar, 1974-Thiocarbonyl ylides. Photogeneration, rearrangement, and
cycloaddition reactions./. Amer. Chem. Soc., 96:296.
- , and W. K. Hagman, 1978-Synthesis of indole-2-carboxylic esters. J. Org. Chem. ,
43:3391.
— , and
, 1978-Synthesis of 3-carboethoxyoxindoles./ Org. Chem. , 43:4231.
NOTES SECTION
SUMMER MOVEMENT OF A MALE ARMADILLO IN CENTRAL TEXAS.
William D. Thomas, Department of Biology , Baylor University , Waco, TX 76706. (Present
address: 2475 S. Mephis Way , Aurora, CO 80013.)
The ecology of the nine-banded armadillo ( Dasypus novemcinctus ) has been studied
(F. W. Taber, 1945,/. Mammal, 26(3):211; W. K. Clark, 1951,4m. Midi Nat., 46(2):337;
H. S. Fitch, P. Goodrum, and C. Newman, 1952,/. Mammal., 33(1) :21). Information on
home range and movements during fall, winter, and spring has come from Clark (1951) and
Layne and Glover (J. N. Layne and D. Glover, 1977,/. Mammal., 5 8(3) :41 1), but neither
paper contains information on summer movement.
Armadillos are primarily nocturnal, but will become diurnal when termperatures are low,
especially in winter (Taber, 1945). This makes observation easy and most movement information
hasbeen obtained under these conditions. In late spring and throughout summer, the nocturnal
occurrence of this species inhibits visual observations. Thus, radio telemetry equipment becomes
essential. The purpose of this study is to gather information on summer movements using
radio telemetry and compare it to existing information.
The study area, 20 mi NW of Waco, McLennan Co., TX, is located in SE Bosque Co. It
consists of a ridge, cut by several ravines, which contacts the floodplain of Childress Creek.
Vegetation is open grassland and scattered thickets of woody plants, mainly Juniperus ashei,
Quercus fusiformis, and Prosopis glandulosa. The thin clay soil is rocky on top of the ridge,
becoming deeper at the base and on the floodplain.
An adult male armadillo was captured, taken to the lab, and fitted with a transmitter.
The animal was in captivity a total of 5 days and was fed earthworms and a mixture of eggs,
sugar, milk, and dry dog food. It weighed 5.0 kg at capture and 4.7 kg when released.
The transmitter package (including transmitter, nicad battery, and speedometer cable
antenna) was sealed in acrylic and mounted on a hose clamp covered with surgical tubing. It
sent a pulsed signal at 53.25 mHz with a 0.30 ma drain on the battery. Battery life was
estimated at 167 days and the entire package weighed 80 g. The package was attached to the
animal’s tail just behind the shell so that movement was not restricted.
Locations were made by using a portable receiver and directional antenna and were marked
on a map prepared from aerial photographs in order to determine movement distance and
home range size. The signal was only slightly diminished when the animal was in it’s burrow.
Air temperatures during the study varied from 26 - 29 C at night and only 2 minor showers
occurred, neither of which significantly moistened the ground.
The animal was released on 4 J une 1 97 8 at 1 7 : 20 hr and observed over a period of 55 con¬
secutive days during which it was located 43 times. The home range was estimated at 8.1 ha
by using the minimum polygon method. It was inclusive of a portion of the ridge adjacent
to the floodplain, a plowed field, several thickets, and the absence of a water source. Nine
sightings were noted on the top or slope of the ridge while 19 others were taken along its
base (Fig. 1).
This home range is roughly twice the size of that reported by Clark (1951) (x = 3.4 ha)
and only 2.4 ha larger than that reported by Layne and Glover (1977) (x= 5.7 ± 1.7 ha).
Clark’s (1951) range was mainly floodplain which would be optimum armadillo habitat, while
that of Layne and Glover (1977) seemed more similar to the conditions found here: Scattered
underbrush separated by open ground with drier, more compact soil. An armadillo in this
less optimum habitat might have to travel further for food and thus have a larger home range.
During 1 1 nights, the animal was located 2 or more times for information on rates of
movement. Lapse times between sightings were 15 - 105 min with movement rates of 65 -
732 m/hr (x= 241 m/hr). These rates were not significantly different from the 219- 1046 m/hr
364
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Figure 1 . Summer home range of a male armadillo in Central Texas. • - Burrows; © - Sightings;
® - Capture Sight.
600 265 M
NOTES
365
(x= 507 m/hr) found by Layne and Glover (1977) (t = 1.54, p = 0.05). Fastest rates in the
present study were over open ground. A Student-Newman-Keuls test showed significant
differences in movement rates through open (x = 523 m/hr), brushy (x= 117 m/hr), and
mixed (x = 203 m/hr) vegetation (F = 46, p = 0.05). Thus, thick vegetation will slow an
armadillo’s movement rate while foraging. Comparison of movement rates on bright moonlit
nights (x = 272 m/hr) in relation to rates on dark nights (x = 160 m/hr) showed no significant
difference (t = 0.80, p = 0.05).
The animal was found in 8 different burrows a total of 15 times (1-5 times/burrow).
Seven burrows were near the base of the ridge in heavy underbrush; the last was near the
top of the ridge beneath a flat rock, also in underbrush.
Activity periods usually began 2-3 hrs after sunset with one exception, 1 hr after sunset
during a light rain. The animal would begin foraging immediately and usually remain active
until 0.5 - 1.0 hr before dawn.
I would like to thank Dr. Frederick R. Gehlbach and Dr. Stephen C. Pierson for assisting
with the research, Dr. Anthony A. Echelle and Dr. W. Merle Alexander for helping with the
manuscript, and Mr. and Mrs. Milton L. Talbert for allowing unrestricted use of their land.
ABSTRACTS
OF
TEXAS BRANCH
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MICROBIOLOGY
Roadway Inn
El Paso, Texas
October 16-18, 1980
SPECIAL EDITOR - ASM ABSTRACTS
Rex Moyer, Ph.D.
Biology Department
Trinity University
715 Stadium Drive
San Antonio, TX 78284
Abstracts: Texas Branch American Society for Microbiology
Roadway Inn, El Paso, Texas
October 16-18, 1980
USE OF IsoVitaleX™ ENRICHMENT FOR THE GROWTH OF HAEMOPHILUS SOMNUS.
Maruice D. Asmussen and Clarence L. Baugh, Department of Microbiology, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX 79409.
The effect of IsoVitaleX on the growth of 10 strains of Haemophilus somnus was studied.
A 6- to 10-fold increase in growth was observed over a basal medium of brain-heart infusion
broth as measured turbidimetrically when a 1.0% (volume/volume) enrichment of IsoVitaleX
was utilized. Thiamine pyrophosphate, a constituent component of IsoVitaleX, was found
to be the growth promoting factor and would completely substitute for IsoVitaleX at a con¬
centration of 1.0 jllg/ml. An equal molar concentration of thiamine monophosphate promoted
growth equal to that of thiamine pyrophosphate. Thiamine was nonstimulatory for all 10
strains examined, and was found to inhibit growth in the basal medium at concentrations
equal to or exceeding the basal medium at concentrations equal to or exceeding 50 jllg/ml for
1 strain examined. When alkaline, thermal treated, brain-heart infusion broth was used as the
basal medium, 7 of the 10 strains had an absolute requirement for thiamine monophosphate or
thiamine pyrophosphate. The 3 remaining strains showed minimal growth when thiamine was
added to the alkaline, thermal treated, brain-heart infusion broth, however, excellent growth
was observed when thiamine monophosphate or thiamine pyrophosphate was utilized. Factor
X (hemin) was found to further enhance the growth when concentrations of 5-10 jltg/ml were
coupled with 1 .0 jllg/ml of thiamine pyrophosphate. No increase in growth was observed when
Factor V (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) was coupled with thiamine pyrophosphate.
MECHANISM OF ANTIGENIC COMPETITION. S. Tokuda, L. Trujillo, and R. Nofchissey,
Department of Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque,
NM 87101.
Several mechanisms have been postulated for antigenic competition. These include genera¬
tion of suppressor cells and release of soluble suppressor factors. We are studying sequential
antigenic competition between horse red blood cells and sheep red blood cells in mice. So far,
we have been unable to abrogate antigenic competition by treatment of the host either with
anti I-J alloantiserum or with low doses of cytoxan. However, we have observed that antigenic
compeition cannot be induced in mature mice over the age of 8 mo. Transfusion of thymocytes
or spleen cells from 2-3 mo old mice into mature mice does not restore antigenic competition;
instead, it increases the immune response against the second antigen. We have also observed
that antigenic competition can be induced in mature mice if non-immunosuppressive doses of
cortisone acetate are administered one day prior to the injection of the second antigen. These
findings indicate that: (1) mature (8 mo or older) mice have the suppressor cell population
responsible for antigenic competition but are unable to regulate the expression of these cells;
and (2) cortisone acetate is involved in the expression of antigenic competition.
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ACID AND ALKALINE PHOSPHATASES
IN THE SEXUAL CYCLE O V ACHLYA RECURVA. G. R. Aliaga and J.T. Ettzzy depart¬
ment of Microbiology , University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79902.
Oogonia and oospheres of Achlya recun’a have been examined by transmission electron
microscopy utilizing the Barka-Anderson modification of the Gomori reaction. Sodium
370
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
fluoride was used as an inhibitor of acid phosphatases. Acid phosphatase activity was localized
in the Golgi apparatus, mature “fingerprint” vacuoles and lysosomes of the late precleavage
oogonium and oospheres as well at the periphery of the oogonial and oosphere walls. Acid
phosphatase activity was absent in dense-body vacuoles which are the precursors of “finger¬
print” vacuoles. Levamisole was used as an inhibitor of alkaline phosphatases. Alkaline phos¬
phatase activity was primarily localized in association with the outer portion of the oogonial
wall. One interpretation of these results would be a Golgi origin of “fingerprint” vacuoles, as
well as involvement of “fingerprint” vacuoles in the formation of the early oospore wall.
TESTING FOR BETA-LACTAMASE (BL) IN THE CLINICAL LABORATORY. J. H. Austin,
MD, and R. J. Wallace, MD, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030.
Most microbiology labs test bacteria for antimicrobial sensitivity but, BL testing is not
widely utilized. The importance of detecting BL in Hemophilus influenzae (HI), Neisseria
gonorrheae (GC), staphylococci, some anaerobes and enterics has become apparent. Useful BL
techniques include: Bioassay, iodometric, acidometric (A), and the chromogenic cephalosporin
(CC). Considering ease of performance, stability, reliability, and cost, the CC and the A assays
are best for clinical lab use. Because CC is not for sale, the A technique is the best for rapid BL
determinations. This technique is useful for HI, GC, and enzyme-induced staph. Other organ¬
isms have a high incidence of false negatives. Commercial A methods (Beta-ase Tubes®, Beta-
Lactam® disks, Beta-test® strips) are equivalent, but Beta-ase Tubes® have longer shelf life.
Non-commercial A techniques using brom-cresol purple or phenol red are cheap and versatile.
Our lab usses the brom-cresol agar modification of Park’s method (A AC, 1978,13:318). The A
technique employs organisms from the primary isolation plates, and results are available in
minutes. As the incidence of BL-producing strains increases, rapid detection of BL in clinical
isolates will assume major importance.
INTRODUCTION TO RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING. James R.
Davis, Baylor College of Medicine and The Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77002.
One of the most significant developments in clinical microbiology in the last few years has
been the availability of automated equipment to perform susceptibility tests. The equipment
can be divided into 2 functional categories.
(1) Equipment which can automate 1 or more steps in existing procedures such as agar
dilution and microdilution (broth) susceptibility tests. Examples of such equipment include the
AIM-4 System (Axford Internationas, Inc.) and the MIC-2000 System (Dynatech Laboratories,
Inc.).
(2) Equipment and innovative techniques which are capable of performing rapid suscepti¬
bility tests (3-6 hr). The equipment available in Category 2 includes the Autobac (Pfizer, Inc.),
the MS-2 (Abbott Laboratories), and the AMS (Vitek Systems, Inc.). This equipment is
mechanically dependable and results are reproducible. The problems associated with them
are due principally to the short incubation times involved and the inducible resistance of
some microorganisms. Preliminary data suggest that these problems may be amenable to
changes in inoculum and/or preinduction of the culture with sub-inhibitory levels of the
antimicrobial agents.
PESTICIDE INHIBITION OF AZOTOBACTER AND RHIZOBIUM ISOLATES. H. Coleman and
R. D. Humphrey, Department of Microbiology Prairie View A & M University, Prairie View,
TX 77445.
Azotobacter and Rhizobium species were isolated from soil and legumes, respectively.
Inhibition of some of the isolates by the nitrogen containing pesticides trifluralin alachlor,
and metribuzin were evaluated. Agar diffusion and survival curves of stationary phase cultures
ASM ABST., FALL 1980
371
were used in this evaluation. Sensitivities varied among the isolates using the agar diffusion
method. Some isolates were totally resistant and others showed marked sensitivity at 800 mg.
The sensitive isolates were used to evaluate survival rates of stationary phase cultures with
the pesticide in the medium. In general, Azotobacter was more resistant than Rhizobium. For
example, 25% of A. chroococcum was viable after 4 hr exposure to trifluralin at 800 mg/ml,
and only 20% of the R. trifolii was viable under the same conditions. The ability of Azoto¬
bacter to reduce acetylene to ethylene was similarly reduced.
CLINICAL EVALUATION OF TWO AUTOMATED SYSTEMS FOR SUSCEPTIBILITY
TESTING. Charles E. Stager, Baylor College of Medicine and Ben Taub Hospital, Houston,
TX 77002.
The AutoMicrobic System Gram-Negative General Susceptibility Card (AMS) and the
Autobac Interpretative Susceptibility Test for gram-negative organisms (Autobac) were
evaluated using the Microscan microdilution MIC test panels as the reference method. Three-
hundred eighty-two recent clinical isolates were tested in this study, which included members
of the family Enterobacteriaceae and various nonfermenters. Discrepancies between the test
methods and the microdilution procedure were identified and evaluated for each microorganism-
antimicrobial combination tested. The % agreement with all discrepancies included was 89.9%
for AMS and 89.0% for Autobac. When minor discrepancies were disregarded, the % agreement
was 96.6% for AMS and 94.6% for Autobac. Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
posed the greatest challenge to the 2 automated systems, while Escherchia coli, Klebsiella
pneumoniae , Enterobacter species, Proteus mirabilis, Morganella morganii, Salmonella species,
and Shigella species showed excellent agreement.
.
. •
)
The Texas Journal of Science
Index to Volume XXXII
1980
Printed in San Angelo, Texas U.S.A.
By
The Talley Press
A
Abrus
precatorius; 55
acacia
blackbrush; 429
catclaw; 427, 430
A cacia
berlandieri; 423t, 429
greggii ; 27t, 28t, 423t, 427
rigidula; 423 1, 429
tortuosa; 423t
A carina; 233
Acer
rubrum; 438, 439, 440t
Afrin; 160, 162
agglomerates; 265
Aghayani, J. C., see Amir-Moez, A. R.
agmatic; 227
Aguilar, J. R., see Chang, M.
Akistrodon
contortrix
contort rix \ 447 1
albite; 229
Aleurites
fordii; 55, 56, 57t
allotype ; 236, 237
Alnus
serrulata; 437, 439, 440t
Aloysia
lycoiodes; 422, 423t
Alternaria
humicola; 244t, 245t
A mbrosia
ps Host achy a; 423, 424 1
American snoutbean; 428
Amir-Moez, A. R., J. C. Aghayani,
“Al-Biruni, Al-Tusi, and Newton”;
389
Amir-Moez, A. R„, R. Baransi, M. D.
Griffin, “Altitude Vectors and
Matrices”; 189
Amir-Moez, A. R., M. Goodarzi, “Al¬
gebraic Structure of Polars”; 9
amphibolite; 224, 225, 226
Anas
carolinensis;441\
Anderson, R. G., see Griffin, W. L.
Anderson, R. M., R. L. Sartain, “The
Carleman-Fourier Transform of a
Product”; 99
Andropogon; 250
perangustatus ; 247, 249, 250, 251,
25 It, 252, 25 2t, 253, 256
anerobic; 459
anthropogenic; 260
Antinori, A. A., “A Note on the Distri¬
bution of Spermophilus variegatus
in Sinaloa, Mexico”; 281
Anura; 447t
apatite; 228, 229
Aphanostephus
riddellii ; 423, 424 1
Applegate, H. G., see Gray, R. W.
Aquic; 421
Aristida
purpurea', 424t, 428
Arizona cottontop; 423, 425, 430
armadillos; 445, 446t, 463, 464t
Artemia
salina ; 5 6
A sinus', 37
calobatus\ 39t
crenidens', 37
ex cels us; 39 1
giganteus ; 37, 38, 39f, 39t, 39, 40
lambei ; 39t
niobrarensis', 39t
pad ficus', 37, 38, 39t
scotti ; 39t
Asperigillus
giganteus; 55
niger ; 243, 244t, 245, 245t
terreus; 244 1, 245, 245 1
374
augen gneiss; 223, 225, 226, 227, 229
augite; 79, 79t, 8 1 f
Auken, O. W., A. L. Ford, A. Stein,
A. G. Stein, “Woody Vegetation of
Upland Plant Communities in the
Southern Edwards Plateau”; 23
B
Balconies Escarpment; 23, 25
Baransi, R, see Amir-Moez, A. R.
Beard, E. R., see Reeves, H. C.
benthonic foraminifers; 211
bentonite; 218
Berber is
trifoliata; 27, 27t, 28 1, 29
Berchemia
scandens; 44 Ot
Berlandier wolfberry; 422, 430
biotite; 225, 227, 228
Blackbrush
acacia; 429
Blanchette, P. L., see Nixon, E. S.
Bos
taurus; 446 1
Bouteloua
trifid a ; 424t
Bowman, M. J., see Heaton, M. G.
Brachiaria
ciliatissima; 424t, 428
bracted zornia; 428
breccia; 227
bristlegrass
plains; 422, 425
Texas; 422, 429,430
Buchloe
dactyloides; 424t
Bumelia
celastrina ; 26, 27t, 28t
lanuginosa-, 25, 27 1, 28t
c
calc-silicate gneiss; 224, 226
Callicarpa
americana-, 44 Ot
Callipepla
squamata; 234, 235
Callirhoe
involucrata ; 424t, 428
Canis
familiaris ; 446 1
latrans \ 446 1
Caprina ; 1 1 6
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Caprotina ; 115, 116, 117, 121, 125,
127
quadripartita ; 123
caprotinid; 115, 116f, 119f, 119
Caprotinidae; 127
Caragana
arborescens; 55, 5 7 1
carboxymethylcellulose; 241,242, 243 1
Cardinal; 44 7 1
Carleman-Fourier transform; 99, 100,
101
Carpinus
caroliniana; 440
Carya
aquatica ; 440t
illinoensis; 151
illinoinensis; 94
Cashon, R. E., see Sund, E. H.
Casto, S.D.,“ANewGenusof Syringo-
philid Mites from Galliform Birds
in Texas”; 233
cat
domestic; 445, 446t
catclaw acacia; 427, 430
Cebull, S. E., see Shurbet, D. H.
cellulase; 241, 242, 243, 244t
Celt is; 26, 27t, 28t
lindheimeri; 26, 27t, 28t, 32
pallida; 422, 423t
reticulata; 26, 27t, 28t
Cenchrus
incertus; 423, 424t
cenizo; 429
Cenozoic; 20
Cepacol; 160
Cepastat; 160, 161, 163
Cephalanthus
occidentalis ; 440t
Cercis
canadensis; 27t, 28 1
Cetylpyridinium
chloride; 160
Chaetomium
globosum; 244t, 245, 245t
chaetotaxy; 236, 238, 239
Chang, M., S. P. Watters, J. R. Aguilar,
“Geographical Analyses of Temper¬
ature and Precipitation in Forested
East Texas”; 199
Chaperia; 121
Cheliceral; 234
Chelonia; 447t
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXII 1980
375
chicken
domestic; 447t
Chloris
cucullatcr, 423, 424t
pluri flora-, 423, 424 1
Chondrites-, 207, 209, 211
chorionogenesis; 43, 47
Cichlidae; 412
CMC; 241, 242, 243, 245
coachwhip
eastern; 447t
Coldenia
canescens-, 424t, 429
Colinophilus
wilsoni-, 233, 237
Colinus
virginianus ; 233
Colubrina
texensis; 422, 423t
Compton, R.D., L. A. Thomas, “Analy¬
sis of Air Samples for Lead and
Manganese”; 451
Co nd alia
hookeri', 26, 27 1, 28t
warnockii
warnockii-, 4 23 1, 429
Condrichthys; 433
copperhead
southern; 447t
Corvus
brachyrhynchos; 447 1
coyote; 446t
coyotillo; 429
creosote bush; 429
crow
common; 447t
Cruziana-, 207, 209, 21 1, 212
Cumulic Argiustolls; 421
Cyclestheria
hislopi; 175, 176
Cynodon; 250
dactylon; 247, 249, 250, 251 , 251t,
252, 252t, 253, 254, 254t, 255t,
256, 257
cytodifferentiation; 49
Cytsus
sco pa riu S ', 55, 5 7 1
D
Dalquest, W. W., “The Upper Incisors of
the Giant Horse, Asinus giganteus"-,
37
Dasylirion
texanum ; 26, 27t, 28t
Dasypus
novemcinctus-, 446t, 463
Davis, E. R.,“New Species of Caprotinid
Rudists from the Fredericksburg
Group (Albian) of North Central
Texas”; 115
Dawson, W. C., D. F. Reaser, “ Rhizo -
corallium in the Upper Austin
Chalk: Ellis County, Texas”; 207
deer
w^ite-tailed; 446t
Delmita; 421
desert yaupon; 422, 430
Did el phis
virginiana\ 446t
Digit aria
californica; 423, 424t
Dillin, D. R., see Watson, D.
diorite; 225
Diospyros
texana; 23, 26, 27, 27t, 28t, 29, 31t,
32, 33, 423t
Dodd, J. D„ see Webb, J. W.
dogweed
bristleleaf; 429
dog
domestic; 445, 446t
domichnia; 210
Dorsal
idiosoma; 234, 236
dove
mourning; 445, 447t
Drawe, D. L., I. Higginbotham, Jr.,
“Plant Communities of the Zachry
Ranch in the South Texas Plains”;
419
Duration; 160, 162, 163
Dutchman’s britches; 429
Dy2+; 167, 168, 168t, 169t, 170t, 171t,
172, 172t
Dyssodia
tenuiloba-, 424t, 429
E
Eagle Ford Shale; 216
Edwards Plateau; 23, 24, 25, 25 f, 28t,
29,30, 30t, 3 It, 32, 33
enameloid; 434
Environmental Protection Agency; 451
Eocene; 78
376
Eoradiolites ; 115
Ephedra
antisyphilitica ; 423t
epidote; 79, 79t, 80, 81f, 85t, 227, 228
epithelium-syncytium; 43, 47
Equus; 37
burchellii ; 39f, 39t
caballus-, 39t
simplicidens; 39t
Eragrostis
curtipedicellata; 423, 424t
oxylepis ; 424t
secundi flora-, 424t, 428
sessilispica; 428
Etheostoma
lepidum; 140
spectabile; 129, 130, 130f, 132,
135, 136, 138f, 138, 139, 140
Euclidean; 9, 13, 14, 15
Euonymus
europaeus; 55, 57t
Eysenhardtia
texana\ 27, 27t, 28 1, 423t, 429
F
feldspar; 227
Felis
domestica-, 446t
Flores, R. M., see Shideler, G. L.
Font, R. G., “The Value of Electrical
Resistivity Surveys in Geotechnical
Investigations in North-Central
Texas - A Case History”; 215
Ford, A. L., see Auken, O. W.
fox
gray; 446t
Fringillidae; 44 7t
frogs; 447t
Fusarium
episphaeria-, 244t, 245t
oxysporum; 243, 244t, 245, 245t
solani\ 244t, 245t
G
Galliformes; 234, 235, 237
Gallup Organization; 271
G alius
gallus; 44 7 1
Garceno; 421
garnet; 79, 79t, 8 If, 85t, 227, 228
Geomys
bursa riu S', 44 6 1
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
gibberellic acid; 151
gibberellin; 151
Glen Rose; 23, 24, 25, 25 f, 28t, 29,
30t, 3 1 1 , 32, 33
Gnathosoma; 234, 236, 238
Gochnatia
hypoleuca-, 423t, 249
Goodarzi, M., see Amir-Moez, A. R.
gopher
pocket
plains; 446t
grama
red; 425, 429
granjeno; 422, 427, 430
granodiorite; 225
Gray, R. W., H. G. Applegate, W. R.
Roser, “Analysis of Particulates
by Scanning Electron Microscopy
and Ion Probe”; 259
Griffin, M. D., see Amir-Moez, A. R.
Griffin, W. L., R. G. Anderson, R. R.
St ickney, R. E. W hit son , ‘ ‘Bioe conom ic
Assessment of a Poultry Sewage and
Tilapia Aquaculture System”; 411
Grossarenic Paleustalfs; 421
groundcherry; 423, 428, 430
Grajardo, M., see Ramirez, S. A.
guajillo; 429
guayacan; 422, 429, 430
Gymnorhinus
cyanocephalus\ 175
H
Hamilton, K. L., “Cannibalism and
Possible Fratricide in Juvenile Barn
Owls”; 175
Hartree-Fock; 169
Heaton, M.G., R.J. Wilke, M.J. Bowman,
“Formation of Tar Balls in a Simu¬
lated Oceanic Front”; 265
hematite; 79, 79t, 8 If, 82f, 83, 85 1
Hermitian; 190
Higginbotham, Jr., S., see Drawe, D. L.
Higgins, J. W., see Nixon, E. S.
hogplum; 422
Holocene; 59
Horiopleura ; 121
hornblende; 79, 79t, 80, 8 If, 82f, 85 1,
225, 227, 228, 229
Horner, N. V., see Roberts, R.
HPLC; 159, 161, 163, 163t
Hybodontiformes; 433
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXII 1980
hypersthene; 79, 79t, 8 If
hyperthermic; 421
hypostomal; 234, 236, 238
hypterosomal; 234, 235, 236, 237, 238
I
ichno faunas; 211
ichnofossils; 211
idiosomal; 234
Ilex
opaca; 440t
ilmenite; 79, 79t, 80, 81f, 82f, 83,
85 1
indicolite; 79, 79t, 8 1 f
Irvin, J. D., see Reynolds, R.
Itea
virginica , 431 , 439, 440t
J
Jatropha
multifida; 56, 5 7t
Juniperus
ashei ; 23, 24, 26, 27, 27t, 28t, 29,
3 1 1, 32, 33,463
virginiana-, 440t
K
Kalamotry petes ; 234, 235
colinastes; 234, 235f, 236f, 237
pavodaptes ; 237, 238, 239f
Karwinskia
humboldtiana ; 423t, 249
Kennedy, E. T., see Watson, D.
Kidneywood
Texas; 429
kingsnake
prairie; 447 1
speckled; 447t
knotgrass; 428, 430
Koerth, B. H., see Webb, J . W.
kyanite; 79, 79t, 8 If
L
Laburnum
alpinum ; 55, 5 7 1
Lampropeltis
calligastcr
calligaster ; 447 1
getulus
holbrooki\ 447 1
377
Lantana
macropoda\ 424t
Larrea
divaricata-, 423t, 249
Lepus
calif ornicus\ 44 6 1
Leucophyllum
frutescens ; 423t, 429
Ligustrum; 439, 440t
limonite; 79, 79t, 8 If, 82f, 83, 85 1
Liquidamber
styraciflua ; 438, 440t
Listerine; 160, 161, 162, 163, 164f
Loligo
brevis-, 44
pealei ; 43, 44, 49, 5 It
Lonicera
japonice ; 44 Ot
loring; 196
Lorinseria
areolata; 438
lotebush; 427, 430
lovegrass
gummy; 423, 425, 430
red; 428
tumble; 428
Lycium
berlandieri; 422, 423 1
M
MacLeod, N., B. H. Slaughter, “A New
Ptychodontid Shark from the Upper
Cretaceous of Northeast Texas”;
433
magnetite; 79, 79t, 80, 8 If, 82f, 83,
85 1, 228
Magnolia
virginiana ; 437, 438, 439,440, 440t
Marathon Mountains; 20
Marsh , E. , “The Eff ects of Temperature
and Photoperiod on the Termination
of Spawning in the Orangethroat
Darter ( Etheostoma spectabile) in
Central Texas”; 129
Martin, R. F., see Mosier, D. T.
Masticophis
flagellum
flagellum ; 447 1
meadowlark
eastern; 445, 447t
Meleagrididae; 233, 237
378
Meleagris
gallopavo; 233, 237
Mephitis
mephitis ; 44 6 1
Mesozoic; 17, 20
mesquite; 427
honey; 422
meta-aplite; 224
metagranite; 224
metasomatism; 229, 230
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese
tricarbonyl (MMT) ; 45 1 , 45 2
micas; 79, 79t, 8 If
Micrin; 160
microcline; 223, 226, 227, 228, 229
migmatite; 223, 224, 226, 227, 228
Miller, J . D., “Maxima of Functions”;
109
Mimus
polyglottos\ 447t
minerals
ferromagnesian; 80
heavy; 73, 74, 75, 78, 78f, 79, 79t,
80,84,87,88,89, 90
mafic; 77
opaque; 73, 75, 79, 79t, 80, 83, 84,
87,88,89
Miocene; 78
MMT; 751, 452
mockingbird; 445, 447t
Mollic Cambrothids; 421
Monopleura', 116, 118, 121
montmorillonite; 218
monzonite; 225
Morus
mbra; 440t
Mosier, D. T., R. F. Martin, “Central
Texas Breeding of the American
Woodcock, Philohela minor ”; 94
mucopolysaccharides; 47
Mucor\ 244t, 245t
Muscivora
for fie, 44 7 1
muscovite; 228
schist; 224
Mutis-Duplat, E., “Lost Creek Gneiss in
the Purdy Hill Quadrangle, Mason
County, Texas”; 223
mycorrhizal; 241
Myrica
heterophylla ; 440t
myrmekite; 229
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
N
Nelson, H. A., see Sheinberg, S. G.
Niglarobia', 233
Nixon, E. S. , J.W. Higgins, E L. Blanchette,
F. A. Roth, “Woody Vegetation of a
Wet Creek Branch in East Texas”; 437
Nyssa
aquatica \ 441
sylvatica; 437, 438,439, 440, 440t
o
occlusal; 434
Odo co ileus
virginianus \ 420, 446t
Onoclea
sensibilis ; 438
oocytes; 43, 44, 45 f, 45, 46, 49, 50t,
52, 53
oogenesis; 43, 44, 48, 52
ooplasm; 47, 52
opossums; 445, 446t
oreja de perro; 429
Ortega, J.,“Cellulase Activities of Soil
Fungi”; 241
Osmund a
cinnamomea; 438
Ostrya
virginiana ; 440
Ouachita system; 20
oxymetazoline; 160, 163, 165f
P
Pachytraga ; 115, 119, 127
davisarum; 116, 119, 120, 128
jubilensis ; 1 2 1
kafenensis\ 121
Packsaddle Schist; 223, 224, 225, 226
230
painted bunting; 445, 447t
Paleozic; 17, 18f, 19f, 20
Paleustalf
Ardic Petrocalcic; 421
Arenic; 421
Palkowetz, J. M., R. J. Palma, “High
Pressure Liquid Chromatography
of Common Pharmaceuticals: An
Undergraduate Experiment for In¬
strumental Analysis Laboratory”;
159
Palma, R. J., see Palkowetz, J. M.
palpal; 234
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXII 1980
379
Pangaea I; 20
Panicum ; 250
amamm ; 247, 249, 249f, 250, 251,
25 1 1 , 252, 252t, 253, 253t, 255,
255t, 256,257
Pao, C. I., see Whitenberg, D. C.
Pappophorum
bicolor; 423, 424t
pappusgrass
pink; 423
paragenital; 234
Parthenium
confertum; 423, 424t
paspalum
thin; 428
Paspalum
setacum
ciliati folium-, 424t, 428
Passerina
ciris; 44 7 1
Pecari
tajacu; 425
pegmatites; 79, 7 9t, 8 If
Peritreme; 234, 235f, 236
perthite; 223, 228
Phasianidae; 234, 235
Philohela
minor ; 94
Phoradendron
serotinum; 56, 5 7t
photoarylation; 457
photocyclization; 457, 459
photolysis; 460
photoreactions; 457, 459
Physalis
cisco sa
cinerascens; 423, 424 1
Phytolacca
americana ; 5 5
plagioclase; 227 , 228, 229
Plagioptychus
cordatus; 115
Planer a
aquatica; 440
Planolitcs; 207, 209, 211
Pleistocene
American; 37, 39t, 39, 40
pleochroic; 229
Pliocene; 78
poikilitic; 229
poikilothermic; 139
poppy mallow; 428
Porlieria
angustifolia; 422, 423t
porphyroblasts; 223, 227, 228, 229
Praeradiolites ; 128
Precambrian; 17, 19f
Procyon
lotor; 446t
propodosomal; 234, 236, 237, 238
Pro so pis
glandulosa; 26, 27t, 28t, 419, 42 3t ,
463
protein; 55, 56
abrin; 55
alpha sarcin; 55
antiviral; 56
eukaryotic; 55
ricir; 55
proteinaceous inhibitors; 55
Proto-Gulf ; 20
Prunus
serotina; 26, 27t, 28t, 440t
Pseudobilob it es; 207, 209
Ptelea
trifoliata; 27 1, 28t
Ptychodontidae; 433, 434, 435
Ptychodus; 433, 434
connellyi ; 433, 434f, 435
decurens; 435
mortoni; 435
poly gyrus; 435
rugosus; 434, 435
whippleyi ; 435
pyroxene; 79, 79t, 80, 81, 8 1 f , 82f,
83, 85t
Q
quartz
syenite; 225
quartzite; 224, 226
Quercus
alba ; 440
fusiformis ; 23, 26, 27, 27t, 28t, 29
3 1 1 , 32, 33, 463
lyrata; 440
nigra; 440
tcxana ; 27, 27t, 28t, 29, 32
R
rabbits
cottontail
Eastern; 445, 446t
raccoon; 446t
380
ragweed
false; 423, 425, 429, 430
western; 423, 425
Ramadero; 421
Ramirez, R., see Synek, M.
Ramirez, S. A., M. Guajardo, “A Cyto-
logical and Histochemical Analysis
of the Ovarian Follicle Cells of the
South Texas Squid ( Loligo pealei )”;
43
Rao, C. R., “Theory of Optimal Selec¬
tion of Prey Species”; 143
rat
cotton
Hispid; 445, 446t
Ratliff, E., “An Algebraic System Per¬
taining to a Loop”; 195
Reaser, D. F., see Dawson, W. C.
Reeves, J. B., see Reeves, H. C.
Reeves, H.C., E.R. Beard, J. B. Reeves,
“Forestry Knowledge and Attitudes
of Texas Sierra Club Members”; 269
Requienia; 116
Reynolds, R., J. D. Irvin, “A Survey
of Selected Plants for the Presence
of Eukaryotic Protein Biosynthesis
Inhibitors”; 55
Rhizo cor allium ; 207, 208, 209f, 21 Of,
211, 212
jenense’, 210
rhodegrass
false
multiflowered; 423, 425
Rhododendron
cane see ns ; 440t
Rhus
lanceolata; 26, 27t, 28t
virens\ 27, 27t, 28t, 32
Rhynchosia
americana’, 424t, 428
rhyolitic; 230
ribosome
eukaryotic; 55
Richmond ena
cardinalis’, 447 1
Ricinus
communis’, 5 5
Riddel daisy; 423, 425,429, 430
Roberts, R., N. V. Horner, “The Fleas
of the Thirteen-Lined Ground
Squirrels of Wichita County, Texas”;
281
robin; 445, 447 1
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Robinia
pseudoacacia ; 55 , 56, 57t
Roser, W. R., see Gray, R. W.
Roth, F. A., see Nixon, E. S.
Rubus; 440t
rudists
caprotinid; 115, 116f, 119f, 119
rutile; 79, 79t, 81f
s
Salvia
ballo tae folia’, 423 1
Sambucus
canadensis’, 437, 439, 440t
sand dropseed;428
sandbur
common; 423, 425, 428, 430
Sarita; 421
Sartain, R. L., see Anderson, R. M.
Schaefferia
cuneifolia’, 422, 423t
Schmidly, D. J., see Wilkins, K. T.
scissortail flycatcher; 445, 447t
Sciurus
niger\ 446t
sclerotized; 234, 237
Scope; 160, 161, 163
Sellaea-, 115, 116, 117, 119f, 121, 122f,
127, 128
elongata’, 116, 120, 121f, 122f, 122,
123, 124, 127
globosa- 116, 120, 121f, 122f, 122,
123, 125, 127, 128
minuta\ 116, 119f, 121f, 122f, 123,
125, 126, 127, 128
ziczac’, 116, 119, 119f, 1 2 1 f, 122f,
125, 126, 127
Senico
longilobus’, 4 24 1, 429
sericite; 229
setae; 234, 235,237,238,239
Setaria
firmula ; 424t, 428
leucopila’, 422, 424t
texana \ 422, 424t
Sheinberg, S. G., D. Smith, H. A- Nelson,
“Definitions of Pornography: A Pre-
Test of the Importance of Content
and Context”; 279
Shideler, G. L., “Reconnaissance Obser¬
vations of Some Factors Influencing
the Turbidity Structure of a Restric¬
ted Estuary: Corpus Christi Bay,
Texas”; 59
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXII 1980
Shideler, G. L., R.M. Flores, “Heavy-
Mineral Variability in Fluvial Sedi¬
ments of the Lower Rio Grande,
Southwestern Texas”; 73
Shurbet, D. H., “Propagation of Shear
Waves Across Fossil Plate Bounda¬
ries”; 405
Shurbet, D. H., S. E.Cebull, “Tabosa-
De la ware Basin as an Aulacogen”;
17
Sierra Club; 269, 271, 272t, 273t, 274,
275t, 276,277
Sigmodon
hispidus; 44 6 1
signalgrass
fringed; 428
Sissom, S. L., “An Occurrence of Cyc-
lestheria hislopi in North America”;
175
skunk
striped; 445, 446t
Slaughter, B. H., see MacLeod, N.
Smilax
laurifolia; 439, 440t
rotundifolia; 440t
Smith, D., see Sheinberg, S. G.
Sophora
japonica; 55, 57t
secundiflora-, 26, 27, 27t, 28t, 29
Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen; 17, 18f,
18
sparrow
house; 445, 447t
Spermophilus
tridecemlineatus
texensis ; 281
variegatus’, 281
sphene; 228
squirrel
fox; 446t
Srinivasan, V. K., “An Equivalent Condi¬
tion for the Continuity of a f unc¬
tion”; 176
staurolite; 79, 79t, 8 1 f
Stein, A., see Auken, O. W.
Stein, A. G., see Auken, O. W.
Stickney, R. R., see Griffin, W. L.
Sturnclla
magna ; 447 1
stylophore; 234, 235, 236, 237
subloring; 196
sudanophilic; 47, 48
381
Sund , E. H. , R. E. Cashon, R. L. Taylor,
“2-Alkyl-3-(2-Pyridyl)-Cinchoninic
Acids”; 93
Sylvilagus
floridanus’, 446 1
Synek, M., R. Ramirez, “Analytical
SCF Wave Functions for Excited
States of Dy2+”; 167
Syringophilidae; 233
T
Tabosa-Delaware Basin; 17, 18f, 19f, 20
Tax odium
distichum ; 441
Taylor
Expansion; 10, 13
Series; 9, 15
Taylor, R. L., see Sund, E. H.
teal
green-winged; 445, 447t
Terrapene
ornata
ornata1, 447 1
Texicaprina ; 128
Thalassinoides ; 207, 209, 211
Thamnosma
texana \ 424t, 429
Thomas, L. A., see Compton, R. D.
Thomas, W. D., “Summer Movement of
a Male Armadillo in Central Texas”;
463
thrasher
brown; 447t
threadleaf groundsel; 429
threeawn
purple; 428
tibiotarsus; 234
Tilapia- 411, 412, 413, 413t, 414, 415t,
416, 417, 4 1 7t
toads; 447t
Tonelli-Hobson Theorem; 102
Toucasia-, 1 16
tourmaline; 79, 79t, 8 If, 85 1
Toxostoma
rufutrr, 447 1
trans-indoline; 457
Trevino, G., “On the Space-Varying
Spectral Tensor of Inhomogeneous
Turbulence”; 393
Tridens
muticus; 424t
trochanters; 236
382
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Turd us
migratorius; 44 7 1
turtle
box; 447t
Typic Psammaquents; 438
u
Ulex
europaeus ; 56, 57t
Ulmus
americana; 44 Ot
crassifolia; 26, 27, 27t, 28t, 32
rubra; 440t
Ungnadia
speciosa ; 26, 27t, 28t
Urocyon
cinereoargenteus ; 446t
Ustollic
Cambrothids; 421
Paleorthids; 421
V
Vaccinium
arkansanum ; 437, 439, 440t
Vaseyochloa
multinervosa; 428
veinyleaf lantana; 429
Venter; 235f, 236f, 238f, 239f
Ventral
Idiosoma; 235, 237, 238, 239
Verbena
plicata ; 424t, 430
Viburnum
nudum ; 440t
vine ephedra; 430
vitellogenesis; 43, 131
w
Watson, D., E. T. Kennedy, D. R. Dillin,
“Photochemical Investigations of
4 -(N-Me t hylanili nop ent -3 -en -2-one”;
457
Watters, S. P., see Chang, M.
Webb, J. W., J. D. Dodd, B. H. Koerth,
“Establishment and Growth of
Grass Species Transplanted on
Dredged Material”; 247
white lantana; 430
whitebrush; 422, 425, 430
Whitenberg, D. C., C. I. Pao, “Charac¬
teristics of a Lipase from Carya
illinoensis” ; 151
Whitson, R. E., see Griffin, W. L.
Wilderness Society; 269
Wilke, R. J., see Heaton, M. G.
Wilkins, K. T., D. J. Schmidly, “High¬
way Mortality of Vertebrates in
Southeastern Texas”; 443
windmillgrass
hooded; 423, 425, 428, 430
Yucca y
Yucca ; 26, 27t, 28t
z
Zanthoxylum
f agar a; 423 1
Zenaidura
macroura; 447t
zircon; 79, 79t, 80, 8 1 f , 85t, 228, 229
Ziziphus
obtusifolia ; 423t, 427
Zornia
brae teat a; 4 24 1, 428
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