Full text of "The Texas journal of science"

See other formats

-.'Til)'' :

■

:V-n.>;,s

"Vv^- ;:vf^ • '; ■ ■ s .. tV:

t'r-'t WS$i'

THE

MARCH 30, 1951

,3:50459

£RE«

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY
TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

THE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951)

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological
V. Pres. Sec. III. Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological

C. C. Doak
Willis G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair
C D. Leake
D. B. Calvin
W. Frank Blair
Roy Donahue
Horace R. Blank

V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young
Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte

Junior Academy Greta Oppe

A and M College
Texas Christian U.
P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of
G. F. O. C.

Medical Br., U. of
Medical Br., U. of
Medical Br., U. of
Univ. of Texas
A and M Coliege
A and M College
A and M College
A and M College
Ball High

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Elected Director W.
Elected Director
Elected Director

W. R. Woolrich, Dean
L. W. Blau
E. DeGolyer
J. Brian Eby
0. S. Petty

C. C. Doak
W. G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
Armstrong Price
Gordon Gunter
Don O. Baird

A and M College
Texas Christian U.

P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of T.
A and M College
Marine Inst., U. of T.
S.H.S.T.C.

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950)
Engineering, U. of T.
Humble Oil & Refining Co.
DeGolyer & McNaughton
Consulting Geologist
Petty Geophysical Co.

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
Rockport
. Galveston
Galveston
Galveston
Austin
College Station
College Station
College Station
College Station
Galveston

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
College Station
Port Aransas
Huntsville

Austin
Houston
Dallas
Houston
San Antonio

Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews,

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardirs-Simraons
Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C.

Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brownwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M.

Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C.

Corpus Christi

R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U.
Dallas

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U.

V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly
Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.
Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, TexaB Wesleyan

Geology, University of Houston
Freeport

C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Oo.
Galveston

C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech
J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech

Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C.
E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word
J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research
Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

Volume III, No. 1 Published Quarterly at

March 30, 1951 San Marcos, Texas

(Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Texas, March 21, 1949)

The Texas Journal of Science

— ★ —

EDITOR IN CHIEF

J, L. Baughman
Box 867, Rockport, Texas

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Charles F. Squire
Dept, of Physics
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

W. Frank Blair
Dept, of Zoology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. J. Brian Eby
Consulting Geologist,
1404 Esperson Building
Houston, Texas

Dr. L. W. Blau
Research Consultant,
Humble Oil and Refining
Company,

Houston, Texas

Dr. J. C. Godbey
Dept, of Chemistry
Southwestern University
Georgetown, Texas

Dr. John G. Sinclair
Dept, of Anatomy,
Medical Branch,
University of Texas,
Galveston, Texas

Dr. Frank E. Luksa
Dept, of Sociology
Southwestern University
Georgetown, Texas

Dr. Clark Hubbs
Dept, of Zoology
University of Texas
Austin, Texas

ADVERTISING MANAGER

Guy N. Turner
1404 Esperson Building
Houston, Texas

Volume III

Number 1

CONTENTS

Mrs. Walter William Fondren, A Great Texan - 1

Man and the Landscape. Erik K. Reed... - 4

Paper Parade. David R. Weiser _ 8

Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters. C. M. Shigley _ 21

Seeing the Molecule. Jiirg Waser _ _ .. 30

Nature of Ocean Currents in the Gulf of Mexico. Dale F. Leipper _ 41

Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution. Frank J. Metyko _ ... 45

Evolutionary Significance of Geographic Variation in

Population Density. W. Frank Blair _ 5 3

Paleoecology. James Lee Wilson _ ... 5 8

Psychological Re-examination of Children Treated in a
Psychiatric Clinic.

Genette Burruss, Don P. Morris, J. H. Siegel, and C. Crow _ 66

Marine Microbiology. O. B. Williams _ 69

Irrigation in Texas: The Outlook. William F. Hughes _ 76

One-Dimensional Shock Waves. Thomas J. White _ 79

The Crystal Structure of Rutile-Like Heavy Metal

Orthovanadates. L. W. Vernon and W. O. Milligan _ 82

Educational Requirements for Fishery Biologists. Frank T. Knapp . . . . 86

New Cyprinid Fishes of the Genus Notropis from Texas.

Carl L. Hubbs and Kelshaw Bonham _ _ 91

A Marine Tardigrade from the Gulf of Mexico. B. G. Chitwood _ 111

Echinoderella steineri new species (Scolecida, Echinodera) .

B. G. Chitwood _ 113

Distribution of Nematopsis Infection on the Oyster Grounds of the
Chesapeake Bay and in Other Waters of the Atlantic Gulf States.

Helen Landau and Paul S. Galtsoff _ 115

The Biology of T riatoma protract a woodi Usinger Under

Laboratory Conditions. Dorothy Eben and Richard B. Eads _ 131

Fishes, New, Rare or Seldom Recorded from the Texas Coast.

Gordon Gunter and Frank T. Knapp _ 134

The Physiological Significance of the Cerebro-Hepatic Distribution

of Cyanide. Ernest Beerstecher, Jr. and H. George Hammon _ 139

Notes _ 141

Abstracts _ 142

Book Reviews _ 1_ _ _ 143

Mrs. Walter William Fondren, a great Texan

FONDREN SCIENCE BUILDING Southern Methodist University, Dallas. Texas,
where the Texas Academy of Science met in 1950.

MRS. WALTER WILLIAM FONDREN

A GREAT TEXAN

Every member of the Texas Academy of Science and, indeed, every
citizen of Texas owes a debt to Mrs. Walter William Fondren of Houston.
For the furthering of research and of education, the discovery and trans¬
mission of knowledge, obviously are matters which touch the lives of all,
and few living people have made more direct contributions to the advance¬
ment of higher education in the South than this modest and unassuming lady.

Born in Kentucky, Mrs. Fondren came to Texas in 1905 and soon
entered enthusiastically into a career of enlightened philanthrophy and pub¬
lic service. As a member of the boards of many institutions and organiza¬
tions, among them Southern Methodist University, Scarritt College, the
Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America, and the United Council
of Church Women, she has assisted in the direction of major agencies for
good. She has donated millions of dollars which have made possible the erec-

THE FONDREN LIBRARY at the Rice Institute. The home of the Texas Academv
of Science Library.

tion of educational buildings. The most recent of these is the new classroom
building at Scarritt College in Nashville. The Fondren Library and the
Fondren Science Building at Southern Methodist University and the Fondren
Library at the Rice Institute, the last a memorial to the late Walter William
Fondren, are evidence of her generosity. The annual meetings of the Texas
Academy for 1949 and 1950 were held in the buildings at Rice and at
S.M.U., and the Academy’s library is housed in the Fondren Library.

Although she has been awarded a doctoral degree and is listed in who’s
who in America, Mrs. Fondren still insists that she is "just a country girl
come to town.” Perhaps this modesty and this simplicity lie at the root of her
competence. For there is genius in philanthrophy as in all things, and Mrs.
Fondren has demonstrated the rare ability of knowing how to give so that
her gifts will be of lasting service to society. The magnificent structures
which bear her name are not mere monuments but active educational agen¬
cies. Her ability to maintain intelligent and continuing interest in their
activities is as laudable as her tactful withdrawal from their administrative
operations.

She said recently, "My interest has always been in future generations.”
The Texas Academy of Science pays tribute to this interest and to a great
Texan.

a .2

r<? "T3

P-: o
J3

~c a
•3 o

c/3 CO

8.^

-c X

c/) JT

<rt P e-

sat

<u rP

fld * «

c i»^p
£ S o
*"• o-c
- It! al

« to „

^ -d .is

> ou

<u o'?

W3 tj
<D <U ^

31*

^ g|

’n d.

age
C/3 O G
OJH .
Cm «

«> 52^

tsS «»

jHH
< r «T

ac g^

Z3d

in o

gs.fr

K '-m c«

Z o *■«

g ° g»
^ S*s
43 5

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

MAN AND THE LANDSCAPE

ERIK K. REED

Regional Archaeologist
National Park Service
Santa Fe, New Mexico

THE EFFECTS OF EARLY MAN ON THE EARTH; PRIMITIVE HUNTERS
AS PART OF THE LANDSCAPE

Man was originally one of the scarcer animals, but he was already dis¬
tinguished from other large mammals by his use of tools and weapons—
the beginning of exploitation of resources.

Yet the effects of early man on the face of the earth were compara¬
tively minor. Man was, at first, simply part of the natural landscape. A few
sticks and stones were utilized. Mild predation on small animals of various
kinds supplemented primary subsistence on wild plant foods.

The first important exception becomes evident late in the Old Stone
Age, say twenty thousand years ago, but might go back much earlier in
human history. That activity was mass killing of large animals, by surrounds,
fire drives, and the like. It is even possible that the extinction of certain
species was hastened by such large-scale hunting.

Very early in the history of mankind, tools were made of chipped
stone; no doubt also of wood, long since disintegrated without leaving a
trace. The use of animal bones for tools and weapons also goes far back,
perhaps as far as the first working of stone, perhaps even farther. Basketry
and bark containers were made at an ancient stage of human history. The
way of life of the early food-collectors was more complex and varied, evi¬
dently, than might be supposed. Even the rather sophisticated practive of
cannibalism can be traced back to the extraction of brains, in exactly the
same manner as by modern Dyak head-hunters of Borneo, by the Ngandong
man of Upper Pleistocene Java ( Homo soloensis) and the still earlier Pekin
man ( Sinanthropus pekinensis) ; and it appears to be foreshadowed among
the South African man-apes (Ausiralopithecinae) , who similarly bashed in
the heads of baboons more than a million years ago.

Fire was known as early as the Middle Pleistocene, several hundred
thousand years ago, by the Pekin man (Sinanthropus) of North China. The
beginnings of social organization and religion may be seen in the deliberate
burial of the dead, practiced by Neanderthal man in Europe more than fifty
thousand years ago. In the field of art, the cave paintings and ittle statuettes
of later Stone Age men in Europe are famous.

Numerous mineral and organic materials were used by early man for
various purposes, but all the activities of the primitive people of the Old
Stone Age were of little moment in the history of the world as a whole,
compared to the modification of the natural landscape wrought by civilized
man. Until less than ten thousand years ago, man had not even begun to
change and destroy the face of the earth.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Man and the Landscape

THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION; HUMAN EXPLOITATION
OF THE EARTH’S RESOURCES

More than seven thousand years ago, shortly before 5000 B. C., some¬
where in the Middle East, the basic elements of civilization were developd.
These basic elements include the domestication of plants and animals, the
building of houses, new and improved techniques of working stone, the
making of pottery, and the utilization of metals. These did not all begin
together at the same time and place; permanent settlements and agriculture
seem to have come first, mining and metallury last. Nor did the new ideas
spread to all peoples immediately; in fact, the aborigines of Australia were
still in the Old Stone Age through the eighteenth century of our era. But all
these fundamental inventions came about within a brief space of time — quite
recently, compared to the many millenia of the very slowly changing Palaeo¬
lithic cultures.

Together, these new elements form a culture complex representing a
way of life vastly different from that of the early hunters of the Old Stone
Age. The "'food-producing revolution,” as it might be termed, was far more
tremendous than the later "industrial revolution.” The most significant de¬
velopment was that of settled life in permanent villages, instead of a wan¬
dering existence in little bands of food collectors.

The most important result was the rapid increase of human population,
owing to the greatly extended food supply made available through agricul¬
ture. The increase in the number of people brought about in turn expansion
of farming, house building, forest cutting, stone quarrying, and related
activities. Exploitation of mineral resources changed from mere utilization
of available pebbles to quarrying or mining of building stone and flint, metals
and salt; the beginning of the process that is now concentrated on petroleum
and uranium.

As civilization spread, forests began to dwindle, through the cutting
of timber for buildings and the clearing of land for fields and pastures.
The depletion of game animals by intentional killing (systematic hunting)
probably did not increase proportionately to the growth of human popula¬
tion, because of the new emphasis on cereals and other crop plants as the
main source of food. But the clearing of land and the felling of trees, then
the establishment of cultivated fields and the installation of irrigation
ditches, no doubt began at once the process of reducing the range available
for animals of all kinds, large and small. Furthermore, destruction of the land
itself, exhaustion of topsoil and incidence of erosion, were initiated by the
first extensive farming.

Man’s exploitation of all these resources thus began several thousand
years ago and has accelerated ever since, with the development of more and
more needs and methods and with the continuing increase of human popu¬
lation from the first farms to the present time. Yet the natural resources of
the world have not become perceptibly more abundant. As the number of
people grew and civilization spread, villages became cities and there arose a
complex organization of society, with much greater employment of natural
resources and consequent destructive modification of the natural landscape.
The discovery of iron production, some three thousand years ago, caused
still further augmentation of population, of urbanization, and of exploita¬
tion; it marks the close of a first phase in the history of civilization; of

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

rather, the beginning of a second phase, of tremendous expansion of the
way of human life already basically established four thousand years before.

THE IRON age; THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF HISTORY

A date near 1100 B. C. may be given as the approximate time at which
iron came into general use. By then the bronze-age civilizations of China,
India, Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, Anatolia, Crete, and Egypt had
already risen and declined and had been disturbed or destroyed (as in India
and Crete) by the irruption of Indo-European or other barbaric invaders.
Villages, agriculture, livestock, pottery, bronze, and other basic traits of
Mediterranean- Asiatic civilization had long since spread north across Europe
all the way to Britain and Scandinavia.

The limits of the civilized world three thousand years ago might be set
roughly as the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans; the Sahara and the Sudan, the
Indian Ocean; a line across north central or northwestern India into the
Himalayas; the Yangtze River, and the coast of North China; and a line
from somewhere in Manchuria back westward across northern Asia to the
Baltic Sea, with parts of Siberia (such as the Minussinsk district of the
upper Yenisei) within the sphere of what we are calling civilization.

Throughout most of this vast Eurasian-Mediterranean continuum,
people lived either as pastoralists moving their herds and flocks within fairly
definite limits or else as settled farmers concentrated in villages and towns.
Crafts such as metallurgy and ceramics were practiced. Very few groups
lived as bands of wandering food-collectors following wild game, except
outside this zone in the yet undeveloped continents of Africa, America, and
Australia.

In the early and middle centuries of the first millenium B. C., the Chou
Dyasty united much of China; the historic civilization of Indian unfolded;
peoples such as the Persians and Assyrians rose to power in the Near East;
classical Greece flourished; and Rome was founded (as a village under
Etruscan dominion). Along with such military and political developments
came further population growth and still heavier exploitation of natural
resources.

The years from about 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. were a period og
powerful unified military empires — the Roman in the west, the Parthian
in the Near East, the Han Dynasty in China. Northern India in this period
was partly under Greco-Bactrian and then "Scythian” control, partly under
native dynasties, while Buddhism declined from its peak at the beginning
of this period.

Not subjugated by any of the great civilized states were the Teutonic
peoples of Germany and Scandinavia, the Slavic and Finno-Ugrian peoples
of the Russian area, the Turko-Tatar nations of Central Asia, and Indo-
nesian-Malayan and other tribes of southern China, southeastern Asia, and
the East Indies, as well as the African Negroes and South African Bushmen,
the aborigines of Australia, the Ainu in the northerly Japanese islands, and
the American Indians of the New World and their relatives in northeastern
Asia.

Throughout the complex military and political history of the last
thousand or fifteen hundred years before Christ, with vast shifts of groups
of population, migration, conquests, and crusades, with heightening contacts

1951, No. 1
March 30

Man and the Landscape

and interconnections throughout the civilized world from Atlantic Europe
to North China, there was actually little basic change in the general way of
life or in the methods and scope of exploitation of natural resources. Popu¬
lation continued to increase, however, and population pressures undoubted¬
ly were fundamentally responsible for successive Asiatic invasions of Europe
and finally for the sixteenth-century expansion of Europeans over all parts
of the world.

A few significant developments before that time include the rise of
native civilizations in North and South America — those of the Incas and
other Indian groups in western South America, the Maya of Guatemala and
Yucatan, the Mexicans, the Pueblos of the southwestern United States, and
the civilized tribes of the eastern and central United States; the incursion
of Arab or Hindu miners and traders into eastern and central Africa; the
rise of Indonesian civilization in southeastern Asia and the East Indies; the
spread of Chinese culture and empire both south of the Yangtze and north¬
ward and eastward into Manchuria, Korea, and Japan.

The cultures of the American Indians are the only advanced ones
which developed with probably little or no connection with Mediterranean-
Asiatic centers. In most of native America, plants were domesticated, but
not livestock. Metallurgy was practiced in some regions, but nowhere in¬
cluding iron. Soil and water, forests, wild animals, and certain mineral re¬
sources were utilized by the American Indians, but conservatively and by a
small total population.

Finally, with the age of geographical discovery and the subsequent de¬
velopment of industrial technology, modern European civilization has spread
over most of the globe within the last four hundred and fifty years. The
total population of tin world increased enormously as iron-age Europeans
occupied and exploited the Americas, South Africa, and Australia. Popula¬
tion continues to increase, although the world is now full. There are no
more great undeveloped areas capable of supporting large numbers of peo¬
ple, and the production of more food by reclamation projects or by chemi¬
cal tinkering with air and water, will merely postpone briefly the day when
population growth exceeds available resources for the world as a whole.

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

TEXAS TREE FARMS — The Champion mill at Pasadena uses over 800 thousand
cords of pulp wood each year cut from 350 thousand acres of company timberlands
and more than 700 thousand acres under contractural cutting contracts.

PAPER PARADE

DAVID R. WEISER

Research Department

The Champion Paper and Fibre Company
Hamilton, Ohio

Long before paper was invented, man devised many ways to leave his
imprint. He used waxed boards, bronze plates, palm leaves, pieces of silk
and thin sheets of beaten bark. Before that his records and messages were
chiseled in smooth stones, or on the walls of caves. Thousands of years
before our era Chaldeans and Babylonians inscribed their records upon clay
tablets which were then hardened into bricks, many of which still exist.
The alphabet and writing are far older inventions than paper, but paper is,
and has been for many centuries, the principal material upon which man
has recorded his thoughts, his business transactions, and his laws.

Parchment, traditionally associated with the ancient Greek city of
Pergamum, provided the chief writing material for manuscripts of the Middle
Ages. It, like vellum, which was also used as a writing medium, was derived
from animal skins.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

PULPWOOD TRAILER — A load of pulpwood leaves the Texas Forest Farms for
a quick run to the mills. Within 48 hours this will be more "white” paper for
Texas printers.

The material most closely resembling true paper in ancient history was
the papyrus scrolls of Egypt, where slaves took long stalks of papyrus, split
them, made several criss-cross layers and beat them until the fibers inter¬
twined and the layers stuck together in a thick sheet. By this method they
were able to make strips of considerable length.

ORIGIN OF PAPERMAKING

Accounts of the origin of paper are vague, but the invention is generally
attributed to a Chinese by the name of Ts’ai Lun, during the 1st Century
A. D. He macerated bamboo and mulberry bark until individual fibers were
released. This pulp he used to make his first sheet of paper by catching the
fibers from a water suspension on a grass cloth mold and then drying the
sheet in the sun. It was then rubbed with a stone. Flax and hemp were also
used as early papermaking raw materials.

China jealously guarded the secret for several centuries, and it was
not until in the sixth century A. D. that Samarkand paper from Persia
became famous. From Samarkand the art of papermaking traveled to
Bagdad, Cairo, and Morocco.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

CHIP STORAGE — The logs arrive at the chippers, where with a deafening roar,
they are reduced to millions of chips the size of dominoes. A gradually rising belt
carries the endless stream of chips up, up, more than an eighth of a mile to the
storage bins. An 8500 cubic foot bin holds enough chips for one eight-hour shift
for each digester.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

THE DIGESTERS- — A digester is loaded by gravity as 3300 cubic feet of chips,
the equivalent of eleven cords of wood, rush into the great steel stomach. The
cooking liquor is fed in, and the digester tightly sealed.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

As early as the seventh century A. D., the Mayans of Central America
were using paper of their own make. Their successors, the Toltecs, and later
the Aztecs of Mexico, practiced the art centuries before Columbus came to
the new world.

Europe’s enlightenment

It was not until after the Crusades that Europe became a productive
papermaking area. The long, slow transition from papyrus and parchment,
via vellum, to true paper, was tremendously accelerated by the Renaissance,
with its cry for books, and by Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press
(ca. 1450). This created a demand that only paper could supply.

Spain is credited with making the first paper in Europe. The process
was brought to Toledo and Valencia by the Moors about the 11th century.
Around 1650, the French were making the best paper in the world much
of which was exported to Holland. Oddly enough, paper seemed to take on
the characteristics of the country in which it was made. Thus "French
paper was believed to be light, slight, slender and thin. Venetian paper was
subtle, neat and courtly, Dutch paper was thick, corpulent and heavy.”

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

PULP WASHING AND BLEACHING— The chips leave the digesters as a dark
pulp (above, left). Repeated washings remove the cooking liquors (above, center)
and the pulp is then bleached to a snowy white (above, right).

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

Courtesy Champion Paper and Piher Co.

THE BEATERS — The pulp must be separated into its millions and billions of
tiny, individual fibres. For that purpose it goes to the beaters where the revolving
beater wheel separates the fibres, then thoroughly beats and hydrates each one. The
proper chemicals are added here, and color, too, when added.

PAPERMAKING CROSSES THE ATLANTIC

In 1690 William Rittenhouse, a native of Germany, built the first paper
mill in North America near Germantown, Pennsylvania. This mill continued
to operate throughout the Revolutionary War, making paper for the paper
money of the Continental Army. Paper mills, first making handmade paper
and later machine-made paper, sprang up in many parts of New England
and the Middle States, laying the foundation of a great industry. Paper
manufacture gradually spread to the North Central States, the Pacific North¬
west, the Southeastern States, and most recently to Texas. Today, the United
States leads the world in paper production, more than 20,000,000 tons being
manufactured annually.

PAPERMAKING RAW MATERIALS

While mineral fibers, such as asbestos, and animal fibers, e.g., silk, have
limited application in papermaking, the basic structural element in paper is
cellulose fiber. Cellulose is found to a greater or less extent in nearly all
higher forms of plant life, and as a matter of fact paper can be made from
practically all such plants. The U. S. Department of Agriculture lists over

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

a thousand plants which have been investigated for this purpose. In most
cases poor yield or excessive cost has prevented competition with wood as
the prime papermaking raw material. Rags, straw, and cotton linters are
used in small quantities for special grades, but wood is by far the cheapest
source of most cellulose for the paper industry. The chief species used are
spruce, hemlock, pine, poplar, fir, aspen, oak, and gum.

PULPING

Cellulose exists in wood in combination with lignin. In the mechanical
pulping process, no attempt is made to separate lignin from the cellulose;
the wood is simply defibered by a special grinding process to give a pulp
comprising all the constituents of the wood itself. Barked logs, 2 to 5 feet
in length and 6 to 12 inches in diameter, are pressed against a large, rapidly
revolving grindstone, in the presence of large amounts of water, producing
"groundwood” as it is called in the industry. This is then screened to reject
coarse "shives” or knots. It is the principal constituent of newsprint paper.
The chief processing cost is power. Spruce, because of its long fiber, good
color, and relative freedom from resin, makes the best groundwood, although
some other woods are used today due to the scarcity of spruce. The chief
advantages of groundwood pulp are low cost, high yields, and good capacity;
chief disadvantages are low strength and poor aging properties.

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

THE JORDANS — The brushing and hydration of the fibre still in suspension
after the pulp leaves the beaters is completed by the Jordans. This is the last step
in preparing the stock or "stuff” for the paper machines.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

THE FOURDRINIER WIRE — An endless moving screen that allows water from
the pulp flowing over it to drain. From the time the pulp flows onto the "wire” as
a milky mixture until it leaves the "wire” (above, left) it begins to resemble the
finished sheet.

CHEMICAL PULPING

The object of chemical pulping is to isolate more or less completely the
cellulose by dissolving the lignin. There are three principal processes called
respectively the soda, sulfite, and sulfate processes.

The soda process is the oldest. Briefly it consists in cooking small wood
chips with a solution of caustic soda in huge digesters for several hours under
pressure at high temperatures.

In the sulfite process the wood chips are treated in the same manner
except that a solution of calcium bisulfite and sulfur dioxide is used instead
of caustic soda. Magnesium is sometimes used in place of calcium.

The third method is the kraft or sulfate process which was introduced
in Sweden about 1890, and in America in 1909. It is a modification of the
soda process in which some of the caustic soda is replaced with sodium
sulfide.

Choice of the chemical process used depends largely on the wood em¬
ployed. Spruce is excellently adapted to the sulfite process, producing a
strong, easy-bleaching pulp. The soda process, used particularly with hard

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

woods, straw, etc., usually gives a weaker and softer product than sulfite
pulp. The kraft or sulfate process is especially suitable for resinous woods
like pine, resulting in a strong pulp, relatively difficult to bleach.

In all three processes, the cellulosic pulp is separated from the spent
liquors, and washed. It may be used directly for papermaking, or, if a whiter
pulp is desired, it is bleached.

In the sulfite process it is customary to discharge the spent liquors
into streams because chemical recovery is not commercially feasible. In
the sulfate and soda processes, high cost of the chemicals necessitates planned
recovery. The liquors are concentrated and reduced to recover inorganic
chemicals, reused in the next new digestion. At present there are no sulfite
mille in Texas.

BLEACHING

Pulp from chemical pulping processes is of various shades of brown
and for some products, such as corrugated board, bag, and certain wrapping
paper, unbleached pulp is satisfactory. However, for the finer white printing
and writing papers, pulps must be bleached with chemical agents to remove
residual lignin and certain colored bodies of a highly complex chemical
nature.

Calcium hypochlorite is the most widely used bleaching agent, either
alone, or in sequence with other materials. A typical multistage bleaching is
one employing chlorine, then caustic soda, and finally one or more hypo¬
chlorite steps. Chlorine, chlorine dioxide, sodium peroxide, and hydrogen
peroxide are some other bleaching agents.

BEATING THE PULP

The first step in actual papermaking is known as "beating.” Pulp, in
the presence of a large amount of water, is subjected to a severe mechanical
action in which the fibers are bruised, pounded, and cut, acquiring the abil¬
ity to mat and bond together to form the material we call paper. In spite of
an enormous amount of study expended on it, the beating operation is not
too well understood. The fibers are said to become "hydrated55— -they retain
water, acquire a slimy feel, and develop a bonding property. The quality of
paper produced is largely determined by the type of pulp used and the degree
of beating. Thus, to produce an absorbent paper, like a blotting paper, pulp
is verly slightly beaten, while a glassine paper is produced by prolonged,
severe beating.

This operation is commonly carried out in a beater or Hollander, a large
tub or tank in which the pulp-water mixture is forced around and around
under a roll carrying on its periphery a series of metal bars in more or less
close contact with a series of similar bars mounted in a stationary bed plate.
The beater is commonly supplemented by a Jordan engine or pulp refiner.
Here the pulp suspension is forced between rapidly rotating and stationary
metal bars to produce an effect similar to the beater.

During beating, sizing materials may be mixed with the pulp. A com¬
bination of rosin and aluminum sulfate is most commonly used, imparting
a certain resistance to water penetration. Writing paper is always well sized
while blotting paper is not.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co.

THE FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE— The paper machine is one of the
largest pieces of machinery in all industry, and Champion operates twenty-two
of them. Here the paper goes up and down, over and under one steam-heated drum
after another to remove the water. When you know it takes 500 pounds of water
to make one pound of paper, you begin to realize that it takes a lot of removing
of water!

Loading materials or pigments may also be added to beater stock to
modify or enhance properties of the finished sheet. Clay is generally used,
improving receptivity of the paper to printers ink, softening it, and reduc¬
ing "rattle,” etc. Titanium dioxide is sometimes used for brightening and
opacifying high grade papers. Dyes and colored pigments are also commonly
added to give a desired shade or color to the paper.

When pulp, or "stock,” or "half stuff,” as it is called, has been beaten
to the proper degree, it is diluted with water to a consistency of 0.5% more
or less and pumped to the paper machine where it is "formed” into a web
of paper.

THE PAPER MACHINE

Prior to invention of the paper machine, all paper was made in indi¬
vidual sheets. The paper maker dipped a screen or "mold” into a vat of
water containing a dilute slurry of pulp. He then let the water drain
through the screen, meanwhile deftly shaking it to secure the desired dis¬
tribution of the fibers. Dimensions of the sheet were determined by how
large a mold a workman could manage.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

SORTING — Champion makes two and one-half million pounds of paper a day
and every coated sheet is hand sorted. Girls are carefully trained to select only the
perfect sheets.

With the invention of the paper machine it became possible to make a
continuous web of paper of indefinite length.

There are two common types of these, the cylinder machine and the
Fourdrinier. The former was invented by an Englishman, named John
Dickinson, about 1809. It consists of one or more (commonly 4-6) screen-
covered, hollow cylinders which rotate in a vast to which is fed a suspension
of pulp. As the cylinder rotates, water passes through the screen into its
interior, while the pulp is deposited on the screen. This layer of pulp is
then picked up or "couched” by a traveling felt and carried forward between
rolls which press out some of the water. The freshly formed web of wet
paper is then threaded around a number of steam heated drying cylinders
which evaporate the water to the degree desired in finished paper.

Cylinder machines are used mainly for making paper board.

The Fourdrinier paper machine is the most widely used today. It consists
of an endless bronze screen from 60 to 300 inches wide (40 to 8 5 mesh)
which is supported around a series of rolls to form a continuously moving
table upon which diluted stock is allowed to flow. As stock comes onto the
moving screen (papermakers call it the "wire”) and travels along on it,
water begins to drain through the meshes of the screen and the fibers tend

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paper Parade

to mat together. To accelerate removal of water, suction is applied under
part of the wire. Besides the forward motion of the wire, a gentle side-to-side
motion or "shake” is provided, causing the fibers to mat in a more random
fashion, producing a stronger sheet of paper.

Many Fourdrinier machines are equipped with a "dandy” roll, a rotating,
screen-covered cylinder resting lightly on the paper on the Fourdrinier wire.
A design may be woven into the screen to imprint a watermark in the paper.

After stock has traveled for 20 or 30 feet, sufficient water has been
removed that the web is strong enough to leave the wire and be carried on an
endless woolen blanket or "felt.” Additional water is squeezed out as paper
and felt pass between several large press rolls. Finally, when the paper is en¬
tirely self-suporting, it leaves the felt and thenceforth travels around a large
number of steam heated dryers.

At some point in the dryer section of the machine the web may be
passed through a dispersion of starch, rosin, or other sizing material, to en¬
hance certain qualities of the paper. Papermakers call this "tub sizing.”

After drying, the web enters the machine calender, a vertical stack of
heavy chilled iron rolls, with the web passing through the nips between the
rolls. Here it receives an ironing action which compresses it, smoothes the
surface, and gives a harder finish. Severity of calendering can be varied in
accordance with the kind of finish desired. For a high bulk, porous paper
having an "eggshell” finish, little or no calendering is given. The web is then
wound into a large roll which may be rewound and slit into rolls of desired
width for the printing presses or other purposes for which the paper may
be used.

If paper is to be sold in sheets, it is unwound and cut into the desired
size by a rotary knife. The sheets are then piled on skids. The highest quality
paper is usually sorted sheet by sheet to eliminate defects.

To provide a superior printing surface, paper is often coated with a
layer of mineral pigment such as clay, calcium carbonate, etc., and adhesive
(casein, starch, etc.). This was formerly done exclusively on coating
machines, separate from the paper machines. An aqueous slurry of the
pigment and adhesive is applied by brushes, or rolls, and the coated paper
is allowed to dry on traveling festoons. In recent years much paper has
been coated directly on the paper machine, usually in the dryer section. This
has enabled manufacturers to supply the printing industry with machine
coated paper in large volume at a price quite comparable with uncoated paper.

During the past 100 years, paper production has increased tremendously.
In fact, more paper has been produced in the past 5 0 years than in all
mankind’s previous history. This phenomenal progress can be attributed in
part to increases, since 1900, in the speed of mechanical operations. At that
time few machines were running as fast as 450 feet per minute. By 1920
some had attained 1000 feet per minute, and today several newsprint
machines are running at more than double that rate.

PAPERMAKING MOVES TO TEXAS

At the end of the last century papermaking was localized in the north¬
eastern United States, slow growing spruce furnishing the chief raw material
for printing paper. It became apparent that increased demand for paper
would soon exhaust the supply of spruce. New sources of raw material
were badly needed, but the one most easily available, the great pine forests

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

of the south, was not adapted to pulping by the sulphite process. However,
it could be used by the kraft process and, as soon as a method of bleaching
kraft pulp without seriously diminishing its strength was devised, a large
migration of the paper industry to the South started.

Eastern Texas, with its abundant stands of fast-growing pine, was an
ideal place to set up integrated pulp-paper mills, in which the pulp flows
directly to the paper machines without the intermediate drying required
when pulp is shipped to a separate paper mill. The economies are obvious.

Progressive pulp mills are fully aware that drawing on existing timber
without replacement is dangerously unsound business. Accordingly refor¬
estation, including forestry research constitutes an important element in
their program, both in Texas and elsewhere.

Today, Texas has three large kraft mills with a total capacity of 1,340,-
000 lbs. of pulp per day and two groundwood mills producing 720,000 lbs.
of groundwood pulp every 24 hours. Most of this pulp is pumped directly
to the paper mills. From these mills come newsprint paper, many grades of
printing paper including machine-coated printing papers, bond and mimeo¬
graph paper, paper bags, milk bottle stock, kraft specialties, set-up box
boards, waxing paper, etc. Also made in Texas are such allied items as
linoleum liner, roofing felts, building papers, and felt specialties.

So it is that modern Texas is a leader in the production of man’s most
vital means of communication — paper. A perpetually renewable source of
pulp timber, an adequate supply of water and basic chemicals, cheap trans¬
portation to the heart of America, and an adequate and efficient labor supply
make Texas a fitting successor to the nations of antiquity in the paper parade.

1951, No. i Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 21

March 30

ENGINEERING PROBLEMS OF COASTAL WATERS

C. M. SHIGLEY *

Director of Technical Research
The Dow Chemical Company
Freeport, Texas

The oceans of the world represent an almost inexhaustible supply of
many essential minerals. Their total volume is about 320,000,000 cubic
miles, and each cubic mile contains about 165,000,000 short tons of dissolved
solids. Simple multiplication shows the total ocean salts to be about 50
million billion tons, 80% of which is sodium chloride, common salt.

For centuries the sea has furnished salt to many of the countries of
the world. Within our lifetime sea water has become a primary raw ma¬
terial for the commercial production of bromine, magnesium, and allied
products. Sea water promises to play an increasingly prominent role in the
future as a source of these and other minerals when other more concentrated
raw materials are depleted, as they inevitably must be.

The coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico represent convenient access
to this tremendous and interesting resource. At the present time they are
yielding bromine and magnesium in large daily tonnages at Freeport, Texas.
Our interest in these and future developments appears to justify a discus¬
sion of a few of the engineering problems of these coastal waters, especially
the problems associated with sea water processing plants and sea water pro¬
cessing operations. We shall talk first of some problems connected with
plant location, and next, of problems in seawater handling. Finally, we shall
briefly discuss Texas’ two seawater processes and products.

One of the primary considerations in seawater processing is the proper
selection of the site for the plant. There are, of course, many factors in
the choice of a location; chemical raw materials, power, fuel, and trans¬
portation are but a few of the many items. However, the factors which
govern the procurement and disposal of large quantities of clean seawater
of the highest possible salinity will be our principal interest here.

Salinity, when subsequently discussed, will be expressed as per cent of
Atlantic Ocean salinity at Kure Beach, North Carolina. The salinity there
was found to be reasonably constant over a fifteen year observation period,
and it compares quite closely with the salinities reported for the major open
oceans of the world. This standard Atlantic Ocean seawater used as refer¬
ence has a total halogen content equivalent to 31,800 parts per million of
sodium chloride or, expressed in figures that may be more familiar to you,
3 1 grams of sodium chloride per liter.

As judged by observations in the western part of the Gulf, the salinity
of the coastal waters must be regarded as variable. It varies from place to
place; it varies both with depth and with time in the same place. At the
mouths of the fresh water rivers, the water will sometimes be fresh enough
to drink, while in the landlocked bays, such as Laguna Madre or Baffin Bay,
salinities may reach well over 300%, due to solar evaporation of the im¬
pounded Gulf water. The reasons for such variations are quite obvious.

* Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 27, 1950, at the Third Semi-Annual Seminar of
Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Equally obvious is the need for keeping seawater recovery plants a maxi¬
mum distance from the large rivers, especially those in Texas that are re¬
puted to hold the world’s record for peak discharge.

Salinity also varies with depth, wide differences occurring in areas
affected by fresh water flows. The two and a half per cent greater density
of seawater as compared with fresh water is sufficient to cause stratifica¬
tion of the two liquids. Slow intermixing occurs, governed by the action
of winds and waves. During average or above average flows on the Brazos
River, surface water samples taken offshore in the Gulf may be almost
fresh, while those at depths below 20 feet may test 80% salinity or more.

Wide variations in salinity with respect to time also occur, even at
depths below 20 feet. The daily range of deep water strength in the Free¬
port area varies from 30 to 100%, with a yearly average of about 80% of
Atlantic salinity. Changes within this range are generally gradual, but
occasionally take place with surprising rapidity. On a recent occasion, for
example, the salinity dropped from 63% to 50% in less than one hour.

The reason for such wide and sudden variations has not yet been
established, although more complete oceanographic data on the Gulf as a
whole would probably indicate the factors involved. It is clear from ten
years of observations at Freeport that these changes are more than can be
accounted for by more local dilution.

There is apparently no direct relationship between the flow rate of the
Brazos River and the salinity of the deep water at Freeport. A comparison
of average monthly river flows and salinities for the calendar years 1942
and 1943 illustrate this point. The data are shown graphically in Figure 1.
Although a few of the periods of high flow correspond with times of low
salinity, no consistent correlation is to be noted.

Figure

1951, No. i Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 23

March 30

I'f, however, one compares a seven year average of monthly Brazos
River flows with seven year averages of monthly salinities, a much better
correlation is observed (Figure 2). One might conclude from this that the
variation in salinity is generally seasonal. Seasonal variations in the flow of
major Gulf rivers, in the intensity of Gulf currents, or in the direction and
velocity of prevailing winds are suspected of superimposing their effect
on local conditions to produce the fluctuations in salinity which have been
observed. The sum of the flows of the Sabine, Neches, Trinity, San Jacinto,
Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe, and Nueces Rivers shows a fair correlation
with Freeport salinity for the years 1942 and 1943 (Figure 3). While it is
better than the correlation for the Brazos alone, there are obviously some
factors other than the flows of these streams.

It is as though there are large areas or pools of diluted Gulf water
which originate at the mouths of major streams and migrate around the
Gulf at the whim of wind or Gulf current. Perhaps this is indeed the
answer. At any rate, the effect is of considerable importance to seawater
extraction operations and warrants some more extensive study.

Another factor in location is the problem of the disposal of the
treated seawater. Seawater from which one or many of the minerals have
been removed must be returned to the Gulf at a point far enough from the
intake so as to avoid the recirculation of previously processed water. How
far "far enough” is, remains a question. At Freeport, the intake of the
seawater plant and the point of discharge of depleted seawater are separated
by about seven miles. This appears to be adequate for this location, for no
significant difference in the ratio of disolved salts has been noted to date.
How much less distance could be tolerated would depend on the quantity
of water handled, prevailing winds and currents and so forth.

AVERAGE MONTH <941 THRU 1947

Figure 2

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Still another objective in the location of a seawater processing plant is
the avoidable of areas of organic contamination. Organic material dis¬
charged from municipalities into tidal waters, or brought down by streams,
or released by industry, could represent a considerable handicap to a sea¬
water plant so unfortunate as to be nearby. The requirement of treatment
chemicals would generally be increased, filtration processes would be ren¬
dered more difficult, and contamination of finished product might result.

In the location of a seawater plant, elevation of available land is a
factor. The land must be high enough so that it will not be flooded by 14
to 16 foot hurricane tides, or must be adaptable to the construction of strong
levees. It must be low enough so that seawater pumping cost is not a great
handicap. One thinks of seawater as a free resource. In the Gulf, it is free.
But one must pump a million pounds of it in order to get 50 pounds of
bromine or 1000 pounds of magnesium. At 75% power efficiency, approxi¬
mately five kilowat hours are required for each 10 feet of height to which
a million pounds of seawater is pumped.

The site for the plant having been established, the next group of
problems deals with the actual procurement and handling of the seawater.
Some of the problems are mechanical, but most center around the materials
of construction best suited for resistance to seawater attack.

The first problem, that of procuring the saltiest seawater available at
a given location, can be solved quite simply. It is only necessary to with¬
draw the water from as deep a point as possible, taking care that turbulence
at the suction does not pull down water from a higher level. There is no
advantage, however, in going any deeper than the lowest point in the chan¬
nel connecting the intake with the open Gulf.

The second problem is one of screening out the large and small fish,
the logs, the weeds, and the miscellaneous debris which are inevitably present

1942 1943

Figure 3

1951, No. 1
March 30

Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters

in Gulf water. All must be kept out of the system, the fish as a conserva¬
tion measure, and the other things, to prevent plugging or damage to the
equipment. Since it is difficult to construct a screen which will be strong
enough to handle the large items and at the same time be delicate enough
to do the fine screening of small marine animals, the operation is usually
accomplished in three steps. The largest items are kept out by a strong
grillwork consisting of three-fourths inch by three inch steel bars set on
edge about six inches apart. Next, the water passes through a self-cleaning
vertical travelling screen having mesh openings one-half to one inch square.
Fish or debris reaching the screen are continuously flushed off into a trough
which returns them to the Gulf. Finally, the water flows through a hori¬
zontal rotary screen unit having mesh openings of about one-eighth of an
inch. This screen is also flushed continuously back to the Gulf.

The third problem is controlling of fouling of the flumes, pipelines,
condensers, and other pieces of seawater equipment. As you probably all
know, seawater is teeming with marine organisms, tiny oysters, squirts,
marine weed seeds, etc., most of them too small to be filtered out by any
practical means. Enough of them find anchorage in seawater pipes to grow
and rapidly build up a thick layer on the walls. The growth not only re¬
stricts flows in seawater mains, but occasionally loosens after growing to
significant size, and plugs lines, valves, and condenser tubes to a really seri¬
ous extent. Or at least it would if the marine growth were not curbed. The
prevention of this trouble is generally accomplished by the application of
chlorine just after the final screening. Approximately two pounds of chlorine
are continuously added to each million pounds of seawater. Most of this is
immediately consumed by the normal content of organic matter, but the
residual of about a half of a part per million of free chlorine is sufficient to
prevent the growth of the fouling organisms.

The next problem in the seawater is the corrosion. Volumes have been
written on the subject of seawater corrosion and its alleviation, and one can
hope to touch only a few of the high spots in a general talk of this type.
For more details on this controversial subject, I would refer you to the
chapter on seawater corrosion in the Corrosion Handbook , by Uhlig. Sea¬
water, of course, is not nearly as corrosive as many acids, but it is none¬
theless corrosive. While acids can be handled in rubber lined equipment or
in special alloys, the large volume of seawater which must be handled for
each pound of finished product discourages the use of expensive construc¬
tion materials. Steel is the most commonly used metal in seawater, not be¬
cause it is more resistant, but because it is usually cheaper, and is certainly
more available in the form of pipes, sheets, piling, etc. Bare mild steel does
a fair job when seawater velocities are low, corroding at an average rate of
about five thousandths of an inch per year, with maximum pits fifteen to
twenty thousandths of an inch per year. The rate of corrosion increases
rapidly with velocity, reaching thirty thousandths of an inch per year at
a velocity of ten feet per second.

Coatings of the thick coal tar type offer considerable protection to
steel in those cases where the size, shape, and service of the structure per¬
mit its application and maintenance. Cathodic protection techniques de¬
veloped within the past few years greatly reduce and often stop the cor¬
rosion of steel by application of galvanic currents opposing the currents
generated by normal corrosion. The principle is very simple, and can be

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

readily demonstrated by anyone having in his possession a jar of seawater,
two small pieces of mild steel, a small piece of magnesium, a bit of wire,
and a piece of string. Hang one piece of steel in the seawater for a control,
using the string for the support. Now connect the other piece of steel to
the magnesium with the wire, and suspend both in the seawater, being
careful not to let any of the pieces come in continuous contact. You will
notice, if your electrical connections are good, that a small amount of gas
is given off from the two connected pieces, and that after a while the solu¬
tion near the connected steel will become a little milky. Electric current
produced by the difference in potential between the steel and the magnesium
is "cathodically protecting” the steel. When you withdraw the samples in
twenty-four to forty-eight hours for inspection, you will find that the
unprotected specimen is blotched with rusty areas, while the protected
one will be free or almost free of rust and may even have a thin white
protective coating that is sometimes produced by the effects of the current.

There are, of course, other ways of supplying the direct current re¬
quired for cathodic protection. Zinc can be used, but this metal produces
less current per pound than does magnesium, and produces it at a slower
rate. Direct current generators or rectifiers provide excellent current sources
for concentrated protective loads. They are not as convenient for small or
widely distributed areas as are the sacrificial anodes of zinc or magnesium,
however.

Cathodic protection is more effective at low velocities than at veloci¬
ties of, say, five feet per second. It can be used with or without coal tar
protective coatings, but is much more effective if used with the coatings,
especially under high velocity conditions.

Seawater equipment which is to operate under conditions of velocity
higher than bare steel can tolerate and which cannot be conveniently pro¬
tected by coatings or by cathodic current, is generally constructed of more
resistant materials. Nickel-cast-iron, tin-bronze, Niresist, Monel, aluminum
brass, and cupro-nickels represent some of the principal materials used for
the more severe services, depending on the type of equipment and the exact
conditions to be encountered.

Pumps operating at low speeds and low discharge heads, say up to 100
feet, are often constructed with gray iron castings and Government bronze
impellers. Those with somewhat higher speeds and with discharge heads in
the range of 100 to 150 feet generally give good service when made with
nickel cast iron casings and monel impellers. Pumps in still higher pressure
service require Niresist or Monel casings with Monel impellers. K Monel is
generally preferred for pump shafts in each of the cases just mentioned.

The choice of materials for valves, like pumps, varies with the condi¬
tions to be met. Valves in positions of low velocity or little turbulence can
be of cast iron construction, with bronze or Monel trim. High velocities
require "G” bronze bodies with Hastelloy “C” or nylon seats.

The materials of construction of seawater condensers and coolers vary
somewhat from place to place, depending on economics, local conditions and
personal preference. The general pattern, however, is to use cathodically
protected cast iron water boxes, and Muntz metal tube sheets, with tubes
of Admiralty brass for velocities of five feet per second, tubes of aluminum
brass or 90-10 copper-nickel for speeds of seven feet per second, and tubes
of 70-30 coper-nickel for velocities of up to ten feet per second.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters

Before leaving submberged metal corrosion, it should be emphasized
that the choice of metals for certain tasks may be controversial and may
furthermore be dependent on local conditions not covered in this discussion.
It should also be pointed out that the attack of metals by seawater is not
wholly confined to submerged structures. Bare steel exposed to salt spray
at or near the water’s edge suffers corrosion loss that may be as much as
four times that of steel in quiescent seawater. Protective coatings can be
used to combat this corrosion, and in extreme cases thin Monel sheathing
may be used.

The rate of atmospheric corrosion is reduced as the distance from the
water’s edge increases. The magnitude of the difference is amply demon¬
strated by corrosion data collected on the Atlantic Coast at Kure Beach,
North Carolina. There, weight losses of mild steel specimens 80 feet from
the beach were twelve times as great as losses at a point 8 Of) feet from
the beach. No such comparative data are available for Gulf exposure. How¬
ever, in tests at Freeport, the corrosion rate of mild steel at a point one
mile from the Gulf was approximately the same as the attack of the same
metal at the Kure Beach 800 feet location.

The eighteen month weight losses at the Freeport location gave the
following corrosion rates for steel and a few other interesting metals, some
of which might be used to advantage in those cases where painting is
impossible or impractical.

METAL

Mild Steel _

Copper Steel _

Corten _

Copper _

Galvanized Steel

Monel _

Nickel _

Inconel _

CORROSION LOSS

_ .00156

_ .00145

_ .00114

.000080

_ .000077

. . 000036

_ .000022

_ .000019

It would be wrong to conclude that deterioration in seawater is con¬
fined to metals. Untreated wood cannot be used at all for permanent struc¬
tures in seawater, for it is rapidly attacked by many types of marine borers.
The depredations of these little creatures are so fast that a plain piece of
pine 2x4 will be destroyed in a matter of a few months. The preferred solu¬
tion to this problem is in the use of heavy coal tar creosote impregnation of
any wood which is to be used in seawater. Reinforced concrete is regarded
as a satisfactory construction material for seawater service but even this
cannot be regarded as permanent. It may be slowly attacked by marine
borers or may be gradually weakened by spalling as the reinforcing rods
slowly corrode.

This concludes the discussion of some of the special problems which
must be faced in dealing with coastal waters. Now it might be of some
interest to briefly describe the processes for recovering bromine and mag¬
nesium from the coastal waters at Freeport, Texas.

In the bromine process, seawater is acidified to a pH of 3.5, using
either sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid. Chlorine gas is introduced in an
amount slightly in excess of the amount of bromide in the water. The
treated seawater is passed down through a packed tower. As it descends, air

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

passing up the tower "blows out” the liberated bromine and carries it to an
absorber chamber. Enroute, it is mixed with the equivalent amount of sulfur
dioxide made in a conventional sulfur burner. The bromine reacts with the
sulphur dioxide in the presence of water to form a mixture of hydrobromic
and sulphuric acids, which are readily absorbed in water to form a solu¬
tion approximately 1000 fold stronger in bromine than was the original
seawater.

The hydrobromic and sulphuric acid solution is fed to a continuous
stream stripping column. Chlorine is added, liberating the bromine, which
is distilled off and condensed to liquid form. The stripped acids are used
for seawater acidification. The bromine is not shipped as such, but is re¬
acted with ethylene gas to produce ethylene dibromide, one of the essential
constituents of the antiknock fluid used in most gasolines.

In the magnesium process, seawater is treated with a slight excess of
milk of lime made from oyster shells. Magnesium hydroxide is thus precipi¬
tated from the solution. It is permitted to settle in large Dorr tanks, the
depleted seawater overflowing to return to the Gulf. The thin "milk of
magnesia” withdrawn from the Dorr tanks is filtered to remove part of the
seawater and is then reacted with hydrochloric acid to form a solution of
15% magnesium chloride. This solution is treated with a small amount of
magnesium sulphate to precipitate the excess calcium, and is next evapo¬
rated to 34% magnesium chloride solution and filtered to remove gypsum
and salt. Then it is evaporated to 50% MgCl2 solution, and crystallized and
dried in shelf driers to produce hydrated magnesium chloride pellets suit¬
able for feeding the electrolytic magnesium cells.

The cells are bath-tub shaped steel pots of about 2 500 gallons capacity
filled with a fused mixture of NaCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 at 700° C. Graphite
electrodes suspended in the pot serve as anodes; the pots and their internal
baffles act as cathodes. Passage of a high amperage direct current through
the solution decomposes the magnesium of the bath into elemental magnes¬
ium and chlorine gas. The chlorine gas is collected under a refractory cell
cover and piped to hydrochloric furnaces, where it is converted to hydro¬
chloric acid and recycled to the neutralizer to react with more magnesium
hydroxide. The molten magnesium rises to the top of the bath, where it is
trapped by inverted troughs and conveyed to storage wells in the front of
each cell. The metal is dipped twice daily and cast into ingots of 99.8%
purity.

The properties and uses of magnesium are probably well known to most
of you. It is the lightest structural metal commercially available. It is
approximately one-fourth as heavy as iron and two-thirds as heavy as
aluminum. It is usually alloyed with other metals, such as aluminum, zinc,
and manganese, and in its alloyed form has a high strength to weight ratio,
is easily fabricated, and has good corrosion resistance. For these reasons it is
finding increasing use in light weight structures and equipment, such as
airplanes, truck and trailer bodies, portable tools, ladders, and other items
too numerous to mention. The use of magnesium for cathodic protection
has already been mentioned. Its usefulness is not confined to seawater, how¬
ever, as it performs admirably when used as a sacrificial soil anode for the
protection of underground pipelines. A new and promising use for mag¬
nesium is its addition to cast iron to produce a "nodular cast iron,” which
has high strength, and ductility approaching that of steel.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters

In conclusion, you have had recited to you a few of the many prob¬
lems arising out of the utilization of seawater for the production of essential
commercial materials. Many of the problems have been solved in a satisfac¬
tory manner, but none so well as to be beyond improvement.

From this time forward, all of us will have to look to the sea for cer¬
tain of life’s necessities. It is for those of us who live on the Gulf edge of
that mighty storehouse, and for others of us who are pioneering the tapping
of its resources, to bend every effort toward further exploration of these
problems. Our Gulf may never be the biggest gulf in the world, but we
ought to make it the most productive.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

SEEING THE MOLECULE

JURG WASER

Department of Chemistry
The Rice Institute

The power of resolution of a microscope is defined by the linear magni¬
tude of the smallest detail which is still recognizable and is of the order

A .

n sinoc

where A is the wave length of the radiation employed, n the refractive index
of the medium surrounding the object, and the angle a the so-called aperture
of the objective. The smallest wave length that can be utilized in optical
microscopy is about 4000 A and the highest index of refraction of immer¬
sion fluids available is 1.7 so that even for an aperture close to 90° d is still
of the order of 2 500 A, far beyond molecular dimensions.

A large increase in attainable magnification was made possible by the
advent of the electron microscope. Electrons are known to have wave prop¬
erties and the wave length associated with electrons that have been accelerated
by a potential of V volts is approximately

For example a field of 60,000 volts produces electrons with A s 0.05 A.
This means that if the wave length were the only factor the power of resolu¬
tion of an electron microscope could be pushed to very small magnitudes
indeed. A serious limitation of present day instruments lies in their very
small aperture angle which is essential to keep within bounds the spherical
aberration of the electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses which focus the
electron rays. Modern instruments have an aperture of about 10-3 radians
which means a power of resolution of the order of 50 A. Since the resolving
power is proportional to the fourth root of the spherical aberration a gain
of one decimal in the power of resolution requires an improvement of the
spherical aberration of the lens by four decimals, a considerable task. A
small aperture is further required to attain reasonable contrast in the image.

The above power of resolution is entirely sufficient to make visible
giant molecules like those of the bean mosaic virus. Fig. 1 is a reproduction
of an electron microscope picture of a tiny crystal formed by such virus
molecules (Price and Wyckoff, 1946) and shows beautifully the regular
arrangement of molecules in a crystal.

To push the power of resolution further new methods of approach are
required. A very interesting recent development is the field electron
microscope shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2 (Muller, 1949). The cathode
K is formed by an exceedingly fine W-point with radius of curvature of
about 1 0“5 cm, obtained by etching an already finely ground piece of W-wire.
A potential of about 10,000 volts applied between this point and the anode
cage A generates fields of the order of 107 volts/cm at K which cause the
cold emission from the W-point of a large number of electrons. An extremely
good vacuum of about 10-8 mm Hg is required to keep the W-surface suffi-

1951, No. 1
March 30

Seeing the Molecule

Fig. 1. Electron microscope picture of bean mosaic virus molecules
(Price and Wyckoff, 1946)

Pump

Fig. 2. Diagram of field electron microscope (Muller, 1949)

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

ciently clean. The electrons are accelerated along straight lines and finally
strike the screen L. If now some atoms of foreign substance adhere to the
electron emitting W-surface their enormously magnified image may be¬
come visible on the screen if circumstances are favorable. It has been pos¬
sible in this way to obtain some kind of an image of the copper phthalo-
cyanine complex whose structure and dimensions are shown in Fig. 3. The
molecule is planar and otherwise well adapted for a test of this kind as it is
very stable and little volatile, so that the very high vacuum is not disturbed.
The picture (Fig. 4) obtained of these molecules (Muller, 1950) shows
clearly disks with four characteristic lobes, but no further details are visible.
Indeed the picture is not a true image, but a superposition of the finite dif¬
fraction disks of all of the atoms and the amount of detail that actually
shows is quite surprising. Strong indication that the clover-leaf like disks in
Fig. 4 are really due to single molecules is given by the following observa¬
tions. If the organic substance is slowly evaporated by heating the W-point
to about 500° C. the disks start to disappear from the screen in such a way
that the four lobes of a disk always vanish at the same time. If the tempera¬
ture is somewhat lower a change in direction of the lobes by as much as
45° is often observed, presumably caused by reorientation of the molecules

1951, No. 1
March 30

Seeing the Molecule

which are attached to the W-surface by the central Cu-atom of the com¬
plex. This method of electron microscopy, simple and neat as it is, unfortu¬
nately does not appear to have general applicability. Only very stable mole¬
cules with favorable structural characteristics can be viewed and the details
made visible are not anywhere as complete as one would like. A great amount
of development is needed before the method will become of general useful¬
ness to the molecular structure field. An important current application of
the field electron microscope is to the study of gas adsorption to W and other
metal surfaces.

One disadvantage of electron microscopes is the low penetration power
of electrons, another the fact that the object has to be introduced into a high
vacuum, which means that only very thin and dehydrated specimens can be
viewed. Neither of these disadvantages would apply to an X-ray microscope,
but there is no way of making lenses for X-rays. Recent developments have,
however, shown that it is possible to focus X-rays with mirrors, making use
of the fact that at grazing incidence X-rays are totally reflected by all ma¬
terials. A working X-ray microscope has been constructed (Kirkpatrick
1950) using two curved metal surfaces whose curvatures are at right angles

Fig. 4. Field electron microscope picture of Cu-phthallocyanine molecules
(Muller, 1950)

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

to one another (Fig. 5 ) . The X-ray image of a piece of metal gauze is shown
in Fig. 6 (Kirkpatrick 1950) with an overall linear enlargement of about
500. The nodules seen on a horizontal wire in the picture are real and origi¬
nated in the electrolytic process by which the gauze was made. The magni¬
fication is of course put to shame by any ordinary microscope, but it is pos¬
sible to improve the instrument so that it will resolve about 2000 A, the
limit being due to geometrical aberration (Prince 1950). This is of course
too large for seeing molecules, but such an instrument would have many
applications in metallurgy, biology, etc.

It is nevertheless possible to construct — in the most general sense of the
expression — an X-ray microscope that may serve to make visible the atoms
inside of crystals. To understand the principles involved some facts of the
theory of X-ray diffraction in crystals must first be stated.

A crystal is in a sense a three-dimensional tapestry. The contents of a
small parallelelepiped, the so-called unit cell, is repeated in all three dimen¬
sions throughout the interior of the crystal. Stated differently, the electron
density in a crystal is a three-dimensional periodic function, the unit cell
indicating the periods in three non-coplanar directions of space.

As is well known any periodic function can be expanded in a Fourier
series and this is true in' three dimensions as well as in one. The coefficients
of the three-dimensional series representing the electron density of a crystal
can be obtained experimentally in the following way. Imagine a family of
planes being passed through the crystal, all of them parallel to two opposite
faces of the unit cell. All these planes are occupied by a periodic pattern of
atoms, like atoms having like surroundings. Such a family of equidistant,
parallel planes, each of which exhibits the same periodic array of atoms, is

IMAGE

OBJECT

Fig. 5. Diagram of V-ray microscope (Kirkpatrick, 1950)

1951, No. 1
March 30

Seeing the Molecule

termed a set of net-planes. There is an infinite number of ways of passing
such sets of net-planes through a crystal besides the three sets defined by
the three pairs of parallel faces of the unit cell. If now a beam of X-rays
impinges upon the crystal it may be reflected by any one set of these
net-planes, provided the orientation of the crystal is such that the wave
trains reflected by different planes of the set are in phase. The condition for
this "constructive interference,, is expressed by the famous Bragg law of
X-ray diffraction (cf. e.g. Lonsdale, 1949).

It is one of the tasks of X-ray crystallography to measure experimen¬
tally the fraction of the power of the incident beam that is reflected by
each set of net-planes of a given crystal. It turns out that these reflectivities
are in essence just the squares of the coefficients in the Fourier expansion of
the electron density in the crystal mentioned above. All that seems then to
be necessary to determine a crystal structure is to determine the reflectivities
of the net-planes, to take their square root, and to carry out the summations
in the Fourier series. Unfortunately the square roots of the reflectivities
give only the magnitudes of the Fourier coefficients and not their signs. It
would lead too far to explain how these signs are determined. In this problem
lies some of the fascination of crystal structure analysis and it has been
solved for a great many crystals.

Let us look at some pictures of electron densities obtained in this way
by numerically summing up the Fourier series involved.

Fig. 7 (Robertson, 1936) is a projection of the electron density in a
crystal of phthallocyanine (without Cu) and shows very clearly all the

Fig. 6. Image of wire screen obtained with X-ray microscope (Kirkpatrick, 1950)

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 80

Fig. 7. Projection of electron density in phthallocyanine crystal. Each contour line
represents two electrons per A3- (Robertson, 1936).

Fig. 8. Section through electron density in napthalene molecule. Each contour line
represents a density increment of 1/2 electron per A3- The half-electron line
is dashed. (Abrahams, Robertson, and White, 1949).

1951, No. 1
March 30

Seeing the Molecule

atoms of the molecule of Fig. 3 (of course except for the Cu). There is
some distortion due to the fact that the molecules are not parallel to the
plane of projection but inclined.

With some care very exact electron densities may be obtained by this
method. Very careful work has been done on naphthalene which resulted in
the section through a molecule shown in Fig. 8 (Abrahams, Robertson, and
White, 1949). In this picture even the electrons bonding together the
carbon atoms may be counted, and it is apparent that different bonds involve
different electron densities. The central carbon-carbon bond is for instance
seen to be the weakest one in the molecule, which supports some quantum
mechanical calculations that give the same result. The extra loops made by
the dashed half-electron contour correspond to the H-atoms of the naphtha¬
lene molecule. H-atoms scatter X-rays only very weakly because of their
low electron density. They show up reliably only on Fourier projections that
have been obtained from very good data.

Fig. 9 shows a three dimensional view of the electron density in part
of the unit cell of a crystal of the potassium salt of benzylpenicillin (Crow¬
foot, Bunn, Rogers-Low, and Turner-Jones, 1949). The picture was obtained
by plotting on sheets of plastic sections through the electron density in the
unit cell and placing all these sheets together in a frame. The bottom half of
the picture serves to label the various atoms. The determination of this
crystal structure was to a large degree responsible for the final elucidation
of the chemical structure of penicillin.

Fig. 9. Three dimensional representation of electron density in portion of a K benzyl-
penicillin molecule. Lower half is key for identification of atoms. (Crawfoot,
Bunn, Rogers, and Turner-Jones, 1949).

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

An enormous material of information on the detailed spatial structure
of molecules is being accumulated in this way. This information is of great
importance for an understanding of the chemical actions of molecules and
a start has been made in interpreting even the biological activities of mole¬
cules in terms of their detailed spatial configuration.

In a sense then the X-ray microscope is a reality, the lenses of ordinary
microscopes having been replaced by adding machines or other more ingeni¬
ous devices (e.g. Pepinsky, 1947). It is indeed possible to force ordinary
light to do the Fourier summations for us. To understand how this is done
let us consider, in terms of wave optics, the process involved in the forma¬
tion of an optical image.

Consider (Fig. 10) a lens forming in the plane B an image of an object
which for simplicity’s sake is assumed to be a periodic line grating repre¬
sented by P1P2Ps (cf. e.g. Jentzsch, 1938). This grating diffracts the light
illuminating it and the various orders of diffracted spectra form parallel
beams of light which are focused in the focal plane A at the right of the lens.
If this process is analyzed mathematically it is found that the amplitudes of
the various diffraction spectra in this plane are precisely the Fourier com¬
ponents of the periodic function which represents the amplitude of the
light passed by the original grating. This so-called primary image of the
original grating is thus simply its Fourier inversion.

All points of this primary image may be thought of as sources of
spherical light wavelets which are capable of interfering with each other.
This interference leads to the final or secondary image of the object in the
plane B. It turns out to be the Fourier inversion of the primary image, and
therefore a more or less truthful (inverse) image of the original grating.
It is not an exact image of the object because the primary image does not

Fig. 10. Image formation by lens (from Jentzsch, 1938)

1951, No. 1
March 30

Seeing the Molecule

contain all Fourier coefficients, partly because of angular limitations, but
mainly because of the finite wavelength of the light employed.1 2 Indeed it is
possible to derive formula ( 1 ) from such considerations.

The following trick can now be used (Bragg, 1939). Instead of having
the lens supply the primary image any other amplitude distribution of light
may artifically be put into its place. In the plane of the secondary image
there will then appear promptly the Fourier inversion of this distribution,
provided the light distribution in the primary plane is coherent. Light has
thus been used to perform a Fourier Synthesis.

In the crystal structure application the amplitude distribution is sup¬
plied by a metal plate into which have been drilled holes whose area is pro¬
portional to the experimentally determined Fourier coefficients of the X-ray
density in a crystal. The phase relations among these coefficients may be
introduced for instance by placing suitably inclined thin flakes of mica in
front of some of the holes (Buerger, 1950). The metal plate is illuminated

Fig. 11. Photographic Fourier synthesis for marcasite, FeS2. Upper half diagrammatic
representation of crystal with Fe atoms shaded. (Buerger, 1950).

1 If the object is of entirely general nature the primary image is its so-called Fourier trans¬
form. The secondary image is the Fourier transform of this transform, which resembles the
(inverse) original to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the completeness of the primary
image.

2 A related method that is especially suited for electron microscopy and provides the phases
automatically has recently been proposed by Gabor (1948). Cf. also Haine and Dyson 1950).

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

with monochromatic, coherent light and a lens is usually placed between
A and B2.

In this way the projection of the electron density in marcasite, FeS2>
reproduced in Fig. 11 was obtained (Buerger, 1950) using about 150 Fourier
coefficients. The darker spots represent the Fe-atoms containing about 26
electrons each, the lighter spots the S-atoms containing about 16 electrons
each. The drawing in the upper part of Fig. 1 1 is a diagrammatic representa¬
tion of the crystal structure, but the size and shading of the circles in this
diagram is in no way related to the electron densities within the atoms.

If instead of using a photographic plate one views the secondary image
through a low power microscope he can actually "see” the atoms and mole¬
cules in a crystal.

LITERATURE CITED

Abrahams, S. C., J. M. Robertson and J. G. White — 1949 — Acta Cryst. 2 : 238.

Bragg, W. L.— 1939— Nature 143 : 678.

Buerger, M. J. — 1950 — J. Appl. Phys. 21 : 909.

Crowfoot, I)., C. W. Bunn, B. W. Rogers-Low, and A Turner- Jones — 1949 — The X-Ray
Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin, in “The Chemistry of
Penicillin,” edited by H. T. Clarke, J. R. Johnson, R. Robinson. Princeton University
Press.

Gabor, D.— 1948— Nature 161 : 777.

Haine, M. E. and J. Dyson — 1950 — Nature 166: 315.

Jentzsch, F. — 1939 — Physikal. Z. 39: 928.

Kirkpatrick, P. — 1950 — Nature 166: 251.

Lonsdale, K. — 1949— Crystals and X-Rays. Van Nostrand. New York.

Muller, E. W.— 1949 — Z. Physik 126 : 642.

— - 1950 — Naturwissensch 37 : 333.

Pepinsky, J. — 1947 — J. Appl. Phys. 18:601.

Price, W. C. and R. G. Wyckoff— 1946— Nature 157, 764.

Prince, E. — 1950 — J. Appl. Phys. 21 : 698.

Robertson, J. M. — 1936 — J. Chem Soc. 1195.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Nature of Ocean Currents

NATURE OF OCEAN CURRENTS IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO *

DALE F. LEIPPER

Department of Oceanography
The A. & M. College of Texas

Oceanographic studies in the Gulf of Mexico have been relatively few
and far between. I imagine that the term "oceanography” is new to a good
many of you and that it might therefore be well to define it and to mention
its various aspects.

We may say that it is the systematic analysis of the seas and everything
that is in them, over them, around them and under them. Oceanography
draws upon the techniques and principles of the basic sciences such as bi¬
ology, chemistry, geology, physics, mathematics, meteorology and engineer¬
ing. If a problem can be solved within one of these fields without recourse to
any of the others, then that problem, even though it concerns the marine
environment, would not be listed as an oceanographic problem. Only those
problems which can not be solved by application of one of the basic sciences
alone can properly be called oceanographic problems.

In our Department of Oceanography, which is in the School of Arts
and Sciences at Texas A. & M., oceanography is considered as being made up
of five major components. These are: biological oceanography, which is
the study of life in the sea including both plants and animals; physical
oceanography, which is the physics of the sea, including the study of ocean
waves and water movements, of transformations of energy, and of the physi¬
cal characteristics of sea water; geological oceanography, which deals with
relationships between the land and the oceans and includes studies of beach
erosion, sedimentation, bottom topographies and the interpretation of marine
deposits; chemical oceanography, which is the study of the chemical com¬
position of the sea and of chemical reactions which take place within it, and
which includes determinations of the amount of various constituents present,
development of methods of extraction, and studies of corrosive effects;
finally, there is marine meteorology, which deals with the winds and weather
over the sea, with the manner in which winds set up ocean waves and cur¬
rents and with the climate as determined by evaporation and conduction
from the sea surface.

An oceanographer is a person trained in one of the pertinent basic sci¬
ences who has learned to apply his specialty in the marine environment and
who has an interest in and at least an elementary knowledge of the other
marine sciences.

There are several features of the subject which make oceanography a
distinct and specialized field. One of these is the fact that, in nearly every
problem he attacks, the oceanographer is soon confronted with the necessity
of applying knowledge which can only be gathered by combining several
of the marine sciences. This unity of the sciences of the sea is brought about
by the very nature of the oceans themselves — -they being a large, continuous,
active, flowing medium. A second characteristic of oceanography is that

* Presented at the second Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Sciences of the Texas Game, Fish
and Oyster Commission Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas, April 6-9, 1950.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. i
March 30

it deals with large quantities. Distances are measured in thousands of miles
and volumes in thousands of cubic miles. The oceanographer is fortunate if
the data from which he must draw his conclusions provide as much as a
single sample or observation for each 2 50 cubic miles of water to be
analyzed. He deals with large amounts of energy which make even the
energy associated with an atomic bomb explosion seem insignificant. He
deals with forces not present in laboratory experiments, such as the ap¬
parent force due to the earth’s rotation. Although few individual methods
or principles of oceanography are unique, the combination of principles and
methods which must be used requires special training and experience.

A typical oceanographic problem is that of determining the currents
of the seas. Sverdrup"' lists three different groups of currents, each of which
is represented in the Gulf of Mexico, These are:

(1) currents that are related to the distribution of density in the sea,

(2) currents that are caused directly by the stress that the wind exerts
on the sea surface, and

(3) tidal currents and currents associated with internal waves.
(Information presented in this discussion is standard oceanographic knowl¬
edge and is thoroughly covered in the oceans. It is presented here in some¬
what elementary form for the benefit of undergraduate students in biology
who may not have strong backgrounds in mathematics and physics.)

Tidal currents are caused chiefly by the gravitational attractions be¬
tween the earth, the moon and the sun. These attractions are proportional
to the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the squares of the
distance between them. Because of its very short distance from the earth,
the attraction of the moon is large. The sun, on the other hand, although it
is at a much greater distance from the earth, is so large that it is able to
exert an attraction which is 43% of the moon’s attraction.

A result of gravitational attraction upon the rotating earth is to periodi¬
cally raise and lower the level of the ocean’s surface, i.e., to create tides.
Water which is required to raise sea level at a particular location must be
furnished by horizontal movements within the ocean. These are the tidal cur¬
rents. Since the sun and moon change their position with respect to a given
part of the earth’s surface in a periodic fashion, the tides and tidal currents
are periodic. Because the rotation of the earth affects movements of water,
the tidal currents do not oscillate back and forth on a straight line but rotate.
In the northern hemisphere this rotation is in a clockwise direction.

Along the Texas coast there are many bays and lagoons which have
relatively few outlets to the sea. If the water level in these bays is to be
raised by tidal action, all of the water required for the change in level must
flow into the bay through a few narrow channels. Therefore the tidal cur¬
rents in such channels may be quite large, particularly at certain stages of
the tide.

The great width of the shallow continental shelf along the Gulf Coast
results in high tidal current velocities. This is because the change of water
level of this large area must be brought about by flow across the shallow
shelf. Since the depth of the moving water is small, its velocity must be
relatively great to provide the volume needed for change in sea level.

* Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, Martin W., and Richard H. Fleming — 1946 — The oceans, their
physics, chemistry and general biology, x, 1087. New York. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Nature of Ocean Currents

The high velocities and the changing direction and velocity of these
tidal currents lead to turbulence and stirring which provide nutrient ma¬
terials needed for plant and animal growth in the lighted upper layers.

Oscillating currents related to internal waves may be important in this
region but little information now is available on this subject.

Currents caused by the stress of the wind upon the sea surface are par¬
ticularly important on the Gulf Coast. The most widely known phenomena
which results from the action of such currents is the storm tide or general
rise in water level which precedes winds of hurricane velocities.

When a wind starts to blow over the ocean it exerts a frictional force
or drag upon the sea surface. If the wind persists the surface layers of the
water start to move and they in turn act upon the deeper layers and set
these in motion also. The two forces which are involved in setting up such
currents are the frictional force and the Coriolis force, which is the apparent
force due to the rotation of the earth. If the wind blows long enough for a
state of equilibrium to be reached, the surface waters will be moving in a
direction approximately 45° to the right of the wind direction. A north
wind sets up a surface current toward the southwest. Currents at greater
depths will flow at greater angles to the wind and at velocities which de¬
crease with depth. The surface velocities may reach 1 to 2% of the wind
velocity.

Studies of currents set up by the wind are mostly based upon theoretical
considerations. A few observations have been made in land locked bays to
show the piling up of water by the wind. However, in the open ocean no
data are available. The existence of the drilling platforms off the Gulf
Coast may permit, for the first time, the accumulation of data which will
enable a practical analysis to be carried out.

The currents related to the distribution of density are the major semi¬
permanent currents of the oceans. Little is known about these currents in
the Gulf of Mexico. The chief source of information is the pilot charts of
the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office. These are based upon the navigation
records of the ships sailing in the Gulf over many years. They do indicate
the general drift in various regions but the individual observations upon
which they are based are subject to many errors. For example, the deviation
of a ship from its course may be caused by the wind rather than by the
current. Also, it is difficult to determine positions at sea accurately. A sur¬
vey of the pilot charts for the Gulf indicates that these may not describe
all of the currents present. They show waters flowing into the western part
of the area at all latitudes but no water flowing out. This situation can not
exist unless there is a submarine return current of equal magnitude — which
is unlikely.

In the deep waters, direct observation of current velocities has until re¬
cently been almost impossible because of difficulty in anchoring vessels. Ac¬
cordingly few such observations have been made. Instead, oceanographers
have developed a method based upon the principles of physics. By use of this
method the ocean currents present may be inferred from the distribution of
density as determined by relatively simple observations of temperature, salin¬
ity and pressure. Two forces again are involved, one of these being the Corio¬
lis force which I have previously mentioned, and the other being the "pressure
gradient” which is a force that depends upon the density of the water and
the density distribution. The pressure gradient tends to make water flow

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. i
March 30

from a region of high pressure toward a region of low pressure just as
water poured into less dense oil will flow outward from the point at which
it is poured. When the movement related to the pressure gradient has begun,
the Coriolis force in the northern hemisphere acts toward the right of the
movement and the resulting equilibrium between the two forces is asso¬
ciated with a steady current flowing almost perpendicular to a line connect¬
ing the regions of high pressure and low pressure. This flow is such that the
more dense water is on the left hand of a person standing with his back to
the current and the less dense water is on his right in the northern hemis¬
phere. Since temperature is one of the major factors influencing density, it
may be inferred that the cold water is on the observer’s left and the warm
is on his right when he is standing as described above with relation to the
current. Thus, he can tell something about the currents if he knows the
distribution of temperature or he can tell something about the temperature
if he knows the distribution of currents.

There are a number of difficulties in applying the current computation
method. However, in spite of these difficulties it has been found to be the
method which provides the most information for a reasonable amount of
work.

Processes by which the distribution of density is caused to change are
cooling and increase of salinity by evaporation and conduction, and the
movement of masses of water by the winds. Since the total transport of
water due to the winds is toward the right and since this transport consists
of warm waters in the surface layers, the low density waters are piled up
at the right of the wind flow, which is in the center of anti-cyclones- —
regions of good clear weather. The warm waters are removed from the low
pressure storm areas at the left by the wind action. This movement is what
is called the wind driven current. Its primary effect is to pile up water of
small density in areas of anti-cyclonic winds and to leave waters of greater
density in areas of cyclonic winds. This leads to a secondary effect, namely
the maintenance of a different ocean current related to this distribution of
density. Since such currents flow nearly perpendicular to a line connecting
the regions having the different water densities, the associated currents form
a pattern quite similar to the pattern of the winds. This may readily be
recognized from a chart showing the distribution of ocean currents and
prevailing winds.

It can be seen that the study of this one particular phase of ocean¬
ography, ocean currents, involves the use of many of the basic sciences.
The fundamental laws were derived from physics. The data are obtained by
various measuring devices developed by engineers. The density determina¬
tions require chemical analysis to determine salinity. The computations re¬
quire rigorous mathematical methods. The interpretation of the computed
currents is largely based upon meteorological phenomena. The application of
the information gained is of particular importance to biologists since the
ocean currents provide oxygen needed to maintain life in the sea, furnish
nutrient materials, remove wastes and provide for the wide dispersal of
eggs and larvae necessary to maintain populations. The ocean current in¬
formation is also essential to geologists for their studies of sedimentation
and erosion.

1951, No. i Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution 45

March 80

INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS AND MARINE POLLUTION

FRANK J. METYKO *

Harris County Bayou Pollution Surveys
Houston, Texas

Industrial waste pollution in the southeastern part of Texas is a many
sided problem, which equals or exceeds the problem of adequate sanitary
pollution control The problem has been increasingly magnified by the
area’s rapid industrial expansion, by the wide diversity of types of indus¬
try, and by the complex nature of the resultant wastes, A partial list of the
manifold types of industrial activity will serve to indicate the scope of the
problem— -packing and rendering plants, oil refineries, chemical plants, syn¬
thetic rubber plants, breweries, laundries, tool and metal working industries,
cotton and fish oil processing plants, bottling plants, milk processing plants,
cotton textile plants, tannery and hide processing plants, dry cleaning estab¬
lishments, and wood treating plants. Each of these industries are noted for
having liquid wastes that are very potent in various characteristics.

Much has already been stated about sanitary sewage (domestic wastes)
—how it decomposes, what its characteristics are, how it can be treated.
The pertinent factor to this discussion is that the composition of sanitary
sewage is quite uniform. The sanitary sewage in sewers in Houston is very
similar to the sanitary sewage in Corpus Christ! or Beaumont and similar
treatment processes could be used at all three cities. On the other hand, the
industrial waste from a refinery on the Houston Ship Channel consisting of
oils, emulsions, caustics, and acids is entirely different from blood offal, and
paunch wastes from a packing plant on Brays Bayou, a tributary of Ship
Channel, or from the coagulants, latex, butadiene, and stryrene wastes of a
synthetic rubber plant on Simms Bayou, another tributary of the Ship Chan¬
nel In fact, the wastes from one refinery may differ materially from the
wastes of an adjacent refinery producing the same product because of slight
differences in processes.

In recent years some progress has been made in studying industrial
wastes and developing methods of treatment; however, much remains to be
done just to standardize existing practice. Much more work is needed to
keep abreast with the problems created by entirely new processes and new
synthetic products.

From a public health standpoint, industrial wastes are, of course, not
as prime an offender as sanitary wastes. Most industrial wastes, however,
play an important secondary role in possible disease transmission. This occurs
in the following manner. Sanitary sewage is largely organic matter in an
unstable biochemical condition. There is a constant tendency to stabilize
or purify itself. This tendency is greatly assisted by various helpful bacterial
organisms and chemicals that are always present in normal running water.
A waterway that is polluted by only sanitary sewage is therefore in a con¬
stant state of self -purification. Many industrial wastes completely destroy
the organisms that assist in this self -purification process or actually unite

* Address given at Rockport, Texas, Oct. 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of
the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

with the available chemical content such as the dissolved oxygen in the
water so that the self -purification process is impaired or destroyed, some¬
times permanently.

A few industrial wastes actually carry disease organisms. The notable
example of this is anthrax, which can be carried in the wastes from tanneries
and slaughter houses. Laundry wastes, being the waste from the washing
of soiled clothes, diapers, handkerchiefs, and the like, actually may carry a
greater variety of disease organisms than sanitary sewage.

In industrial Southeastern Texas many liquid poisonous products and
by-products are produced, which if permitted to enter the liquid wastes
discharged into the bayous would endanger human and marine life. The
toxicity of arsenics, phenols, cyanides and similar compounds are well
known. Only a few parts per million, if taken internally, could cause
death. Very little is known about many of the complex hydrocarbons, sul¬
fides, naphthenates, mercaptans, alcohols, and special solvents that are used
extensively by industries in this county, except that these wastes are all
poisonous. The recent discharge of an arsenic compound in New Caney
Creek which killed hundreds of cattle and other animals is still fresh in our
memory. That a similar catastrophe could occur at many points in the State
at any time is illustrated by the analysis of the wastes of a small chemical
plant company on White Oak Bayou within the City of Houston. In this
case the plant’s wastes were impounded in an earthen reservoir so poorly
constructed that considerable leakage developed. A sample of the leakage
analyzed by the Pollution Survey Division of Harris County showed 30,000
parts per million of arsenic. A few hundred feet down stream was a very
popular swimming hole that was frequented almost daily by neighborhood
boys. It is hard to understand that no human fatality resulted prior to the
discovery of this condition. Needless to say correction was made immediately.

Fish and other marine life are, of course, more susceptible to toxic ma¬
terials than humans. Many of the numerous periodical fish killings in the
bayous, Bays and Gulf have the attributes of being caused by the discharge
of toxic industrial wastes. To attempt to identify or isolate any particular
compound or chemical by analysis as being the cause for such fish killings
is virtually an impossible task. Hundreds of chemicals, acids, alkalies and
complex compounds that would have the power to kill fish life in large
quantities are used daily by industries in the county. Even if the specific
toxic substance could be determined, to trace it to the actual industry that
would be responsible for its discharge would be a tremendous undertaking.
Many of the chemicals and processes used are trade secrets or new synthetic
compounds about which very little is known.

Many wastes which are poisonous have a high specific gravity, or in
other words, are very heavy. These wastes settle to the bottom and could
possibly be present for a relatively long period of time before being stirred
up under conditions which might trap and kill many fish. It is conceivable,
as a matter of fact, that an industry may discharge a perfectly harmless
waste which will react chemically with some other already existing chemical
in the water to produce a dangerous compound.

There are many detrimental effects of industrial wastes besides its in¬
fluence on health. Those effects are felt in many phases of the economy of
the State — navigation, drainage, recreation, soil conservation, industrial
use of water, fish and oyster production, and esthetic considerations. It

1951, No. 1
March 30

Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution

would seem pertinent to discuss some of the properties of industrial wastes
prior to a more detailed discussion of the effects they have. No one waste
has all of the following properties but may have a combination of several.
The receiving waters themselves, of course, are a conglomeration of all the
wastes.

OILY WASTES

Many industrial wastes contain quantities of oil. Oil may be discharged
directly from innumerable sources as a very thin film which covers the
water giving a rainbow color effect. Also, oil. may be trapped within larger
solids of a waste which, when the solids break up, release the oil to spread
on the surface. Another manner in which oil may be discharged is in the
form of an emulsion in which oil is dispersed evenly throughout the liquid.
Emulsified oils are used widely for metal cutting purposes, and frequently
have the appearance of milk. Under certain conditions of heat or acid con¬
tent within the receiving water, the emulsified oils break down turning the
'milk’ water into a heavy black oily substance. The fourth source of oil in
waterways comes from actual spills at tank forms, oil boat loading docks,
oil barges or tankers, and pipe line breaks. At times, considerable oil enters
waterways through storm sewage systems caused by rain washing streets
or by the illicit connection of service garages. The oil wastes are a type of
waste which is easily seen and recognized.

GREASES AND FATS

Large quantities of grease and fats are discharged along with industrial
wastes from many industries. In some respects they are similar to the oily
wastes, and the lighter greases contribute to the oily condition. Some greases,
however, are heavier than water and, therefore, sink to the bottom rather
than float on the top. Large quantities of various types of grease are in the
wastes from packing plants, abattoirs, rendering plants, refineries, cotton
seed processing, laundries, milk processing plants, wood treating plants, and
various types of chemical plants.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Many wastes from industrial processes carry large quantities of solids in
suspension. These solids may be inert solids such as sand and limestone from
washing shell for road use, or they may be complex volatile organic solids
such as would come frcm packing plants, refineries, breweries and the like.
The difference between the two is that the volatile solids, being organic in
nature, will undergo decomposition and give off gases; whereas, the inert
solids, being composed of stable material, will not decompose. The amount
of suspended solids that can be carried by flowing water varies with the
velocity of flow. When the velocity decreases, deposition of the solids takes
place. In the case of solids suspended in streams and bay water, this means
that bottom deposits are formed that are known as sludge banks. These
sludge banks then contain a mixture of inert and volatile solids, and, also,
the greases and fats that have settled to the bottom. The extent of this
problem can be illustrated by figures from an analysis made on one plant
on Buffalo Bayou in Harris County. This plant alone discharges 12 tons per
day of suspended solids into the bayou.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No, 1
March 30

ACID AND ALKALINE WASTES

Many industrial wastes include large quantities of acids or alkalies.
These originate from such processes as acid baths and caustic washes for
metal plating processes, acid treatment of oils and alkylation units at refin¬
eries, and direct acid uses in various chemical plants. In general terms the
particular chemical property of the wastes that is effected is known as
the hydrogen-ion concentration. The hydrogen-ion concentration of neutral
water is 7. Everything above 7 is increasingly alkalyine; everything below 7
is increasingly acid. The principal acids that are found in industrial wastes
are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid. The common
alkalies are lime and soda ash.

DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Dissolved solids are solid particles which go into solution with water
and cannot be seen. Water has long been known as a universal solvent, and
it is true that it is the most general solvent known. Many of the chemicals
which come into contact with water are dissolved to some degree in the
water. This dissolved content can change the characteristics of the water
materially, even though the physical appearance remains the same. It is
under these conditions that a colorless waste discharge can enter a bayou
or river which may also be colorless, and a reaction take place between the
two resulting in a zone of precipitation. Generally speaking, dissolved solids
cause more trouble from a pollution treatment standpoint than suspended
solids because special processes are needed to remove the solids from solution.

WASTES WHICH CAUSE TASTE AND ODOR

Many of the wastes impart tastes and odors to the water which would
render it unfit for human consumption regardless of the treatment given
it. Some substances such as chlorinated phenols are detectable in very minute
quantities. For example, a chloro phenol compound could be detected if one
pint was thoroughly mixed up with 50 million gallons of water. Even
though surface water is not being used for potable uses (such as is the case
in Harris County) , tastes and odors from liquid wastes are still a problem.
The smell of the bayous is caused by more than the decomposition of
sanitary sewage. Many of the fish and crabs caught along the Channel or
in Galvestone Bay are inedible because of "strong tastes.” The wastes which
cause most of the taste and odor problem in Harris County come from
complex organic sulphur, nitrogen, and marcaptan compounds. In addition
to this, hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell) is sometimes generated much
more profusely by the mixture of industrial wastes with sanitary wastes.

COLORED WASTES

Industrial wastes frequently have very unsightly colors. Small quantities
of such wastes frequently will change the color of the entire receiving body
of water. Typical examples are the many dyes from textile plants, the blood
or paunch yellow from meat packing plants, the yellowish brown waste
caustic from refineries, the white discharge from cotton oil processing, and
the black wastes from barrel washing. The color of the water in Buffalo
Bayou and the Houston Ship Channel is a combination of all these wastes
and many more.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution

EXPLOSIVE WASTES

Some industrial wastes have explosive properties due largely to mixtures
of gases given off. The gases may be from those entrapped in the waste from
industrial processes or may be some formed by decomposition gas. Although
this generally is not too serious a problem after the wastes reach the open
bayous, it is an ever existent danger as long as the waste is in a sewer
system. Considerable precaution must be taken to prevent igniting the ex¬
plosive material around the sewer outlet.

Having discussed the various properties and types of industrial wastes,
it now seems in order to list the many ways that these properties adversely
affect the natural resources and welfare of the State.

FISH AND OYSTER PRODUCTION

Previously it was pointed out that many industrial wastes are directly
toxic to fish life, that is, they cause death by direct poisoning. Fish and
shell fish are detrimentally affected in many other ways however.

1. Sludge deposits consisting of solids, heavy oils, and greases settle to the
bottom and cover feeding grounds and spawning grounds of fish life such
that they are forced to migrate to cleaner waters.

2. The organic and chemically unstable matter present in wastes consume
the dissolved oxygen content in the water that is necessary for the biological
processes of marine life. Most fish life require at least four parts per million
of dissolved oxygen in order to survive. Some bottom fish can exist on as low
as two parts per million. However, when the range is this low, generally all
fish will migrate to cleaner waters. Those that do stay are frequently trapped
by zones of zero dissolved oxygen and consequently die.

3. Oil slicks frequently prevent the reabsorption of oxygen into the water
from the air, thereby contributing to dissolved oxygen deficiency conditions.

4. Quite frequently industrial wastes have such a large suspended solids
content that the gills of the fish becom so clogged that they cannot function
and consequently the fish die. At times the concentration of suspended solids
are sufficient to black out the sunlight necessary for photosynsis of submerged
marine plant life.

5. Slugs of strong acid or alkali can trap fish and of course kill them directly.

6. Excessive changes in dissolved solid content can also kill or drive fish away.
This lethal effect is brought about by interference with osmotic processes.
The simplest illustration of this effect is the fact that fresh water fish would
soon die if placed in sea water. The sea water of course having a high con¬
centration of dissolved sodium chloride (salt).

DRAINAGE

The effect of pollution on drainage is perhaps best exemplified by the
fact that the Harris County Pollution Surveys were first requested and
sponsored by two drainage districts, No. 12 and No. 2. One of the very
common results of industrial wastes pollution occurs when large amounts
of suspended solids settle to the bottom of the bayous. These sludge banks
occupy room in the drainage channel that should be available for storm
water run-off. Any silting or clogging of the drainage channel proportion¬
ately increases the high water mark at that spot.

NAVIGATION

Navigation is affected in many ways by industrial pollution.

1. The navigable waterways become silted with suspended solids similar to
the drainage channels. It takes large expenditures yearly to dredge the Houston
Ship Channl from solids that have settled to the bottom. Much of these solids

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

come from industrial discharges.

2. Concentrations of floating oils, gasoline, and other combustible materials
present an ever present fire hazard. This is particularly dangerous around
wooded dock areas since frequently oil collects under the pilings, and only a
spark is needed to start a conflagration.

3. Acid water and decomposition gases attack and deteriorate concrete, metal,
wood, and paint. Dock, bridges, and other navigation fixtures have a resultant
decreased life.

4. Oil and grease slicks cover boat hulls and navigation markers thereby
requiring expensive maintenance.

5. In vessels themselves, large quantities of water are used for cooling and
condensing. Naturally the maintenance cost of the boat’s circulatory system is
greatly increased if contaminated water must be used for this purpose.

SOIL CONSERVATION

Erosion is greatly facilitated by the discharge of some industrial wastes
in the following manner. Waste discharges having high acid contents will
kill all forms of vegetable life in or near the conveying channel. When the
bank vegetation is destroyed, nothing is left to prevent the rapid erosion
that takes Ipace on unprotected soils. Bayou banks are undermined and
eventually collapse. Eventually such soil erosion can spread over wide areas,
and the washed soil is deposited in the bayou water to further clutter up
the drainage channels.

BIRD LIFE

Wild fowl are seriously affected by marine pollution. This occurs
through the covering of feeding or resting areas by oil slicks. In addition,
when a birds’ feathers become saturated with oil, the air sack which permits
a bird to float on water becomes fouled to the extent that often times the
bird drowns.

INDUSTRIAL USE OF WATER

Paradoxically industries themselves are adversely affected by polluted
water courses. Large quantities of river or sea water are used by industries
for processing, cooling, and condensing purposes. Polluted water causes
increased deterioration of pipes, increased scale formation, oil film trouble,
and increased algae and color problems, all of which require expensive con¬
ditioning and maintenance work.

PROPERTY VALUES

Ordinarily, property along a water course or a bay front commands
an extra premium because of esthetic or other considerations. However,
when the water course is polluted by sanitary or industrial wastes, the value
drops. Instead of a premium, a pollution penalty is imposed. This has hap¬
pened to much of the land bordering the bayous and bays.

RECREATION

Perhaps the most detrimental effect of industrial wastes is the effect it
has on the recreational resources of the area. Spots that were once good fish¬
ing holes are now just holes. Bathing and swimming, although still carried
on, are often times done so at a risk. Sometimes, swimmers emerging from
the water, must spend hours trying to clean the oil and grease off of them.
For the reasons previously described, the sport of fishing by necessity has

1951, No. 1
March 30

Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution

materially decreased with the increase of pollution. Pleasure boating in many
localities is a thing of the past. In one instance that has been investigated, a
boat servicing company catering to pleasure craft has maintenance damages
amounting to over $10,000 per year because of the polluted conditions of
the water at their docks. The stenches that often time arise are certainly
not conducive to the use of parks and picnic areas along the water courses.

Having covered in a general way the complex properties and the many
effects of industrial wastes, it would seem pertinent to discuss effective
control. Roughly there are three steps toward the attainment of corrected
conditions. First, the start, second, the financing; and third, the operation.
Cooperation keynotes all three steps. Of the three steps, getting started is
the hardest.

The problem must be viewed in the light that industry is the new
life-blood of Southeastern Texas. It is the main reason for the area’s growth
and prosperity. The continued success and expansion of industry is essential.

The rights of an industry to the use of its property includes the right
to the use of surface water bordering or traversing its land. This is not an
exclusive right however, since it must be enjoyed and exercised in common
with other riparian owners similarly situated and with the general public’s
welfare.

In the past many industries have failed to look far enough ahead. The
most convenient way to get rid of wastes was to discharge them into the
nearest surface water that would carry them away. They failed to under¬
stand the significance of what was taking place, or else they simply turned
their back on it. They should have realized that industrial wastes would
increase in quantity and become more complex in composition. It also should
have been apparent that the flow of fresh water in our bayous and streams
would not increase proportionately to carry the load away. The result of
course has been described as it affects fish life, property values, recreational
facilities, navigation, and many other resources.

The policies of the various industries have differed in what may be
called this cross-road period. Some have ignored the whole matter, others
have given it considerable thought, and there are of course many waste
treatment plants in operation. Several were compelled, under even the exist¬
ing inadequate laws to construct treatment works. Others were guided by
the theory that as long as so much untreated sanitary sewage was disposed
of into the bayous, their problem was too minor by comparison to cause
any worry. Within the past year, however, there has been an increasing trend
to abandon the policy of ignoring the water pollution problem and instead,
looking around for some way of doing something about it.

One basic reason that industrial wastes treatment facilities have not
been constructed is the cost involved. The cost comes in not only on the
original construction cost but also the continuous operation and mainte¬
nance costs. Much to the surprise of some industries, tests conducted on
their wastes have indicated that treatment facilities could be installed at a
profit. This is due to salvageable products that can be realized and by the
many by-products that can be sold at a profit. Frequently also, detailed
studies of the wastes disposal processes of an industry have indicated large
savings in water consumption by the re-use of the waste waters. This not
only cuts down operating costs but also helps eliminate the volume of waste.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Some time ago the major industries on the Houston Ship Channel
formed an anti-pollution committee. The primary purpose of the committee
is the encouragement of cleaning house within industry itself.

It is not sufficient to pass the buck to industry and maintain that it is
entirely their problem. Under this sort of policy, either pollution conditions
are not corrected or industrial growth is stopped.

There is a general feeling among uninformed people that all that is
necessary to eliminate pollution is the passage of a simple "cureall” law. No
such law could ever be written or enforced. Sewers cannot be "shut off” like
the water at a kitchen sink. Governmental bodies, civic organizations, and
the press all have important roles to play if abatement of industrial pollution
is to be realized.

Perhaps a good example of a function of governmental bodies in pollu¬
tion abatement is furnished by the Harris County Pollution Surveys. The
surveys are being conducted jointly by the Harris County Commissioners
Court and the Texas State Health Department. They provide the necessary
factual information concerning pollution conditions that is essential to the
start and continuance of any control program. Another function of gov¬
ernment is to provide uniform and reasonable industrial wastes standards.
Too often industry can legitimately use the excuse that they are not treat¬
ing their wastes because the authorities cannot agree on what degree of
treatment is necessary. These units of government, cities, and water districts
that are responsible for the treatment of sanitary sewage, of course, must
cooperate in the over-all pollution abatement program by treating their
wastes satisfactorily. From an economic standpoint, it is very desirable for
both municipalities and industries to take and treat as much industrial waste
in a sanitary disposal plant as is compatible to its proper operation.

In general, a start has been made in the' industrialized section of the
state on the correction of industrial pollution conditions. Much is yet to be
done, however. Without widespread dissemination of all the pertinent
facts and the consistent support of the general public, it will be impossible
to obtain the desired results.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Significance of Geographic Variation

EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOGRAPHIC
VARIATION IN POPULATION DENSITY

W. FRANK BLAIR

University of Texas
Austin, Texas

INTRODUCTION

Methods for measuring the population densities of small mammals have
been developed principally during the last fifteen years. During the same
time, the importance of the pattern of distribution as an evolutionary agency
has come to be emphasized by Wright (1943, 1946) and others. Measure¬
ment of the extent of geographic variation in population density within the
species population now appears to be vital to an understanding of the factors
that cause geographic variation in morphological and other genetic char¬
acters.

There has been little standardization of methods for measuring the
population density of small mammals, and the estimates obtained by differ¬
ent workers are highly variable in their apparent validity. Estimates based
on live- trapping and marking the populations on measured plots (Blair,
1940a; Burt, 1940; Haugen, 1942; Stickel, 1946; and others) appear to be
the most reliable, although such variables as the density of traps and length
of trapping period may affect the estimate. Estimates based on snap¬
trapping, and consequent removal of resident animals, are almost wholly un¬
reliable (see Stickel, 1946). Removal of individuals lowers population pres¬
sure and encourages invasion from nearby areas of comparatively higher
pressure (Blair, 1940b). Estimates based on snap-trapping, therefore tend to
be too large.

No adequate measurement and analysis of population densities through¬
out the range of even a single species has yet been made. Comparison of
population densities in different geographic areas is complicated by the
obvious fact that densities usually vary in time as well as in space. Enough
is known about the general order of magnitude of geographic variation in
population density of some species populations, however, to show the basic
pattern of distribution of these populations. It is my purpose here to discuss
patterns of distribution of species populations and to survey some of the
evolutionary implications of these patterns.

PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION

The simplest pattern of distribution of a species population would be
one in which there is areal continuity and even population density through¬
out the range of the species. The species occupies all environments within its
geographic range and maintains the same densities in all of these environ¬
ments. Only two population densities are involved: (1) a positive density of
x value within the range, ( 2 ) a zero density beyond the geographic limits of
the species range. It is very doubtful that any species of mammal, or of any
other animal, shows such a pattern of distribution. This is unfortunately
the pattern of distribution implied by most distribution maps, usually
without any such intent on the part of the author.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

The usual pattern of distribution of a mammalian species population is
a mosaic one in respect to population density. The population density is high
in some areas, it is lower in others, and the species may be entirely absent
from extensive areas within the geographic limits of its range. This mosaic
pattern of population density results principally from preference of the
species for certain environments. This preference may vary geographically,
but in any given region certain environments are preferred. Other, marginal
environments may support thin populations of the species or may be occu¬
pied during periods of high population density in the preferred environ¬
ments. Other, sub-marginal environments are avoided by the species and
comprise ecological barriers.

Because population density varies geographically, the total species popu¬
lation is broken up into many smaller sub-populations. Each sub-population
is more or less isolated from other such populations, and the degree of isola¬
tion will vary, of course, with the effectiveness of the intervening ecological
barriers.

EFFECTS OF DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS ON GENETIC VARIABILITY

Geographic variation in genetic characters results from mutations (in¬
cluding gene mutations, inversions, translocations and other chromatin re¬
arrangements) and from the differential survival and dispersal of these muta¬
tions in the species population. The pattern of distribution of population
densities will presumably have no effect on mutation, but it does largely
control dispersal of these mutations. Retarded gene flow and differential
survival of mutant phenotypes are agencies of major importance to geo¬
graphic variation in species populations.

In the hypothetical case of areal continuity and even population den¬
sity, the only bar to transfer of a mutation to any part of the species popu¬
lation would be distance. Local differentiation would result chiefly from
differentiatial selection in the different environments occupied or invaded
by the species. There would be theoretically some local differentiation due
to the tendency of individuals to breed with their neighbors (see Wright,
1943).

Under the pattern of distribution normally found in natural popula¬
tions, the powerful agency of isolation is added to differential survival as a
factor producing local differentiation within the species population. The dis¬
persal of mutations through the species population is retarded by the ab¬
sence, near absence, or low density of the species in unfavorable environ¬
ments. The species population is divided into many smaller populations of
various sizes and of various areal configurations, and each is isolated in vary¬
ing degree from other sub-populations. In such a case, there is geographic
variation in the opportunity for differentiation due to geographic variation
in the pattern of distribution.

A species may show areal continuity and fairly even population density
in a part of its range where it occupies a geographically fairly uniform en¬
vironment. The same species may show linear continuity in another part of
its range, where it is restricted to an environmental type having such distri¬
bution. A species has linear continuity where dispersal completely across the
local range may occur in a single generation (see Wright, 1943). Linear con¬
tinuity of distribution occurs when a species distribution follows a scarp
( Neotoma albigula on the escarpment of the High Plains in Texas), follows

1951, No. 1
March 30

Significance of Geographic Variation

a shore line {Peromyscus polionotus in Florida), or follows a river system
(Peromyscus lencopus and Sciurus niger in the central grasslands). In the
last case the distribution is complicated by the fact that the species usually
follows the tributaries as well as the main stream. This pattern is best called
a dendritic one (Blair, 1950). Linear continuity of distribution is enor¬
mously more favorable to differentiation due to isolation by distance than is
areal continuity (Wright, 1943).

Differential population size is another important result of geographic
variation in population density. The size of a sub-population within the
species may vary from millions of individuals down to a mere handful. A
dense population of the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) is continuously
distributed on the Rio Grande Plain of southern Texas and northern Tamauli-
pas, and this population of millions of individuals is capable of interchang¬
ing genes without restrictions other than those of distance. Populations of
the same species comprising no more than a dozen or two individuals occur
in isolated cottonwood groves in the Trans-Pecos.

Wright (1943) has pointed out the potential effects on differentiation
by different population sizes and densities under a pattern of distribution
into semi-isolated sub-populations. Populations with equal areas and the
same absolute amount of immigration, but with different densities would
differ in their potentialities for differentiation. Both would have the same
theoretical amounts of non-adaptive differentiation, but adaptive differen¬
tiation would be favored in the sub-populations with greater densities, and
proportionally fewer immigrants, than in the smaller populations. Where
size of population is proportional to area and the number of immigrants is
proportional to the extent of the boundary, there is more non-adaptive
differentiation in the smaller populations and more adaptive differentiation
in the larger ones. Where both size of population and amount of immigration
are proportional to the area, there is more nonadaptive differentiation in the
smaller populations but no relationship between adaptive differentiation and
population size. It is concluded (idem) that any sort of differentiation is
favored by a low rate of immigration, but the large populations tend to
show predominantly adaptive differentiation, while the smaller populations
show predominantly nonadaptive differentiation.

The rate of immigration where numerous sub-populations occur in
favorable environments within a matrix of more or less unfavorable ones
may be affected by several factors. Mobility and dispersal tendencies of the
species are involved. Population densities in the marginal and sub-marginal
environments also may be of great importance. Where a dense population is
surrounded by a population of much lower density, the flow of immigrants
and of genes might be largely one-directional, from the area of high density,
and high population pressure, to the area of low density and pressure.

A widely distributed species, such as the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leu¬
copus) , may show much geographic variation in its pattern of distribution
of population densities (Blair, 1950). This species shows areal continuity,
with some local differences in density, in the eastern forest and in the brush-
lands of southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas. It has linear or dendritic
distribution along the streams of the central grasslands. The most isolated
populations occur in the southwestern United States, where local sub-popu¬
lations are restricted to ecologically isolated areas of suitable environment.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

EFFECTS OF SELECTION AND OF ISOLATION

The degree of differentiation of sub-populations depends on both the
rate of selection in these populations and the rate of immigration into them.
Wright (1943) has pointed out that in a local population in which selection
is smaller in absolute value than immigration the gene frequency can depart
only slightly from the average for the species, for crossbreeding would swamp
the tendency toward selective differentiation. Where selection is greater than
immigration in absolute value, the local gene frequency tends to be domi¬
nated by the local conditions of selection, and there is adaptive differentia¬
tion.

Few attempts have been made to analyze the respective roles of isola¬
tion and selection in producing locally differentiated populations, but a few
generalizations can be made from our present knowledge. Gene frequencies
of the adaptive buff and gray alleles of the Chihuahua deer-mouse ( Pero -
myscus maniculatus blandus ) were determined under different conditions
of isolation and local selection by Blair (1947a). In a population with linear
continuity of distribution in a local area of the Tularosa Basin, there is
adaptive differentiation in the frequency of color genes at stations eighteen
miles apart, but there is none between stations four miles apart. Selection
in respect to pelage color is presumably the same at the four-mile and the
eighteen-mile stations, as the background soils are similar in color. Immi¬
gration into the four-mile population apparently tends to swamp selective
differentiation there. This is suggested by the fact that this population is
not well adapted in palage color for the local soil color. A lower population
density here than in the color-adapted population four miles away suggests
a differential in immigration between the two stations, with immigration
into the less-dense, poorly adapted population being greater in absolute value
than the reverse immigration. Populations twenty miles apart, on similarly
colored soils, show no differentiation in the frequency of the color genes,
although the two populations are separated for most of the distance by an
unfavorable environment in which the density of the species is very low.
In this case, parallel selection in the two semi-isolated populations is pre¬
sumably the factor that prevents divergence in frequency of the color genes.
Populations eleven miles apart, on differently colored soils and separated by
a sparse intervening population, show adaptive differentiation in gene fre¬
quency. In this case, differential selection on the differently colored soils
and reduced gene flow may be jointly responsible for the divergence of the
two populations.

Since selection and immigration have opposing effects, with selection
tending toward differentiation of sub-populations and immigration tending
to maintain the species average, it is to be expected that cases would be
found in which these tendencies are in obvious equilibrium. Such cases have
been described in the cactus mouse (Peromyscus ere minis) of southern New
Mexico (Blair, 1947b). A population on a small area of dark red soil differs
significantly in pelage color and has a significantly higher variability than
other populations thirteen and eighteen miles away on pale, pinkish-gray
soil. The divergence in pelage color is attributable to differential selection.
The greater variability in the small population is attributable to the swamp¬
ing effect of immigration. Intensification of selection should decrease vari¬
ability in this population. Decrease of selection or increase of immigration

1951, No. 1
March 30

Significance of Geographic Variation

should increase variability and might lead to swamping of the local color
population. Populations on two different lava beds are significantly darker
in color, but not significantly more variable, than the populations on pale,
pinkish-gray soils. The populations on these lava beds are larger than is the
population on the red-soil area. The lower variability of the lava-bed popu¬
lations may be due either to more intensive selection on the dark lava rock
or to a comparatively lower rate of immigration. Dice (1941) found greater
variability of pelage color in deer-mouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus) popula¬
tions of the Nebraska sand hills than he did in the extensive populations
occupying the surrounding prairies. He attributed the high variability of
the sand-hills mice mostly to, "interbreeding with the darker-colored popu¬
lations which surround the sand hills on every side.” Here, again, immigra¬
tion and selection appear to be in equilibrium. Decrease in immigration or
increase in intensity of selection should result in decreased variability and
increased color adaptation in the sand-hills mice. Increased immigration or
decreased intensity of selection should result in increased variability and
possible swamping of the sand-hills, color race.

It seems evident from the foregoing discussion that both selection and
pattern of distribution of population density are concerned in geographic
variation in morphologic and other genetic characters. Investigation of the
pattern of distribution of species is a challenging field of effort for present-
day students of mammalian evolution.

SUMMARY

Live trapping and marking techniques, developed during the last fifteen
years, make possible the measurement of geographic variation in population
density of small mammals. Differences of technique and the variation of
densities in time complicate the problem of measurement.

The pattern of distribution of a species in respect to population density
has important effects on geographic variation in morphological characters.
The usual pattern of distribution of a mammalian species is a mosaic of
different population densities. The species population is broken up into
numerous sub-populations by the species preference for certain environments.

Geographic variation in genetic characters results from mutations and
from the differential survival and dispersal of these mutations in the species
population. Adaptive differentiation is controlled by local selection and
immigration. Rates of immigration are influenced in turn by population
densities.

LITERATURE CITED

Blair, W. F. — 1940a — Home ranges and populations of the meadow vole in southern Michigan.
Jour. Wildlife Management 4 : 149-161.

- 1940b — A study of prairie deer-mouse populations in southern Michigan. Amer. Mid.

Nat. 24 : 273-305.

1947a — Estimated frequencies of the buff and gray genes (G, g) in adjacent populations of
deer-mice (Peromyscus maniculatus blandus) living on soils of different colors. Contr.
Lab. Vert. Biol. 36: 1-16.

- — 1947a — Variation in shade of pelage color of local populations of the cactus-mouse

‘ Peromyscus eremicus) in the Tularosa Basin and adjacent areas of southern New
Mexico. C’ontr. Lab. Vert, Biol. 37 : 1-7.

- 1950 — Ecological factors in speciation of Peromyscus. Evolution 4 : 253-275.

Burt, W. H. — 1940 — Territorial behavior and populations of some small mammals in south¬
ern Michigan. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. M'us. Zool. 45: 1-58.

Dice, L. R. — 1941 — Variation of the deer-mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) on the sand hills
of Nebraska and adjacent areas. Contr. Lab. Vert. Genetics 15 : 1-19.

Haugen, A. O. — 1942 — Life history studies of the cottontail rabbits in southwestern Michigan
Amer. Mid. Nat. 28 : 204-244.

Stickel, L. F. — 1946 — Experimental analysis of methods for measuring small mammal popu¬
lations. Jour. Wildlife Management 10: 150-159.

Wright, S. — 1943 — Isolation by distance. Genetics 28:114-138.

- 1946 — Isolation by distance under diverse systems of mating. Genetics 31 : 39-56.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

PALEOECOLOGY

JAMES LEE WILSON *

Department of Geology

The University of Texas

Paleoecology is a study of ecological conditions of the geologic past,
the relations of fossil organisms to their physical and biotic surroundings.
It is based on two of the fundamental geologic sciences: (1) biological
paleontology, because one must understand as much as possible about fossils
as animals, and (2) sedimentology, since sediments containing fossils furnish
all the available evidence about their physical environment. Paleoecological
conclusions reached by such studies are part of the information embraced
by such subjects as biostratigraphy and historical geology.

Modern concepts of paleoecology are comparatively new to these
branches of stratigraphic geology, but it is interesting that some of the early
founders of earth science in realizing the true significance of fossils con¬
cerned themselves with paleoecological facts. The writer gratefully ac¬
knowledges the library investigations of William H. Matthews of Texas
Christian University (personal communication) who states that probably
the great Leonardo da Vinci about 1500 may be considered the first paleo-
ecologist. John Woodward of England in 1723 likewise investigates the
subject. Both of these early scientists used inferences about ecological con¬
ditions to help convince their readers that fossils were truly organic objects
and not mere curiosities. The first early worker to note real ecological detail
in fossil material was the French physician, Jean Etienne Guettard, who in
1765 published a paper demonstrating that fossil bearing beds on land had
great similarity to the modern sea floor. He pointed out such things as at¬
tachment scars, worm tubes, sponge borings, and barnacles on the fossil
shells as demonstrating that environmental conditions of the modern sea
were preserved in fossil form. Lamarck, Darwin, and other great biologists
furthered these ideas in later years. In America, however, until about 1930
many paleontologists, following E. O. Ulrich and other leaders, steadfastly
denied that ecological conditions influenced faunal content and distribution
within the widespread and ancient Paleozoic seas across North America.

Faunas of different makeup even though appearing at the same vertical
position in two or more stratigraphic sequences were considered ipso facto of
different age. Beds truly contemporaneous but representative of different
types of depositional environments (hence also containing different types
of marine life) were in many cases thought older or younger than each
other. This idea coupled with the limited knowledge of the period led to
the advocacy of a new period of geologic time (established on the basis of
faunal sequence in the rocks, see Ulrich, 1911). This period, the Ozarkian,
was disproved when it was found to be based chiefly upon a molluscan
(gastropod and cephalopod) faunal facies located only in dolomitic lime¬
stones. These probably formed in shallower warmer water than the more
typical Lower Ordovician and Upper Cambrian strata to which we now
realize the Ozarkian is contemporaneous.

* This is the revised copy of a lecture originally presented October 29, 1949, at the First
Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game,
Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport, Texas.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paleoecology

5 9

There are, conversely, cases in the history of stratigraphic geology
where beds have been correlated (thought contemporaneous) merely because
they were deposited in similar environments. For example, an environ¬
mentally controlled and long-lived species inhabiting one area may, during
its existence, migrate from that place at various times when the favorable
environment happens to occur in adjoining localities. If this happens at
widely separate occasions and if the native area is later lost to the geologic
record, the abundance of the said species in several of the adjoining regions
may be used erroneously as strong evidence of correlation of these parts of
the geologic column unless other more quickly evolving (hence vertically
restricted) species were fossilized to contradict such correlation.

Fossil ecology is now being studied in this country by many paleon¬
tologists and stratigraphers, and paleoecological concepts are currently hav¬
ing considerable influence on the development of stratigraphic principles
(Hedberg, 1948; Moore, 1948; Allan, 1948). Yet interpretation of past
environment is a difficult task. Although in neoecology there is never much
question about the environment which may be easily described by the laws
of physics and chemistry, this is not so with paleoecology. The interpreta¬
tion of what the environment was is commonly the most difficult aspect
of the problem and much of the study of paleoecology is an attempt to
ascertain it. Seven primary difficulties encountered in the subject are noted
below, but the list is by no means exhaustive.

(1) The fossil record is notoriously incomplete. Charles Darwin, the
great biologist, compared our knowledge of the life of any geologic period
to what a man today would know of the fauna of Australia were he to sail
up to its coast in a ship, jump off in a rowboat, spend the day, return to his
vessel and sail back to England. In normal marine strata, which may be
thousands of feet thick in any given area, probably more time is represented
by the bedding planes making the stratification than by the sediments whose
thicknesses make up the geologic section. And we have no fossil record of
all this time.

But even among the deposited rocks there is no record of a great horde
of ancient animals who lacked the hard parts necessary for fossil preserva¬
tion. Only rarely does the paleontologist catch a glimpse of the total marine
biota. For example, before a discovery made in the Canadian Rockies by
C. D. Walcott about 50 years ago (Walcott, 1910-1914) knowledge of
the very ancient Cambrian faunas was based upon limited numbers of
brachiopods and primitive arthropods known as trilobites. However, a dark
shale on Mount Wapta, Field, British Columbia, yielded a complete fauna
with all soft parts preserved as films of carbon on the rock. Not only trilo¬
bites and brachiopods were represented but also an amazing array of other
forms of life unsuspected in such early strata: numerous primitive crusta¬
ceans, annellid worms, sponges, and even a marine onychophoran. This im¬
portant find changed some of the theories of the development of life in the
very remote geologic past and reminded the paleontologist how truly limited
his material is. Paleoecological studies are thus faced with a serious handicap:
the total biota is almost never present in the fossil record.

(2) Paleoecological studies are limited by the attitude and nature of
the rock strata which hold the fossils and the key to the sedimentary envi¬
ronment. It is quite easy for the student of recent ecology to sail 2 5 miles

Thf. Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

off the coast and know that he is observing the plants, animals, and sea
bottom a given distance from shore, but quite a different situation faces
the paleoecologist. He is dependent upon the reconstruction of ancient
shorelines by areal geologic mapping and stratigraphic study. He is dependent
upon geologists to interpret the structure of the rock layers which may be
folded, contorted, and thrust out of place, in instances as much as 30 or
40 miles, during post depositional history. Such problems must always be
solved before one can understand the ancient geography which is the key
to climatology and environmental relations of plants and animals.

(3) The very conditions which preserve fossils in the geologic record
are apt to be the most abnormal so that the paleontologist may not safely
infer what were the common ecological conditions of the fossils under
study. The normal condition on the sea floor is that all decaying organic
matter is eaten, eliminated, re-eaten and thoroughly reworked by numerous
benthonic organisms. Among such animals as worms, echinoderms, and
fishes there is great competition for this ooze. Even the hard parts of ani¬
mals may be easily destroyed by this process coupled with wave and current
action. Great thicknesses of rock utterly devoid of fossils exist in the geologic
record, stratified formations laid down in shallow marine environments
but without much record of the surrounding abundant life. It is logical to
assume that in these places the soft ooze which later formed the rock was
reworked during deposition, the process destroying completely its organic
content. Many paleontologists hold that most fossils represent organisms
killed suddenly and buried by an influx of sediment. As an example consider
the wonderful crinoid field buried in Mississippian rocks at Crawfordsville,
Indiana. The sea lilies are laid out flat on a portion of the ancient sea floor
(now a bedding plane between rock strata). They are covered by a clayey,
limey rock and cursory examination of the fossil occurrence would lead
one to surmise that crinoids inhabited muddy, turbid marine water. Actually
a preponderance of other evidence indicates that these echinoderms dwelt in
great colonies only in very clear water at all depths and were merely buried
and killed by a sudden influx of muddy sediment. Fossilization commonly
means quick burial and abnormal conditions on the sea floor. A normal
ecological picture is unusually difficult for the paleontologist to obtain
directly.

(4) Further, only a limited number of the possible physical and bio¬
logical environments are ever preserved in the geologic record. Only those
existing in and around the natural basins of deposition are entombed. The
marine record is largely limited to shallow shelf or neritic deposits. Prob¬
ably no truly deep sea deposits exist in the geologic column; and beach
deposits are most uncommon. The paleobotanist very rarely gets a glance
of an upland flora, nor does the vertebrate paleontologist commonly know
what upland faunas were contemporaneous with the fossil lowland animals.
Our terrestrial deposits consist of those along river bottoms, deltas, lakes,
and swamps, and unless material is carried in from distant uplands fossils
of those many environments are not known. Paleoecology will always be an
incomplete study.

( 5 ) Another problem is that some organisms are known to have
changed their environment during the course of geologic time. The now
extinct arthropods, the eurypterids (sea scorpions) began in a typically
marine environment and probably by the time of their extinction in the

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paleoecology

Late Paleozoic were a wholly fresh water group. If Eurypterida are found in
Mississippian rocks, between the extremes of their geologic range, one may
not be sure in what type of water the rocks were formed. Similar difficulties
occur with the horseshoe crab, Limulus. Early pelecypods of the Devonian
seem to have lived only in muddy and brackish marine water, but by
Cretareous times this group inhabits all aquatic environments.

(6) Probably the greatest difficulty of paleoecology is that the deposi-
tional environment of most fossils is not the same as that in which they
lived. This has been realized for some time and textbooks distinguish be¬
tween the environment of life (biocoenose) and the environment in which
the fossils were buried (thanatocoenose) . This distinction has been recog¬
nized many times. The famous Rancho La Brea tar pits of Los Angeles
furnish an astonishing Pleistocene fauna consisting of saber tooth tiger, a
giant lion, the dire wolf, mammoths, ground sloths, giant condors, horses
and others. This fauna would hardly inhabit a semi-arid environment such
as is typical of Los Angeles today. But buried in the tar pits with them
are numerous stalks of the yucca plant, a typically semi-arid form. Were
these large animals an upland fauna driven out of their woodland habitat by
local droughts and mired in the dangerous tar pit water holes in a semi-arid
region, or was the yucca transported from a drier region into an area of lush
vegetation?

Another puzzling fossil occurrence was recently disclosed by a Uni¬
versity of California paleontologist working with some marine Eocene silt-
stone from Oregon (J. Wyatt Durham, personal communication). The
fossil assemblage consists of corals typical of water over 1000 feet deep,
crinoids (all typical of deep water), grass leaves and beach plants. The
nature of the deposit was not such that a sedimentologist could be sure of
whether it represented deep or shallow water. Were these deep water or¬
ganisms washed up with the shallow water forms or had the latter collected
in a deep channel and been buried with the crinoids and corals? In this case
the arms of the crinoids were still attached to the cups and since these
appendages detach easily, the echinoderms could not have moved far after
death and the beach and shore organisms had evidently washed down into
deeper water.

(7) One last problem of paleoecology stems from the difficulty of
interpreting past environments in the light of modern conditions. For many
years geologists have supported the principles of Uniformitarianism, a
proposition that the same processes operative today in the physical world
have been active on earth during geologic times. We have been interpreting
the geologic past in terms of the present. Yet at certain times in earth
history geographic and climatic conditions have been so very different that
biotic and sedimentary conditions quite unlike those known today must
have obtained. Witness the geologist’s difficulty in explaining such deposits
as dolomite and chert beds, widespread glauconite, intraformational con¬
glomerate beds, the graptolite black shale environment, etc., in terms of
modern processes and conditions.

In fact present relations of land and water are rather abnormal in
earth history. Due to a general Pleistocene uplift the continents stand now
uncommonly high in relation to sea level and also possess numerous great
mountain ranges. This makes for climatic extremes on land and has elimi¬
nated most of the wide epicontinental seas so common in many geologic

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

periods. No one denies that the same physical laws have operated through¬
out most of geologic history but the North American stage on which they
acted in Early Ordovician, Middle Devonian, Middle Mississippian, and Late
Cretaceous times (all dominantly marine periods) certainly varied greatly
from that of the present.

An example of the difficulty encountered in explaining some very
early sedimentary environments is found in a recent comprehensive work
by Cloud and Barnes (1948) on the Ellenburger group of Central Texas.
The Ellenburger is a Lower Ordovician limestone-dolomite sequence crop¬
ping out in Burnet, Llano, and Mason Counties northwest of Austin. North
American geography during the very early Paleozoic was strikingly different
from that of today. The warm epicontinental seas flooding almost all of
the hemisphere bathed the low lying soil-less land and furnished a mild
maritime climate far north of where such climates occur today. Conditions
in the sea were right for the formation of dolomite and chert either pri¬
marily or from the vast quantities of limestone on the sea bottom just after
its deposition. A notable lack of argillaceous material surrounding the stable
inner area of the continent is hard to explain except by the assumption
that either no rivers existed on the low land areas or that, because of the
lack of terrestrial plant life, no soil formed, and the clay minerals weath¬
ered from igneous rocks were blown far away by the winds. Cloud and
Barnes, in attempting to find a modern environment with which to com¬
pare Ellenburger deposition, were forced to use the Bahama Banks which
are a shoal area off the Atlantic coast of Florida on the edge of the conti¬
nental shelf rather than in a shallow landlocked sea. Further, the Banks
support a coral and algae fauna whereas the Ordovician sea supported a
fauna almost completely of extinct forms: primitive straight cephalopods,
trilobites, brachiopods, and very early Paleozoic gastropods. It is most diffi¬
cult to say just how the carbonate producing environment affected these
primitive creatures. Barnes and Cloud consider that the numerous com¬
minuted shell fragments indicate abundant marine life in rather warm,
shallow, well aerated waters.

Other recent paleoecological investigations in Texas are noted below.
One now under way in Trans-Pecos Texas is being sponsored by the U. S.
National Museum and Columbia University. This investigation (Cooper,
1950) concerns the life of Permian reef limestones whose age is about
200 million years. The shallow water reefs occupied the shoreward edge
of a clover-leaf shaped basin whose channel to the open sea lay southward
through Mexico. The offshore side of the reef contained typically marine
water; between the reefs and shore, lagoons formed which trapped detritus
furnished by the rivers flowing into the sea so that the water was unusually
clear of sediment. Fossils formed from life on the reefs were later replaced
by silica and embedded in limestone. The fossils may be freed by dissolving
them in hydrochloric acid. One great advantage of ecological study of the
organisms is that they were buried in place and represent a true biocoenose;
real ecological communities are present and wave sorting and transfer of
material is not a problem. These Permian fossils belong to ancient and
mostly extinct groups and hence some difficulty may be expected in as¬
certaining the habits of such forms as the very antique Paleozoic bryozoans,
certain types of sponges and pelecypods, and the peculiarly cup-like Late
Paleozoic brachiopods (Productids) . The unusual spinosity of the brachio-

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paleoecology

6 5

pods in these reefs is a response to their environment. They had lost the
pedicle and were attached by spines to the bryozoans and sponges on the
reef surface. Many examples of commensalism, symbiosis, and parasitism
will be forthcoming from these studies.

An excellent paleoecological paper on Cretaceous ammonites was pub¬
lished a few years ago by the late Gayle Scott of Texas Christian Uni¬
versity (1940). Ammonite ecology has been variously interpreted. These
extinct cephalopods with large involutely coiled shells much like those of
the modern chambered Nautilus were formerly considered pelagic animals
with world-wide distribution of species, animals which in life may have
been environmentally restricted, but whose dead, airfilled shells were carried
everywhere. The paleontologic record was considered to show that ammon¬
ites were ubiquitous marine forms. Since they evolved rapidly their species
are vertically restricted and they are good index fossils. However, Scott
has shown that in reality ammonites inhabited only certain environments.
He concluded firstly that the wide posthumous distribution of ammonite
shells is mostly imaginary, so that more often than not the shells are buried
on the same type of bottom over which they lived. The study shows cor¬
relation between various types of surface ornamentation on the shell and
lithologic content of the matrix rock. Ammonites showing strong ribs and
nodes and less complex internal septa are shown to be restricted to the
neritic zone where the protuberances on the shells can protect the shell
from buffeting action of the waves. Scott was able to subdivide the neritic
zone into a shallower and deeper portion based on ammonite genera. Cer¬
tain ammonites which are smooth and globose are present in bathyal deposits
of the Texas and Mexican Cretaceous. These have very complexly folded
septa assumedly to aid the shell in withstanding the high pressure at such
depths.

Another study of Cretaceous paleoecology by William H. Matthews
is to be published in the Texas journal of Science and deals with the rudistid
biostrome populations in the Edwards limestone of central Texas. So far
as this writer is aware, this is the first attempt at an ecological approach in
these aggregates of bizarre pelecypods and snails and should make an im¬
portant contribution.

Study of the deposits of the Texas coastal plain yields a vast amount
of paleoecological information. Much of the stratigraphic information about
the Cenozoic deposits of our coast has been gathered by oil companies and
the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. Integration of studies of both
faunal and rock content gives the geologist a picture of gradual but
unsteady retreat of marine water from far inland during the Cretaceous to
the present position of the Gulf of Mexico. Many marine transgressions and
regressions are expressed in terms of cyclical deposits of sandy shale (advance
of sea), limestone-marl (maximum extent), shale (retreat), sandstone and
shale (maximum terrestrial depostion). Environmentally interpreted these
cycles consist of sediments of deltas, channel fills, natural levees, backswamps,
brackish lagoons, lakes, offshore bars and beaches, and lime-depositing
clearer marine water of the bays and open sea. One great advantage in study¬
ing the relations of these environments in Cenozoic faunas is that all of
them may be found today along the Gulf coast. One further advantage is
that because of their high value in identifying beds in oil well bore holes,
the abundant foraminifera of these beds have been extensively studied for

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

over 2 5 years. A most important paper on sedimentary faunal relations was
published at the end of 1949 by S. W. Lohman. This represents certainly
one of the finest contributions to paleoecology of foraminifera ranking
with those of Natland ( 1933), Kleinpell ( 1938), Israelsky ( 1395 ), and
Hutchins (1947). Almost 30 assemblages of recent foraminefa were de¬
scribed from lakes and swamps on the delta area of Louisiana far out into
the Gulf. These are grouped into 1 1 environmental associations. This not¬
able work coupled with that of F. B. Phleger (1942) on deeper water
forms provides an excellent framework by which older assemblages may
be interpreted environmentally. The results of such a study have wide
practical value in deciphering coastal plain stratigraphy and have been so
used; however, they also have wide paleoecological implications which have
not yet been realized. They can tell us much about Cenozoic water tem¬
perature, marine currents, bottom conditions, interrelations of the well-
studied rhizopods with the moluscan and coral faunas of the same beds
which have been discussed in part by Stenzel (oysters, 193 5 ) and (nautil-
oids, 1948).

Of special paleoecological interest in the Southwest is a study of the
Pleistocene. Much is known of the fourfold advance of continental glaciers
and the intervening warm periods in the northern parts of this continent;
the climatic extremes of this last Cenozoic epoch are well known. But the
results of the northern glaciations were felt far to the south and influenced
present day biogeography of Texas, as well as courses of rivers, presence of
river terraces, lakes and swamps. One chief result was the much more ex¬
tensive rainfall in the West and Southwest. This had striking effect on the
vertebrate fauna of the coastal plain and High Plains areas. Fauna from
near Beeville and Corpus Christi show forms which live today only in the
midst of luxuriant vegetation, e.g., tapirs, four species of elephant, moose,
muskrats, ground sloths. Included are also some forms of drier climate such
as the camel, giant bison, and several species df lion.

An attempt to investigate marine affects of the Pleistocene glaciation
in the Gulf was undertaken by Parker Trask (1948). About 600 to 700
cores from one to 1 1 feet long were taken from the sea bottom off the
continental shelf and in the abyss of the Gulf. Although plankton tows
and temperature records with depth were made also, the chief concern was
with stratigraphic evidence presented by the bottom cores. Contrary to
original expectations no coldwater foraminifera were discovered in any
cores on the continental shelf. The reason given is that deposition has been
too great since the last rerteat of the ice and such faunas were not reached
by the shallow borings. This idea is supported by the fact that in the
abyssal portions of the Gulf where deposition is much slower, cold water
faunas are encountered in the cores from 2 to 1 1 feet deep.

The increasing importance of the subject of paleocology in stratigraphic
geology and in biology paleontonogy is reflected in the publication of a
treatise on the subject (in press). This is sponsored by the National Re¬
search Council’s Committee on Paleoecology, which has published annual
reports for the last 10 years (Ladd, 1941-1949). This should be a valuable
reference work for those interested in the subject. The present brief dis¬
cussion has pointed out something of the importance of this subject along
with the special difficulties encountered in it. The science is but making

1951, No. 1
March 30

Paleoecology

its beginnings. Future workers in the field must rely ever more strongly
upon sedimentologists, stratigraphic geologists, oceanographers, and biolo¬
gists to help them continue their studies and arrive at successful conclusions.

LITERATURE CITED

Allan, R. S. — 1948 — Geological correlation and paleoecology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 59: (1) :
1-10.

Cloud, Preston E., and Virgil E. Barnes — 1948 — The Ellenburger group of central Texas.
Univ. Texas Publication 4621.

Cooper, G. Arthur — 1950 — Permian fauna of Glass Mountains of Texas and its geology. Geol.
Soc. Amer. Bull. 61 (12), pt. 2 (abstracts).

Hedberg, Hollis D. — 1948 — Time-stratigraphic classification of sedimentary rocks. Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull. 59 (5) : 447-462.

Hutchins, Louis W. — 1947 — The bases for temperature zonation in geographical distribution.
Ecological Monographs. 17: 325-335.

Israelsky, Merle C. — 1935 — Tentative formaminferal zonation of subsurface Claiiborne of
Texas and Louisiana. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 19 : 689-695.

Kleinpell, R. M. — 1938 — Miocene stratigraphy of California. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.,
Tulsa, Oklahoma: 450 pp., 22 pis.

Ladd, Harry S., et al — 1941-1949 — Repts. Committee on a treatise on marine ecology and
paleoecology. 1-9, National Research Council, Wash., D. C.

L oh man, S. W. — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf Coast. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
33 (12) : 1939-1997.

Moore, R. S. — 1948 — Stratigraphical paleontology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 59 (4) : 301-326.
Natland, M. L. — 1933 — The temperature and depth distribution of some recent and fossil
foraminifera in the southern California region. Bull. California Univ. Scripps Inst.
Oceanography Tech. Ser. 3 (10) : 225-230.

Phleger, F. B. — 1942— Foraminifera of submarine cores from the continental slope, pt. II.
Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 53 : 1073-1097.

Scott, Gayle — 1940 — Paleoecology of Cretaceous ammonoids. Bull Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
24 (7) : 1164-1202.

Stenzel, H. B. — 1948 — Paleoecology of Tertiary nautiloids. Rept. Committee on treatise on
marine ecology and palecgcoloby. 8 : 96, 97.

- 1945 — Paleoecology of some oysters. Rept. Committee on marine ecology as related to

paleoecology. 5 : 37-46.

Trask, Parker D. — 1948 — Environmental conditions of deposition in the Gulf of Mexico. Rept.

Committee on treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology. 8 : 101-103.

Ulrich. E. O. — 1911 — Revision of the Paleozoic systems. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 22 : 281-680.
Walcott, C. D. — 1910-1914 — Cambrian geology and paleontology II. Smithsonian Misc. Col].
13: 1-498.

6 6

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, Nc. i
March 30

PSYCHOLOGICAL RE-EXAMINATION OF CHILDREN
TREATED IN A PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC

GENETTE BURRUSS, DON I>. MORRIS, J. H. SIEGEL, AND C. CROW

Community Guidance Clinic, Dallas

This is a study of the psychological re-examination of 23 children after
a period of treatment in a child guidance clinic. It originated with the
psychological staff of the Community Guidance Clinic, who did the original
testing and re-examinations, and was participated in to a greater or lesser
extent by most of the rest of the staff. In our clinic, after a parent has been
seen and treatment decided upon, the child is seen rather routinely for
psychological examination including a Binet test in order to help us in our
understanding of the child. Even in this relatively comfortable individual
testing situation, the psychologists frequently questioned the validity of the
I.Q.’s so obtained and often wondered how much better the child might do
if he were less disturbed emotionally. They therefore suggested to the rest
of the staff that routine re-examination be carried out on those children in
whom treatment was completed with at least partial success. Significant
changes in the intelligence quotients of children have been demonstrated
before in conjunction with environmental treatment. For example the Iowa
Studies"' show that small children placed in foster homes showed I.Q.’s
more like those of their foster parents than those of their real parents and
that in many instances the children’s I.Q.’s were significantly higher than
those of the real parents.

Acordingly, we attempted to see all children routinely for psychological
re-examination who were on a continuous treatment basis at the clinic. In
actual practice we did not re-examine all the children so treated. There
were often external factors which could not be controlled or anticipated and
which brought treatment to a close without the possibility of the re-examina¬
tion. In some instances our plan did not fit the needs of the patient and
had to be abandoned for that reason. It is our opinion that the re-examina¬
tions were obtained on a group of children where treatment was most suc¬
cessful. In the 23 cases reported the ending of treatment was planned,
re-examinations carried out on schedule, the parents were cooperative and
satisfied with what had happened. In the group studied treatment was com¬
pleted between the summer of 1949 and the summer of 1950.

The children were all tested with Form L of the Stanford-Binet and
re-examined after treatment by the same procedure. The average length of
time between the original test and the re- test was 8.7 months. In no case
was it less than 6 months and maximum time between examinations was 1 5
months. All these children were seen for weekly interviews and play sessions
by a staff member while one or more of the parents was seen at the same
time by another staff member. The same psychologist did the re-examination
whenever possible but this was not always possible because of changes in
staff and other factors. At any rate, all of the psychologists on this staff

* Univ. of Iowa Studies : “Children in Foster Homes,*’ XVI, No. 1, Jan. 1, 1939.

1951, No. i Psychological Re-examination of Children 67

March 30

have the same orientation — namely that of encouraging the child, making
him comfortable, and giving him the benefit of any doubt thus we believe
that our errors through differences of examiners are minimal.

The overall results are of considerable interest. In the group of 23 we
learned that 9 children had gained 8 or more points in I.Q. One child gained
27 points, 2 children gained 17 points, and one child gained 15 points. 8
children gained from 1 to 6 points in I.Q. 1 child showed no change and 5
children showed a decrease of from 1 to 3 points in I.Q. The average in¬
crease on re-examination was 6.2 and the median increase was 5.0. Even
though this is not a large difference, it proves to be statistically significant,
i.e., there is less than 1 chance in a hundred that the results are due to
chance.

In terms of certain individual children, the results seem even more
meaningful. In the case in which there was a gain of 27 points in I.Q. it
happened that the interpretation of the total situation was not affected
significantly. This child showed a very superior ability when first seen with
an I.Q. of 146. Ten months later it was 173. He still rated as very su¬
perior, although intellectually he was functioning even better. There were
also indications that he had grown considerably in emotional maturity and
in the feeling of his own adequacy. There are other cases in which the total
interpretation is influenced more significantly. For instance, there was one
child whose I.Q. changed from 75 to 92. This boy was 14 years old when
first seen and the change from borderline into the normal category is a
significant one in terms of the kind of performance that can be expected
from such a boy. Another example is a youngster coming from a home
where his parents were college graduates. He showed a change from 94 to
109, and thus it appeared that with the alleviation of emotional factors
there was a much better chance of this child living up to the academic
standards and expectations of his family than had originally appeared. An¬
other child changed from an I.Q. of 106 in the normal category to a superior
performance of 123- — a very significant change. Others went from 118 to
128, from 84 to 93, and so forth. Such changes can be important in esti¬
mating the educational and occupational possibilities for the child and in
interpreting him to his parents. The downward changes were so small that
in no instance did they influence the management of the case.

Another experience from the clinic is worth mentioning in which more
drastic treatment, namely a change of parents, produced remarkable changes
in the potentialities of the children. We examined 2 children whose mother
tested feebleminded, whose father was illiterate, and in whom there was a
general family history of instability, poverty, and neglect. The children had
moved rapidly from one place to another, had had no security until they
were 3 l/> and 4/z years old respectively when first seen. At that time the
judge took the custody away from the parents and their tests showed I.Q.’s
of 60 and 69. One year later, having spent six months in an adoptive home
with parents who gave them real security and affection, we had the privi¬
lege of re-examining them and found them both with I.Q.’s in the 90’s.

DISCUSSION

In the principal group studied there was no such drastic environmental
change. The changes were those that may come to any child living in his
own home plus those that we help the mother and child effect through their

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. I
March 30

clinic contacts. These were principally changes in attitudes and feelings.
We do not believe that we can judge the success of treatment in the clinic
by such changes in intelligence, in view of the fact that some children
were able to function on tests just as well before treatment as afterward,
and in many of these children there was a definite improvement in adjust¬
ment. The gains made by these children may be due to their increased com¬
fort in the clinic situation or they may be due to general improvement in
adjustment relating to clinic treatment, and it would be difficult in any
case to separate these considerations. Regardless of what the causes may
be, the fact that there are such significant changes seems of considerable
importance. It would appear that some disturbed children are unable to
function up to their capacity even on an individual intelligence test con¬
ducted with the utmost regard for the person concerned. We believe that
consideration must always be given to such a possibility — -more so than it
usually is.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that in the individual testing situation some children’s
performance was not significantly influenced by emotional disturbance, that
in many children there is a significant increase in intellectual functioning
with alleviation of emotional factors, and that in some children there is
such a marked change as to be of the utmost practical significance in the
management of the case. We believe that the concept of flexibility and
mobility of the intelligence quotient should be continuously emphasized.

1951, No. i Marine Microbiology 69

March 30

MARINE MICROBIOLOGY

O. B. WILLIAMS *

Department of Bacteriology
University of Texas

There are several aspects of the broad general field of marine micro¬
biology which are intriguing, but it seems desirable to restrict this discus¬
sion to important factors of the marine environment which have a deter¬
mining influence on the occurrence and survival of the microflora and micro¬
fauna of the sea. Thus in a broad sense the subject matter of this discus¬
sion is marine microbial ecology.

If we remember that terrestrial microorganisms in reality lead an
aquatic life we may wonder wherein, if at all, marine microorganisms should
differ from those of terrestrial origin. Actually it may be doubted if there
are many fundamental differences, because a terrestrial counterpart can
be found for most of the phenomena associated with marine micro¬
organisms. The basic cycle of life in the sea is the same as on land for com¬
parable organisms. There are, however, some rather striking differences in
the nature of the environments, aquatic though they may be in each instance.
These we may profitably examine in some small detail, and suggest how they
affect the cycle of life in a quantitative way even if qualitative differences
are minor.

First we need to remind ourselves that the area with which we are
concerned covers about 70% of the surface of the earth, and that the
average depth is more than four times the mean elevation of the land. The
entire land area could be submerged without the displacement of any large
amount of the volume of the water. We live on discontinuous, isolated areas
of land which are surrounded by the continuous area of sea water. Estimates
of the world population at any future date can be made by plotting the
curve of the annual increase with time, and projecting it to the year for
which information is desired. Such estimates have led to speculation as to
how the inhabitants of the earth can be fed at some distant, but still fore¬
seeable time. Suggestions that the fabulous productivity of tropical jungle
areas might profitably be diverted to food crops have not taken into con¬
sideration the leaching effect on cultivated soil of the heavy rainfall of these
areas. I have been told that within two or three years after clearing and
putting under cultivation and thereby exposing to the leaching action of
heavy rains, these jungle areas may become completely nonproductive. Prac¬
tically all organic matter has been washed to the sea. The vast area of the
seas offers one possible solution to the problem of meeting future increased
food needs. There is nothing problematic, however, about the importance
of maintaining, and of increasing, present-day marine productivity.

We turn now to the discussion of marine ecological factors, the first
being that of pressure.

PRESSURE

The depths of the sea present several problems not encountered to any
similar extent on land. Perhaps the most striking of these is that of hydro¬
static pressure. The average depth is near 12,500 feet and more than 90%

* Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of
Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

of the area exceeds 6 5 0 feet. With each 3 3 feet of depth hydrostatic pres¬
sure increases by one atmosphere, or 1 5 pounds per square inch. At a depth
of no more than one mile the hydrostatic pressure approximates one ton per
square inch. There are few types of terrestrial organisms which can so
adapt themselves as to tolerate or survive such pressure. The greatest change
to which a land dwelling organism can be subjected in going from the
loftiest mountain peak to sea level is less than one atmosphere. We know
little about the residents of the ocean depths, but we do know that life
exists at the greatest depths which have been dredged. The old assumption
that the conditions of pressure which prevailed in the depth of the sea
were incompatible with life beyond a depth of about 1,800 feet have long
been recognized as erroneous. In fact there is no real reason why certain
types of organisms should not exist under conditions of high pressure. If
the organism can adapt itself internally so that internal and external pres¬
sures are equal there is no reason why it should be any more affected than
we should be affected by the atmospheric pressure of 1 5 pounds per square
inch to which our bodies are constantly exposed. But for those organisms
which cannot adapt themselves to changes in pressure there is a real barrier
to much vertical migration. A surface dwelling organism which cannot
make adjustments to changes in presure would be crushed if it were exposed
to the pressure of ocean depths, while if a resident of the depths accidentally
got much above its accustomed depth the expansion of gas in the swim
bladder or tissue would cause it to be forced upward an^l to be killed by the
distension and disruption of the tissues. These sorts of happenings represent
the extreme. Most marine organisms, and especially those of microscopic
size, are capable of rapid adjustment to considerable differences in hydro¬
static pressure.

The recent researches of Zobell and Johnson indicate that pressures up
to 600 atmospheres adversely affect many bacteria of terrestrial origin but
not marine bacteria originally from depths where the pressure approxi¬
mates 500 atmospheres. Marine bacteria from lesser depths were intermediate
between terrestrial and deep mud types in their response to pressure. Their
data suggest an evolutionary, or selective, adaptation to hydrostatic pressure
on the part of bacteria.

With regard to the osmotic pressure of sea water, wide variations are
not encountered. The osmotic pressure of sea water of average salinity is in
the range of 23 to 2 5 atmospheres. Most marine organisms are not tolerant
of more than slight changes in osmotic presure. Neither hypotonic nor
hypertonic solutions are well tolerated. Under natural conditions of life
adjustments are not required; hence adaptive organisms have not evolved.

TEMPERATURE

The surface temperatures of sea and ocean waters vary with season
and latitude. In the tropics surface temperatures as high as 3 8°-40° C. may¬
be reached in localized areas, and as high as 30° C. in the open sea may be
reached, while in polar regions the temperature is near that of the freezing
point of water. No such extremes of temperature as are regularly recorded
for much of the land surface are encountered in the sea, where the range
of temperature is of the order of -2° to 40° C whereas the terrestrial range
is of the order of -65° to 65° C.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Marine Microbiology

Surface temperature, which commonly varies no more than 1° during
the day, certainly is kept low by the cooling effects of evaporation. The
distribution of heat within the sea is affected by both horizontal and verti¬
cal currents, but differences between day and night temperatures are scarce¬
ly evident below a depth of about 30 feet, and seasonal fluctuations arc
not manifest below a depth of perhaps 600 feet at a maximum.

It has been stated that temperature, almost as much as any other
single factor, determines the growth and character of the marine popula¬
tion. The population is, of course, the resultant of the difference between
the rate of reproduction and the rate of death. An increase in temperature
may speed up the rate of reproduction and at the same time speed up the
rate of death, so that the effects on each of these must be known for a
knowledge of the net effect of any given temperature on a particular
organism.

The bacterial flora of the ocean bottom is in general adapted to lower
temperatures for growth and survival than comparable terrestrial organisms.
Terrestrial organisms growing at temperatures near the freezing point are
fairly common, but it seems likely that the ability to exhibit physiological
activity at such temperatures is more common among organisms of marine
origin. Thermophilic bacteria from sea mud have been reported recently.
Speculation as to their significance or activity is hardly justified at this
time.

LIGHT

Marine life, the same as terrestrial life, is founded on green plants,
since only they are able to convert inorganic materials into organic sub¬
stance in significant amounts. The amount of animal life can never equal
or be in excess of the amount of plant life in the sea any more than it can
on land. More than 90% of the marine plants are microscopic unicellular
algae suspended in the surface waters and drifting with the currents. It is
obvious that no single factor has greater significance for the maintenance
of life in the sea than does light.

Light rays are absorbed rapidly and unevenly in sea water, even in
fairly transparent water. Pure sea water, free of suspended and colored
matter, permits the penetration of 22% of the incident light to a depth
of about 3 5 feet, and of 3% to a depth of about 1000 feet. In less trans¬
parent waters only as little as 0.5% of the incident light may penetrate as
deep as 3 5 feet. In only fairly transparent oceanic water 65% of the inci¬
dent light may be absorbed in the first 3 feet, and 20% more in the second
3 feet. In rough weather 60-70% or more of the light may be blocked at
the surface.

There is a sharp difference in transparency of sea water for different
wave lengths. Red is the least penetrative of the visible light, and green
and blue are the most penetrative. Matter in suspension has much to do
with the scattering and absorption of light rays. Suspended matter effec¬
tively scatters the short blue and violet rays, while the red and yellow are
absorbed, thus leaving green as the apparent color of water with much
suspended matter. The less the amount of suspended matter the bluer the
water, so that blue has been referred to as the color of desolation.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

The absorption of light in the upper levels of the sea means that the
duration of effective daylight below the surface may be very short. Thus
in an area where at about 60 feet depth the daylight was 11 hours long, at
about 100 feet it was only 5 hours, and at about 12 5 feet no more than 15
minutes. The lower limit for photosynthetic activity has been placed by
some writers at about 600 feet as a maximum. Photosynthetic organisms
have been recovered from greater depths, but these may have fallen to a
level where they continue to exist in an inactive form until consumed by
zooplankton or until they die and are decomposed by the attached bacteria.

These facts on absorption of light make clear that photosynthetic
effectiveness, as measured by maximum utilization of sunlight, is less in the
sea than on the land. However there is a tremendous total surface exposure
by the phytoplankton and this may well be a compensating factor.

GASES IN SOLUTION

Closely related to photosynthetic activity is the matter of the gases
dissolved in the sea. The solubility of gases in water varies inversely with
the temperature, and consequently the cold waters of the polar regions
contain more of the CO2 needed for photosynthetic activity and of the
oxygen needed for respiration. The larger amount of CO2 present in the
colder waters has been suggested as an explanation of the heavy develop¬
ment of phytoplankton in the cold surface water areas.

Carbon dioxide is soluble in sea water in about 50 times the proportion
found in the atmosphere. It occurs as carbonate and bicarbonate as well as
in the form of free gas. Oxygen, while less soluble in sea water than in
fresh water, still is absorbed in greater proportion to other bases than as
it occurs in the air. Oxygen is present, however, in quite dilute amounts
as compared with air. It occurs even at great depths. Although a few
obligate anaerobes have been recovered from ocean mud, the great majority
of the bacteria present are facultative forms.

Nitrogen, which occurs in sea water in lower proportion to other gases
than in the air, has little biological significance in the sea. Some nitrogen
fixation by bacteria in the ocean may take place, but if so the amount is
not great.

DENSITY

The specific gravity of sea water of a salinity of about 3 5 parts per
1000 is near 1.0281, the exact figure varying of course with temperature.
The density of the water has significance for the rate of sinking of the
marine organisms which do not have a means of locomotion. The rate of sink¬
ing is a function of weight and of friction, or the resistance to movement
through the water, which in turn is a function of the viscosity of the fluid
and the surface area in contact with the fluid. The greater the surface area
in proportion to mass the slower the rate of descent. For the plankton or¬
ganisms the rate of sinking is so slow that any single organism may remain
in the upper levels of the sea for the duration of its life. However, if there
were no correcting factors the plankton would in time all be on the bottom
unless the rate of sinking were zero. Each succeeding generation would start
falling where the preceding one left off, and thus a slow but continuous
descent would move the microbial population downward. This condition

1951, No. 1
March 30

Marine Microbiology

does not prevail, probably because of up currents which tend to keep the
nonmotile and feebly motile organisms distributed in the upper levels. Be¬
cause of the slow rate of sinking of microscopic organisms many of those
which die will decompose before reaching the bottom.

CONCENTRATION OF NUTRIENTS

Sea water is a dilute solution of most of the elements. Only sodium
and chlorine are present in appreciable amounts. It contains a fairly large
total amount of organic matter, present also in dilute solution. Materials
required for plant growth attain a maximum concentration in surface
waters in the winter when short, dull days reduce the amount of active
plant growth. Through the spring and into the summer the concentration
drops to a minimum.

Because of its significance as a limiting factor in the productivity of
the sea much attention has been devoted to determinations of phosphate.
Evidence of the significance of phosphate is afforded by data developed in
oceanographic studies which have been correlated with certain aspects of
the British fishing industry. The food supply during the first few months
of life is a critical factor in determining survival of young herring.

A large amount of phosphate in solution in the sea means an abundance
of phytoplankton, and this in turn builds up into an abundance of food for
the young herring. Since three years are required for the herring to reach
commercial size it is possible to predict with a high degree of accuracy the
size of the herring catch three years in advance from a knowledge of the
phosphate concentration of the water in the spawning area.

Studies attempting to correlate the quantity of phytoplankton present
with the amount of nutrient materials in solution have established that
the amount of organic material produced per acre of sea area compares
very well with the productivity of the land, being of the order of from
1 to 3 tons of dry material per acre per year.

We have found, as have many others, that culture media for bacteria
prepared with sea water are more productive for marine bacteria than simi¬
lar media prepared with distilled water or with artificial sea water. Sea water
alone is a nutrient solution. Native organic materials are derived from de¬
composing plant and animal remains and from animal wastes, but these
are still in dilute solution. Enriching with additional organic nutrients gives
a very productive medium. But it is clear that under natural conditions the
organisms which can thrive are those which can obtain nutrients from
weak solutions, and these are organisms with a large surface exposure, i.e.,
microscopic in size. Despite their small size, however, these in turn produce
a considerable total amount of organic matter.

Where the native organic material enters into solution in the depths it
may be returned to an active surface or near surface biotic area through
upcurrents or other mixing mechanisms, or it may be utilized by the bac¬
teria of the ocean floor, of whose activity little is known. It is improbable
that the organic matter which settles to the depths is permanently removed
from circulation. If this were true, it seems likely that by now all nutrient
materials would be concentrated in the ocean depths.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

TYPES OF LIFE ADAPTED TO MARINE EXISTENCE

It probably is clear that the necessities of life in the sea are not differ¬
ent from those on land. It does not follow, though, that the same types of
organisms will be found in the sea as on the land. What types of organisms
have evolved which are adapted to existence under the ecological conditions
prevailing in the sea? It has just been stated that the overwhelming majority
of the marine plants are microscopic in size. They are also unicellular. Con¬
ditions do not favor the forms with cell aggregations and specialized struc¬
tures. The maximum surface exposure essential for nourishment from dilute
solution is attained by small size. There are no seed plants, no mosses, no
ferns in the ocean remote from the shore, although the seed bearing eel
grass does grow in protected coastal waters.

The animal life includes no herbivorous animal above what is essenti¬
ally microscopic size. The microscopic plants are strained from the sea by
both microscopic and small macroscopic animals, which in turn are used as
food by larger animals, and so on up the scale. But the base of the animal
pyramid consists of vegetarian animals, chiefly the small Crustacea, and
principally the copepods.

DISTRIBUTION OF MICROFLORA AND MICROFAUNA

Neither the vertical nor the horizontal distribution of the microflora
and microfauna is uniform. All studies show a lack of uniformity of dis¬
tribution for different regions, at different depths and in different seasons.
Coker has compared the sea with its minute life to the sky with drifting
clouds of unequal densities which rise or fall, drift from place to place,
and become heavier or lighter. In some areas the density may always be
thin; in others it may range from dilute to over-saturation, the latter condi¬
tion resulting in precipitation from the cloud and in mortality among the
plankton. The analogy is not perfect, since conditions in the sea are much
more complex than can be represented by a comparison on such simple terms.

In general the largest bacterial population is found in water with the
most plankton. Phytoplankton organisms are the major source of food for
marine bacteria, and consequently conditions which favor the growth of the
phytoplankton will likewise favor the marine bacteria and the zooplankton.
Dead phytoplankton furnish the bacteria with food, the living ones nourish
the amoebae, the ciliates, copepods and other small animals.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion we may wonder as to what lines of research in marine
microbiology are likely to be profitable. A categorical answer to this ques¬
tion is not possible. It would be risky to condemn as valueless any particu¬
lar project in the general area. From a practical standpoint the ultimate
objective of most research in the field of marine biology is probably con¬
cerned with increasing the productivity of the sea. This objective may be
approached by devious routes, and studies which appear not to be immedi¬
ately directed toward this end may prove very fruitful. Many barren paths
of research may be traveled in the development of researches of direct appli¬
cability, and for some of these the lack of practical significance of the re¬
sults may be more apparent than real. Studies on the nutritive and growth

1951, No. 1
March 30

Marine Microbiology

requirements of various marine microorganisms, for example, may make
profitable the artificial fertilizing of coastal areas, thereby increasing the
plankton yield, and from this on up the ladder to marine products of
commerce. It is questionable if the investigators who studied the variation
in the amount of phosphate in the water— -and remember that this is one
index of the activity of microorganisms- — had any idea at the time the work
was undertaken that the results would make possible the predicting of the
herring catch three years in the future. It is possible that some comparable
study may develop information of equal value for the fisheries industry of
our own Gulf coast.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. i
March SO

IRRIGATION IN TEXAS: THE OUTLOOK

WILLIAM F. HUGHES
Bureau of Agricultural Economics
U. S. Department of Agriculture

Within the last few years, there has been a growing public recogni¬
tion of the importance of water resources in both the agricultural and in¬
dustrial economy of the Southwest. Unfortunately, this belated recognition
has been forced upon the public largely through water shortages or through
bond issues to prevent their imminent occurrence. The unfortunate part of
this lies in the fact that many of these water supply difficulties were un¬
necessary. Water deficiencies do not occur overnight. Like coming events
they cast their shadows before them. Coming water-supply difficulties
may be identified by the sequence of events, differing from place to place,
that precede their occurrence. On the whole, there is too much truth for
comfort in the old saying "You never miss the water till the well runs dry.”

The Southwest in general and Texas in particular are faced with an
ever-tightening water supply situation. In some parts of Texas there is
little or no additional water, whereas in others the apparent abundance of
supply is misleading.

The present situation results from an unprecedented postwar expansion
in water use. Within recent years, the demands imposed by expanding
municipal, industrial, and agricultural water requirements have increased so
rapidly that it has not been possible to assess them in their entirety; data
compiled for a particular use are out of date by the time they can be
summarized.

An appraisal of the existing water supply situation as a whole or in
part must of necessity involve consideration of the multiplicity of compet¬
ing, consuming, and non-consuming water uses. As indicated earlier, data
are not available for an appraisal of this nature. Data obtained in a recent
inventory of the extent of irrigation practiced in the state, and those avail¬
able in various published reports, are comprehensive enough, however, to
permit a rough appraisal of the outlook for irrigation. Certainly, any at¬
tempt at such an appraisal is fraught with uncertainties, but in this case
they are not as numerous as might be surmised. The shadows of coming
events are rather long in some areas, particularly if present trends cannot
be slowed or halted altogether.

The favorable price situation of recent years has stimulated an ex¬
pansion of irrigation in Texas. Guaranteed farm commodity prices, with no
restrictions on production, have provided an income opportunity for favor¬
ably situated farmers and private land developers. As a result, irrigated
acreage has expanded from 1,045,000 acres in 1939 to approximately 3,500,-
000 acres today. Most of this expansion has occurred since the end of World
war II. In fact, the acreage developed since 1945 is greater than the acre¬
age developed for irrigation during the entire 400 years of irrigation history
prior to 1945.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Irrigation in Texas

The possible consequences arising from this expanded development have
been of concern to people cognizant of the situation for several years. The
probabilities are now beginning to cause concern among those directly
affected.

In most of the irrigated areas of Texas where ground waters are being
withdrawn in substantial quantities, declining water levels or losses in
artesian pressure-head strongly suggest that the current rate of use exceeds
the annual rate of replenishment. The prospects of depletion are more im¬
minent in some areas than in others.

In some of the major areas that use surface-water supplies, the acre¬
age has also been expanded to such an extent that serious water shortages
are being experienced. For some of these areas the situation can no doubt
be improved by building additional reservoirs. In still other areas, substantial
construction could alleviate the situation somewhat, but it would not neces¬
sarily provide a cure.

Although Texas possesses undeveloped surface-water resources, these
are located, with minor exceptions, in parts of the state where irrigation
is not extensively practiced. Several possibilities exist for developing some
of these unused water resources for irrigation. But where these possibilities
have been investigated, the cost of bringing the land and the water re¬
sources together exceeds limits of present economic feasibility.

A review of the current extent of irrigation and the sequence of events
accompanying its rise leads inevitably to a conclusion that is far from opti¬
mistic. The happenings to date suggest that our water resources cannot
indefinitely sustain the present rate of use.

The outlook is least favorable in those areas that derive their water
supplies from underground sources. For those areas that use surface water,
construction (under way or proposed) will do much to alleviate recurring
water shortages, provided the expanding rate of use can be stabilized.

Few, if any, areas within the state now have a water-supply situation
that may be termed critical; pressing yes, but not critical. It should be
emphasized, however, that so far as ground-water irrigated areas are con¬
cerned, the time for action is before the situation becomes critical, not
afterward.

Ground-water resources in some areas may already have been over¬
developed. Declining water levels, which have accompanied the expansion
of irrigated acreage, strongly suggest as much. Whether the current rate of
use in a particular area is building up to a critical situation cannot be de¬
termined as yet. In any event, there are few ground-water irrigated areas
within the State in which the possibilities for deterioration do not warrant
serious consideration among all the people concerned.

Considerable thought, effort, and fund (both public and private) have
been expended in providing facilities for storing and conserving surface-
water supplies within the State. According to the 1949-50 Texas almanac,
these expenditures are reflected in a completed total reservoir storage capacity
of 11,404,265 acre feet, 9,178,626 acre feet of storage under construction,
and 10,952,300 acre feet of storage in a pre-construction planning stage.
Completion of this program will provide storage for the major portion of
surface-water supplies that are susceptible of storage. Most, if not all, of the

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

reservoirs under construction or contemplated are multi-purpose undertak¬
ings designed to provide water for several functions. Although the various
competitive water uses are provided for in these developments, the means
of reconciling these demands and assuring that each receives the attention
it merits are not provided for, nor are they presently available. Experience
indicates that once these facilities are in operation, some method of assuring
an equitable distribution will be required.

The job of reconciling conflicting water demands, which may reason¬
ably be expected to increase both in numbers and intensity, and the allo¬
cation of remaining water supplies among preferred users, belongs to no
particular group. It is a job for all rather than the few who heretofore
have been most active.

1951, No. 1
March 30

One-Dimensional Shock Waves

ONE-DIMENSIONAL SHOCK WAVES

THOMAS J. WHITE
Department of Mathematics
The Rice Institute

Our purpose here is to discuss a basic problem in the theory of one¬
dimensional shock waves. This problem, which very likely affords the best
introduction to the subject of shock waves in general, has been discussed by
many writers, the most complete discussion being that of J. Hadamard in
his Legons sur la Propagation des Ondes . However, a part of his result is
thought to be incorrect. The solution proposed here has been obtained by
Professor J. W. Calkin of the Rice Institute, the author and others. An
excellent presentation of the earlier parts of the discussion to follow may
be found in Courant and Friedrichs, Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves .

We are interested in a special case of the more general problem of find¬
ing the motion of a perfect gas initially at rest in a semi-infinite tube fitted
with a movable piston at one end. It is assumed that the gas conducts no
heat internally and produces no friction with the cylinder walls or within
itself. The piston and tube are to be of materials which do not conduct heat.

The motion of the gas near the piston will be given and it will be seen
that this solution, for a certain motion of the piston, develops a singularity
which suggests a new solution in the form of a power series where the
boundary between the gas in motion and the gas at rest is a shock wave,
i.e., a wave across which there is a discontinuity in pressure, velocity, and
and density.

The equations of motion near the piston are:

o + ft-®

2u_ _ Sol
3a 3t

p«r»p#

Here p0 is the initial density of the gas, pG the initial pressure, u the velocity,
p the pressure, = vp0, v the specific volume, and o the ratio of the two
specific heats of the gas. t is the time and a is the coordinate of a cross-section
of the gas at t=o. This system of equations is hyperbolic and has therefore
two real families of characteristics determined by:

5) -St

do _ du_
dt “ dw

From (4) and (5) it is found that u is a function of <o only near the
piston

6) u = x(l)-*M

x(w) being a primitive of x/(<o), and that the family of characteristics of
positive slope furnish a solution for w in the form

a = x'(a» )£t-t0 (u)J

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

where t0(u) is the inverse of u = f/ (t0) and x=f (t) is the actual position of
the piston such that f (0) = 0, f/(0)=0, and f// (0) does not equal zero.
The actual position of the "particles” is determined by

8) x = a + J u(o,s)ds

a/x'v

and the equations for the other family of characteristics can be given para¬
metrically in u or <o.

Assuming now that f//(0) >0, it may be shown that the family of
straight lines (7) with parameter « has an envelope beginning at the point

fTO>0

and concave upward near this point if

10) K (0) + -^~C(0)*(l)> 0

The original solution cannot be continued beyond the point (9) since
it becomes double-valued and because of the definition of the envelope, all
the first order derivatives of the quantities u, to, p with respect to a and t
become infinite on the envelope. We see then, that when the piston is pushed
into the gas, the motion cannot remain continuous and we expect, in view
of the discontinuities arising in the derivatives at the point (9), that the
quantities u, to, and p also become discontinuous.

We introduce now, according to this hypothesis, a shock wave begin¬
ning at the point (9) with the velocity of sound in the gas at rest. The
discontinuities in u, w, and p must, however, be such that we maintain
momentum, mass, and energy across the shock according to the Rankine-
Hugoniot relations:

11) Pj-P g sm(u,— u2)

12) pQ (Uj -u2) = m(«2“«| )

13) ^ (P|«rP2«2)

The subscripts refer to conditions on opposite sides of the shock and m is
the mass of gas passing through the shock in unit time.

When we assumed p<o^ =po originally, we expressed conservation of
energy since this adiabatic law results from the first law of thermodynamics
which Hadamard has shown to hold for a gas in continuous motion. But at
the shock the energy equation (13) implies an entropy discontinuity so that
poj7 is no longer a constant everywhere behind the shock. We must assume
poj^ =k (a) , where k (a) is an unknown function determining the entropy
increase for the corresponding particle a. This leaves the entropy constant on
each particle path in accordance with our assumption that the gas does not
conduct heat internally.

Since a and t will no longer serve as independent variables and since
(7) suggests that we may be able to find t and u as analytic functions of

1951, No. 1
March 30

One-Dimensional Shock Waves

p and a, we transform equations (1) and (2) accordingly. They become

equations ( 1 )

14)

*fr

15)

3(t,u )

3 t
3 o

I -(»*!)

+nk(a)Up*a o

The problem of continuing the solution beyond the point (9) is then
that of determining functions ti, t2, ul5 u2 of p and a, the function k(a) ,
and the shock curve satisfying the following conditions:

(i) t2(p, a) and u2(p, a) and k(a) satisfy (14) and (15).

(ii) On the curve t2(p, a and u2(p, a) satisfy (11), (12), and (13J
with ui~0, pi = p0, wi=l, p2o>2*^ =k (a) and m/po the slope of the shock

curve in the a-t plane.

(iii) On the line a = A, t2(p, a) —ti (p, a) and u2 (p, a) =Ui (p, a) .

(iv) ti (p, a and ui (p, a) satisfy (14) and (15) with k(a) =p0.

(v) On that member of the family of characteristics of negative slope
which passes through the point (9, ti(p, a) agrees with t found from (7)
and Ui (p, a) agrees with u found from (6).

If power series are assumed for t1? t2, ux, u2, k(a) , and the shock curve
(parametrically in p), it is found that the coefficients are determined by the
conditions (i), . . . , (v). Neither the process nor the values obtained will be
discussed here and although this determination appears to be unique, there
still remains the examination of the series for convergence. In addition there
is the more involved problem of the determination of a solution of the prob¬
lem when the envelope of the family of straight line characteristics bend
downward into the region of gas in motion so that the solution valid near
the piston becomes multiple- valued at a time t less than that given by (9).

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF RUTILE-LIKE HEAVY
METAL ORTHOVANADATES

L. W. VERNON AND W. O. MILLIGAN

Department of Chemistry
The Rice Institute

A large number of the orthovanadates of trivalent metals have been
synthesized and studied by x-ray diffraction methods at the Rice Institute
(cf. Milligan, Rachford, and Watt, 1948; and Milligan, Watt, and Rach-
ford, 1949). The orthovanadates of fifteen trivalent metals (cerium, praseo¬
dymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dyspros¬
ium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutecium, yttrium, and scandi¬
um) form a tetragonal isomorphous series and possess the zircon structure
(cf. Milligan and Vernon, 1950). The above named orthovanadates have
four "molecules” in the unit cell and belong to space group D^h - 14/amd.

Brandt (1943a) has synthesized and studied a number of ABO4 type
compounds which are likely to have six-fold coordination around both A
and B. His studies included niobates, tantalates, antimonates, and vanadates
of aluminum, chromium, iron, gallium, and rhodium. He found twelve of
these compounds, including rhodium orthovanadate, tc possess the rutile
structure. They are tetragonal and belong to sp*. e group P4/ ranm.

Brandt (1943b) found chromium orthovanadate to be orthorhombic and to
17

belong to space group D211 "-Cm cm.

In this investigation the orthovanadates of rhodium, titanium, and
antimony have been synthesized. The x-ray diffraction powder photographs
of these compounds indicate that they belong to the rutile series.

EXPERIMENTAL

Rhodium orthovanadate was prepared by the method reported by Brandt
(1943a). Rhodium trichloride (40% rhodium) and ammonium metavana¬
date were mixed in equimolar amounts and heated for two days in an electric
furnace at 750° C. Antimony orthovanadate was synthesized by mixing
antimony trioxide and ammonium metavanadate in quantities such that
equimolar amounts of Sb2C>3 and V2O5 were present. This mixture was
heated in an electric furnace for two hours at 750° C.

Titanium orthovanadate was prepared by the method given below. A
hydrochloric acid solution of titanium trichloride was neutralized with
ammonium hydroxide. A quantity of ammonium metavanadate was added
to the solution to give equimolar amounts of T^Os and V2O5. The solution
was evaporated to dryness in a nitrogen atmosphere and the residue was
heated in an electric furnace with a nitrogen atmosphere for two days at
750° C.

The submicroscopicallv crystalline samples were examined by standard
x-ray diffraction methods. Powder photographs were taken using copper Ka
(nickel foil filter) and chromium Ka ( V205 filter) x-radiation. The inten¬
sities of the x-ray diffraction lines were obtained from x-radiograms pro¬
duced by a Norelco recording Geiger-counter x-ray diffraction unit, using
copper Ka x-radiation. The x-radiograms (produced by the Norelco x-ray

1951, No. i Structure of Rutile-like Orthovanadates 83

March 30

spectrometer) of rhodium orthovanadate, titanium orthovanadate, and anti¬
mony orthovanadate are reproduced in Figure 1. The similarity of the x-ray
diffraction patterns of these three compounds will be noted.

DISCUSSION

The x-ray diffraction lines of rhodium orthovanadate, titanium ortho¬
vanadate, and antimony orthovanadate can be indexted in the tetragonal
crystal system. The interplanar spacings and the Miller indices of the diffrac¬
tion lines of the above crystalline compounds are given in Table I. The
unit cell dimensions in absolute Angstrom units are given in Table II.

An examination of the indices of the diffraction lines reveals that there
are no systematic absences of the general (hkl) type; thus the unit cell is
primitive. It is also noted that the only systematic zonal absences are (hoi)
reflections having h + 1 odd. This means that there are n-planes perpen¬
dicular to a and b. The only possible space groups are P4nm and P4/mnm.

From consideration of the densities of the orthovanadates enumerated
above it is found that there is only one "molecule” of MV04 per unit cell.
Rutile has two "molecules” of Ti02 per unit cell (cf. Wyckoff, 1931).
Rutile belongs to space group D ^ — P4/mnm and has two titanium atoms
in position 2(a) and four oxygen atoms in position 4(f) (Internationale
Tabellen) .

A quantitative examination of the x-ray diffraction patterns of rhodium
orthovanadate, titan’ ’ n thovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate reveals
that they are almost identical with the pattern of rutile. Because of this
similarity of diffraction patterns the atomic positions in the orthovanadates

Figure 1. Geiger-counter x-radiograms of titanium orthovanadate, rhodium
orthovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No, 1
March 30

are taken to be the same as those in rutile. Since no x-ray diffraction lines,
giving evidence of a regular distribution of the trivalent metal and the
vanadium, were observed it is assumed that the trivalent metal and the
vanadium are statistically distributed in position 2(a) (cf. Brandt, 1943a).
The atomic positions are given below.

Vanadium and the trivalent metal statistically distributed in 2 (a) :

000 ; 1/2 1/2 1/2

Four oxygens in 4(f) : xxo ; xxo ; 1/ 2 + x , l/2 — x , 1/2 ;

1/2 - x , 1/2 + x , 1/2

Relative intensities calculated from the above positions with the
parameter x = 0.30 are in good general agreement with the experimental in¬
tensities obtained from the Norelco x-ray spectrometer. No attempt was
made in this investigation to refine the parameter value.

The "defect structure” given above explains all of the x-ray diffraction
data obtained from the powder photographs of rhodium orthovanadate,
titanium orthovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate. The constancy of
composition is explained by the fact that the trivalent metal ion (M+3) has
a different charge from the vanadium ion (V+5). The two ions must be
present in equimolar amounts to keep the compound (MVO4) electrically
neutral.

A number of compounds with this type of "defect structure” have
been described in the literature (cf. Bunn, 1948). They are compounds of
fixed composition, but chemically different atoms are scattered indiscrimi¬
nately among crystallographically equivalent sites. Posnjak and Barth (1931)
reported that lithium ferrite, LiFe02, possesses the sodium chloride type of
structure, with an oxygen in place of each chlorine atom and with the lithium

TABLE I INTERPLANAR SPACINGS, A

hkl

RhV04

SbV04

T1VO4

obs.

calc.

obs.

calc.

obs.

calc.

110

3.22

3.24

101

2.45

2.55

2.54

2.48

200

2.28

2.29

111

2.16

2.22

2.19

2.18

210

2.03

2.05

211

1.667

1.701

1.682

220

1.605

1.609

1.617

1.618

1.617

1.618

002

1.453

1.455

1.529

1.530

1.473

1.475

310

1.437

1.446

1.447

1.443

1.445

301

1.342

1.343

1.366

1.365

1.354

112

1.325

1.326

1.384

1.383

1.340

1.343

202

1.227

1.274

1.272

TABLE II UNIT CELL DIMENSIONS, A

RhV04

SbV04

TiV04

4.55

4.58

2.91

3.06

2.95

a/ c

0.640

0.668

0.644

1951, No. 1
March 30

Structure of Rutile-like Orthovanadates

and ferric ions scattered indiscriminately over the sodium positions. Barth
and Posnjak (1932) have also observed this type of ''defect structure”
among the spinels (mixed oxides having the type formula AB20.{) . In a nor¬
mal spinel such as Z11AI2O4 the cubic unit cell contains eight "molecules”;
the space group is Fd3m (cf. Bunn 1948). The oxygen ions occupy a 32-fold
set of positions, the zinc ions an 8 -fold set of positions in which each is sur¬
rounded tetrahedrally by four oxygens, and the aluminum ions a 16-fold set
of positions in which each is surrounded octahedrally by six oxygens. In
MgFe204 the positive ions are distributed differently. Half of the ferric ions
occupy the 8 -fold positions, while the other half, together with all the
magnesium ions, are distributed at random over the 16-fold positions.

Although this type of "defect structure” explains all of the x-ray dif¬
fraction data of the orthovanadates of rhodium, titanium, and antimony, a
more thorough investigation of these compounds is planned to make certain
that these orthovanadates are compounds with a "defect structure” and
not merely solid solutions of the oxides.

literature cited

Barth, T. F. W. and Posnjak, E.— 1932— Z. Krist. 82 : 325.

Brandt, K. — 1943a — Arkiv Kemi Mineral. Geol. 17A : No. 15.

- 1943b — Arkiv Kemi Mineral. Geol. 17A : No. 6.

Bunn, C. W. — 1948 — Chemical Crystallography. Oxford Univ. Press. London.

Internationale Tabellen zur Bestimmung von Kristallstrukturen, Gebruder Borntraeger,
Berlin.

Milligan, W. O., Rachford, H. H., and Watt, L. M. — 1948 — J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 70 : 3953.
Milligan, W. O., Watt, L. M., and Rachford, H. H. — 1949 — J. Phys. and Coll. Chem. 53 227.
Milligan, W. O., and Vernon, L. W. — -1950 — Abstracts of Papers, 118th Meeting of the Amer¬
ican Chemical Society at Chicago, Ill., Sept. 3 — 8 : 48Q.

Posnjak, E. and Barth, T. F. W. — 1931 — Phys. Rev. 38 : 2234.

Wyckoff, R. W. G. — 1931 — The Structure of Crystals, Chemical Catalog Company, Inc.,
New York.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
FISHERY BIOLOGISTS

FRANK T. KNAPP

Department of Wildlife Management
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

A questionnaire was sent to me recently by a group of educators in
which was asked this question, '’What is the greatest deterent in your effec¬
tiveness as a teacher?” After thinking over many of the commoner com¬
plaints of teachers of fisheries work— -lack of research funds, lack of research
time, excessive teaching loads, etc., I discarded them all and wrote, "The
greatest deterent in my effectiveness as a teacher is the narrow cultural
background of the student which makes him, for the most part, gullible,
naive, intolerant and narrow minded with almost no ability to be skeptical,
curious-minded or objective in his thinking. In short, he has no concept of
the scientific attitude.” These words are harsh, particularly when the student
is not to blame, but harsh facts must be faced first before corrective meas¬
ures can be found. The problem of teaching fishery biologists, therefore,
does not include merely technical courses, although these are important,
rather it is a process of expanding and broadening the cultural base of the
student so that, on graduation, to quote Leopold (1939, p. 160), "he
should have developed in some degree that imponderable combination of
curiosity, skepticism and objectivity known as the scientific attitude.” One
or two suggestions as to how this process may be carried out are proposed
in this paper.

The traditional responsibility of institutions of higher education has
always been to imbue their students with culture. This is not the culture
of "long-hairs” and idyllic poets but the culture of understanding, toler¬
ance, good citizenship and intellectual achievement tempered with modesty
and good will. To achieve this the early universities centered their interests
around languages, theology, and philosophy which included the natural
sciences. Around the middle of the nineteenth century a greater diversity
took place wherein the student was permitted to stress one part of this
traditional core of courses at the expense of some other part. This was a
natural sequence to the rapidly expanding knowledge of the times and to
the increasing enrollments. By the turn of the twentieth century, the
system of specialization was thoroughly established particularly in the
United States where the need of technically trained men in a rapidly ex¬
panding country was acute. Here land grant colleges were developed to
stress the agricultural and mechanical arts and many of the older traditional
universities fell into step to train sorely needed technicians in the hope
that they would pick up sufficient culture on the way to make them good
citizens. Actually this turning away from the traditional educational pat¬
tern was more than introducing technical courses, it represented an entirely
new philosophy of education. In earlier days a student attended college to
be educated, with all the broadness that term traditionally implies, whereas
at the present time he goes to college to be fitted for a job. Ask any group
of students, particularly freshmen, why they are attending college and
close to ninety percent will reveal that they have come to be vocationally

1951, No. 1
March 30

Requirements for Fishery Biologists

trained. Whether we like this attitude or not the simple fact remains that
in the minds of the people, in this country at least, the college and uni¬
versities are vocational training centers first and cultural centers second and
it is within this philosophical framework that we as teachers must work to
produce students with the ''scientific attitude.”

If the institutions responsible for the education of this type of student
do little or nothing to alter his preconceived ideas the resulting graduate,
regardless of his degree, is only technically trained, i.e., half -educated. We
are all familiar with these individuals who, if given a definite job can do it
efficiently and are relatively harmless in doing so, but if left up to their
own devices or set loose among people with different ideas and back¬
grounds they are likely to become a liability to society rather than an asset.
They are intolerant of those who question them, angry at opposition and
carry themselves aloof from the people they should be influencing. It is
little wonder they are called ivory tower scientists. Unfortunately, through
these individuals the doctor of philosophy has fallen into disrepute and in
many communities must hide his degree if he is to be trusted and above
suspicion.

How is it possible that these highly trained technicians can be true
scientists if they cannot govern their own person-to-person relationships
with tolerance and objectivity? Actually they are not true scientists, since
the record shows that this country is most proficient technologically among
the nations but noticeably far down the list in new discoveries and original
scientific findings relative to her wealth, standard of living, and educational
facilities.

That this is a recognized problem is indicated by the fact that the Navy
and other organizations, including federal, state and private have recently
provided large sums of money for pure research. Educators realize that
money alone is not sufficient and have instituted post-graduate courses in
cultural subjects. This is unquestionably a step in the right direction and
it is difficult to see how it could be achieved otherwise without a major
disruption of the existing educational machinery, nevertheless it leaves one
with the question, "Is it not just another case of too little and too late?”

Jessie Bernard (1950) presents a thought-provoking argument that
the direction of scientific enquiry is controlled by the culture of the sci¬
entist and that without an adequate base, science would not develop. It
follows therefore, that the broader the base the more highly developed
science can become. This is a step-by-step situation. The high school student
with a broad cultural base from grade school can assimilate, appreciate and
utilize more culture (and science) than if his grade school cultural base
had been narrow. The same applies to the college freshman coming from
high school. Therefore it is obvious that the better and more efficient method
to educate in the broad sense is to have a broad education in all preparatory
schools and have this continued for several of the college years. Subjects
that the students should be exposed to during some of these years should be
langauges; at least one foreign, one classical, and a thorough knowledge of
English; histories, including ancient, European and modern, taught from
the standpoint of the successes and failures of dynamic societies rather than
from the static concept of events and dates. Philosophy, psychology and
the social sciences should be included. Woven throughout these courses
should be the thread of conservation of all resources. In the words of Taylor

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

(1944, p. 360) "Conservation should crop out like measles on the surface
of every course taught from the first grade through to college.” Since
conservation is essentially an attitude of mind — that of unselfish service
to one’s fellow men, it is therefore a cultural course or in its broad aspect
a result of cultural courses.

If the student in our schools could have this foundation it is doubtful
if he could go through life unsympathetic, intolerant and lacking under¬
standing. It is questionable if he would continue for long to be up to date
in his professional field but be one hundred years behind the times in his
social field. The United States is in an anomalous position of being the most
highly technicalized country in the world yet fraught with prejudices re¬
garding her minority groups. This could not last for long if her children
were given a broad cultural training.

The mechanics of setting up a series of cultural courses to form a broad
base to education is a relatively simple matter. Institutions could merely
substitute them for the technical courses in the earlier years and then re¬
introduce the technical courses at the sophomore or junior level in the
colleges or universities. This process would be very difficult to put into
operation, however, since it must receive the approval of the various boards
of education and boards of governors which are, for the most part, made
up of financially successful business men who are inclined to appraise the
success of a school on the basis of the number of graduates who obtain jobs
rather than on the quality of citizens they produce. As a result of the
philosophy of these boards (who undoubtedly reflect the philosophy of the
people in the community) the tendency has been to travel further down
the road of technological training rather than to follow the road of culture.
This tendency has been alarming to many educators, and in certain instances,
drastic changes have been made to bring the higher institutions of learning
back to the cultural road. The elimination of football and the tightly
organized curricula in the University of Chicago in favor of a general
educational program is an example to illustrate this point.

Most educational administrators do not agree with drastic changes
which are usually accompanied by hardships and bitterness. The slow evo¬
lution is to be preferred and this is where the individual teacher can take
over. In the first place he can express his views for a liberalized education
through his own professional organizations, in his own school boards, and
in the community. Secondly, and this is most important, he can teach his
own special courses in such a manner that he can arouse and develop the
scientific atttitude in his own students. Nagel (1950) has stressed this
idea of teaching the scientific attitude within scientific courses and he sums
up his views as follows: (op. cit. p. 23) "I am thus of the opinion that sci¬
entific method can be taught, and taught best not as a separate discipline
or by precept, but in conjunction with the concrete materials of the sci¬
ences, and by example. The study of scientific method is a systematic reflec¬
tion on the procedures of the sciences; and no greater pedagogic error can
be committeed than to give instruction in principles of method to students
unfamiliar with scientific subject matter and practice. It is clear, however,
that, if general courses in science are to be something else than training
grounds for future specialist or preparations for parlor conversation, they
must be so organized as to permit time for methodological reflection on the
technical problems that are presented. There is a price that must be paid

1951, No. 1
March 30

Requirements for Fishery Biologists

for such an organization, and in particular the conception that general
courses in science should supply an encyclopedic compendium of useful
knowledge must be abandoned.”

This last statement by Nagel seems to me to be the crux of the prob¬
lem, Many teachers choke their technical courses with masses of pre¬
digested detail which the student is expected to learn (usually by memori¬
zation) which he parrots back to teacher on the examination. Such a pro¬
cedure may be acceptable if all the answers to the problems are known, but
in no field, much less fishery biology which is relatively new, are the answers
known. The students must have time to sit back and systematically medi¬
tate over the facts he is required to learn. This is the digestion of knowledge
and it must precede assimilation. Assimilation leads to growth and in the
field of learning this means intellectual growth. One of the chief criteria of
intellectual growth in the student is his ability to grasp the principles behind
the facts and to think for himself. Davis (1943 p. 205) writing about
wildlife biologists expressed this point in a somewhat different manner when
he wrote "any normal person can fence plots, strip-crop, build dikes, dig
ditches, count quail, trap predators, and perform a host of other manage¬
ment techniques, but unless he can diagnose, prescribe, and prognosticate,
he does not merit the title "Wildlife Manager” or "Wildlife Biologist.”

In the preceding paragraphs, I have pointed out that the fundamental
educational requirement for fishery biologists, and indeed for all students,
is a broad cultural base upon which can be built a technicological super¬
structure, also two methods by which this may be achieved have been sug¬
gested. I have stressed this cultural aspect of education, perhaps to the detri¬
ment of the technical side because most articles on the training of fishery
(or wildlife) biologists mention in passing the need of cultural training and
of the scientific attitude but stress only the technical side.

For the technical requirements of fishery biologists I refer the reader
to the excellent surveys of Deason (1941) and Turner (1948). These
authors together surveyed the majority of fisheries workers in United States
and Canada and listed those technical courses considered by these workers
as essential, desirable, optional or not necessary. A complete list of these is
found on p. 130 of Turner (op. cit .) and need not be repeated here. In es¬
sence, however, they include a very broad training in biology (anatomy,
physiology, genetics, ecology and systematics of both plants and animals),
physics, chemistry and mathematics. Both of these authors stressed the fact
that proficiency in English composition and public speaking were abso¬
lutely essential and that cultural courses should receive a greater considera¬
tion. So high are the requirements for fishery biologists that Deason wrote
(op. cit p, 136) "No four-year course will enable a student to acquire all
of the essential and desirable special courses in addition to the necessary
training in cultural fields.” This view is also supported by Turner. It is
therefore evident that the majority of fisheries workers realize their defici¬
encies and recommend a thorough cultural and technical training that is
well balanced and for which the student should be prepared to undertake
work leading to higher degrees.

In this paper, I have attempted to point out some of the attitudes on
education by educators as well as by fishery biologists. To round off the
subject it would be well to see what employers say about the educational
requirements for fishery biologists.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

A survey of ten employers responsible for 1,300 positions in fish and
wildlife work was made by Van Dersal (1942). He reported that the
general agreement among these employers was that the student applying
for a job must be well balanced. He should be sufficiently trained techni¬
cally to be able to handle the subject matter; he should have sufficient cul¬
tural background to "get along” with the public and he should have the
scientific attitude developed to the extent that he can objectively handle
the data he collects and not be subjected to influences by pressure groups
and his mind should be open to enable him to adjust himself and his work
to meet normal difficulties. The greatest weakness found by these employers
was the tendency on the part of the student applicants to be overspecialized
on the one hand and inadequately training in methods of expression on
the other.

The above arguments for a broad yet intensive education for fishery
biologists are presented in the hope that the general public, employers,
educators and administrators alike will realize that a fishery biologist should
be a good citizen and a good scientist as well as a good fish manager.

LITERATURE CITED

Bernard, Jessie — 1950 — Can science transcend culture? Scientific Monthly 71:268-273.

Davis, W. B. — 1943 — A wildlife conservation teaching program. Trans. 8th N. A. Wildlife
Conference : 198-205.

Deason, H. J. — 1941 — A survey of academic qualifications for fishery biologists and of insti¬
tutional facilities for training fishery biologists. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 70 : 128-142.

Leopold, Aid© — 1939 — Academic and professional training in wildlife work. Journ. Wildlife
Man. 3 : 156-161.

Nagel, Ernest — 1950 — The methods of sciences: what are they? can they be taught? Scientific
Monthly 70 : 19-23.

Taylor, W. P. — 1944 — Conservation is not inherited. Trans. 9th N. A. Wildlife Conf. : 358-362.

Turner, David B. — 1948 — Professional opportunities in the wildlife field. Wildlife manage¬
ment Institute, Wash. 208 pp.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

NEW CYPRINID FISHES OF THE GENUS NOTROPIS
FROM TEXAS *

CARL L. HUBBS

Scripps Institution of Oceanography
and

KELSHAW BONHAM
Applied Fisheries Laboratory
University of Washington, Seattle

During the past three decades the known freshwater fish fauna of
eastern North America, one of the richest in the world, has been further
augmented by the discovery of many new species. Unfortunately, pressure
of other duties has prevented the formal naming of a considerable propor¬
tion of these discoveries. The three new species of Notropis from Texas here
treated — -oxyrhynchus, brazosensis and potteri— are among the fishes for
which the initial published descriptions have been unduly withheld. Since
further delay would interfere with the researches and publications of other
ichthyologists and fishery biologists, these species are now diagnosed.

The three species are apparently confined to eastern Texas, for they
have never been collected in the extensive surveys of surrounding regions,
namely northeastern Mexico (Hubbs and Gordon, MS), New Mexico (sur¬
vey in progress by William J. Koster), Oklahoma (work begun by Orten-
burger and Hubbs, 1926, and Hubbs and Ortenburger, 1929 a-b , and
now being continued by George A. Moore), and Louisiana (more cursory
collecting) .

These shiners, especially oxyrhynchus and brazosensis , abound in the
very silty water of the Brazos River and its main tributaries, which are
thus shown to have a somewhat distinctive fauna. As native species,
N. oxyrhynchus and N. potteri seem to be confined to the Brazos River
system (the population, of N. potteri currently existing in and about arti¬
ficial Lake Texoma in the Red River system, between Texas and Oklahoma,
is interpreted as the result of the establishment of escaped bait minnows).
The range of brazosensis extends into adjacent coastwise waters.

The discovery of these new species in Texas occasioned no great sur¬
prise, for the varied fish fauna of this large state has been little studied
and very seldom reported upon since the compilation by Evermann and
Kendall (1894).

Following the recognition by the senior author of these species as new,
counts and measurements were made by the junior author in 1940, in ac¬
cordance with the specifications proposed by Hubbs and Lagler (1941: 12-20,
figs. 2-3; 1947: 8-15, figs. 2-6). Angles were measured as recommended
by Hubbs (1946). The calculations were also made by Bonham and the
photographs were taken by him. The final draft was prepared in 1950 with
the much appreciated cooperation of Dr. Reeve M. Bailey of the University
of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Prof. Frank T. Knapp of the Agricultural
and Mechanical College of Texas kindly dropped in our favor his plan to
describe the three species, which he also has collected. He has contributed
specimens and ideas helpful in determining the status and relationships of

* Contributions from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, New Series, No. 503.

Thf Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

N. potteri. Dr. George A. Moore of Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical
College has provided critical material from the Red River and from within
Oklahoma, and has contributed useful suggestions.

All specimens herein reported for the three new species are deposited
in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology and in the Agricultural
and Mechanical College of Texas.

Fig. 1. Notropis percobromus: adult specimen (University of Michigan Museum
of Zoology, No. 127636), collected in Arkansas River near Oxford, Kansas, by C. E.
Burt, on June 13, 1939. All photographs were taken by Kelshaw Bonham.

Fig. 2. Notropis oxyrhynchus : topotypic paratype, an adult, 54 mm. in standard
length, collected in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham
and class, on October 25, 1940.

Fig. 3. Notropis oxyrhynchus : head of the holotype, an adult 50.8 mm. long,
collected in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham and class,
on October 21, 1938.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

SHARPNOSE SHINER
Notropis oxyrhynchus, new species
PI. I, F'igs. 2-3

In both ecological and taxonomic view this striking species appears
to be the southern representative of N. percobromus Cope (Pi. I, Fig. 1).
Since that species has seldom been mentioned and has usually been con¬
fused with other forms, its history and status call for clarification. It was
described, as Alburnelhis percobromus , by Cope (1871: 440) from speci¬
mens collected at St. Joseph, Missouri, presumably in the Missouri River or
some adjacent water (Jordan and Evermann gave the type locality definitely
as the Missouri River at St. Joseph). Under the name M innilus percobromus
the species was accepted as valid by Jordan and Gilbert (1883: 202), but
it was synonymized with N. rubrifrons ( —N. rubella ) by Jordan and
Evermann (1896: 295). Accepting this synonymy, Fowler (1910: 290)
based his description of rubrifrons in part on the types A. percobromus, one
of which he figured (pi. 21, fig. 50). Swayed by these actions, Hubbs and
Ortenburger (192 9b: 83-85 ) wrongly resurrected Cope’s name for the
southwestern representatives, still unnamed, of N. rubella . They had the
true percobromus as well, however, but treated it as "Notropis, species?
(1929a: 34; 192 9b: 86). Only recently (Hubbs, 1945: 16-17) has the
true distinctive status of percobromus been pointed out, along with the in¬
dication that it inhabits the silty waters of the Great Plains from the Mis¬
souri River system in the Dakotas to the Red River (of the South), with
tongues extending down the main rivers into Arkansas and presumably into
Missouri, even to the Mississippi River in Tennessee (Reeve M. Bailey, in
personal communication, has indicated his belief that the records from the
upper Mississippi River system were based on misidentified specimens of
N . a. atherinoides) . This statement of range is based on the identification
by the senior author of many series in the Museum of Zoology of the Uni¬
versity of Michigan.

Although it resembles rubella in certain respects, such as the anteriorly
deep body, the sharp nose and the large mouth, oxyrhynchus seems to belong,
with percobromus, to the atherinoides rather than to the rubella series of
the subgenus Notropis, as these series were distinguished by Hubbs and
Ortenburger (192 9b: 83-84).

N. oxyrhynchus agrees rather well with percobromus and contrasts with
atherinoides atherinoides in several of the characters by which those forms
were distinguished in tabular form by Hubbs (1945: 17): the head is rela¬
tively large, more than one-fourth the standard length; the eye is submedian,

TABLE I

ANAL RAY COUNTS IN FIVE SPECIES OF NotrOpIS

Anal rays (frequencies)

Species

1 8

No. |

Av.

S.E.

N. percobromus .

.... | ....

90 |

10.69

.08

N. oxyrhynchus .

... | ,..

82 1

10.69

.06

N. brazosensis .

| 94

106 |

8.04

.04

N. illecebrosa .

ill 12

8.87

.09

N. potter! .

|;3

85. 1

7.02

.02

9 4

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

dorsoventrally; and the lips are not conspicuously blackened anteriorly. In
other characters oxyrhynchus resembles a. atherinoides more closely than
per cobro mus: the predorsal scale pockets are generally, though not always,
clearly marked by rather definite marginal files of melanophores, and the
body is usually rather slender, though some examples are deeper than the
more attenuate specimens of percobromus. In the slope of its mouth
oxyrhynchus further resembles atherinoides more closely than percobromus,
the mouth of which is more strongly oblique than it is in most related
species: the angle seen in lateral view between the closed mouth and the
long axis of the body ranges from 32° to 3 8° in oxyrhynchus, is about 3 5°
in atherinoides, and is typically 48° or more in percobromus. The head is
much slenderer than in percobromus, averaging even slenderer than in
a. atherinoides: the head depth is usually contained about 1.7 times in the
head length. The height of the dorsal fin is contained 1.5 to 1.9 times in the

TABLE II

MEASUREMENTS ( IN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH ) AND COUNTS OF

Notropis oxyrhynchus from Texas and N . percobromus from

KANSAS AND OKLAHOMA

Species . .

Notropis oxyrhynchus

N. percobromus

Specimens .

Hole-

24 Paratypes

10 Adults

type

(Range)

Mean

Range

Standard length, mm. . . .

50.8

28,4—48.9

40.5

37.7

36.9—49.6

Predorsal length .

581

534—571

558

575

567—587

Dorsal to occiput

394

334 — 377

355

386

371—404

Prepelvic length . .

528

489—533

512

505

498 — 515

Body depth . .

252

194- — 263

228

255

227—291

Dorsal origin to lateral line .

165

140—178

157

156

142—183

Pelvic insertion to lateral line ...

50—97

102

97—125

Body width .

154

119—162

141

150

128—180

(Tjuirl^l ppijiipplp

185

175 — 20G

192

189

176 — 207

Caudal peduncle depth .

114

100—121

111

102

94—108

Head length .

264

246 — 306

276

270

260—281

Head depth

173

158 — 194

174

178

170 — 186

Snout length

77 — 93

72—80

Eye length .

59—73

60—73

Fleshy ixit©rorfoital

78 — 94

85—98

Upper jaw length

89 — 105

83 — 96

Mouth width 1

48 — 67

47—64

Dorsal height .

211

189—237

213

215

200 — 233

Anal height .

163

158—187

168

178

163—201

Anal base .

127

119—153

137

139

124 — 163

Pectoral length .

205

178—235

205

207

189—227

Longest caudal ray .

264

264—355

287

282

252—306

Pelvic length .

152

129—153

144

157

143—168

Scales

Above lateral line .

•6—7

6.84

6.70

6—7

Along lateral line

34 — 37

35.8

37.1

36—38

Below lateral line . .

3—4

3.68

3.90

3—4

Lateral line to pelvic .

3—4

3.52

3.70

3—4

Predorsal scales . .

20—26

22. 22

21.3

19—24

Predorsal rows .

16—21

18.5

18.4

17—20

Around body : Above .

13—15

14.53

14.0

13—15

Below .

9—14

11. 83

11.0

10—12

Total .

24—31

28.0

27.0

26—29

Around caudal peduncle : Above .

7—9

7.713

6.90

6—7

Below..

5—7

5.763

5.00

5 — 5

Total..

14—18

15.7

13.9

13—14

Fin Rays

Dorsal

8 — 8

8.00

8—8

Anal .

9—11

10.14

10.7°

10—13

Pectoral . .

14—15

13—15

13. 95

14.55

13—16

Pelvic . .

8—8

7—8

7.965

8.005

7—9

1 Between ends of gape.

2 7 specimens.

1 17 specimens.

4 82 specimens, see Table I.

5 Both sides counted.

G 90 specimens, see Table I.

1951, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 95

March 30

distance forward to the occiput (in this respect oxyrhynchus is interme¬
diate). The measurements of oxyrhynchus and percohromus are compared in
detail in Table II.

The outstandingly distinctive feature of oxyrhynchus , as contrasted
with either percohromus or atherinoides, or, in fact, with almost any other
species of the genus, is the form of the muzzle, which is very sharp in
either dorsal or lateral view. The front angle of the top of the head is only
15° to 17°, as contrasted with 19° to 23° in N. percohromus. The angle
formed by the dorsal and ventral contours of the muzzle, 5 6° to 70°, is
usually much narrower than in percohromus (72° to 85°), particularly in
the smaller fish. The angle of the head proper in lateral view is only 43°
to 50°. The conical appearance of the head (Pi. I, Fig. 3) is enhanced by
the continuous and almost straight, rather than distinctly angulated line
formed by the margins of the interopercle and the mandibular ramus. The
dorsal contour of the snout also tends to be straighter than in percohromus ,
and less decurved. The margins of the rami as seen from below are almost
straight and converge forward evenly throughout their length, rather than
generally being divergent forward to beyond the middle of the length of
the rami. In further correlation with the more conical form of the head,
the muzzle in oxyrhynchus is longer than in percohromus : in adults the
snout is consistently much longer than the eye, on the average 29 rather
than 15 percent longer, and the upper jaw is 1.2 to 1.6 times as long as
the eye, instead of being only a little longer.

The anal rays average 10.09, slightly fewer than in percohromus (Table

1) . The scales in the lateral line average fewer, those around the caudal
peduncle more numerous (Table II). The lateral line is more decurved, as
is indicated by the lesser proportional distance between the lateral line and
the insertion of the pelvic fin. N. oxyrhynchus seems to be a more silvery
fish than percohromus. The distribution of melanophores is shown on Plate
I, Figures 2-3.

The general form is rather distinctive. The ventral outline (Pi. I, Fig.

2) is more curved than the dorsal. Though it bisects the eye, a straight line
from the anterior tip of the upper lip to the middle of the caudal base lies
distinctly above the middle of the head. The dorsal contour rises in a
gentle arch from the acuminate muzzle to the origin of the dorsal fin, which
is well behind the middle of the body. From the vertical through the dorsal
origin the upper and lower contours converge backward in slightly concave
lines. Forward from the anal fin the slope continues downward to about the
middle of the belly and then curves upward to the isthmus.

Fundamentally, oxyrhynchus agrees with the other members of the
subgenus Notropis. The hooked teeth number 2, 4 — 4, 2. The slightly falcate
anal fin typically has more than 9 rays (Table I). The dorsal fin begins well
behind the insertion of the pelvic. The silvery color, slender form, strongly
curved ventral contour, oblique mouth and sharp snout stamp it, like the
other species of the subgenus, as a midwater to near-surface swimmer.

types.— -The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology,
No. 129829), an adult 50.8 mm. in standard length, was seined from Brazos
River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos County, Texas, on October 21, 193 8,
by Kelshaw Bonham and party from the Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬
lege of Texas. Many paratypes were collected in Brazos River, at four places:
at the holotype locality, on October 21, 1938, and on October 25, 1940; at

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Government Dam, near Navasota, on November 24, 1939, and December
3, 1939; west* of College Station, on October 12, 1939; and at Kappes
Bridge, southwest of College Station, on September 29, 1941. Smaller series
were obtained in Navasota River, 16 miles southeast of College Station, on
October 6, 1939; in Little Brazos River, at State Highway 21, on June 13
and July 13, 1940 (breeding adults included); and in the lower end of
Toweash Creek, another tributary of the Brazos. The last-named series
was collected by Marion Toole, the one from Kappes Bridge by G. H.
Soulen, the others by Kelshaw Bonham and students.

Plate II

Fig. 1. Notropis brazosensis : topotypic paratype, an adult 46 mm. long, collected
by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on October 25, 1940.

Fig. 2. Notropis brazosensis: head of holotype, an adult 49.2 mm. long, collected
in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on
October 21, 1938.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

The name oxyrhynchus is derived from Greek words transliterated into
Latin as oxys (sharp) and rhynchus (snout). Though the gender of Notropis
is feminine and though the species name is regarded as a compound adjective,
it is given the -us ending because that is the Latin transliteration of the
normal feminine ending for Greek compound adjectives.

BRAZOS SHINER
Notropis brazosensis, new species
PL II

In the maze of species that constitute the genus Notropis, in the broad
sense to which we have adhered, this new one appears to be most closely
related to N. illecebrosa (Girard). In fact, N. brazosensis seems to be the
southwestern representaive of illecebrosa, which ranges through the silty
waters of the large rivers in the Mississippi Valley from Illinois to Louisi¬
ana. The status of the true illecebrosa, which had been confused with other
species, was clarified by Ortenburger and Hubbs (1926: 126) and by Hubbs
and Ortenburger (1929a: 29).

From illecebrosa this species differs in usually having 8 instead of 9
anal rays (Table I). Jordan and Evermann (1896: 268) reported the anal
rays as 8 in the types of Alburn ops illecebrosus Girard, perhaps as a miscount
or misprint, or perhaps because the count was made on a variant specimen
or on one of the specimens of N. boops that were mixed in the same series.

The difference in number of anal rays would suffice for no more than
subspecific separation, but other distinctions (Table III) warrant treatment
of the forms in full species. Especially significant are the differences in the
structure of the mouth, the pharyngeal arch, and the teeth.

The rays in the fins other than the anal are alike in number (Table IV).
The number of pelvic rays is rather characteristic, for most species of
Notropis have 8 pelvic rays.

other characters. — The body contours are symmetrically curved on
either side of the horizontal line extending from the front of the rather
strongly oblique mouth through the center of the eye to the middle of the
caudal base. The muzzle is bluntly conical in side view. The lips are rela¬
tively thin and the upper lip is scarcely expanded at the midline.

The fins are moderately pointed and rather expansive. The dorsal and
anal are distinctly falcate; the pectoral and pelvic, somewhat blunt at the
tip. The dorsal origin is near or a little behind the middle of the standard
length, about over or a little behind the pelvic insertion. The dorsal height
often nearly equals the length of the head and occasionally exceeds that
dimension. The caudal fin is usually longer than the head.

The complete lateral line is rather strongly downcurved anteriorly. Its
scales are scarcely modified in outline. Scale counts are detailed in Table V.

The general color is pale and silvery, with rather sparse puncticulation
above the midsides and virtually none below. Large melanophores are scat¬
tered deep beneath the broad and rather diffuse silvery band. The band
broadens anteriorly and covers the side of the head behind the eye. Above
this silvery band and along its upper part is a narrow dusky streak com¬
prising small superficial melanophores. The dark streak is arched upward to
nearly parallel the dorsal contour, but on the caudal peduncle it becomes
submedian. Between the dorsal origin and the pelvic insertion this streak
and the lateral line divide the body approximately into thirds. The dusky

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

TABLE III

comparison of Notropis brazosensis with N. illecebrosa

Based chiefly on a series of paratypes of N. brazosensis (U.M.M.Z., 159368. from Little
Brazos River at Highway 21, Brazos County, Texas) and on a collection of N. illecebrosa
(U.M.M.Z., 153072, from Mississippi River at Brasher or Cottonwood Point, Pemiscot County,
Missouri ) .

Character

N. brazosensis

N. illecebrosa

Anal rays (Table I) .

Typically 8

Typically 9

Fins .

Usually less elevated

Usually much elevated

and less pointed ; pelvic

and pointed ; pelvic

not or barely reaching

reaching about to, or

anus

beyond, anus

Size and texture . . .

Larger and coarser

Thinner, more delicate

Fin rays .

Thicker and stronger

Thinner, more fragile

Upper lip .

About even with snout tip ;

Usually projecting

profile of tip about vertical

beyond snout tip ;

or sloping downward

profile of tip sloping

and more or less backward ;

downward and more or

mostly visible from

less forward ; little or

directly below

not at all visible from
directly below

Lower lip .

Definitely included

Approximately even with

within upper lip

upper lip

Upper limb of

About one-half as broad

About two-fifths as

pharyngeal arch

(at base) as long ; outer

broad (at base) as long;

edge rather evenly curved ;

outer edge angulated ;

upper limb longer than

upper limb shorter than

lower

Lower (anterior) edge of

Scarcely cultrate

More or less strongly

grinding surface of
main pharyngeal teeth

and jagged

cultrate and jagged

Row of melanophores

Becoming obsolescent

Remaining strong in

along anal base and

in half-grown

half-grown ; obsolescent

on lower edge of
peduncle

in adult

TABLE IV

fin ray numbers in Notropis brazosensis and N. illecebrosa

The anal ray counts are given in Table 1. The counts for N. illecebrosa were all taken
from the series noted in Table III.

Dorsal Rays

N. brazosensis . . .

8.00

N. illecebrosa . .

8.08

Caudal Rays

N. brazosensis . .

18.97

N. illecebrosa .

18.97

Pectoral

Rays

13 1

| 16

N. brazosensis .

173

14.61

N. illecebrosa .

.31

14.53

Pelvic Rays

N. brazosensis . .

117

174

8.7 1.

N. illecebrosa .

8.81-

iyoi, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 99

March 30

streak is separated by a narrow almost unpigmented light band from the
dorsal area, where melanophores in single file line the scale pockets. Near
the dorsal midline other melanophores lie inside the marginal file. There is
a narrow dusky streak before, along and behind the dorsal base. Before the
dorsal the more prominent melanophores are arranged in one series; behind
the dorsal, in two or three series. There is a weak dusky triangle just before
the dorsal base but none at the caudal base or at the nape. The basicaudal
spot is barely suggested. Fine melanophores line the dorsal and caudal rays
and occur on the outer edge of the pectoral. The top of the head is dark
on the parietal region and is dusky between the eyes and between the nos¬
trils. The melanophores extend over the snout onto the upper lip and oc¬
casionally onto the lower lip and the tip of the chin. Fine dots are sprinkled
between the nostrils and the mouth and a narrow streak follows the lower
margin of the orbit. Very few melanophores occur about the upper part of
the opercles. Except as noted the lateral and ventral surfaces of the head
are unpigmented.

Minute nuptial tubercles, sharp and recurved, follow the second to the
ninth pectoral rays, in a single file branching once, with about 4 to 6
tubercles (or pairs) on each ray segment. Elsewhere the nuptial organs are
almost completely obsolete.

Proportional measurements are analyzed in Table V.

TABLE V

MEASUREMENTS (IN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH )

and scale counts of types of Notropis brazosensis

Holo-

type

24 Paratypes
(Range)

Mean

Standard length, mm .

49.2

33.5—61.5

44.1

Predorsal length .

500

498—537

513

Prepelvic length .

504

478—528

504

Body depth .

252

217—289

243

Dorsal origin to lateral line . .

165

134—184

160

Pelvic insertion to lateral line .

74—119

Body width .

153

125 — 184

147

Caudal peduncle length . .

206

193—226

205

Caudal peduncle depth .

123

108—124

116

Head length .

250

249—282

262

Head depth .

183

167—198

179

Snout length .

71—87

Eye length .

57—80

Fleshy interorbital .

91—102

Upper jaw length .

73—90

Mouth width 1 . .

51—69

Dorsal height . .

240

217—270

243

Anal height

172

158—204

178

Anal base . .

116

102—128

110

Longest caudal ray .

272

256—313

288

Pectoral length .

197

177—222

201

Pelvic length .

Scales

161

144—184

168

Above lateral line .

5—7

6.04

Along lateral line .

33—35

34.1

Below lateral line .

3—4

3.76

Lateral line to pelvic .

3—4

3.20

Predorsal scales . .

13—20

14.8

Predorsal rows .

12—17

14.0

Around body: Above . .

12—14

12.6

Below .

9—11

10.3

Total . .

23—27

24.8

Around caudal peduncle: Above .

4—7

5.28

Below .

4—6

5.00

Total .

11—14

12.3

1 Between ends of gape.

100

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

habitat and range. — Like oxyrhynchus , this species is characteristic
of the silty waters of Brazos River and its main tributaries, in eastern
Texas. The form of the body, the position of the mouth and eye, the color
and other features suggest a mid-water habitat. It is often, perhaps usually,
associated with oxyrhynchus and the two commonly dominate the fauna.
Outside the Brazos system brazosensis is known to us only from adjacent
waters near the coast, including San Bernard and Colorado rivers, to the
southward, and, doubtfully, from one locality in Harris County, to the
northward (see below). Recent collecting by Clark Hubbs in the Neches
River system has failed to disclose this species there.

types. — The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology,
No. 129827), an adult 49.2 mm. in standard length, was seined with the
type series of oxyrhynchus from Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos
County, Texas, on October 21, 193 8, by Kelshaw Bonham and party from
the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Several series of paratypes
were collected at other points in the Brazos River system, by Bonham and
others. The 24 paratypes measured for Table V were obtained at 5 places:
at the holotype locality; in Brazos River west of College Station, on October
21, 1938; in Little Brazos River at State Highway 21, on June 13 and
July 13, 1940 (including breeding adults); in borrow pit 5.3 miles west of
Bryan on highway 21, on July 13, 1940; and in San Bernard River at State
Highway 60, on May 12, 1939.

Additional paratypes of this species were collected by Bonham and
party at 3 localities in Brazos County: in Brazos River west of College
Station, on October 12, 1939; in Little Brazos River near Bryan, on March
31, 1939; and in Navasota River at Ferguson Crossing, on October 6, 1939.
Still others were taken by R. T. Richey in Little Brazos River, Brazos
County, on March 23, 1936, and by A. H. Wright in Colorado River, on
the road between Houston and Victoria, on June 24, 1917.

A single large specimen collected by J. L. Baughman at Old River
Terrace, on Market Street Road, Harris County, on May 18, 1941, is re¬
ferred doubtfully to brazosensis. It agrees with that species in most respects,
but has only 7 anal rays. More material is urgently needed from this region
north of the mouth of Brazos River— -not only of this species but also of
the fish fauna in general.

CHUB SHINER

Notropis potteri, new species

PL III

Notropis potteri. — Potter, 1938 : pi. 4, upper fig., facing p. 422 (probably a recognizable
figure ; species attributed on legend to Hubbs ; no text reference ; “recently located in
McLellan County, Texas”). Baughman, 1950: 130 (name attributed to Hubbs; no de¬
scription whatever : “common in Brazos River and tributaries” ; entry taken from
manuscript list by Bonham and Reid).

This species is described as new, despite the fact that Potter published,
over the name Notropis potteri Hubbs, a figure that is probably recognizable,
when the assigned locality is considered. Potter’s action failed to satisfy the
requirements for availability stipulated by Article 2 5, Item C of the Inter¬
national Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, however, because the date of
publication was subsequent to 193 0 and because neither a diagnosis nor a
definite bibliographic citation was furnished.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

101

diagnosis. — -The hooked pharyngeal teeth number 2, 4 — 4, 2. Fin rays:
dorsal, consistently 8; anal, usually 7, rarely 6 or 8 (Table I); pectoral,
14 to 18, averaging 15.7; pelvic, typically 8, rarely 9, averaging 8.07.

The fins are moderately large and rather bluntly pointed: the dorsal
height is always less than the head length, often only two-thirds as great;

Plate III

Fig. 1. Notropis p otter i : lateral view of an adult paratype 66 mm. long, collected
in Brazos River at Government Dam, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham, on December
3,1939.

Fig. 2. Notropis potteri : dorsal view of a 62 mm. paratype from the same
collection.

Fig. 3. Notropis potteri: enlarged view of the head of specimen shown in Fig. 1.

102

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

the caudal is usually a little shorter than the head; the pectoral length about
equals the dorsal height; the pectoral does not reach the pelvic insertion.
The dorsal origin is near or a little behind the middle of the standard
length, approximately over the pelvic insertion.

The body contours are symmetrically curved, with most of the small eye
above the axis. The muzzle is very thick and blunt in side view, with the
heavy jaws about equal in forward projection. The snout in top view is
extremely massive, almost semicircular. The mouth is moderately oblique:
the upper lip rises to the level through the lower margin or the lower part
of the pupil (Pi. Ill, Fig. 3). The middle part of the lower lip and the
posterior part of the upper lip are much swollen.

The complete lateral line is nearly straight, horizontal, and median
behind the short downward anterior curve. Its scales are scarcely modified
in outline.

The body is moderately dusky above and silvery below, with little
pigment below the region of the lateral line. The melanophores on the upper
parts of the head and body are rather evenly scattered. Large melanophores
are dispersed about the lateral line anteriorly. The lateral dark band is
moderately developed on the caudal peduncle and ends just in advance of
the very weak and diffuse basicaudal spot.

comparisons.- — Notropis potteri is one of the more distinctive of the
many species that constitute the genus. The broad head, heavy muzzle and
big mouth, well shown in the figures (Pi. Ill), accord it an aspect sur¬
prisingly like that of the creek chub, Semotilus atromaculatus. In some re¬
spects it shares characters with the Gulf -coastal species N. sabinae Jordan
and Gilbert, but it is a much larger and coarser fish, with a somewhat
smaller and much less inferior and less horizontal mouth. It also shows
some resemblance to N. bairdi and N. girardi Hubbs and Ortenburger
(192 9a: 29-33), which seem to represent N. sabinae in the Red and Ar¬
kansas river systems, respectively. Since it differs from sabinae, bairdi and
girardi in the dental formula, its resemblance to those species is probably
not indicative of very close relationship.

Except for the consistent development of a second row of two pharyn¬
geal teeth and for the complete squamation of the nape and breast, the
specimens of N. potteri scarcely differ from the original account of N. bairdi
and agree strikingly in some respects, for example in the superficial resem¬
blance to Semotilus atromaculatus. On comparing potteri with the types of
bairdi, however, close attention to detail discloses numerous other trenchant
differences. The pharyngeal arch is less heavy (items 3 and 4 in the accom¬
panying comparison) ; the scales are larger, are shield-shaped instead of
suboval, and have fewer radii (items 6-8). The skin is thinner and less
papillose (9). The body is slenderer, especially in adult females (10). The
head is notably slenderer and thinner and the margins are straightish rather
than notably turgid (12-14). The mouth and lip structures are very dif¬
ferent (15-21). The opercle is much smaller (22). There are also sharp
differences in pigmentation (24-29).

The relationship is probably more intimate with Notropis blennius
(Girard) , the status of which was clarified by Fowler (1910: 274-276, ngs.
4, 6, 10) and by Hubbs (1926: 42-44). When compared with either of
the subspecies into which N. blennius now seems divisible, N . potteri stands
out so sharply as to call for full specific separation.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

103

The subspecies of blennius may be called Notropis blennius bl ennuis
(Girard) and N. b. jejunus (Forbes). Specimens from the Arkansas River
in Oklahoma are topotypic of Alburnops blennius Girard (1856: 194; 1858:
261, pi. 57, figs. 13-16 referred to but not bound in same volume; 1 8 59:
5 5, pi. 57, figs. 13-16). They agree with Girard’s description and figure in
some important respects, such as the deep and abruptly decurved snout and
low mouth. Adequate material from the Cimarron River and from various
smaller tributaries also represents the nominate subspecies. The same form
occurs in the Arkansas and Missouri rivers in Kansas. A specimen collected
by George A. Moore and J. M. Paden in the Red River system, in Bricken
Spring, 24 miles south of Ada, Oklahoma, on April 5, 1947, is typical of
N. b. blennius, but is thought by Dr. Moore to represent a bait introduction,
as it was taken on the premises of Thomas Bricken, a bait dealer, who gets
his material from the Arkansas River system as well as the Red. As deter¬
mined by reexamination of the collections in the University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology, N. b. jejunus ranges from the Plains streams of Alberta
and Manitoba in Canada through the Red River and Mississippi River of
Minnesota and through the Mississippi River drainage basin of Iowa, Illi¬
nois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri to the Mississippi
River in Arkansas. It also occurs in the Tombigbee River in Alabama. The
Neosho and Illinois rivers in Oklahoma, which are clearer and cooler than
other streams in the same region, are inhabited by the northern subspecies.
Since the differential characters of the two forms, outlined below, show
moderate overlap and some degree of both local and individual inconsistency,
and especially since the abundant material from Nebraska exhibits varying
degrees of intermediacy and of mixture of characters, only subspecific sepa¬
ration is justified, and until the material is more critically analyzed and
until the differences can be demonstrated to be genetic, even the subspecific
separation must be regarded as tentative.

Since this paper was written the pertinence of the name blennius to the
form here called N. b. blennius was confirmed at the National Museum by
an examination of the type series (No. 67). The 6 largest specimens, 5 1 to
65 mm. long, including one of 56 mm. labelled "Type” in Jordan’s hand¬
writing, agree with the type figure, and are N. b. blennius. They have the
deep head, decurved snout, low mouth, small eye, and most other characters
here attributed to the typical subspecies, but not the small scale size (the
total length of the key scale enters the postorbital length 2.7 to 3.0 times).
The 5 smaller types, 3 8 to 44 mm. long, represent the unnamed creek sub¬
species of Notropis volucella Cope which inhabits the Neocho River system
and other waters in the contiguous parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri,
and Kansas and which is characterized by the only moderate elevation of
the lateral-line scales, the smallish size, the large eye, the high dorsal fin and
the chunky body. These 5 specimens have been recataloged as U.S.N.M.
152780. Their characters were apparently not considered in the preparation
of the type figure and description of Alburnops blennius.

N. b. blennius differs from N. b. jejunus in the usually less flattened
and less expansive upper limb of the pharyngeal arch (item 3 in accom¬
panying comparison of forms) ; the somewhat smaller rather less shield¬
shaped scales, the length of the median scales entering the postorbital more
instead of less than 3.0 times (items 6-7), with slight overlap in some
series; the somewhat thicker and more papillose skin (9); the deeper body,

104

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

with more arched anterodorsal profile (10); the usually deeper and wider
head (12-13); the usually more nearly horizontal mouth and the blunter
and more decurved snout (15-16); on the average probably in the some¬
what thicker lips (17-19), and shorter mouth (21); usually in the longer
opercle (22) and smaller eye (23); and somewhat in the pigmentation
(26-29).

The differences between pot ter i and both forms of blennius, as here
recognized, are also outlined in the accompanying comparison. The teeth
of the second row are stronger, less deciduous, and more constantly devel¬
oped (items 1-2). The pharyngeal arches are relatively larger than in either
form (4) and the upper limb is more rodlike, less flangelike, particularly in
comparison with jejunus (3). The ratio between scale length and post¬
orbital contrasts with that of blennius (6) and the scale is usually more
shield-shaped, less suboval, than in that subspecies (7). The radii average
more (item 8). The skin seems smoother and less coarsely papillose than in
N. b. blennius (9). The body averages slenderer than in that subspecies (10).
The head averages slightly longer (11) and definitely slenderer (12). Its
margins are less curved than in N. b. blennius (14). The mouth averages
more oblique and higher anteriorly than in that subspecies (15-16). The
local thickening of the lips and the resulting sigmoid gape give the mouth
of potteri a strikingly different physiognomy, although N. b. blennius some¬
times slightly approaches potteri in these respects (17-20). The opercle is
usually smaller, especially in comparison with N. b. blennius (22). The eye
averages smaller than in that subspecies and at comparable sizes is definitely
smaller than in jejunus (23).

comparison of Notropis potteri with similar forms

1. Pharyngeal tooth formula :

N. potteri : 2, 4—4, 2.

N. bairdi : 4 — 4 (5- — 4 in 1 specimen, with the 5 on the left side
normal in appearance).

N. blennius , both subspecies: 1 or 2, 4- — 4, 1 or 2.

2. Teeth of lesser row:

N. potteri : large, strong, firmly fixed; both constantly present.

N . bairdi : consistently absent; the arch rather swollen in their place,
not flattened as in the 3 other forms.

N. blennius blennius: small and very weak, not very firmly fixed, one
frequently lost and occasionally never developed.

N. blennius jejunus : as in blennius blennius , but perhaps not quite so
weak.

3. Pharyngeal arch :

N. potteri : only moderately heavy; upper limb usually more or less
rodlike, approaching lower limb in form.

N. bairdi : much heavier than in the 3 other forms.

N. blennius blennius : weakest; in form of arch about intermediate
between potteri and jejunus.

N. blennius jejunus : averaging weaker than in potteri; upper limb
usually a thin, broad flange.

4 . Width across both arches , laid with ends together on a flat surface,

stepped into head length :

N. potteri: 2.3 to 2.5, rarely 2.6.

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

105

N. bairdi: 1.9 to 2.2.

N. blennius blennius : 2.5 (rarely) to 2.7.

N. blennius jejunus: 2.4 to 2.7.

5. Squama tion on nape and on breast:

N. potteri, N. blennius blennius and N. blennius jejunus: complete.
N. bairdi : usually incomplete, with scaleless area small to large.

6. Median horizontal length of entire scale from first row above lateral

line, below dorsal fin, measured into postorbital:

N. potteri : more than 3.0 but less than 4.0 times.

N. bairdi: more than 4.0 times (reflecting the long opercle and the
small eye as well as the small scales).

N. blennius blennius: usually between 3.0 and 4.0 times, occasionally
slightly less than 3,0 times.

N. blennius jejunus: typically less than 3.0 times, sometimes slightly
more than 3.0 times (reflecting larger scale and larger eye).

7. Shape of scales from near middle of sides:

N. potteri: strongly shield-shaped, with prominent anterior angles in
outline and in course of circuli; posterior margin somewhat pro¬
duced.

N. bairdi: suboval, with very weak anterior angles and scarcely
produced posterior margin.

N. blennius blennius: somewhat shield-shaped (intermediate between
bairdi and 2 other forms).

N. blennius jejunus: about as in potteri.

8. Radii:

N. potteri: rather few.

N. bairdi: rather numerous.

A7. blennius, both subspecies: very few.

9. Skin texture:

N. potteri: rather thin and smooth, with microscopic papillae.

N. bairdi: thick and tough with coarse papillae.

N. blennius blennius: intermediate between bairdi and the 2 other
forms.

N . blennius jejunus: about as in potteri.

10. Greatest depth of body in standard length (these differences are ac¬

centuated when specimens of the same sex and of similar size are
compared) :

N. potteri: 3.7 to 4.8 (average of 40, 4.26).

N. bairdi: 3.6 to 4.5 (average of 37, 4.00).

N. blennius blennius: 3.7 to 4.3 (average of 17, 3.92); as a result of
the deep body and the low mouth, the anterior dorsal profile is
typically more arched than in N . b. jejunus.

N. blennius jejunus: 4.0 to 4.8 (average of 43, 4.39).

//. Head length stepped into standard length (these differences are ac¬
centuated when specimens of like size are compared) :

N. potteri: 3.3 to 3.8 (average of 61, 3.56).

N. bairdi: 3.3 to 3.8 (average of 30, 3.63).

N. blennius blennius: 3.4 to 4.1 (average of 17, 3.69).

N. blennius jejunus: 3.7 to 4.0 (average of 32, 3.77).

12. Head depth stepped into head length:

N. potteri: 1.65 to 1.8.

1951, No. 1
March 30

106 The Texas Journal of Science

N. bairdi : 1.5 to 1.6 5.

N. blennhis blennius : 1.4 to 1.6, usually 1.5.

N. blennms jejnnus: 1.5 to 1.75, usually 1.6 to 1.7.

13. Head width stepped into head length :

N. potteri : 1.7 to 2.0.

N. bairdi: 1.5 to 1.7.

N. blennius blennms: 1.6 to 1.9, usually 1.7 to 1.8.

N. blennius jejunus: 1.7 to 2.0, usually 1.8 to 1.9.

14. Head margins:

N. potteri: straightish, even in large adults.

N. bairdi: more strongly curved, becoming extremely turgid in large
adults.

N. blennius blennius: somewhat approaching bairdi.

N. blennius jejunus: almost as straight as in potteri.

13. Mouth :

N. potteri , N. bairdi (usually) and N. blennius jejunus: moderately
oblique.

N. blennius blennius: subhorizontal to moderately oblique.

16. Horizontal from front of rostral fold crossing orbit at:

N. potteri: lower margin or lower part of pupil.

N. bairdi: variable, from lower margin of orbit to lower part of pupil.
N. blennms blennius: lower margin of orbit or a little higher (in
correlation, the snout is blunter and more decurved than in the 3
other forms).

N. blennms jejunus: usually about midway between lower margin of
orbit and lower edge of pupil.

17. Upper lip:

N. potteri: markedly dilated and swollen posteriorly.

N. bairdi: scarcely dilated, thin throughout.

N. blennius blennius: thin throughout to slightly thickened poster¬
iorly.

N. blennius jejunus: scarcely dilated.

18. Lower lip:

N. potteri: markedly dilated medially.

N. bairdi: scarcely dilated, thin throughout.

N. blennius blennius: thin throughout to slightly thickened medially.
N. blennms jejunus: scarcely dilated.

19. Shape of gape (resulting from degree of thickening of lips):

N. potteri: rather strongly sigmoid.

N. bairdi and N. blennius jejunus: scarcely sigmoid.

N. blennms blennius: straight to slightly sigmoid.

20. Length of conjoined lip behind end of gape, compared ivith length of

pupil:

N. potteri: nearly or quite as long.

N. bairdi and both subspecies of N. blennius: about one-half as long,

21. End of gape approximately under:

N. potteri: posterior nostril.

N. bairdi and N. blennius jejunus: front of orbit.

N. blennius blennius: intermediate.

22. Length of opercle (from extreme tip of membrane to nearest point on

preopercular margin) stepped into greatest distance from tip of snout

1951, No. 1
March 30

New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas

107

to preopercular margin :

N. potteri: 2.2 to 2.7, usually 2.3 to 2.5.

N. bairdi : 1.7 to 2.0.

N. blennius blennins : 1.8 5 to 2.45, usually 2.0 to 2.3.

AT. blennius jejunus: 2.1 to 2.6, usually 2.2 to 2.4.

23. Length of eye ( cornea ) stepped into length of head (these differences

are accentuated when specimens of like size are compared; toward the
far north the eye in jejunus becomes reduced) :

N. potteri : 4.2 to 5.5 (average of 61, 4.72).

N. bairdi : 4.4 to 5.6 (average of 30, 5.02).

N. blennius blennius: 4.2 to 5.4 (average of 17, 4.57).

N. blennius jejunus: 3.6 to 4.4 (average of 32, 3.97).

24. Pigment along base of dorsal fin :

N. potteri and both subspecies of N . blennius: fin base rather evenly
bordered by mid-dorsal dark streak.

N. bairdi: middle of base blackened; front and end of base more or
less completely depigmented.

25. Narrow dark streak above main lateral dark band:

N. potteri and both subspecies of N. blennius: scarcely diffentiated
from main band.

N. bairdi: sharply set off from main band, with an intervening scarce¬
ly pigmented area, especially in half -grown (in young pigment
may be poorly developed; in adult pigment may be more uni¬
formly distributed).

26. Pigment on scale row below lateral line on anterior part of trunk:

N. potteri: undeveloped.

N . bairdi: well developed in adult.

N. blennius blennius: undeveloped to moderately developed.

N. blennius jejunus: moderately to well developed.

27. Pigment on cheek below horizontal from just below orbit:

N. potteri: scarcely developed onto cheek, ending below front nostril.
N. bairdi: developed down to or nearly to rostral rim and back to
behind vertical from front of eye.

N. blennius, both subspecies: developed down to or nearly to rostral
rim and back to below vertical from posterior nostril.

28. Pigment on itpper lip:

N. potteri: usually moderately well developed, at least anteriorly.

N. bairdi: lacking to weakly developed, anteriorly.

N. blennius blennius: moderately to well developed.

N. blennius jejunus: well developed.

29. Pigment on lower lip:

N. potteri: usually weakly developed, at front.

N. bairdi: lacking or barely developed.

N. blennius blennius: usually weakly developed.

N. blennius jejunus: weakly to moderately developed.
range and habitat. — Notropis potteri occurs not only in the silty
Brazos River and its main tributaries, along with oxyrhynchus and brazo-
sensis, but also in some of the smaller and less turbid waters of this river
system. As a native fish it seems to be confined to the Brazos system. It has
recently been taken in the Red River system, but we think it probable that
the population there has become established from escaped bait minnows.

108

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

originally from the Brazos River system. No specimens were recognized
among the myriads of fish from the Red River and tributaries collected in
1925, 1926 and 1927 (reported by Ortenburger and Hubbs, 1927, and by
Hubbs and Ortenburger, \929a-b) , nor in other, unreported collections
from those waters made prior to 1948. The material in the University of
Michigan Museum of Zoology, comprising more than 1,800 specimens col¬
lected in 1926 and smaller numbers taken in 192 5, 1929, and 1932, was all
carefully reexamined in this connection. The specimens taken in 1948 and
1949 were from Lake Texoma, a heavily fished artificial lake, and the Red
River, mostly near the lake. Those from the lake were collected by Frank
T. Knapp on June 2 5, 1949, at Burns Run Resort, Bryan County, Okla¬
homa, near highway 7 5 A. Series from the river below the lake were seined
north of Paris, Lamar County, Texas, by George A. Moore and party on
March 28, 1948, and by Knapp and party on July 8, 1949, and south of
Yuba, Bryan County, Oklahoma, on Highway 299, by Moore and class on
March 15, 1949. Four were seined by Knapp and party on June 23, 1949,
in the Red River far above the lake, at Davidson, Tillman County, Okla¬
homa. No specimens have been identified in collections from the Trinity or
other river systems between the Brazos and the Red. Comparison of speci¬
mens shows no notable difference. The tabulated proportional measure¬
ments (Table VI) are very similar, considering the difference in habitat,
the difference in average size of specimens, and the fact that the Brazos and
Red specimens were measured by different men. The biggest indicated dif¬
ference in proportions, in head length, was not verified in measuring larger
series of specimens for the preceding species comparison.

types. — The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology,
No. 120228), an adult 45.3 mm. in standard length, was seined by the
Hubbs family and Leo T. Murray in Waco Creek, McLennan County, Texas,
on June 21, 1938. The paratypes were taken with the holotype and at
several other places in the Brazos River system. The 22 paratypes measured
for Table VI were collected with the holotype; and in Brazos River at
Government Dam, near Navasota, on November 24, 1939, by Bonham and
party; in Little Brazos River at State Highway 21, on June 13 and July 13,
1940, by Bonham and party; at the Texas state fish hatchery at Cisco (re¬
ceived August 24, 1936, from George E. Potter); and in the lower end of
Toweash Creek, a Brazos River tributary, by Marion Toole. Other para¬
types were collected by G. E. Potter in Waco Creek, Baylor University
Campus, Waco, on March 3, 1931, in Baylor Creek, at Waco, on January
22, 1931, and in unspecified waters at Waco; by R. T. Richey in Little
Brazos River, Brazos County, on March 23, 193 6, and at an unspecified
locality and date in the Brazos River system; and by Bonham and students
in Brazos River at Government Dam, on December 3, 1939. Specimens
not designated as paratypes were taken by Bonham and students in Brazos
River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos County, on October 31, 1931, and in
Little Brazos River, Brazos County, on March 31, 1939.

Subsequent to the preparation of the diagnosis other specimens, not
designated as paratypes, have been collected by Frank T. Knapp of the
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas and by Clark Hubbs of the
University of Texas.

This species is dedicated to an enthusiastic naturalist, Dr. George E.
Potter, formerly of Baylor University and now at the Agricultural and

1951, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 109

March 30

Mechanical College of Texas. He collected the first specimens of the species
and submitted them to the senior author for study.

SUMMARY

Among the many new fishes added during the past three decades to
the known freshwater fish fauna of eastern North America are the three
now belatedly described from eastern Texas — Notropis oxyrhynchus y N.
brazosensis, and N. potteri. These species characterize the larger silty streams
of the Brazos River system, which are thus shown to have a somewhat
distinctive fauna. N. oxyrhynchus and N. potteri appear to be confined to
this system (a population of potteri in the Red River system is thought to
be the result of bait-minnow introduction) ; N. brazosensis occurs also in
the lower parts of adjacent river systems. N. potteri also inhabits smaller
and clearer streams.

TABLE VI

MEASUREMENTS flN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH)

and counts of types of Notropis potteri

The types were measured by Keishaw Bonham, the Red River specimens by Frank T. Knapp.

Holo-

22 Paratypes

19 from Red River

type

(Range and Mean)

Standard length, mm .

45 3

38.7—80.0 (48.7)

34.2—64.3 (44.2)

Predorsal length .

523

497—567 (527)

500—543 (521)

Prepelvic length

505

511 — 552 (528)

491 — 548 (517)

Body depth . .

245

211—263 (233)

210—265 (228)

Dorsal origin to lateral line .

153

126—159 (141)

119—159 (131)

Pelvic insertion to lateral line...

120

80 — 123 (97)

83—127 (100)

Body width .

181

152—191 (170)

125—195 (163)

Caudal peduncle length .

221

183—231 (203)

183—240 (221)

Caudal peduncle depth .

117

105 — 124 (113)

106—125 (114)

Head length .

297

267—318 (301)

252—294 (273)

Head depth .

180

161—195 (177)

156—182 (167)

Snout length

85 — 104 (95)

73 — 93 (85)

Eye length .

49—66 (58)

50—69 (60)

Fleshy interorbital

100

93 — 128 (105)

87 — 107 (95)

Upper jaw length .

86 — 110 (98)

94—112 (101)

Mouth width 1 . .

71—109 (86)

74—93 (82)

Dorsal height . . .

240

209 — 243 (229)

199—244 (225)

Anal height .

172

159—188 (171)

159—190 (172)

Anal base .

82—104 (91)

79—108 (91)

Longest caudal ray .

300

255—314 (281)

251—326 (272)

Pectoral length .

253

195—253 (221)

188—244 (211)

Pelvic length

158

143—169 (155)

137—168 (149)

Scales

Above lateral line .

5—6 (5.72)

6—7 (6.16)

Along lateral line .

34—37 (35.0)

A K / A CO \

34—36 (34.6)

A _ s (A 32 \

Below lateral line .

4 - O {‘t.Oti )

Lateral line to pelvic .

3—5 (4.52)

4—4 (4.00)

Predorsal scales .

15—24 (19.1)

16—20 (18.1)3

Predorsal rows . .

13—18 (15.3)

14—17 (15.3)

Around body : Above .

11—14 (12.6)

11—13 (11.9)

Below .

12—16 (13.9)

11—14 (12.5)

Total .

25—31 (28.4)

24 — 28 (25.8)

Around caudal peduncle: Above

5—7 (5.91)

5—6 (5.53)

Below

5—8 (5.52)

5—6 (5.11)

Total

12—16 (13.4)

12 — 13 (12.6)

Fin Rays

Dorsal .

8—8 (8.00)

7—8 (7.95)

Anal (Table I) .

7—8 (7.04)

6—8 (7.00)

Pectoral . .

16—16

14—18 (15.7)3

13—16 (14.9)3

Pelvic . : .

8—8

8 — 9 (8.07)3

7—8 (7.97)3

1 Between ends of gape.

2 18 specimens.

3 Both sides counted.

110

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Notropis oxyrhynchus appears to be the southwestern representative of
N. percobromus, the status of which is further elucidated. N. brazosensis
seems to represent N. illecebrosa. N. potteri resembles N. Sabinae, N. bairdi,
and N. girardi , but is probably more closely related to N. blennius, which is
held to comprise two subspecies, N. b. blennius of the generally silty South¬
western streams, especially of the Arkansas River system, and N. b. jejunus
of more northern and more eastern waters. Detailed comparisons are made
between oxyrhynchus and percobromus , between brazosensis and illecebrosa ,
and between potteri, bairdi, and the two subspecies of blennius.

LITERATURE CITED

Baughman, J. L. — 1950 — Random notes on Texas fishes. Part I. Tex. J. Sci. 2 (1) : 117-138.
Cope, E. D. — 1871 — Recent reptiles and fishes. Report on the reptiles and fishes obtained by
the naturalist of the expedition. Ann Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Wyoming and Territories
(Hayden Survey) 2 (18) : 432-442.

Evermann, Barton Warren, and William C. Kendall — 1894- — The fishes of Texas and the Rio
Grande basin, considered chiefly with reference to their geographic distribution. Bull.
U. S. Fish Comm. 12 : 57-121, 480-482, pis. 10-50.

Fowler, Henry W. — 1910 — Notes on the variations of some species of the genus Notropis.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 62:273-293, pis. 15-21.

Girard, Charles — 1856 — Researches upon the cyprinoid fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of
the United States of America, west of the Mississippi Valley, from specimens in the
Smithsonian Institution. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 8 : 165-213.

- — - 1858— Fishes. Part 4 of general report upon the zoology of the several Pacific railroad

routes. Reports of explorations and surveys . . . for a railroad from the Mississippi
River to the Pacific Ocean 10: i-xv, 1-400, 21 pis.

- 1859 — Report upon fishes . . . collected on the survey. No. 5 of Part VI, Zoological Re¬
port, of explorations for a railroad route (near the thirty-fifth parallel of north
latitude) from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. By Lieutenant A. W.
Whipple assisted by Lieutenant J. C. Ives, 1853-’54. Reports of explorations and sur¬
veys . . . for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 10 : 47-59,

14 pis.

Hubbs, Carl L. — 1926 — A check-list of the fishes of the Great Lakes and tributary waters,
with nomenclatorial notes and analytical keys. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich.

15 : 1-77, pis. 1-4.

- 1945 — Corrected distributional records for Minnesota fishes. Copeia 1945 (1) : 13-22.

- 1946 — -An arm protractor for the precise measurement of angles in systematic ichthy¬
ology. Copeia 1946 (2) : 79-80, fig. 1.

Hubbs, Carl L., and Karl F. Lagler — 1941 — Guide to the fishes of the Great Lakes and tribu¬
tary waters. Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. 18: 1-100, figs. 1-118, map 1.

- 1947 (and 2nd printing, 1949) — Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. 26 : i-xi, 1-186, figs. 1-251, 38

text figs., 26 col. pis., endpaper map.

Hubbs, Carl L., and A. I. Ortenburger — 1929a — Further notes on the fishes of Oklahoma with
descriptions of new species of Cyprinidae. Publ. Univ. Okla. Biol. Surv. 1 (Univ. Okla.
Bull. 434) : 15-43, pis. 1-5.

- 1929b — Fishes collected in Oklahoma and Arkansas in 1927. Publ. Univ. Okla. Biol.

Surv. 1 (Univ. Okla. Bull. 434) : 45-112, pis. 6-13.

Jordan, David Starr, and Barton Warren Evermann — 1896 — The fishes of North and Middle
America . . . Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47 (1) : i-lx, 1-1240.

Jordan, David S., and Charles H. Gilbert — 1883 — Synopsis of the fishes of North America.
Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 16: i-lvi, 1-1018.

Ortenburger, A. I., and Carl L. Hubbs — 1927 — A report on the fishes of Oklahoma, with de¬
scriptions of new genera and species. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 6: 123-141.

Potter, George E. — 1938— Textbook of zoology. C. V. Mosby, St. Louis, pp. 1-915, figs. 1-440.
col. pis. 1-15.

1951, No. 1
March 30

A Marine Tardigrade

111

A MARINE TARDIGRADE FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO

B. G. CHITWOOD

Department of Biology
The Catholic University of America
Washington, D, C,

Tardigrades are commonly encountered in the study of fresh water
mosses but few have been reported from the marine waters of North America.
The present material was collected by E. G. Reinhard in the vicinity of
Rockport, Texas and has been identified as Bathyechiniscus tetronyx . This
appears to be the first record of this species from the east coast though
Mathews (1938) reported it in washings of Dictyota on the California
coast. The species was originally described by Steiner (1926) from the
South Polar Regions, Numerous specimens were obtained in the present
collection and these permit some amplification of the previous description.

bathyechiniscus tetronyx Steiner, 1926

Marine tardigrades of the group Heterotardigrada, family Halechinis-
cidae, with more or less telescopic paropodia. Oral opening surrounded by
low round marginal elevation. With a median unpaired head seta, one pair
of subdorsal and one pair of subventral head setae. Antennae composed of
two parts, one setiform the other fleshy. Cuticle without thickened plates
but hypodermis of body proper arranged in transverse plates as seen in
dorsal view .The numbers of rectangular cells in these rows are 3 -3 -2-2-2.
One seta on external surface of each of the first 3 pairs of parapodia; a
fleshy appendage (like that of the antenna) on the anterior surface of the
4th pair of parapodia. Paired rump setae also present.

Each parapodium is terminated by 4 protrusible subdivisions. Each
subdivision terminates in a semicircular claw with 4 minute teeth. Labial
stylets simple, 17 microns long. Oral tube cylindroid IS -20 microns long.
Pharnyx spherical with one pair of crescentic sclerotizations esophagus short
conoid. Genital opening ventral, anterior to 4th pair of parapodia. Anus
ventral, longitudinally slit like, between last pair of parapodia. Specimens
range in size from 100 to 140 microns long.

Habitat, — -Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay; and in Saragassum
from Cedar Bayou collected by E. G, Reinhard, July 27, 1950 and July 9,
19S0, respectively,

LITERATURE CITED

Matthews, G. C. — 1938 — Tardigrada from North America. Amer. Mid. Nat. 19 : 619-627.
Steiner, G. — 1926 — Bathyechiniscus tetronyx n.g., n. sp. Ein neuer mariner Tardigrade.

Deutsche Sudpolar — Exp. 1901-1903, 18: Zooi. (10) r 479-481.

112

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Bathyechiniscus tetronyx. A-C— Head. A, dorsal view of young speci¬
men; B, ventral view of young specimen; C, dorsal view of adult. D — Detail
of claws; E — Ventral view of posterior end; F — lateral view of adult.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Echinoderella steineri New Species

113

ECHINODERELLA STEINERI NEW SPECIES
(SCOLECIDA, ECHINODERA)

B. G. CHITWOOD

Department of Biology
Catholic University of America
Washington, D. C.

Few species of pseudosegmented marine scolecidans (Echinodera-
Kinorhyncha) have been reported from the shores of North America. The
first such report was made by Blake (1930) from the Mount Desert Labo¬
ratory in Maine. Fie described Pycnophyes frequens, T rachydesmus mainemis
and Echinoderella remanei. Subsequently specimens of Pycnophyes frequens
were commonly encountered by the writer in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C.
Recently two specimens of a species of the genus Echinoderella were encoun¬
tered in a collection made by Dr. E. G. Reinhard near Rockport, Texas.
The present paper is based on these specimens. The group Echinodera or
Kinorhyncha has commonly been placed under the Gastrotricha but the
pronounced pseudosegmentation and various differences in internal anatomy
appear to warrant its status as a separate phylum. Our knowledge relative
to the group is due chiefly to the investigations of Zelinka (1928) and
Remane (1928, 1929).

ECHINODERELLA STEINERI new species

Length of female 260 to 280 microns (exclusive of caudal cerci).
Diameter 54 to 64 microns; ratio of length to breadth 5:1 to 4:1. Mid¬
dorsal spines on zonites 6-10, graduated in length, longest on 10th zonite.
Ocelli apparently absent. Caudal cerci (paired) up to 1/2 length of body.
Posterior margins of 3rd to 12th zonites bearing minute rows of spines;
scattered spines of similar nature on surface of same zonites. Paired lateral
setae on 4th to 12 th zonites.

Habitat.-— Depth, of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas. Collected
July 27, 1950 by E. G. Reinhard. Broken diatoms in debris at head.

This species is extremely similar to Centropsis arcticus Steiner, 1919
which was based on a single larval specimen from the Arctic. Steiner’s form
differs in having a single central cercus and mid-dorsal spines on zonites
6-11. In the course of development, larval forms are known to molt and
the number of spines and cerci change. For this reason the collective genus
Centropsis is used for the reception of larval members of the Echinoderidae
in which there is a single caudal cercus. A study of the life history of the
present species should be interesting.

In the species Echinoderella se tiger a (Greef, 1869) dorsal setae are

present on the 6th, 7th, and 10th zonites, lateral setae on zonites 6-10 and

13. In the species Echinoderella ca pi tat a Zelinka, 1928, lateral setae are

present on zonites 7 and 10. In the species Echinoderella remanei minute

spines are in rows only on zonites 4 to 6.

114

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1

March 30

LITERATURE CITED

Blake, C. H. — 1930 — Three new species of worms belonging to the order Echinodera. Biol.

Survey of the Mount Desert Region. 10 pp.

Remane, A. — 1928 — Kinorhyncha. Tierwelt Nord u. Ostsee, Teil 7.

— — —1929 — Kinorhyncha-Echinodera. Handb. Zoologie, v. 2, Teil 4.

Steiner, G. — 1919 — Zur Kenntnis der Kinorhyncha nebst Bemerkungen iiber ihr Verwandt-
shaftsverhaltinis zu den Nematoden. Zool. Anz. 50 : 77-87
Zelinka, K. — 1928— Monographic der Echinoderida. Leipzig.

Echinodella steineri, adult female, lateral view.

1951* No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

115

DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION ON THE
OYSTER GROUNDS OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY
AND IN OTHER WATERS OF THE
ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES 1

HELEN LANDAU 2 AND PAUL S. GALTSOFF

Fish and Wildlife Service
U. S. Department of the Interior

INTRODUCTION

Nematopsis, a sporozoan parasite in the tissues of oysters and in the
digestive tracts of crabs, has a wide distribution. Frequently found in the
oysters from many states, it seems to be especially abundant in southern
waters. The microorganism is apparently harmless to humans who consume
shellfish; the effect on its hosts has not yet been adequately studied.

Several years ago the infection of oysters by Nematopsis occupied a
prominent part in the arguments at the litigation of a group of Louisiana
oystermen against an oil company operating in southern waters (See Case
No. 37036, Southern Reporter 1944, 1 750 2nd No. 4, pages 340-349).
Because of the assertions made in the court, that Nematopsis is harmful to
oysters, the authors thought that data on the distribution of the parasite,
combined with the observations on the quality of the meats of the infected
and noninfected oysters, and with the data of oyster mortalities, may be
useful in evaluating the biological importance of this microorganism.

In a study of the distribution of Nematopsis attention was given to
the questions whether the infection impairs the quality of the meat of the
oysters, and whether the presence of spores in their tissues may be correlated
with the mortality of oysters in their natural environment. Observations
in Chesapeake Bay were made in connection with the work on the
ecology and oyster culture that the Service conducts in this body of water
jointly with the Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries, and Virginia
Fisheries Laboratory. The authors had, therefore, an opportunity to obtain
information regarding the productivity and quality of the oysters from
various bars, and to be notified immediately of any abnormal conditions
that may have been noticed in any part of the Bay. Scattered data regarding
the distribution of Nematopsis in other waters have been summarized in
the second part of the paper from personal observations of the authors, or
from the data supplied by others.

The study of the distribution of Nematopsis in Chesapeake Bay
was made by Landau, with the assistance of the personnel of the Maryland
Department of Tidewater Fisheries who frequently provided boats for field
trips. The work in the Bay began early in June and extended through Septem¬
ber 1946. Additional data were collected, however, prior to and since those
dates.

The authors are grateful to the officers of the Maryland Department
of Tidewater Fisheries for their cooperation and help, and to Dr. James

* Published by permission of the Director of the Fish and' Wildlife Service.
Now with the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office.

116

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Nelson Gowanloch, Chief Biologist of the Louisiana Fish and Wilf Life
Service for making available to them valuable data on the distribution of
Nematopsis in Louisiana waters.

TAXONOMIC POSITION AND HOSTS

Nematopsis, a sporozoan of the family Gregarinidae, was discovered in
1892 by Schneider, who described the cysts of this microorganism in a razor
clam, Solen. Leger and Duboscq (1913) experimentally hatched the cysts
resembling those of Nematopsis. They regarded the microorganism as Poros-
pora, and referred to the cysts as the Nematopsis stage of this genus. Hatt,
in 1931, arrived at the conclusion that there are two distinct genera, Poros-
pora and Nematopsis, the latter having monozoic thick-walled cysts, while
Porospora has spores in phagocytes, without protective walls.

The occurrence of Nematopsis in the United States was first noticed by
Prytherch (1931), who found the oysters in certain sections of Virginia,
North Carolina, and Louisiana heavily infected with cysts of this parasite.
Prytherch (1938) and Kudo (1939), when working in 1936 at U. S. Fish¬
eries Station, Beaufort, North Carolina, reported separately that they traced
the life cycle through the two hosts, the Xanthid crabs, in which the devel¬
opmental stages of the gregarine are completed, and the oyster, in which the
spores encyst in a resting state.

Kudo (1939) includes the Nematopsis found in American oysters with
the European species, Nematopsis legeri. Prytherch (1940), however, de¬
scribes it as a new species under the name of Nematopsis ostrearum. The ques¬
tion has not yet been definitely settled and requires further study.

METHOD

In the course of the field work in Chesapeake Bay, samples were
collected from 74 natural oyster bars located in all the major tributaries
and in the Bay itself. Oyster populations on these bars consisted exclusively
of native stock, i.e., the oysters which set and grew naturally on these bot¬
toms. Planted areas were excluded from the study because of the impossi¬
bility of determining the exact time the oysters were moved, and ascertain¬
ing whether they had been already infected before they were transplanted.

In each tributary of the Bay, a series of sampling stations was established
over the entire salinity gradient of the stream, i.e., from its mouth, where
the concentration of salts was usually the greatest, to the upper limits of
oyster growing area, where the salt content of the sea water was greatly
reduced by river discharge. Likewise, the sampling area of the Bay proper,
extended from the section of high salinity at Hampton Roads in the lower
part of the Bay, to South Tea Table, the most northerly oyster bar, located
in the upper part of the Bay which is greatly affected by the discharge of
fresh water.

At each station, record was made of the depth of water, composition
and consistency of bottom sediment, salinity of water at the bottom, and
the density of the oyster population. Except in the shallow water stations
where tongs were used, oysters and mud crabs were collected with a small
thirty-two inch dredge. Oysters were taken to the laboratory and kept at
40° F. until the examination of their tissues was completed. Crabs were pre¬
served in alcohol, the strength of which was gradually increased from 3 0 to

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

117

70 percent. (This precaution was necessary to avoid too rapid a dehydration
which makes the hard parts of crabs too brittle).

Since Nematopsis may infect various crabs, other than Xanthidae,
note was taken of any species that occurred over oyster bottoms frequently
or in great abundance, and which might be suspected as a possible carrier of
the parasite.

Samples of water collected at the desired depth were kept in tightly
closed bottles until they were returned to the laboratory, where their specific
gravity was determined by hydrometer. The character of the bottom was
recorded by the feel of the lead-line and by observing the material brought
up in the dredge. In accordance with the size and appearance of their shells,
oysters were divided into the following four classes: (1) One year old or
younger; (2) Two to three years old; (3) Over three years old, and (4)
Very old. After opening them in the laboratory, the condition of the meats
of each oyster was recorded as "good”, "fair”, or "poor”, depending on its
appearance, firmness and color.

Since we noticed in our preliminary studies in the Chesapeake Bay region
that most of the cysts were found in the mantle, and the other organs were
infected only in severe cases, the mantle alone was examined regularly. When
infection was heavy, the muscle, heart, gills and palps were also examined.
We found that in the latter cases the adductor muscle was frequently in¬
fected, but never as heavily as the mantle. The heart, gills and palps very
rarely contained cysts. Very heavy infection of gills was observed, however,
in the oysters from Alabama and Texas. Dying oysters, or those that seemed
weak or abnormal, were studied in greater detail and all their organs were
examined.

For counting the cysts, the following technique was employed: a piece
of tissue a few square centimeters in area was cut from the posterior ventral
edge of the mantle and pressed with a few drops of 10% KOH between two
microscope slides until it was sufficiently thin so that no cysts could be ob¬
scured by overlying tissues. Then the preparation was examined at 100X
magnification. For each oyster, the cysts were counted in fifty microscope
fields of pressed tissue. The area of the mantle thus examined extended from
the tentacular edge to about 5 mm. inward. This covered the main zone of
infection as well as some of the adjacent portion of the mantle. In the prepa¬
rations of oyster spat, the entire specimen was mounted and examined. The
number of cysts were recorded for each slide. An average count for the ten
oysters, constituting a sample, was made and the number of cysts was com¬
puted for square centimeter of the area of the mantle compressed between
the two slides. This figure was used as an index of the intensity of infection.

For histological study, oyster tissues were preserved in Allen’s modifi¬
cation of Bouin’s fixing solution, imbedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained
with Mallory’s triple stain, hematoxylin, and eosin or safranin.

Mud crabs were identified to genus/' They were then dissected and the
hind-gut split open and examined for gregarine stages of the parasite.

* A special key to the Chesapeake Bay Xanthid crabs was prepared by Dr. Waldo Schmitt of
the National Museum, Washington, D. C. Doubtful identifications were checked by Dr.
F. A. Chace of the National Museum, and by Dr. E. Kronin of the Chesapeake Biological
Laboratory, Solomon’s Island, Maryland, whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged by the
authors.

118

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS IN CHESAPEAKE BAY -

PERCENTAGE OF INFECTED OYSTERS

In a study of the distribution of any parasite, it is of interest to deter¬
mine the percentage of the population infected as well as the intensity of the
infection. In the present investigation, both factors were determined for
each bar and the data summarized in a table placed at the end of this paper
(Table 6). To facilitate graphical presentation of the results, the occurrence
of Nematopsis in the oyster populations of different bars was plotted on the
map reproduced in Fig. 1. The data were grouped in four classes, indicated
by the following symbols: Noninfected oysters are shown by an open circle;
from 1 to 2 5 percent infected — by a circle with one quarter blacked; from
2 5 to 50 percent infected — by a circle with one half blacked; 50 to 100
percent infected — by a black circle.

Inspection of Fig. 1 discloses a widespread distribution of Nematopsis
throughout the oyster grounds of the Bay. Changes in salinity of water ap¬
parently present no barrier to the distribution of the parasite, for in the
lower part of the Bay where salinity of water is higher, the oysters are as
generally infected as those in the upper part of the Bay, where, due to the
river discharge, the sea water is greatly diluted. The same holds true for
various tributaries of the Bay. The results are not, however, unexpected since
both hosts of Nematopsis, the Xanthid crabs and the oyster are euryhaline
species, capable of withstanding great fluctuations in the concentration of
salts.

The upper part of the oyster-producing area of the Potomac River ap¬
peared to be less infected than any other tributary of the Bay. Four bars of
this section, namely, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8, and 1-9 (Fig. 1) were either free of
Nematopsis, or contained less than 5 0 percent infected oysters. The remain¬
ing five bars in the lower part of the Potomac were, however, more than 5 0
percent infected. What ecological factors are responsible for a relative free¬
dom from infection in the upper part of the Potomac remains undetermined.

INTENSITY OF INFECTION

The intensity of Nematopsis infection, expressed as a mean number of
cysts per square centimeter of mantle tissue, varied from 0 to 3 546. The
data were obtained for each station and are summarized in Table I showing
the mean and the range of variation in each sampling area. It is apparent
from an examination of this table that the greatest intensity of infection is
found in James and York Rivers. This may be due to the fact that adult
oysters are not permitted to be taken from the public seed grounds, which
constitute the major portion of oyster bars of the James River, and therefore
the oyster population remains exposed to the infection for longer periods
of time than on bars open to commercial fishery. This tentative explanation
may also apply to the York River, where the taking of oysters tor com¬
mercial fishery has been discontinued on account of the industrial and do¬
mestic pollution of water.

Salinity apparently is not a controlling factor. While highest intensity
of infection occurred in the waters of 14 to 16 o/oo salinity, infections of
lesser intensities were observed throughout the range from 0 to 20 o/oo.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

119

DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS

CHESAPEAKE BAY AND TRIBUTARIES

Figure 1. Sketch map of the Chesapeake Bay and tributaries showing the
distribution of Nematopsis over the principal oyster bars in
1946-1947.

120

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Likewise, there was no correlation between the intensity of infection or its
frequency and the character of the bottom. A greater percentage of very
heavily infected oysters was found on soft bottom but the trend was not
consistent.

TABLE 1. AVERAGE INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION BY AREAS

Number Cysts per square Cm.

Number

Name

of Stations

Min.

Max.

Mean

Chesapeake Bay _

_ 21

653

193

Chester River _

_ 2

Severn River _

_ 4

259

Eastern Bay _

_ 4

340

179

Harris Creek _

_ 3

Choptank River _

_ 3

Patuxent River _

_ 4

Nanticoke River _

_ 4

Potomac River _

_ 9

Pocomoke Sound _

_ 1

106

Rappahannock River __

_ 6

213

Nassawadox Creek _

_ 1

73 8

Mob jack Bay _

_ 1

342

York River _

_ 6

2118

482

James River _

_ 6

3546

1437

Four of the bars studied were revisited

3 to 4

months after the com-

pletion of the first examination. There was

no signficant difference

in the

percentage of infected

oysters, but on two

of the bars the intensity

of in-

fection was found to be much higher than during the first test (Table 2).

TABLE 2.

Location

INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION ON FOUR

IN FEBRUARY - MARCFI AND IN JUNE, 1946

Station Date Intensity

BARS

Percentage

infected

1946

(Cysts per

square cm.

)

Wire Ground _

_ A-9

March 21

8.2

Wire Ground _

_ A-9

June 2 5

151.1

100

Gum Thicket _

_ A-10

March 4

317.4

100

Gum Thicket .

_ A-10

June 2 5

581.9

100

Tolchester _

_ A-15

• Feb. 2 8

11.8

100

Tolchester _

_ A-15

June 27

14.3

100

S. Tea Table _

_ A- 16

Feb. 28

4.7

S. Tea Table _

_ A-16

June 27

69.5

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

121

INTENSITY OF INFECTION AND AGE OF OYSTERS

After invading the oyster tissues, the Nematopsis spores remain in¬
active until the oyster is eaten by a crab and its tissue digested. It is there¬
fore logical to expect that adult oysters would contain a greater number of
cysts than young ones. This conclusion was fully confirmed by the observa¬
tions in the Bay. The relationship between the age of the oysters, intensity
of infection, and percentage of infected oysters is presented in Fig. 2, in
which all the records of examination of tissues are grouped in the three age
classes, namely, spat, young oysters (less than three inches long) and adults
(three inches and larger). Examination of this diagram shows that over
80 percent of spat was either free of infection, or only slightly infected.
Intensity exceeding 1000 cysts per square inch of mantle tissue occurred only
in the adult oysters. It is clear that the intensity of infection of individual
oysters is cumulative and increases with their age.

INTENSITY OF INFECTION, CONDITION OF MEAT, AND
MORTALITY OF OYSTERS

Oysters on each particular bar were generally in a uniform condition
of health and fatness. This may be attributed to the fact that environmental
factors which primarily determine the degree of fatness and the rate of
growth of the oyster were uniform over the bar. Individual variations oc¬
curred occasionally but could not be correlated with the abundance of

100 -

<L>

CI¬

O-9

10 - 99

100“ 999

OVER f.OOO

Number of cysts per cm2 of mantle

Figure 2. Intensity of infection and percentage of spat, young and adult
oysters in the Chesapeake Bay and tributaries infected by Nema¬
topsis. Intensity of infection is expressed in the number of cysts
per square centimeter of mantle tissue.

122

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 3U

Nematopsis cysts in the tissues. In general, the infection was not consistently
lower in good oysters than in poor ones. These results agree with the ob¬
servations made previously in the York River by Galtsoff et ah, (1947).

During the course of the investigation there was no unusual mortality
among oysters that could be attributed to the Nematopsis infection. There
was also no evidence of any harmful effect of the parasite on the general
condition of the oysters. We saw no symptoms of the failure of the adductor
muscle, or of the tendency of the mantle to withdraw. The latter condition
leads to the abnormal development of the shell, which was not noticeable
among the Chesapeake Bay oysters.

Microscopical analysis of infected tissues showed the cysts lying in large
interstitial spaces between the connective tissue fibers where they apparently
do not interfere with the normal functioning of the organs. There was no
inflammatory reaction of the surrounding tissues as one would expect to find
as a result of action of toxins or because of physical irritation of tissues and
occlusion of blood vessels. The observations are not surprising since the para¬
site is in a resting stage and does not grow or propagate within the oyster.

ABUNDANCE OF CRABS

Accurate counts of mud crabs were not feasible, since no practical
method of collecting them quantitively has been developed. Too many
factors interfere with the possibility of obtaining a sample representative of
crab population. The crabs crawl among the shells and oysters and rest in
crevices. Many of them find shelter in the so-called "boxes”, i.e., intact
shell-pairs from which the meat has been eaten or decomposed. The crabs
usually stay in the depression of an oyster or clam shell at the hinge end of
it. Crabs which hide in empty shells are more easily captured than those which
crawl freely. The number of crabs caught in a dredge is not therefore a
measure of their abundance.

The genera most frequently caught were Kbithro panopens and Eury-
pan opens; Panopeus was rather rare. According to Prytherch the latter two
are the vectors of the parasite.

Samples of preserved crabs from each station were dissected and exam¬
ined for the presence of gregarines in the hind gut. A few unpreserved crabs
were examined to check the possibility that the gregarines may have been
disintegrated beyond recognition by the action of the killing fluids. Again,
no parasites were found.

In view of the widespread distribution of Nematopsis these results are
surprising. The feeding periods of these crabs are not well known. It is
plausible, therefore, to suppose that they were not infected because they had
not been eating oyster meats. Since the crabs were studied during one season
only, it is possible that some other factor has interfered with the relationship
between the parasite and its host. It is also possible that there is some other
carrier in Chesapeake Bay. These questions can be answered only by further
study.

Several blue crabs, Callinectes, and occasional oyster crabs, Pinnotheres,
were found. They were not, however, sufficiently widespread or numerous
to be significant.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

123

OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES
MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND

In the course of studies of the biology and physiology of the oyster,
conducted for many years by Galtsoff at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, many
hundreds of oysters were examined microscopically, using both living and
preserved material. So far, Nematopsis has not been found in the oysters from
Cape Cod area, including Buzzards Bay, Martha’s Vineyard Sound, Chatham
Bay and the bays on Martha’s Vineyard Island. Likewise, Nematopsis cysts
have not yet been observed in the adult oysters from Narragansett Bay.

NEW YORK AND CONNECTICUT

In 1942, 3 0 percent of the 3 -year old oysters (set of 1939) trans¬
planted from New Haven area of Long Island Sound to Great South
Bay, were found by Galtsoff to be lightly infected with cysts. In this case,
the infection was primarily confined to the anterior part of the adductor
muscle and no cysts were found in the mantle. The Great South Bay set of

1941, examined at the same time, was free of infection. It is possible that
Nematopsis has been introduced into northern waters from the south with
the seed oysters brought in for planting. For instance, it was learned by
Galtsoff that in May 1941, oysters from one of the bars in Delaware Bay
were planted in Great South Bay, New York. The fact that the oyster popu¬
lation of this bar is infected was established only in the fall of 1942. Through
the cooperation of the interested oyster company it was possible to trace
the fate of the Delaware seed planted in New York waters. In the fall of

1942, 70 percent of them were found to be infected; the principal site
of cysts being both parts of the adductor muscle. The record of the company
shows that in 1941 and 1942 growing conditions in Great South Bay were
very good and the Delaware Bay oysters developed very well without any
unusual mortality.

DELAWARE

The presence of Nematopsis in oyster grounds in Delaware Bay was
first established by Galtsoff in September 1942. About 60 percent of adult
and young oysters from Leipsic Creek were found mildly infected by spores
located mostly in the adductor muscles. Further observations made by Frey,
are summarized in the following table:

TABLE 3. OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN 1942 AND 1943 YEAR CLASSES OF
OYSTERS FRON DELAWARE BAY, OCTOBER 27, 1943.*

1943 year class

1942 year

class

Seed Bed percent infected 1/ total cysts 2/

percent infected 1/

total cysts 2/

Ridge _ 100

Red Buoy _ 0

Over the Bar _ 5 0

90 3/

Thrum Cap 20

1/ 10 oysters in each sample

2/ 50 low power fields each of smooth

3/ 79 cysts were found in one spat

* (unpublished data on file of Fish &

muscle and striated muscle

Wildlife Service.)

124

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Nematopsis was widely distributed among the 1942 year class, although
infestation was generally light. Observations repeated by Frey in March
1943, showed the presence of parasitized oysters on all the five bars (Silver,
Thrum Cap, Over the Bar, Red Buoy, Ridge Bar) that were examined at
this time. Heaviest infection was found in oysters of Over the Bar reef.
The site of infection was primarily the striated part of the adductor muscle
and the labial palps.

Moderate infection of oysters in Rehoboth Bay, Delaware, was reported
in February 1947, by Chipman and Engle (unpublished report in file of the
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service). Infected oysters were found at the follow¬
ing places: Mouth of Lewes Canal, North end of Bed No. 3, Mouth of Love
Creek and Mouth of Herring Creek. Counts of cysts made by Landau showed
a variation from 19 to 1924 cysts in 50 fields (100 x) of mantle tissue.

Chipman and Engle reached the conclusion that Nematopsis was not
damaging the oysters of the Bay.

LOUISIANA AND MISSISSIPPI

When in September 1941, an extensive mortality among planted oysters
was noticed in the areas west of the Mississippi River, the Louisiana Depart¬
ment of Conservation made an attempt to ascertain whether this mortality
was correlated with the presence of Nematopsis. During the first week of
October, Dr. Kavanagh, Biologist of the Division of Oysters and Water
Bottoms of the Louisiana Department of Conservation, visited some of the
principal oyster-producing grounds west of the mouth of the Mississippi
River in Jefferson and Plaquemines Parishes which were affected by the
mortality. By interviewing the lessees and examining the oysters gathered
from their locations, he confirmed the reports regarding the mortality of
oysters and obtained information about the origin of planted oysters, and
the time they were planted. During the last week of the same month,
Kavanagh examined the grounds east of the Mississippi River which were
not affected by the mortality. The latter area comprises the principal public
oyster bottoms of the state which are not leased to private persons but are
open for fishing to Louisiana and Mississippi oystermen. At this time no
mortality of oysters was observed or reported from this area, the trouble
being apparently confined to the west of the river and particularly to Bara-
taria Bay and adjacent bayous.

It is a common practice of the oyster growers in Louisiana to obtain
seed from the grounds east of the river and to plant them on their leased
bottoms on the west side of the delta. Planting is carried out usually in April
and May, although the practice is not universally observed and some of the
planters bed their seed oysters in August or November. Oysters which
perished during the fall of 1941 had been planted in 1939 and 1940; they
remained in the new locations from 8 to 16 months. This proves that their
mortality was not due to the exposure and shock incidental to planting since
no unusual losses among them were noticed during this period.

For microscopic examinations, samples, comprising twenty specimens,
were taken from each locality and preparations were made of a portion of
the gills of each oyster.

Table 4 summarizes essential information taken from Kavanagh’s
unpublished report. It shows that the mortality on the grounds west of the
Mississippi varied from 50 to 80 percent, and, with the exception of one lo-

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

125

cality (Shell Island Bay), no mortality was noticed east of the river. There
was no apparent relation between the infection of oysters by Nematopsis
and the extent of mortality on various grounds. The mortality stopped
sometime in September, for no dying oysters were observed in October.
Yet, at this time, on several grounds oysters were heavily infected by
Nematopsis.

TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE INFECTION OF OYSTERS BY
NEMATOPSIS MADE BY L. D. KAVANAGH IN LOUISIANA - OCTOBER 1941.

Location

Percent

Mortality

Light

Percent Infected

Medium

Heavy

Scofield Bay _

_ 50

100

Cyprian Bay _

_ 50

100

Cyprien Bay _

_ 50

Bay Pomme d’Or _

_ 50

Shell Island _

_ 50

Bayou Fontenelle _

_ 50

Bayou Ferran Michel-

_ 50

Bastian Bay _

_ 50

Grand Bayou _

_ 50

Bay Robinson _

_ 70

Bayou Chalund _

Bayou La Vigne _

________ 80

Balich Bay _

_ 85

Bayou Catherine _

_ 85

Bay Ronquille _

_ 75

Barataria Bay _

_ 80

Bay des Islettes _

_ 66

100

Bay Wilkinson _

_ 0

Bavou St. Denis _

_ 0

Bay Malnomme _

----- (1)

Bay Chene Fleur _

_ 0

EAST OF THE

MISSISSIPPI RIVER

Jackass Bay _

_ 0

Bayou Long _

_ 0

Bay de la Berge _

_ 0

Shell Island Bay

_ 75

American Bay _

_ 0

Baker’s Canal _

Johnson Bayou _

_ 0

(1) No unusual mortality was observed

126

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

In 1947, when making a study of the hurricane damage to oysters,
Engle found Nematopsis at the following stations in Mississippi Sound
(Table 5).

TABLE 5. THE OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN THE LOUISIANA PART OF THE
MISSISSIPPI SOUND IN DECEMBER 1947.

(From unpublished data of James B. Engle)

Average number of

Station cysts per field Bottom Meat

Half Moon Island _ 200 hard, shell Good

Grand Pass, North

entrance _ 27-30 hard, shell Fair

Deep Water Pass _ 138 hard, shell Fair

Cranetown Bay _ 120-168 hard, shell Good

Martin Island,

Chandeleur Sound ____ 27-320 hard, shell Very good

Fairly heavy infection was found in some of the oysters at Cranetown
and in Chandeleur Sound. The condition of their meats was, however, good.

In the western part of the Mississippi Sound, the areas immediately
adjacent tv. Little Dauphin Island, including the Dauphin Island Bay, con¬
tain oysters, very heavily infected by Nematopsis (Engle, 1945).

ALABAMA

In Mobile Bay, Alabama, an extraordinarily heavy infection with Nema¬
topsis spores was encountered by Engle (1945) at Cedar Point Reef. Samples
shipped to College Park, Maryland, Laboratory were examined by Galtsoff.
In this case the cysts were so abundant in the gills of the oyster that they
completely obscured the tissue and clogged the water tubes of the gdls.
Oysters from other parts of Mobile Bay were only lightly infected. There
was no unusual mortality among the heavily infected or lightly infected
oysters.

TEXAS

The occurrence of Nematopsis in Texas waters is widespread. Infection
of oysters of Gopano Bay was recorded by Galtsoff in January 1942, (un¬
published report in files of the F’ish and Wildlife Service) . On Jordan’s Run
about 40 percent of the oysters contained cysts. Some of the specimens
were so highly infected that virtually all the organs examined (mantle, gills,
muscle, heart and labial palps) contained cysts. One hundred percent of
oysters on Lap Reef were found very heavily infected, their organs and tis¬
sues containing countless cysts. The condition of the oyster meats was poor.

Oysters from Two by Four and Borup reefs examined at the same time
were found also infected but the condition of their meats varied from fair
to good. Some of them had a gonad layer about 3 mm. thick. Heaviest
infection was found in the gills.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

127

Mesquite Bay is known for the quality of its oysters. In January 1942,
all the oysters taken for examination were found to be heavily infected with
Nematopsis, especially in the gills. The appearance of these oysters was,
however, good and there was a considerable deposit of glycogen in the mantle.

In Matagorda Bay area, Nematopsis was recorded from the Lake, in
Palacios Bay, and Karankawa Reef. In 1942 the infection on these grounds
was widespread (100%) but light and confined to the adductor muscle.

In 1947, some of Texas grounds were revisited by Galtsoff, who again
found heavy infection of oysters of Copano Bay. Not only the mantle was
heavily infected, but in some of the specimens the blood vessels and water
tubes of the gills were full of cysts. Two months before this examination
was made, some of these oysters had been transplanted from Copano Bay to
Aransas Bay. In comparison with those remaining in Copano Bay, the trans¬
planted stock showed great improvement in growth and in deposition of
glycogen although all the oysters were heavily infected. This experiment,
conducted by the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, shows that
Nematopsis infection does not prevent the improvement in quality of meat
if the oysters are transplanted to better grounds.

South Bay, near Port Isabel, is the southernmost location in the United
States where the eastern oyster is grown for market. Samples comprising
twenty-four oysters, shipped in May 1 947, by Dr. J. W. Hedgpeth to College
Park, Maryland, were found moderately infected by Nematopsis. The condi¬
tion of meat was good (solids 16% and glycogen 7.2% of dry weight).

FLORIDA

On the west coast of Florida, Nematopsis cysts were found by Galtsoff
in the oysters near Pensacola (March 1946), and Fort Myers (April 1946).
In all instances, the infection was light. Unfortunately, no data are available
regarding the presence of Nematopsis in Apalachicola Bay, the principal area
of commercial oyster fishery of the State. On the east coast of Florida, the
Nematopsis cysts were recorded by Galtsoff in the small Ostrea virginica
grown on mangrove roots in Biscayne Bay, south of Miami.

PACIFIC COAST

So far, Nematopsis spores were not found in the Olympia oysters ( Ostrea
lurid a) , or in the Japanese oysters (Ostrea gigas) which were examined by
Galtsoff on various occasions. In view of the fact that in Europe it occurs
in various pelecypodes it is reasonable to infer that the parasite has not yet
established itself in the bays of the west coast of the United State.

During the investigation conducted recently by Galtsoff (1950) in the
Gulf of Panama, large numbers of oysters, Ostrea mexicana , were examined
and found to be free from Nematopsis. One specimen of O. chilensis from
Garachine Bay, on the east coast of the Gulf of Panama was found, however,
to be slightly infected with Nematopsis.

CONCLUSIONS

Detailed data on the occurrence of Nematopsis in oyster producing
bottoms in Chesapeake Bay, and scattered observations in other waters
show widespread distribution of this parasite along the Atlantic and Gulf
Coasts. The majority of the bars in Chesapeake Bay were affected only

TABLE 6. INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION, PERCENTAGE OF INFECTED OYSTERS, SALINITY OF WATER, CHARACTER OF
BOTTOM AND CONDITIONS OF MEAT OF OYSTERS IN CHESAPEAKE BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES, 1946-1947.

128

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

x a

3 ,. ©
.5 "Jj +>

"3 o

M P3

S'g'S <u
0( o 0) +s
o <3 w
s- g >>

I'- “
I °

| §
£ P

3 0)

5?S

a «

Ci_i -

3 a> 3

03 rj to

<JC

<N LO
rH r-H

3 3
O' C
MM

£ £
' 03

1 II

fc £ * O

8 1 8$ §,

o o o
o o o

aSeaaa'v^ ftft

oi o.a oi.aiii

o iosojjortsssrtou o o » o o
o :ofaOfafafafafafafcPH>fa>>fa>

(=3

M r*

_ W . M

^ BiS s

fa 3 fa 3

o>om«o«3^ rfHHoo>a
lOTfHOt't-lONW.-OTfOOOOO

hhooVhiOO>OhcVmi>N

®<0MC»l»Ht-IMlN'^00«N'#lf3O10
rH OS t- CO IOHOOMNH rH rH CM
<M W rH 00 l© 00 W

eoiao® oocohiO’
H rH rH H C<3 CM

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

■3??

sill

2! Si •«cra«3 nr ?

>> n° 2 SlH

” 3 4) rW O W OOEH

tsig B^sl

fa^ ^XJ <jj g

.a u*

3 3

rrt rtf
0) 01 H3

o o a>

oo o

+s vw

fH SH

CSV-

a Sr

OS w r _

,3 O Sh O O

O >,

P r3 O 3h O O

AmOm^W HhHAh

M fa

o o
o o

fa fa

3 C
to 3

X X

m os

00 CO

L co

CQCQ

CQO

i is T

O .3 3 .3

M a

>HOH

TfifllOlO

co oo oo oc
>»

H IM CO r*

666u

1WI

fa„w$

3 S SrS

§S.I|

E^<fa

a §

P _ 60

§■« Oh

3 oj © 3
>faOfa

3 3
S 3

S 3

£33

§ *3

Sc *V

i’O'C
•3 0 0
3 0 0

faOO

rH <M CO

fafafa

rH.S^l!
S O O

_C ©

«mS

Jh B^c!

1951, No. 1
March 30

Distribution of Nematopsis

■ft
O O
o o
M ft

eS e3 c3
ftft*

w s to

'O'O'O
u U Sh
cS si s3

kOtNOO

<© C- l©
f)HO

ooodft

ftft ft

O to ®
3MpQ

cQ.s.a

'ft 'ft TJ 'ft
poo O
O O O O

ooo o

! i

HNCO

666 o

o«
J, o

Ss*

o c .£

Ph §5 Es

. .X T3
W> U O
o C« O

KfftO

'ft o g

o o 2

o ft o

M H
J u >» i
.b o >h .ft

ca o a» cs

6 P-( ^ ft

TfHMO

HOHOS

odoo®

HNM

666a

^'ft

ft S ft
ft g O

Wftd

a> "ft

Six

Og£i

'p ^1 'ft'ft

§ § § § §
(M ft g ijO M

ft Ift ft ft ft ft > ft J

K S

SXXXXXX

OtMiOlfliON

Mt-O t- ■<# C- k© OO CD

co c© -tp to to c© c© ©a o

t>* t~ c- i> o© cs c© k© k©

iioat-co®

_, +» Ph
g ft

«£'.s

hh xn

g'ftig1

g <u 5
u Q bfl
bii c
ft ft -3
KKK

C ^
ft'O to ft

SJgl

o »
g ft x

b © -O X
.£{X —I O

Kaioo

I'S

I *

r3 ^ JhT3 Sh
O'- ‘5 0 0

n ft Boo
Sv V bo ft

6 o.^o 6 6

B O B O B cj

ft OftOftft

0) ft

to to

ft ft.£
XX ft.

CO CO CO N N

O O O O O O

O O O'# o o

eoffiN
H ©J
©5

HNCO^int©

666666

<130

£ cK-§

« = Sd5

*«° s i &

£ c ft jh c

■42-5 h 0-5 w

cflHQOftft

129

O oj
bt'V

.1= 5

ft ft

: oo eo hh bn

ci4» A

oo ©
si ci

oo ©
cd to

CM ©5 ©3 C<I ©5 ©5

S? M

HNM

lO ZD

lia

n M

ft s* >»

ft _.

g « O
» Pk.

OF^

PP'o

-4J

u „
3 <u
ft m

o .S

“ O Cj

o b#*V

S .£

d as

>ft

O O — W

O o s o

ft - '

.3 o
s o
ft ft

rrt’O

’3’Cfl C

ft ft c «e

BSS„

>> 0)

i o o

. O *-1

: >;x

C- U51© Tj(

co oo © k©

i© ft od ft cd

00 00 CO 00 ©0 00

HNCO-f l© ©

6666 66

ftpS

CO c<3
ft 23 X ft

,§J1£

|S8|

Sft

O _

130

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

slightly; the beds in the James and York Rivers were heavily infected, and
heavy infection was found in several bodies of water in Alabama, Louisiana,
and Texas. Neither the distribution of the parasite nor the intensity of the
infection were found to follow definite patterns which could be correlated
with ecological factors.

Poor quality of oyster meats did not always correspond to intensity of
infection. It is true that in cases of heavy infection (Texas, Alabama) the
oysters were rather poor, but non-infected specimens obtained at the same
time and from the same localities -were equally bad. Improvement of the
meat of infected oysters after being transplanted to better grounds made it
quite clear that the quality of oyster depends primarily on its environment.

Microscopic examination of the infected oysters failed to reveal any
inflammatory processes or other pathological reactions of tissues to the pres¬
ence of spores. The latter appear to be well encapsulated and inactive. Poor
quality of meat occasionally found in very heavily infected oysters may not
be the result of an infection, but very likely the reverse is true, i.e., that
poor oysters, having less resistance, are more readily infected by Nematopsis
than good oysters.

Although Nematopsis is frequently found in dead and dying oysters,
evidence so far obtained does not support the vietv that the parasite is re¬
sponsible for the extensive oyster mortalities occurring on our coasts.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) No unusual mortality was observed

Beauchamp, Paul de — 1901 — Sur une Gragarine nouvelle du genre Porospora. C. R. Acad. Sci.
151: 997-999.

Engle, James B. — 1945 — The condition of the natural oyster reefs and other public oyster
bottoms of Alabama in 1943 with suggestions for their improvement. U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report. 29 : 1-42.

Galtsoff, Paul S., Chipman Jr., Walter A., Hasler, Arthur D., and James B. Engle — 1938 —
Preliminary report on the decline of the oyster industry of the York River, Va., and
the effects of pulp-mill pollution on oysters. U. S. Bur. Fish., Inv. Rept. No. 37 : 1-42.

Galtsoff, Paul S., Chipman Jr., Walter A., Engle, James B. and Calderwood, Howard N. —
1947 — Ecological and physiological studies of the effect of sulfate pulp mill wastes on
oysters in the York River, Virginia. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Bulletin 43:
59-186.

Galtsoff, Paul S. — 1950 — The pearl oyster resources of Panama. U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Special Scientific Report — Fisheries 28.

Hatt, Pierre — 1927 — Spores de Porospora (Nematopsis) chez les Gesteropodes. C. R. Soc.
Biol. 96: 90-91.

- 1927a — Le debut de 1’evolution des Porospora chez les Mollusques. Arch. Zool. Exper.

and Gen. 67 : 1-7.

— — — 1927b — Porospora Legeri de Beauchamp (P. galloprovinciallis Leger et Dubosq) et
les Premiers Stades de son evolution chez l’Eriphia. Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., 67 : 8-11.

- 1931 — Evolution des Porospora chez les Mollusques. Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen. 72 :

341-415.

Kudo, R. — 1939 — Protozoology. Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, Ill.

Leger, L. and O. Dubosq — 1903 — Sporozoaire parasite des Moules et Autres Lamellibranches
comestibles. C. R. Acad. Science 137 : 1003-1006.

- 1913a — Le cycle evolutif de Porospora portunidarum Frenzel. C. R. Acad. Science

156: 1932-1934.

— - 1913b— Sur les premiers stades du development des gregarines du genre Porospora

(Nematopsis). C. R. Soc. Biol. 75:95-98.

- 1925 — Les Porosporides et leur evolution. Travaille de la Station Zool. de Wimereaux

9: 126-139.

Prytherch, H. F. — 1931 — Report of the investigation on the mortality of oysters and the
decline of oyster production in Virginia waters. U. S. Bur. Fish. Memorandum Rept.
Jan. 1931 : 1-12.

- - — 1938 — Life cycle of a Sporozoan parasite of the oyster. Science 88 : 451-452.

- — 1940 — Life cycle and morphology of Nematopsis ©strearum, sp. nov., a gregarine para¬
site of the mud crab and oyster. Jour. Morph. 66 : 39-65.

Lunz, Jr., G. R. — 1937 — Xanthidae (Mud Crabs) of the C'arolinas. Charleston Museum Leaflet
No. 9.

Rathbun.. Mary J. — 1980 — The cancroid crabs of America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 152 : 1-607,
230 pis.

Schneider, A. — 1892 — Signalement d’un nouveau sporozoaire. Tablettes Zoologique T2.

Supreme Court of Louisiana — 1944 — Douset v. Texas Co. et al. No. 37036. Southern Report,
Second Series, 1750. 2d-No. 4 : 340-349.

131

[gj 1 Biology of T riatonna protract a woodi

THE BIOLOGY OF TRIATOMA PROTRACT A WOODI

USINGER UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS

DOROTHY EBEN AND RICHARD B. EADS

State Department of Health
Austin, Texas

Hematophagous bugs of the genus T riatoma are subject to a considerable
amount of interest in the southwestern United States due to their abundance
and disease vector potential; Sullivan et al. (1949) report Texas State De¬
partment of Health records showing that 286 of the 8 59 T riatoma examined
from 1941 through 1947 were naturally infected with Trypanosoma cruzi ,
the causative agent of American trypanosomiasis. In view of these statistics,
the fact that no human cases have been recorded in the United States is
somewhat difficult to explain. The economic importance of these insects is
emphasized by the frequent requests for control measures received by this
Department.

Laboratory colonies of the six Texas species are maintained to provide
specimens for disease transmission and control experiments. Biological data
relative to T. neotomae and T. gerstaeckeri have been previously reported,
Thurman (1944, 1946).

This paper is concerned with the biology of T. pro tract a woodi under
laboratory conditions. The bugs used in the study were collected from a

COMMON TEXAS TRIATOMA

Lower row, left to right; 2 T. sanguisuaga and 2 T. gerstaeckeri.
Upper row, left to right: 2 T. lecticularius and 2 T. protracta woodi.

132

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

nest of the pack rat, Neotoma micropus , in Dimmit County, Texas, Septem¬
ber, 1948. Bionomics of the species were investigated from the collection date
through May, 1950.

The Triatoma were kept in 2 50 milliliter beakers, with pleated pieces
of toweling paper to absorb excretory products. Gauze squares were placed
over the beakers and fastened securely with rubber bands. The insects were
fed every 5 or 6 days by inverting the beakers on the clipped back of a
rabbit for 1 5 or 20 minutes.

No control was exerted over temperature and humidity in the insectary,
other than that a heater controlled by a thermostat was utilized to prevent
the temperature from dropping below 68° F. during the winter months.

Eight female protracta woodi collected in the field laid 1,464 eggs from
January, 1949, to August, 1949. Highest egg production occurred during
the months of April and May. Monthly averages per female were: 10 in
January, 21 in February, 17 in March, 34 in April, 40 in May.

The eggs were rough, white and elongate-oval. Eye spots usually be¬
came apparent between the ninth and tenth day. As the embryonic develop¬
ment progressed, the eggs were tinged with yellow and the eye spots black¬
ened. During the winter months an average of 28 days were required for
the eggs to hatch, while they hatched in an average of 16 during June,
July and August.

The nymphal forms emerged from the eggs by forcing off the
operculated ends. Several hours were required for the newly emerged
pinkish-white nymphs to change to the characteristic dark brown color and
feeding did not occur until the third day after hatching.

Life history studies were made by isolating single specimens and ob¬
serving the length of time spent in each of the five instars prior to becom¬
ing adults. This information is summarized in Table 1. Using 3 8 insects,
the average number of days spent in the first instar was 2 5, second instar
37, third instar 18, fourth instar 32 and fifth instar 64. Thus the average
time spent in the egg and immature stages was between 6 and 7 months.
There was a good deal of variation in the length of the instars. The days
spent in the first instar ranged from 14 to 44, the second from 51 to 81,
the third from 18 to 3 5, the fourth from 18 to 48 and the fifth from
22 to 218.

It is, of course, difficult to simulate natural conditions in the labora¬
tory. In the field the instars are no doubt lengthened during the winter
months. This variable is somewhat compensated for by the fact that in the

TABLE 1. INSTAR LONGEVITY STUDIES (FEB. 1949— MAY 1950)

Number

Insects

Instars

Total

Days

Average number of days

178

Longest life history

218

320

Shortest life history

132

1951, No. 1
March 30

Biology of Triatoma protract a woodi

133

field the bugs have continuous access to hosts and blood meals, while in the
laboratory the Triatoma were fed only at 5 or 6 day intervals, due to the
press of other duties.

Laboratory reared adult females required but one mating to produce
fertile eggs for the 8 to 1 0 months that have been the normal life expectancy
of the specimens in this study. All stages have been found to be very hardy
and to exhibit considerable resistance to starvation, especially during the
winter months, as shown in Table 2.

Summary. The average duration of the egg and immature stages of
Triatoma protracta woodi is between 6 and 7 months in the laboratory, in¬
dicating that there is a complete and probably a partial second generation a
year under field conditions.

LITERATURE CITED

Sullivan, T. D., McGregor, T., Eads, R. B. and Davis, D. J. — -1949 — -Incidence of Trypanosoma
cruzi Chagas in Triatoma (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) in Texas. Am. Jour, of Trop. Med.
29 (4) : 453-458.

Thurman, D. C. — 1944 — The Biology of Triatoma neotomae Neiva in Texas. Jour. Econ. Ent.
37 (1) : 116.

- 1945 — The Biology of Triatoma gerstaeckeri. Jour. Econ. Ent. 38 (5) : 597.

TABLE 2. SURVIVAL OF FIRST INSTAR T. protracta WOodt WITH NO BLOOD
MEAL, ONE BLOOD MEAL, AND TWO BLOOD MEALS.

Date

1949

Number of
Blood Meals

Number of

Insects

Average Days
Survival

Remarks

Feb. -April

None

No molting

July-Aug.

None

No molting

Feb. -June

One blood meal

113

No molting

July-Sept.

One blood meal

2 nymphs moulted

Feb. -Aug.

Two blood meal

125

4 nymphs moulted

July-Sept.

Two blood meal

7 nymphs moulted

134

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

FISHES, NEW, RARE OR SELDOM RECORDED
FROM THE TEXAS COAST

GORDON GUNTER
Institute of Marine Science
The University of Texas, Port Aransas
and

FRANK T. KNAPP

Department of Wildlife Management
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas

Fifteen years ago the fish fauna of the Texas Coast was known only in
a very general way. Since that time several workers have added to our
knowledge of what fishes actually live here, but the list is still incomplete.
In this paper the writers add some more information on the rare and un¬
recorded marine fishes of Texas. Common names are used, whenever avail¬
able, in the hope that the materials may prove slightly more interesting to
the general reader than the Latin names necessarily employed for precise
designation.

Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus) . Great White Shark — On July 14,
1950 a female, 9 ft., 6 in. long, was landed by Captain R. C. Van Zandt, in
the Gulf 15 miles SE of Aransas Pass. The estimated weight was 700
pounds. Baughman (1950a) has reported three other specimens from the
same general area.

Scoliodon terrae-novae (Richardson) . Sharp-nosed Shark — Apparently
the records of Bigelow and Schroeder (1948, p. 300) are the first from the
Texas Coast. Baughman and Springer (1950) list 21 specimens from Texas
and say that Baughman (1950a) gives the first printed reference of the
species in the state. This is an error for that author properly gave the credit
to Bigelow and Schroeder. Four specimens ranging from 43.8 to 50.9 cm.
were taken in a beach seine in Mesquite Bay at the mouth of Cedar Bayou
Pass, by C, C. Bowers in July, 1948. They are in the collection of the
A. & M. College. A female 48.3 cm. in length was taken from the south
jetty of Aransas Pass on August 23, 1949.

Aprionodon isodon (Muller and Henle) .—Bigelow and Schroeder (op.
cit.) reported 4 specimens from Galveston. On July 7, 1949, a female 61.6
cm. long was caught off Fulton, Texas, in Aransas Bay. The salinity was
22.4 per inille. This is 200 miles SW of Galveston and the specimen is the
fifth recorded from Texas. Mr. J. L. Baughman has informed us that small
specimens are not uncommon.

Rhincodon typus Smith. Whale Shark— Captain R. C. Van Zandt saw
a whale shark 18 miles SE of Port Aransas in September, 1950. This supple¬
ments three sight records previously given by Baughman (1947, 1950a)
from Port Aransas and Port Isabel, 130 miles farther south.

Squat hia dumeril (LeSueur) . Angelfish— This fish has been previously
reported Reed (1941) and Gunter (1941b). It is not common but it is
caught occasionally by shrimp trawlers along this coast. They call it the
no-name fish, because none of them could originally recognize or name it.

Lepisosteus ossetis (Linnaeus) , L. platostomus Rafinesque, L. productus

1951, No. i Fishes, New, Rare from Texas 13 5

March 30

(Cope) and L. spatula Lacepede. Gars— All of the four gars found in
Texas occur in the bays at times. L. spatula is common there and may be
found at all salinities. L. productus has been recorded before in waters of
low salinity (Gunter, 1945). One of us (Knapp) took L. platostomus in
water with a salinity of 2.4 per mtlle near Port Lavaca. L. osseus and L.
productus were found in the same place. Gunter has taken L. osseus in
Copano Bay at salinities of 2.0 parts per thousand. It seems to be the least
common gar in the bays and may be called a rare visitor.

Fundulus pallidus Evermann. Pale Killifish— Gunter (1950) reported
that a complete series of this fish ran into F. grandis at the larger sizes.
Hubbs (1926) and Carman ( 1895) previously synonymized the two. Nich¬
ols (1942) thinks specimens from Florida may be pallidus , but the area is
far removed from the type locality (Texas) and probably some other
species Is concerned.

Fundulus pulvereus (Evermann) —This fish is uncommon in waters of
high salinity, but is not uncommon in brackish ponds between Galveston
and St. Charles bays. Evermann (1893), Baughman (1950a) and Gunter
(1950) seem to be the only authors mentioning the species, except for the
check-list of Jordan, Evermann and Clark (1928). Gunter took the species
quite often on the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge. Mr. Clark Hubbs has
informed us that he has taken this fish in fresh water.

Cyprinodon carpio Gunther.— This species was erroneously listed by
Gunter (1941a). The species actually was Cyprinodon variegatus.

Strongylura timucu ( Walbaum) . Needle-gar— Specimens were taken
on Mustang Island by Mr. David Kramer in 1949. Similarly he took speci¬
mens of S. notata (Poey). Jordan (1929) previously listed not at a from
the state. This record was questioned by Baughman (1950a).

Syacium gun ter i Ginsburg— This fish is the commonest flatfish off¬
shore from 10 to 30 fathoms. It is not common In shallower waters of
Louisiana and Texas. Near shore and in the bays it gives way entirely to
Citharichthys spilopterus and Etropus crossotus . This flatfish is probably
the most abundant species of fish taken by shrimp trawlers in the waters
from 10 to 25 fathoms. Scattered with it are usually found a few of the
closely related S. papillosum (Linnaeus). Baughman (op. cit.) has previously
listed papillosum from the state.

Cyclopsetta chittendeni B. A . Bean— This is the commonest large flatfish
in the offshore shrimp trawl catches and is quite common at depths between
10 and 20 fathoms. Thousands are taken every day by the shrimpers. C.
fimhriata (Goode and Bean) is also present in much smaller numbers. Reid
(1941) recorded the first from Texas and Baughman (1950a) listed both
species from the coast.

Ancyclopsetta quadroccllata Gill. Four-spotted Flounder— This species
is also common offshore, but less so than C. chittendeni. It also comes closer
to shore and Is found at times in the bays (Gunter, 1945).

Engyophrys sen has Ginsburg— This fish is rare in offshore waters.
Gunter acquired 10 from shrimp fishermen in 1941. They were all taken
offshore from Port Aransas. It has been previously listed by Baughman
(1950a).

Gymnachirus texae (Gunter). Naked Sole— This is the commonest
achirid in offshore waters. At 10 to 2 5 fathoms it almost entirely supplants

136

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Achirus fasciatus and A. lineatus of the shallow waters. Most specimens are
12 to 15 cm. long. Mr. Baughman informed us it was not common in
deeper hauls out to 6 5 fathoms.

Holocentrus adscensionis (Osbeck). Rock Hind — Baughman (1947)
reported this species from the southern tip of the Texas Coast. We have
taken several off Aransas Pass in 20 fathoms of water.

Sphyraena guacbancho Cuvier and Valenciennes. Little Barracuda- —
Gunter (1945) and Baughman (1950b) have reported specimens. Since
then others have been acquired off Port Aransas and placed in the Institute
of Marine Science collection. There is one in the A. & M. College collection.
Mr. Baughman states that four were taken off Port O’Connor in the
summer of 1950.

Caranx batholomaei Cuvier and Valenciennes. Yellow Jack-— One speci¬
men was taken in a beach seine on the north end of the Gulf beach of St.
Joseph Island in August, 1948. Its fins are not scaled except anteriorly and
the identification is tentative. The specimen is in the A. & M. College col¬
lection.

Caranx latus Agassiz. Horse-eyed Jack — Baughman (1941) reported
the species from this coast. Mr. David Kramer collected several specimens
along the shores of Mustang Island in 1949.

T rachinotus falcatus (Linnaeus). Round Pompano — This species was
reported by Baughman (1941). Mr. David Kramer took specimens from
Mustang Island in 1949.

T rachinotus goodei Jordan and Everman. Great Pompano — The
species has been previously reported from Texas by Reed (1941). Mr.
Kramer took one on the Gulf beach of Mustang Island in 1949.

T rachinotus palometa Regan. Banner Pompano — Fowler (1931) and
Gunter (1945) reported the species. Mr. Kramer took several on the Gulf
side of Mustang Island in 1948 and 1949.

Serbia dumerili (Risso). Amberjack — This fish was reported from
Texas by Reed (1941). The record was questioned by Baughman (1950b).
There is one specimen in the A. & M. College collection. It was taken 5 /z
miles SSE of Port Aransas in the Gulf in August, 1948.

Elagatis bipinnulatus (Quoy and Gaimard). Rainbow Runner — A rain¬
bow runner was caught by Captain R. C. Van Zandt 51/2 miles ESE of the
Aransas Pass jetties in September, 1950. It was 26.3 cm. long. The speci¬
men is now in the Institute collection. According to Baughman (1950b)
specimens are occasionally caught on this coast but this seems to be the
first to come into a collection. Game, Fish and Oyster Commission workers
took two at the Whistling Buoy off Port Aransas on October 21, 1950.

Epinephelus striatus (Bloch). Grouper — Reed (1941) reported the
species. One specimen was taken by Mr. Kramer on Mustang Island in
November, 1948. One six cm. long was also taken by him on Mustang
Island in August, 1949.

Hypoplectrus unicolor (Walbaum). Butter Hamlet — -Two, eight to
11.5 cm. long, were taken from the Institute dock at Port Aransas in
May, 1950. Woods (1942) has reported H. chlorurus (Cuvier and Valen¬
ciennes), which is sometimes classed as a subspecies, from near Corpus
Christi and possibly the species are the same.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Fishes, New, Rare from Texas

137

Mycteroperca microlepsis (Goode and Bean). Gag — One specimen was
caught from the Institute dock in August, 1950. Reed (1941) and Baugh¬
man (1943) have previously listed specimens. *

Priacanthus arenatus Cuvier and Valenciennes. Big-eye — Baughman
(1950b) reported one specimen. This fish is fairly common in shrimp trawl
catches in 20-2 5 fathoms of water. There are several in the Institute col¬
lection.

Lutianus apodus (Walbaum) . Schoolmaster Snapper — Baughman
(1950b) reports that one specimen is in the Chicago Natural History Mu¬
seum. Gunter took two in Aransas Pass in May, 1950. They were 15 and
17.5 cm. in length. One was taken off Mud Island in Aransas Bay by Game,
Fish and Oyster Commission workers on October 20, 195 0, according to
Mr. Baughman.

Otrynter caprinus (Bean). Long-finned Porgy — This sparid fish, at
small size, 10-12 cm. in length, is not uncommon in trawl catches at depths
from eight to 2 5 fathoms. The writers have taken 50 to 60 specimens, some
within 60 miles of Mexico. This is the first record from the state and ex¬
tends the westward range 300 to 400 miles.

Calamus calamus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Saucer-eye Porgy — One
specimen 21.0 cm. long was taken on the beach of Mustang Island by Mr.
David Kramer in November, 1948. This is the first record from the state.

Calamus leucosteus Jordan and Gilbert. White-bone Porgy- — One speci¬
men was caught by a fisherman on the snapper bank known as Hospital
Reef in 30 fathoms of water in July, 1950. This is the first record from the
state. It is now in the A. & M. College collection.

Pomadasys crocro (Cuvier and Valenciennes) — One specimen 42.0 cm.
long was caught on a snapper reef south of Port Aransas in July, 195 0. It
was mounted by a taxidermist who loaned it to the Institute. This is the
first record from the state.

Gerres rhombeus Cuvier and Valenciennes. — This fish was erroneously
reported by Gunter (1945).

Upeneus martinicus Cuvier and Valenciennes. Goat-fish- — This fish was
previously reported by Gunter (1945). Since then many have been taken
from shrimp trawls in 17-20 fathoms.

Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus). Sergeant-major — This fish is common
along the jetties at Port Aransas and is used as bait by fishermen. Specimens
up to five inches have been taken several times. This is the first good record
from the state. Baughman (1950b) gave a sight record under the name
marginatus.

Halieutichthys aculeatus (Mitchill) . Little Batfish — This little batfish
is not uncommon in 18 to 20 fathoms and the writer has taken several speci¬
mens. Woods (1942) previously listed it.

Lepophidium brevibarbe (Cuvier). Oto phidium welshi Nichols and
Breder. Cusk Eels— -These two fishes are not uncommon in the trawl catches
offshore. Probably the shrimpers catch a few hundreds or thousands on this
coast every day. They have been previously reported by Nichols and Breder
(1922), Gunter (1945) and Baughman (1950b).

* The Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission boat Carey brought in several March 16,
1950. This fish is not uncommon. — Ed.

138

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Alutera scripta (Osbeck). Filefish — A specimen eight cm. long was
taken under the Institute dock in July, 1949. This slim filefish is not un¬
common, although heretofore unreported from the Texas Coast.

Branchiostoma caribaeum Sundevall. Amphioxus — Records of amphioxus
are given here for the sake of completeness, although the animal is only a
chordate and not a vertebrate. Pulley took several in Lydia Ann Channel,
the entrance to Aransas Bay, in 1948 (Baughman, 1950a). Gunter identi¬
fied four of them as B. caribaeum.

On November 6 and 7, 1950 Mr. Cleburne A. Schultz captured four
small specimens in a plankton net fished at night from the Institute dock in
Aransas Pass. The net was six feet above the bottom in 18 feet of water.
The specimens were from 11 to 15 mm. long. Presumably, they belong to
the above species.

LITERATURE CITED

Baughman, J. L. — 1941 — Scombriformes, new, rare, or little known in Texas waters, with
notes on their natural history and distribution. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 24 : 14-26.

- 1943 — Some serranid fishes of Texas. Amer. Mid. Nat. 30 : 769-733.

• — - 1947 — Fishes not previously reported from Texas, with miscellaneous notes on the

species. Copeia 1947 (4) : 280.

- 1950a — Random notes on Texas fishes. Part I. Texas Jour. Sci. 2 (1) : 117-138.

- 1950b — Idem. Part II. Texas Jour. Sci. 2 (2) : 242-263.

Baughman, J. L., and Stewart Springer — 1950 — Biological and economical notes on the
sharks of the Gulf of Mexico, with especial reference to those of Texas and a key for
their identification. Amer. Mid. Nat. 44 (1) : 96-152.

Bigelow, H. B. and W. C. Schroeder — 1948 — Sharks, in Fishes of the Western North At¬
lantic. Part I. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Res. 1: 59-576 pp.

Evermann, B. W. — 1893 — A report upon investigations made in Texas in 1891. Bull. U. S.
Fish Comm. 11 : 61-90. pis. 28-36.

Fowler, Henry W. — 1931 — A collection of fishes from the Texas Coast. Copeia 1931 (2) : 46-50.
Garman, Samuel — 1895 — The cyprinodonts. Mem Mus. Comp. Zool. 19:1-179, 12 pis.

Gunter, Gordon — 1941a — Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas Coast, January, 1940.
Ecology 22 : 203-208.

- 1941b — Relative numbers of shallow water fishes of the northern Gulf of Mexico,

with some records of rare fishes from the Texas coast. Amer. Mid. Nat. 26 : 194-200.

- 1945 — Studies on the marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Mar. Sci. Texas Univ. 1 (1) :

1-190.

- 1950 — Fishes of the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge. Pub. Inst. Marine Sci. 1 (2) :

89-101.

Hubbs, C. L. — 1926 — Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprinodontes, VI. Misc. Pub. Mus.
Zool. Univ. Mich. 16 : 1-86, 4 pis.

Jordan, D. S. — 1929 — Manual of the vertebrate animals of the northeastern United States.
13th ed. World Book Co. i-xxxi, 1-446.

Jordan, D. S., B. W. Evermann and H. W. Clark — 1930 — Check list of the fishes and fishlike
vertebrates of North and Middle America north of the northern boundary of Venezuela.
Rept. U. S. Comm. Fisheries 1928. Appendix II, pp. 1-670.

Nichols, J. T. — 1942 — Fundulus pallidus on the Florida Gulf coast. Copeia 1942 (2) : 125-126.
Nichols, J. T. and C. F. Breder, Jr. — 1922 — Otophidium welshii, a new cusk eel, with notes
on two others from the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 35: 13-15.

Reed, Clyde T. — 1941 — Marine life in Texas waters. Texas Acad. Sci. Pub. Nat. Hist. 2 : 1-88.
Reid, E. D. — 1941 — The flatfish Cyclopsetta chittendeni Bean from Texas, a new record for
the fauna of North America. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 31 (5) : 1.

Woods, Loren P. — 1942 — Rare fishes from the coast of Texas. Copeia 1942 (3) : 191-192.

1951, No i Significance of Cererbo-Hepatic Distribution 139

March 30

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
CEREBRO-HEPATIC DISTRIBUTION OF CYANIDE

ERNEST BEERSTECHER, JR. 1

and

H. GEORGE HAMMON 2
The Medical Division, Chemical Corps.

Edgewood Arsnal, Md.

It was pointed out by Gettler and Baine (1938) that the brains and
livers of dogs and human beings that had been killed with cyanide contained
approximately one-seventh of the total absorbed cyanide, and at that time
the finding was emphasized from the standpoint of its toxicological value.
A consideration of their data shows that the relationship is real, and unique
in that similar relationships for other organs are not apparent. The physio¬
logical significance of these facts, however, is not obvious, since the ratio
of brain plus liver weights to body weight is generally about one to twenty,
and the ratio of brain plus liver iron to body iron is about one to four. The
data cited were based upon four dogs and three human beings, and in the
humans the total body cyanide could not be accurately assessed. In order
to extend these data and to evaluate their physiological significance, similar
studies were made on two smaller species, rats and rabbits.

EXPERIMENTAL

Twenty-one rabbits and thirty-five albino rats were injected intra¬
venously with an aqueous solution of hydrocyanic acid (l.mg./ml.) until
death occurred, the rats being controlled so as to require about two minutes.
Livers and brains were immediately removed and analyzed for their cyanide
content by standard procedures. As indicated in Table I, in the rabbit the
mean value of the body cyanide divided by the brain plus liver cyanide
equalled 10.3; for the rat the figure was 18.2. As in the previous study the
ratios were relatively constant for a given species.

TABLE i

SUMMARY OF DATA ON THE CEREBRO-HEPATIC DISTRIBUTION
OF HYDROCYANIC ACID

Species

Basal Metabolic Rate
Cal. /Kg. / day

HCN +HCN
brain liver

HCN

body

Product of the
B.M.R. and the
Cyanide Ratio

Man

25.

1/7

3.6

Dog

35.

1/7

5.0

Rabbit

45.

1/10

4.5

Rat

83.

1/18

4.6

1 Present address : The School of Dentistry, The University of Texas, Houston

2 Present address : Ivano, Inc., Benton Harbor, Michigan.

140

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

DISCUSSION

The data show that for the species studied, the portion of the body
cyanide which is found in the brain plus liver decreases with the size of the
species. Indeed, this trend follows closely the increase in the metabolic rate
on a kilogram basis which accompanies the decreasing sizes of the species,
as shown in Table I. In view of the small number of animals employed in
the previous study, and the approximate nature of the metabolism figures,
the products of the ratios and the metabolic rates, as shown in the table,
would seem to be essentially constant for the four species, i.e.,

HCN +HCN

br. liv. B.M.R.

HCN Body Wt.

K = ca 4.5

body

It seems well established that death from cyanide results from the im¬
pairment of the oxidative metabolism of the brain, and the brain may there¬
fore be considered as the ultimate determiner of the lethal dose. It seems
possible that the brains of smaller species wherein the metabolic rate is higher
may be able to tolerate a lesser degree of impairment, such as is caused by
cyanide, than the brains of larger species, i.e., the brain metabolism must
operate at a relatively higher overall efficiency when its metabolic rate is
higher. Thus, whereas the brain of a larger animal may not expire until it is
50% "saturated” with cyanide, it is doubtful whether the brain of a smaller
animal operating at over a three-fold greater rate could tolerate anything
approaching such a deficit. The validity of such an interpretation, however,
must await further experimental verification. In any case, the metabolic
rate of an individual would certainly seem to be a factor worthy of consid¬
eration in assessing cyanide toxicity data.

SUMMARY

A study of the distribution of hydrocyanic acid in the brains and livers
of rats and rabbits killed with hydrocyanic acid suggests that the portion of
the total body cyanide found in these organs is reciprocally related to the
metabolic rate of the species.

LITERATURE CITED

Benedict, F. G. — 1938 — Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 503: 175.
Gettler, A. O. and Baine, J. O. — 1938 — Am, J. Med. Sci. 195 : 182.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Notes

141

NOTES

SECOND OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER (DENDROICA

NIGRESCENS) IN TEXAS—

In their birds of brewster county, Texas, Van Tyne and Sutton
state that two specimens of Dendroica nigrescent , secured in the Chisos
Mountains, September 2 and 7, 1936, by Tarleton F. Smith, "constitute
the first record of the species in Texas.”

On September 4, 1950, the writer saw a well-plumaged male of this
species on the trail to Juniper Flats, The Basin, Chisos Mts., Big Bend
National Park. Another male was seen on September 6, as it fed in oak
bushes lining the rock terrace of the cottage occupied by the writer. The
latter specimen was observed at ranges of as little as three feet. This ap¬
pears to be the second record for the species in Texas, unless an instance,
unknown to the writer, has occurred subseqently to the Van Tyne-Sutton
original. It is possible, of course, that the species occurs in west Texas more
often than the records indicate, but lack of observers result in lack of
records.- — Alexander sprunt, jr., national audubon society, charles¬
ton 50, s. c.

SECOND OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-CHINNED SPARROW (SPIZELLA ATRO-

GULARIS) IN TEXAS -

On the morning of August 3 1, 1950, the writer was observing birds
in the Basin, Chisos Mountains, Brewster County, Texas. He had just em¬
ployed the "squeak,” when a small bird appeared suddenly from the low
bush growth, and alighted on the tip of an oak shrub about four feet dis¬
tant. It was a Black-chinned Sparrow, every detail of the plumage being
sharply distinct. At Kibbey Spring, on the northwest slope of Casa Grande
Peak, another was seen on September 4.

In birds of brewster county, Texas, Van Tyne and Sutton state
that one female, and an immature female were secured in The Basin, Chisos
Mts., on April 29, 1936, by John B. Semple and on September 1, 1936, by
Tarleton F. Smith, respectively, and further, that "The above noted speci¬
mens are our only records of this species in Brewster County. In fact, we
find no previous definite record of the species in Texas.”

As with Semple’s specimen, the one seen by the writer on August 3 1
was in close company with other sparrows, the Western Chipping Sparrow
( Spizella passerina arizonae) , and Rock Sparrow ( Aimophila ruficeps ere-
mocea) . The bird at Kibbey Spring was in general company with other
small birds, notable among which were three Colima Warblers ( Vermivora
crissalis) .

Mr. George Sholley, Chief Naturalist of the Big Bend National Park,
told me the same day that he had seen "At least a dozen of these sparrows
this season” (1950). He was familiar with the bird as a former bander in
its range. Thus, it appears that the Black-chinned Sparrow must occur in
the Chisos Mts., more often than formerly supposed.— -Alexander sprunt,
JR., NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY, CHARLESTON 50, S. C.

142

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

ABSTRACTS

FURTHER STUDIES ON ALLOXAN DIABETES. George A. Emerson and Joe B. Nash,
University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston. Yeast nucleotides and adenosine, as well as
yeast nucleic acid, antagonize the diabetogenic action of alloxan when given prophylactically
30-120 minutes before alloxan. Similar action is not shared by a large number of pyrimidines,
purines and miscellaneous substances. The thiopyrimidines, claimed by Houssay et al. to
antagonize alloxan when given over prolonged periods, have no prophylactic effect when
given acutely in maximum tolerated doses. Thymectomy significantly increases the suscepti¬
bility of rats to alloxan diabetes. Of two anti-diabetic simples used in Mexican folk-medi¬
cine, Tecoma stans is without activity, and Croton suberosa has no prophylactic or curative
effect in alloxan diabetes, although causing hypoglycemia in normal animals.

EFFECTS OF ISOMERISM ON PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF PYRIMIDINES.
PURINES AND NUCLEOSIDES. Paul L. Ewing, University of Texas Medical Branch,
Galveston, Texas. Isoguanosine has been shown to be much more active than guanosine or
adenosine in its effect on smooth muscle. Cytosine was likewise found to be more active than
isocytosine. Activity of pyrimidines is in general increased by a 4-amino or a 6-amino substi¬
tution and decreased by a 2-methyl or 6-hydroxy substitution ; 5-amino and 5-5 diethyl substi¬
tutions on barbituric acid also increases this action. The relative activity of these compounds
may be related to the ability of tissue enzymes to react with quite specific chemical struc¬
tures.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Book Reviews

143

BOOK REVIEWS

THE SEA AND ITS MYSTERIES. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE OF THE SEA.

John S. Coleman. London G. Bell and Sons. New York. British Book Center. 285 PP.

1950. 12s 6d net. W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. New York. $3.75.

English scientists have a faculty of producing exceptionally readable
books for the layman, one that we in America apparently have overlooked
or have considered beneath our capabilities. Dr. Coleman has produced one
which, dealing with the bro.der aspects of oceanography, will be an ex¬
tremely welcome addition to most libraries.

He describes the geography of the ocean floor, the chemistry of the
sea, its shape, the circulation of deep water, currents, waves, and tides, and
he does it well and clearly, with the authority of one who knows the sea,
himself. His chapters on plankton and life in the depths are well written
and interesting, although in the main they are confined to the Atlantic and
are rather inadequate for the Pacific. Dealing with "The Shape of the Sea ’
in one chapter, he presents a succinct and clear picture, although he has
to a certain extent, neglected the work of recent American investigations.
Considering the fact that many of these investigations have not as yet
been published in this country, I do not think he can be blamed too much
for that, as even to a man on the ground interested in the subject itself,
it is exceedingly difficult to ferret out the short notes, papers, and un¬
published data for as small an area as the Gulf of Mexico, let alone the seas
of the world.

His bibliography could very well have been considerably more exten¬
sive and of more use to the specialists; however, for the reader for which
this book was intended, it is sufficiently detailed and I venture to say that
not one in ten will take the time or trouble to check it very thoroughly. If
they do, and if they read the books cited therein, they will still have a
liberal education on the sea without having to spend great amounts of time
in searching the voluminous literature for everything that everyone has said.

Dr. Coleman was a member of the "Great Barrier Reef Expedition” and
thoroughly familiar, both through this experience and others, wich coral
reefs. It is well presented, contains the stamp of authenticity, and should
appeal to both the specialist and the man in the street.

One of the interesting chapters is that on oceanography and research,
and his discussion of some of the gear used.

Tsunamis (tidal waves) are attributed to earthquakes themselves
rather than to the movements which cause earthquakes, a point which quite
a number of people will argue with him, and they do not move faster than
wind waves in shallow water. However, errors like this are few, and on the
whole the book should be a welcome and valuable addition to the library
of anyone interested in the sea, either layman or scientist.

FISHES OF THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC. VOLUME 1. Editor in Chief, John Tee

Van. Authors, Henry B. Bigelow, William C. Schroeder, and Isobel Perez Farfante.

Sears Foundation for Marine Research. 576 pp., 106 illustrations. 1950. $10.00.

One of the great difficulties of a beginner in any branch of science is
the fact that, until he becomes fairly familiar with the literature, he must
waste days and weeks of time tracing the material on whatever it is that

144

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

he may be studying. This is particularly apparent in the field of fishes. Often,
the particular publication or paper that it is desirable to consult is not
available to the student, and often he does not know whether the refer¬
ence that he may wish to use is of sufficient importance to justify him in
spending time, money and effort in obtaining it. Jordan and Evermann have
been the Bible of most ichthyologists ever since their last volume was
completed in 1900, but even this monumental work left much to be de¬
sired. It is with much pleasure then that we greet the present volume, de¬
signed to present the material on these families in such a manner that any¬
one of average intelligence could use it and come up with a reasonably ac¬
curate answer. Its standard is so high that authors of subsequent volumes in
this series are going to find it difficulty to measure up to this one.

This is no mere taxonomic list; it is a series of monographs dealing
with six species of lancelots, one hagfish, one cyclostome, and sixty-two
sharks. All the species of these groups inhabit the brackish and salt waters
of the western north Atlantic, from Hudson Bay to the Amazon. Each
species has been treated exhaustively as the individual sub-heads would
indicate. The authors list their study material, the distinctive character¬
istics of the species, the size, description, color and color changes, develop¬
ment, habits, abundance, relation to man, range, synonymy, references, and
the thorough discussions are generally annotated. One of the most inter¬
esting features of the presentation is the fact that a great deal of time and
effort has been devoted to the ecological relationships and the natural history
of the various species, a thing that Jordan and Evermann lacked. Of course,
we cannot criticize these authors too strongly for this, because, at the time
that they wrote, much of the information contained in the present work
was not available, and hence could not have been included even if they had
wished to do so.

The writers of the present volume are to be congratulated on their
careful and thorough compilation of information; on the care with which
they have examined the material; on the way in which they have presented
it; and upon the over-all fine job that they have done. They have accom¬
plished to a great degree the thing that they set out to do; i.e., they have
produced a book which in their own words, "should be useful to those in
many walks of life, to those curious or vitally interested in the general
phenomena of life in water; to the sportsmen whose interests are closely
associated with pleasure and relaxation; to the fishermen whose livelihood
depends where fish are gathered together; as well as to the amateur ichthyolo¬
gist and the professional scientists.”

The second volume of this series which will deal with the rays, skates,
chimaeroids, saw fishes, and sturgeons, is promised in the near future. As a
matter of fact, it would have gone to the printer some time ago had not
the work of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Motor Vessel Oregon (now engaged
in the exploration of fishes of the Gulf of Mexico) produced some ex¬
tremely interesting material that Dr. Bigelow and Dr. Schroeder felt that
they could not overlook. "Fishes at the Western North Atlantic” is a must
in the library of any ichthyologist.

1951, No. 1
March 30

Book Reviews

145

XANTUS, HUNGARIAN NATURALIST IN THE PIONEER WEST. Henry Miller Madden.

William P. Wreden. Burlingame, California. 312 pp., 6 plates, 1949. $6.00.

Every once in a while a book turns up that, because of its subject
material, is so intensely interesting that you cannot overlook it. The present
volume, published in a limited edition of 42 5 copies, is going to be one of
the rarities of the natural history world. It deals with John Xantus, or as
he variously called himself, Janos Xantus, Johan Von Xantus, John Xantus
de Vesey, or Louis de Vesey. Xantus was an amazing and pathetic figure,
one of that group of nineteenth century Europeans who left their homeland
for political reasons, thought of settling in a new home, drifted in a strange
environment, enlisted in the Army or joined an exploring party, reached
the frontier, seized the opportunity of collecting natural history specimens,
attained recognition, and enjoyed correspondence with the Academic scien¬
tists, published in his native tongue accounts of his adventures designed to
enhance his reputation with his countrymen, sought the bounty so evident
in American public life, and eventually either sank into obscurity or re¬
turned to his homeland to enjoy the benefits which his Trans-Atlantic repu¬
tation assured.

Landing in America practically destitute in 1851, he wandered about
the country for the next three or four years, finally enlisting in the army
under the name of Louis Vesey. His military service was at Ft. Riley,
Kansas, where he fell under the influence of Alexander Hammond, an army
surgeon, who was also a personal friend of Spencer F. Baird, the Assistant
Secretary of the Smithsonian. Xantus’ interest in natural history developed
rapidly under Hammond, and his chief collections were sent to the Academy
of Natural Science in Philadelphia. On the strength of these, he was recom¬
mended as a life member. At the same time or a little later, he began col¬
lecting material for the Smithsonian, and thus began his long period of
association with Baird. Stationed at Ft. Tejon, California, from 1857-1859,
he made a magnificent collection of the local fauna and flora. The great
majority of these specimens were sent to the Smithsonian, except for a
number that he requested be sent to the Hungarian National Museum. The
first shipment, made in November, 18 57, consisted of eight boxes contain¬
ing 76 mammals, 716 birds, 17 skeltons, 24 nests with eggs, 17 bottles of
insects, one box of Lepidoptera, one keg of alcoholic specimens, and three
bottles of plants. The 24th box was dispatched on November 16, 18 58.
All of these were beautifully prepared and furnished accurate and detailed
information of the zoology and botany of the area, such as we possess
from few other points in the United States. They were accompanied by
copious notes and drawings.

From 1859 to 1861, Xantus was at Cape San Lucas as a Tide Observer
for the Coast Survey. Here, although in constant hot water with his su¬
periors, from which Professor Baird rescued him time after time, he made
another fine collection, and subsequently collected extensively around Man-
zillo and Colima.

Mr. Madden has given full credit for these achievements to Xantus,
but he has also brought out the fact, which will be exceedingly troubling
to people wishing to rely upon his writings, that Xantus was a prevaricator
and plagiarist, and has thoroughly documented these charges. The man was
an anomaly, but the fact remains that he made tremendous contributions to

146

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

our knowledge of the natural history of western United States. He also did
his part in helping to people a comparatively sparsely populated area. One
of the curators of the California Academy of Science, who visited lower
California in 1919, was approached on the street by an old man who intro¬
duced himself proudly saying: "I am the son of Xantus, my mother told me
so.” This was borne out by Steinbeck and Ricketts in their book "The Sea
of Cortez.” They visited Cape San Lucas in 1940 and while there had oc¬
casion to speak to the manager of a cannery at the Cape about what a great
man Xantus had really been. Where another individual would have kept his
tide charts and brooded and wished for the Willard Hotel, Xantus had col¬
lected animals widely and carefully. The manager said, "Oh, he was even
better than that.” Pointing to three little Indian children, he said, "Those
are Xantus’ great grandchildren” and, he continued, "in the town there is
a large family of Xantuses and a few miles back in the hills, you will find
a whole tribe of them.” Truly there were giants in the earth in those days.

Mr. Madden has dealt fully with John Xantus, and while he has
tarnished his name in bringing out these less desirable characteristics of the
man, the fact remains that John Xantus was one of the great collectors and
certainly one of the foremost of those who provided the specimens on which
classification and distribution of American natural history rests. His superb
collections for the Smithsonian Institution form the basis of much of our
knowledge of the fauna of the western United States and lower California.

It is a good book and worth inclusion in any naturalist’s library.

1961, No. 1
March 30

The Texas Journal of Science

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the editor, Texas journal of
science, box 867, rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to
minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of
the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced
with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small
type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction
than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some
authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬
cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to
bibliographies.

2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not
more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board
finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper.
If the paper can be improved or condensed the editor may return it for
such changes.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Literature Cited

4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically
at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in
the text should be by author’s name and date of publication.

The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible.

These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as
they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — ■

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

- — - - - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps.

- 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬
trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should
be precise and included with the drawings and illustration.

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬
sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.

8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish
proofs to the editor so that tv/o copies may be sent to the author for
proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have
to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted
on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author.

9. The following schedule of prices will apply to reprints, subject
to change. All orders must be sent directly to the publisher on sheets
enclosed with the galley proof. The editor assumes no responsibility
for reprints and all arrangements are strictly between the author and
the publisher. Checks must accompany reprint orders. This of course
does not apply to institutional orders, but only to those Academy
members ordering personal copies. This keeps bookkeeping at a mini¬
mum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this
is the most desirable way to handle the matter, despite the fact that
formerly it was the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from
the publisher and to collect from the individual member.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

Pages Pages Pages

1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84

Each Additional 100 Copies
1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Pages
12 to 16
15.40

5.81

The Editorial Board

1951, No. 1
March 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. FA-7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

1 Horvitz Research Laboratories

Houston, Texas

Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street

COCKBURN OIL

CORPORATION

1740 Commerce Building

HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

j MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

1 Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

SHERMAN NELSON

— OIL —

Royalty — Leases

Seguin, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists i

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental Building

DALLAS, TEXAS

PAUL CHARRIN

President

PERFORATING GUNS
ATLAS CORPORATION

913 Union National Bank Bldg.

Houston, Texas PR-0060

FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS |
COMPANY, INC.

Contractors and Engineers

3018 Leeland

Houston, Texas Phone AT-2451

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Professional Directory

Continued

COASTAL OIL FINDING
COMPANY

i Gravity Meter Surveys

1 Esperson Building

Houston 2, Texas

BOOK MART

If the book is “out of print” or hard to
find, let us find it for you. Our search
service has been very successful in locat¬
ing thousands of “out of print” books.
Send us your inquiries.

1109 Capitol Avenue, Houston

HERSHAL C. FERGUSON

Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist

Esperson Building

HOUSTON, TEXAS

8251^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La.

As a courtesy to the Academy, in
doing business with our advertis¬
ers, please make mention of the
fact that you saw their advertise¬
ment in The Texas Journal of
Science.

A MUST for Visitors

When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or
for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you've
had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf
Grill. Don't miss seeing one of the South's finest
eating rooms.

Sam Maceo, Managing Director

TURF GRILL

2216 Market • Galveston, Texas

1951, No. 1
March 30

The Texas Journal of Science

TAYLOR EXPLORATION
COMPANY

SEISMIC SURVEYS
CONSULTING

2118 Welch
Houston, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

Petroleum Products
of proven quality

General Has the Equipment,
Men and Experience

To Provide Reliable Results on
Your Exploration Problems

GENERAL

GEOPHYSICAL COMPANY

HOUSTON

SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC.

1007 South Shepherd Drive
Houston, Texas

Established — 1932

1951, No. 1
March 30

The Texas Journal of Science

c?4lway,3 Choose an
Affiliated National Hotel!

29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities
AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS

ALABAMA

Hotel

Admiral Semmes .

Thomas Jefferson .

. Mobile

..Birmingham

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Hotel

Washington .

...Washington

INDIANA

Hotel

Claypool . ,

...Indianapolis

LOUISIANA

Jung

Hotel

Hotel .

DeSoto . . . .

.New Orleans
.New Orleans

NEBRASKA

Hotel

Paxton _

_ _ Omaha

NEW MEXICO

Hotel

Clovis . .

TEXAS

Hotel Stephen F. Austin . Austin

Hotel Edson . Beaumont

Hotel Brownwood . Brown wood

Hotel Baker . Dallas

Hotel Travis . Dallas

Hotel Cortez . El Paso

Hotel Buccaneer . Galveston

Hotel Galvez . Galveston

Hotel Jean LaFitte . Galveston

Coronado Courts . Galveston

Miramar Court . ............Galveston

Hotel Cavalier . Galveston

Hotel Plaza . . Laredo

Hotel Lubbock . Lubbock

Hotel Falls . Marlin

Hotel Cactus . San Angelo

Hotel Menger . . . San Antonio

Angeles Courts . San Antonio

VIRGINIA

SOUTH CAROLINA
Hotel Wade Hampton . Columbia

Hotel Mountain Lake . Mountain Lake

Hotel Monticello . .'. . Norfolk

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
Gun Perforating

Houston, Texas

ROBERT H. RAY CO.

Gravity Meter Survey

and

Interpretation

FOREIGN - DOMESTIC

2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 1
March 30

HOUSTON, TEXAS

K VIM] FOODS

W I N K S I. I Q UK U.K S
A N I) C II A M r A G N E .S

f From the World’s
L Markets! ^

QUINSY Employment

Service

4 A mam© worth remembering’

You can benefit from our many
years experience in the personnel
field.

Executive, Office, Sales and Technical
Personnel

Member National Employment Board,
Chamber of Commerce and Employment
Counselors

409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg.
Houston 2, Texas

♦j. *j* .j* tj. -.j* «j» *j< *j* *j« *j. *j«

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS *

3806 Cedar Springs Rd.

Dallas 4, Texas

1152!/2 North Second St.

Abilene, Texas

(Jn^ *J» +J* -tj* «J* *J» *J. .J. *J» *J* >J» .J. *J* *J* *J. *J» *J. *J» +J» **•* ♦!* *J» *J» *J. *J* *J* >J* ♦$*

FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM

Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9

“Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz

“Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . - . $3.00

“Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00

(Limited edition)

Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles —

Bexar County, Texas— John K. Strecker (Collector’s Item) . $1.25

1951, No. 1
March 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Quality

TIRES and BATTERIES

AT YOUR GULF DEALERS'

EMBLEMATIC

OF THE BEST
IN MODERN

IE RICAN BEEF
BRAHMANS

2711 S. MAIN » HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY

Domestic — Export

LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS

for

Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service
Laboratories

HOUSTON, TEXAS, U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA.

AMERICAN

BRAHMAN

BREEDERS

ASSOCIATION

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary : L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Human health, hygiene and public health:

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional ’’qualities :

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Ciistom, law, prejudice, etc. :

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station

Miss Francis Moon. Department Public Welfare, Houston

Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin

A. B. Melton, Denton

Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent r

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texa*
Cocouncillors:

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations..

J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
1 Cocouncillors :

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin

UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas
Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth
Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station
Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth
Marine resources

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur _ . . . . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific worker’s
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and th«
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of ^science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in .the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly.

Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.

MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50,00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500;00 hi one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3 per year. Single eopies $1.25 each.

Ill I9«IV General crews work
as a wing of geological departments under
direction of the client's geologists. From
data compiled by General's capable crews
working with modern equipment specific¬
ally designed for current exploration prob¬
lems, the geologist then makes the key
decision of whether to recommend the in¬
vestment necessary to drill the test well.
For more than a decade, geologists and
operators alike fyave relied on General's, ex¬
perienced crews to help lead the way to
their next discovery well. And today,
General is better equipped than ever!

Ill 1091 Edwin T. Dumble,
formerly state geologist for Texas, joined
the Southern Pacific companies as a geolo¬
gist in 1897. The organization founded by
him is one of the oldest geological depart¬
ments having to do with oil in the United
States. About 1913, however, geology was
definitely accepted as a guide to pros-*
pec ting. This year marked the permanent
establishment of geological departments in
the mid-continent and the beginning of
intensive surveys and examinations which,
through the various changes and develop¬
ments of new techniques, continue to the
present time. From E. DeGolyer’s book,
"Development of the Art of Prospecting

No. 2

Awffii

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY
THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951)

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological
V. Pres. Sec. III. Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological

C. C. Doak
Willis G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair

C. D. Leake

D. B, Calvin
W. Frank Blair

Roy Donahue
Horace R. Blank

V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young
Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte

Junior Academy Greta Oppe

A and M College
Texas Christian U.
P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of
G. F. O. C.
Medical Br., U. of
Medical Br., U. of
Medical Br., U. of
Univ. of Texas
A and M College
A and M College
A and M College
A and M College
Ball High

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
Rockport
. Galveston

Galveston
. Galveston

Austin
College Station
College Station
College Station
College Station
Galveston

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Elected Director W.
Elected Director
Elected Director

BOARD OF
C. C. Doak

DIRECTORS

W. G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
Armstrong Price
Gordon Gunter
Don O. Baird

A and M College
Texas Christian U.

P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of T.
A and M College
Marine Inst., U. of T.
S.H.S.T.C.

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
College Station
Port Aransas
Huntsville

W. R. Woolrich, Dean
L. W. Blau
E. DeGolyer
J. Brian Eby
0. S. Petty

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950)
Engineering, U. of T.
Humble Oil & Refining Co.
DeGolyer & McNaughton
Consulting Geologist
Petty Geophysical Co.

Austin
Houston
Dallas
Houston
San Antonio

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, University of Houston
Freeport

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C.

Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brown wood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M.

Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C.

Corpus Christi

R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U.
Dallas

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U.

V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly
Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.
Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan

C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co.
Galveston

C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech
J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech

Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C.
E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word
J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research
Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

Volume III, No. 2
June 30, 1951

(Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos,

Published Quarterly at
San Marcos, Texas
Texas, March 21, 1949)

The Texas Journal of Science

EDITOR IN CHIEF

J. L. Baughman
Chief Marine Biologist
Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission
Rockport, Texas

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr. Charles F. Squire
Dept, of Physics
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

Dr. W. Frank Blair
Dept, of Zoology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. J. Brian Eby
Consulting Geologist,
1404 Esperson Building
Houston, Texas

Dr. L. W. Blau
Research Consultant,
Humble Oil and Refining
Company,

Houston, Texas

Dr. J. C. Godbey
Dept, of Chemistry
Southwestern University
Georgetown, Texas

Dr. John G. Sinclair
Dept, of Anatomy,
Medical Branch,
University of Texas,
Galveston, Texas

Dr. Frank E. Luksa
Dept, of Sociology
Southwestern University
Georgetown, Texas

Dr. Clark Hubbs
Dept, of Zoology
University of Texas
Austin, Texas

ADVERTISING MANAGER

Guy N. Turner
1404 Esperson Building
Houston, Texas

Volume III

Number 2

JfflL 841951

NOTE

A serious error was made by the engraver in Dr. Carl L. Hubbs paper
"New Cyprinid Fishes of the Genus Notropis from Texas.” Plate I,
figure 2, and Plate II, figure 1 were inadvertently transposed. Also,
there is a correction on page 93 in the same paper. In the table (Table
I) under Av. the second line should read: 10.09 instead of 10.69. The
Editor offers his apologies.

CONTENTS

Hugh Roy Cullen . I

Relation of Soil Erosion to Coastal Waters. Hugh H. Bennett . 147

The Silt Load of Texas Streams. Charles S. Stevens . . 162

Pressure Waves in Liquids. C. F. Squire . 173

Antibiotics in Milk. L. G. Harmon . . . . . . . . . 176

Determination of the Refractive Index of a Binary Liquid Mixture.

Olivia Covacevich . 176

Trematodes from the Man-o-War Bird, Fregata magnificens Rothschildi,
on the Texas Coast, with the Description of a New Species,

Schwartzitrema seamsteri. Asa C. Chandler. . . 185

Applications of Meteorology and Oceanography in Marine Industry

on the Gulf of Mexico. A. H. Glenn . . . . 191

The Choice of Triclinic Lattice Elements. Jiirg Waser . . . 202

Notes on the Odonata of Northeastern Texas. John Earl Harwell . 204

Achieving Group Adjustment Through Community Planning. Ernest E. Neal . . 208

Management Interest in Promoting Mental Health in Human Relations.

Raymond H. Fletcher . 213

Some Aspects of Reef Paleontology and Lithology in the

Edwards Formation of Texas. William H. Matthews. . . 217

The Use of Herbicides in the Control of Poisonous Range Plants in Texas.

Omer E. Sperry . 227

Crude Fiber Metabolism of College Women on Self-Selected Diets.

Florence I. Scoular, Charlotte Collier, and Faye McCarty . 233

The Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas. Harry F. Williams. . . . 237

The Terminal Olfactory Complex in the Porpoise. John G. Sinclair 251

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding; Beef and Milk Production in the Tropics
and Subtropics, with a Bibliography on Various Phases of the Porblem.

J. L. Baughman . . . . . 253

Notes on the Giant Walking Stick Megaphasma denticrus (Stal)

(Orthoptera: Phasmatidae ) . Orin P. Wilkins and Osmond P. Breland 305

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water. Gustave Heinemann . . . . . 311

The Effects of Various Concentrations of Maleic Hydrazide on Tomato and

Etiolated Lima Bean Plants. Victor A. Greulach . . . 322

Book Reviews . . 326

Program of The Texas Academy of Science Regional Meeting. . . 329

The First Idealist . . . . 333

Hugh Roy Cullen

•mm

lllMpii

Mrs. Hugh Roy Cullen

Aerial view of the campus and buildings of the University of Houston

Roy and Lillie Cullen Building at the Baylor University College of Medicine

HUGH ROY CULLEN

It will remain for a future generation or age to evaluate Hugh Roy
Cullen’s contributions to science. It cannot be done now; but one thing
is certain: they will add up to a major benefaction of our time.

He is known as the father of the University of Houston, which enjoys
the second largest enrollment of all Texas colleges. In various gifts he
and Mrs. Cullen have donated more than seven million dollars in buildings
and equipment on the campus. They have given as many millions or more for
hospitals and the Baylor University School of Medicine in Houston. But
their most fabulous philanthropy of all was in the establishment or the
Cullen Foundation, in which they placed oil-producing properties whose
ultimate income yield was estimated at $160 million. They wished thpcp
funds used principally for the Texas Medical Center and the University
Houston.

All of these benevolences will make possible study, research and dis¬
coveries which are bound to result in important scientific development and
advances.

Mr. Cullen was born in Denton County and spent most of his boyhood
in San Antonio. While still in his teens he struck out on his own, in the
cotton business. In his twenties he achieved a considerable degree or
success in buying and selling cotton in Western Oklahoma and Texas.

He married Miss Lillie Cranz, an attractive member of a substantial
family of Schulenburg, Texas. She went with him to Oklahoma to live,
shortly after the turn of the century, and in devoted companionship shared
his struggles and his triumphs ever since. In all philanthropies Mr. Cullen
has stressed that "Lillie and I” were the donors.

NsM

The Ezekiel W. Cullen Building at the University of Houston

The Roy Gustav Cullen Building at the University of Houston

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Moving to Houston in 1911, he eventually got into the oil business.
After several years of fruitless search for oil, enduring continual hardships
and discouragement, he struck pay at Pierce Junction. He kept on wild-
catting, and eventually found rich oil reserves at Thompson, in Fort Bend
County, Humble in Harris County, the Tom O’Connor Field in Refugio
County and fields in LaSalle and Calhoun Counties.

In 1936 he achieved national recognition. For discovering and
developing new and deeper sands, and conquering the heaving shales, the
University of Pittsburgh awarded him an honorary degree of Doctor of
Science.

Baylor and the University of Houston have since conferred upon him
the honorary degrees of Doctor of Laws. Many other honors have come
to him in activities with which he has been connected— civic, cultural,
industrial, fraternal and patriotic.

The Cullens’ first-born, Roy Gustav Cullen, was following rapidly
in his father’s footsteps and showing brilliant promise in the scientific and
inventive phases of the oil industry, when he was killed in an oil-field
accident in 1936. The first building given by the parents to the University

of Houston was named for him.

Other children of the Cullens are Mrs. Paul (Lillie Cranz) Portanova
of Los Angeles, Mrs. Isaac (Agnes Louise) Arnold, Mrs. Douglas B. (Mar¬
garet Ruth) Marshall, and Mrs. Corbin J. (Wilhelmina Daisy) Robertson,
all of Houston.

Mr. Cullen’s oil business is conducted under the name of the Quintana
Petroleum Corporation. His sons-in-law, officers of the company, relieve
him of much of the managerial work, leaving him time to devote to
philanthropy and public affairs. Among the many civic and cultural
endeavors in which he has taken a particular interest are the Houston
Symphony Orchestra, the Museum of Fine Arts of Houston, the Boy Scouts
and Air Scouts, the Gonzales Warm Springs Foundation, the Arabia
Temple’s Crippled Children’s Funds— and, above all education, hospitals
and medic al sciences.

In 1945 the Houston Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution
bestowed upon him its annual Good Citizenship medal.

While Mr. Cullen has had no personal political aspirations whatever,
he has concerned himself profoundly and vigorously with the preservation
of our American heritage and the American system of free enterprise,
strenuously resisting the encroachment of socialism and communism and
efforts to destroy the Constitution and States’ rights. To these ends he
has worked for the election of public officials and lawmakers who were
honest and patriotic and consecrated to the principles in which he believes.

The good works of Hugh Roy and Lillie Cullen will go on through
the years, propagating and spreading through the dissemination of human
knowledge and the forward strides of science at the institutions which they
have endowed.

TOP — Science Building, University of Houston
BOTTOM — Oberholtzer Hall (Dormitories), University of Houston

IN PALESTINE, which was once the Roman wheat basket, a view to the east across
the ruins of the great crusader castle, Krak des Chevaliers, shows broken terraces, the
remains of an early effort to conserve the soil that is now almost gone. In the dis¬
tance, slopes are still cultivated but most of the top soil was carried down to the sea
where it choked the ancient harbors.

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

TIMGAD, one of the great Roman cities of North Africa, is only a memory among
whose mins native shepherds pasture their sheep. Once the center of a thriving com¬
munity, both air and water erosion have stripped the earth of its top soil and today
it lies deserved, surrounded by desolate countryside.

RELATION OF SOIL EROSION TO COASTAL WATERS

HUGH H. BENNETT *

Chief, U. S. Soil Conservation Service
Washington 25, D. C.

The silting of estuaries is, of course, a natural condition that was in
progress for undeterminable time before there was any cultivation of the
land. But there is much evidence, both historical and geological, indicating
that the pre-agricultural rate of sedimentation of bays and estuaries was
very slow in comparison with rates following extensive clearing, burning,
plowing, and grazing activities. Too many historians and engineers, I am
afraid, have attributed the rapid sedimentation of harbors to uncontrollable
forces of nature. They too often have failed to notice the rapid changes

* Address presented at Roekport, Texas, during the Fourth Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine
Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

147

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

gplll

■EH

Courtesy TJ. S. Soil Conservation Service

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH of the Gunpowder estuary in Chesapeake Bay which was
the harbor of Joppa Town, Md. Joppa Town, founded in 1707, was once the most
prosperous seaport of Maryland. The solid line shows the approximate original shore
line of the estuary; the dotted line, the shore line in 1846; the broken line, in 1897.
The amount of deposition since 1897 can be seen.

1951, No. 2
June 3U

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

149

brought about through man’s deforestation and agricultural operations.
Certainly in many instances the rapid sedimentation of bays and estuaries is
an abnormal condition that developed after, or along with, the clearing,
overgrazing, and cultivation of land in the contributing watersheds.

SEDIMENTATION OF HARBORS

This is nothing new. Sedimentation of harbors is as old as history. Sites
of a number of Biblical cities, which we are told were originally seaports,
are far inland today. Continuous deposition of sediment from eroding up¬
lands gradually extended the land area and pushed the tidewater from their
wharves. Ur of the Chaldees is said to have been a thriving seaport at the
head of the Persian Gulf about 3000 B. C. Today its ruins lie in a desert
150 miles from the present shores of the Gulf. For centuries, the sediment
brought down by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers from the over-grazed
highlands of Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq has pushed the head of tidewater
out into the Persian Gulf; and the shore line today is reported to be advanc¬
ing at the rate of one mile in 30 years (Banks, 1913).

A number of ancient harbors that were frequented by the ships of
Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, and Rome are now many miles inland from
navigable waters. Adria, Italy, was a busy seaport in the time of Caesar
Augustus, but today it is 20 Italian miles inland (Gottschalk, 1944). Sedi¬
mentation forced the Romans from the harbor at Antium and caused aban¬
donment of the once magnificent harbor of Ostia, built in 43 A.D. at the
mouth of the Tiber River (Saville, 1940).

In early postglacial time the Tigris and the Euphrates flowed into the
Persian Gulf near Hitt and Samarra, now some 600 miles north of the
present shoreline.

The Karun River, flowing westward from the Persian highlands also
contributed its silt to the Persian Gulf and built up a bar which extended
eastward from Basra and protected lower Mesopotamia from the inroads
of the sea.

As irrigation agriculture spread to the land farther up the rivers, the
problems of flooding and sedimentation became more serious. The powerful
communities resorted to the only means that they knew for protecting
themselves against floods and at the same time preventing accumulation of
sediment in their canals. This consisted of completely shutting off the water
from certain branches of the rivers by earthen dams. While protecting the
area farther upstream, the lower delta lands were subjected to increased
sedimentation and higher floods (Bennett, 1939).

Along the Euphrates, the irrigated fields lay to the east of the river.
Irrigation waters were carried to the east and flood waters allowed to escape
to the west. Babylon was protected from floods by two large natural de¬
pressions, the Habbania and the Abu Dibis. The Hindiya Canal provided
additional protection by diverting the water to the west of Babylon. Dur¬
ing the dry season it was barricaded by a temporary dam, which w&s con¬
structed and destroyed yearly, a task requiring the labor of 10,000 slaves.

Near Beled, north of Bagdad, the flood waters of the Tigris were turned
into a large basin with a hard bed of conglomerate underlying a thin alluvian
deposit. The three heads of the famous Nahrwan Canal, whose construction
is commonly attributed to Nimrod, led from the upstream side of the dam.
The dam was maintained for 3,000 years and was not destroyed until about

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

600 or 700 years ago, during the later days of the caliphate. Since its de¬
struction, the channel of the Tigris has shifted to the east, and the lands
near the head canal, formerly among the most fertile of the Tigris Valley,
have been so badly cut by ravines and gullies that, according to Sir William
Willcocks (1917), their restoration today is not financially practicable.

BUILDING LAND WITH RIVER SEDIMENT

In 1949, I saw extensive land-building operations in the lower alluvial
plain of the Po River in Italy, near the Adriatic Sea. Dikes were being built
on low-lying, unusable portions of marshland within the alluvial plain. Silt¬
laden waters from the Po were directed into these diked areas, where deposits
of water-borne sediment were laid down to build up new land. The surface
of the finished fields was about 3 to 4 feet above the marsh level and the
land was producing excellent yields of a great variety of vegetables, corn,
alfalfa, fruits, and other crops.

SILTING OF HARBORS IN AMERICA

Here in our own country, almost an infant by comparison in the gene¬
alogy of nations, we have a number of similar examples of the abandonment
of early colonial ports on Chesapeake Bay, because their harbors filled with
sediment — soil washed down from the neighboring highlands — after the
clearing and plowing of the land. When Captain John Smith sailed up the
Chesapeake in 1608, he found many deep-water estuaries which afforded
excellent harbors (Gottschalk, 1945).

This is what happened: Most of the land, in Maryland, was planted
to tobacco, generally on newly cleared land having fertile woodland topsoil.
When such fields were "worn out” or severely impoverished — usually after
a half-dozen years or so planted to tobacco, mainly- — they were often aban-

SEDIMENTATION of the Patapsco River arm of Baltimore Harbor
near Hanover Street Bridge.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

151

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

U. S. CORPS OF ENGINEERS dredge removing silt from the bottom of the Wil¬
mington Harbor and Marine Terminal, Wilmington, Delaware, to permit travel of
freighters bringing crude materials for Wilmington’s important industries.

Over 2,000,000 cubic yards of silt are removed from this harbor each year by this
or other dredges. The silt consists chiefly of the good top soil which should be retained
on our farms for productive purposes.

This top soil as silt is pumped into the Cherry Marsh silt basin. The island is now
two miles square and growing as topsoil is added. This dredging costs taxpayers as
much as $200,000 annually with a loss to the farmers of the Brandywine Valley of
over a million dollars each year.

cloned and a new field cleared. Soil erosion inevitably set in, streams be¬
came muddy, and the estuaries and bays began to silt up. With this acceler¬
ated (man-induced) soil erosion, early open- water ports were converted into
mud flats, in some instances within 50 years. Towns that otherwise might
have become thriving cities and seaports thus were destined to die in their
infancy — choked, indirectly, by the very industry that had promoted their
founding.

Today’s port of Baltimore is the head of navigation on the Patapsco
River, but before the first street was laid out in Baltimore (founded in 1706)
ships from Europe unloaded their cargoes at Elk Ridge Landing, 7 miles
farther upstream than the present docks. A hundred years ago, the Patapsco

152

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

was recorded as being 17 feet deep along the left bank just under the Han¬
over Street bridge in Baltimore."' By 1898, it was only 3 l/z feet deep in the
same place; and, by 1924, it was a mere 6 inches in depth!

Sedimentation in the Baltimore Harbor prompted enactment of a law
as early as 1753 providing a fine for throwing earth, sand, or dirt on the
shore or in any navigable part of the harbor below high water mark; and
the first dredging of the record in the harbor was in 1783. During the past
100 years, the federal government, which began dredging in Baltimore
Harbor in 1836, alone has removed more than 111 million cubic yards of
silt from the harbor at a cost of nearly $17,000,000. And in the entire
Chesapeake Bay area, the government has spent in the past century more
than $56,000,000 for dredging; yet much still remains to be done. (Gott-
schalk, 1945).

It is estimated that a million dollars worth of topsoil from farms in
the Brandywine watershed in Chester County, Pennsylvania, and New
Castle County, Delaware, is carried into the channel of the Marine Terminal
at Wilmington, Delaware, annually, filling it at the rate of 12 inches a
month. Each year, the government pumps out 500,000 cubic yards of silt
at a cost of $300,000. (Richards, 1950).

If I have seemed to belabor these examples, somewhat, it is because I
believe it is most important for us first to visualize the tremendous extent
of this silt-producing erosion and the comparative rapidity with which it
can proceed. I could list long columns of siltation figures, including the
measured silt loads carried by major Texas rivers, like the Trinity, the
Colorado, the Nueces, the Rio Grande, the Brazos, and others. But you
probably are quite familiar with these facts, and with the sediment ac¬
cumulations building up in your bays and estuaries as a result.

We have looked at some of the outright monetary costs and broader
economic penalties imposed on the public by the physical problem of silta¬
tion. I think it is self-evident that there are various other mal-effects, too,
including the harm done to marine life and inland fish and game, to navi¬
gable waterways, to municipal and other water supplies, to recreational
areas, and, most important, to heavy costs of producing silt through the
land-impoverishing effects of soil erosion.

EFFECT OF SILTING ON AQUATIC LIFE

In addition to filling up navigation channels in estuaries, sedimentation
takes a heavy toll of aquatic life. Suspended matter in water diminishes the
sunlight needed by certain organisms to grow, I am told, and thus eliminates
the food on which aquatic life feeds. Sand, silt, and clay may completely
smother out spawning beds.

Few fishermen will venture forth a -fishing when streams are muddy.
A study of the fishing habits on the Meramec River in Missouri made sev¬
eral years ago by the Missouri State Planning Board showed that when the
waters of this stream are muddy, recreational attendance drops (or did at
the time) by one- third. (Brown, 1945). It was found that stream flow
was above normal and the Meramec muddy, on the average, about 2 5 times
each recreational season. As a result, loss of attendance and income to the
people of the area was estimated at $49,000 a year.

* Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart. 1945.

1951, No, 2 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 153

June 30

The damaging effects of sedimentation on the oyster industry of the
Chesapeake Bay area is one of the best illustrations showing the toll taken
by the indirect effect of soil erosion on marine life in Bay waters. Mary¬
land’s oyster production, once considered second only to agriculture among
the state’s industries, was 1 5 million bushels a year during the period of
1883-1885. By 1950, it had dropped to only l/2 million bushels. The ob¬
servations of biologists and other authorities confirm the fact that the de¬
cline of the oyster industry in Chesapeake Bay waters parallels strikingly
the silting up of Bay ports, described earlier. Newcombe (1950) with
whose studies many of you no doubt are acquainted, has brought out this
fact quite strongly.

"Studies have shown that over-fishing and siltation operate together to
cause depletion,” he points out, "... Throughout the Chesapeake tribu¬
taries silt is the oyster’s greatest natural enemy . .

Newcombe supports that conclusion with statements from documents
of Colonial days and figures on present-day silt measurements and oyster
populations. He reports, for example, that whereas several hundred boats
plied the oyster trade in the York River in Virginia as late as 1900, fewer
than 50 boats can be counted now; and the estimated 12,000 or more
tongers who worked in Virginia alone in the 1 880’s has dropped to only
about 2,500.

Heaps of oyster shells found on the shores of the upper tributaries of
Chesapeake Bay show that the Indians took them from extreme upper bay
waters, but the bottoms of these tributaries now are soft mud in which
oysters cannot exist. The head of oyster propagation today is many miles
down-bay from those former good producing sites. Dr. R. V. Truitt, Di¬
rector of the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory of the Maryland State De¬
partment of Research and Education, at Solomons Island, is of the opinion
that, at least in the last few years, upper-Bay beds have been destroyed by
freshets. He thinks there is reason to believe that the increased fresh water
inflow is the result of erosion in the uplands.

Dr. Truitt had this to say, when interviewed recently: "Although
there is no specific evidence, it is my firm belief . . . that poor management
of the land around the bay and lack of conservation practices is responsible
in no small degree for the declining oyster production. Unless the land is
properly managed, erosion will bring about a further decline in oyster
yields.”

The Chesapeake Bay Institute’s hydrographic program includes, in co¬
operation with Johns Hopkins University, a sampling of the bottom of the
Bay by borings. It is expected that the silt figure will be helpful in showing
the effects of such depositions on marine habitat and life in the Bay area.

The decline in oyster production has in no wise been confined to the
Chesapeake Bay, but applies to the whole East Coast reporting area, includ¬
ing the Gulf of Mexico. Thus, in 18 80,* the first year of record, the figures
show, that production for this area totaled 153,405,000 pounds of shucked
oyster meat. By 1945 (U.S.F.W.S. 1949), the production had dropped to
65,392,000. That represents a decline of approximately 57*4 per cent.
West Coast production is not taken into account; because, as you probably

* The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. Sec. 2, Senate Document No.

124, 47th Congress. 1887.

154

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

know, importation of Asiatic seed oysters spawned in Japan, particularly
since the 1930's, has greatly expanded oyster production in that part of the
country (from 1,050,000 pounds in 1888 to 10,074,000 in 1945.** ***

SOURCE OF SILT

Wherever silt is found, in reservoirs, streams, or bays, the bulk of it
comes from the land as the result of soil erosion. The Soil Conservation
Service estimates that in this country at least 4 billion tons of soil are an¬
nually moved out of place some distance downhill by water erosion. Of this
amount, roughly 3 billion tons are deposited on lower slopes, over alluvial
plains, and in reservoirs, ditches, canals, and fresh-water harbors. About 1
billion tons a year is carried on down to tidewater. Part of this silt is de¬
posited as sediment in our harbors and navigable channels, where it must
be removed by dredging in order to maintain proper water depth. Most of
it goes on out to sea or is deposited on the lowest part of deltas and over
continental shelf positions.

Silt load measurements made on Texas streams * * * indicate that the
major rivers-— the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe and Nueces,
Rio Grande, San Antonio— discharge an average of about 80 million tons
of sediment into the Gulf of Mexico each year.

That figure, however, represents only a small part of the soil moved
downslope by erosion. For example, the 80 million tons amounts to only
about 1 ton per acre derived from the approximately 80 million acres above
the measuring stations. The Soil Conservation Service has measured annual
surface losses of more than 2 5 tons of soil per acre by erosion from corn
plots of Houston clay at the Temple, Texas, experiment station.

The silt load at tidewater would be even greater were it not for the
sediment removed by deposition in reservoirs and stream channels within
the watersheds upstream. Reservoir sedimentation surveys made by the Soil
Conservation Service show the annual rates of deposition to be about 5,500,-
000 tons in Buchanan Reservoir, 400,000 tons in Medina Reservoir, 860,000
tons in Lake Corpus Christi, 9,750,000 tons in Possum Kingdom, and
1,900,000 tons in Lake Nasworthy. This sediment is derived mainly from
erosion of crop and range lands in Texas.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND SILT CONTROL

It should be clear enough, then, that the task of reducing floods and
controlling erosion and thereby reducing the intake of silt by our reser¬
voirs, bays, and estuaries, is one which should begin where the rains fall
and runoff starts, and end only when the runoff reaches the sea. A main ob¬
jective of all the conservation work which the Soil Conservation does is to
retard the discharge of water from upstream areas. In other words, the
purpose is to put as much of the runoff as possible into the reservoir of the
soil. Probably more than 75 per cent of the nation's total watershed flood
damage occurs in the upstream tributary watersheds, along the little head¬
waters streams.

** U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service records. (Statistics in pounds of oyster meat, because of
varying bushel sizes and poundage records used in different states.)

*** Silt Load of Texas Streams, 1948-1949. Texas Board of Water Supply (Soil Conservation
Service cooperating), Progress Report No. 11. 1950

1951, No. 2
June 30

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

155

ONLY BY USING TERRACING, strip cropping an outlet control as shown in this
photograph taken on the Elm Creek Watershed, Bell County, near Temple, Texas,
can our precious soil be conserved.

And while thus retarding runoff, the rate of silt production by erosion
is reduced. In our normal conservation work, the objective is always to
keep agricultural land permanently productive while in use. In flood control
operations, more emphasis is put on the task of slowing down runoff. So,
in the complete watershed program, the principal effort is devoted to meas¬
ures that help to store water in the soil and slow down runoff. The two
types of control are complementary in effect, at least in some degree: gen¬
erally speaking, slowing down of runoff reduces the rate of erosion, while
the measures applied to the land for erosion control result in increased in¬
filtration of rainfall, thereby reducing the runoff. Both actions are bene¬
ficial to the land, reduce production of silt, and lessen flood hazards.

The flow and quality of water in surface streams are influenced mater¬
ially by the way we use and manage our land resources; but in a great many
instances individual landowners and water users have little or no control
over the activities involved with stream flow and hence are unable to deal
with them alone. As a result, local agencies and groups like your own and
the soil conservation districts are concerning themselves more and more
with water control problems.

156

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Soil Conservation Service in fulfilling its authorized responsibilities
is committed to doing everything possible within its resources to provide
technical assistance needed in dealing with the erosion problem, siltation,
floods, and water wastage. Thus the water conservation activities of the
Service are continuously geared to the needs of the land and water users
and are coordinated with the activities of other agencies concerned with
land and water. To this end, we define water conservation— which always
has been part and parcel of soil conservation in our Service planning, opera¬
tions, and research— -this way:

WATER CONSERVATION

Water conservation is the physical control, protection, management,
and prudent use of water in such a way as to maintain crop, grazing, and
forest lands, vegetal cover, and wildlife for maximum sustained benefits to
people, agriculture, industry, commerce, and other segments of the national
economy.

WHAT HAPPENED TO LAKE WACO

If erosion in a watershed can be reduced, sedimentation in reservoirs,
harbors, and estuaries can be reduced. Recent studies made by the Soil Con¬
servation Service at Lake Waco here in Texas illustrate this fact. This reser¬
voir built on the Bosque River by the City of Waco for municipal water
in 1930, had an original capacity of 40,000 acre feet and a drainage area
of 1,666 square miles. From 1930 to 1936, the average annual capacity loss
from suiting was 3.3 5 per cent, but from 1936 to 1947 the rate dropped to
2.06 per cent. Actually, the rainfall and runoff were more favorable to
erosion and silting during the second period; but silting actually decreased
3 8 per cent as a result of changes in land use and the application of con¬
servation practices in the watershed.

Since 1934, approximately 200 000 acres, or nearly 19 percent of the
watershed, has been converted from clean-tilled crops— -mainly cotton—
to pasture. Conservation measures have been carried out through the soil
conservation districts program on about 1 0 percent of the land in this
watershed, and additional conservation measures not under district plans
have been installed on additional acreages. Further reductions in the rate
of silting of Lake Waco can be expected from the conservation land treat¬
ment being extended steadily over the watershed.

Similar examples are to be found all over the country. For example,
conservation treatment in the 14-square mile watershed above Lake I’ssa-
queena near Clemson, South Carolina, between 1941 and 1949 reduced the
rates of silting of that reservoir by 53 percent. Here again rainfall and
runoff were above normal during this period as compared with the years
before 1941. (Noll, 1950). Rotation strip cropping applied on some 1,400
acres was the major practice used. These results demonstrate, wherever they
occur, that if you slow down erosion, you will reduce sedimentation. And
the control of erosion on the watershed has many off-site benefits, such as
reduction in flood damage and in rates of silting of reservoirs, harbors, and
estuaries, in addition to creating more favorable conditions for the propa¬
gation of aquatic life.

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

157

1951, No. 2
June 30

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

UNCONTROLLED EROSION rapidly produces conditions behind dams such as
shown in this photograph of the Dan River at Schoolfield, Virginia. Besides the loss
of the top soil, the filling of reservoirs causes great loss and damage.

SOIL CONSERVATION ONLY WAY TO CONTROL SILT

The only way, moreover, in which water pollution from silt, with the
attendant problems of sedimentation can be controlled or reduced effectively
is by the adoption of soil and water conservation practices applied in ac¬
cordance with the needs and capabilities of the land. Contour farming, strip
cropping, terracing, good pasture, and range development and management,
proper woodland management, land-use changes, and various other specific
land-management measures which have proved to be successful in the con¬
trol of soil erosion and water runoff must be applied to the land by those
who use the land.

It is not enough to treat just part of a farm, or part of a watershed,
or part of any other area of land. Every acre of cropland, pasture land,
farm woodland, and idle land must be treated according to its needs and
each area used according to its capabilities. That is true, whether it is in
major watersheds for flood control and silt-pollution abatement purposes,
on individual farms and fields for erosion control, or through such group
undertakings as conservation drainage or irrigation projects. That is exactly
what is being done by farmers in their soil conservation districts, with
which we cooperate.

158

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 39

I am convinced, also, that this unprecedented attention to and progress
in soil and water conservation which we are experiencing in today’s con¬
servation farming era is contributing as much, if not more, to the welfare
of game, fish and other beneficial wildlife as anything man has ever under¬
taken in this country or anywhere else. In this new conservation era, con¬
servation of land, water, forest, grass, cultivated crops, and wildlife are,
for the first time in the history of man, being tied together and scientifically
coordinated on the basis of land capability and need. This is a basic tenet of
modern soil conservation.

PUBLIC BENEFITS

Ordinary soil and water conservation measures are for the protection
and improvement of the land on which they are applied, and consequently
the principal benefit is received by the owner or operator of the farm on
which such work is done. Therefore, it is only proper that the farmer
should bear the principal cost. On the other hand, the special measures and
structures used in flood control are designed to benefit downstream bottom¬
lands and to keep sediment out of stream channels, reservoirs, bays, etc.
Because these are public benefits, the public — -through community groups,
or county, state, and federal government — should bear its proportionate
part of the costs so long as they are justified by the benefits to be expected.

FLOOD CONTROL ON THE TRINITY

Among the streams which dump sediment into your Gulf waters is
the Trinity River. You probably are familiar with the flood control program
underway on this stream under the Army Corps of Engineers. Also this is
one of the 1 1 major watersheds in the country — the largest one of the
eleven — in which the Soil Conservation Service is carrying on waterflow
retardation works of improvement. Our Service and the Forest Service are
the two U. S. Department of Agriculture agencies authorized under the
1936 and subsequent flood control acts to engage in this work. We do it
through the soil conservation districts. We have been working on the
Trinity since 1947, although the flood control surveys were made earlier.

Watershed treatment work in the 3,860-acre Howard Creek sub¬
watershed of the Trinity River watershed, near Jacksboro, is typical of
much of the work done in the 1 1 authorized watersheds. This sub-watershed
was chosen for early flood control operations because of local interest. The
sub-watershed improvement plan, developed cooperatively by the Soil Con¬
servation Service and the local people, included installation of terraces with
protected outlets on many cultivated fields, contour farming, cover crop¬
ping, improved grazing practices, seeding abandoned cropland to pasture
grasses, eradication of brush for the establishment of grass, building of
diversion ditches and farm ponds, construction of a small upstream res¬
ervoir for retarding floodwater and reducing deposition of sediment in
reservoirs and over bottomlands.

On June 24, 1949, six months after the reservoir was completed, two
inches of rain fell in one hour on the lands above the reservoir. The runoff
from this rain, which before the conservation treatment would have flooded
cropland and pastures along this branch of Howard Creek, was retarded in
the reservoir so that the peak flow in the creek was only 2 5 percent of
channel capacity.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

159

The May, 1949 flood in the vicinity of Fort Worth, which did nearly
$9,000,000 of erosion, crop, and pasture damage and estimated miscellaneous
damage from $15,000,000 to $2 5,000,000 to city and other property, was
from a storm in only part of the Trinity River watershed. It originated in
the type of watershed in which we are working. The Trinity watershed area
is completely covered by soil conservation districts; so we may look forward
to widespread beneficial results in the reduction of such damages in the
future as more of the conservation is completed.

COOPERATION OF LOCAL INTERESTS

A most important factor in this watershed planning and treatment is
the active cooperation of local interests. In the case of the Trinity, the
Trinity Improvement Association should be mentioned, among others. At
San Antonio, through the San Antonio River Canal and Conservancy Dis¬
trict, the local people have been so determined to speed up this kind of
work that the Conservancy District has arranged to set up trust funds to
pay the cost of a flood control survey on that watershed. That was after
appropriations were not forthcoming for the service to proceed otherwise
with the survey as planned.

Flood control surveys are under way, meanwhile, on the Sabine-Neches
watershed by the Soil Conservation Service and we have completed a survey
on the Little River Branch of the Brazos. Surveys have been made on the
Bosque and are under way on the remaining part of the Brazos. Other flood
control surveys in progress involving Texas watersheds include those on
the Pecos, in the lower part of the state; on Red River, a large part of which
is in Texas; and the San Jacinto. Works of improvement are under way on
the Middle Colorado and the work already undertaken on the Washita
River watershed in Oklahoma, which likewise affects Texas areas somewhat,
has attracted national attention among the 1 1 authorized watersheds.

SOIL CONSERVATION DISTRICTS

It should be understood, however, that the soil and water conservation
work which concerns you and every other segment of society in Texas and
in the nation is not confined to this flood control type of operations. It is
progressing at a constantly accelerated rate throughout the state and the
whole country, in the farmer-organized and farmer-managed soil conserva¬
tion districts.

As of January 1, this year, more than four-fifths of all the farms and
three-fourths of all the land in farms in the United States were included
within soil conservation district boundaries. These districts, which are still
being formed at an average rate of 8 to 10 a month, now number nearly
2,3 50 and cover 1*4 billion acres in the 48 states, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto
Rico, and the Virgin Islands.

Texas is high up in the district column, with 93 percent of the state’s
farms and ranches and 89 percent of the total land in 160 soil conservation
districts as of February 1, this year.

District organization, of course, is not enough by itself. It is the soil
and water conservation work that actually gets done on the land that counts.
To January 1 detailed conservation surveys had been made on 361 million
acres in the districts; 941,000 conservation farm plans had been worked
out by district farmers and Soil Conservation Service technicians out on the

160

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

land together, covering 260 million acres; and 131 million acres had been
treated with conservation measures called for in the plans. All my figures
are from the records of the Soil Conservation Service. They do not include
PMA figures, or those from other federal, state, or private agencies except
as the activities of these other agencies have contributed to the work done
on the SCS planned farms.

I could, of course, give you the comparable accomplishment figures,
for the state of Texas; but, if you are not already acquainted with them,
you may obtain them in detail from our local offices.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SCS PROGRAM

I have already mentioned some of the various conservation measures
which are used in this acre-by-acre land treatment. I should like to mention
further, however, some of the biological aspects of our technical program.
We give particular attention to training in biology for our farm planners
and other technicians who work with farmers out in their fields (not in an
office) . The farm planner considers the value of treating various types of
land, not only for their primary use but also with an eye to any modifica¬
tion or special practice that will result in more wildlife through complete
and adequate land treatment. He is expertly equipped to do this, because
his understanding of the biology aspects of soil and water conservation plan¬
ning and treatment is dovetailed with similar basic knowledge and adept¬
ness in soil science, geology, forestry, range management, hydrology agron¬
omy, engineering, and other phases of a complete, coordinated soil and water
conservation program.

The Service’s stated biology objectives may be of particular interest to

you:

1. To apply to land-use problems biological knowledge useful in the pre¬
vention and control of soil erosion— -that is, soil and water conservation
—thereby preserving natural resources.

2. To achieve productive land use on all lands, including those not adapted
to- tilled crops, grazing, or wood production.

3. To assist in the solution of land-use problems which involve production
of useful wild plants and animals on croplands, grazing lands, and wood¬
lands.

4. To contribute to the prevention and control of biological damage arising
out of measures established for soil and water conservation and related
land-use practices.

We now can say that national policy and public thinking, with few
exceptions, are agreed on the utter necessity of conserving our interlocking
natural resources. Research, education, surveys and the successful applica¬
tion of conservation measures have brought us to a new concept of the
importance of land and, also, of the need for keeping the land permanently
productive. Nature’s laws were so contrived that land, water, plants, and
animals all should exist in harmony and interdependence for perpetual pro¬
ductiveness of these essential resources.

The problem of soil and water conservation and wise use is not a prob¬
lem that can wait until farmers solve it by any trial-and-error method, for
that might be too late. This is an urgent problem, which demands the best
efforts of the nation’s scientists and of all who use the land for agricultural
purposes. And the understanding cooperation and active participation in its

1951, No. 2
June 30

Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters

161

solution by industrial and all other groups in our society are indispensable
to getting done in time this vital job which so importantly affects all of us.

We now have the knowledge of how to do the job; the conservation
tools have been perfected and tested; and, what is more important, we have
the organization and public support for doing the job. Not only is there no
excuse for our not doing the job, but we dare not shirk it; because our in¬
dividual and national security, peace and prosperity depend on it.

LITERATURE CITED

Banks, Edgar J. — 1913 — The reclamation of ancient Babylonia by irrigation. Engr. News
69 (10) : 468-469.

Bennett, H. H. — 1939 — Soil Conservation. McGraw-Hill. New York & London, i-xvii, 993 pp.

Brown, Carl B. — 1945 — Floods and Fishing. The Land 4(1) : 78-79.

Gottschalk, L. C. — 1944 — Sedimentation in a great harbor. Soil Conservation 10(1) : 3-5;
11-12. July, 1944.

Gottschalk, L. C. — 1945 — Effects of soil erosion on navigation in upper Chesapeake Bay.
The Geographical Review 35(2) : 219-238. April, 1945.

Newcombe, Curtis L. — 1950 — Treasures in troubled waters. The Scientific Monthly 70(2) *.1-6.
February, 1950.

Noll, John J., Roehl, John W., and Jackson Bennett — 1950 — Effects of soil conservation on
sedimentation in Lake Issaqueena, Pickens county. South Carolina. U. S. Soil Con¬
servation Service. SCS-TP-95. Spartanburg, S. C.

Richards, Annette S. — 1950 — A new battle of the Brandywine. Reprinted from Nature
Magazine. 3 pp. February, 1950.

Saville, Sir Leopold — 1940 — Presidential address to the institution of civil engineers. The
Engineer (London). 170(4427) : 316-317.

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service — 1949 — Fishery Statistics of the United States, 1945. Statis¬
tical Digest 18 : 1-372. Washington.

Senate Document— 1887 — The fisheries and fishery industries of the United States. Washing¬
ton, D. C.

Texas Board of Water Supply — 1950 — Progress Report No. 11, Silt load of Texas streams,
1948-1949.

162

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

THE SILT LOAD OF TEXAS STREAMS

CHARLES S. STEVENS *

Lockwood & Andrews
Consulting Engineers
Houston, Texas

The sediment and silt carried by Texas streams is associated with in¬
tensive rainfall. The erratic nature of the rainfall in Texas is well known.
It is not unusual in some parts of the State for more rain to fall within 24
hours than the average annual rainfall for that locality. This fact is well
illustrated by the storm of June 23-24, 1948, when in parts of Edwards,
Kenney and Val Verde Counties, 24 or more inches of rain fell within a
period of about 19 hours, whereas the average annual rainfall in this area
is approximately 20 inches.

Heavy rainfall like that of June 1948, is not a particularly rare oc¬
currence in many parts of the State. With much of the total annual rain¬
fall for the state accounted for by excessive rains of the "cloudburst type,”
frequent periods of little or no rainfall may be expected. Therefore, severe
droughts are not uncommon.

Droughts result in the denudation of the plant cover of the soil. With
his plow and axe, man has aided the destructive force known as soil erosion
by removing the covering of grass and trees and brush and vines.

The rainfall, being of the erratic nature that it is, necessarily results in
erratic stream flow, as the stream flow is dependent directly, in most places,
on the rainfall. Lacking protective plant cover, during times of heavy pre¬
cipitation soil is torn from its place by water, carried by water, and deposited
by water.

When in its lightest form and at its minimum, sediment may be only
the "murk” in the cloudy water of a spring or merely the discoloration in a
river. At a maximum, soil on the move may resemble a concrete mix which
contains but little water but floats great boulders on its surface like so many
corks.

There has been a growing recognition of the significance of the silt
problem and of the need for coordination of efforts in its investigation.
The Division of Irrigation of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, sampled
the suspended load of the Brazos and Wichita Rivers from 1900-1902; in
1924, a program of systematic measurements of the silt load of Texas streams
was instituted by the Division and has been continued to date under a co¬
operative agreement with the Board of Water Engineers.

A silt particle (suspended material) consists of clay material 1/256 to
1 / 1 6 mm in size and a clay particle smaller than 1/256 mm in size or the
material which will pass a 300 mesh Tyler sieve; sediment (bed load ma¬
terial) ranges from fine sand, l/g to % mm in size, to cobbles ranging in
size from 64 to 2 56 mm. The density of silt is dependent upon the size of
the particles and amount of compaction, varying from 20 lbs. to 100 lbs.
per cubic foot and 70 lbs. has come to be accepted as the average ultimate
weight of dry material per cubic foot of deposit.

* Formerly Texas Board of Water Engineers. Paper presented at Rockport, Texas, April 6,
1950, at the Second Semi-Annual Seminar of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas
Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

I951’ Ji°' 2 Silt Load of Texas Streams 163

June 30

The harmful effects of sedimentation may be divided into five major
categories as follows: silt concentration in water; sedimentation in improved
channels, floodways, ditches and canals; sedimentation in reservoirs; deposi¬
tion on land, improvement and habitats; and aggradation of stream chan¬
nels and natural or artificial floodways.

silt concentration in water may be harmful even though the
stream is fully competent to carry all of its load without deposition. High
turbidity may destroy the value of the stream for fish and wildlife. It makes
the stream or lake undesirable for swimming. Coarse sediment in transpor¬
tation may damage power turbines. Silt must be filtered at considerable
cost before the water is acceptable for public, domestic and industrial uses.

SEDIMENTATION OF IMPROVED CHANNELS, FLOODWAYS, DITCHES AND

canals used for navigation, drainage, irrigation and flood control must be
prevented or the sediment removed if these improvements are to function
effectively. Irrigators are constantly confronted with the problem of sedi¬
ment deposition in their canals with the resultant decrease in capacities of
canals. Considerable expense is incurred in overcoming the sediment problem
since it becomes necessary to maintain drag lines throughout the year in
order to minimize the harmful efferts, such as increased pumping heads, de¬
creased canal capacities, and changes in canal gradient, created by sediment
deposition. We are all familiar with the sight of dredges keeping the navi¬
gation channels of the streams open. In many instances, a continuous pro¬
gram of maintenance dredging is required in order to maintain navigation
projects.

sedimentation in reservoirs causes loss of storage capacity which
depreciates the value of the storage development and causes other losses such
as increased evaporation, decreased recreational opportunities and impaired
esthetic values. This problem has been recognized by the designing engineer.
Today, no dam of any consequence is built without first investigating the
silt or sediment load of the stream and then making allowances for sedi¬
mentation deposits by allocation of a specific amount of the storage created
by the dam to dead or sedimentation storage.

The effect of sedimentation on the capacity of a reservoir is well illus¬
trated by the reduction in capacity of Lake Corpus Christi. When con¬
structed in 1934, the lake had a capacity of 54,426 acre feet. (One acre
foot is the amount of water required to cover an area of one acre to a depth
of one foot — equal to approximately 326,000 gallons). Subsequent surveys
conducted by the Soil Conservation Service of the U. S. Department of Agri¬
culture have disclosed a continuous reduction in storage capacity. In the
sedimentation survey of 1942 the storage capacity of the lake was deter¬
mined to be 43,801 acre feet or a reduction from the original capacity of
approximately 20 percent in a period of eight years. A second survey made
in 1948 showed the capacity of the lake to be 39,3 87 acre feet or a reduc¬
tion from the original capacity of 28 percent in a period of 14 years.

It is estimated that by 1960, the deposition of sediment will have re¬
duced the storage capacity of the lake to 2 5,241 acre feet, a reduction of 54
per cent from the original capacity of 54,426 acre feet in a period of ap¬
proximately 2 5 years. Obviously the effects of sedimentation in reservoirs
is extremely important to the designing engineer, particularly in streams
which carry a high sedimentation load.

164

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

DEPOSITION ON LAND, IMPROVEMENTS, AND HABITATS, mainly during
flood flows, causes severe damages in many areas to agricultural land, to
urban areas, to transportation facilities and to native wildlife. Repeated
flooding has been responsible for the loss of rich agricultural land through
deposition. Heavy deposition of infertile material, such as sand, gravel and
boulders, on fertile valley lands has played a major role in destroying or re¬
ducing the productiveness of the flooded lands. Many valuable grazing lands
have thus been converted to willow and alter thickets as a result of a single
storm.

In addition to these direct damages, aggradation of stream channels
and natural or artificial floodways has the effect of increasing flood stage
for any given discharge. Consequently the area inundated and the extent
of flood-water damages may be increasing as a result of sedimentation, al¬
though the volume and rate of runoff remains substantially the same.

The effects of aggradation coupled with the accompanying heavy
growths of weeds, thickets and trees, have resulted in a decrease in convey¬
ance capacity of the leveed channel of the Trinity River at Dallas. A system
of levees for Trinity River at Dallas was completed in 1930, at which time
the old river channel was abandoned and flow was directed through the
new channel. Subsequent discharge measurements show a continuing de¬
crease in conveyance capacity of the leveed channel.

At a rate of discharge of 70,000 cubic feet per second, the gage heights
in feet, recorded by the United States Geological Survey for the Trinity
River at Dallas, were as follows:

in 193 5, 41.5 feet; in 1942, 42.4 feet; and in 1949, 45.5 feet.

The aggradation of channels is responsible for greatly accentuating
flood damages. With clogged channels, flood waters that normally would
do little damage spread out on each side of the channel, overflowing period¬
ically lands that were flooded only occasionally. And with such frequent
overflowing comes also the attending damage, that of overbank deposition
of infertile material upon the flood plain.

In the botanical world, a weed is a plant out of place. In the world of
water, sediment is a weed — soil out of place. Because sediment is the weed
of our water world, we must treat it as a weed, lest it crowd out our valu¬
able plants. Like good gardeners, we must prevent, reduce or control this
weed.

Soil out of place is usually considered a problem of the bottom lands.
It is also a problem in the uplands. Here one will find its origin. The site
from which this debris comes is marked by the thousands of gullies on our
hill lands, by raw cuts in the peaceful banks along our waterways, by
arroyos and ravines in our mountains, plains and deserts. The upland source
is also marked by infertile fields, depleted range, declining agriculture which
invariably are a result of impoverished land.

Soil, or more specifically, topsoil, is the one fixed asset of the farmer.
If he loses it he has nothing. For generations, it was believed that the top¬
soil was inexhaustible. Today, we know that soil resources, with improper
use and care, can be exhausted just as we exhaust a vein of coal or pump
an oil sand dry.

Pause but a moment to consider what happens when rain falls on land
stripped of its topsoil and we can begin to understand the flood dangers re¬
sulting. When water strikes such land, there is little or no vegetation to

1951, No. 2
June 30

Silt Load of Texas Streams

165

break the fall of rain and to retard its run-off. There is no cushioning top¬
soil to absorb the greater portion of the rainfall. When a rain drop strikes
subsoil the force of impact causes fine soil particles to be taken into sus¬
pension, and it becomes a drop of muddy water. Muddy water chokes the
pores of the subsoil, and as a result only a relatively small amount of the
water enters the ground. The remander flows over the surface — downhill.

That is the story of one raindrop falling on bare soil. Multiply that
single drop several billion times and you have accumulated a large body of
soil-filled water. Streamlets are formed and they enlarge. The velocity of
flow rapidly increases and erosive power is generated. Soon rampant waters
tear away the soil and pile it up in natural depressions and erosion-made
gullies. From these gullies the water is discharged, as from tin gutters, into
small streams. Thence, it is poured with maximum speed into the channels
of major streams. Every rain creates thousands of new gullies because of
the much greater percentage of run-off and because the subsoil erodes more
rapidly than absorptive topsoil.

This problem of soil erosion with its attendant ills of soil depletion,
lowered crop yields, and increasing flood threats is a very real menace to
our welfare. However, it would be a mistake to think of erosion damage
solely in terms of impoverished or ruined land. Even the physical aspects
of erosion extend far beyond the limits of farms that are gullied or stripped
of their topsoil. Eroded soil material is frequently carried down from hill¬
side fields and deposited over lowlands or in stream channels. In many cases,
growing crops have been smothered, and fertile bottomland soils buried by
sand and gravel washed from the fields above. In addition, erosional deposits
are destroying the efficiency and value of hundreds of engineering struc¬
tures — irrigation canals, drainage ditches, and reservoirs — -representing in¬
vestments of many millions of dollars.

Thus the problem of sediment control becomes one of flood regulation,
water conservation and soil conservation. Soil conservation service officials
and agricultural leaders have realized that, although we have no way of
governing the amount of rain that falls, we can influence the behavior of
rain water after it strikes the ground. We can either conserve it in the vast
reservoir of the soil and use it for productive purposes, or we can permit it
to run wild, tearing away at the soil and swelling our streams and rivers.

As farmers in a given watershed move in the direction of soil conserva¬
tion and better land use, they will most inevitably help to reduce the flood
hazard in downstream areas. Strip cropping and contour farming conserve
soil and water on gently sloping fields. Cover crops not only help reduce
floods by reducing run-off, keeping the silt on the farm, and increasing the
physical structure of the soil so that infiltration is increased, but may also
serve as soil improving crops which will aid in increasing crop yields. Tem¬
porary and permanent structures in small waterways such as small reser¬
voirs, water spreaders and facilities for flood irrigation aid in waterflow
retardation and soil erosion prevention.

However, this emphasis on land conservation measures for flood regu¬
lation does not for a moment minimize the value of downstream structures
in controlling flood waters. Large engineering works must be the main
bulwark in our defense against major floods. On the other hand, measures
of soil conservation and proper land use in the upper reaches of our water¬
sheds will relieve the pressure on these structures and cut down the amount

166

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

EXTREME GULLY erosion such as this shown near Bowie, Texas in the West Cross
Timbers, rapidly strips soil from farms and ranches.

of silt deposition. A silt-filled reservoir has no more value for flood control
than it has for any other purpose. Consequently, we must attack the flood
and sediment problem root and branch, coordinating upstream and down¬
stream measures of control.

It has been estimated that approximately 54,000,000 acre feet of water
is discharged annually into the Gulf of Mexico from Texas streams. The
discharge for the streams is furnished by run-off from 16 main watershed
areas that vary in size from 2,280 square miles— —Lavaca River- — to 41,700
square miles — Brazos River. The erosion from the watersheds furnishes con¬
siderable silt load to Texas streams varying from 164 acre feet per annum
for the Lavaca watershed at the Edna Station to 24,898 acre feet— -one foot
depth of silt covering 24,898 acres of land area— -per annum for the Brazos
watershed at the Richmond Station.

The demand for river water is increasing, and it is one of the most
important factors in the present and future development of the state. In
order to meet this condition, storage reservoirs are necessary to conserve
water. The storage of water involves silt and its related problems. There¬
fore, silt studies and silt information also have a direct bearing upon the
future development of the state.

The average yearly amount of silt, based on 70 pounds per cubic foot,
from 12 of the main streams discharging into the Gulf of Mexico amounts
to nearly 89,000,000 tons — 68,154 acre feet. The total amount of suspended
silt carried by the Brazos River at the Richmond Station for a period of 23.3
years — silt study period to September 30, 1947 — amounts to 5 80,123 acre

1951, No. 2
June 30

Silt Load of Texas Streams

167

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

HERE, SOIL FROM GULLIES, such as shown in the preceding picture, is being car¬
ried away by Howard Creek near Jacksboro, Texas. This picture was taken below
Detentional Reservoir No. 1, and shows a comparatively small silt load. Before this
reservoir was built, this creek went on a rampage after every heavy rain.

feet, a quantity sufficient to jeopardize the economic life of a reservoir of
the capacity of Lake Possum Kingdom — 750,000 acre feet.

Although most of the suspended silt load carried by Texas streams is
retained in the reservoirs some does pass through the lake by either flowing
over the spillways or through outlet gates and turbines. At Inks Dam located
below Buchanan Dam, three percent of the silt entering Lake Buchanan
Dam, at the San Saba Station passes through both Lake Buchanan and
Lake Inks. At Possum Kingdom Dam, 5 percent of the silt entering the
reservoir at the South Bend Station passes through the reservoir. At Lake
Corpus Christi, 3 6 percent of the silt at the Three Rivers Station appears
in the stream below the dam.

At the present time, the silt studies are being conducted at 24 different
sampling stations. The following table gives a summary of the silt data
collected since 1924 by the Division of Irrigation of the Soil Conservation
Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture under a cooperative agreement
with the Texas Board of Water Engineers.

In connection with harbor work, investigations and studies have been
made by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, with a view to devising means

SUMMARY OF SILT RECORDS COVERING MAJOR STREAMS OF TEXAS
PREPARED BY TEXAS BOARD OF WATER ENGINEERS AND UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Austin, Texas — As of September 30, 1947

168

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

'©©©©©rcsesr^cs©©©©©©© or-©©©©©

cs cs ics pcs r-^fN o *r\ os pcs pcs Gssq cn — oo ©^ Os oo pcs sf pcs —

CS I/'S — sf ITS ICS PCS CS pCSpCSVS OSOSST Sf od'CsGSSO"'Cs

cs r^sor-~tcs — i/-\so — Gsr'-sfsfr<s.Ed'<tfl
^OOCN^OlNOr-ON-HVOCNNA^
00MfS(Nr^(N(N-<O'^Oh-r^'O^:^

00 PCS PCS CS — I — CS
00 ITS 00 © — ITS o
© — CS PCS © © CS

cs — (v)

CS0Oi/"s — cspCSGsr-~©Cs000OC~So2'/'s so © sf sr cs cs

I^m\OrnON'^^5fOCNh-©VOrOfO^^ rftCWONOrAO

r-i©r^— © — pcsi— © h h h o o M

OOOOOOO^iA(0 00©©©

(N M fOONOMA (N rOrO^-O ^

PCS cs ©^SO — VS Os iCS CN PCS ©^ 00 ©^

r7'Gssoso'odi'7c\soodod'<35'©''pcses

CNOO'OO'^fCi’-IrHh.VOtNt^'^

cspcssfoooo — pcsc-'-'^pcs — csr'-'-r-"

C- PCS — I — © rCS Cs
vs © cs 00 cs VO sf
’ *0. 'O rM ITS w-\ ITS

* — Hr^-OMOM

■ © cs <N 00 I 1-1 CS

sr oo

PCS

Sf1 I/S —

oo©vsooGscscssovssooosooovsr^oc pcs © oo © — sr
H in\Q\OCN iO(N00 t^--<0 0 NCsir-iCs 't OOSTSOI^SJ1

00SfSOVSV\r'~OSSfCSCS — VSPCSrCS— 00 — — — ^pCS 00

cs"' I/'S CS cs SO oo © Os sr" PCS PCS

— ros cs

©©©©o©srcs© — ©©o©sooo cs © © © oo —
©Gsoosfisfr~~sroovsGsr'-v\r'--pcspos© os r- sr sr pc>

— t''-ossj,csoor^r-'SOpcscsvspcsi— < r^- vs © vs vs sj* sr os
*-7 r-7 ics sf r^ Os © r~-- res c- cs hc — p"- so pcs — — ics vs vs pcs
HrnrCHt^HrHOSP<SO\OtfSOOHlAfN 00 pcs Hf Sj< © VS

— pcs — os — sr i— ' ^ sf sj* c- os r-^r^i-^o r-i i-H cs cs, r~~ oo

1-7 i-H sf so i-7 — i-7

oor^-sft^-sricNPCspcsoo©©csoosrON'© p" v\ cs c- sf
pcs©'*?©srs0©00'<? — — pcsoovs— © so so vs sc so so
cs— 1 cs pcs cs Cs s}^ © r-^ pcs vs cs sf pcs -’“?©- — -

— sdosrcs — s}:vscsvsvsvson^Cspcspcs vs vs p7 vs vs ©

vs©pO)GsvscsGsr-~r'-~r^-i^-sfCspcscsr^ h- nncn n
rspcsrcscscscsrsv!d<sj<'prsrpcscNpcs©'?t -sf sr pcs sr sr
^sfsrAsrsrsrvscscscssrsrsros'd* cs cs © r-7 cs c-
cs<Ncscscscscssrsrsr'^,<Ncscsoscs srsfpCSCSStPCS
Os Os Os ^S Os Os Os Cs Os OS GS Os OS CS 00 Os Os Os Cs ©i CS

o o o o o c

-o -O H3 H3 -T3 -C

W5W5</3t/i</3(/5W3WW3W^5tC31«tflW3tf5 Ctf CSj 0j Ctf C5

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ts U( Ls 4-

NNNNNNNNNNMNNNNM OOOOOC
2222222222222222 "o"o'o'o"o'c
mcqeQpqcQPQffiraffleQfflfflWfflcQffl uuuuui

Colorado Colorado Columbus-E. Lake4 30-33 37-41 6.997 3,167,710 5,898 8,991,960

1951, No.
June 30

Silt Load of Texas Streams

r-~

IT\

ITS

r_4

r"-

r"'

mvo

r— 1

ITN

1 — 1

t/N

'^r

ir\

v©

r-^

©-

°0

©.

trC

ITS

irC

>r\

rCN

r-T

1— i

*— 1

1 r\

rTi

r— 1

©v ccN XT fftOOONOO xT 00 O^fCv © © m © ©XT in

mxr r-~- cn r— i »r\ oo (N ^fft oo in ccn ccn cn — < ffno xf n

©O © ©©©©© fOfO C\CN'^ ©© '■•H r~t ©O

oo On oo ©C\HrnH go hnh © © © xr © © cn r-

fCN

IT\

r~i

r-t

r--

rCN

C/"N

W*N

l/N

T— 1

t-4

e<N

cCN

r— 1

r--

rCN

r-^

f<N

00.

rCN

■ ^

PCN

fCN

ON Nf

00^

ITS

r<N

00"

' rCN

1— r

no"

©"

l/N

©"

CCN

«— (

r— <

' ©

—h

»n

©-

l/N

f— •

•1—1

. rq

r<N

i-T

s— (

• ©"

r-T

l/N

f-T

t-T

r-^

CN NO ©

«r\

CNnN1

rCN

*/N

1— 1

fCN

l/N

r-H

r--

l/N

r-*

!— 1

WN <NN

rCN

i-T

v~*

cCN

r-t

r~-

T— i

r^-

r->

cnxr

3— 1

t-H

CCN

i^no

CCN

1— ^

cCN

i-q

©^

©"

00"

CCN

no"

©"

CCN©©

©"

r— i

3—1

i— 1

1— 1

CCN

r-~

©_

S-

1— ^

1— 1

i— *

cCN

©,

cCN

c©

cCN

CCN

xr"

cCN

©"

CCN

cCN

CCN

I""

cCN

i— *

i— j

r~;

CCN

l/N

CCN

i— 1

i— 1 1

i—1

1— 1

r-~

1^.

t'-

r~-

CCN

r"~

r--

CCN XT

»n

■A

cCN

CCN

cCN

CCN

cCN

CCN

cCN

CCN

cCN

® o3

&o‘G
2 2
'5 .2

oo >

£ J3

^-*13

c/3 «C O >> C

fjr> /?er © «a c a<N -2 J> 3

- T>-- o (j73 3 c

OJ 3 S_e52 c cj; w ^ c

-5 C ? u 2 3 .« «3 •-• H ^

_ ^ mB o.yc bn— « — ! -? 5

O o O 33 O

V 3

3 e S"ggjj§4’3b§ g*y g Sb~ =53 §|

>3 ifdUHU 3^ u^Q 30 XX p4p^

i-« O

Uj >*

» I

a/ <u
a a
3 3

3 3

3 3 3

00 a/3

> c S s 3 3 .2 § *y 'S 2 j3 CC4/C-5-

3 <ZZZZ *r< & 33

. ^ W3 M Ca

V 1/£ 2/ o u
tao u 0/0/0/

a a
o o

0/ 0/ 5 e
c a <<

j* 2
o .2
a

,§*.§*
c ’2

0/ 0/
-0-0
c c
3 3

o o

vrj «#/ <*«<

U 0/ 0/ 0/ V rhrh

f-_GjSC->'->u|sJU - - , .

0/ 0/
c c

c c

2 2
c e
<<
c

2 2

c a

‘a

as 0/

a a

-3 J3

*3 ”3 3

H3-3 a

3 3 g

33 S 0/ 0/ 3 3 3 0/ 0/ 0/ -y-y 3 3 33'E‘C

OO t-4 JZ £ cZ 1Z £ Pi P^ PB< P^ Ptn c/i 00 co co co co

e 3 -S.S

«« u

$ "S

S .f Ja

“ a s

a ^ -.

5 ft p
c 0) .

g >, ” XI

2 ^ ‘g «

g <2 J3 C
> tj “ o

£ gs &

•P ® c3 s-

^ rfl

Q ,-J ©

^ fO ec

g >> £
S' ^ >3

M -O *

-o § §

a) 2 5
-e .5 c

«h £ o

o &| g
■g 2 S ft
£ a co

« 32

fc > «J

W M M

169

7/ Station discontinued September 30, 1946.

170

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

CREEKS LIKE HOWARD CREEK and Cuchillo Creek (which is shown here) will,
if not controlled, carry off tremendous masses of top soil dumping it into the rivers.
This is the junction of Cuchillo Creek with the main channel of the Rio Grande and
it is easy to see the delta formed by the deposit of silt and debris carried down by
flood waters.

of preventing erosion. As beaches are deposits of sediment (sand, gravel,
and shell), beach erosion studies necessarily involve the study of sedimen¬
tation.

In investigating beach problems, it is important, therefore, to determine
the source of supply of the beach deposits. It can then be ascertained whether
the supply is being interrupted by natural or artificial means and what the
most effective remedial measures might be.

Not infrequently the problem of erosion of a beach is closely con¬
nected with the deposition of sediment in a nearby harbor. An illustrtion of
such a condition is Santa Barbara Harbor, California, created by the con¬
struction of a breakwater. The breakwater caused the deposition of sediment
which was being moved along the coast under the influence of coastal
currents. As the adjacent beaches are dependent for their existence on the
continuing supply of this material, interference with its supply to the
beaches caused them t'b be depleted of sand. At the same time the harbor
was being shoaled. The beach erosion and harbor shoaling situations were
alleviated by pumping on the beach material hydraulically dredged from
the harbor.

Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service

WHERE THE CURRENT slows down and the flood waters of rivers and creeks spread
out, great masses of silt are often deposited. Here 5 inches of upstream top soil is
shown, the result of a flood on the Turkey River in Iowa. Of course this particular silt
helped the man on whose land it was deposited but it was a loss to the upstream
farmer from whose land it came and, had it gone on the sea, would have destroyed
marine life all over the area of its deposit.

In some harbor areas, sedimentation has been attributed to the precipi¬
tation of sediment by the action of salt. Pollution of harbors by industrial
and domestic wastes may also affect the quantity of precipitated matter.
The place and amount of deposits in the harbor vary with tidal conditions
and river discharges. In cases where sediments are being introduced into the
oceans by streams, the study of beach problems may require investigation
of rainfall and run-off of tributary drainage areas. In such situations flood
control projects may have an effect on beaches by modifying the rate of
supply of sediment.

There is no question that sedimentation has created some alluvial soils
which are the best in the world for agricultural purposes— the historical
example being the fertile lands of the Nile Valley and even our own streams,
but as proposed programs of flood control, water conservation and soil
conservation are completed, downstream irrigators may find that they will
have to use more and more fertilizer because they will receive compara¬
tively clear water instead of the rich, silt-laden water now put on the
land. This has been the experience of farmers below Hoover Dam on the
Colorado River where they had been accustomed to river water bringing
in fresh deposits of rich soil and depositing it on their lands.

172

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 39

After the dam was completed, the water received by the farmers con¬
tained less silt and sediment with the result that they had to use more fer¬
tilizer to produce their crops.

Silt and sediment in streams may effect fish life directly by covering
the stream bottoms with a blanket of material which kills out the bottom
fauna and therefore greatly reduces the available food; also by the mechani¬
cal effects in clogging gills and respiratory tubes of aquatic forms and by
abrasive injuries to the gills of many fishes. Indirectly, but none the less
effectively, silt affects the fish by screening out light, by settling organic
waste and thus increasing the oxygen demand at the bottom of the stream,
and by retaining many forms of industrial wastes, as oils, chemical wastes,
and pulps in beds on the floor of the stream with disastrous results to the
bottom fauna.

Since the silt and sedimentation loads of streams are so closely associ¬
ated with intensity of rainfall which in turn determines the major portion
of our stream flows, the problem of silt control seems to be one of flood
control. The prevention or effective control will necessitate the adoption
of various remedial measures in suitable combination. Among such meas¬
ures may be afforestation, reforestation, reduction of soil erosion, control of
grazing, construction of detention or storage reservoirs, both large and
small, diversion of flood waters to "spreading grounds,” erection of levees,
provision of floodways and the clearance or alteration of stream channels.
The determination in a given case of the most suitable measure or combi¬
nation of measures may require both intensive and extensive investigations.

The prevention of floods in most drainage areas appears to be impossible
by any means, for man cannot control precipitation. In many drainage
areas, prevention of them would be impracticable; even were it possible,
the cost would be unwarranted. In general, reduction of flood peaks by
retardation or diminution of run-off to stream channels from tributary
slopes, in so far as practicable, and control of flood waters along stream
channels in reservoirs, between levees, and the like, where feasible and de¬
sirable, must suffice. The effective correction of flood flow is the sound objec¬
tive; control, rather than prevention, is the attainable goal.

LITERATURE CITED

Brown, Carl B., Jones, Victor H. and Ross E. Roberts — 1948 — Report on Sedimentation in
Lake Corpus Christi and the Water Supply of Corpus Christi, Texas. U. S. Depart¬
ment of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Fort Worth, Texas.

Bureau of Reclamation — 1948 — Proceedings of the Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation
Conference. U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.

Texas Board of Water Engineers — 1948 — Progress Report. Austin, Texas.

U. S. Geological Survey — 1949 — Flood of May 17, 1949 at Fort Worth, Texas. Austin, Texas.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Pressure Waves in Liquids

173

PRESSURE WAVES IN LIQUIDS

C. F. SQUIRE *

The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

A liquid is a medium through which compressional waves move with
very little attenuation and with a speed which is roughly midway between
that of the gas phase of the system and of its solid phase. Indeed we some¬
times build a theory of a liquid from the solid phase concepts and some¬
times treat it like a gas which is very dense. Shear waves which can exist
so readily in a solid are no longer to be found in the liquid phase except at
frequencies somewhat above 1000 megacycles per second. The exponential
increase of the viscosity of a liquid as the temperature is lowered indicates
to us that the binding force between molecules steadily increases the locali¬
zation of the molecules and that very rapid shear waves are possible. Re¬
search on the velocity and the attenuation of sound or compression waves
has thrown some light on the properties of liquids.

The pulse sound techniques at 10 megacycles/sec has been discussed
elsewhere at this symposium and in particular by Overton. The precautions
taken by all researchers in this field is to be sure that the temperature re¬
mains constant, to be sure not to drive the crystal amplitude so large as to
cause cavitation, and to work with pure substances.

The velocity of compressional waves in a gas is the well known ex¬
pression: .

C,.= (-3F)

Henry Eyring and coworkers have taken a very simple picture of the liquid
shown here:

Qi£)

where L is the distance between centers of the hard sphere molecules and Lf
is the free-length distance. The hard sphere is supposed to short circuit the
sound wave with infinite velocity. Eyring then writes the velocity of com¬
pressional waves as:

c„ = fe)£.

We may question the meaning of the size of the hard spheres by examining
the molecule size in the gas phase. There we have the famous van der Waals
equation of state wherein the size of the molecule is subtracted from the
volume of the vessel. Table I gives the experimentally determined correction
term, b, in cm3 per mol and compares it with the volume per mol of liquid.

CrflS

TABLE I

> cm3/ mol

26.5

23.6
38.3
32.2
16.9

V/n of liquid

26.4

27.4
32.8

25.7

14.8

Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950.

174

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

The only case where the size of the molecule is less than that of the liquid
is in helium. In liquid helium the velocity of compression waves is about
180 meters/sec which is in the case of a gas sound velocity. The velocity of
sound in liquid Ho is up to 1187 meters/sec. The velocity in liquid O2 is
910 m/sec at 90° K while the velocity in oxygen vapor at the same tem¬
perature is 180 m/sec. The model of Eyring cannot be interpreted as having
hard sphere diameters related to the gas phase. The theoretical equation for
the velocity has been given by Kittel:

where Va = V — V0 is the available volume caused by expansion from O0 K
where the system has a solid state volume V0. a is the specific heat ratio.

The sound velocity of various organic liquids are not widely different
where the molecules are nearly alike (acording to Van Itterbeek) :

TABLE 11

System Temp. °C Velocity m/sec Density gm/ cm3

Benzene 20.7 1329.5 0.866

Toluene 16 1361.8 0.868

Sound energy is absorbed by the liquid because of viscosity and for
associated liquids like the low carbon alcohols and like water this is the
principal source of sound attenuation. Thermal conduction is important in
liquid mercury and also in liquid helium. This is so for helium because the
viscosity is so very small and the velocity so small that there is plenty of
time for the thermal energy to diffuse from the hot part of the compressional
wave to the cool part. So called relaxation effects in which energy is lost
to vibrational energy of the molecule is probably responsible to attenuation
in carbon disulfide, carbon tetrochloride, and in benzene.

Experimentally one finds the amplitude attenuation is exponential with
the distance and this is in accord with theoretical ideas. The amplitude of
the particle velocity in the pressure wave depends on the distance of propa¬
gation x by the relation:

U = U„e

and the viscosity term contributes a constant

«. . JL v'9

r " 3 c3

v/U ? « ^ A

where n is viscosity and f the frequency.

The thermal term also contributes a constant such that the total a is pro¬
portional to the square of the frequency; Table III gives some values:

System

h2o

CS2

TABLE III

Attenuation Constant
6.6 x 10“17 sec2/ cm
50 x 10"17
11,000 x 10“17

1951, No. 2
June 30

Pressure Waves in Liquids

175

The enormous value of carbon disulfide indicates a relaxation frequency in
the neighborhood of the frequency used (1 megacycle/sec) . Recently Rap-
uano measured the constant for CS2 between 280 and 560 megacycles/sec
and found the constant to be much smaller-— going from 3000 x 10-17 down
to 1000 x 10~17 at the higher frequencies. This looks like Rapuano worked
on the high side of a broad relaxation frequency.

Attenuation studies in liquid helium by Pellam and Squire reveal three
important features:

a) In the upper temperature range of He the measured attenuation
agrees with the classical theory.

b) At the transition to superfluid helium the attenuation rises abruptly,
presumably to infinity, indicating complete absorption of the
energy.

c) Just below the transition the attenuation has a minimum value
and with lowering the temperature the attenuation increases.

literature cited

Overton, W. C., Jr.— 1950— Cheni. Phys. 18:113.

Eyring, H. and J. O. Hirschfelder — 1937 — Chem. Phys. 41 : 249.

Kittel, C — Reports on Progress in Physics. 11 : 219.

Von Itterbeek, H. and A. DeBock — 1949 — Physica 14:609.

Pellam, J. and C. Squire — 1947 — Phys. Rev. 71 : 477.

Rapuano, R. A. 1950 — Technical Report 151 : Lab. of Electronics, M.I.T.

176

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

ANTIBIOTICS IN MILK

L. G. HARMON *

Department of Dairy Manufactures
Texas Technological College
Lubbock, Texas

The use of antibiotics as inhibitory substances for the growth of micro¬
organisms in food and other products has gained considerable interest in
recent years. An antibiotic is defined as an anti-microbiological substance of
biologic origin. We all realize that biochemists are systhesizing many of the
antibiotics. However in some cases, such as penicillin, they have difficulty in
directing the specificity of the reaction, and secure mixtures of the various
penicillins instead of the usually desired Penicillin G.

Since the institution of the use of various antibiotics in bovine mastitis
therapy, we have had especial cause for concern because the dairy cow elimi¬
nates the antibiotics in her milk, and some dairymen are either uninformed,
misinformed or careless concerning the desirability of withholding the milk
from treated cows. The presence of antibiotics in milk, even in extreme
dilutions, interferes with certain bacterial actions necessary in the manu¬
facture of many by-products of the dairy industry.

In the preparation of many of our products, we use cultures known as
starters, to initiate desired bacterial actions. The microorganism compon¬
ents of these starters varies, depending upon the particular product we are
using. Sometimes we encounter milk which contains substances that are
inhibitory to the micro-flora of the starter, and often great economic loss
is encountered. Inhibitory substances other than antibiotics are known,
and of these, perhaps the following are worthy of mention.

(1) Bacteriocidal Compounds , such as the quaternary ammonias, in¬
hibit starter activity and miscellaneous bacterial growth in milk. The use
of quaternaries as sanitizing agents is to be commended in such places as
eating establishments, but their use by milk producers and dairy plants is
being prohibited by most health departments.

(2) Bacteria phage is a serious problem in the propagation of cultures.
The phage (virus-like) particles are highly specific for given strains of
susceptible organisms. Commercial plants have utilized several effective de¬
vices in combating phage difficulties. However many plants lack personnel
with the requisite technological skill to cope with the problem.

( 3 ) The presence of certain drugs , such as the various sulfa compounds
sometimes used in bovine therapy, have been considered to be inhibitory to
starter organisms.

Returning to the problem of antibiotics in milk, penicillin, aureomycin,
and streptomycin are commonly used in bovine mastitis therapy. Penicillin
has been used longer, and as far as I know is the only one on which assays
have been performed on the milk from the treated animal. In treating in¬
fected or suspected udders with penicillin, doses of around 100,000 oxford
units per quarter are commonly used. It is probable that virtually all of
the injected antibiotic is voided in the milk and in the urine, although total
percentage recovery figures have not been determined.

* Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Antibiotics in Milk

177

Thorp et al (1947) found that when 100,000 units of penicillin are
injected at 9 A. M., the penicillin content of milk subsequently drawn will
be approximately as follows:

11 A. M. — 575 units of penicillin per ml. of milk

1 P. M. — 5 SO units of penicillin per ml. of milk

3 P. M. — 60 units of penicillin per ml. of milk

5 P. M. — 50 units of penicillin per ml. of milk

Twelve hours after injection, the milk usually contains from 20 to 60
units per ml. and after 24 hours it will contain from one to four units per
ml. Even the urine may contain from three to four units per ml. after 24
hours. Thorp et al, also reported that penicillin was always present in milk
from all quarters 48 hours after injection of 100,000 units, and in 75% of
the quarters 72 hours after injection.

In the case of treatment of milk infections, many producers do not
realize the necessity for temporarily excluding the milk from their saleable
supply, especially when the milk is intended for manufacturing purposes.
In fact I have encountered instances in which producers have stated that
their veterinarian has told them it would be unnecessary to exclude any
milkings. Under such circumstances, occasionally milk containing antibiotics
is mixed with the herd milk, and arrives at the plant to be mixed with the
milk from other herds. The presence of this milk in the plant introduces
the problem of how much antibiotic our starter organisms are able to tolerate.

Experiments have been performed in our laboratories at Texas Techno¬
logical College to determine the effect of small amounts of penicillin, strepto¬
mycin and aureomycin on starter activity, and to determine the minimum
amounts necessary to inhibit several different commercial starters.

Trials were also performed, using the drugs sulfathiazole and sulfa¬
nilamide. Distilled water suspensions were prepared in appropriate concen¬
trations to convey the desired amount to the milk samples without diluting
the milk in excess of one percent.

Six different commercial starters of the type commonly used in making
cultured buttermilk, cottage and cheddar cheese, and starter for butter
manufacture were used.

The milks containing the penicillin, streptomycin, aureomycin, sulfa¬
thiazole and sulfanilamide were divided into three different groups and pro¬
cessed at three different temperature and time exposures. In the first group,
the milk was pasteurized according to regular vat pasteurization procedures
at 144° F. for 30 minutes, a method commonly used in cottage cheese mak¬
ing. In the second group, the milk was pasteurized at 180° F. for one hour,
a method generally used in making cultured buttermilk. The third group
was heated at 5 pounds pressure in the autoclave for one hour. Some plants
process the milk for mother cultures in a similar manner.

In all cases the milk samples were colled to 72° F. after the heat treat¬
ment, inoculated with one percent starter, incubated at 72° F. for 16 hours,
cooled to 40° F. and titrated to determine the amount of developed acidity
calculated as lactic acid.

In the interest of brevity, detailed results are not reported in this paper,
but typical results secured with Starter No. 1 will be outlined.

178

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

TABLE I

Acid Development Produced in Milk by a Typical Commercial Starter, working in
the Presence of Indicated Amounts of Antibiotics and Sulfa Drugs.

Incubation temperature — 72° F. Incubation time — 16 hours.

Starter Organisms: S Lactis, Leuconostoc Dextranicum and/or Leuconostoc Citrovorum
Data compiled by L. G. Harmon
Department of Dairy Manufactures
Texas Technological College
Lubbock, Texas

Control Milk

No starter, no antibiotics ... . .

Milk, 1% starter, no antibiotics .

Penicillin

Milk, 1% starter, 1.0 Oxford unit/ml milk
Milk, 1% starter, 0.5 Oxford unit/ml milk.
Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 Oxford unit/ml milk.
Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 Oxford unit/ml milk

Aureomycin

Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk. . . .

Milk, 1% starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk . .

Milk, 1% starter, 0.01 mg/ ml milk. .

Streptomycin

Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk . .

Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk .

Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk. . . . .
Sulfathiazole

Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk .

Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk .

Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk. .

Sulfanilamide

Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk .

Milk, 1% starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk. .

Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk .

Acidity

Past. Past. Autoclaved

144° F.

180° F.

5# Pressure

30 Min.

1 Hr.

. . .17

.17

. . .91

.93

. . .18

.19

.24

. . .18

.20

.37

. . .25

.73

.81

. . .34

. . .18

.18

. . .18

.18

.20

. . .19

.19

.20

. . .17

.18

. . .17

.18

. . .18

.18

. . .88

.85

.86

. . .93

.91

.54

. . .90

.88

.80

. . .90

.90

.88

. . .88

.85

.86

.. .87

.89

.85

In interpreting the results shown in Table I, we should bear in mind
that the 1 % starter used in inoculating these milk samples would automati¬
cally raise the initial acidity approximately .01% above the acidity of the
control.

The effectiveness of aureomycin and streptomycin in inhibiting starter
organisms is to be particularly noted. Additional work should be done, using
lesser amounts, and also the amounts voided in milk from treated animals
should be determined. It is observed that the higher heat treatments tended
to minimize the effectiveness of penicillin, while no effect is noticed with
streptomycin and aureomycin at the concentrations studied.

Inasmuch as we know the approximate amounts of penicillin voided in
milk and inhibitory to starters, we are able to calculate the consequences of
attempting to utilize such milk in the commercial plant.

( 1 ) Assume a producer is milking 40 cows which produce an average
of 3 0 pounds of milk each day or 1200 pounds of milk daily.

(2) Assume one cow is treated with 100,000 units of penicillin per
quarter and the milk is not excluded.

(3) If her evening milk contains 3 8 units and her morning milk two
units of penicillin per ml., then her 30 pounds produced that day contain
20 units per ml. or about 270,000 units, and the milk will be mixed with
the entire herd production.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Antibiotics in Milk

179

(4) The herd produces 1200 pounds daily or about 540,000 ml.

(5) 270,000 _ 0.5 units penicillin per mh, which is sufficient to
540,000 _ completely inhibit starter.

(6) This milk probably will be mixed with milk from other herds at
the plant. We know from our data that 0.05 to 0.1 units of penicillin per
ml. is somewhat inhibitory to starter activity; therefore we are able to cal¬
culate that the above milk might interfere with desired starter development
in the total blended production of from 200 to 400 cows.

In an effort to overcome the inhibitive effect on starters, experiments
have been performed in an effort to raise the penicillin tolerance of cultures
by propagation in milk containing a sub-inhibitory dose of penicillin and
gradually increasing the amount. Katznelson (1949) reports raising the re¬
sistance of a culture to tolerate 2.1 units per ml. However it was the only
one of a large group of cultures tried which developed any resistance. None
of the six cultures used in our laboratory showed any inclination to acquire
resistance to any of the three antibiotics used.

SUMMARY

( 1 ) Sulfanilamide and sulfathiazole at the concentrations and under
the conditions studied showed little inhibitory effect on starters.

(2) Aureomycin and streptomycin in quantities as little as 0.01 mg.
per ml. of milk completely inactivated starters.

(3) Processing time and temperature had no noticeable effect on the
inhibitory ability of aureomycin and streptomycin.

(4) Penicillin inhibited starter activity when used in concentrations
varying from .0 5 up to 1.0 units per ml., depending upon the heat treat¬
ment of the milk containing the penicillin,

( 5 ) It is necessary that veterinarians and producers be instructed con¬
cerning the necessity of withholding, for a period of 48 hours, the milk
from any cows receiving antibiotic treatment for mastitis.

literature cited

Katznelson, H. and E. G. Hood — 1949 — Influence of penicillin and other antibiotics on lactic
streptococci in starter cultures used in cheddar cheese making. Jour. Dairy Science
32 : 961-968.

Thorp, W. T. S-, Ulrick, I. J. and E. J. Straley — 1947 — Concentrations of penicillin in the
bovine mammary gland following infusion and penicillin tolerance of certain strepto¬
cocci. Am. Jour. Vet. Research 8 : 157-165.

180

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

DETERMINATION OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX
OF A BINARY LIQUID MIXTURE

OLIVIA COVACEVICH *

Incarnate Word College
San Antonio, Texas

A binary mixture of 1-4 dioxane and iso-butanol has been under
investigation to determine the refractive index at concentrations varying
in intervals of S%. The practical application of this experiment is to
determine in bi-product dioxane-alcohol mixtures, in what porportion each
constituent is present.

So far, dioxane has been used as a powerful solvent for rubber. It
may also be used as a fixative for proteins in Pathological Technology; in
radio active research as an indicator and it has proved to be a convenient
dehydrating agent.

This colorless liquid has several characteristic properties. The melting
point ranges from 9.5-1 0.5°C; the boiling point from 10 1-1 02 °C. The
liquid is very poisonous and it is miscible with water in all porportions.

THE RELATIONSHIP between the angle of incidence and the
angle of refraction.

* First prize paper. Collegiate Section, Dallas Meeting, Texas Academy Science.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Refraction in a Binary Liquid

181

This experiment is based on the principles of refractometry. According
to Snell’s Law, when a beam of light travels from a lighter to a denser
medium, the velocity decreases and the beam of light is bent towards the
normal. It is therefore, the proportionality ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence over the sine of the angle of refraction that gives the
refractive index.

Several elements affect the angle of refraction. Measurement of the
refractive index requires that light of known wave length be employed
because the refractive index varies with the wave length of the light used.
Usually the yellow sodium light or white light are recommended. Another
factor that influences the refractive index is temperature. The refractive
index decreases if there is an increase of temperature, since the density is
lessened and fewer molecules per unit volume are present to refract or
deviate the light. The fact that the index of refraction varies with the
concentration, enables one to achieve the practical purpose of the experi¬
ment, the actual determination of the proportion in which each component
is present.

Aside from these pecularities, it may be added that the index of
refraction is a specific constant for each substance; that if any impurities
are present in the liquid mixture, the index of refraction will invariably
indicate it and that it is not affected by ordinary changes in barometric
pressure since the density is only slightly changed by large increments in
pressure.

The first step, then, was to test the purity of the dioxane and
butanol under investigation. Determining the refractive index of each liquid
by the use of the refractometer and then checking the results with the
literature, gave sufficient proof of the purity of these products.

Eighteen volumetric flasks of 50 mis. were now carefully cleaned,
dried, tabulated and weighed. To each flask a different quantity by volume
of iso-butanol was added from a biurette. The volume added was previously
calculated to correspond to certain percentage by weight. Only one fourth
of the volume estimated was used. After the addition of iso-butanol, the
flasks were weighed for a second time and were now ready for the addition
of dioxane. Dioxane, whose volume had been also calculated in the same
manner as iso-butanol was finally added to the iso-butanol in the flasks.
For a third time, the flasks were weighed and the total weight determined.
The weight of the empty flask, the flask plus iso-butanol and the weight
of the iso-butanol-dioxane mixture, were sufficient data to estimate the
exact percentage of each concentration. Any mechanical errors in measuring
the liquids were thus checked.

Now that the solutions had been satisfactorily prepared, the experiment
proceeded to the second stage — the actual determination of the refractive
index.

For this part of the experiment the Abbe Refractometer was used.
This instrument is designed to give by direct scale reading the index of
refraction for the Na line when white light is the source of illumination.

Measurements were made at a temperature of 2 5°C and provisions
to keep the temperature constant were made by allowing thermostated
water to flow in and out through the water jackets in the instrument.

182

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Equipment Used in Experiment

The temperature of the water, was in turn controlled by the use of
a large constant temperature bath, into which an electrical knife edge was
inserted to heat the water. To regulate the temperature a thermostat was
used and to prevent the water from overflowing, a device serving as a
siphon was employed. A stirrer helped the even distribution of heat
throughout the water bath.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Refraction in a Binary Liquid

183

The mechanism of the refractometer may be explained by the cut
shown above.

White light reflected from the mirror enters the lower prism and is
scattered in all directions at its upper ground surface. Rays passing through
the liquid film into the upper prism at an angle near 90° to its surface
will be bent the least on entering the upper prism; rays entering the upper
prism at an angle of near 0° will be bent the most. The latter will
constitute the edge of the bright field observed when the telescope is
moved to the proper position, since, cf course, no rays can enter the
upper prism at a smaller angle.

The boundary line between light and dark field will ordinarily be
fringed with color because both the liquid and the upper glass prism refract
light of different wave lengths to different extents. The Amici prisms in the
telescope barrel correct for this dispersion. If the first prism spreads white
light into a spectrum, the second prism reverses the dispersion when it is
set at an angle of 180° to the first prism. The Amici prism adjustment is

184

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

made by turning the knurled ring on the telescope barrel until the color
fringe disappears, and the sharpest possible light-dark boundary is seen
in the eye piece.

The most reliable method to use the refractive index as a measure of
concentration is interpolation from an empirical calibration curve. The
results were therefore graphed. Concentrations as ordinate, refractive indices
as abcissa.

% 1,4 OlOXANt

•|. HO" 8uT*NOl

!■»«* 1.1944

4044 1.40(4

1.4114 14144 14144 I 41*4

The concentrations to the left represent the percentage of dioxane
present in the mixture; those in the right, the percentage of iso-butanol.
The graph shows that the values of the index of refraction fall almost
along a straight line. This depends on the way concentration is expressed.
Molarity offers a nearly linear relationship; percentage by weight, on the
other hand gives a slightly curved graph.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Refraction in a Binary Liquid

185

The calculated data of the experiment are presented below:

CALC

JLATED DATA OF 1,4 DIOXANE ANO ISO-BUTANOL

Wt. of
is 0-Butanol

wt. of

1,4 Dioxane

% by Wt. |

Butanol i

% by Wt.

1,4 Dioxane

Index of
Refraction

23.475

1,233

100.00 !

0.0

1.3930

95.01 ;

4.99

1.3938 .

21,709

2.458

89.36 *

10.14

1.3951

20.994

3.730

84.82

15.08

1.3961

19.773

5.017

79.77

20.23

1.3972

13.432

6.254

74.04

25.36

1,3980

17.242

7.379

68.64

31.35

1.3995

15.937

3.731

64.55

35.45

1.3999

14.840

9.932

59.91

40.09

1.4010

13.531

11.J210

54.79

45.21

1.4024

12.203

12.502

49.37

50.53

1,4036

11.120

13.547

44.90

55.10

1.4047

9.710

15.022

39,28

60.72

1.4057

0.552

16.155

34.87

65.13

1.4073

7.144

17.434

29.87

70.13

1.4090

6.134

lo# ^50

24.91

75.09

1.4101

4.932

20.042

19. ^5

80.25

1.4119

3.725

21.052

15.02

84.93

1.4136

2.455

22.406

9.91

90.09

1.4151

1.270

23.791

5.07

94.93

1.4170

0.0

100.0

1.4190

- —

. „

186

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

TREMATODES FROM THE MAN-O-WAR BIRD, FREGATA
MAGNIFICENS ROTHSCHILDI, ON THE TEXAS COAST,
WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES,
SCHWARTZITREMA SEAMSTERI

ASA C. CHANDLER
Biological Laboratory
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

Some flukes were collected from the intestine of a man-o-war bird,
taken on the Gulf coast near Corpus Christi, Texas, by Dr. Aaron Seamster
and sent to the writer for examination and identification. One is a hetero-
phyid which corresponds closely with Galactosomum fregatae Prudhoe,
1949. The other is a second species of the peculiar strigeid genus, Schwartz-
itrema, the first species of which, S. schwatrzi, was described by Vigueras
in 1940 from the snake bird, Ankinga aiihinga , in Cuba.

Galactosomum fregatae

This worm was described by Prudhoe (1949) from some not very well
preserved specimens obtained from two man-o-war birds from Trinidad.
On the basis of the specimens at hand it is possible to emend the original
description. The Texas specimens are larger than Prudhoe’s, ranging in
length from 1.3 to 2.4 mm., and from .27 to .46 mm. in maximum diameter.
The forebody may be either broader or narrower than the hindbodv,
depending on the state of contraction. The body is densely covered with
spines; anteriorly the spines are about 7 fx long, but become very small
and inconspicuous posteriorly. Prudhoe’s specimens were spineless, probably
owing to maceration of the cuticle, as he pointed out. The oral sucker is
from 116 to 239 /x in diameter, and the pharynx 100 to 130 (u long and
62 to 8 8 fx in diameter. The prepharynx is nearly twice as long as the
pharynx in some specimens, and only half as long in others. The genital
sinus is 95 to 13 5 jx in diameter. The vitellaria extend forward as far as
the middle of the muscular posterior lobe of the seminal vesicle in some
specimens, in others only to the level of the ovary.

Prudhoe (1949) pointed out that G. fregatae closely resembles G.
cochlear of terns, but differs principally in the greater anterior extent of
the vitelline follicles, and to a lesser degree in the shape and small size of
the body, the greater relative length of the prepharynx and the shape of
the seminal vesicle. The Texas specimens bring the resemblances of these
two species even closer, since the size of the body and forward extent of
the vitelline glands are intermediate between G cochlear and Prudhoe’s
description of G. fregatae , and the relatively greater length of the pre¬
pharynx seen in Prudhoe’s specimens is not a constant character. G. cochlear
tends to have a more expanded forebody, and the seminal receptacle is
described as being long and coiled. The last, if correct, appears to be the
only definite character separating these two species. The only other species
of Galactosomum reported from man-o-war birds is G. cochleariforme (Ru-

1951, No. 2
June 30

A New Trematode

187

dolphi, 1819), later redescribed and figured by Braun (1901) under the
genus Microlistrum, and by Pratt (1911) under Galactosomum. This species
has been reported from Brazil and from Tortugas, Florida, but is easily
distinguished from G. fregatae by its large size, widened forebody, different
structure of the seminal vesicle, and arrangement of vitellaria in rosettes
of elongated follicles.

Schwartzitrema seamsteri n. sp.

The genus Schwartzitrema, originally given the preoccupied name
Schwartziella by Vigueras in 1940 and corrected by him in 1941, contains
flukes which in some respects bridge the gap between the Strigeidae, with
cup-shaped forebodies, and the Diplostomatidae, with spoon-shaped fore¬
bodies. In Schwartzitrema the ventral wall of the forebodv has grown
forward like a partially zipped-up jacket with a low or "V” neck, but does
not make a complete cup out of the forebody except in contracted
specimens. In S. schwartzi the forebody is cupped for only about half its
length by this ventral fold, but in S. seamsteri it is cupped for about three-
fourths its length. The holdfast organ retains some of the original form
that it possesses in the Diplostomatidae, but has a pair of lateral forward-
projecting lobes which may be interpreted as the forerunners of the dorsal
and ventral lobes of the holdfast organ in typical streigids. In addition to
these structures, however, the flukes of this genus have a unique feature
in a pair of lobes growing out of the inner surface of the dorsal wall of
the forebody cup, anterior to the acetabulum. Vigueras interpreted these
as pseudosuckers, but there seems to be nothing to relate them to the
pseudosuckers of some of the Diplostomatidae. They are apparantly very
mobile, for in S. seamsteri they appear to be elongate in shape, attached in
their middle portion, and capable of being protruded forward in a finger¬
like manner (see figures).

S. seamsteri may be specifically described as follows:

Forebody 775-945 w long by 480-900 w broad, separated from smaller hindbody
by waistline constriction 235-300 ^ in diameter, somewhat flattened dorsoventrally,
with anterior aperaure V-shaped ventrally, bottom of "V” about 340 m from anterior
end of dorsal oral sucker. Hindbody sack-shaped, narrowed anteriorly, broadly trun¬
cate posteriorly, widest portion near middle; 870-1630 u long and 510 to 745 w in
diameter in relaxed specimens, but capable of contracting to a diameter 4/5 the
length. Oral sucker 140-162 ^ long and 108-124 M in diameter. No prepharynx,
Pharnyx 93-108 m long and 70-93 w in diameter. Acetabulum larger than oral
sucker, situated a little behind middle of inner surface of dorsal wall of forebody,
185-232 m long by 200-209 w broad. Anterior to acetabulum, occupying space be¬
tween this and pharynx, a pair of lobes projecting into cavity of forebody from
dorsal wall, versatile in shape, in relaxed specimens appearing attached in middle
portion with anterior and posterior lobes free. Holdfast organ large, attached by a
root-like structure posteriorly, and provided ventrally with a pair of forward-project¬
ing lobes, extending anterior to acetabulum, which may be entirely within cavity of
forebody ( Figs. 1 and 3) or may be protruded out of it (Fig. 2) .

Ovary, obscured by vitellaria in most specimens, immediately anterior to testes,
155 to 170 ix in diameter. Vitellaria confined to hindbody, extending from anterior
end of hindbody to anterior portion of copulatory bursa, dense on ventral side, with
strands of follicles extending to dorsal side anteriorly, usually obscuring ovary, and
also in region between posterior testis and copulary bursa; in testicular region
strands extend only part way around body toward dorsal side. Testes situated in middle
region of hindbody, occupying about 2/5 its length, towards dorsal side of body.
Testes of variable shape, but deeper than long, not separable in many specimens.
Space occupied by the two testes together about as deep as long, or sometimes deeper,
about 320 to 430 g in each direction; posterior testis usually larger than anterior

188

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 39

one. Seminal vesicle behind or partly overlaping posterior testis, about 150 by 125
ia, followed by a smaller ejaculatory pouch. Copulatory bursa very large, about 300
to 325 u deep and 430 to over 500 w across, measured externally. Genital cone
about 140 n long and 140 ^ in diameter at base, surrounded by a thick, muscular
prepuce (Figs. 1 and 4). Eggs 95 to 108 g by 67 to 73 g, numbering from 1 to 7 in
uterus. Type and cotypes: U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 47553.

This peculiar little fluke looks considerably more like a typical strigeid
than does S. schwartzi , which has the cup of the forebody less developed
and has a very long neck-like region between the forebody and the hindbody,
occupied only by the vitellaria. The forebody of S. seamsteri is extremely
mobile as may be judged from Figures 1 to 4. In strongly contracted
specimens, such as the one shown in Figure 4, the worms have a typical
strigeid appearance whereas in relaxed specimens such as the one shown
in Figure 3 they show somewhat more affinity with the diplostomatids.

On the basis of the characters of this species the characterization of
the genus Schwartzitrema as given by Vigueras (1940) should be emended
as follows: (1) body divided in two instead of three parts, the hindbody
sometimes being provided with an elongated neck-like portion; (2) holdfast
organ provided with a pair of forward-projecting lobes, instead of "dentro
de esta cavidad (i.e., of the forebody) aparece un proceso replegado y

Schwartzitrema seamsteri n. sp.

FIG. 1. Partially contracted specimen with the lobes of the holdfast folded back on
themselves, and the pre-acetabular lobes curled ventrally at both ends.

FIG. 2. Forebody of a specimen with holdfast organ protruded out of aperture of
body, and pre-acetabular lobes projected forward, fingerlike.

FIG. 3- A young relaxed specimen.

FIG. 4. A specimen with both forebody and hindbody strongly contracted, with
ventral wall of forebody curled into cup.

1951, No. 2
June 30

A New Trematode

189

pedunculado”; (3) a pair of pedunculated lobes on inner side of dorsal
wall of cup of forebody instead of forebodv "con pseudo-ventosas”; and
(4) posterior extension of vitellaria to posterior end of body, but short of
copula tory bursa.

LITERATURE CITED

Braun, M. — 1901 — §ur Revision der Trematoden der Vogel II. Zentralbl. Bakt., Abt. 1, 29:

895-897.

Pratt, H. S. — 1911 — On Galactosomum cochleariforme Rudolphi. Zool. Anz. 28 : 143-148.
Prudhoe, S. — 1949 — A review of the trematode genus Galactosomum. J. Helm. 23 : 135-156.
Vigueras, I. Perez — 1940 — Notas sobre algunas especies nuevas de trematodes y sobre otras
poco conocidas. Rev. Univ. Habana, Ano V. No. 28-29 : 217-224.

- - 1941 — Schwartzitrema n. n. para Sehwartziella Vigueras, 1940 (Trematoda, Strigeidae)

nec. Sehwartziella Leroux, 1936. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist." Nat. 15:263.

190

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 2
June 30

CONSTRUCTION of an offshore drilling platform under ideal wave, wind, and
weather conditions. This phase of marine work is impeded when waves reach four feet
in height and becomes inefficient and possibly hazardous when waves exceed six feet
in height.

1951, No, 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

191

PHOTOGRAPHING the scope of the SCR-784 long range radar at Grand Isle.
Photographs of the echo patterns on the scope are used for research and record
purposes.

APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY
IN MARINE INDUSTRY ON THE GULF OF MEXICO

A. H. GLENN *

A. H. Glenn and Associates
New Orleans, La.

The states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico are quite fortunate in
having access to what is, in several respects an unusual body of water.
There are two features which distinguish the Gulf from many other ocean
areas which pertain to the immediate topic of this paper. First, the Gulf
has a gently sloping continental shelf under which lie extensive mineral
resources and over which lies an environment suitable for the growth of
many economically valuable marine organisms. Second, the Gulf is a
relatively quiet body of water from the standpoint of ocean wave and
tide action.

By virtue of these two features, it is possible for industries to build
structures exposed to wave action along the shore and in the exposed waters

* Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 25, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of
Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

192

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 2
June 30

PHOTOGRAPH of the radar scope showing a large area of thunderstorms extending
about 30 miles south, and 130 miles north of Grand Isle, La.

of the Gulf and operate small craft in the vicinity of these structures a
high percentage of the time. Also fishermen can work in the costal waters
of the Gulf with small craft involving a relatively small financial invest¬
ment on many days each year. Thus, during past years the number of
marine industries and fisheries along the Gulf coast has greatly increased
and in all probability the expansion of these marine industries will continue
for many years.

In stating that the Gulf is a relatively quiet body of water a most
important point has been overlooked which leads to the subject of this
paper. As a matter of fact the Gulf is a rather treacherous place to work.
For many days each year, weather conditions over the Gulf are fine and
waves are low. In visiting the scene of offshore oil drilling on the Louisiana
coast on a fair day in the month of May or June one might wonder why
the offshore drilling platforms are built about 30 feet off the water. Despite
the fact that the Gulf is normally a rather quiet body of water, it is,
nevertheless, subject to some of the most severe, sudden, and spectacular
weather and wave hazards observed any place in the world. A marine enter¬
prise must be operated on the basis that the safety of its employees and its
equipment be maintained during periods of high waves and severe wind
conditions resulting from hurricanes, line squalls, northers, and storms of

1951, No. 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

193

non-tropical origin developing in the Gulf. Also, to achieve maximum
operating efficiency in coastal marine operations, day to day activities must
be planned with weather and wave conditions in mind.

One of the first questions which arises when a marine operation is
planned is what ocean and weather conditions will be encountered. Planning
cannot be carried out intelligently until this is known because the basic con¬
trolling factor in the design of any equipment or the development of a pro¬
gram of activity is its environment. For example, if one designs a plant to be
placed on the seacoast so as to be accessible to shipping or to marine
resources located under the Continental Shelf or in Gulf waters, he must
obtain information on hurricane storm tides; maximum winds at his plant
location; normal current and tidal action on the beaches on which his
permanent structure will be located; whether highways in the surrounding
country are high enough to be above water in case evacuation during periods
of hurricane storm tides is necessary; what variation in temperature con¬
ditions may affect plant operations; whether temperature and humidity
conditions necessitate air conditioning of the plant; what type of vessels
may be required to operate satisfactorily under expected wave and wind
conditions around the plant, etc. In the past the answers to such questions
have frequently been found by trial and error. The hurricane protection
structures in the Galveston area were designed on the basis of experience
procured as a result of hurricane tragedies which involved the loss of many
thousands of lives and many million dollars worth of property. Fortunately,
it is no longer necessary for industries to obtain design data by such a costly
and tragic process. Meteorology, and allied sciences such as oceanography,
have developed to the point where they can provide very specific informa¬
tion as to the possible maximum ranges in weather and oceanic phenomena
and the normal ranges of conditions that can be anticipated at any particular
time of the year.

Let us consider some specific cases. When offshore oil operation com¬
menced in the Gulf of Mexico it was decided that one feasible drilling
method was the construction of a piling platform on which the derrick
and hoisting equipment could be placed. The fundamental design problem
was how strong and how big this piling platform would have to be to
withstand the maximum waves which might occur in a hurricane. Having
no previous experience along these lines as a basis for design several oil
companies sought the advice of men working in the sciences of meteorology
and oceanography who had specialized in the study of ocean waves. Through
a combined application of these sciences it was determined how high the
drilling platform would have to be placed above the mean Gulf level to
avoid being topped by hurrican waves and how strong and in what con¬
figuration the piling would have to be driven in order to withstand the
computed wave forces. Thus far, platforms designed in accordance with
the best available theory and data have successfully withstood hurricane
wave action. In contrast a few drilling platforms not so designed have
failed under hurricane wave forces. Modifications of original designs are
now contemplated in the light of later experience but the initial designs are
known to be adequate under what might be termed "normal” hurricane
conditions. This is a recent example of how the trial and error approach
to design has been rendered obsolete by scientific advances.

194

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Consider another use of meteorological data in planning. One company
was interested in the feasibility of operating PBY amphibious airplanes
between a shore base and an offshore location in order to transfer crews
and light cargo to platforms. Having had no prior experience with this
particular use of aircraft the company wished to determine whether such
operation was economically practical. After discussion with pilots ex¬
perienced with open sea amphibious plane operation, it was determined that
this plane could not operate when existing wave heights were greater than
three feet. Thus, the problem was reduced to determining what percentage
of the time this condition would be fulfilled. By the use of the files of
sea and swell data available at the U. S. Hydrographic office and observa¬
tions of sea conditions at offshore rigs it was possible to solve this problem
with the result that the company decided that the use of the PBY was
not economically practical. These two examples may give some idea of the
possibilities in the use of so-called climatological data in planning marine
work.

It should be pointed out here that there is as much misuse of
climatological data as there is intelligent use of it. There are available
through many sources, extensive hies of "average” temperature, precipi¬
tation, and other weather conditions. These data are frequently used without
any understanding of the significance of the word average and the reliability
or the limitations of such data. For example, a contractor in the New
Orleans area attempted to plan one construction job on the basis of average
precipitation data for the city of New Orleans for the month of April.
Since April was supposed to be a wet month in New Orleans according to
these data he postponed his work until May and found that the particular
April in question was extremely dry. In this case he failed to take into con¬
sideration the variability of rainfall in New Orleans and the fact that the
April rainfall has little significance other than a mathematical one from
the standpoint of planning a job that extended through only one month.

Modern climatology has rejected as practically useless the so-called
average data which one sees published so extensively. These data are seldom
applicable simply because any particular operation is usually limited by
more than one weather variable. For example, if one plans to dredge a
channel in a shallow pass into the Gulf his work may be impeded by
waves, currents, winds, or tides, or a combination of any of these para¬
meters. In all probability, standard climatological data, particularly when
developed as averages will be of no assistance in estimating lost time in
this work. Instead, all existing data files must be searched and the meteor¬
ologist must arrive at a solution which gives the percentages of down time
which can be expected in the operation of the dredge, taking these factors
into account simultaneously. Often the best data source is the Joint Air
Force-Navy-Weather Bureau punch card library in New Orleans.

The possibilities in the use of existing weather and oceanographic data
in planning are practically endless and the marine industries have barely
started to make use of them. In this connection, mention of the long-range
forecasting has been omitted and it might be well to point out why.
Consulting meteorology, as other professions, is plagued by a few vociferous
quacks who have made extravagant claims regarding the accuracy of fore¬
casting of specific weather elements at specific times from a week to several
years in advance. So far, none of these claims have been substantiated

1951, No. 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

1 95

and what few so-called successes have been chalked up can be explained
either by chance or the clever playing of weather probabilities, rather than
an actual forecasting technique. The science of long-range forecasting is
still very decidedly in the research stage. At present a technique in fore¬
casting of departures of precipitation and temperature from normal is in
the process of development. This procedure shows a degree of skill con¬
sistently better than that which can be achieved through use of climatology
for periods 30 days in advance. This type of forecasting has not yet reached
the stage where it is of continuous economic significance but it is quite
promising from the standpoint of future developments, and can occasionally
be applied now with satisfactory results.

So much for the use of meteorology and oceanography in planning
marine operations. Successful planning must take into account weather
and wave conditions in order to minimize later difficulties. But it is rarely
possible in marine work to eliminate all weather and wave problems. It
would not be feasible, for example, to operate a Gulf fishing fleet in a
hurricane. If the vessels were sturdy enough to operate during hurricane
conditions, they probably would have too great a draft to navigate through
most of the shallow passes along the Gulf Coast. So some weather problems
remain even after the best planning and the solution to these is efficient
scheduling of day to day operation based on short range forecasting.

In the field of short range forecasting of specific weather conditions
at a specific time and place up to 48 hours in advance the picture is very
different from that of long range forecasting. At the present time the
science of meteorology can provide forecasts of a ' high order of accuracy
for any location in the world providing the necessary observational facilities
are available. And sometimes, a weather pattern is established in the upper
atmosphere which permits accurate forecasting several days in advance, but
the frequency of such situations is by no means sufficient to permit a
guarantee of reliability in such forecasting throughout the year.

One often hears the statement made that the weather in the Gulf of
Mexico and surrounding states is unpredictable. Actually, it turns out that
weather conditions in the Gulf and in particular, wave conditions, are
relatively easy to predict as compared to other regions in the world, but
for a variety of reasons it has not been until recent years that the observa¬
tional facilities have been adequate to make an attempt at high-reliability,
short-range forecasts, and it has only been within the last few years that
some of the weather processes in the Gulf have been understood.

The first requirement in making forecasts for the Gulf is a complete,
recent coverage of weather observations over the Gulf, both weather
conditions at the level of the Gulf and also in the upper atmosphere to
altitudes up to 50 thousand feet. One of the primary reasons for inaccurate
forecasts at the present time in the Gulf area is the fact that the coverage
of weather data in the Gulf is relatively poor. For example, we have
weather ships off the Pacific coast which assist in following weather
systems into the west coast. We have a larger number of weather ships in
the North Atlantic, but there are none whatsoever in the Gulf, despite the
fact that much of the bad weather affecting the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains derives its source of energy from tropical air masses
moving northward from the Gulf. Consider the problem of forecasting
weather conditions along the Louisiana coast where the nearest hourly

196

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

BY ANALYSIS of the observed and forecasted wave conditions such as shown in this figure, detailed summaries of the accuracy of fore¬
casts shown above are possible. November, 1948 is selected as a month when forecast accuracy was relatively low.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

197

AN ACCURATE SUMMARY for May, 1949, a month in which forecasting accuracy was higher than normal. This summary is prepared
for the same locations as that shown in the previous figure.

198

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

reporting stations are located at Biloxi and Galveston. One of the first
steps in providing high-accuracy short range forecasts is to augment
governmental facilities in the coastal region for which forecasts are to be
prepared.

In the summer of 1947 when a number of companies were planning
offshore operations in the vicinity of the Mississippi Delta it became evident
to the engineers planning this work that the chief safety hazard and the
principal cause of inefficiency would be adverse weather and wave conditions.
It was believed that if a forecasting service could be developed which would
give accurate predictions of wave heights, wind conditions, and weather
conditions, it could be economically justified.

In June 1947 plans were prepared for such a forecasting service for
offshore operations by Bates and Glenn and in March, 1948, the routine
provision of detailed forecasts of wave and weather conditions for locations
on the Louisiana coast was commenced by A. H. Glenn and Associates.
This service was extended later to include all offshore operators on the
eastern Louisiana coast.

In developing this forecasting service it was first necessary to assemble
a group of professional meteorologists who were competent to prepare the
routine day to day forecasts and in addition perform the research required
to determine the details of small scale weather changes in the western
Gulf, and the necessary modification of the wave forecasting techniques
developed during the war for other ocean areas than the Gulf. The second
step was the provision of complete forecasting facilities to these meteorolo¬
gists. A central forecasting office was established in New Orleans and
licenses were obtained for receiving drops on government weather teletype
circuits. The principal data received on these teletype circuits consists of the
following: Six hourly and three hourly synoptic weather reports from
stations in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, the West
Indies, and South America and also ship reports received from the Gulf,
Caribbean, and Atlantic; upper atmosphere soundings and wind measure¬
ments made at approximately 60 stations covering the same geographical
area which permit the drawing of upper atmosphere charts at 10,000 foot
levels up to approximately 50,000 feet; hourly and special weather reports
and radar observations from Weather Bureau and CAA stations on the
airways circuit; reports from weather ships in the Atlantic; and during the
hurricane season, special data from the Microseismograph network, and
special reporting stations, particularly those of the Coast Guard; and hurri¬
cane reconnaissance and commercial aircraft reports. These data are re¬
ceived in the forecasting office 24 hours per day in code form and are
plotted on meteorological charts and analyzed in the preparation of the
forecasts. They provide the basic data which are used to follow large scale
weather systems into the vicinity of the Gulf Coast.

The use of these data enables the meteorologists to determine the
major features of the weather which will affect the Delta area. They are
not adequate, however, to enable the meteorologist to determine the small
scale localized features of the weather which must be evaluated to provide
an economically useful service.

In order to do this, the government weather facilities were augmented
by a special weather observation network on the eastern Louisiana coast in
which the offshore oil operators participate. This observation network con-

1951, No, 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

199

sis ts of ten observing points on the offshore rigs themselves. Personnel on
these rigs make four observations daily of the wind speed and direction, the
average and maximum wave height and direction, and the general weather
conditions existing at the time. In addition, a meteorological observing
station was established at Grand Isle. This station was equipped to make
standard weather observations and is equipped with two radar sets.

Radar is an electronic device which was developed during the war to
locate aircraft and ships. The radar set emits a concentrated beam of
short-wave-length radio waves which, when they strike solid objects above
the earth’s surface are reflected back to the radar set. The circuits are
arranged such that the object from which the waves were reflected can be
accurately located. It turns out that rain drops will reflect the radio waves.
Thus, radar can be used to locate areas of rainfall. Since many strong
wind systems in the Gulf are associated with areas of rainfall, the radar
is a very efficient storm detecting instrument. One of the radar sets em¬
ployed in the forecasting utilizes a three centimeter radio wave length and
has a maximum range of fifty nautical miles. This is used to obtain a very
detailed picture of precipitation conditions in the immediate vicinity of the
Delta. The other set employs a 10 centimeter radio wave and detects rain
areas consistently to distances up to approximately 150 nautical miles, and
has, on a few occasions, located squalls at distances of 2 50 nautical miles.
In addition to the radar facilities, the meteorologist at the Grand Isle
observation station has an automatic recording wave gage and tide gage
located on one of the offshore platforms. This constitutes the network of
special weather reporting facilities which is essential in boosting the accuracy
of the forecasts to the required level.

To indicate how this forecasting service functions under emergency
conditions, consider the case of the severe localized line squall which
affected the Louisiana cost on the early evening of August 20, 1949. Upon
completion of the analysis of the data' received on Weather Bureau facilities
at about 3 PM, August 20 it was evident to the meteorologist in New
Orleans that conditions along the Louisiana coast were quite favorable for
the development of a so-called line squall. Line squalls are a common
occurence along the Louisiana coast and consist of a line of thunderstorms
usually oriented from northeast to southwest. They travel perpendicular to
their line of orientation in a southeasterly direction and as they pass severe
winds with gusts as high as 75 mph are experienced for the space of half
to three-quarters of an hour. When it became evident that there was a
good possibility of a line squall developing, the meteorologist at the Grand
Isle station was notified and he placed the long-range radar in continuous
operation to scan the land areas to the north in order to locate any squall
which developed. In the late afternoon a squall was located extending along
a line from a point just north of Mobile to a point approximately 30 miles
north of New Orleans. By observing the change of position of this squall
on the radar scope it was determined that it was moving south towards
the offshore rigs. The squall was intensifying and it was probable that it
would move a hundred miles or so towards the south before disipating and
would reach the rigs. Since a warning of one to two hours is adequate to
take precautions against a line squall of short duration the forecaster decided
to wait until it struck Mobile in order to obtain an estimate of the severity
of the winds. Hourly and special weather reports are received from Mobile

200

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

TABLE 1— GENERALIZED WAVE PERFORMANCE * DATA FOR OFFSHORE
CRAFT AND OPERATIONS
(Maxmium wave height limits in feet)

Safe

efficient

Type of craft and/or operations — operation

1. Deep-sea tug:

(a) Handling oil and water barges . . 0-2

(b) Towing oil and water barges . . . .

(d) Handling and towing L.S.T. ......

2. Large crew boats ( >90 ft.) :

(a) Loading or unloading crews at platform. . .

(b) Loading or unloading crews at tender .

3. Average crew boats and luggers used for crew trans¬

portation f 60 to 90 ft.) :

(a) Under way . . .

(b) Loading or unloading crews at platform. .

4. Supervisor’s boats (small, fast craft, 40 to 50 ft.) :

(a) Under way at cruising speeds. . .

(b) Loading or unloading crews at platform . .

5. L.C.T. and cargo luggers:

(a) Under way . .

(b) Loading and unloading at platform. ....

6. Large amphibious aircraft (PBY) :

(a) Sea landing and takeoff . .

(b) Boat-to-plane transfer operations in water. . .

7. Smaller amphibious aircraft:

(a) Landing and takeoff . . .

8. Chain handling (using ship-mounted derrick or large

derrick barge) . . .

9. Buoy laying (using small derrick barge) .

10. Lifting substructure (using ship-mounted derrick or

large derrick barge) . .

11. Platform building:

(a) Using ship-mounted derrick .

(b) Using large derrick barge . . 0-3

12. Pipe-line construction . . .

13. Flowing oil into barges . . . . 0-4

14. Unloading casing (using derrick on tender) .

15. Driving conductor pipe (using derrick on tender to

handle pipe) . . ....

16. Gravity-meter exploration ( limiting conditions caused

by instrument becoming ' noisy”) . . . .

17. Seismograph exploration (limiting conditions caused

by crew danger) . 0

Marginal

Dangerous
and/or in¬
efficient

operation operation

0-2

2-4

0-4

4-6

0-2

2-3

0-3

3-5

0-3

3-5

0-4

4-7

0-8

8-15

>15

0-3

3-5

0-4

4-7

0-2

2-4

0-2

2-4

0-2

2-4

0-4

4-5

0-3

3-4

0-4

4-5

0-1.5

1.5-3

0-1

1-2

0-1

1-2

0-2

2-3

0-2

2-3

0-2

2-3

0-4

4-6

0-3

3-5

0-3

3-4

0-4

4-5

0-3

3-4

. . 0-3

3-4

0-4

4-6

-8

*It is emphasized that these data represent a generalization of experience acquired by
a number of opreators. The height limits will vary depending on a number of considera¬
tions such as wave period (whether wind wave or swell), wave direction, simultaneous
wind conditions, currents, actual equipment and experience of personnel involved, etc.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Meteorology and Oceanography

201

on the Weather Bureau teletype circuits. Thus, shortly after the squall
struck Mobile a special report was received in the New Orleans forecasting
office. The intensity of the squall at Mobile was severe. The wind reached
65 miles per hour from the northwest. With this information the forecaster
in New Orleans relayed warnings to each of the offshore operators who in
turn relayed the warning immediately to their rigs. The squall struck the
rigs between 6:30 and 8:30 PM and winds between 45 and 65 mph were
reported. By use of such forecasting techniques it is a very infrequent
occurrence for severe weather to strike the rigs without warning.

The forecasting of severe local squalls is one of the more spectacular
phases of the forecasting work. But the principal economic importance of
this type of service is in the routine forecasting of wave conditions and in
connection with hurricane and tropical storm forecasting. The principal
loss of money in offshore work to date as the result of weather conditions
has been in lost time resulting from high waves, and second to that in lost
time caused by hurricane evacuation. With the forecasting facilities out¬
lined above it has been possible to maintain an accuracy in wave forecasting
such that approximately 90% of the wave heights predicted 6, 12, 18, and
24 hours in advance are within 1.5 feet of the subsequent observations
made at the rigs for verification. This accuracy figure is based on approxi¬
mately nine months continuous forecasting for one location on exposed
water.

Over a period of years marine industries working along the Gulf coast
have had a number of unfavorable experiences with the use of meteorology
and oceanography. The difficulties that have occurred have resulted either
from attempts by industry to use scientific techniques or data the limita¬
tions or the proper application of which were not fully understood, or by
the provision of data by scientists who were not familiar with the industrial
problem. In recent years, however, these experiences have been avoided by
a careful study of industrial weather problems through the joint efforts
of the meteorologists and industrial personnel. Under these circumstances
a steady and successful reduction of weather losses has been achieved which
in all cases to date has justified economically the cost of the study.

202

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

THE CHOICE OF TRICLINIC LATTICE ELEMENTS

JtiRG WASER
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

In his book "X-ray Crystallography” M. J. Buerger (1942) proposes
the following convention for setting up the axes of a triclinic cell: After
having found the three shortest non-coplanar lattice vectors "take + a, + b,
and + c in such directions that the interaxial angles are all obtuse.” That it
is impossible to apply this rule in many cases is shown below, where it is
found that there are two types of triclinic lattices. One type may be de¬
scribed by a reduced cell in which the three interaxial angles are all obtuse,
the other by one in which they are all acute. The reduced cell is defined as
the cell that has for edges the three shortest non-coplanar lattice distances.

Consider a (non-coplanar) vector triple t±, t2 and /3 such that the three
angles a3, ai, and a2 embraced respectively by t\, t2\ t2, /3; and /3, t\ are by
definition obtuse. This triple defines a triclinic unit cell which exhibits be¬
sides the three angles ai, a2 and a3 their supplements. The symbolic diagram
below shows which of the angles between zb /l5 zb /2, and zb /3 are obtuse
(broken lines) and which are acute (solid lines). Inspection shows that
instead of using three obtuse angles to describe the unit cell any two of them
could have been chosen acute and the remaining one obtuse by utilizing suit¬
able negative t’s and supplementary angles. However, it is evidently impos¬
sible to describe the unit cell in terms of three acute angles or of a pair of
obtuse and one acute angle.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Triclinic Lattice Elements

203

Consider now the counterpart to this situation in which the three
angles a1? a2, and as are acute. The same diagram can be used, solid lines now
representing obtuse, broken lines acute angles. It is seen that the resulting
unit cell could be described using three acute angles or one acute and two
obtuse angles, but not using three obtuse angles or one obtuse and two acute
angles. These two situations exhaust the possibilities since all combinations
of acute and obtuse angles are contained.

All possible primitive cells fall into these two classes. Buerger’s pro¬
posed convention can be applied to the lattice type described first but not to
the second one unless the convention to use a reduced cell be dropped. If a
reduced cell is not stipulated any lattice may of course be described by a
cell involving three obtuse angles. It would appear more consistent, however,
to retain the reduced cell and to demand that for this lattice type all three
angles be chosen acute.

For the first lattice type it can be shown (cf. e.g. Buerger, 1942) that
all three reciprocal lattice angles /? are acute if the a are all obtuse. One would
expect an analogous rule to hold for the second lattice type by which the
reciprocal lattice angles ft are all obtuse if the a are all acute. No such rule
exists, however, as can be seen by considering the case in which one of the
acute angles a is close to a right angle. One reciprocal angle will in general
be found to be acute in this case and the other two obtuse.

The identification of the dt f'z with the axes a, h and c can of course
be done for either type of lattice according to the remaining conventions
proposed by Buerger ( 1942) .

The above implies that three parallelograms defined respectively by the
lengths ti, t2; t2, tg, ti and the angles ag, a5, a2 can be put together in
general to form a unit cell of a lattice in two ways, either by joining (in
space) all three acute comers (provided no angle is larger than the sum of
the other two), or all three obtuse corners (provided the sum of the obtuse
angles is less than 2?r) , That this exhausts the possibilities and that the dis¬
tance spectra for the two resulting lattices are different can be recognized by
considering the expression for the length of a lattice vector
(h21t2i+h22t22+hg2t32+2h1h2t1t2COS a3+2h2hgt2t3C0S ai+lhghjtgtiCOS a2) 1//2
and the fact that for all possible combinations of positive and negative h’s
the three binary products hih2, h2hg, and hgh3 are either all three positive or
include one positive and two negative values. All (and only such) distances
that might be obtained by changing two of three as to their supplements
(involving a sign change of the corresponding cosines) are therefore already
accessible by proper choice of the signs of the h’s.

literature cited

Buerger, M. J. — 1942 — X-Ray Crystallography. John Wiley and Sons. New York. P. 366.

204

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. I
June 30

NOTES ON THE ODONATA OF NORTHEASTERN TEXAS

JOHN EARL HARWELL

Baylor Medical School (Student)

This paper is the result of a study of the Odonata made at East Texas
State Teachers College in the spring and summer of 1949. Records from
the following counties are included; namely, Hunt, Wood, Anderson, Chero¬
kee, Collin, Fannin, Marion, Rusk, Bowie, Red River, Lamar, Harrison,
Panola, Wilbarger, McLennan, Eastland, Hale, Franklin, Gregg, and Hopkins.

Although advances have been made in the past years in the study of
Odonata in Texas, there is much to be done in the field. A summary of the
literature is given in the 1940 paper of A. H. Ferguson. Since that time
she has published three papers (1942, 1944, 1950), and J. G. Needham has
published one (1950) dealing with the fauna of this state.

The determinations were made or verified by either L. K. Gloyd or
J. G. Needham. Over 1,000 specimens serve as a basis for these records. The
habitats where most of the collecting was done are described in the follow¬
ing paragraphs.

Hunt County is in the eastern part of the black land prairie of Texas.
There are isolated sandy timbered sections scattered through the county.
The mean annual temperature is 65° F. and the annual rainfall is 37 inches.
The stations in the county that were most frequently visited are described
below and are referred to by number in the annotated list.

Station 1. Jack Milsap Pond is located one-fourth of a mile west of
the buildings on the East Texas State Teachers College farm. It is a perma¬
nent pond with a black mud bottom, a depth of about seven feet, and a
diameter of approximately seventy-five feet. There is almost no vegetation
at the edge of the pond.

Station 2. Hart Hobby Pond is about two miles south of Commerce.
This pond, which covers more than an acre, has less turbid water than do
most of the ponds in the vicinity.

Station 3. Greenville City Lakes consist of four bodies of water, cover¬
ing an area of about one mile, located northwest of the town of Greenville.

Station 4. Graham Pond is located several miles south of Commerce
on the Campbell Road. This pond is old, but in 1948 it was made deeper,
which caused the banks to be steep and slippery.

Station 5. Marshall Pond, a mile east of Commerce, is an interesting
habitat for Odonata. However, it was dredged in 1949.

Station 6. Bickley Pond, west of Jack Milsap Pond, is a small tem¬
porary pool.

Station 7. Round Horse Pool covers about two acres about one mile
south of Marshall Pond. Many Bryozoa were on the stones near the spill¬
way, and cattails bordered the water on the north.

Springview Lake, in Wood County three and six-tenths miles north of
Mineola on the Quitman highway, is one of the most interesting habitat and
was visited several times. It is a spring fed lake, rich in both flora and
fauna. Several interesting species were taken from below the spillway in
thick vegetation where the stream was only a few inches wide and deep.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Odonata of Northeastern Texas

205

Collections were also made in Wood County at two spring-fed creeks
(Kieffer’s Branch and Kienner’s Branch) one mile east of Mineola on the
highway to Shreveport.

In Marion County a collection was made at Johnson’s Camp on Caddo
Lake. The water is shallow and has large cypress trees growing in it. This
particular area is more of a swamp than a lake.

The other specific habitats where specimens were taken are as follows:
Rusk County— -Dent Pond, five miles from Henderson on the Star Route;
Cherokee County-— Angelina River at Ced Springs Lake; Anderson County
-—Brushy Creek, seven miles south of Frankston; Harrison County— -Sue
Belle Lake, one-half mile north of Marshall; Panola County— Yates Lake;
Red River County— Bums Lake; Collin County- — Farmersville Lake; Frank¬
lin County— near Mt. Vernon.

1. Progomphus obscurus (Rambur). Wood County in July.

2. Hagenius brevistylus Selys. Wood County in July; nymph in April.

3. Gomphus mil it arts Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Collin, Fannin, Hunt
(stations 1 & 3), Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties in June, July,
and August.

4. Gomphus oklahomensis Pritchard. Bowie, Red River, and Wood Coun¬
ties in April and May.

5. Gomphus lent ulus Needham. Hunt County— nymphs; station 1 in
February; Marion County-adults in June.

6. Dromogomphus spoilatus Hagen. Fannin and Hunt (station 7) in
August.

7. Boyer ia vinosa Say. Wood County-nymphs in April and May.

8. Anax junius (Drury), Bowie, Cherokee, Fannin, Hunt (station 1),
and Lamar Counties in April, May, and August.

9. Epiaeschna her os Fabricius. Hunt County in April.

10. Cordulegaster maculatus Selys. (?). Nymph from below spillway at
Springview Lake in Wood County in April. Dr. M. J. Westfall said
in a letter, "The little Cordulegaster I would say is maculatus , al¬
though I have no record for it closer to you than Florida or Georgia.”
This appears to be a new genus for Texas.

11. Macro mia georgina (Selys). Nymph collected in April in Wood Coun¬
ty, emerged on May 29; Cherokee County in August.

12. Macromia taeniolata Rambur. Anderson County in July.

13. Did y mops transversa (Say). Hunt County (stations 2 & 4) in May.

14. Platycordulia xanthosoma Williamson. Marion County in June. These
dragonflies were flying only a few feet high over an area of shallow
water. The female deposited eggs while attended by the male. This
appears to be a new genus for the state.

15. Epicordulia pr in ceps Hagen. Hunt County (station 4) in May.

16. Tetragoneuria williamsoni Muttkowski. Harrison County in May.
This appears to be a new species for the state.

17. Tetragoneuria cynosura (Say). Harrison County in May.

18. Scinatochlora linearis Hagen. Cherokee County in August. This ap¬
pears to be a new genus for the state.

19. Perithemis ten era (Say). Andersen, Collin, Hunt (station 4), Marion,
Rusk, and Wood Counties in April, May, June, July, and August.

20. Celithemis eponina Drury. Cherokee, Hunt (station 3, Panola, Wood
Counties in May, June, July, and August.

206

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

21. Celithemis elisa Hagen. Fannin, Hunt (station 3), and Wood Counties
in May, July, and August.

22. Celithemis fasciata Kirby. Rusk County in July.

23. Erythrodiplax minus cula (Rambur). Cherokee and Wood Counties in
July and August.

24. Erythrodiplax berenice (Drury). Cherokee County in August and
Wilbarger County in June (J. Gray-Coll.)

2 5. Orthemis ferruginia (Fabricius). Anderson and Lamar Counties in

April and August.

26. Ladona deplanata Rambur. Wood County in April. This appears to
be a new genus for Texas.

27. Libellula luctuosa Burmeister. Anderson, Collin, Fannin, Hunt (sta¬
tion 3, Marion, and Wood Counties in May, June, July, and August.

28. Libellula croceipennis Selvs. McLennan County in July. (F. Greenway
coll.) .

29. Libellula cyanea Fabricius. Anderson, Eastland (J. Gray-coll.), Har¬
rison, Marion, and Wood Counties in May, June, July, and August.
Nymph in Wood County at foot of spillway of Springview Lake in
April.

30. Libellula pule hell a Drury. Eastland, Hunt (station 2), and Wilbarger
in August and September. Nymphs, station 1, Hunt Couniy in
February.

31. Libellula incest a Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Harrison, Hunt (station
2), Marion, and Rusk Counties in May, June, July, and August.

32. Libellula vibrans Fabricius. Anderson, Harrison, Marion, Rusk, and
Wood Counties in April, May, July, August.

3 3. Plathemis lydia Drury. Anderson, Harrison, Hunt, Lamar, Marion,

Rusk, Wood Counties in April, May, June, July, and August. Nymphs
from Wood County in April.

34. Sympetrum corruptum (Hagen). Hunt and Hale Counties in June
and September.

3 5. Sympetrum ambiguum (Rambur). Cherokee County in August.

36. Pachydiplax longipennis (Burmeister). Anderson, Bowie, Collin, Cher¬
okee, Eastland, Fannin, Franklin, Gregg, Hopkins, Harrison, Hale,
Hunt (stations 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5), Lamar, McLennan, Marion, Panola,
Rusk, Red River, Wilbarger, and Wood Counties in April through
September.

37. Erythemis sim plicicollis (Say). Anderson, Bowie, Collin, Cherokee,
Eastland, Fannin, Franklin, Gregg, Hopkins, Harrison, Hunt (station
1 ) , Hale, Lamar, McLennan, Marion, Panola, Rusk, Red River, Wil¬
barger, and Wood Counties from April through September.

3 8. Dythemis fugax Hagen. Fannin County in August.

39. Dythemis velox Haven. Hunt County (station 5 ) in August.

40. Pantala hymenea Say. Cherokee County in August.

41. Pantala flavescens Fabricius. Cherokee, Fannin, Hunt, and Wood
Counties in July and August.

42. Trames lacerata Hagen. Fannin and Marion Counties in June and
August.

43. Tramea onusta Hagen. Cherokee, Harrison, Hunt, and Marion Coun¬
ties in May, June, and August.

1951, No. 2 ODONATA OF NORTHEASTERN TEXAS 207

June 30

44. Agrion maculatum Beauvois. Anderson, Cherokee, Rusk and Wood
Counties in April, May, July, and August.

45. Hetaerina americana (Fabricius). Cherokee and Gregg Counties in
August.

46. Lestes inaequalis Walsh. Harrison County in May. This appears to be
a new species for Texas.

47. Lestes disjunctus Selys. Hunt and Lamar Counties in April and August.

48. Lestes vigilax Hagen. Wood County in May.

This appears to be a new species for the state.

49. Argia apicalis (Say). Collin, Harrison, Hunt (stations 1 & 2), Mar¬
ion, Panola, Cherokee, and Rusk Counties in May, June, July, and
August.

50. Argia bipunctulata (Hagen). Panola County in June.

51. Argia immunda (Hagen). Wood County in April.

52. Argia tibialis Rambur. Anderson, Cherokee, Marion, and Wilbarger
Counties in June, July, and August.

53. Argia violacea (Hagen). Harrison, Marion Counties in May and June.

54. Argia moesta (Hagen). Anderson County in July.

5 5. Argia vivid a Hagen. Wood County in July.

56. Enallagma divagans Selys. Franklin and Lamar Counties in May. This
appears to be a new record for the state.

57. Enallagma si gnat um Hagen. Hunt (stations 1 & 4) and Marion Coun¬
ties in May and June.

5 8. Enallagma vesperum Calvert. Wood County in April. This appears to
be a new species for the state.

59. Enallagma geminatum Kellicott. Harrison and Panola Counties in June.

60. Enallagma civile (Hagen). Franklin, Hunt (stations 1 & 7), Wood and
Wilbarger Counties in May.

61. Enallagma basidens Calvert. Franklin and Hunt (stations 1, 3, 4, 5,
& 7), Counties in May and October.

62. Enallagma tr avia turn Selys. Harrison and Marion Counties in May and
June. This appears to be a new record for the state.

63. Ischnura posit a Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Collin, Harrison, Hunt
(stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, & 7), Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties from
May through August.

64. Ischnura rambur ii (Selys). Harrison and Panola Counties in May and
June.

65. Anomalagrion hastatum (Say). Collin, Harrison, Hunt (station 1),
Panola, and Wood Counties in April, May, and June.

SUMMARY

Sixty-five species of Odonata are reported from twenty counties in

Texas. Twenty-nine species are recorded for Wood County, twenty-seven

for Hunt County, and scattered records are given for the other counties.

Ten species, including four genera, appear to be new records for the state.

LITERATURE CITED

Ferguson. Alice-1940 — A preliminary list of the Odonata of Dallas County, Texas. Field
and Laboratory 8 : 1-10.

- 1942 — Scattered records of Texas and Louisiana Odonata with additional notes on the

Odonata of Dallas County. Field and Laboratory 10 : 145-149.

- 1944 — The nymph of Enallagma basidens Calvert. Field and Laboratory 13 (1) : 1.

- 1950 — Gomphus maxwelli, a new species of dragonfly from Texas (Odonata, Gomphi-

nae. Group Arigomphus). Field and Laboratory 18 (2) : 93-96.

Needham, J. G. — 4950 — Three new dragonflies with notes on related species. Trans. Am. Ent.
Soc. 66 : 1-12.

208

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

ACHIEVING GROUP ADJUSTMENT THROUGH
COMMUNITY PLANNING

ERNEST E. NEAL *

Director, Rural Life Council
Tuskegee Institute, Alabama

INTRODUCTION

For a long enough time, we have known that environments can be
changed; and that they may be changed according to systematic principles
that describe scientific planning. When we take inventory, it is surprising
how much information on human behavior has been accumulated and is
readily accessible for our use. Once that awareness is developed, it is
surprising to learn how little of the available knowledge is being used to
make for more socially acceptable group adjustment. If we know why
people act as they do in one set of circumstances and in another set of
circumstances they behave differently, it seems logical that effort be
made to develop the circumstances that are more desirable. Yet, it has only
been in very recent years that any appreciable and meaningful attention
has been given to planning for people.

THE NECESSITY FOR SOCIAL PLANNING

Technological developments for production and rapid means of trans¬
portation and communication have destroyed the culturally isolated com¬
munities.

Patterns of behavior that were workable in one period of time became
obsolete in another period of time in the same individual’s life; thus
creating problems of adjustment for whole populations.

This paper is concerned with the problem of group maladjustments
rather than with individual deviants because this is the area in which we
have some experience. More specifically, the discussion here will be confined
to rural and small town problems and planning.

Since the community is the organ that the human race has evolved
for its survival, it is to the community that we must turn our attention for
consideration of those mechanisms by which maladjustment of groups occur
and for the consideration of those by which adjustment may be maintained
or introduced.

The large numbers of state, county, and local community planning
groups are the people’s efforts at achieving adjustment. When viewed from
a numerical point of view, these planning groups are very impressive.

The United States Department of Agriculture was sponsoring agri¬
cultural planning committees in 1,804 counties in 1941. '"More than 57,000
individuals, including approximately 40,000 farm men and women, were
participating in the work of the county planning committees.” (Works
and Lesser, 1942.)

In addition to rural community planning sponsored by the USDA,
the Tennessee Valley Authority is sponsoring rural community planning
through 5 8,000 test demonstration farms in 23 states. In Ohio, the Farm

Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950.

209

1951, No. 2
June 30

Adjustment Through Community Planning

Bureau Advisory Council was sponsoring 1,500 active rural community
councils in the state in 1948. (Dahir, 1950.)

Too much of the activity that goes on under the guise of community
planning fails to give proper consideration to the organization of the com¬
munity and the relationship of the proposed plan to the organization or
structure of the community. The proper focus of planning is people and
their adjustment.

PLANNING PROCEDURE

When the writer assumed the directorship of the Rural Life Council
at Tuskegee Institute in 1948, he decided that rural community planning
should proceed with people as the first consideration.

An initial period of study and observation led us to conclude that
there is no "farm problem”, but "problems of farms”. There is no single
problem because there is no uniformity of farms. There is diversity; and
in this diversity, many different problems. This diversity is due to the
broad economic changes taking place in southern agriculture which are
generated by mechanization, shifts from row crops to pastures and livestock,
and the industrial development of the region. Concomitant with the changes
in production is a change in the relationship of man to land.

One hypothesis developed within this frame of reference, as applied,
is that man’s relation to land is being reordered into six functional farm
types. Three of the six are familiar-— subsistence, tenant, and small inde¬
pendent; and three are new and the result of changes in the economy— -large
mechanized, part-time, and livestock. (Neal and Jones, March, 1950.)

These functionally different farms appear in groups. Each group has
its own set of needs and problems. In the process of establishing institutions
necessary for their survival, these groupings of farm develop into com¬
munities. Viewing farm problems within this framework permitted the
classification of farms in terms of their function, thereby focusing rural
community planning on people instead of crops, livestock, and machines.

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE

It is significant to note that in all the communities tudied there had
been changes influenced by National Agricultural Policy and improved
technology.

Even the traditional plantation, where it survives, had made adjust¬
ments. The policy of crop control and acreage limitation has naturally
influenced land use. With the regulation of cotton acreage, that retired
from cotton was turned into pasture on the two major plantations in the
community studied. The subsidy policy further encouraged the development
of pastures. Tenants on the plantations continue to grow cotton while beef
cattle are produced by the management with hired labor.

The subsistence farm is one whose fertility has gone. Cotton provides
the cash income, but it is uneconomic production. In the subsistence com¬
munity studied, it took six acres to produce one bale of cotton. However,
most of these farms are small- — the median size being 54 acres.

The small independent farm is that American ideal— the family farm.
The operator and his family provide the labor necessary for production.

210

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 2
June 30

Cotton production is profitable, and foodstuff is grown; and the family
enjoys a higher standarr of living than that of the plantation, tenant, or
the subsistence farmer.

The mechanized farm is the large scale operation that may be regarded
as the successor to the plantation. We have seen three stages of mechani¬
zation. The Price McLemore farm in Montgomery County is the most
completely mechanized cotton farm we have seen. There, no hand labor is
used for any phase of cultivation or harvesting. In the Mississippi Delta,
we have visited farms on which all processes are mechanized except hoeing.
In the Tennessee Valley area of Alabama only plowing is mechanized.
Hoeing and harvesting are yet done by hand.

Development of industries in the South has permitted farmers to work
off the farm and continue their farm operations as well. In the part-time
community studied, we found 67.39 per cent of the farm operators work or
have worked in one or the other of these plants and, in many cases, used
the wages earned to establish themselves more comfortably on the land.

In the livestock area, change has been fostered by the development of
new markets. The dairy and livestock industries actively promote pro¬
duction by establishing a market and carrying on educational work to
develop a supply of produce for the market.

The direction change has taken usually depended upon the most
profitable enterprise. On high productive cotton land, there is little
encouragement to go out of cotton production. Where change from cotton
to other crops is demonstrated to be profitable, such change occurs as is
seen in the increase in livestock production.

COMMUNITY PATTERNS

Our interest in land and grasses and cows and machines is only in
terms of what they mean to people. So far as we can see, they have no
other significance.

Crude statistical indices to change show that fewer people are required
in the changing areas. The land is more sparsely populated. Something
must be said about the people and their living.

Traditionally, in the cotton South, family size was most important. A
tenant contracting for land talked in terms of his "plow force” — mules
able to plow efficiently — and his "hoe force”— females able to do a satis¬
factory day’s work chopping. Together, they guaranteed the harvest of
a crop.

Now, children are no longer an asset in the form of unpaid family
labor, and parents protest the loss of their labor. A mother on a mechanized
farm sought to get work for her children while the owner refused to
employ children.

The distribution of people and institutions that serve them form a
pattern. Our community pattern shows certain distinctive variations.

Our study of a plantation community shows none of the basic institu¬
tions to be on plantation land where formerly all were.

The small independent community has its own church and school,
but satisfies its other needs in nearby towns.

The dairying area cannot properly be called a community because
within it may be seen the vestiges of destroyed communities in dilapidated
churches. There were five of them. Two schools are maintained in the area,

1951, No. 2
June 30

Group Adjustment

211

and a school bus route carrying children to town passes through it. People
who want to trade locally may do so at store-filling stations, which are
designed as much to serve the passsing motorist as they are to serve people
who live nearby.

GROUP ADJUSTMENT

In the old plantation and subsistence farming communities, we have
patterns of work that are obsolete and people who are no longer needed
for the operation of the economy. People caught in these areas have not
adjusted to the changes in process.

In the mechanized areas, the people needed for the operation of the
machines are young family heads who are adaptable. They enjoy a higher
standard of living than was experienced in their days of tenancy. The
problem here is what about those who will not be needed? What will they
do and where will they go?

The part-time and small independent farming communities seem to
have made the best adjustment to change with the fewest hardship cases.

The livestock communities, like the mechanized communities, provide
a higher standard of living for those who remain; but fewer people are
required for work. Not enough people are left to maintain old community
institutions. Entire new patterns of community life will have to be
developed.

COMMUNITY PLANNING

How shall we plan with these groups for a prosperous, comfortable
adjustment? Does the local community have the resources to help itself?
Must it be considered in terms of a regional plan rather than a local plan?
Some instances of local planning and the effect on the community may
be cited.

Sabine Farms, sixteen miles from Marshall, Texas, is an example of
community planning. This is a community that was established under the
resettlement program of the old Farm Security Administration. Seventy
families covering 9,000 acres of land scattered across two counties make up
the Sabine Farms Community. When the project was liquidated by the FSA,
each farmer became an individual buyer under the new Farmers Home
Administration program. Bishop College purchased the center and employed
the writer in 1946-47 to develop an educational and training program.

This community already had a Board of Management for the com¬
munity center, which was composed of 19 acres of land and 15 buildings.
After three months of studying and planning, the Board of Managers
agreed to open a cooperative store. Within sixty days, forty members
purchased $1,800 worth of stock in the cooperative store, employed a full¬
time manager, and opened for business. The first year, the store grossed
$20,000 in sales; and by 1949, this had grown to $40,000. In addition to
operating the cooperative store, the group entered into contract with a
pickle company to grow cucumbers. Within a four-year period, the group
grew cucumber crops that grossed $2,000 the first year and had reached
the $12,000 sales mark in 1949 — -four years later.

This community did not neglect its health and recreation needs.
Through cooperation with the Texas State Department of Health, a

212

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No, 2
June 30

maternity and well-baby clinic was organized. The community gets the
services of a public health nurse and a physician at no cost.

The recreational needs of the community are met through Saturday
evening ball games, Saturday night movies, and the various community
clubs that meet at the center.

One other example of community planning will be cited to show how
much easier it is for people to make adjustments when they work under
intelligent direction.

In Limestone County in North Alabama, there is a community of
family-sized farmers. All 24 of these families were formerly sharecroppers
and had adjusted quite well to the demands of sharecropper farming.
Through the Bankhead-Jones Tenant Purchase Act, these ex-sharecroppers
were given the opportunity to purchase farms. They received supervision
from the Farmers Home Administration and the Tennessee Valley Author¬
ity. Through the intelligent use of credit and the availability of technical
know-how, this has become one of the most prosperous Negro farm com¬
munities in Alabama. All the houses are well built with modern con¬
veniences, the land is cultivated with tractors, and 40 per cent of the
families have incomes in excess of $2,000 per year.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

As the change in the agricultural economy completes its cycle, more
and more of the farm population will be eliminated. Unless more planning
is done to help these people make the transition from obsolete farming
practices to modern agricultural practices or industrial jobs, it is not too
difficult to predict their future. Suffice it to say at this point that planning
that ignores the changes in process in the economy can result in nothing
but bitter disappointment for people of good will who wish to help the
disadvantaged groups in rural areas.

The field of research and experimentation in local community planning
offers tremendous possibilities for social service and educational institutions.
If, through continued research and experimentation, we can develop the
know-how of successful community planning, it appears that the incidence
of personal maladjustment can be greatly reduced; thereby relieving the
strain on our overburdened correctional and mental institutions.

LITERATURE CITED

Dahir, James — 1950 — Communities for Better Living, New York. Harper & Bros., p. 134.
Hawley, Amos H. — 1950 — Human ecology : A theory of community structure. New York.
Ronald Press. Chapter 12, p. 206.

Morton, Ruth — Philosophies and Principles of the American Missionary Association Com¬
munity Centers. (Bulletin) AMA Publication. Pp. 11-15.

Neal, Ernest E. — Achieving group adjustment through community planning.

Neal, Ernest E„ and Jones, Lewis W. — “The place of the negro farmer in changing econ¬
omy of the cotton south.” Rural Sociology 15(1) : 30-41.

Works, George A., and Lesser, Simon O. — 1942 — Rural America today. Chicago. University
of Chicago Press. P. 375.

1951, No. 2
June 39

Mental Health in Human Relations

213

MANAGEMENT INTEREST IN PROMOTING MENTAL
HEALTH IN HUMAN RELATIONS

RAYMOND H. FLETCHER *

Regional Director
Rohrer, Hibler & Replogle
Dallas, Texas

Management’s emphasis is shifting to the problem of mental health as
an effective lubricant in human action and as an important factor in a
man’s productivity. When men possess good mental health, they cope with
developments effectively, remain steady under pressure, and assume an
aggressive role in their field of action. Real management problems are most
often the intangibles emanating from feelings and attitudes. Such problems
as how to induce a vice-president to delegate responsibilities, how to main¬
tain competitive enthusiasm of men who are working for promotion and at
the same time pull together as a team, and how to develop capable
successors for executives — these are the typical psychological problems
which confront management. Management has done much to promote good
mental health in human relations at the worker level, and progressive
administrators are now recognizing that better mental health among the
executives is the key to further improving smooth relations and increasing
production.

Let us look in on a Monday morning conference of the officers of a
large manufacturing company. The corporate financial picture does not
look good; the semi-annual operating statement reveals that sales have not
kept pace with increased costs of business. The President demands that this
situation be corrected. The Executive Vice-President offers many new
ideas. The Vice-President of Sales rejects them with, "It can’t be
done . . . you just can’t do it that way.” The Executive Vice-President
becomes angry because his ideas are not considered. The President is mad
because his two vice-presidents are acting like small boys. At this point
the mental health of this group and of individuals in subordinate roles
begins to deteriorate. The meeting breaks up, and the Vice-President of Sales
returns to his department and passes along the "order” for increased sales,
but without any suggestions to his Sales Managers on how it can be done.
The Sales Managers ask questions and offer suggestions, but they are
squelched. The Sales Managers revenge themselves on the Salesmen, and
bewildered salesmen lose interest, want to resign, and convey their dispirited
attitudes to customers— -thereby producing the opposite effect desired by
the executive conference. People in other departments become insecure
when sales fall, and heavy inventories compel a slow-down in production.

The insightful president is aware that his competitors can buy the
same machines, the same raw materials, the same equipment, and provide
the same means for fast delivery. His only real advantage over his com¬
petitors is the people who constitute his organization and the leadership
which enables these people to express their most creative and productive

* Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950.

214

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

potentialities. To stay ahead of his competition, the enterprising president
has incorporated the frontiers of the sciences into his operations of manu¬
facturing, engineering, and selling; he now calls upon the social sciences
to help him maintain his lead over his competitors.

There are essentially three psychological points which management
must consider in keeping ahead: first, self-improvement of the individual
executive; second, developing strong subordinates; and third, promoting
team play among executives.

SELF-IMPROVEMENT

Most top executives have attained their positions by profiting from
their experiences and taking steps to insure their self-improvement. This
kind of thinking is emerging from the minds of some of the more perceptive
presidents: "If Bill Jones, the foreman, has the effect on his men that we
give him credit for having, then I must have ten times that effect on the
people who report to me. I had better think first about me and my relation
to my men than about Bill Jones/’ In his endeavor to improve himself, he
has sought the aid of the clinical^ psychologist in discovering new insights
regarding the impact of his personality upon his employees.

One particular President had a big, soft heart which he tried to
conceal with a gruff, "tough guy” veneer. He felt he needed to be
recognized as the "boss”, lest it reveal weakness on his part. He criticized
his Vice-Presidents in the presence of each other. His meetings were more
"telling” than "discussing.” In one meeting he became so angry upon
learning that his Vice-Presidents had changed their minds without con¬
sulting him that he stomped out of the room.

His behavior made the Vice-Presidents uncomfortable, gave them the
feeling that the President would not hear them, and caused them to wonder
which course of action to take. The Vice-Presidents wanted to spend time
with the President and discuss their problems. Instead, they felt that they
must have a definite question and a definite recommendation prepared and
take only two minutes time for a decision whenever they entered his office.

By employing available tools of psychology, this President was able to
take a better view of himself and his influence upon others. When he
realized his was compensatory behavior, he could see he did not need a gruff
exterior for his Vice-Presidents to look on his as "boss” or to keep them
doing what was necessary to advance the business. He had used his gruff -
ness for so long and so effectively when called upon to bring a company
out of the red that he found considerable difficulty in overcoming his deeply
ingrained habits of dealing with others.

He is now finding it is a long, hard process to redirect his aggressiveness
from running the business to challenging his men and developing their
potentialities. He is learning how to ask questions, to withhold opinions
until his subordinates have an opportunity to tell their stories, and to use
mistakes of others as a learning experience rather than as an occasion for
rebuff. He is not merely remaking himself; he is learning to build men.

DEVELOPING CAPABLE SUBORDINATES

An organization is no stronger than the people who make it up. A
company cannot rise above its own people. If management wants to improve
its organization, it must assist its people to improve themselves. The

1951, No. 2
June 30

Mental Health in Human Relations

215

demands of a growing institution mean increased complexity of executive
responsibilities. To prevent jobs from outgrowing men, each executive must
maintain a keen edge of development not only on himself but also on
the men who serve in his department.

The executive who is a real leader will devote over ninety per cent
of his time to human problems. He neither engineers the inventions, designs
the tools, nor manufactures the products himself; he develops capable sub¬
ordinates who direct the division managers who supervise the department
heads who lead the men who engineer the inventions, design the tools, and
manufacture the products. This function carries him beyond designing,
producing, and selling to the point of teaching, motivating, and judging
men’s performance and capacities for accepting new responsibilities. He
studies his men, stimulates them to think, inspires them to do, and evaluates
their performances

In studying his men, he attempts to learn each man’s strengths and
limitations, he determines how fast a man can develop on a job, and he
observes the man’s personality characteristics which may be put to best
advantage.

To stimulate them to think, he causes his subordinates to analyze their
responsibilities, to determine ways in which their departments can comple¬
ment the efforts of other departments, to set up departmental objectives
which spell company progress, and to conceive more efficient techniques for
performing their jobs.

He knows that to inspire men to do, he must lead them by his own
actions, he must give them responsibilities, assure them that their contri¬
butions are important to the over-all company goals, and he must make
them want to win.

When he evaluates the performance of his men, he confers with them
to the extent of mutual recognition of jobs well done, he counsels with
men about more effective ways of coping with problems, and he helps them
determine the efficiency of their departments.

PROMOTING TEAM PLAY

In addition to developing subordinates as individual persons, the presi¬
dent’s job is to develop his vice-presidents into a more effective team. Team
spirit is a contagion which starts at the top of an organization and spreads
downward and outward in an ever expanding manner. It springs from an
incisive understanding of people plus a keen enjoyment of working with
them.

After our gruff President began to show signs of improvement and
it became an increasing pleasure to work with him, the idea of improvement
began to spill over onto his Vice-Presidents. Two of these men had
experienced a conflict of personalities from the day one had joined the
company seven years prior. Each knew that this conflict was not contri¬
buting to the efficient operation of the company, or to the motivation of
the employees in their departments. They could not seem to unlock horns.

The Vice-President of Manufacturing accused the Vice-President of
Finance of empire-building and of being uncooperative and stubborn on
issues which concerned them both. It was true that he spent his time with
the employees in the finance department, made no moves approved a pro-

216

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

posal, and did not discuss his problems with any of the other Vice-
Presidents. The two found it almost impossible to collaborate on common
problems when neither understood the other.

The President knew that getting the feel of another man’s problems
is one of the most subtle and critical issues in building a team of key men.
By enabling his men to discuss their problems with the psychologist, the
President paved the way for mutual understanding by helping each interpret
the causes underlying the other’s behavior.

The Vice-President of Manufacturing had previously looked only at
the isolation techniques of the other man. He now attempted to look into
the causes of those empire-building tactics. He discovered that the Finance
Officer had been required to earn the family livelihood at age fourteen
because of the loss of his father, and from those experiences he felt a need
for companionship and a distaste for competitiveness. Identification with
subordinates was not simply a desire to work in isolation; it was a means
of fulfilling his need for close association with others. The Vice-President
of Finance found it easier to do this with subordinates than with people
on his own level in other departments because of the normal conflicting
situations arising between departments.

The Vice-President of Manufacturing saw the need to make it easier
for his associate to discuss problems. When some one in the finance depart¬
ment made an error, the Production Officer should be tolerant rather than
critical. He found that he needed also to spend time outside the company
with the "isolationist” to develop a feeling of ease between them and
cultivate harmonious relations.

With friendlier treatment, the Finance Offiicer came to feel his
associate was not so aggressive, so domineering, so repulsive. They both
began to see each other’s strengths where once they could notice only
limitations. Their new relationship enabled them to think together and
coordinate their departments. The finance department was able to show the
manufacturing department where large sums of money could be saved.
By working together, each group could reinforce the special abilities of
the other.

This kind of teamwork gave the President a feeling of inner satis¬
faction, for he realized that by taking steps to improve himself he had set
into motion a chain reaction which developed subordinates and promoted
team play. His own improved mental health enabled him to understand
himself and to appreciate the other person’s style of play.

Management, by its use of the social sciences, is continuing to display
the dynamic leadership which has always characterized American leaders in
business and industry-leadership of action rather than of words and
gestures — -leadership which dares to explore uncharted courses.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Reef Paleontology

217

SOME ASPECTS OF REEF PALEONTOLOGY AND
LITHOLOGY IN THE EDWARDS FORMATION OF TEXAS

WILLIAM H. MATTHEWS
Department of Geology
Texas Christian University

ABSTRACT

The detailed lithology and paleontology of two rudistid reefs in the Edwards
formation (Lower Cretaceous) are assembled with interpretations of classification
and paleoecology of rudistid reef faunas.

On the basis of mode of preservation the reefs are divided into siliceous and
calareous groups. The best preserved fossils found in the Edwards are recovered
from the reef facies, and those specimens from the siliceous reefs have undergone
remarkable preservation. The shells of these organisms have been completely replaced
by silica and may be studied in great detail.

A comarison between the calcareous and siliceous faunas shows that the
variations are mainly due to slight environmental differences rather than to mode
of preservation.

Field relations are the basis for suggesting that these rudistid reefs are tabular
and should probably be called biostromes. These biostromes represent a special
problem because they are essentially porous, organic concentrations entirely encased
in limestone.

The paleoecology suggests that the reefs were deposited in a relatively shallow
epicontinental sea. The waters were warm, cleat, of normal salinity, and populated
by an abundance of pelecypods, gastropods, and corals.

INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper presents the results of a study of some of the shell deposits
within the Edwards formation which have been referred to as the rudistid
reefs. Most of these reefs have been replaced by calcereous material, but
som have undergone complete silicification. In these silicified reefs are found
many excellently preserved fossils. Many of these specimens appear to be
new species.

Three siliceous reefs and three calcareous reefs were included in the
detailed study. Many more such reefs were observed in the field. Field work
was done in Bell, Williamson, Coryell, Hamilton, McLennan, Johnson, Hood,
Mills, Kerr and Somervell counties. Specimens were collected at each local¬
ity and later studied in detail in the laboratory. The major lithologic, paleon-
tologic, and paleoecologic data for one calcareous and one siliceous reef
will be discussed in some detail.

Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Leo Hendricks, Texas Christian University,
for his encouragement and assistance in this study. Dr. H. B. Stenzel of the Bureau
of Economic Geology, Austin, Texas, suggested the study of the silicified reefs and
offered many helpful suggestions. Special thanks are due to Dr. Samuel P. Ellison
of the University of Texas, for reading and criticizing the manuscript. Acknow¬
ledgment is made to: Professor W. M. Winton and the Texas Christian University
Geology Department for use of equipment; Dr. Willis G. Hewatt of T.C U. for
certain ecologic data; Professor L. W. Ramsev of T.C.U prepared the plates; Dr.
A. Myra Keen, Stanford University, identified some of the specimens; Dr. H, B.
Blank, Texas A & M offered information concerning the Georgetown Reef.

218

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

EDWARDS FORMATION: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

FACIES

The Fredericksburg group presents a complex assortment of facies,
corresponding to various conditions of sedimentation. The primary facies
exhibited are:

1. Marginal or littoral facies: consists of sands, sandstones and sandy shales.

2. Neritic facies : represented by widespread marls, marly limestones, and chalky

limestones of the Walnut, Comanche Peak and Kiamichi formations.

3. Reef facies: may be possible local modifications between littoral and neritic,

and are dominated by organic deposits. These deposits consist of coquina
detrital and shelly limestone, and organic limestone of several types.

LITHOLOGY

The Edwards is composed primarily of limestones but there are marl
and limestone strata present which become slightly arenaceous. The lime¬
stones in some localities are composed of a white, crystalline, practically
pure calcium carbonate. Other beds, however, have impurities such as silica,
sodium chloride, and more rarely, iron pyrite.

Varying degrees of consolidation are present in the different starta
grading from strongly indurated, light-brown, sub-lithographic limestone
to a very pulverulent, finely divided chalk, apparently redeposited after intra-
formational solution. A distinct surface lithological feature of the Edwards
is the so-called "honey-comb” or "bored” limestone (see Plate I). This
rough, porous rock is the result of the removal of the more calcareous mater¬
ial by solution. The resistant rock that is left is more indurated, and possibly
more siliceous, than the dissolved rock. The writer has observed similar
results with pieces of Edwards limestone immersed in dilute hydrochloric
acid. The insoluble residue has the "honey-comb” appearance described above.

PALEONTOLOGY

This paper deals primarily with certain paleontological aspects of the
Edwards formation so only general remarks about the fauna will be in¬
cluded at this point. The fauna of the Edwards, like the faunas of many
Comanchean formations, is in need of careful study and revision. Work on
the paleontology of the Edwards has been handicapped by the nature of the
limestone and its great resistance to weathering. As a result most of the
specimens that are found are poorly preserved. Some fossils have been re¬
placed by silica, many excellently preserved and easily studied.

One singular feature of the Edwards is the fact that the rudistids of
North America are most highly developed in number and kind in this for¬
mation. Further, the best preserved fossils from the Edwards are those col¬
lected from the biostromes.

REVIEW OF REEF TERMINOLOGY

The term "reef” has been used in such a variety of ways in geological
and biological literature that some of the more common terms used in de¬
scribing "reefs” should be reviewed.

The typical reef structure is represented by the coral reef. Vaughan
(1911, p. 238) gives the following definition of such a reef: "a coral reef
is a ridge or mound of limestone, the upper surface of which lies, or lay at

1951, No. 2
June 30

Reef Paleontology

219

the time of formation, near the level of the sea, and is predominantly com¬
posed of calcium carbonate secreted by organisms, of which the most im¬
portant are corals.53

Wilson (1950, p. 181) has defined the term reef as follows: "a reef is
a sedimentary rock aggregate, large or small, composed of the remains of
colonial-type organisms that lived near or below the surface of water bodies,
mainly marine, and developed relatively large vertical dimensions as com¬
pared with the proportions of adjacent sedimentary rocks.33

The term bioherm was proposed by Cumings and Shrock (1928, p.
599) and applies to those structures of reef -like, mound-like or lens-like
nature, which are of definite organic origin and were embedded in rocks
of different lithology.

In an attempt to further limit the use of the term reef Cumings (1932,
p. 3 34) proposed the name biostrome. Definitely bedded structures such as
shell beds and crinoidal beds were to be included in this term.

A typical biostrome in the North Texas area is the Walnut shell
rock or Walnut conglomerate. These beds of Gryphaea and Exogyra possess
the typical biostromal structure.

In addition the term "reef” has been applied to such inorganic struc¬
tures as sand bars. Certain types of ore bodies have been termed "reefs” in
mining terminology. Strtuctures of this type obviously do not fulfill the
major requirements for a reef as outlined above.

EDWARDS RUDISTID REEFS

CLASSIFICATION

The shell concentration of rudistids, caprinids, oysters, corals, and
gastropods so abundant at certain stratigraphic levels in the Edwards have
long been referred to as "reefs,” both in the literature and in general dis¬
cussion.

As outlined above the primary considerations for the designation of a
true reef or bioherm may be sumarized as follows:

1. The structure must be of organic origin.

2. The structure must possess amound-like or lens-like form

3. The structure must have risen above the surrounding bottom at the time of

its formation.

4. The structure must be embedded in rocks of different lithology.

5. The structure must not be layered, stratified or otherwise show evidence of

bedding planes.

Most of the rudistid and caprinid reefs described in this paper do not
conform to the above requirements. Some of the more important differences
are noted below:

1. So far as can be determined by field work, most rudistid reefs do not have

the typical mound-like structure. Mound-like deposits have been reported
but none of the reefs in this study are of this nature. Further field work
may show that there are many such exposures, but at the present the evidence
for this is inconclusive.

2. None of the reef exposures display the increased dip that would be expected

on the flanks of a structure rising from the sea bottom. Most of the material
is in a nearly horizontal position.

3. It is difficult to determine if the reefs were embedded in rocks of different

lithology” as no lateral gradations or contacts were found in vertical cross-
section. In general limestone occurs above and below the reef material.

4. While there have not been any bedding planes observed within the actual reef

material there are certain exposures which exhibit well defined contacts of the
reef material with overlying and underlying beds. This probably indicates

220

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

a definite change in sedimentation in the intervals preceding and succeeding
deposition of the reef material An exposure of this nature certainly may
be called a "layer” of material despite the fact that bedding planes are
absent within the "layer”. The writer has observed 5 such layers alternating
with as many layers of non-reef material. This type of bedded structure would
not conform to the definition of a true reef or bioherm.

In view of the evidence listed above these shell concentrations might
be more properly termed biostromes. More extensive field work may disclose
true bioherms of rudistids, but the results of this investigation show these
deposits to be biostromal in nature.

The term reef as used in this paper will apply only to the local outcrop
or exposure being described. In speaking of the areal extent of these deposits
the term biostrome will be used.

BELTON-KILLEEN (CALCAREOUS) REEF

The Belton-Killeen Reef is a typical calcareous reef. It is located in
Bell County on the Edwards escarpment, 5.6 miles west of Belton on High¬
way 190. The reef has been exposed in a road metal quarry.

Stratigraphically the exposure is the middle of the Edwards, as the
reef is overlain by the so-called "gastropod ledge” which marks the middle
of the Edwards in Bell County. This ledge contains calcite replacements of
many small fossils which are usually revealed in cross section after the rock
has been fractured. The rock composing the ledge is a dense, fine-grained,
light brown colored limestone with a conchoidal fracture. In the Belton-
Killeen reef the bed has an average thickness of about 10 inches. This ledge
is overlain by about 6 feet of thin-to medium-bedded limestone with inter¬
beds of white to yellow colored, flaky marl. Some chert is found associated
with the section.

The reef lies directly under the limestone section and has a thickness
of about 2 feet. If the excavation had been carried deeper, more beds of reef
material would have been exposed. The floor of the quarry is of heavy lime¬
stone with scattered traces of reef matereial in the top. This limestone may
represent the top of a non-reef bed. The total depth of excavation in the
quarry is from 10 to 12 feet. The 2 feet of reef material has a distinct con¬
tact with the bed above it but the lower contact is gradational. A typical
piece of calcareous reef material may be seen in Plate II.

The reef is composed primarily of the remains of caprinulid and caprinid
type pelecypods as in the other calcareous reefs. Caprinula anguis (?) and
Mono pleura pinguiscula (?) are the most abundant pelecypods represented
in the lower portion of the reef; Radiolites davidsoni is found at the top.
Other species collected were Monpleura marcida (?), Caprina sp. indet.,
Toucasia patagiata and T oucasia texana. Pecten duplicostata is well repre¬
sented throughout the reef and is the most abundant species with the ex¬
ception of the predominant rudistids and caprinids. Many of these pectens
are well preserved and some of them are quite large. The pectens are pri¬
marily represented by badly weathered internal molds, Chondrodonta mun-
soni and Phacoides acutelineolatus are present but not as common as at other
calcareous reefs. The shells of the pelecypods have been bored by many
worms or other types of boring organisms. Definite Cliona or gastropod bor¬
ings could not be found. The most abundant gastropod is a species of
Anchura or Aporrhais, but the specimens are poorly preserved. Three speci¬
mens of Lunatia (?) were also found, all badly eroded.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Reef Paleontology

221

The following specimens were collected at this locaality:

Pelecypoda :

Radiolites davidsoni Hill 1893
Toucasia patagiata (White) 1884
Toucasia texana (Roemer) 1852
Caprinula anguis (Roemer) 1888
Caprina sp. indet.

Monopleura marcida (?) White 1884
Pecten duplicostata Roemer 1849
Chondrodonta munsoni (Hill) 1893
Phacoides acute-lineolatus (Roemer) 1888
Gastropoda :

Anchura (?)

Nerinea aff. incisa Giebei 1853
Lunatia (?) sp.

THE GEORGETOWN ( SILICEOUS) REEF

The Georgetown Reef is one of those which has undergone silicification.
Other silicified localities are in Mills and Kerr Counties. This one is located
on the top of a cliff on the North Fork of the San Gabriel River in William¬
son County, approximately 10.1 miles southwest of Georgetown.

The main reef is farily localized but large fragments of chert contain¬
ing the remains of rudistids are found scattered over an area of about one
square mile. The largest part of the reef is approximately 159 yards in its
long axis trending roughly northeast and southwest. It has an approximate
width of about 40 or 50 yards. To the northeast and to the southwest of
the main reef are smaller concentrations of reef material at the same strati¬
graphic level. These smaller bodies are much more silicified than the main
reef, consisting primarily of rudistids enclosed in chert. Fossils in this type
of material are so greatly altered as to be useless for study. The most
abundant specimens in these small concentrations are a caprinid or caprinu-
lid type pelecypod, and no other specimen of any type was collected. Other
fossils are assumed to be completely altered or removed by weathering.

The interpretation given here is that the main reef and the smaller
reef concentrations represent the lower part of the original reef and that
these portions of the reef are still in place. The material from the base of
the reef consists of a cherty deposit, in some places found in conjunction
with dolomitic limestones. This rock is apparently in place and makes up
the greater part of the reef. At one outcrop where the reef is exposed on
the surface of the ground there is a definite horizontal gradation of the reef
material into the typical "Roney- comb” Edwards limestone. One large block
that was found in place represents what may be the bottom of the reef. This
large piece of dolomitic limestone has cherty shell fragments embedded in
its upper surface and these grade into shell-free limestone below. The down¬
ward gradation of the rudistid breccia into the more calcareous limestone
suggests that this may be the bottom of the reef. This view is further
supported by the fact that an examination of the hill below the reef did
not reveal an outcrop of reef material. These facts may also be advanced
for support of the opinion that the reef is in place and is remnantal in
nature.

The scattered reef remnants are composed of rock containing the
silicified remains of rudistids, gastropods, Pecten, and the branching coral
Cladophyllia, although the latter is not abundant. Monopleura pinguiscula
and Caprina are the predominant pelecypods, and Nerinea and Pileolus the

222

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June SO

predominant gatropods. The above specimens are found in blocks of reef
material that have been separated from the reef and scattered about the
surface of the ground.

The fossils are completely replaced with silica and the internal cham¬
bers of many of the forms resemble geodes lined with quartz crystals. The
rock mass that formerly held these shells together has been removed by
solution leaving only the siliceous material. Some of these blocks have a
core of cherty or dolomitic limestone holding them together. The blocks are
stained a deep red color due to the presence of iron oxides. The best speci¬
mens were collected from blocks of this type, and the small specimens
found scattered about the ground have probably weathered out of similar
blocks. The definite grouping of the specimens in such a piece of material
plus the relatively small amount of shell breakage, debris, and alteration
lends support to the thesis that these rocks represent the upper part of the
reef. When these blocks are studied in detail they aid in reconstruction of
the original reef environment.

A description of a typical block of this type is given below:

The block (M264-C; No. 12), weighs 7 pounds and is about 4 inches
wide and 1 1 inches long. Most of the surface of the rock is stained a dark
red color. The lower portion of the block is composed of siliceous limestone
impregnated with many silicified shell remains. The upper part of the block
is composed of a well preserved fossil assemblage. The most conspicuous
specimen in this group is a large Pecten duplicostata . On the shell of this
Pec ten are found scars left by worms, and boring gastropods. One section
of a straight serpulid worm tube is on the shell, along with the remains of
nine young rudistids which have used the shell for attachment. Only the
large convex valve of the Pecten remains and is oriented with the convexity
upward. The inside of the shell is filled with sediment and the sediment also
covers approximately l/4 inch of the ventral margin of the shell. The
rock in which the Pecten is imbedded is full of small shell fragments. A
small specimen of Pileolus (?) lies buried near the ventral edge of theh
Pecten. The remains of several small Nerinea, Cerithium , a portion of Clado-
phyllia , and fragments of Pileolus, occur on the surface of the rock. The
rest of the block is composed of rudistid shells in varying stages of disinte¬
gration, the fragments ranging from a fraction of an inch to 3 or 4 inches
in size. Many of the internal chambers of the rudistids are completely filled
with quartz crystals. Throughout this mass of shells and on the surface cf
many of them are the fragmental remains of the shells of many other or¬
ganisms. Plate III, illustrates a block similar to the one described above. The
specimen in the plate is from the Kerrville Reef which displays a similar
lithology.

The fauna of the Georgetown Reef offers a complex assortment of
specimens in varying degrees of preservation. Caprina eras sip bra (?) is most
abundant, and Monopleura pinguiscula is next in abundance. Toucasia texana
and a species of Capr inula complete the rudistid and caprinid fauna. The
genus Radiolites was not found at this locality. The only other pelecypod
collected was Pecten duplicostata which is common. The right valves of
Pecten were all that were found and these are believed to have washed into
the reef after the animal was dead.

Gastropods are numerous and varied at Georgetown. The peculiar cap¬
like gastropod, Pileolus whitneyi is abundant and many different sized speci-

1951, No. 2
June 30

Reef Paleontology

223

mens may be found. Nerinea is next in abundance and at least four species
are present. Actual determination of species is difficult because most speci¬
mens lack the aperture and are badly eroded. Some nerineas are quite large
and many are encrusted with worm tubes. Anchura, Cerithium roemeri,
Cerithium , spp., Lanai ia (?) pedernalh , Trochus ( Tectus ) t exanus and
Fusinus (?) are common. Two gastropods found are believed to be either
new genera or represent extensions of range of Paleocene -Eocene genera.
These are Cyclostrema (?) and Circulopsis (?), both are are at this ex¬
posure. Microscopic gastropods are abundant and a few microscopic peleey-
pods were discovered in samples of soil from around the reef.

The only coral present is Cladophyllia furcifera, and it is comparatively

rare.

One specimen of a plant fossil was found and it may have been the
root of a small tree. The specimen was in place and a small sepcimen of
Monopleura pinguisicula was attached to it.

The following species were collected from the Georgetown Reef:
Polychaeia :

Serpulio worm tubes
Anthozoa :

Cladophyllia furcifera Roemer 1888
Pelecypoda :

Caprina crassifihra (?) Roemer 1852
CaprinuJa (?) sp.

Toucasia texana (Roemer) 1852
Monopleura pinguscula White 1884
Pecten duplicostata Roemer 1849
Gastropoda :

Pileolus whitneyi Ikins and Clabaugh 1940
Nerinea spp.

Anchura sp. indet.

Cerithium roemeri Ikins and Clabaugh 1940
Cerithmm bushwackense Ikins and Clabaugh 1940
Cerithium sp.

Lunatia (?) pedernalis (Roemer) (not Hill) 1852
Trochus ( Tectus ) texanus Roemer 1888
Fusinus (?)

Cyclostrema (?)

Circulopsis (?)

The above list contains only the species collected for this paper. The
Texas Memorial Museum of the University of Texas has a large and com¬
prehensive collection of the Georgetown Reef fauna.

The Kerrville reef, which is also silicified, has a more varied and
abundant gastropod fauna than any reef studied.

ECOLOGIC IMPLICATION OF BIOSTROME FAUNAS

The Edwards biostrome fauna includes pelecypods, gastropods, corals,
sponge spicules, Foraminifera, echinoid spines, and annelid borings. Of these,
pelecypods are most abundant although the number of species is small.
Gastropods are varied and abundant. Corals are common in some exposures
and rare in others. Sponge spicules are found in washed samples, and the
borings of Cliona may be found on pelecypod shells. Some foraminifers are
found; Liioula is the most common form and is only in the siliceous reefs.
Borings and tubes of annelid worms occur at many localities. Occasional
echinoid spines, and test fragments may be present in surface samples, and
a few complete echinoids were collected at Kerrville. No bryozoans or
brachiopods were noted at any of the exposures studied. Cephalopods are not

224

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

known in the Edwards biostromes, and this bears out the interpretation,
that cephalopods have never been reef dwellers.

The oyster Chondrodonta munsoni is more abundant in the northern
exposures of the formation, probably indicating a shallower sea in that direc¬
tion. No corals were found and very few of the carnivorous gastropods
were in the beds containing Chondrodonta. The absence of these specimens
lends support to the interpretation that the environment was possibly water
of less than normal salinity. Radiolites is commonly found in the same
localities as Chrondrodonta . Both fossils have thick, ribbed shells indicating
adaptation to life in shallow waters affected by wave action. In some locali¬
ties, however, Radiolites was associated with a rich gastropod fauna, but
Chondrodonta was absent.

In exposures where Chondrodonta and Radiolites occur together Radio¬
lites is always found higher in the section than Chondrodonta. The regularity
with which this occurs may be evidence of an ecologic succession of Chon¬
drodonta upward to Radiolites .

Cladopbyllia, Pleurocora, and other corals are found in the exposures
dominated by Monopleura , T oncasia, and Caprina. The gastropod, Nerinea,
is abundant where corals are found, and these two forms are interpreted as
requiring the same physical environments: Nerinea required a firm substatum
on which to live, and the structure of the animaTs shell suggests that it
inhabited a relatively quiet bottom.

Pecten duplicostata is associated with rudistids at several exposures, but
only single valves were found. Pecten is a free-swimming mollusk and these
shells are assumed to have been washed into the reef after the death of the
animal.

PLATE 1 — The typical "honey-comb” Edwards limestone.
Goldthwaite, Mills County, Texas.

Paleontology

§§§§1 wMmMmB

mmM^bhwmbbw

j^Sfefl^WyMBBBEHM

lilill

PLATE II— Portion of calcareous rudistid reef three miles north
Priddy, Mills County, Texas.

sill

if##

PLATE III — Portion of siliceous rudistid reef. (Note quartz crystals in internal
chambers of the caprinids ) . Kerrville Reef, 15 miles southwest of Kerrville, Kerr
County, Texas.

226

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Those exposures which have been silicified are rich in excellently pre¬
served gastropods. Most of the gastropods were carnivores attracted by these
large pelecypod concentrations. Holes in the shells of pelecypods bears out
the presence of these predators. Browsing, herbivorous snails were also pres¬
ent and are represented by such genera as Nerita, Neritina, A porrhais, and
Pileolus. All of the gastropods are marine forms, occurring more commonly
where corals and Mono pleura and Toucasia are abundant. The gastropods
represent the largest contribution in total number of genera and species to
the total biota of the biostromes.

Tubes of annelid worms, chiefly the genera Serpula and Spirorbis , are
found encrusting many shells in the biotromes. Spirorbis lives in a tube coiled
in a flat spiral and is attached to various specimens. It was found at only
two localities and to the writer’s knowledge this genus has not been pre¬
viously reported in the Comanchean of Texas.

Lituola and Ammornar ginulina are the Formaminifera found in the
biostromes. These also suggest a warm, shallow, clear, marine environment.

The abaundant shell fragments in many of the biostromes suggests the
presence of scavengers, but no positive evidence of scavengers was found.

Juveniles of most genera and species are present throughout the bio¬
stromes. The young of Toucasia and Mono pleura are commonly found clus¬
tered on the shells of mollusks and corals, and young gastropods are also
abundant.

The beds above and below the biostromes are easily distinguished from
the biostromes on the basis of lithology and fossil content. This sharp con¬
tact between the two lithologies indicates a sudden change in deposition, at
which time the biostrome was covered by a layer of non-biostromal lime¬
stone. This alternation of biostromal and non-biostromal beds may be ob¬
served as many as five times at a single exposure,.

SUMMARY

( 1 ) The use of the term "reef” in the literature is reviewed briefly.

(2) The lateral-vertical relations of the organic layers writh the surrounding rocks

suggest that the "rudistid reefs” should be termed biostromes.

(3) The biostromes do not appear to occur at the same stratigraphic level. This

observation is based on the acceptance of the Comanche Peak-Edwards contact
representing the same time level throughout.

(4) The fossils which have been replaced by silica show e>cellent preservation.

(5) Possible occurrence of new' species and extensions of geologic range of certain

species are noted.

(6) The paleoecology suggests that these biostromes wrere deposited in a relatively

shallow (10 to 20 fathoms) epicontinental sea. The waters wTere warm, clear,
of normal salinity, and populated by an abundance of pelecypods, gastropods
and corals. The pelecypod concentrations attracted a large number of carniv¬
orous marine snails.

LITERATURE CITED

Turnings, E. R., and R R. Shrock — 1928 — Niagran coral reefs of Indiana and adjacent
states and their stratigraphic relations. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 39 : 579-620.

- 1932 — Reefs or bicherms? Geol. Soc. America Bull. 43:331-332.

Vaughan, T. W. — 1911 — Physical conditions under which Paleozoic corals were formed.
Geol. Soe. America Bull. 22 : 238-252.

Wilson, W. B. — 1950 — Reef definition. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 34 (2) : 181.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Control of Poisonous Plants

227

THE USE OF HERBICIDES IN THE CONTROL
OF POISONOUS RANGE PLANTS IN TEXAS

OMER E. SPERRY
Department of Range and Forestry
A. & M. College of Texas

The various problems of poisonous range plants have paralleled the
development of the range industry in Texas. The earliest research in this
field was centered around the identification of the poisonous plants and the
determination of symptoms and toxicity. The Loco Weed Laboratory at
Alpine and the Substation near Sonora were established as units of the
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station for early investigations. Through
these stations, the veterinary research workers on the A. & M. Campus, and
federal investigators, a large number of Texas range plants have been
isolated as poisonous. Through the feeding of these plants much information
has been made available regarding symptoms and lethal dosages. After the
poisonous plants are recognized, animals must be kept away from them or
the plants must be removed from the range. In some cases of poisoning,
relief measures can be administered if applied in time.

The problem of poisonous range plants has increased in importance in
recent years. With stocking rates maintained at a high level or increased
during the past 50 years, the actual carrying capacity has been greatly
reduced. The change from open range to fenced pastures has restricted
animal movement and choice of forage. Weeds and browse have necessarily
b:en taken as forage instead of once abundant grass. In this way, poisonous
plants, although always present on our ranges, have been consumed in lethal
quantities. Ranchmen are thus faced with a range management problem of
plant eradication or control. Eradication can be carried out in small areas
and on a limited scale, but over large areas control must be achieved if
poisoning is to be averted.

There are three general methods used in the control of poisoning or
in the control of the poisonous plants. These are grouped under the headings
of mechanical, biotic and chemical. The mechanical includes cultivation in
restricted areas, mowing, especially on open pastures, a limited amount of
flooding, hand pulling or cutting, hand grubbing, and in some instances
burning.

The biotic methods are heavy grazing of limited areas by large numbers
of animals so that none is apt to get a lethal dosage, changing the type of
stocking as from sheep to cattle or goats, deferment of infested areas for a
few months of the grazing season or longer and lighter stocking rates. The
two latter methods allow the perennial plants, especially grasses, to increase
in vigor and density and thus by competition control the weedy species.

Chemicals have been used on range plants, at least experimentally,
since about 1930. The early chemicals experimented with were the various
chlorates, iron and copper sulfates, acids, oils, arsenic als and salt. Herbicides
have been used, both experimentally and practically, for several years.

Early experimental work with chemicals was done by Jones, Hill and
Bond (1932) on the Experiment Station at Sonora in 1931. Jones and

228

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 2
June 30

his coworkers tried out several chemicals and obtained some good kill
results on bitterweed. Only fair results were obtained with crude and fuel
oils. Up to six per cent sulfuric acid was used but its use was not
recommended because it was hazardous to use and the kill obtained was
not satisfactory. At the conclusion of their work, Jones and his coworkers
recommended calcium chlorate as a herbicide for bitterweed. Twelve pounds
of the chemical in 200 gallons of water per acre gave the best results.
This method was not given wide application probably due to the volume of
water necessary.

Since much of our range land has been reduced to poor condition by
continued heavy grazing, weeds, both annual and perennial and secondary
grasses constitute much of the range vegetation. Not all weeds are poison¬
ous, and many weed species, both poisonous and non-poisonous, are seldom
eaten. In other words, it is usually a hungry animal that grazes weeds to
any extent. The extended periods of drought in the Trans-Pecos and
Edwards Plateau regions during 1946, 1947, 1948 and into 1949 retarded
grass growth to the extent that many weeds have been consumed and much
poisoning has occurred. Also, during the past few years, herbicides have
been developed to the degree that they can be used over large acreages.
Trichoracetate (T.C.A.), 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and some of the arsenicals have
shown the most promise. Of these, the hormone weed killers have been
given most consideration as they can be used in control work without
removing animals from the range. Oils as carriers and as boosters for the
herbicides are also being used.

About fifty species at some time or place have been proved poisonous
to range livestock. All, of course, are potential killers, but many of the
species are catalogued as poisonous due to a few scattered killings. There
are, however, about twenty species that take a toll every year and , when
conditions are right, account for the loss of many thousand head of live¬
stock over the state. I will discuss a few of the more important species
upon which research and practical field v/ork have been done with
herbicides.

Starting in about 1945, 2,4-D was tried on bitterweed in the Edwards
Plateau area. Trial areas were treated on the Sonora Experiment Station
and on ranches in Sutton and Edwards Counties. The initial results were
promising, as this selective herbicide could be used to kill the bitterweed
without damage to grass. These herbicides are not toxic to livestock, and
thus the range can be used while control measures are applied. The first
trial plots on the O. Q. Marshall Ranch in Edwards County in 1946
obtained satisfactory kill with all formulations of 2,4-D at 1000 ppm.
Two applications in 1947 applied in the same manner as the 1946 trials,
did not secure satisfactory kill. An area sprayed on the Sonora Station in
1947 obtained satisfactory kill. Lee Allison in Sutton County secured good
results on 10 sections by spot-spray work with knapsack sprayers. Numerous
other trial applications against bitterweed, through chemical companies, by
County Agricultural Agents, and by the ranchmen met with varied degrees
of success in this general area. These early treatments were put on with
hand sprayers or stock spray equipment with water as a carrier. The rate of
application ranged from about 50 to over 100 gallons of water. In general,
the best kills of bitterweed with 2,4-D during 1946 to 1948, were obtained
by treatments with the ester forms at concentrations of about one pound

1951, NoV 2
June 30

Control of Poisonous Plants

229

of acid equivalent per acre. An airplane-applied treatment with diesel oil
as a carrier in Crockett County in 1948 did not obtain satisfactory results.
Rain and flooding obscured possible results.

The distribution and current control measures on bitterweed were
discussed by Sperry (1949), and the continued work on this weed has
led to rather extensive control treatments in some parts of Texas. Herbi-
cidal treatments still seem to get erratic results. A summarization of 2,4-D
work together with the effects of 2,4-D on bitterweed seed formation and
germination was published as a Texas Agricultural Experiment Station
Progress Report, Number 1279, (Sperry, 1950).

An extensive program of spraying bitterweed was carried out in
Sterling County in 1949. Earlier work in this area was done on the Fowler
McIntyre Ranch. McIntyre obtained excellent results when plants were
sprayed in the early growth stage. Cattle sprays, airplane and jeep-mounted
yellow-devil, boom-spray equipment have been used on the various ranches
in Sterling County. Low gallonages with water and diesel oil as carriers
were used to apply .44, .50 and .88 pounds of 2,4-D per acre in the 1949
program. While most of the ranchmen were pleased with the results, poor
to only fair kill was obtained in the overall work. Several thousand acres
in all were treated. The enthusiasm from this 1949 program ran high, and
several ranchmen purchased jeep-mounted buffalo turbines to continue the
practice. Treatments applied in 1950 in the Sterling area were erratic and
did not obtain satisfactory results on the whole. Areas of bitterweed have
also been treated both experimentally and practically in the Trans-Pecos
and Edwards Plateau, but results have been spotty.

Rayless goldenrod has been known as a poisonous plant on Texas
ranges for about 40 years. In monthly treatments from January until June,

FIGURE 1 — Field crew counting bitterweed plants to determine rate of kill by 2, 4-D.

The Texas Journal of Science

FIGURE 2 — Boom spray equipment used to spray test areas of loco in Presidio County.

FIGURE 3 — Rayless Goldenrod plant killed by spraying with 2,4-D in Crane County.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Control of Poisonous Plants

231

1949, 66 to 100 per cent kill was obtained. The best kill was obtained in
April and May. On the strength of the 1949 results, 80 acres were treated
by plane in May, 1950. Since this plant is a perennial, final results cannot
be obtained until next year, but from 65 to 99 per cent kill, was indicated
in late October. The herbicides were applied in water and diesel oil, and the
best kill appeared to be with BK 64 at one pound acid equivalent to the
acre. BK 64 contains esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T in the ratio of 66 2/3
per cent and 33 l/3 per cent respectively.

The first chemical work on locoweed to the writer’s knowledge was
done on the Allison, Childers and Bogel Ranches south of Marfa in Presidio
County in December, 1947. Apparently excellent kill was obtained, but
Mexican laborers grubbed the area, including the treated plants, before
final results could be checked. There was not enough locoweed in 1948 to
continue our tests, but extensive field tests have been carried on during
1949 and 1950. While our results to date do not permit us to make positive
recommendations, we can say that we have obtained satisfactory results by
spot-spray treatments with concentrations of the ester of 2,4-D at 2000 to
4000 ppm.

Our wo^k on Ridell’s senecio and threadleaf senecio (also called
groundsels) also indicate that the ester of 2,4-D and the combination of
the esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are the best herbicides to use in the control
of this weed. Higher volume sprays have given better results than low
gallonage treatments.

Garboncillo and peavine, two annual species of the genus Astragalus ,
have been killed with herbicides in Presidio County during 1949 and 1950.
The most consistent results have been with the so-called brush killers in
which 1/3 to l/2 of the active herbicide was 2,4,5-T. No significant in¬
crease in kill was secured when two per cent diesel oil was added to the water
emulsion of these sprays,

A good kill of desert baileya was obtained with 2,4-D in a single treat¬
ment in 1949, but not enough of the weeds were available in our experi¬
mental area in 1950 to confirm our results.

In the case of Loco, senecio, groundsel, peavine and baileya, I have
cited primarily experimental work in connection with the Agricultural
Experiment Station. A number of ranchmen, Extension Service men, chem¬
ical workers and commercial operators have also done considerable work.

It is thus evident that herbicidal control of the species of poisonous
plants is a tool in range management and that range improvement through
deferment, lighter stocking and other good practices is still the best long¬
time program for range areas. Herbicides can be used to an advantage when
physiologically vigorous plants can be treated with killing concentrations.
Each species and each site is an individual problem and thus only the fol¬
lowing general suggestions can be made:

1. Susceptibility of the plant to the chemical should be ascertained.
There Is a difference in the rate of kill between amines and ester
forms. Some weed killers have added 2,4,5-T. This may increase
the price but not increase the efficiency.

2. The time of application is important. Physiologically vigorous,
growing plants in pre-bloom stages of growth are more susceptible
than mature plants.

232

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

3. The plant environment must be considered. Plants growing on dry
hill sites are usually harder to kill than plants growing in valleys.
High wind does not allow good coverage and creates high evapora¬
tion. In general all soil and climatic conditions have a bearing.

4. In 2,4-D and 2,4, 5 -T, know the amounts of active ingredients per
gallon. The various formulations contain from two to four pounds
of the acid equivalent of the herbicide per gallon. Make up solutions
in parts per million (ppm) by weight or apply on a basis of pounds
of the acid equivalent per acre.

LITERATURE CITED

Jones, S. E., W. H. Hill and T. A. Bond — 1932 — Control of the bitterweed poisonous to sheep
in the Edwards Plateau region. Bull. Tex. Agric. Exp. Station 464.

Sperry, Omer E. — 1949 — The control of bitterweed (Actinea odorata) on Texas ranges. J.
Range Management 2 : 122-127.

- 1950 — The effects of 2, 4-D on bitterweed seed formation and germination. Prog. Kept.

Tex. Agric. Expt. Station 1279.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Crude Fiber Metabolism

233

CRUDE FIBER METABOLISM OF COLLEGE WOMEN
ON SELF-SELECTED DIETS

FLORENCE I. SCOULAR, CHARLOTTE COLLIER, AND FAYE McCARTY
School of Home Economics, North Texas State College

The role of complex carbohydrates, lignin, cellulose, and hemiceliulose
in the diet has attracted the attention of individuals over a long period of
time. It is known that some complex carbohydrate is needed for desirable
intestinal tone and stimulation of intestinal muscles, to assist in satisfactory
gastro-intestinal activity and to regulate bowel elimination. Vegetable bulk
or fiber is composed of cellulose, hemiceliulose and lignin. There are no
digestive enzymes active on these, but the intestinal bacteria may decompose
as much as 80 to 8 5 per cent of food cellulose and hemiceliulose. Those not
decomposed are excreted in the feces. When the digestive tract is slow,
usually more of the cellulose and hemiceliulose are decomposed than when
the tract is rapid. On the same daily intake over a period of time, the fecal
cellulose and hemiceliulose will vary in the same individual.

A limited number of studies on the disappearance of complex carbohy¬
drates from the digestive tracts have been made to show its effect on the
laxation rate of men and children. Williams and Olmsted (1936) investi¬
gated the residue found in ten food substances from different sources. Their
subjects were three healthy men. Their investigation revealed that lignin
and cellulose disappeared less readily than hemiceliulose. They, also, found
that a high percentage of lignin decreased the disappearance of cellulose
and hemiceliulose.

Hummel, Shepherd, and Macy (1940) used children as subjects to
determine the effect of changes in food intake upon the lignin, cellulose,
and hemiceliulose contents of diets. It was indicated in this study that the
nutritional processes were influenced by the kind of fiber, the source, and
the level of the intake.

From a study of eleven healthy men, Cowgill and Anderson (1932)
placed the physiological roughage at from 90 to 100 mg/kg of body weight.
This conclusion was drawn after feeding washed and unwashed bran to the
subjects. Hummel, Shepherd, and Macy (1943) concluded from their study
of children that 170 to 3 30 mg/kg of body weight was neither too much
nor too little for normal laxation.

The purpose of this study was to determine the total crude fiber and
lignin of the diets selected by college women and to compare these values
with the laxation rates.

PROCEDURE

The twenty-seven subjects lived in the Home Management Duplex,
North Texas State College, Denton, Texas, during the study. Eight, four or
five-day balance periods were used.

In each balance period the menus were planned by the girls to meet
the provisions of the Texas Food Standard. The food supply was quantita¬
tively the same with the exception of milk. Coffee, without cream, sugar
candy, and carbonated beverages were permitted ad libitum.

TABLE I

DAILY CRUDE FIBER INTAKE AND EXECRETION WITH LAXATION RATES AND THE PER CENT OF CRUDE FIBER DISAPPEARING IN THE

DIGESTIVE TRACT _

234

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Rate

OOOOOOOOOv^OOO OCOOOOOOOOOOVMTN

c o (N^ (N oo oo ri q ia c q^oqoocoq^iNCOONfN

A NddOHHHHHHHHHN

Total

xo<Nxrxr»r\ir\»r\r-.'©xf'xtixf,mO's

AVERAGE DAILY OUTPUT
CRUDE FIBER

'% disappearing
in digestive
tract

r--oovo»/',\xf,<— ixpr-^rn'OCNr^-ON '0'Ocr>xflmxroooo*-i<Nrxxj'ir>c\

oo'OooC\csCNOO\ON'Or-r^oO'^

% water

'<tOHH^HfCOvOOiAC\G\ H(NHffiC\mmOOfnxl,HO^

r^r^t^-oo'Ooor^r^r^oot^r^\c r-^oooooor'-oooooooooooooooooo

Total

'^rHOO'HONrH(N\Orr1'^fCifn OiOOfA'^OOtNOiAM^Omr'OO
rnoq^r-OOOSrnoO^^fN^^ in\0000(NOOiAiAO\HO’-iC\

HHHrHHOHOHfNHHfi 1 A A A A A fsj O A (N CN (N H A,

AVERAGE DAILY INTAKE

CRUDE FIBER

% of total
crude fiber

OS Os ON CN OS CN fN (N fN CN

oo oo oo oo oo fo rn m m m

tJD

Total

i^r^xr xr^'^xf^O'O'O'O'O
X0 VO fN (N <N (N rsj Xf XT

so vd A AAAAcxcncncxcn

mg./bd.

wt.

w^oma rn^o\^rHooooc\ooH(NooM
\T\ 'O 'O H Cs o 1-H O <— i CN xf 00 00'OmOM‘NOON(NiAinfft(NtN

I r-i 1 1 ,-h ,-H HHHfnrft(V|rTl(NfnHHHHH

Deter¬

mined

©OirNxfxroooooor^r^.r-'Oxrrri itm?\C'.^hiaiai/ma00000
prrjONC\ppp<N(N>r%oqxfxf\D\0'Opoqooopr';r^r^r^;r^

A xf A A A A A xo \o xo xo oo o ©ooAAAiAArAiAAAAA

Esti¬

mated

cxcNcvjcxoqoqoqrorococnoooq oq

A A A A\b \o \d xo \d vd xo A A A

Total |

Days ob¬
served

rrixf»^w^v^irN>r>irM^xj,rri'^|i^ mirNirNirNv^irNi^u^irNXfxrxfxfxf

Subject

X .> -H OO . . M

H ,-A^ < < < ^ ffl" H H o ^ ^ P pq ^ 0 X A P X ^ P naP pq P
^ pu A p<!wKQ AS S QfflAGAAQeqAScAw

1 Participated in two periods.

2 Did not eat her cereal ; lignin not determined on the rejection.

1951, No, 2
June 30

Crude Fiber Metabolism

235

The food and feces samples were collected and prepared for analysis
by the method previously reported by Holt and Scoular (1948). At the
time the meal was served, individual servings of the various foods were
placed in Eclipse widemouth quart size Ball jars. Each jar was weighed, the
food macerated in a Waring Blender, and the three meals were then com¬
bined and macerated again. The jars of food were stored in a refrigerator
until time of analysis.

To mark feces, a capsule containing 0.5 gram of carmine was given
the night preceding the first meal of the study and again after the last
meal of the test period. Feces were collected and weighed in pint size
wide-mouth Ball jars which had been labelled and numbered for each
subject. The feces were also macerated in the Waring Blendor. An aliquot
of each stool for the test period was taken to obtain a composite aliquot.
The composite aliquots were again macerated and stored in the refrigerator
until time of analysis.

For crude fiber analysis, the method of the Association of Official and
Agricultural Chemists was used; while the lignin was determined by Macy’s
(1942) adaptation of the method of Williams and Olmsted (1935).

The same procedures were used for both food and feces.

DISCUSSION

Only one subject (M.A.G.) participated in more than one period of
the study. For the first five periods, Table 1, the total crude fiber of the
diets was estimated as well as determined. The value did not vary greatly
although for two of the periods, 1, and 2, the estimated was slightly higher
than the determined value. The average daily crude fiber intake ranged
from 4.08 to 10.65 grams. When calculated on the "average” woman’s
weight (56 kg.), these values give a daily intake of 90 to 186 mg/kg of
body weight. The values for the diets consumed during the subsequent
three periods were 7.70 to 17.05 grams per day, or 122 to 341 mg/kg of
body weight. The highest values were assumed to be due to the inclusion
of Ralstons as the cereal, since on none of the non-Ralston days were the
values as high. This is seen especially from the standpoint of the lignin
content of the diet which is also particularly high in the Ralston period.
Whole wheat bread was consumed on these days also. However, on the days
when whole wheat bread was used without the Ralstons, both the total
crude fiber and the lignin intake were less. According to Heller and Wall
(1940) in their study with sheep and cattle, the amount of indigestible
residue depended entirely upon the type of cereal grain fed the stock. The
cellulose of certain mixtures of feed was better utilized than that of lignin
in the same food.

The intake and the output of total crude fiber is given for all the
periods. It is to be seen that the period in which Ralston with its large
lignin intake was consumed gave no higher values of crude fiber in the feces
than the other periods in which the total crude fiber intake was less.
According to Heller and Wall (1940), this suggests that the crude fiber
combination permitted better utilization.

The taxation rate varied from 0.4 to 2.2 with intakes which ranged
from 59 to 341 mg/kg of body weight, Table I. The intestinal decomposi¬
tion of crude fiber ranged from 49 to 98 per cent. There is no direct
relationship between the intake of total crude fiber and the taxation rate.

236

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

although there is a tendency for an increased taxation rate with an increased
intake of total crude fiber. No laxatives were requested, and no evidence
of diarrhea was observed during this study. To illustrate these points, M.
C. consumed 122 mg/kg of body weight and had a taxation of 2.2 5, while
L. K. with an ingestion of 341 mg/kg of body weight, had a rate of 1.00.
The subject with an intake of 59 mg/kg had a rate of 1.00 also.

Similarly, it may be observed that the relationship between the per¬
centage of fecal water and the laxation rate are not related. The water in
the feces varied from 69 to 8 5 per cent. This range is only slightly greater
than that which Macy (1943) reports for children who do not require
laxatives. Her range was 74 to 84 per cent. However, when we consider
the one subject M.A.G., who participated in two of the periods, we find
that the laxation rate of 1.0 occurred when the fecal water was determined
to be 69 per cent, whereas, she had a laxation rate of 1.5 with a fecal water
percentage of 79. The dietary crude fiber intake also varied during these
two periods, 185 mg/kg, the larger intake, occurred with the lower laxation
rate and the lower percentage of water. An intake of 149 mg/kg was
associated with the higher rate and the higher water content. The results
from this one subject suggests that possibly the water content of the feces
may be more important than the total fiber content in determining the
laxation rate for a given individual.

SUMMARY

The crude fiber intake varied from 59 to 341 mg/kg of body weight,
while the lignin of the diets varied from 32 to 89 per cent of the total
crude fiber.

The water content of the feces ranged from 69 to 84 per cent with a
total crude fiber content of 9 to 64 mg/kg of body weight.

From 49 to 98 per cent of the crude fiber disappeared in the digestive
tracts of these young college women.

In general, total crude fiber of the diet increased with the increased
laxation rate.

It is assumed that 59 to 341 milligrams of crude fiber per kilogram
of body weight satisfied the physiological roughage of these college women
since there was no request for laxative nor was there any evidence of
diarrhea.

LITERATURE CITED

Cowgili, G. R, and W. E. Anderson — 1932 — Laxative effect of wheat bran and “washed
bran” in healthy men : A comparative study. J. Am. Med. Ass. 99 : 1866-1875.

Heller, V. G. and Rovert Wall — 1940 — Indigestible carbohydrates of feeds. J. Nutri. 19 :
141-149.

Holt, Flowayne and F. I. Scoular — 1948 — Iron and copper metabolism of young women on
self-selected diets. J. Nutri. 35 : 717-724.

Hummell, Frances C. and M. L. Shepherd, and I. G. Macy — 1940 — Effect of changes in f9od
intakes upon the lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose contents of diets : J. Am. Diet.
Ass. 16: 199.

Hummell, Frances C., M. L. Shepherd, and I. G. Macy — 1943 — Disappearance of cellulose and
hemicellulose from digestive tracts of children. J. Nutri. 25:59-70.

Macy, Icie G. — 1942 — Nutrition and chemical growth in childhood. Pp. 251-253. Charles C.
Thomas, publisher, Springfield, Illinois.

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists — 1945 — Official and tentative methods of analy¬
sis. Sixth ed. Washington, D. C. P. 404.

Williams, Ray D. and W. D. Olmsted — 1936 — The effect of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
on the weight of the stool ; A contribution to the study of laxation in man. J. Nutri.

1 1 : 433-499.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

237

THE GULF OF MEXICO ADJACENT TO TEXAS

HARRY F. WILLIAMS
Standard Oil Company of Texas

INTRODUCTION

The Gulf of Mexico adjacent to Texas has been of interest to the
marine biologist as an area of important commercial fishing. It is a region
of active sedimentation, and for this reason it has recently been studied by
sedimentologists. In the past few years the search for possible off-shore oil
structures has added more impetus to the study of the area. However, most
of the detailed study was not started until just before World War II, and
much work in all phases of oceanography remains to be done.

The area described in this report includes the Gulf of Mexico from the
Sabine River, latitude 29° 45’ N, longitude 93° 50’ W, to the Rio Grande,
latitude 26° 05’ N, longitude 97° 20’ W, and extends seaward approximately
200 miles. (See index map Fig. 1.)

FIGURE 1 — Index map showing area covered in report (shaded).

Most of the information contained in this report was obtained either
from literature or personal communications. In either case acknowledgement
of the source is made in the text.

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Seas and swell. — -The average conditions of sea and swell presented here
are those published by the Hydrographic Office based on a great number of
reports received by them (Bigelow and Edmonson, 1947). The terms 'Tow”,
"medium” and "high” seas refer to wave heights of 1 to 3 feet, 3 to 8 feet,

238

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIGURE 2 — Surface currents in spring in the American Mediterranean Sea (after
Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, The Oceans, p. 642, (1946).

DISTRIBUTION OF SOME RECENT FORAMINlFERA
FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO EAST OF THE RIO GRANDE RIVER

Globigerina
Globigerinella
Globigerinoides
Gyroidina

Cassidulina laevigata
Cassidulina spp.

Bulinina

Bolivina subaenariensis var. Mexicana
Bolivina striatula spinata &

B. subaenariensis & B. spp.

Bolivina malovensis
Uvigerina spp.

Asterigerina

“Cristellaria” (Including Robulus,

Lentlculina, Nemicrlstellaria, Astacelus)

Cancris

Cibicides floridanus
Cibicides concentricus

Distribution of foraminifera in Gulf of Mexico off Rio Grande,

S. Reussella

T. Plauorbulinella

U. Planulina

V. Marginulina

W. Textularia

X. Bigenerina

Y. Virgulina

Z. Bulininella
AA. Tulvinulinella
BB. Nonionella

CC. Polymorphinidae
DD. Guttulina
EE. Massilina secanis
FF. Various Miliolidae I Mostly
Qulnqueloculina)

GG. Elphidium
HH. Rotalia

FIGURE 3 (Lowman, 1949)

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

239

and 8 feet or higher, respectively. The same terms when used with swell
indicate wave heights of 1 to 6 feet, 6 to 12 feet, and 12 feet or higher. In
general the seas and swell in the Gulf of Mexico are low. The summer seas
are low on an average of 70 to 80 per cent of the time and are high 0 to 1
per cent of the time. At least 80 per cent of the time the swells are low, and
only 0 to 5 per cent of the time the swells are high. During winter, seas
are low only 45 to 68 per cent of the time and are high 2 to 7 per cent of
the time. Swells are also higher in the winter. Swells are high 4 to 9 per
cent of the time and low about 60 per cent.

Currents.— Only two permanent currents have been charted for this
region of the Gulf of Mexico. These consist of an inner current flowing
southwest along the coast at a velocity of 1 to 2 miles per hour and an
outer current flowing in the opposite direction at a velocity less than 1 mile
per hour.

These currents, like all currents in the Gulf of Mexico, are the result
of independent eddies which form in the Gulf. The Florida Current (Gulf
Stream) is a direct continuation of the current through the Yucatan Chan¬
nel, and only to a small extent are the waters of the Gulf drawn into this
current (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, 1946).

Temperature. — -The Gulf of Mexico is a relatively warm body of water.
The mean average temperature of the surface for the years 1912-1923 was
75.5° F. (Slocum, 193 5 ). For this same period of years the surface tempera¬
tures were coolest in the month of February with a mean of 67.4° F. The
warmest mean was in August with 83.7° F. (See graph, Table I.)

TABLE I — Mean surface temperature of the Gulf of Mexico
during the years 1921-1923.

The temperature at a depth of 200 meters is about 59° F. (Sverdrup,
Johnson, and Fleming, 1946), while at 400 meters depth it is less than
50° F. Sigsbee (Lindenkohl, 1896) recorded temperatures at stations off
the Texas coast at a depth of 460 meters. This work showed two zones,
one near shore with temperature readings ranging from 8.9° C. to 9.4° C.,
approximately 48° F. and an outer zone with temperatures ranging from
6.7° C. to 7.8° C, approximately 45° F.

SALINITY

The average surface salinity of the Gulf of Mexico is slightly more
than 36 parts per thousand. Observations in the North Atlantic (Sverdrup,
Johnson, and Fleming, 1946) show the highest surface salinities in March
and the lowest in November.

240

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

The salinity near shore is affected by the volume of fresh water being
emptied into the Gulf by the rivers. In observations off the coast of Louisi¬
ana (Geyer, 195 0) the salanity varied daily, and the monthly average salin¬
ity showed a proportional relationship to the monthly discharge of water
from the Mississippi River.

In Laguna Madre, prior to 1941, the salinity during a prolonged
drought was three times greater than the salinity of the open ocean, and
this condition was still in effect in 1949, when the intracoastal canal from
Corpus Christi to Brownsville was opened. Salinity changes (if any) have
not been studied since that time.

MARINE BIOLOGY

Microscopic. — Much work has been done in the collection, identification,
and evaluation of foraminiferal assemblages in the Gulf of Mexico. Accord¬
ing to Lowman (1949) the most abundant bottom-living forms in relation
to chlorinity in parts per million are as follows: In weakly brackish water
with a range of 100 to 5,000ppm the dominant genus is Ammohaculites .
From 5,000 to 15,000 ppm Rotalia and El phidium are the dominant genera.

On the continental shelf the faunal assemblages are in three major
groups: Inner shelf, middle shelf, and outer shelf. (See Table II). A marked
faunal change occurs at the boundary between the continental shelf and
continental slope. Beyond the slope zonation of foraminiferal assemblages is
apparently related to depth.

Figure 3 shows the distribution of foraminifera along a traverse run
off the Texas coast near Corpus Christi. (See Figure 11 for location of
traverse.) The total width of the chart represents 100 per cent of forms
collected. Station number and type of bottom is given across the top and
depth in feet of station across the bottom of the figure.

Free floating foraminifera were found in every plankton tow made dur¬
ing the 1947 cruise of the Atlantis in the Gulf of Mexico (Phleger, 1950). .(n
a core taken in the middle of the Sigsbee Deep, the upper 5 0 cm. contained the
following subtropical planktonic fauna: Globigerinoides rubra , Globorotalia
menardii , G. tumid a, G. trunca tulinoides, and Pulleniatina obliquilata (Trask,
Phleger, and Stetson, 1947).

TABLE II

ENVIRONMENTS CONTROLLING DISTRIBUTION OF FORAMINIFERA

1. Free-floating

Orvidina, Globigerina, Globorotalia

2. Bottom-living; stagnant (?)

A. Brackish

Haplophragmoides, Trochammina, Ammoastuta

B. Marine

Haplophragmoides , T rocbommina, Cyclammina , Bathysiphon

3. Bottom-living; open water

A. Fresh water

Centropyxis, Difflugia (not foraminifera, but closely related)

B. Weakly brackish
Ammobaculites

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

241

C. Moderately brackish
Ammobaculites, Rot alia, Elphidium

D. Strongly brackish and nearshore marine (inner neritic)

Rot alia, Elphidium, Miliolidae

E. Mid-continental shelf (mid-neritic)

Great abundance of genera and species; dominance of Rotaliidae,
especially Cibicides

F. Outer continental shelf (outer neritic)

Great abundance of genera and species; conspicuous number
and variety of Lagenidae

G. Upper part of continental slope (inner bathyal)

Dominance of Buliminidae, especially Uvigerina, and Bolivina

H. Other depth-zone faunas said to be present in deeper parts of
Gulf according to current results of Fred B. Phleger, in pro¬
cess of preparation for publication.

After S. W. Lowman, "Sedimentary Facies in Gulf Coast,” Bulletin A. A.
P. G., Vol. 33, No. 12, p. 1956, (1949).

Macros co pic. — A study of marine vertebrates by Gunter (1944) in
the area of Copano Bay, Aransas Bay (the outer bay adjoining Copano
Bay) , and the adjacent waters of the Gulf of Mexico revealed the fol¬
lowing: Of 78,26 5 specimens caught, the most abundant species were
the croaker, Micro pogon undulatus, the bay anchovy, Anchoa mithilli dila-
phana, the silverside, Me nidi a beryllina peninsulae, the sheephead minnow,
Cyprinodon variegatus variegatus, and the mullet, Mugil cephalus. The pre¬
dominant species taken on the bay flats were the silverside, M. beryllina penin¬
sulae, the cyprinodontid, C. variegatus variegatus, the anchovy, A. mit chilli
diaphana, the mullet, M. cephalus, and the cyprinodontid, Fund ulus similis.
In the deeper waters of the bay, the most numerous fishes were the croaker,
M. undulatus, the anchovy, A. mit chilli diaphana, the catfish, Galeichthys
felis, and the sand trout, Cynoscion arenarius. The most abundant fishes
taken along the Gulf beach were the sardine, Harengula macropthalma, the
anchovies, A. mit chilli diaphana and A. hepsetus, the threadfish, Polydactylus
octonemus, and the pompano ,Trachinotus carolinus. In the deeper waters of
the Gulf, the most abundant fishes were the sand trout, Cynoscion notions,
the croaker, M. undulatus, the threadfin, P. octonemus, the catfish, G. felis,
and the moonfish, Vomer setapinnis.

The greatest spawning activity occurs in the spring. The fish spawn
both in the bays and in the gulf. A great many marine fishes can withstand
relatively low salinity, but very few fresh water forms can withstand an
increase in salinity. Most fishes in the bays move seaward in the fall, prob¬
ably due to temperature change as it was noted that a mild cold spell in
January 1942 killed several fishes. The most numerous species killed were
A. mitchilli diaphana and M. beryllina peninsulae.

Of the approximately 72,000 invertebrates collected in the same gen¬
eral area (Gunter, 1945) the most numerous species were the peneid shrimp,
Penaeus setiferus and P. at ecus, the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes vulgaris, the
blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, and the sea pansy, Renilla mulleri.

The peneid shrimp, P. setiferus , and P. aztecus, the blue crab, C. sapidus,
and the grass shrimp, P. vulgaris are the predominant species in the bays.

242

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

There are also many bottom living forms such as the oyster, Ostrea vir-
ginica, coquina, Donax variabilh , the ark shells, Area, and many other pele-
cypods. One of the most common gastropod shells found on the beaches is
the lightning conch, Buscyon perversum . Others were seen but were not col¬
lected or identified. In addition several types of echinoderms were noted in¬
cluding starfish, brittle stars, and sand dollars.

SUBMARINE GEOLOGY

Topography — -The Texas Gulf Coastal Plain is a relatively flat area tilted
about five feet per mile toward the Gulf (Carsey, 1950). Salt domes with
tops at or near the surface produce low mounds.

Along the coast line there are sandy beaches bordering marshes and
shallow bays. In most places off shore, sand bars rise above the surface of
the water to form narrow elongate barrier islands paralleling the coast and

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

243

leave shallow lagoons between them and the mainland. The inner series of
back bays form around the mouths of rivers and connect to the outer
lagoons.

On the continental shelf the gradient is still low, but a little steeper
than on shore. The tilt of the shelf is about 12 feet per mile (Carsey, 1950).
This gentle slope extends seaward until a depth of about 70 fathoms is
reached. The average width of the shelf is about 60 miles. (See Figure 4
bottom topography map.)

Beyond the shelf the gradient steepens forming the continental slope.
The continental slope in this area generally consists of two parts: An upper
steep slope and a lower gentler slope with an overall average 400 to 600 feet
per mile. (See Figures 5 and 6.)

Many sharp local topographic features occur on the slope and in places
on the outer edge of the shelf. (See Figure 7.) These features are closed
basins, elongate ridges, and valleys, and steep-sided, flat-toppd domes.
(Phleger, 1950.)

tooo-

F1GURE 5

244

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. £
June 30

SEA LEVEL

PROFILE 0-0' OFF GALVESTON BAY

FIGURE 6

The most striking features are the steep-sided, flat-topped domes. Corals,
shell fragments and limestone have been dredged from the top of these
domes. Their origin has not been determined although two main theories
have been offered. Shepard suggests that they are salt domes (Shepard, 1937).
These domes could possibly be a continuation of the salt dome province on
the coastal plain. The other theory suggests that they are igneous structures
similar to the volcanic necks near Tampico, Mexico.

Mattison (1948) places the coral heads in this region in four
groups. The first group is in the east between longitude 91° and 94°.
These heads are found around the 100 fathom depth curve and rise to a
height from 9 to 50 fathoms below the surface of the water. To the west
about 8 miles offshore from the mouth of the Brazos river (see Figure 7)
is another group of coral heads rising 2 to 3 fathoms above the bottom.
Here the coral heads are found in three principal groups with a total of ten
heads in all. Each of these groups are approximately two miles apart. Samples
of coral were taken from the lone head found about nine miles east of the
others and approximately in line with them. Off Aransas Pass the most in¬
teresting of all groups is found. Six heads rise from depths around 40
fathoms and the tops are all. within a few feet of being 3 1 fathoms from
the surface of the sea. South of this group all the way to the area off the
mouth of the Rio Grande are more scattered coral heads with depths rang¬
ing from 26 to 45 fathoms.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

245

TOPOGRAPHY OF RESTRICTED AREA ALONG
CONTINENTAL SHELF

FIGURE 7 — -From J. Ben Carsey, "Geology of Gulf Coastal Area and Continental
Shelf," Bull. A.A.P.G. vol. 34, No. 3, p. 37, (March, 1950).

Other topographic irregularities described by Mattison are the shallow
valleys found along the 15 fathom curve (Figures 8, 9) offshore from Arroya
Colorado. Numerous small coral heads were found along the length of
these valleys.

Immediately offshore from Padre Island in the vicinity of Arroya Colo¬
rado (Figure 10) a series of finger-like ridges and troughs is found. Matti¬
son suggests these features may be related to the Arroya Colorado and Rio
Grande drainage area. However, Smith (1948) points out that these
features are similar to those found off the Virginia and Maryland coasts in
about the same depths. Smith believes these features are the result of recent
action by waves and currents.

Sedimentary Processes — The rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico
along the Texas coast drain practically all parts of that state. Although
these streams pass over all types of topography, soils, and bed rock, the last
200 miles of their course is over the flat coastal plain. Across the coastal
plain the speed of the rivers is slower and grain size of mechanical sediments
transported is relatively small. This, in part, accounts for the very fine¬
grained beach deposits along the coast (Trask, 1950).

The coastal plain is underlain by Cenozoic rocks, sandstones and shales
predominating. The top soils are varied. They range from thick "gumbo”
to fine sand. The average annual rate of sediment production (in tons per

24 6

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIGURE 9 — Coral heads in the vicinity of Sebree Bank. *

* Mattison, 1948

1951, No. 2
June 30

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

247

Mattison, 1948

248

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

square mile of drainage area) of some of the major streams is shown in
Table III. A few of the results of observation stations inland from the
coastal plain have been included for contrast. The average amount of water
emptying into the Gulf annually from rivers along the Texas coast is about
244 billion barrels (Geyer, 1950).

TABLE III

REPRESENTATIVE rates of sediment production from larger
DRAINAGE AREAS IN TEXAS (Brown, 1950).

Stream

Nearest Location
Location

Drainage

Area

Average

Annual

Sediment

Production

Sq. Mi.

Tons per

Sq. Mi.

Red River

Denison

32,840

633

Sabine River

Logansport, La.

4,858

253

Neches River

Rockland

3,539

146

Trinity River

Romayor

17,200

425

Navasota River

Easterly

949

441

Brazos River

Richmond

34,810

1,092

Guadalupe River

Spring Branch

1,432

135

Nueces River

Three Rivers

15,600

Note: Rates from suspended-load measurements and reservoir-sedimentation sur¬
veys, not corrected for bed load, trap efficiency, channel aggradation, mean runoff, etc.

Bottom Deposits — A sandy beach borders the shore line of the Texas
Gulf Coast in most places. Seaward from the shore line, however, the sedi¬
ments do not adhere to the usual "text book" examples of coarse-grained
sediments near shore grading into finer-grained sediments off shore. In the
lagoons formed by the barrier islands and in the bays, the bottom is muddy
in places and sandy in others. Along the seaward side of the barrier islands is
a wide forebeach extending a mile or more off shore. From a series of samples
taken near Corpus Christi, Storm (1945) reports:

"Beyond a zone of rather fine material near shore, there is a narrow belt of
sands with an average grain diameter of 0.21 millimerter parallel with the shore
and about 12 miles distant from it. Beyond that the grain size decreases again until it
averages about 0.03 mm. about 20 miles from shore. It increases to an average of
0.18 mm. (a fair sand) at 30 miles from shore. From there out to about 40 miles
from shore the grain of the sediments becomes finer and finer.

Storm further points out that the sandy belts correspond almost exactly
with the path of currents shown on the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
Pilot Charts, where silts are deposited in the slack-water region between
currents. The wide sandy belt off shore corresponds to the region of shifting
outer currents which flow in a northeasterly direction.

Studies of samples obtained in the Gulf of Mexico during the 1947
cruise of the Atlantis also showed sand zones about half way across the shelf.
Trask (1948) suggests two possible origins for this sand zone: that they

1951, No. 2
June SO

Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas

249

may be old beaches formed when the level of the Gulf was lower, or that
they may be submerged bars or water dunes now in the process of formation.

No appreciable changes in sedimentation in relation to depth of burial
are noted on the shelf or slope; however, in the abyssal deeps the upper
foraminiferal ooze is underlain by alternating layers of sand, silt, and clay
containing subarctic foraminifera. The sands in the lower parts of the cores
are from one to three feet thick and show cross bedding. Also zones of well
sorted silt 0.2 to 50 millimeters thick are nuemous. The median diameter
of the silt grains is between 10 to 20 microns. The presence of this sorting
suggests current action. In a few places a layer of red clay or red mud
separate the two zones.

Cores taken in the area off the Rio Grande do not show the same
zonation. These cores have an upper layer of foraminiferal ooze a few centi¬
meters thick below which there is fine silt extending to the bottom of the
core (Trask, 1947).

The sediments on the slopes of the steep sided domes consists of silty,
^alcereous sand. On the tops of these hills Lithothamnium balls and little
or no sandy material was found (Trask, 1947).

FIG. II CCarsef. I9S0)

250

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

The calcium carbonate content increases from five per cent in shallow
water to as much as forty per cent in the center of the Gulf. The average
organic content of sediments on the continental shelf is less than one per
cent. The organic content increases to a maximum of one to two per cent
on the continental slope and is slightly less, about one per cent, in the abyssal
deeps.

The general distribution of sediments off the Texas Gulf Coast can be
seen from Figure 11.

CONCLUSIONS

The region of the Gulf of Mexico adjacent to Texas still offers rich
rewards to the oceanographer, biologist, or geologist who wishes to explore
it. More information is needed concerning the nature of the bottom deposits,
distribution of fauna, salinity and temperature, especially in deeper water,
and other general subjects. Also such problems as the origin and extent of
the off-shore sand zones and the origin and composition of the steep-sided
domes have not been satisfactorily solved. Another problem in the beginning
stages of being solved is the extent and history of the Gulf coast geocyn-
cline. Other problems exist and still others will be uncovered with more
exploration. As an easily accessible area of active seedimentation, the Texas
Gulf is probably one of the best places for study to increase our knowledge
of sedimentology and related sciences.

literature cited

Brown, Carl B. — 1950 — Effects of soil conservation. Applied Sedimentation. John Wiley and
Sons. New York. Pp. 380-407.

Bigelow, Henry B., and W. T. Edmonston — 1947 — Wind waves at sea. Breakers and surf.

United States Navy Hydrographic Office. H. O. Pub. No. 602. P. 177.

Carsey, J. Ben — 1950 — Geology of Gulf coastal area and continental shelf. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 34(3) : 361-385.

Geyer, Richard A. — 1950 — Journal of marine research. Vol. 9, No. 2.

Gunter, Gordon — 1944 — Marine ecological work along the Gulf coast of the United States.
Report of the Committee on Marine Ecology as related to Paleontology. No. 2.
1941-42. National Research Council. Washington, D. C. December 1942.

- 1944 — Relations of salinity and temperature to distribution of the marine fishes of

Texas. Report of the Committee on Marine Ecology as Related to Paleontology. No. 4.
1943-44. National Research Council. Washington, D. C.

- 1945 — Summary of ecological studies on invertebrates of the Texas coast. Report of

the Committee on Marine Ecology as Related to Paleontology. No. 5. 1944-45. National
Research Council. Washington, D. C.

Lindenkohl, A. — 1896 — Temperature im Golf von Mexico and im Golfstrom in der tiefe von
460 meters. Petermanns Mitteilungen. Vol. 42. Tafel 3. P. 48.

Lowman, S. W» — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf coast. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
33(12} : 1939-1997.

Mattison, George C. — 1948 — Bottom configuration in the Gulf of Mexico. Journal Coast and
Geodetic Survey. No. 1.

Phleger, Fred B., Jr. — 1950 — Sedimentology of the northwest Gulf of Mexico. Address before
the Houston Geological Society.

Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and F. B. Plummer — 1932 — The geology of Texas. Vol. 1.

Stratigraphy. Univ. of Texas Bull. No. 3232. PI. XI.

Shepard, F. P. — 1937 — Salt domes related to Mississippi trough. Bull. Geol. Soc. America.
48: 1349-62.

- 1948 — Submarine geology. Harper and Brothers. New York. 348 pp.

Slocum, G. — 1935 — Sea surface temperature summary for the northwest Gulf of Mexico.
1912-23. Monthly Weather Review 63 : 147-184.

Smith, Paul A. — 1948 — Comment on bottom configuration in the Gulf of Mexico. Journal,
Coast and Geodetic Survey. No. 1.

Storm, L. W. — 1945 — Resume of facts and opinions on sedimentation in Gulf coast region
of Texas and Louisiana. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 29(9) : 1304-1335.

Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and R. H. Fleming— 1946 — The oceans. Prentice-Hall.
New York. 1087 pp.

Trask, Parker D. — 1948 — Environmental conditions of deposition in the Gulf of Mexico.
Report of the Committee on a Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleontology. No. 8.
1947-48. P. 101.

- 1950 — Dynamics of sedimentation. Applied Sedimentation. John Wiley and Sons.

New York. Pp. 3-40.

Trask, Parker D., Phleger, Fred B., Jr., and Henry C. Stetson — 1947 — Recent changes in
sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico. Science, No. 14, 1947: 460-461.

Weaver, Paul — 1950 — Variations in the history of continental shelves. Bull. Amer. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. 34(3) : 351-360.

1951, No. 2
June 39

Olfactory Complex in Porpoise

251

THE TERMINAL OLFACTORY COMPLEX IN THE PORPOISE

JOHN G. SINCLAIR
Department of Anatomy
University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston

Comparative anatomists have known for some time that there is no
obvious olfactory apparatus in the porpoises and whales. There are neither
olfactory lobes to the brain, nor nerve filaments or receptors to the mucosa
of the blowhole which is the equivalent of a nose. There are, however, num¬
erous and large mucous glands emptying into the blowhole well down to¬
ward the pharynx.

In examining the cranial cavity of an adult porpoise after the brain
was removed, a plexus of nerves was observed just above the junction of
the cribriform area and the frontal bones. This plexus was embedded in the
dura. When examined under a binocular, it turned out to be a pair of
asymmetrical ganglia on the inner face of the dura near the midline and a
series of tentacular branches which reached outward along with dural blood
vessels and downward to a dural fold into which they dipped.

The ganglia were 1.5 and 3 mm. broad, and both extended thick
branches for about 7 mm. length. The section of dura was excised and seri¬
ally sectioned. In the larger ganglion 4780 nerve cells of two sizes were
found, and in the smaller 3 592 nerve cells were found. In the porpoise it
has not been possible to trace the connection between ganglion and brain.
Branches passing between the bones named above were traced in a porpoise
fetus to the region of the mucosa of the blowhole.

In a rabbit head prepared in silver by Dr. Glenn Drager, the same
ganglion has been discovered and the fibers of the nervous terminals have
been found passing into it.

The nervus terminalis is a small but very constant nerve in vertebrates,
passing on the medial surface of the olfactory lobes. It has both afferent and
efferent fibers and is at least in part an automatic nerve with pre- and post¬
ganglionic fibers.

So far as is known, this is the first time the ganglion has been seen.
The observation suggested that it must be common to other vertebrates,
and examination has disclosed it in one adult porpoise, two fetuses of dif¬
ferent ages, one newborn rabbit, and apparently in a human infant. The
latter observation has yet to be checked by serial, silvered sections. The
ganglion in the porpoise is the largest known collection of cells on any
terminal nerve, and its relations to the cells scattered along the nerve and
in the olfactory mucosa are at present unknown.

252

Thf Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

i. Department of Agriculture

1951, No, 2
June 33

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

253

Courtesy Richard Friederichs

FIGURE 1— A Longhorn Steer, on the Bear Creek Ranch of Richard Friederichs.
Steers of this type once roamed Texas prairies by the million, and are descended from
the early Spanish stock.

CLIMATE, CATTLE, AND CROSSBREEDING
BEEF AND MILK PRODUCTION IN THE TROPICS
AND SUBTROPICS
WITH A

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON VARIOUS PHASES OF THE PROBLEM

j, L BAUGHMAN
Chief Marine Biologist
Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission

Climate affects cattle not only through its effect on vegetation, but
also directly through physiological functions involved in maintenance of
normal body temperatures under diverse weather conditions. In turn this
affects productivity.

254

The Texas Journal of Science

June 30
1951, No. 2

That this is a significant factor which must be taken into account in
either the beef or dairy industries has been substantiated by a large volume
of research. Lush, et al (1930) and Schutte (193 5) have shown that growth
of range cattle for the first 30 months is directly related to seasonal changes
of vegetation affected by climate. Hammond (1931) and Rhoad ( 193 5 )
have directly correlated a drop in milk production in Jamaica, Trinidad,
and Brazil with reduction of feed and nutritional values during periods of
drought, a condition which Carneiro (1939) showed is almost completely
ameliorated by proper feeding.

However, as Phillips (1946) points out, tropical temperatures have
more direct effects, particularly on northern breeds of cattle. Edwards
(1938) analyzed the butterfat production of cows in Maine and Georgia
and Rhoad (1941) states that the differences found in productive rates of
the various groups was considered to be due to the direct effects of climate
on the cows. Regan and Richardson (1938) showed, under uncontrolled
conditions, that as temperature increased, milk production dropped, substan¬
tiating Rhoad’s ( 193 5 ) statement that dairy cattle in the tropics produced
only about 56 per cent of their apparent capacity. Apparently a drop in
temperature is less important (Kelly and Rupel, 1937), at least within
limits, than an increase, and that northern breeds thrive in the tropics, when
their physiological needs are cared for, has been shown by Villegas (1939).
Pico (1937) confirms this, stating that European cattle do well in some
areas of Puerto Rico because of favorable conditions created by constant
trade winds. However, Carneiro and Rhoad (1936) found that purebred
Holstein calves in the tropics, from imported dams, show a decrease in
growth rate as compared with such calves under temperate conditions.
He attributed this to the inability of such breeds to withstand the climate,
high temperatures inhibiting proper metabolism.

Sunlight is also an important factor in adaptability of cattle. Rhoad
( 1938a), working with beef breeds, showed that cattle exposed to strong
sunlight underwent a rise in body temperature and respiration rate, indicat¬
ing increased difficulty in disposing of body heat. This is reflected in graz¬
ing habits, less time being spent feeding on sunny days than when the sky
is overcast (Rhoad, 1941). Bonsma (1940) found that animals of north¬
ern breeds ceased ruminating at atmospheric temperatures above 90° F. There
are, however, distinct differences between breeds in their ability to with¬
stand climatic changes. Rhoad (1936, 1938) in the United States, Bisschop
(1938) and Bonsma, et al (1940) in South Africa, French (1939, 1940) in
Tanganyika, and Manresa (1934) in the Philippines, have all demonstrated
this.

Coat and skin color apparently have a great influence on adaptability
of cattle to tropical and subtropical environments. Blum (1945) showed
that, in various types of human beings, heat absorption was directly corre¬
lated with skin color. In ability to reflect sunlight, the various types of skin
rank as follows: fine white, average blond, dark brunet, Hindu, and negro.
The amount of reflection varied from 45 per cent for the first, to 16 or 19
per cent for the negro. Bonsma and Pretorius (1943) found, working with
Jersey cattle of seven different shades of color, that light reflected from
animals of various shades is directly correlated with color intensity. Rhoad
(1940) reports that lighter colored kine reflect more of the rays of the
sun, and therefore absorb less heat. For example, white Brahmans, light

1951, No, 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

255

fawn Jerseys, dark fawn Jerseys, and black Angus ranked in that order in
the amount of sunlight reflected. Riemerschmidt and Elder (1945), experi¬
menting with white Zulu, red Afrikander, and black Angus, obtained sub¬
stantially the same results.

"Still another factor may be ability to sweat, since this is one of the
important avenues of heat loss from the body. Little is known of the
sweating ability of various types of cattle, but Kelley (1932) examined
sections of some skins. In a microscopic field of 0.8 square millimeters he
found an average of 9.33 sweat glands in the skins of one-half Zebu cattle,
and an average of 5.2 5 glands in the same area of skin of one-fourth Zebu
cattle. In the skin of a Holstein-Friesian there were only a few glands and
these were difficult to find” (Phillips, 1946).

Dr. S. H. Work (personal communication) says, in regard to this:
"In studies at the Hannah Dairy Institute, Kirkhill, Ayr, in Scotland, as
given in their report for three, years, ending 31st of March, 1950, it may
be of interest to know that in general the structure of Zebu 'sweat3 glands
is similar to those of Ayrshire cattle, and that some small differences that
may prove important are being investigated further. It further states that
the number of sweat glands has no relation whatever with milk producing
capacity.”

For further data on the effects of climate on cattle, see Anderson (? 1948) ; Assis (1944) ;
Barrison (1941) ; Bettini (1944, 1947, 1950) ; Bisschop (1938) ; Bonsma (1948, 1949, 1950) ;
Bonsma and Pretorius (1945) : Bonsma, et al (1940) ; Brooks (1947, 1948) ; Buchanan Smith

(1931) ; Chief? (1950) ; Costo Filho (1948) ; Curasson (1949) ; Davidson (1927) ; Dordick

(1949) > Edwards (1932) ; Feunteun (1949) ; Forbes, et al (1926) ; French (1941, 1946) ; Gaalaas
(1945, 1947); Gaztambide Arrilaga (1948); Hammond (1932); Hammond, et al (1941);
Henderson (1927, 1927a) ; Hernandez Naus (1944) ; Kendall (1948) ; Labarthe (1945, 1946) ;
Lecky (1934/35, 1949) ; Lee and Phillips (1948) ; Manresa (1939) ; Manresa and Gomez
(1937) ; Ochoa (1944) ; Quinlan, et al (1948) ; Pastoral Review (1949) ; Ragsdale, et al

(1948) ; Rhoad (1935a, 1936, 1938, 1944, 1944b, 1949a) ; Rhoad and Black (1943, 1949) ; Riek

and Lee (1948) ; Riemerschmid (1943) ; Seath (1947) ; Seath and Miller (1946, 1947, 1947a) ;
Turbet (1949) ; Villares, et al (1947, 1947a, 1947b, 1947c).

BREEDING FOR ADAPTATION TO THESE CONDITIONS

If then, considering these things, it is not always economical to at¬
tempt maximum improvement in environmental factors, such as manage¬
ment or nutrition, in order to maintain a herd of cattle under tropical and
subtropical conditions, the best thing to do is to develop livestock capable
of enduring these conditions (Schneider, 1950) and producing a high rate
of return for the time, trouble, and money invested.

This, in a few words, is really the genesis of modern crossbreeding for
climatic adaptation which has formed the basis of so many Gulf Coast
herds.

PURPOSE, EXTENT, AND DEFINITION OF CROSSBREEDING

Although some zoologists consider all breeds of domestic cattle as sub¬
species of Bos taurus , calling the European breeds Bos i auras typicus and the
Indian breeds Bos taurus indicus , the terminology used in this paper is that
commonly accepted by cattle geneticists and breeders who consider them
two distinct species, Bos taurus and Bos indicus.

If this second concept is correct, then crosses between Brahman and
European cattle are, properly, hybrids, rather than crossbreeds, under Cobb’s
(1950) definition which states that crossbreeding is the process of mating
individuals of different breeds of the same species, and hybridizing the re¬
sult of mating individuals of separate species. However, for the sake of
convenience, all crosses of domestic cattle are spoken of herein as crossbreds,

The Texas Journal of Science

Courtesy C. M. Caraway and Sons

FIGURE 2— Prince Peter Albert, a modern Shorthorn.

and only in the case of crosses with other Bovidae, such as bison and yaks,
is the term hybrid used. This usage here does not argue the merits of either
case. It is a semantic one, designed to avoid confusion among those most
interested, and to ease the task of the author in collating the literature.

This crossbreeding, then, as defined above, is done for two basic rea¬
sons. The first is to get progeny that shows more rapid development or
greater yield under a given set of conditions than either parent. The second
is to inject into a new line some of the better characteristics of both par¬
ents in the hope that, through future selection, a new breed will be devel¬
oped, superior to either of the parents. This will, of course, apply to both
beef and dairy breeds, but for the next few pages we will confine ourselves
to the former, dealing with dairy breeds in a later portion of this paper.

Baker and Black (1950) say: "Observations based on the experience of
cattlemen in the (Gulf Coast) region, as well as the results of scientific
investigations, indicate that the so-called standard beef breeds-— Hereford,
Shorthorn, and Aberdeen-Angus-— are not sufficiently adaptable to the
humid environment nor do they attain satisfactory size. Purebred heat-
resistant Brahman and Afrikander cattle, although well adapted to the en¬
vironment, as a rule do not have the type of beef carcass most desired by
the domestic trade. Combining the natural vigor and heat-resistance of these
cattle with the beef-producing qualities of the standard beef breeds has
resulted in the production of many crossbred types and one new breed of
great importance.”

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

257

Cattlemen have long been aware, through observation, that a cross of
different breeds produces offspring which is apt to be larger, hardier, and
more vigorous than the parent stock. Generally these crossbreeds mature
earlier, and have excellent powers of resistance to unfavorable conditions.

As "the basic principle behind beef enterprise is the desire to produce
an animal under range conditions that will yield more high quality beef
per acre with less cost, thus returning a bigger net profit to the producer”
(Smith, 1948), the cattle industry of the Gulf Coast has been quick to
utilize these facts.

Operating under Cobb’s (1950) second premise; i.e., the development
of a new breed, many crosses have been tried, and much effort has been
devoted to the establishment of various crossbred lines, such as the Brangus,
Brafcrd, Santa Gertrudis, Charbray, Beefmaster, and others, the breeders
hoping to establish new breeds that will breed true and retain the desirable
effects of the cross. These efforts and their beginning will now be discussed
in some detail, with particular attention to the Texas Gulf Coast.

BEGINNING OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY IN TEXAS

Cattle first came to Texas about 1690, brought in by the Spanish priests
who founded the missions (Lewis, et al 1950). By 1731, a dozen missions
had been established in East and South Texas, with cattle raising as one of
their chief means of support. Ranches on large land grants followed the
missions, and, by 1800, cattle in uncounted thousands roamed on either side
of the Rio Grande. Probably of Andalusian ancestry, they were the founda¬
tion stock of the Texas Longhorn (Sanders, 1925).

By the end of the Civil War, these Longhorns (Fig. 1) had increased
enormously, and though some were slaughtered for hides, bones, and tallow,
the number thus used was comparatively small. Dobie (1941) estimated
that there were 6,000,000 cattle in Texas when trail driving began.

Courtesy Barret Hereford Ranch

FIGURE 3 — HG Proud Mixer 73, a fine type of modern Hereford.

258

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Trail driving brought about a revolution in the cattle industry. Three-
year-old steers, previously worth only a dollar or two, were now worth
$20.00 a head, heavy steers commanding somewhat better prices per pound
than scrawny ones. Cattlemen, quick to note this, began to devise ways and
means of developing and delivering more of this stock. Long before the
war, Shorthorn (or Durham) cattle (Fig. 2) had been common in the
east, and renowned as beef producers. As early as 1870, cattle of this breed
had reached Louisiana. As their fame spread westward, every ranchman in
Texas who heard of and could afford them, was quickly in the market for
some of these fine bulls, to improve his scrubby Longhorn stock.

Among the first to seize the opportunity were Captains Mifflin Kenedy
and Richard King of South Texas. In the New Orleans Picayune of Janu¬
ary 3, 1874, an item stated that "an important shipment of blooded stock
takes place by the steamship Mary, of the Morgan Line, to Rockport, Texas.
It consists of 15 Brahma and eight Durham bulls; also two fine cows . . .
The stock was . . . purchased for Captain M. Kenedy ... to cross and im¬
prove his stock on . . . the Laureles.” From the same source comes the state¬
ment that "three years ago Captain Kenedy purchased a lot of 120 head of
cattle, partly Brahma and partly Durham. The above is the second importa¬
tion of bulls made by Captain Kenedy this winter" (Ashton, 1950).

Captain King began herd improvement shortly after the above date by
importing Shorthorns for his Santa Gertrudis Ranch.

Charles Goodnight brought in still others from Colorado when he
opened the Texas Panhandle to cattle breeding in 1876, although he later
used Herefords, after this breed became popular.

Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture

FIGURE 4 — Modern type polled Angus cow.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

259

FIGURE 5 — Francois, a full blood Charolais bull, eight years old from the Lawton
herd at Sulphur, Louisiana.

Herefords (Fig. 3) were introduced into Texas in 1876 by Captain
W. S. Ikard of Archer City, after a visit to the Centennial Exposition in
Philadelphia (Lewis, et ai, 195 0). After the hard winter of 18 80-8 1 had
clinched their claim to being the one breed best capable of survival under
range conditions, they rapidly became the favorite beef cattle in the United
States, maintaining their supremacy to the present.

Polled Angus (Fig. 4) were brought in by the XIT Ranch in 18 86;
Polled Durhams by J. F. Green of Gregory, about 1895-96; and there were
North Devons on La Parra and Santa Gertrudis Ranches about 1900. Red
Polled cattle were once fairly popular as a dual-purpose breed, but their
numbers have declined with specialization in beef and dairy production.

Recently some minor breeds have also been attracting attention along
the Gulf Coast. Among these are Devons, Red Sussex, and Charolais.

CHAROLAIS

The Charolais, a French breed (Fig. 5 ) , is becoming a favorite with
some breeders, although as yet there are comparatively few in this country,

260

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIGURE 6 — A Fine Afrikander Bull, from the Bear Creek Ranch near San Antonio.

most of them being raised in the Rio Grande Valley. These are largely
descendants of cattle imported into Mexico by Mr. Jean Pugibet, of Obregon.
Bred mostly in the French Department of Nievre, their name stems from
the fact that they are natives of Charolais, in Burgundy. Used as triple¬
purpose animals in their homeland, their general form is that of a superior
beef animal, with broad back, deep, capacious body, and short legs. A coat
of pure white or cream-colored hair and the reddish flesh color of skin on the
muzzle and about the eyes suggest the white Shorthorn and, as a matter of
fact, white Shorthorn bulls were used many years ago in improving the
Charolais cattle. As beef producers they are in a class by themselves among
the French breeds, producing finely marbled beef of very high quality.
Sanders (1925) states that they require more care and better feeding than
most cattle but, given this, they yield an excellent return.

Cattle raisers along the Gulf Coast disagree with this, having found
them exceptionally hardy and excellent rustlers. Harl Thomas, of Raymond-
ville, says (personal communication) "The impression we have gained from
our experience with the Charolais is that they are a very hearty cattle, which
is contrary to Mr. Sanders’ statement.”

For other material on this breed, see also Blin (1949) ; Brasse Brcssard (1943) ; Cezard
and Ruelle (1949) ; C'ollares (1949/1950) ; Gonzales (1944) ; Laguiche (1943) ; Marks (1948) ;
Masse (1950) ; Metenier (1947) ; Placier (1947) ; Vianna and de Miranda (1948).

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

261

AFRIKANDERS

The Afrikander (Fig. 6) is relatively new to the United States, having
been imported from South Africa in 1931.

There has been considerable discussion about the origin of this breed.
Apparently It descended from some Zebu stock, and from cattle imported
by the early Dutch settlers, but it is rather unlikely that any portion of
Brahman blood was disseminated widely enough from North Africa of
Egyptian times, to serve as a possible foundation for the Afrikander. How¬
ever, Mr. George S. Oettle, who lived In South Africa for nearly 65 years,
recently suggested to me that the Zebu cross (if there is one) had prob¬
ably been Introduced through the Portuguese colony of Lorenco Marques,
to which Indian cattle were imported at a very early date. From here they
were spread widely by native cattle raiding and by their use as trek-oxen,
between that colony and Johannesburg, in South Africa.

Whatever their genesis, Afrikanders are big, hardy animals, possessing
many of the desirable Brahman characteristics, and fairly well adapted to
the Gulf Coast of the United States, as well as other tropical and subtropical
areas. They are resistant to drought, ticks, and other insects, as well as
disease, and when crossed with some of the more popular beef breeds, have
produced offspring with sufficient hardiness to cope with climatic condi¬
tions along the Gulf Coast. However, they are rather narrow of body, leggy,
and somewhat fine-boned, and lack some of the good qualities of the
Brahman.

Further data on these cattle may be found in Basutoland ( ? 1949) ; Bonsma (1949a);
Chiffe and Babel (1949) ; Fisher (1944) » Hamman (1948, 1947, 1948, 1949) ; Johnson (1947) ;
King (1944) ; Netto (1947^ ; Olivier (1948) ; Opperman (1949) ; Pastoral Keview (1949) ;
Willemse (1950).

BRAHMANS

All of these breeds, except the Afrikander, while excellent in their
own areas, have not been too satisfactory along the Gulf Coast, or in simi¬
lar climates. As a result, in a search for stock that would correct inherent
deficiencies of the European breeds, cattlemen early turned to Zebus, or as
they are called here, Brahmans.

Brahmans (Fig. 7) were apparently first introduced into the United
States in 1849, by J, B. Davis, who served for many years as agricultural
adviser to the Turkish government. Dr. Burch Schneider doubts very much
the commonly repeated story that Davis obtained these animals in Turkey.
He says (personal communication) : "Dr. Davis obtained twelve head of
Angora goats from Persia. Eleven of these arrived safely in England. The
Earl of Derby was greatly attracted by them. Dr. Davis offered to trade
him a pair of goats for an Indian bull and cow from the zoo in London.
These animals had been brought there by the British East India Company.
The Early of Derby was a man of influence, and in two days notified Dr.
Davis that he had arranged it.” (See also Schneider, 1949b).

These then, were evidently the animals that Davis brought with him,
reasoning that they would do well there, and help improve cattle of that
area. Unfortunately, all traces of these were lost during the Civil War
(Gresham, 1947). In 18 54, Richard Barrow, of Louisiana, trained a repre¬
sentative of the British Government in the technique of sugar farming,
refusing to accept pay. In gratitude the English presented Mr. Barrow with
four Brahman bulls which quickly attracted attention because of the quality

262

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 2
June BO

Courtesy Paleface Kancnes

FIGURE 7 — Nomad, top Brahman herd sire at the Paleface Ranch.

of their offspring from native cattle. These matured early; their meat was
of high quality; they were good grazers, and possessed, to a high degree,
immunity from pests and insects.

Apparently some descendants of these cattle were contained in the
Kenedy shipments of 1871 and 1874.

Between the time of the first Kenedy shipments and 188 5, J. M. Frost
and Albert Montgomery bought a number of grade bulls from Mr. Barrow,
and in the latter year bought two bulls in Calcutta, India, shipping them
to New Orleans. They used these in carrying out the work begun with the
Barrow crossbreds, and obtained such excellent results that their crossbred
bulls were in great demand by other ranchers for breeding stock.

In 1904, Hagenbeck’s show, at the St. Louis World’s Fair, exhibited a
Brahman bull, brought in directly from India. This bull, one of the best
imported up to this time, was bought by A1 McFaddin of Victoria, Texas,
to furnish pure-blooded stock for his herd, supplementing an earlier (1884)
purchase of grade Brahmans (two cows and 20 bulls) in Louisiana.

In 1906, A. P. Borden, of the Pierce Estate, and T. M. O’Connor im¬
ported a number of Brahmans from India. Dr. Burch Schneider (personal
communication) says, "I have a letter from Mr. Sam T. Cutbirth, General
Manager of the Pierce Ranch, Ltd., in which he states, 'With reference to

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

263

your question as to the number of females included in the Pierce Estate 1906
importation of Brahman cattle direct from India, I wish to advise that as
shown by our records, 5 1 head of Brahman cattle were landed out of such
importation, consisting of 46 bulls and five females. During the course of
several months, while in quarantine, the U. S. Government killed 16 bulls
and two females, leaving 30 bulls and three females finally shipped to the
Pierce Ranch, at Pierce, Texas/’ (See also Mohler and Thompson— -1909— -
26th Ann. Rept. U. S. Bur. Anim, Ind., pp. 81-98).

Apparently one bull from this shipment went to Al McFaddin.

A few subsequent importations have been made from Brazil, where
Brahmans became established in the 1880’s.

These Indian cattle presented many advantages to the Gulf Coast
cattleman. Briefly, these are:

L They sweat freely, with the result that heat bothers them less than it does Eu¬
ropean breeds.

2. Brahmans, using the well-developed panniculus membrane characteristic of the
breed, are able to twitch their skin readily and dislodge insects in a manner that
European breeds cannot.

3. Their breeding span is longer than that of British breeds (Schreiner, 1947).

4. Although they reach sexual maturity late, Brahman bulls are apparently capable
of serving more cows than bulls of other breeds, experience having shown that it takes
only about 40 per cent as many to mate 100 cows as it does with European bulls.
(Tabor 1948, 1948a, 1948b).

5. They will travel long distances to water; Brahmans move freely. Their walking
pace is fast, and they are not inconvenienced by breaking into a jog-trot. This permits
them to grase over a large area, and in times of feed shortage, when water is distant,
enables them to keep in better condition than cattle of other breeds.

6. Brahman crossbred calves mature more rapidly than those from standard beef
breeds, weighing more at weaning time than non Brahman calves (Black, Semple,
and Lush, 1934).

7. Brahmans are very resistant to ticks. Stallworth (1948) says that probably a
number of factors contribute to this. "Their short hair may restrict lodgement. Their
skies secrete sebum which, with sweat, may be repellent. Their hide, although thin,
is dense and difficult to puncture. This may prevent lodgement and explain the large
number of dead nymph ticks that can be seen in the normal sites for lodgement.
States of immunity and of resistance to disease may be difficult to differentiate in field
observations; however, many instances of immunity have been shown to be genetic
in origin. Ranchers in the United States estimate and value resistance to tick fevers
in terms of the percentage of Zebu blood. They are so sure of their observations
that descending percentages of mortality are given as the expected results, when full-
blood, half, quarter, and cattle with lower fractions of Zebu are brought from tick-
free to tick-infested regions.”

Kelley (1943) says that in 1938, 18 Brahman and one Santa Gertrudis bull
( % Brahman) were shipped from the United States to Queensland, Australia. Until
this time none of them had been in tick-infested areas, and so, as a protective meas¬
ure, they were inoculated with blood from a known tick fever carrier. Only one of
them, the Santa Gertrudis, showed any marked inconvenience.

Dr. Work (personal communication) says: "From personal experience with
Brahman cattle throughout Central America, I am not in agreement with this state¬
ment that Brahmans are more resistant to ticks. Checking this with others who have
spent many years in the American tropics and with authorities in the Zoology Di¬
vision here, I find these people to be in agreement with me on this matter of being
tick resistant.”

8. The statement is frequently made that Brahmans are practically immune to
pink-eye, cancer-eye, and are resistant to screw worms and anaplasmosis. Dr. Work
(op. cit.) comments on this: "Under similar degrees of exposure to infection there
is no experimental evidence that Brahman cattle are any more immune or resistant
than any other cattle to some of these infectious diseases or to certain parasites. Cancer
eye, which is associated with presence or lack of pigment, is a different matter, and I
would not disagree on that point.”

264

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

9. They are good grazers, consuming approximately the same amount of food as
other cattle but, unlike European breeds, do not gorge themselves. They eat at any
time during the day, as apparently the sun bothers them very little. Brahmans will be
out in the field eating while the European breeds are in the shade because of heat.
"However, there are some data to show that Indian cattle eat less, so have to eat
more often, which is why hey are cut in the fields when other cattle are resting.”
(Work, op. cit.) .

10. In general, Brahmans or Brahman crosses command a ready sale to the meat
packer.

The work of Black, Semple, and Lush (1934), made in cooperation with Texas
A. & M. College and the King Ranch, was partially responsible for this popularity.
This showed that crossbred calves from Brahman sires weighed 91 pounds more per
head than ITerefords and Shorthorns, as they came from the pasture at about seven
months, all things being equal except breeding. These calves sold for more per hun¬
dred pounds to the packer and paid the ranchman 28.44 per cent more money on
the packers’ market.

The statement frequently made by Brahman breeders and the journals devoted to
that breed that there was less shrinkage from feedlot to market, and that the dressing
percentage was higher in the Brahman crosses, is not too well borne out by the actual
material in the bulletin.

Dr. H. C. McPhee, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, points out (personal
communication) that "The Brahmans yield an average of 75.7 pounds of edible meat
per 100 pounds of carcass and the Brahman x Shorthorns yield 78.1 pounds. The
2.4 pounds difference per 100 pounds of carcass was composed of 2.4 pounds more fat
for the Brahman x Shorthorns; 1.1 pounds more eye muscle for the non-Brahman;
and 1.1 pounds more other lean for the Brahman x Shorthorns. Two of these figures
cancel out, leaving the average advantage for the Brahman blood as 2.4 pounds
more fat per 100 pounds of carcass. In other words, the Brahman crossbreds carried
a little more finish.”

I have seen the further statement, in Journals devoted to Brahmans, that meat of
the Brahman crossbreds scored highest in color, texture, palatability, intensity, and
desirability of fat and aroma. This is not entirely born out by the facts.

Dr. McPhee points out that the conclusions read as follows: "In color of the
meat, comparisons of the samples tested were variable and inconclusive.” "Data on
palatability of the cooked meat showed only slight differences.” "The texture of the
meat from the Brahman crossbreds was rather consistently coarser than that from the
Herefords and Shorthorns. The meat from the Brahman crossbreds was judged to be
slightly less tender than that of the Herefords and Shorthorns.” "Minor differences
in cooking losses through drippings and evaporation appeared to be independent of
the breed of the cattle.” "Taking into consideration the various factors of palatability
and varying tests of the judges, the cooked meat of part Brahman and non-Brahman
steers is considered to be approximately equal in desirability.”

Dr. McPhee's own conclusion is that the statement mentioned above is not justi¬
fied.

For other discussion of the breed, see Ashton (195Ca) ; Ayyar (1944) ; Baughman (1946) ;
Benjamin (1945); Borden (1910); Bcnadonna (1949); Briquet Junior and Abreu (1949);
Carneiro (1943) ; Cavendish (1948) ; Cobb (1950a) ; Das Gupta (1945) ; Drenner (1949) ;
Duckworth (1949); Duckworth and Eattray (1948); Evans (1949); Farley (1949); Fisher
(1948); Fowler (1950); Freitas (1947); Jacobs (1949); Joshi (1949); Kaura (1944); Khan
(1947) ; Lourgs (1944) ; Lush (1946) ; Matoso (1944) ; Menezes (1944) ; Mundhe (1944, 1945) ;
Paar (1923); Patil (1945, 1945a, 1945b); Phillips (1944); Prabhu (1944); Riggs (1949);
Sagstetter (1947); Schneider (1947, 1948, 1949. 1949a); Smith (1949); U. S. Coordinator
Inter-America^ Affairs (1945); Veiga (1945); Ve.’ga, et al (1948, 1948a); Ware (1947);
Whitcomb (1949, 1950).

SANTA GERTRUDIS

This breed (Fig. 8), the only one so far recognized by the United
States Department of Agriculture (Baker and Black, 1950), was the result
of a gift bull presented by T. M. O’Connor to the King Ranch. This bull
was sired by a Brahman bull out of a registered Shorthorn cow. "He, along
with many Shorthorn bulls, was turned into a pasture where there were
3,000 unregistered, but purebred, Shorthorn cows” (Scudder, 1948).

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

26 5

FIGURE S — Coton, Santa Gertrudis King Ranch herd sire.

The years 1910 to 1918 marked the exploratory period in the develop¬
ment of this breed, during which progeny of the O’Connor bull were com¬
pared with purebred European cattle under the same conditions. Because
the crossbreds were superior, in 1918 the breeding program was extended
to include all purebred Shorthorns on the ranch. Selection for beef type
and red color was initiated among the Brahman-Shorthorn crosses with the
object of developing a new breed (Kleberg, n.d., 1931, Rhoad, 1949).

Using this foundation stock, after 17 years of effort and breeding
skill, the ranch developed a new breed of cattle, one with fixed qualities
that bred true (Ashton, 1936), although it was not until years later that
the Department of Agriculture recognized it.

The real beginning of the Santa Gertrudis was the great bull "Monkey”
whose prepotence served to stamp the characteristics of the breed on his
offspring. Dr. McPhee says (personal communication) that this calf was
branded in the fall of 1920 and "was essentially a first cross of Brahman
and Shorthorn, both parents being somewhat impure as to breed. The sire
was "Vinotero” one of the 52 Borden Brahman bulls purchased by the
King Ranch in 1918 for an intensive effort to develop a new breed. This
bull was of the Guzerat type but showed considerable Nellore, Krishna
Valley, and Sind characteristics. The dam of "Monkey” was a grade Short¬
horn cow possessing considerable milk production and containing about one-
sixteenth Brahman blood which came down from the original O’Connor bull
through his son, 'Chemerra’.”

By using Monkey’s sons and grandsons on first cross heifers, and again
on the double cross resulting from mating first cross bulls on first cross
heifers, and finally adopting in-and-in line breeding methods, the Santa
Gertrudis breed has been evolved (Smith, 1948).

266

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Their blood contains approximately three-eighths Brahman and five-
eighths Shorthorn. Big, generally cherry-red, horned, with large, slightly
drooping ears, Santa Gertrudis cattle have retained a portion of the pen¬
dulous Brahman dewlap and abdominal skin, although the hump has dis¬
appeared. They breed true to type, are resistant to heat and insects, have
good beef conformation, are good rustlers, produce plenty of milk, and will
average from one to two hundred pounds more than British breeds under
identical range conditions. Calves usually weigh more than five hundred
pounds at eight months, and four-year-old steers, when finished for market
off grass, will weigh around 1,400 pounds.

One breeder, Mrs. Worth Wright, of Kingsville, has recently developed
a polled strain of this breed.

The breed has found widespread acceptance. Dr. John Ashton says
(personal communication): "I am proud to state that in 1941, upon being
named Cultural Attache to Nicaragua . . . ., I introduced ten young bulls
of the Santa Gertrudis breed, in cooperation with the Minister of Agricul¬
ture and the government of that country. I was present when they arrived,
and I must say they created quite a sensation! They actually weighed about
the same as their three-year-olds, although their ages ranged from 11 to 13
months only. Their color, too, impressed the ranchmen of that country
most favorably: they had never seen before animals of that cherry-red
color, and they seemed to like it immeasurably.”

For further material see Gonzales (1947) ; Johnson (1947) ; Rhoad (1944b, 1950) ; Teige
(1950) ; Work and Smith (1946).

CROSSES OTHER THAN SANTA GERTRUDIS

While the Santa Gertrudis has been the only valid new breed developed
in the Gulf Coast region, or for that matter in North America, cattlemen
of the area have tried almost every cross possible among beef breeds, with
very little success until the Brahman appeared in the picture. "Since that
time practically all crossing on any large scale has included the blood of the
Brahman to some degree” (Smith, 1948).

RED SUSSEX-BRAHMAN CROSS

One of the most recent and interesting importations of cattle was
made by Lawrence Wood of Refugio. About January, 1950, he received
one bull and ten heifers of Red Sussex cattle (Fig. 9) from England, and
in January, 1951, made another importation, following the lead of his father,
who has a number of these cattle on his ranch at Bandera. This breed has
been long and favorably known in England, where it is found in Sussex,
Kent, Surrey, and Hampshire, being descended from the same parent stock
as Devonshire cattle which (about 1900) were bred on the Santa Gertrudis
and La Parra Ranches (Ashton, 1950). The Sussex— large, heavy-boned,
and dark-red in color— is valued in its native country as a good grazer
and beef producer. Originally imported to the United States in 18 84, by
Overton Lea, of Nashville, Tennessee, some Sussex cattle found their way
into the south and southwest, but never attained any general distribution
in this country. They have, however, been bred in Maine and Canada. When
Lea showed his cattle at the Chicago Fat Stock show in the eighties, they
took many prizes, and their showing of finely marbled beef on the block
attracted much attention (Sanders, 1925).

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

267

FIGURE 9— Red Sussex Cows and Calves from the herd of Lawrence Wood,
Refugio, Texas.

Part of the Lea herd came to Texas in 1892, when Mr. Wood's grand¬
father purchased foundation stock for his herd at Refugio. These Sussex
cattle were used for crossing with native cattle, and, although the herd
was later broken up and sold, Mr. Wood said (personal communication)
that it was possible to see the Sussex imprint on cattle of the area for
many years after the herd dispersed. The O’Connor herd also included a
number of Sussex about this time.

A few years ago, Mr. Wood’s father, remembering these early cattle,
purchased breeding stock for his Bandera ranch, and later, upon his father s
insistence, and impressed by the cattle themselves, Mr. Wood made the
importations mentioned. One bull in the second importation went to John
J. O’Brien, of Refugio, and another to Raymond Harrison, of Wharton.

The record of this breed in South Africa, under conditions approxi¬
mating those of the Texas coastal prairies, has been very impressive.

In that country, where cattle of all breeds compete for the title of
best animal in the show, the Sussex has won repeatedly against all comers.
For instance, in the 1939 Rand show, which is one of the great stock shows
of the world, Sussex won the interbreed beef classes over all other breeds,
placing first in the following classes;

1. Four the get of one sire.

2. Dam and two of her progeny.

3. Three generations group in direct line.

4. Five bulls from one herd.

Purebred Sussex grades and crosses have won championships at all the
leading South African shows including Johannesburg, The Royal, Pieter¬
maritzburg, Bloemfontein, Pretoria, Durban, and Kimberley.

268

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Courtesy U. >3. Department of Agriculture

FIGURE 10 — Half-Bred Brahman X Angus herd bull #51 from experimental
herd at Jeanerette, Louisiana.

Sussex in South Africa have generally been crossed with the Afrikander,
and "it is admitted that the wide divergence in type between the (to that
country — Ed.) indigenous Afrikander and the original English red cattle
gives the fullest play to hybrid vigor, a highly important factor in creating
early maturity, increased growth, vigor, and a substantial bonus in weight
of beef” (Orford, 1950). Sussex are also used in Australia (Lloyd, 1946).

Mr. Wood has bred his Sussex bull to a number of grade Brahmans,
and at present has several beautiful little cherry-red calves from this cross,
as well as others from his purebred Sussex heifers. A number of purebred
Brahman heifers, also bred to this bull, have not yet calved.

It will be most interesting to see whether these crossbreeds do as well
here as the Afrikander-Sussex cross has done in South Africa, and whether
they present any advantages over crosses with standard beef breeds.

the brahman-angus cross

OR BRANGUS

For years the Paleface Ranch, of San Antonio, has been crossing English
breeds of beef cattle with Brahmans, and in a recent letter M. B. Levi says,
"We have discontinued the Hereford and Shorthorn crosses, having found
in our own pasture the Angus cross was superior.” This decision was based
upon body conformation, distribution of flesh, amount of finish, dressing

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

269

percentage, and ability to finish fast on the least amount of feed or pasture
consumed. Before Hereford and Shorthorn crosses were discontinued, they
found that uniformity of color ran about 80 per cent for the Brahman-
Angus cross (Fig. 10) against 40 per cent for the Brahman-Hereford, and
30 per cent for the Brahman-Shorthorn,

Results of experiments carried on with this cross at the Iberia Live¬
stock Experimental Farm (Rhoad and Black, 1943; Black. 1947; Baker,
1949) are most enlightening.

Comparisons of weights between northern bred cattle and cattle bred
on this farm show a difference of 206 pounds for poor European cattle. Me¬
dium and fat cattle were considerably, less, but, even so, good cattle of north¬
ern breeds showed as much as 272 pounds less weight. At the present market,
this amounts to an extraordinary loss in profit through southern
breeding of purebred and very high grade European cattle. Under identical
conditions, steer calves of first and second generation Brahman- Angus half-
breeds, and first generation Afrikander- Angus halfbreeds reached a weaning
weight of 450 pounds in the shortest time when compared to three-eighths-
breds, quarter-breds, and purebred Angus. The same results held when steers
were fed out to a weight of 750 pounds after weaning, although differences
in efficiency of gain between groups during the feedlot period were not sta-

Courtesy Francis I. Savage

FIGURE 1 1— King, a Braford herd bull on the Savage Ranch at Bay City. Al¬
though some of his offspring were light to brindle in color, their beefiness, heavy
bone and good conformation more than offset this.

270

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

tistically significant. Although beef conformation of the halfbreeds was not as
good as that of the purebreds, they excelled in carcass yield. Purebred Angus
required 560 days from birth to reach slaughter weights, or approximately
92 to 100 days longer than halfbreeds, 65 days longer that quarter-breds,
and 47 days longer than three-eighths bred steers, the quarter and three-
eighths denoting the amount of Brahman blood in the various crosses. The
halfbreed calves, with Brahman blood on the sire’s side, showed a daily gain
for a period of 298 days of slightly more than one and one-half pounds
for bull calves and about one and five-eighths pounds per day for heifer
calves. Calves with Brahman blood on the dam’s side showed a considerably
larger gain for 228 days. Bull calves averaged 1.97 pounds per day, heifer
calves 1.84 pounds.

The tests further revealed that the Brahmans topped all other cattle
in the percentage of time used for grazing, resting in the shade less than
three per cent of the time (Tabor, 1948, 1948a).

Experiments at Essar Ranch (Keesee and Richardson, 1949) have
shown that cattle of the present three-eighths— five-eighths strain possess
the following characteristics: they are hardy, practically immune to infec¬
tions, and suffer very little from foot rot, lump jaw, pneumonia, and other
cattle diseases."' The rumen (paunch for roughage) is smaller than in the
English breeds, but they feed often, possessing Brahman ability to graze dur¬
ing the heat of the day, because of lower body temperature, and their feed¬
ing is little affected by the heat of subtropical summers. These small
rumens are advantageous, making for a higher dressing percentage.

THE BRAHMAN-HEREFORD CROSS
OR BRAFORD

Francis I. Savage (1950), of Bay City, Texas, reports that on his
ranch Brahman-Hereford crosses (Fig. 11) have been bred up to the
fifth generation, with noticeable improvements; namely, higher dressing
percentage, more uniform color, and a greater demand by the stocker buyers,
as well as the packers, for this type of cattle. He states that, by introducing
new Brahman and Hereford blood from time to time, they are able to
breed Braford sires to Braford dams without inbreeding. However, they
have had little success with line breeding.

McGill Brothers, in the Alice-Falfurrias area, are also leading breeders
of Brafords. They found that, in large pastures with no supplemental feed,
Braford cattle are better adapted to this climate than are Herefords. Ear
ticks and screw worms have become a minor factor, and the Brafords are
much more resistant to diseases, especially hemorraghic septacemia. The
crosses are apparently better rustlers and, being resistant to insects, will
graze when the purebreds are in the shade fighting flies. As a result, at
weaning, crosses will outweigh the Herefords from 100 to 200 pounds
(Smith, 1948).

Rhoad and Black (1943) say that when only purebred Herford bulls
were used on either native or grade Hereford foundation cows, best results
were gained by first grading up the foundation herds with these bulls, then
crossing first-generation heifer offspring with Brahman bulls, and finally

* Dr. Work (op. cit.) says: “This matter of immunity to infections has been checked with
outstanding research veterinarians and they agree that it would be preferable to make a less
positive statement in this respect.”

1951, No. 2
June 39

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

271

back-crossing the hybrid offspring with purebred Herefords. The resulting
animals were five-eighths Hereford, one-fourth Brahman, one-eighth foun¬
dation stock. Second best results were obtained by back crossing first
generation grade Hereford heifers with purebred Hereford bulls, and then
crossing the second generation heifers with Brahman bulls, producing finally
animals one-half Brahman, three-eighths Hereford, one-eighth foundation
stock.

Brahman-Hereford crosses have shown consistent advantages in weight
for age over grade Herefords at the East Texas Pasture Station at Lufkin
(Knapp, et al, 1948, 1949, 1950; Knapp, 1950). Calves mothered by half-
blood Brahman-Hereford cows have had an advantage over calves mothered
by Hereford cows and sired by a half-blood Brahman-Hereford bull.

Similar advantages in weight for crossbreds were obtained at the Sonora
Ranch Experiment Station in a crossbreeding program with Brahman and
Hereford cattle between 1920 and 1929. In the course of this work the
Sonora station bred and "fattened out” five different calf crops consisting
of both grade Hereford and Brahman-Hereford crosses.

Table I, prepared by Riggs (1950), will serve as a basis of comparison
between these two stations and the Iberia Livestock Experimental Farm at
jeanerette, Louisiana, where some work was also done with the Brahman-
Hereford cross. However, the number of animals dealt with in these
tables is small, and considerably more data are needed before final conclusions
can be drawn (Work, op. cit.).

FIGURE 12—-This Charbray bull from the herd of Howell Jones weighed 2370
pounds at 27 months. At three years, he weighed 2735 pounds.

272

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

TABLE I — WEANING WEIGHTS OF CALVES FROM COWS OF DIFFERENT BREEDING IN

TEXAS AND LOUISIANA.

SYSTEM OF MATING TEXAS LOUISIANA

No. of

Weaning

No. of

Weaning

Calves

Wgt. lbs.

Calves

Wgt. lbs.

Hereford bull on r/2

Brahman cows — Lufkin . . . .

. . . 21

464.6

496.4

Sonora . .

. . . 105

448.9

Hereford bull on 34

Brahman cows

Lufkin . . .

. . . 14

447.2

459.3

Brahman bull on high grade
or purebred Hereford cows
Lufkin . . . .

. . . 30

411.2

Sonora . .

. . 205

383.3

362.5

Hereford bull on high
grade Hereford cows

Lufkin . . . .

. . . 20

330.0

Sonora .

Half-blood Brahman x

. . . 134

372.9

Hereford bull on high
grade Hereford cows

Lufkin . . . . . .

. . . 33

344.7

Table II, also prepared by Riggs, compares the Lufkin and Sonora work.

TABLE II — WEIGHTS OF CATTLE OF DIFFERENT BREEDING FROM 7 TO 30 MONTHS
OF AGE AT LUFKIN AND SONORA, TEXAS.

Year No. of Weight in lbs at different ages, mos.

Calves 7

LUFKIN

Calves out of Hereford dams by Heieford sire:

1944 . . 14 350

436

526

542

831

1945 . . 6 286

320

496

525

720

Calves out of Hereford dams by V2 Brahman x

V2 Hereford

sire:

1944 .7 379

451

703

628

896

1945 .5 318

391

557

610

755

Calves out of 34 Brahman x

34 Hereford dams by Hereford

sire:

1944 .8 413

518

737

762

970

1945 1 400

500

680

640

930

SONORA, 1921-29

Calves out of Hereford dams by Hereford sires:

134 373

398

610

583

794

Calves out of Hereford dams by Brahman sires :

205 383

425

653

623

841

Calves out of 34 Hereford x

34 Brahman dams by Hereford

sires :

105 449

470

680

608

920

Tabor (1948b) and Cipollini (1949) have discussed these results
extensively, and Bray (1933) reported marked advantages in weight of
Brahman crosses over grade calves of British breeds.

There is also some evidence to show that, by use of Brahman bulls,
Hereford heifers can be bred at a year old, with much less mortality than
when Hereford males are used (Albaugh and Asmus, 1948)

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

273

THE BRAHM AN -CHAROLAIS CROSS
OR CHARBRAY

The production of Charbrays (Figs. 12, 13) is rapidly increasing in
popularity. Lawton (1950), of Sulphur, Louisiana, reports that his three-
eighths Brahman— -five-eighths Charolais cross is producing an even larger
animal than he has been getting from his half breeds. Jones (1950) reports
that, while calves are usually very small at birth, they grow rapidly, putting
on 100 pounds a month on good grass.

The Charbray cross shows up as a nice well-rounded animal, very long,
with exceptionally heavy forequarters, and a very deep body. In those of
the best type the heart girth is tremendous.

Breeders state that rapid growth of the Charolais and ruggedness of the
Brahman combine to produce a beef-type animal that is a good grazer, a
fast breeder, and one that is easy to handle. Grown cows weigh from 1700-
2200 pounds; grown bulls from 2 500-3200 oounds. One bull calf, given
special attention, weighed over 1200 pounds at one year of age, and a
3 -months-old calf weighed 346 pounds. Other examples are a 4-year-old
bull that weighed 2765 pounds and a 3 -year-old cow that weighed 1410
pounds (Smith, 1948).

Courtesy Harl Thomas

FIGURE 13 — Three-fourths Charolais — one-fourth Brahman calf from the Thomas
herd weighed 740 pounds at six months, ten days.

274

T he Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Those breeders using this cross are very enthusiastic about it, and there
is apparently a big demand for the animals, both in this country and
elsewhere.

It is interesting to note (Pagot, 1950) that large-scale utilization of
Charolais for crossbreeding is being made near Segou, in French Sudan, and
in French Morocco. They are crossed with Zebu stock and the half-breed
and three-quarter-bred animals resulting from this are said to be excellent.
In Argentina they are crossed with both Brahman and European breeds,
giving superior beef cattle, and in Brazil they have also been used with the
native Caracu breeds, such as the Curraleira, the Gurapeva, and the Mocho.

Charolais are used for crossbreeding in Colombia, Chile and Venezuela
in South America, Italy in Europe, and on the islands of Martinique, Cuba,
and Mauritius.

For further material see Doutressoulle (1942) ; Gerald (1948) ; LeRoy (1948) ; McCarthy
Barry (1946) ; Ramsey (1947) ; Vianna and De Miranda (1948).

THE BRAHMAN-SHORTHORN-HEREFORD CROSS
LASATER’s BEEFMASTERS

Nature, by survival of the fittest, produced, in the aurochs and other
wild oxen, cattle that could live and do well under existing conditions.
They were hardy, good rustlers, good breeders, fleet of foot, powerful, and
aggressive, because they had to be to survive. The ones that did not
measure up were culled, rapidly and effectively, by the predators of the
time, and by the rigorous conditions under which they existed.

Briefly, a similar process of selection is the basis of the Lasater herd
of "Beefmasters” (Fig. 14). However, instead of breeding for survival
characteristics necessary to primitive cattle, the Lasaters have stressed
gentleness, fertility, weight, conformation, thriftiness, and milk production,
with the ultimate aim of developing an animal that will produce the maxi¬
mum amount of beef with a minimum amount of cost, under range
conditions.

Any animal not measuring up to these conditions is culled, and because
this culling is done very early, the progress of the herd in attaining these
attributes has been quite rapid.

The "Beef master’’ program was begun in 1908, with special emphasis
being placed on development of a strain of cattle that would produce a
choice, quick-maturing, heavy calf at eight months of age, under range
conditions, with no supplemental feeding. Progeny testing methods are
being used to determine the superiority of animals, and all characteristics
deemed non-essential have been disregarded.

As these cattle are bred under range conditions, no exact pedigrees
are kept. However, the herd averages a little under one-half Brahman blood,
the remainder being divided about equally between Hereford and Shorthorn.
Color is disregarded, but, as the herd has grown, each year a higher per¬
centage of calves has been red, an outcome that might perhaps be expected,
as apparently red or dark brown were prevailing colors in primitive cattle.

Tom Lasater says (personal communication) that, under South Texas
range conditions, Beefmasters will outweigh the English breeds by 30 per
cent at any age, when raised without supplemental feeding. They are
good milk producers, have a high resistance to disease and insect pests, and
are good rustlers, capable of walking long distances to water.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

275

Photo courtesy Lasater Ranch

FIGURE 14— -Don Rubio, a Lasater Beefmaster at the age of six months, 24 days,
weighed 592 pounds. This calf was range raised, without creep feeding.

These cattle are apparently very hardy, adjusting easily to various
climatic conditions. In 1947, a demonstration herd was placed in Mason
County, Texas, a area having a higher rainfall as well as being somewhat
cooler than the home ranch. The elevation is approximately 15 00 feet. These
cattle continued to produce heavy, high quality calves with no supplemental
feeding. Forty-four calves from this herd averaged 616 pounds at an average
age of eight months (Allred, 1950). In 1948, another demonstration herd
was sent to Chanute, Kansas. These animals weathered 23° below zero in
open lots, with no shelter and no ill effects. June 1, 1949 about 300 head
of Beefmaster breeding stock, consisting mostly of yearling heifers and
yearling bulls, was moved from Falfurrias to the Lasater Ranch at Matheson,
Colorado. The following spring the calf crop began dropping about the
20th of March, and by May 15th an 80 per cent calf crop was on the
ground. After 22 months the total death loss in this Matheson herd, includ¬
ing all cattle yearlings and older, was less than 0.2 5 per cent.

In tests, conducted recently by Texas A & M and the United States
Department of Agriculture at Balmorhea, Texas, "a group of six Beef-
masters made an average daily gain of 2.5 pounds during the 143 days of
the tests. One calf, Don Madero, weighed in at 678 pounds at an approxi-

276

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

mate age of ten months. One hundred and forty-three days later he
weighed 1,112 pounds, having made an average daily gain of 3.03 pounds.
The two highest gaining groups in the test both represented new breeds
carrying Brahman blood — -the Beef masters and Santa Gertrudis” (Brugman,
1950). See also Scruggs (1948).

the brahman-shorthorn cross

OR BRAHORN

Only eight or ten Texas cattlemen are at present doing any appreciable
amount of Brahman-Shorthorn crossing. According to J. P. Impson, of
Beeville, calves of the first cross are more vigorous, grow faster, and are
heavier at any age than European breeds.

Experimental data on this cross are given in Black, Semple, and Lush
(1934), and articles on these cattle have appeared from time to time in
various journals. Among others, the A. P. George Ranch breeds this cross
(Morris, 1945).

THE BRAHMAN-BROWN SWISS CROSS
OR BRA-SWISS

At least two breeders in Texas, E. W. Brown, Jr., of Orange, and
George W. Lyles, of San Antonio, have been experimenting with this cross
(Fig. 25). It has, however, been difficult to develop any information on
these cattle as a beef breed, or the reason for crossing. Howe (personal
communication) says that, in Jamaica, Brahman-Brown Swiss crosses were
used exclusively for dairy cattle, which, however, did not come up to Ayr¬
shire and Jersey crosses for this purpose. He does not feel that they compare
well with either Devon or Angus as foundation stock for beef cattle.

Dennis O’Connor (personal communication) suggested that the pur¬
pose of such. a cross here might be to make unwanted calves from dairy
cows more saleable as beef.

Mr. Lyles recently (February 11, 1951) was quoted in a newspaper
interview to the effect that Brown Swiss (Fig. 15) in this area are a dual-
purpose breed, producing both beef and milk. He made no statement as to
the effects of crossbreeding.

Brown Swiss are fairly large. Mature cows of the heavy type run
from 1200 to 1300 pounds; bulls weigh from 1700 to 1900 pounds.

BRAHMAN-RED POLLED CROSS
See Australia (1946) ; Kelley (1949) ; Patton (1949) and Figure 16.

OTHER AMERICAN CROSSES

We have already noted the crossbreeding of range cattle and the
gradual up-building of herds by use of European purebreds, but we have
so far paid little attention to crosses other than these and the Brahman.

However, as early as 188 5, Burras McGhee, of West Feliciana Parish,
Louisiana, crossed the Devon and Red Shorthorn to produce what was
known as the "McGhee Cattle.” These cherry-red cattle showed remarkable
ability to adapt themselves to local conditions. They were good milkers.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

277

Courtesy G. D. Sluss

FIGURE 15 — This Brown Swiss bull, bred and owned by G. D. Sluss of Eldorado,
Kansas, was grand champion nine times at State shows. He weighed 2719 pounds at
the time this picture was taken.

Still found in considerable numbers in Florida and Mississippi, Cobb (1950)
says they are excellent foundation stock on which to build improved herds.
At present their characteristics are more Devon than Shorthorn.

Doubtless there were other sporadic occurrences of such crossing of
two pure breeds of European cattle, but apparently the first organized
experimental work of this type, aimed at producing better beef cattle for
the Great Plains area, was that done by the Bureau of Animal Industry,
cooperating with the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. From 193 8
through 1947, extensive experiments were made to determine the possibili¬
ties of maintaining hybrid vigor through continual crossing of Hereford,
Shorthorn, and Aberdeen Angus. The first cross was between Shorthorn
bulls and Hereford cows. The first generation females were then bred to
pure Aberdeen Angus bulls to produce the second generation. These second
generation females were then bred to purebred Hereford bulls.

Data thus accumulated indicate that average performance of all three
generations of crossbreeds was better in nearly every characteristic than
average performance of purebreds under the same conditions. Progeny of
individual sires among both purebreds and crossbreds showed considerable
variation in rate of gain and selling price per hundredweight.

The authors conclude that crossbreeding can be carried on with most
profit where the rancher is able to crossbreed systematically, and where he
feeds his own steers for market or sells them direct to the feeder (Phillips,
1947; Knapp, B., et al, 1949). (No new breed was envisaged in this pro¬
gram. It was merely a study of whether or not a continuous three-breed-cross
was a desirable way of producing cattle in the area (Work, op. cit.).

278

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIGURE 16 — Pusolda, a Sahiwal-Red Poll cow bred at the Hope Experimental
Farm in Jamaica. She weighed 1054 pounds at five years old. After Hammond.

CROSSBREEDING OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES

The success of the Brahman crossbreeds in the United States has
attracted considerable attention in other cattle raising countries of the
world, and it might be interesting to glance over this field very briefly.

AFRICA

We have already noted the use of Red Sussex in South Africa (Orford,
1950). Glanfield (1950) notes their use in Southern Rhodesia as foundation
stock for crossing with indigenous breeds, particularly Afrikanders.

Similar experimentation is going on in French West Africa (Pagot,
1943, 1950). The Livestock Service of the French Overseas Territories
Projects is establishing more experimental farms throughout the territory.
One of these is to be the Intercolonial Institute of Animal Genetics. Here
studies will be conducted on control of sleeping sickness in cattle and on
possibilities of cross breeding the best breeds of French cattle, such as
Normandy, Charolais, Montebeliarde, Tarentais, and Swiss, with native
Zebu or Brahman stock. These are the Sudanese, Bororodji, and Arabian
Zebus, or (as we call them) Brahmans.

The Montebeliarde, a French breed, has been used in the Cameroons
with good results, as have Normandy and Swiss cattle in Madagascar. Nor-
mandys have also been used in Colombia.

Other African areas using Brahman blood are Kenya, and the Gold
Coast. Oddly enough, in at least one instance, these African Brahmans have
come, not from India, or from native African stock, but from America-
In 1949, the Norris Cattle Company, of Ocala, Florida, shipped two bulls
and four heifers to Mauritius, off the eastern coast of Madagascar. The
significant thing about this is that it was 10,00.0 miles from Ocala to
Mauritius, and only 2,000 miles from India, the original home of the breed.

1951, No, 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

279

Those further interested in the area should consult various papers under the Afrikander
and French West African sections, as well as the following: Adam (1915) ; Aillerie (1926) ;
Aldige (1912); Anderson (? 1948); Bettini (1940, 1941, 1943, 1944); Bisschop (1938, 1949);
Bonsma (1940, 1949) ; Bonsma, et al (1940, 1943) ; Cameron (1945) ; Christopher (1949) ;
Couture (1948) ; Denjean (1950) ; Dietierle (1946) ; Doutressoule (1942, 1947, 1948, 1948a) ;
Doutressoule, et al (1949, 1949a) ; Drahon (1949) ; Ducloux (1930) ; Faulkner (1947, 1949*) ;
French (1939, 1940) ; Gillain (1947) ; Girard (1947, 1949) ; Gold Coast (1949) ; Goor (1948) ;
Gray (1950) ; Grimpet (1948) ; Guillermo (1949) ; Gutierrez de Miguel (1948) ; Gutteras
(1948) ; Kendall (1948) ; Kenya (1946) ; Kone (1946) ; Kwashne and Levy (1944) ; Laizet
(1948, 1949) ; Larrat, et al (1948) ; Magneville (1946) ; Malbrant, et al (1947) ; Mandon
(1948) ; Mauritius (1946) ; Miller (1947) ; Nigeria (1946) ; Northern Rhodesia (1947) ; Myasa-
land, n.d. ; Pierre (1906) ; Prigent, et al (1942) ; Prunier (1946) ; S. — (1949) ; St, Croix
(1944) ; Seychelles (1941/45) ; Staniforth (1948) ; Stewart (1949) ; Swaziland (1949) ; Tan¬
ganyika Territory (1941, 1943/45) ; Tobback (1944) ; Uganda Protectorate (1940/45) ; Union
of South Africa (1947, 1947a) ; Yasseur and Belle (1950) ; Wilson (1946).

AUSTRALIA

Australian crossbreeding with Brahmans began in 193 3 (Atkinson,
1949), with the importation of 19 animals. In the next 14 years these
multiplied and produced more than 15,000 crossbred cattle. In the begin¬
ning, the great proportion of this expansion was in tick-infested territory,
but the success of these cattle has been so outstanding that they are now
spreading to other areas. Australian cattlemen are so well pleased with
the cross that they have recently imported new Brahman blood from
various sources.

The Australian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research reports
(Kelley, 1943, and various Progress Reports) that Brahmans have been
crossed with Herefords, Polled Herefords, Shorthorns, and Polled Short¬
horns (Kelley, 1938, 1948, 1949; O’Loghlen, 1948). One breeder is
attempting the establishment of a new breed, using a red Brahman bull
imported from Florida, crossed on Polled Shorthorn heifers (Elliot, 1950;
Atkinson, 1950).

Dr. Work (personal communication) has called my attention to the
fact that, not all Australians are enthusiastic about Brahmans. He quotes an
article in the Pastoral Review, November, 1949, page 1064, which states
positively . . . "that it has not yet been proved that Zebu or Zebu cross
cattle are more suited to Australian tropical conditions than other breeds/’
Furthermore, he says, "the Australian Poll Hereford Society makes the state¬
ment that British breeds do better in the tropics than the Zebus.”

If this latter statement by the Australian breeders is correct, Australia
is perhaps the only place it would hold true, experience of cattlemen in other
tropical countries being almost diametrically opposed to that of these Austral¬
ians.

See also. Annual Reports of the Australian Council for Scientific and Industrial Re¬
search ; Griffiths (1945); Kelley (1932a); Lynch (1946, 1946a).

BRAZIL

Brazil is the home of many fine Zebu cattle, and here Indian strains
are preserved with much more purity than in the United States. The four
chief races are the Gyr or Gir; the Nellore; the Guzerat, Gujerat or
Guj erat-Kankre j (Shah, 1947); and the Indubrazil. While there are many
purebred herds of the various races, these herds also furnish breeding bulls
for such ranches and Marajo (Stegemann, 1949), where they are crossed
with local cattle introduced into Brazil many centuries ago from the
Portuguese colonies.

For other data on this area see numerous references under the Brahman section and the
following: Chieffi (1946); Domingues and Abreu (1949): Helman (1946, 1950) ; Menezes
(1946) ; Neto (1945) ; Oliveira (1945) ; Veiga (1945) ; Veiga, et al (1946) ; Villares (1943,
1945, 1945a, 1946, 1946a).

280

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No, 2
June 30

PERU

Brahman crosses are also valuable in Peru (Brooks, 1947), At Tingo
Maria, 9° south of the equator, the few farmers who tried to raise native
cattle without introducing Zebu blood have failed. At the Cooperative
Agricultural Experiment Station, out of 79 head of cattle lost over a
period of time, only 11, or 13 per cent, carried Brahman blood; the remain¬
der were pure Bos taurus. A beef cattle program, based on crosses of Brah¬
man, Hereford, and native cattle, clearly demonstrated that European
purebreds were unable to withstand the climate. Brahman crosses were much
superior in every respect.

For other material on this area see Brooks (1949) ; Cortez (1943) ; Institute of Inter-
American Affairs (1947) ; O’Brien (1944).

ARGENTINA

For data on the huge cattle industry of Argentina, including Brahmans and Brahman
crosses, see Finch (1946; 1948, 1949, 1950) ; Helman 11948) ; Keith (1948) ; Labarthe (1946) ;
Lerena (1948).

VENEZUELA

See Caravajal Madrid 11946); Duque Herrera (1947); Ferrer Domingo (1946, 1947);
Moya (1946) ; Rivas Larralde (1944) ; Vasquez (1947).

OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES

Zebu blood is also used in Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia (where there
is considerable cattle raising), Bolivia, British Guiana, and Ecuador.

For further material see Bernal (19461 ; British Guiana (1949) ; Ecuador Estacion Expt.
(1950) ; Espinosa Lillo (1946) ; Garbrecht (1945) ; Katz (1944) ; Moraes Filho (1945) ; Maria
Stella Estacion Sosa (1949) ; Mercer (1948) ; Moore (1945) ; Ortega (1947) ; Reyes (1947) ;
Santiago Mejia (1945) ; Sarasati Aparicio (1946) : Stewart (1944) ; Terrazas (1948).

CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES

Brahmans and Brahman crosses are found in Mexico, Guatemala,
Panama, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Hereford bulls from the Straus Medina
Ranch, of Texas, were purchased by the Puerto Rico Agricultural Develop¬
ment Company for crossing with scrub Brahman cows, native to the
country, hoping to increase the dressing percentage of the local cattle
by at least 10 per cent. Cattle are also raised in Jamaica, El Salvador,
Guadeloupe, and the Dominican Republic, as well as other countries and
islands throughout the area. In all, or nearly all of these, crossbreeding of
one sort or another has taken place.

For further data, see Anonymous (1947) ; Arrilaga (1947) ; Avella (1946) ; Buffon (1944) ;
Caribbean Commission (1946) ; Celis Arena] (1946) ; Cestero (1945) ; Choussy (1944) ; Cortes
(1945, 1947) ; Davis (1947) ; Dominica (1941-1946) ; Gaztambide Arrillaga (1948) ; Grana
(1949) ; Hernandez (1950) ; Jamaica (1949) ; Leeward Islands (1949) ; Miller (1945) ; Miller
(1946) ; Navarro (1945) ; Peraza (1945) ; Pico (1946) ; Prieto (1950) ; Quate (1947) ; Ruiz
Diaz (1950); St. Lucia (1944); St. Vincent (1945); Simmons Quiroz (1946); Trinidad and
Tobago (1945/46) ; Ussery (1947) ; Vera Perez (1946) ; Zamora (1946).

ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC AND THE EAST INDIES

Brahmans for crossbreeding have recently been shipped to Guam,
Ponape, Palau, Yap, and Saipan, in an effort to make natives of those
islands self-supporting by establishing a cattle breed suited to the climate.
This problem is one that is also confronting the British Government in the
Fijis. There are Brahmans in Hawaii, the Philippines, New Guinea, Java,
Ceylon, Cambodia, Malaya, Tonkin, and Celebes.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

281

For these countries see Baradat (1949) ; Besnault (1949) ; Fisher (1945) ; Gantt (1944J ;
Habaragoda (1944) ; Herweijer (1950) ; Hoekstra (1950) ; Jauffret and Autret (1948) ; Mac-
Menamin (1944) ; Marsh and Dawson (1947) : Shephard (1944, 1945) ; Turbet (1949) ; Ver
(1950) ; Villegas (1948) ; Wright (1946).

DAIRY CROSSES

Just as cattlemen have tried the effect of crossbreeding to develop
better beef cattle for the Gulf Coast and for other tropical and subtropical
areas, so have dairymen been trying the effect of various crosses, hoping
to develop a dairy animal capable or large milk production, yet possessing
resistance to those tropical conditions which inhibit productivity of
northern breeds.

INDIA

Improved dairy types of cattle adaptable to tropical and subtropical
climatic conditions are being developed in India with pure Brahman (Zebu)
stock.

Ogilvie (1947), writing of Sahiwal and Tharparkar dairy cattle of
India, says that line breeding, selection ,and herd management results with
these cattle clearly indicate that both breeds might be valuable in the
southern United States, as they resist high diurnal temperatures and extreme
temperature variations, while giving greater milk production than other
Indian breeds. The Sahiwal shows conformation tending towards a dual-
purpose cow, a type which has been experimented with at Nagpur (Patil,
1946/47).

Brahman milking quality is highly variable. "The annual average pro¬
duction in India is about 600 pounds of milk per cow. Certain cows of the
Sahiwal breed have given as much as 11,000 pounds annually with excep¬
tionally good feed, care, and management ....

"The percentage of butterfat in Brahman milk is above the average for
Western breeds. It compares favorably with the milk of the Channel Island
cattle. There are occasional milk samples that test abnormally high. This is
also true of other breeds. There is no basis for the statement that the
average test of Brahman milk is six or seven per cent. When this statement
comes from travelers who have been in India, it probably arises from a
confusion with buffalo milk, which is common there. In research in India
(Schneider et ah, 1948), recently published, on 772 lactations with Indian
cows, daily milk samples taken at two-week intervals gave an average of
5.09 per cent fat. In these investigations great care was taken to have all
milkings supervised, and to have the milk samples represent the entire yield.
Another average derived from a compilation of many samples from different
parts of the country gives 4.8 3 per cent fat. The exact conditions of
sampling of all of these latter tests that were averaged are unknown”
(Schneider, 1949).

"Experience in India has shown that high grade and purebred animals
of European dairy breeds such as the Holstein do not produce satisfactorily
in that country. Many of the animals become thin. 'Banters,’ or animals
that breathe rapidly and laboriously during hot weather, are frequent.
Inability to withstand the hot climate is reflected in their milk production”
(Phillips, 1946). Average production figures, under conditions on the
better-managed farms that were doing constructive breeding work, for

282

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

animals with varying amounts of European blood (mostly Holstein) (Fig.
25) as published by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (1941),
are as follows:

Breeding of Cows Number of Records rivg. Amt. of Milk Lbs.

Vs imported blood . 21 4,839

34 imported blood . . . . . . 173 5,982

V2 imported blood . . . . 589 6,977

% imported blood ..... . . . ... 204 6,985

% imported blood . . 396 6,664

% imported blood . . 86 6,180

First-cross animals have been known to produce as much as 19.500
pounds of milk in a lactation period of 300 days. One crossbred cow had 18
calves during her lifetime and yielded a total of 154,779 pounds of milk.
For high production under tropical conditions either a plan for continuous
crossbreeding or a blending of the right proportion of blood of the best
Indian and European dairy breeds must be determined through experimenta¬
tion. This is not an easy task.

"Instead of the level of milk production being increased as the amount
of imported blood is increased beyond the level of 1/2 to 5^8, there is an
actual decrease, even though the genes for milk production have presum¬
ably been increased by the introduction of more Holstein or other blood of
dairy breeds. These data, accumulated under varying conditions in several
parts of India, bring out the importance of resistance to a tropical environ¬
ment if production is to be satisfactory.

"The summer weather of India is, of course, more severe than that
of the southern portion of the United States. More data are needed, particu¬
larly in the Gulf Coast area, to determine how seriously the summer climate
interferes with milk production” (Phillips, 1946).

Schneider (1944) has written very extensively on milk production in India, and for
further material bearing- on the same subject, the reader is referred to French (1940a) ; Hen-
derson (1917, 1927, 1927a) ; Johnston and Singh (1930) ; Kartha (1933, 1934) ; Kothavala
(1931) ; Laing (1944) ; Littlewood (1933) ; MacGuckin (1933. 1933a, 1937) ; M'anresa (1937) ;
Matson (1928, 1929, 1946) ; Morrison (1937) ; Oliver (1933, 1934, 1937, 1938) : Parr and Sen
(1947) ; Patil (1946/47) r Pepperal (1946) ; Reed (1949) : Rhoad (1945) ; Royal (Indian)
Commission on Agriculture (1928) ; Sayer (1934) ; Saxena (1950) ; Shearer (1909) ; Sikka
(1931) ; Singh (1947) ; Watson (1930) ; Williamson (1947) ; Wright (1937).

UNITED STATES

The Red Sindhi, (Figs. 17, 18, 19) another Indian breed, has been
chosen by the Bureau of Dairy Industry for experimentation in this country
(Rusoff and Scott, 1950). Two bulls of this breed* were imported in 1946,
and at present 92 crossbred dairy heifers have been born in the Southern
Regional Dairy Cattle Breeding Project. Eighty-three are 50 per cent Red
Sindhi, five are 75 per cent, and four are 2 5 per cent Red Sindhi, the re¬
mainder of their breeding being either Jersey or Brown Swiss. Preliminary
results indicate that Indian cattle can be used to introduce heat tolerance
into domestic dairy breeds, a trait to some degree already inherent in the
Jersey (Freeborn, et al, 1934; Harrison, 1941; Hammond, 1932; Bonsma
and Pretorius, 1943; Riemerschmid and Elder, 1945) and perhaps respon¬
sible for the preponderance of this breed in the southern dairy states
(Davidson, 1927).

"Only a small number of the Sindhi-Jersey crossbred heifers have
freshened to date (1950). None has yet completed a full lactation period,

* Dr. Work informs me that two Red Sindhi heifers were also imported, but gives
no date.

Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture

FIGURE 17 — Little SK-101 poses, somewhat against his will, with his parents at
the Agricultural Research Center of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville,
McL, where he was born early in August, 1947. His mother — a Golden Medal Jersey
— has a very high milk production record. His father, Carril — is a Red Sindhi im¬
ported by the Department in 1946 from India, where this breed is one of the popular
milking strains of Brahman or humped cattle, able to withstand extremely hot, dry
weather.

283

284

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

9fHH

■■I

■1

wma

Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture

FIGURE 19— This cow, SX-13, and her bull calf, SX-155, are part of the Bureau
of Dairy Industry’s experimental dairy held at Beltsville, Md. S-13 carries one-half
blood of the Red Sindhi strain of Brahman cattle of India and one-half of the domestic
Jersey breed. SX-155, the first bull born to the half Sindhi and half-Jersey cows, is
three-fourths Sindhi and one-fourth Jersey.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

285

but most are producing at a satisfactory rate. The first three heifers, in
their six months exceeded the production of their purebred Jersey dams at
Beltsville” (Reed, 1950).

See also Fohrman (1946, 1946a, 1946b, 1947) ; Shrode and Leighton (1950).

JAMAICA

J. W. Howe (to whose paper and personal aid I am indebted for
much of the Jamaican data) says (1949) that the Jamaican Department of
Agriculture has been conducting experiments on the Government Stock
Farm at Hope, Jamaica, since 1915, hoping to develop a tropical dairy breed.
They crossed northern cattle with Brahmans of the Nellore and Hissar
breeds. The northern breeds included Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Red Polled,
Guernsey, Holstein, and Jersey.

Hissar bulls, which came of a breed primarily developed for work
cattle (Khan, 1950), were found to be unsuitable for dairy purposes
because of their nervous temperament and low production (Cousins, 1933 ).
Nellore crosses were slow maturing and unsatisfactory as milk producers.
With the introduction of Sahiwal cattle in 1921, the other two breeds were
discarded.

Among European breeds, Ayrshires, Brown Swiss, and Red Polled were
less suitable for crossing than the others and were discarded, only Jersey,
Guernsey, and Holstein cows being retained.

Because of the heat-resistant qualities of the Jersey, it is peculiarly
suited for crossing with Brahmans to produce a tropical breed, a quality
that may be possessed by the Guernsey (Figs. 20, 21), although Howe does
not say so. In work with Holsteins, Fohrman (1928), Metivier (1928),
French (1939, 1940), and Hammond (1932) all found this breed suitable
for crossing, although Hammond states that, while the Holstein-Brahman
cross produced more milk, the Jersey-Brahman cross might be more suitable
for general dairying because of its greater ability to stand heat.

Sahiwal crosses produced, like other Brahmans (Kelley, 1932), cattle
resistant to most tropical complaints and highly resistant to tick fever. As
to the amount of Brahman blood necessary for combined disease resistance
and milk production, Matson (1929) found halfbreeds satisfactory in India;
Ducloux (1930) recommends 40 per cent in Tunisia; Harrison (op. cit.)
and Metivier (op. cit.) found 25 per cent sufficent in Trinidad.

Howe (1948) concludes that animals with Brahman blood have a higher
birth weight and grow more rapidly than northern purebreds, rate of growth
increasing with the amount of Brahman blood. Halfbreeds appear to be most
suitable for milk production in Jamaica, although further research is needed
to determine whether this is due to heterosis. Number of services per calf
decreased slightly as Brahman blood increased. The age at which heifers first
calved also increased with the amount of Zebu blood, as did length of dry
periods, length of service periods, and the period of gestation. None of
these changes was significant except with the Jersey crosses. Here the
number of services per calf, age at first calving, and the length of the
gestation period were considerably different from Holsteins and Guernseys.

Milk production during a lactation increased as the amount of Zebu
blood increased, greatest production being given by the halfbreeds. Butter-
fat content increased with the amount of Zebu blood, that of the Jersey

286

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

cross testing one per cent more than the purebreds. Differences in the other
breeds were 0.42 per cent increase for the Guernsey and 0.95 per cent
for the Holstein.

See also Brooks (1949, 1949a).

OTHER COUNTRIES

Brazil and the Philippines are both developing Brahman crossbred dairy
types (Rhoad, 1938, 1943). Similar research is being carried on in Trinidad
(Harrison, 1941) and doubtless in other tropical countries.

For further discussiqn of this and of the effects cf the tropics on dairy cattle, see
Arsuaga and Lombardo (1944) ; Barrioio (1944) ; Bettini (1947) ; Beukenkamp (1946) ; Cippo-
loni (1949a) ; Cruz (1945) ; Curasson (1946, 1949) ; Fohrman (1946, 1946a, 1946b, 1947) ;
Fchrman and Larue (1948) ; Gaalaas (1945) ; Good (1946) ; Graves (1947) ; Hilder and Fohr¬
man (1947); Kumaran (1947); Phillips (1944a): Reed (1946, 1948, 1949, 1949a); Regan
(1947) ; Rhoad (1944a) ; Ribiero (1944) ; Robertson (1949).

CROSSES OTHER THAN BRAHMAN

Dairymen of many countries have been studying problems of cross¬
breeding with a great deal of interest, and have tried many crosses among
cattle of European origin. In the United States, as a portion of the "Southern
Regional Dairy Cattle Breeding Project”, Guernseys, Holsteins, Brown
Swiss, and Ayrshires are being crossed in an effort to develop, through
breeding and selection, strains of high-producing, heat-resistant animals.

In other portions of the world, local breeds are being crossed, recrossed,

The Cattlema i

FIGURE 22 — A Zebu-Yak hybrid (after Zawadowsky ) .

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

289

uncrossed, and crossed out in an attempt to produce a dairy breed that
will better fit those areas. However, space does not permit a thorough
discussion of these particular crossbreeding programs here, and for further
reference on this matter the reader is directed to the bibliography at the
end of the paper.

HYBRIDS

There are several important types of bovine animals that are inter-
fertile. These include European cattle, Brahmans, yaks, and American bison
or buffalo. Some six types of hybrids may be produced by mating these
species, or five, if one belongs to the zoological school which holds that
European and Indian cattle are not separate species. Some of these hybrids
are very useful, others are merely in the experimental stage to determine
their possible utility (Phillips, 1944a, 1946a, 1948).

Two of these, if one considers European-Brahman crosses as hybrids,
are of very great economic importance, but as we have already dealt fully
with domestic cattle, we will consider only the second at this time, and deal
with the less Important crosses later.

YAK AND YAK-CATTLE HYBRIDS IN ASIA

Yaks (Fig. 26) are indigenous to the mountainous regions of Central
Asia, and are the most important livestock kept by the Tibetans. They are
also of considerable importance to Mongolian peoples further north (Phillips,
Tolstoy, and Johnson, 1946), and the practice of hybridizing them with
domestic cattle, a few of which may carry some Brahman blood, is quite
common in both areas (Fig. 22). Phillips, Johnson, and Moyer (1945)
briefly described these crosses. Lus (1936) found that these hybrids were

The Cattleman

FIGURE 23— A Bison- Yak hybrid.

290

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Courtesy F. K. Kristjansson

FIGURE 24 — Hybrid Yak-Bison yearling female from the Canadian Experimental
herd.

larger than either parent. However, although stronger, and capable of
bearing heavier burdens, they do not have the stamina of the yaks; their
hoofs are softer, and they are more apt to become lame. Moreover, the
hybrids cannot negotiate difficult terrain as well. They are more affected by
cold, and are not as good rustlers, having difficulty at times in gleaning a
living from the scanty pastures. Advantages are greater size, increased milk
production, greater ease of handling, and ability to withstand a warmer
climate, so that they can be used at lower altitudes (Phillips, et al, 1946).

Pien nin male hybrids, as the cross is called, are reputed to be sterile
(Lus, 1936; Zawadowsky, 1931; Zuitin, 1930) a contention borne cut by
the work of Zuitin and Ivanova (1936) and Ivanova (1938). However,
according to these authors, a one-eighth yak — seven-eighths domestic bull
sired progeny. A similar observation was made by Ljubimov ( 1938). Female
hybrids are fertile (Phillips, et al, 1946; Lus, 1936; Vlasov, Gershenzon,
and Poliakov, 1932). Similar results have been observed in crosses between
bison and domestic cattle (Deakin, Muir, Smith, and McLellan, 1942).

It was concluded by Phillips, et al (1946) that the hybrids between
yaks and native cattle of the area were useful utility animals. However,
they suggest that even better animals could be provided by the use of
superior domestic bulls of breeds, such as the Brown Swiss, instead of non¬
descript local cattle. They state that effective utilization of hybrid females

The Cattlemar

FIGURE 25— Fig. 1. A Red Sindhi bull. Fig. 2. A Red Sindhi cow. Fig. 3. A
Jersey-Red Sindhi hybrid. Fig. 4. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-quarter Jersey
female. Fig. 5. A Brown Swiss-Red Sindhi hybrid. Fig. 6. A three-quarter Red Sindhi
and one-quarter Brown Swiss female. Fig. 7. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-
quarter Holstein female. Fig. 8. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-quarter Holstein
female. Fig. 9. A typical native cow of Szechwan Province, China. Fig. 10. A Holstein-
Szechwan native hybrid. Fig. 1 1 . A three-quarter Holstein and one-quarter Szechwan
native female. Fig. 12. A seven-eighths Holstein and one-eighth Szechwan native fe¬
male.

^ G <y £ 43 ^ &

vtf d O, % 00 c<J

. ^ T'O ^ 7

tbvX y _ tab i

C c|<4h «*h c3

ftH o d oh O

ri.wrgla^ ri-a .

5P^ScC30C3't3

6 ‘J a'5

o _;jy U ^ -9 v, ,

_ bOcj -

ai u

n O

x S .. g

<U C

* <-1 <U

IO-g

« &82 . £ 9* Sj

/o <u <u.W) 8 w
o G £ 3 n
§-Sa ” e

$f “ ^ ^ Jd'-S -s

£J y d
>* pS U -C I.
; ^-d h ^ u ^

n g c Q a G Gd:
o s!H 5 « ji c

; e ^ >* % 'R n I
i g^G &&S;

° Soo^i ;“3

iP-o-lw^

°'5’c"i^ a

^ « e

-1^ 2S«i<
§ §
#5

^ G<-** •

>* G d,

..‘3.tJ

11 y 3 i fl ^1
T3 S op «o J|

3*C

.y <u

n W3 I*

o d

M ?Pn.b! * — H
>v^ w W)S^^

-G ■*-> uid

JJ -G

>p G

dj d rj +_. d <u d

- as s i^0

O G

- IT "5 <u ^

s 213 g£

Courtesy F. K. Kristjansson

FIGURE 27- — Bison bull, cow, and calf from the Canadian Experimental herd at
Wain wright, Alberta.

(which are fertile) presents a difficult problem since natural mating is
almost universal. They say, "Careful experimental work is needed to deter¬
mine the best methods of utilizing these hybrid females, and this informa¬
tion should then be used as a basis for developing improved breeding
methods among the native animals5*

Those desiring further information on yaks or these hybrids should consult Denisov
(1935, 1939) ; Denisov and IJsakov (1938) ; Druzinin (1936) ; Gitz (1933) ; Ivanova and
Ljubimov (1948) ; Kozarin (1933) ; Kushner (1938) ; Lake (1947) ; Liang (1948) ; Lisbre
(1921) ; Pugh (1948) ; Schafer (1937) ; Zuitin (1935, 1938).

YAKS AND YAK-CATTLE HYBRIDS IN ALASKA

An interesting sidelight on a possible use for yaks in North America
is given by Archibald, (1929), White, et al (1946), Deakin, et al (193 5-
1942), and Rothwell (1924/30). The Canadian Government had experi¬
mented with yak crossing for Northwestern Canada, and in 1919 the U. S.
Department of Agriculture undertook similar work in Alaska, carrying it
on until 1932. Crosses were made between yaks and Galloway cattle (Fig.
26). The limited results obtained indicated that such a cross might be a
very useful range animal In some parts of Alaska, where the rigorous
climate is unsuited for European breeds.

CATTLE-BISON HYBRIDS OR CATTALO

The crossing of American bison (Fig. 27) and European cattle has
been frequently attempted by individuals, and an extended series of experi¬
ments was carried out at one time on the same project by the Canadian
Government (Deakin, et al, op. cit.) . The purpose was to develop an
animal that would withstand the severe winters of the northwest better

292

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

than domestic cattle. Herds of cattalo (Fig. 26) have been established,
from time to time, but sterility of the male hybrids and heavy losses of
cows and calves occurring at calving time have been very discouraging.
Recently, however, by using domestic bulls on bison cows, some of these
difficulties have been overcome and mortality has been lowered to a point
where it is almost negligible!

See also, for further discussion, articles by Boyd (1908, 1914) ; Canada (1941/47) ; Cot¬
ton (1949) ; Dryden (1947) : Garretson (1917/18, 1927) ; Goodnight (1914) ; Hamer (1925T;
Hartung (1948) ; Iwanoff (1911) ; Jones (1907) ; Montagnes (1946, 1947) ; Nelson (1946) ;
Roth well (1924/30) ; Sylvestre, et al (1948).

YAK-BISON HYBRIDS

"The work of the Canadian Government in hybridizing cattle and
bison has already been referred to. In connection with that work, a herd of
yaks was established and they were used in some triple crossing involving
cattle, bison, and yaks. But at least one yak-bison hybrid (Fig. 24) was
produced” (Phillips, 1946a).

BRAHMAN-YAK HYBRIDS

Some of the Asiatic cattle mentioned by Phillips et al (1946) possessed
a dash of Brahman blood. Zawadowsky (1931) says that a few Brahman-
yak (Fig. 22) hybrids were produced in the Moscow Zoological Park. The
male hybrids and the male backcrosses were sterile.

BRAHMAN-BISON HYBRID

One hybrid of this type was described in the November, 1945 issue
of "The Cattleman.” It was stated that the animal was difficult to handle.

A somewhat similar animal is on the J. I. Hailey ranch, at Mathis,
Texas. This animal, a Bison-Longhorn-Brahman cross, was pictured in the
San Antonio (Tex.) Light on February 11, 1951.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is indebted to Dr. Ralph W. Phillips, F.A.O.; Dr. Hugh McPhee,
U.S.D.A.; Dr. Burch H. Schneider, State College of Washington; Dr. J. W. Howe,
Teaxs A. & I.; Dr. N. R. Joshi, F.A.O.; Dr. s7 H. Work, U.S.D.A.; Dr. Bruce L.
Warwick, Texas A. & M.; and Dr. John Ashton, Texas A. & M., for criticism of the
manuscript, as well as to many others, both scientists and cattlemen, all of whom
have helped in the writing of this paper by their criticism and advice.

He is further indebted to Mr. Henry Biederman, Editor of The Cattleman, for
advice and for loan of some of the plates, and to various other editors of the cattle
journals for much help.

Acknowledgment is also due the Barrett Hereford Ranch for the loan of a plate
and to the Paleface Ranches, Howell B. Jones, Richard Friederichs, C. M. Caraway and
Sons, Francis I. Savage, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Tom Lasater, G. D. Sluss
and F. K. Kristjansson of the Canadian Department of Animal Husbandry, and many
others, too numerous to mention, for the loan of plates and criticism of the manuscript.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adam — 1915 — Les bovides du Senegal. Chalamel. Paris.

Aillerie — 1926 — L’elevage en Cote d’ Ivoire. Thu Doc. Vet. Paris.

Albaugh, Reuben, and Rudolph Asmus — 1948 — Breeding yearling beef heifers in Monterey
County, California, Monterey County Agric. Ext. Service. 10 pp.

Aldige — 1912 — L’elevage en Guinee Francaise. Impremerie du Gouvernement General.
A.O.F. Dakar. French West Africa.

Allred, B. W. — 1950 — Good breeding — good grass on the Lasater Ranch. Cattleman 36(9) :
22-23, 102.

June 30
1951, No. 2

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

293

Anderson, J. — ? 1948 — Climate and reproduction in cattle in Kenya. Prime Congress© Inter-
nazlonale di Fisiopatologia della Riproduzione Animale e di Fecondazione Artificial©,
Milano, 23-30 giugno 1948. Relazione general!. Milan. Palazzo della “Montacatini”
alia Fiera Campionaria Xnternazionale. 8 pp.

Anonymous — 1947 — Brahmans in the Republic of Panama. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(1) :
129.

- 1949a — The triple-purpose breed. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(6) : 27-30.

Archibald, E. S. — 1927 — A brief history of the yak in Canada. Annual Reports, Division of
Animal Husbandry. Ottawa.

Arjrilaga, C. G. — 1947 — Cruce y mejoramiento del ganado lechero en Puerto Rico. Rev. Gran-
colomb. Zootec. Hig. Med. Vet. 1 : 497-511.

Arsuaga, A. A., and R. A. Lombardo — 1944 — Consideraciones sobre las razas de carne y
leehe que concurrieron a la E’xposicion ganadera del Prado. Uruguay. Min. de Ganad.
y Agr. B. Inform. 1 : 412, 414.

Ashton, John — 1936 — Santa Gertrudis cattle. Country Gentleman, July, 1936.

- 1950 — -When the purebreds came to Texas. Prog. Farmer, Tex. Ed., 65(6): 16, 106;

65(7) : 50A-50B.

- 1950a — Early history of Texas Brahmans. Prog. Farmer, Tex. Ed., 65(9) : 1112-113.

Assis, F. de P. — 1944 — Gado leiteiro criacao e exploracao. VII- VIII. Producao leiteira,
fatores que influem na producao leiteira ; o clima ; trato de vaca leiteira. Rev. dos Cria-
dores 15(3) : 35-36 ; 15(4) : 45-47.

Atkinson, K. J. — 1949 — Letter to American Brahman Breeders Association. Brahman Breeder-
Feeder. 15(1) : 32.

Atkinson, R. L. — 1950— Cattle bred for the tropics. Amer. Brahman Breeder 1(4): 31.

Australia— 1946 — Twentieth annual report. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
for the year ended 30th June, 1946. Canberra. L. F. Johnston. Commonwealth Govt.
Printer. 127 pp. See other years also.

Avella, D. — 1946 — La Importancia del ganado cebu. Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 6 (74/75) :
13.

Ayyar, A. S. M. — 1944 — Cattle fairs in South Kanara. Indian Farming 5 : 86-87. !

Baker, A. L. — 1949 — Development of hybrid beef cattle for the Gulf Coast region. Brahman
Breeder-FeederlS(lO) : 15-19. See also American Brahman J. 4:7, 9-11.

— — - — and W. H. Black — 1950 — -Crossbred types of beef for the Gulf Coast region. U. S.
Dept. Agric. C'irc. 844 : 1-23, 8 figs.

Baradat, R. — 1949 — Notes sur F exploitation du cheptel cambodgien. (The livestock of
Cambodia). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trap., (n. s.) 3 : 29-37.

Barriola, J. P. (Hijo) — 1944 — Registro avanzado de produccion de la raza Holando-U ruguays.
Seleccion de los registros de las razas Normanda, Shorthorn y Jersey, tjruguay. Dir.
de Agron. Cartllla 72 : 1-44. Montevideo.

Barrison, J. Villares — 1941 — Climatologia zootecnica IV. O valor da termometria na aclima-
cao genetica do gado bovina. Bol. de Industria Animal (Sao Paulo, Brazil) 4(3/4) : 3-26.

Basutoland — ? 1949 — Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture for the year ending
30th September, 1948. Maseru, Basutoland. Dept. Agric. 34 pp. See other years also.

Baughman, J. L. — 1946 — From cow to lipstick in one easy lesson. Cattleman 33(5) : 56-57,
60, 62. History of cattle breeding and utilization of by-products.

Benjamin, K. T. — 1945 — Selection, purchase and despatch of cows and buffaloes from Sind to
Madras Province. Indian Vet. J. 22 : 38-40.

Bernal, W. — 1946 — Mejoramiento de las razas criollas. Vida Rural 8(85/86) : 9, 53. Improve¬
ment of native Colombian cattle breeds.

Besnault — 1949 — L’elevage dans les Establissements francais de F Oceanic. (Animal breeding
in the French possessions of Oceania). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n. s.) 3 : 5-11.

Bettini, T. M. — 1940 — Sulla gobba degli zebu della Somalia. (The hump of the Somaliland
Zebu). Reprinted from Agricoltura Colon. 34(3). 9 pp.

- 1941 — SulF origin© dei bovini Africana. (The origin of African cattle). Riv. Biol.

Colon. 4 : 5-19.

- 1943 — L’allevamento dei bovini in Africa Orientale Italiana. (Cattle breeding in

Italian East Africa). Reprinted from Agricoltura Colon. 37(8, 9/10). 18 pp.

- 1944 — II problema del miglioramento dei bovini ai Tropici con particolare riguardo

all’Africa Orientale Italiana. (The problem of the improvement of cattle in tne
tropics with special reference to Italian East Africa). Firenze. Institute Agronomico
per F Africa Italiana. 17 pp.

- 1947 — Phenotypic and genotypic acclimatization of domestic animals to the Tropics

and Subtropics with particular reference to cattle. (In Italian ) Rev. di Agr. Subtrop.
e Trop. 41 : 55-80.

- 1950 — The Lucknow international conference on livestock raising under tropical and

subtropical conditions. (In Italian) Riv. di Agr. Subtrop. e Trop 44; 196-201.

Beukenkamp, R. L. — 1946 — El ganado Holando en el Uruguay. Asoc. Rural del Uruguay.
Rev. 73(6/7) : 34-35, 38.

Bisschop, J. H. R. — 1938 — The relation between environment and animal breeding with
special reference to the breeding of cattle in the semi-arid regions of South Africa.
Papers 13th. Internat. Vet. Congr. Heft 12": 3-48.

— - 1949 — The improvement of livestock in Kenya. Broadcast talks and report on his

visit to Kenya, March 1948. Colony and Protectorate of Kenya. Nairobi. Govt. Printer.
26 pp. Mimeo.

Black, W. H. — 1947 — Brahman cattle in America. Reprint by Amer. Brahman Breeders Assoc,
from Amer. Feed and Grain dealer 30 : 10-11, 34-35, 42. Reprinted again in Brahman
Breeder-Feeder 15(5) : 36-38 under same title.

Semple, A. T», and J. L. Lush — 1934 — Beef production and quality as influenced by
crossing Brahman with Hereford and Shorthorn cattle. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull.
417 : 1-53, 10 figs., 45 tabs. See also reprint in Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(1) : 7-18.

Blin, H. — 1949 — Les Charollais, elite de notre production bovine. Rustica 22 : 97.

Blum, Harold F„ — -1945 — The physiological effects of sunlight on man. Physiological Rev.
25 : 483-530.

Bonadonna, T. — 1949 — Lo zebu ed i suoi prodotti d’incrocio coi bovini. (The zebu and the
results of crossing it with taurine cattle). Zootec. e Vet. 4 : 445-451.

294

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Bonsma, J. C. — 1940 — The influence of climatological factors on cattle. Union of South
Africa. Dept, of Agriculture and Forestry. Pamphlet 233. Also in Farming in South
Africa 15 : 373-385, ills.

- 1948 — Increasing adaptability by breeding. Farming So. Africa 23 : 439-452. Reaction

of different cattle breeds to climatic and other environmental conditions.

- 1949 — Breeding cattle for increased adaptability to tropical and subtropical environ¬
ments. J. Agric. Sci. (London) 39:204-221.

- 1949a — The Afrikaner ; relation between conformation, function and adaptability.

Farming So. Africa 24 : 459-464, 472.

- 1950 — Ekologiese veeteeltnavorsing en die toepassing daarvan tot instandhouding van

’n blywende veeteeltbedryf. (Ecological cattle breeding research and its application
to the maintenance of a permanent cattle industry). Union So. Africa Dept, van
Landbou. Weter.skaplike Pamphlet 327 : 1-23.

— - -and A. J. Pretorius — 1943 — Influence of colour and coat cover on adaptability of cattle.

Farming in South Africa 18: 101-117.

- 1945 — Influence of colour and coat cover on adaptability of cattle. (In Hebrew) Hassa-

deh 25 : 563-568.

Bonsma, J. C., Sholz, G. D. J., and F. J. G. Badenhorst — 1940 — The influence of climate on
cattle. Fertility and hardiness of certain breeds. Farming in So. Africa 15 : 7-12, 16.

Borden, A. P. — 1910 — Indian cattle in the United States. Amer. Breeders’ Mag. 1 : 91-94.

Boyd, M. M. — 1908 — A short account of an experiment in crossing the American bison with
domestic cattle. Amer. Breeders’ Assoc. Ann. Rept. 4:324-331.

Boyns, B. M. — 1947 — Sudanese cattle as milk producers. Empire J. Expt. Agr. 15 : 27-41.

Brasse-Brossard, L. — 1943 — Les races bovines francaises. Rev. des Agr. de France 75 : 69-70,
88-89, 104-105.

Bray, C. I. — 1933 — Cattle production in Louisiana. La. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 244.

- 1949 — Brahman crossbreeding in Louisiana. Amer. Brahman J. Sill): 25-27.

Briquet Junior, R., and J. de Abreu — 1949 — Sobre o periodo de gestacao nas racas zebunias.
I. Raca Guzera. (On the period of gestation in the Zebu races. I. Guzerat). Brazil
Instit. de Zootecnia. P. 4. 19 pp. English summary.

British Guiana — 1949 — Administration Report of the Director of Agriculture for the year
1946. 19 pp., in Divisional Ann. Rept. for the year 1946. Georgetown, Demerara.
The Argosy Co., Ltd. See other years also.

Brooks, H. J. — 1947 — The Brahman contribution to dairying in hot countries. Brahman
Breeder-Feeder 13(11): 18, 44-48. See also Amer. Brahman J. 2(9) : 9-11, 13-14, 16,
December, 1947, Proc. First Amer. Brahman Congr. 1 : 71-90. Discussion follows on
pp. 90-99.

- 1948 — Contribucion leehera del Brahmino a las zonas calidas. Hacienda 43(8): 44-45,

64.

- 1949 — Cebu en Tingo Maria. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 9(7) : 11-13.

- 1949a — Five years of crossbred dairy program in the tropics. Proc. Amer. Brahman

Centennial. Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 84-98.

Brugman, H. G. — 1950 — The Brahman cattle in the crossbreeding program. Cattleman 37(2):
17, 42-45.

Buchanan Smith, A. D. — 1931 — The genetical improvement of cattle in the tropics. Proc.
Internat. Dairy Congr. Copenhagen 1931 : 22-27.

Buffon, A. — 1944 — Notre elevage bovin. Guadaloupe. Serv. de I’Agr. Rev. Agr. (n. s.) 1: 11-13.

Cameron, R. H. — 1945 — Progress of native (dairy) cattle at the African Veterinary Train¬
ing Centre, Sangalo, North Kavironodo, 1933-1942. East African Agr. J. 11(1) : 20-24.

Canada — 1941/47 — Reports of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada for
the years ended March 31, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946 and 1947. Ottawa. Edmond
Cloutier. 171 pp. ; 162 pp. : 155 pp. ; 186 pp. : 212 pp. ; 235 pp. ; 257 pp. See other
years also.

Caribbean Commission — 1946 — Livestock in the Caribbean. Crop Inquiry Series, No. I. Wash¬
ington, D. C.

Carneiro, Geraldo G. — 1939 — Alguns fatores que influem sobre a producao de leite de vacas
mesticas Simentais sob o sistema de Retiros. Rev. de Indus. Anim. (n. s.) 2(1): 28-48.

- 1943 — O emprego do zebo na formaeao do gado de corte nos tropicos. (The use of

the Zebu in the breeding of slaughter cattle in the tropics). Ceres (Viscosa) 5: 17-26.

Carvajay Madrid, B. — 1946 — El cebu como tipo de raza para nuestros ganados. Agr. Venezel.
10(113) : 11-12.

Cavendish, R. A. E. — 1948 — Little known facts about Zebu cattle from India and the
U.S.A. Gulf Coast Cattleman 14(6) : 5-8. 10.

Celis Arenal, A. — 1946 — Mejoramiento del ganado bovino en nuestras zonas tropicales (Ei
Salvador). Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 6(76/77 ): 7-10.

Cestero, M. A. — 1945 — La vaea leehera. Dominican Repub. Sec. de Estado de Agr. y Riego.
Rev. de Agr. 36(162) : 24-26.

Cezard and Ruelle — 1949 — Les bovins charollais dans la Nievre. France. Min. de l’Agr. B.
Tech, d’lnform. 37 : 67-72.

Chieffi, A. — 1946 — O Zebu, e seu verdadeiro papel no Brasil central. Rev. Rural Bras.
26(313) : 26-29.

- 1950 — The importance of environmental factors in the raising of cattle. (In Portu¬
guese). Rev. de Agric. (Piracicaba) 25:263-282.

Chiffe, J., and R. Babel — 1949 — Varieties: betail “Afrikander”. Madagascar. Insp. Gen. des
Serv. Agr. Bull. Agr. 2(15): 21-25.

Christopher, A.— 1949 — Beef from Kenya native cattle. Farmer’s Weekly (Bloemfentein)
76 : 57.

Choussy, F. — 1944 — Notas sobre la crianza de terneros en las haciendas de El Salvador. El
Salvador. Inst. Tec. An. 1 (1) : 260-261.

Cipolloni, M. A. — 1949 — Brahman crossbreeds for beef production. Brahman Breeder-Feeder
15(7) : 16, 18, 20-22.

— 1949a — Different type of dairy cow needed in South. Amer. Brahman J. 4(3) : 8-11.

Cobb, W. T. — 1950 — Cross-breeding cattle in Louisiana. The Amer. Brahman 1(8): 9-10, 16-17,

- 1950a — Brahman cattle in the beef picture. Tex. Livestock J. 9(4): 46, 50-51.

Collares, J .A - 1949/50- — The Charolaise breed in Rio Grande do Sul. (In Portuguese)

Granja Porto Alegre 6(49/50) : 50-57.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

295

Cortes, J. — 1945 — El Cebu y la ganaderia para carne en los tropicos. Panama Min. de Agric.
y Com., Rev. de Agric. y Com. 4(43) : 15-25.

- 1947 — El Cebu y la ganaderia para carne en los tropicos. Bull. Asoc. Gen. de Agr.

( Guatemala} No. 122: 1-2: No. 123: 4; No. 124: 4; No. 125: 2-3.

Cortez, G. — 1943— Resultados obtenidos con el zebu, en la ganaderia de la montana (in
Peru). Peru, Bull. Dept, de Ganad. Trop., Caza y Pesca 2: 1-15. Lima.

Costo Filho, P. — 1948 — Breeding of dairy cattle ; crossing of dairy cattle in warm climates.

(In Portuguese) Soc. Coop, da Indus. Pecuaria do Para. B. 16(691 : 10-11.

Cotton, E. J. — 1949 — Hybrids. Canad. Cattleman 12(4) : 12-13, 36-37. Buffalo-domestic cattle
crosses.

Cousins, H. H. — 1933 — History of Hope Farm. Govt. Prtg. Office. Kingston, Jamaica. B.W.l.
Couture, A. — 1948 — Contribution a Fethnologie du zebu dit “de l’Azawak.” (The ethnology of
the so-called Azawak zebu). French West Africa. Insp. Gen. de l’Elevage. B. des.
Serv. de l’EIevage et des Indus. Anim. (n. sA 1(1): 42-49.

Cruz, A. M. — 1945 — La raza Brown Swiss. Guatemala. Dir. Gen. de Agr. Rev. Agr. 1 : 399-400.
Curasson, G. — 1946 — Traite de pathologie exotique veterinaire et comparee. Vigot.

- 1949 — Les climats chauds et la production laitiere. Rev. d’Elevage et de Med. Vet. des

Pays Trop. (n. s.) 3 : 77-92.

Das Gupta, S. C.- — 1945 — The cow in India. Vol. I. Breeding — dairy industries — Vol. II. The
body of the cow — its diseases and treatment. With foreword by M’. K. Gandhi. Calcutta.
Khadi Pratisthan. xliv, 756 ; xx, 700 pp.

Davidson, F. A. — 1927 — Relation of taurine cattle to climate. Econ. Geog. 3 : 466-485, ills.
Davis, W. S., Jr. — 1947 — Guatemala viewed by an expert. Amer. Brahman J. 1(10) : 15, 35.
Deakin, Alan, Muir, G. W., and A. G. Smith — 1935 — Hybridization of domestic cattle, bison
and yak. Dom. Canada Dept. Agric. Pub. 479, Tech. Bull. 2 : 1-30, 11 figs.. 1 pi.

— — — -and A. S. McLellan — 1942 — Hybridization of domestic cattle and buffalo (Bison ameri-
canus). Prog. Rept. Wainwright Expt. 1935/41, Dom. Canada Dept. Agric., Exp. Farms
Service. Mimeo Report.

Denisov, F. I. — 1935 — (Yaks on Kirghizstan state farms). Trud. Kirghiz Kompl. Eksp.,
1933-1934, 4(3) : 115-171, 16 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 4: 298-300, 1936.

- 1939 — Gibridy jakov s kirgizskim skotomi svicami. (Hybridization of yak with

Kirghiz cattle and Schwyz). Izv. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. (Otd. Mat. — est., Ser. Biol.).
Reported in Anim. Breeding Abs- 7: 116, 1939.

— - and S. V. Usakov — 1936 — Nekotorye dannye ob jakah gornago Altaja. (Some data

on the yaks of the Altai Mountains). Domasnie Zivotnye Mongolii. (The domestic
animals of Mongolia). Pp. 351-358. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 5: 129, 1937.

Denjean — 1950 — L’elevage bovin en Tunisie. Colon. Franc, de Tunisie 60(2133) : 3 ; 60(2135):
3 ; 60(2149) : 3 ; 60(2151) : 3.

Dietterle, R. — 1946 — Ranching in South West Africa. Amer. Hereford J. 37(10) : 66, 126.
Dobie, J. Frank — 1941 — The Longhorns. Little, Brown and Co., Boston. 388 pp., ills.
Dominica — 1941/46 — Annual reports of the Department of Agriculture for the years 1940/45.
Roseau, Dominica. Bull. Office. 4 pp. ; 4 pp. ; 7 pp. ; 9 pp. ; 11 pp. ; 19 pp. See other
years also.

Domingues, O., and J. de Abreu — -1949 — Viagem de estudos a Nhecolandia (relatorio). (Study
tour to Nhecolandia). Brazil Inst, de Zootecnia. P. 3. 33 pp. Livestock industry in the
Mato Grosso, Brazil.

Dordick, I. L. — 1949 — The effect of high temperature and humidity on cattle. Acta Trop.
(Basel) 6:221-245.

Doutressoulle, G. — 1942 — L’amelioration du cheptel bovin par les methodes zootechniques.
(The improvement of cattle by breeding methods). Bull. Serv. Zootech. Epizoot. Africa
Occid. Franc. 5 : 99-109.

- 1947 — L’elevage en Afrique Occidentals Francaise. (Livestock husbandry in French

West Africa). Larose. Paris.

- 1948 — L’elevage des taurins au Sudan francais. (The breeding of humpless cattle in

French Sudan). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n. s.) 2:31-43.

— — — 1948a — L’elevage au Sudan francais. Son economic. (Stock breeding in the French
Sudan. Its economy). Mortain. Imp. du Mortainais. 280 pp.

- — - — -Konate, G., and S. Kansaye — 1949 — Le zebu Peul-Toronke. (The Toronke Fulani zebu).

Rev. Elev. M'ed. Vet. Pays Trop (n. s.) 2 : 202-212.

— - —and S. Traore — 1949 — L’elevage dans la boucle du Niger. (Stock breeding in the Niger
Bend). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n. s.) 3 : 17-28.

Drahon. M. — 1949 — Notes sur un recensement due chaptel bovin du Diaka, Subdivision de
Macina (Soudan). French West Africa. Insp. Gen. de l’Elevage. B. des Serv. de
l’Elevage et des Indus. Anim. 2:19-24.

Drenner, R. E. — 1949 — The Brahman and the packer. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial.
Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 124-126.

Druzinin, A. N. — 1936 — Zur Kenntnis der Anatomie des Yaks (Poephagus grunniens L.) (On
the anatomy of the yak P. grunniens). C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. U.S.S.R., N. S., 4(13) :
201-204. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 5 : 400, 1937.

Dryden, W. J. — 1947 — Cattalo, (A) new hardy breed (of cattle). Mont. Farmer-Stockman
34(23) : 51.

Duckworth, J.^rl946 — A statistical comparison of the influence of crude fiber on the digesti¬
bility of roughage by Bos indicus (Zebu) and Bos taurus cattle. Trop. Agric. 23: 4-8.

— - and G. B. Rattray — 1948 — The three-quarter-bred Holsteir-Zebu heifer. Pt. I. Blood

changes during the first year of life. Pt. II. Growth from birth to 2 years. Pt. III.
Age of puberty. Empire J. Expt. Agr. 16: 14-22.

Ducloux — 1930 — Cattle in “The French Colony of Tunis.” Quart. Bull. Imp. Bur. Animal
Gen. 1(2) : 5-6.

Duque Herrera, A. — 1947 — Venezuela, donde abren los brazos al hombre bueno ; un cubano
que trabajo duro y es querido y respetado ; como es la ganaderia venezolana ; la caza
de ganado cimarron y los gavilanes rojos : la junta revolucionaria ayuda con creditos
y con materiales. Rev. Ganad, (Habana) 7(4) : 14-16.

Ecuador. Estacion Experimental Agricola. Dent, de Pruebas de Produccion Lechera — 1950 —
Crianza artificial de vacas lecheras. Ecuador. Segunda Zona. Cam. de Agr. B. 4(17) :

296

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Edwards, F. R.— 1938 — The effects of climatic factors on livestock. Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim.
Prod. 31 : 48-53.

Edwards, J — 1932 — Breeding for milk production in the tropics. Jour. Dairy Res. 3: (281)-
293, illus.

Espinosa Lillo, E. — 1946 — Adaptaeion de razas bovinas en la Patagonia (Chile). Agrario
10(380) : 7.

Evans, H. — 1949 — Hybrid cattle ; outstanding results obtained when Brahman blood is crossed
with that of English breeds. Stockman 9(9) : 12-13.

Farley, F. W. — 1949 — Herd management. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial. Charleston,
South Carolina. Pp. 108-113.

Faulkner, D. E. — 1947 — The cattle of the Swazi. Swaziland. Livestock and Agr. Dept. Mpisi
Ser. 1 : 1-42.

- 1949— The improvement of the native cattle of Kenya. Yet. Rec. 61 : 47-52.

Ferrer Domingo, A. — 1946 — El Cebu y el problema de la produccion de ganado vacuno de
carne en Venezuela. Agro (El Valle) 1 (6) : 38-51.

- 1947 — El Cebu y el problema de la produccion de ganado vacuno de carne en Vene¬
zuela. Rev. Pecuaria, No. 100/101 : 10-12.

Feunteun, L. M. — 1949 — Production de lait, introduction de races amelioratrices, alimenta¬
tion du betail dans les territoires francais sous climat tropical. Proc. 12th InternatL
Dairy Cong. Sect. 6 : 609-620, 1949.

Field, H. G. — 1945 — Purebred Jerseys on the Nile. New Zeal. Farmer Weekly 66(13) : 4.

Finch, F. H. — 1946 — The Zebu cross on an Argentine estancia. Past. Rev. 56 : 288-289.

- 1948 — Cattle-breeding in northern Argentina and northern Australia. Rev. River

Plate 104 (,2959) : 15-18.

- 1949 — Zebu breeding and crossbreeding in northern Argentina. Past. Rev. 59: 739-741.

— - 1950 — Waning resistance to the Zebu cross-bred. Rev. River Plate 107(3042) : 34.

Fisher, W. — 1944- — The scientific side of cross-breeding. West. Livestock J. 22(32) : 20, 44-45.
Beef breeds crossed with Brahman and Afrikander.

- - 1945 — Zebu cattle in Java. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 11(5): 20-21.

- —1948 — Zebu, the working cattle of the Old World. West. Livestock J. 26(12) : 31, 46, 48.

Florida — ? 1945/46 — Annual Reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the fiscal
years ending June 30, 1945 and 1946. Gainesville. University of Florida, vii, 229 pp. ;
vi, 206 pp. See also other years.

Fohrman, M. H. — 1946 — Comments on crossbreeding (of dairy cattle) article. Hoard’s Dairy¬
man 91 : 763, 780, 782.

• — - — 2 — 1946a — Crossbreeding of dairy cattle. Tex. Livestock J. 5(10), : 54, 57, 61.

- 1946b — Cross-breeding with dairy cattle ; results of an experiment conducted by the

Agricultural Research Administration, Bureau of Dairy Industry, at Agricultural
Center, Belts ville, Maryland. Amer. Milk Rev. 8(6) : 34, 36-38.

- 1947 — Crossbreeding dairy cows. U. S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook of Agric. 1943-1947 :

177-184.

— —and W. C. Larue — 1948 — More milk with crossbred cows. Prog. Farmer, Tex. Ed.
63(9) : 19.

Forbes, E. B., and others — 1926 — The influence of the environmental temperature on the
heat production of cattle. Jour. Agr. Res. 33 : 579-589.

Forman, K. W* — 1928 — Cattle in India. Trop. Agric. 5 : 260.

Fowler, A. B. — 1950 — Beef from the tropics. Brit. Col. Developmt. Corp., Colonial Developmt.
1(2): 32-34.

Freeborn, S. B., Regan, W. M., and L. J. Berry — 1934 — The effect of petroleum oil fly sprays
on dairy cattle. J. Econ. Ent. 27 : 382-388.

Freitas, Alfredo Sabino de — 1947— The Zebu cattle in Brazil. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(1) :
106-109.

French, M. H. — 1939 — Cattle breeding in Tanganyika territory and some development prob¬
lems encountered. Proc. 7th Internat. Cong. Genetics 1939 : 123.

- 1940 — Cattle breeding in Tanganyika territory and some developmental problems re¬
lated thereto. Emp. J. Exp. Agr. 8(29) : 11-22.

- — • — • — 1940a — The comparative digestive powers of Zebu and high grade European cattle.
J. Agric. Sci. 30 : 503-510.

- — 1941 — The failure of pure and high-grade European cattle in hot climates. East Afr.

Agri. Jour. 6.

- 1946 — Growth rates of hair on grade European and idigenous breeds of cattle. E. Afr.

Agric. J. 11 : 181-183.

Gaalaas, R. F. — 1945 — Effect of atmospheric temperature and body temperature on (the)
respiration rate of Jersey cattle. Jour. Dairy Sci. 28 : 555-563, 1945.

- - — 1947- — A study of heat tolerance in Jersey cows. J. Dairy Sci. 30 : 79-85.

Gantt, P. A. — 1944 — Cross-bred beef may be worth trying in Hawaii. Hawaii U. Agr. Ext.
Let. 25(2) : 4.

Garbrecbt F. — 1945 — Apuntes geographicos de un Normandista. Rev. Nac. de Agric. (Bogota)
38(488) : 19-20. Adaptation of livestock and its application to the Normandy cattle in
Colombia.

Garretson, M. S. — 1917/18 — The cattalo, Rept. Amer. Bison Soc. 1917-18: 30-37.

• — - 1927 — A short history of the American bison. The American Bison Society. New York.

Gaztambide Arrillaga, C, — 1948 — Adaptabflidad de las razas europeas de ganado lechero a la
vida de los paises tropicales. Rev. de Agr. de Puerto Rico 39 : 162-180.

Gerald, S. — 1948 — The Charbray — a new cattle breed. N. Mex. Stockman 13(2) : 60,

Gillain, J. — 1947 — De Famelioration des bovins par croisement, dans le Haut-Ituri. B. Agr.
du Congo Beige 38 : 63-74.

Girard. M. — 1947 — La selection de la race bovine Nois Pie a la Station d’Essai du Service de
l'Elevage de Meknes. Terre Maroc. 17 : 413-416.

- 1949 — La race bovine noir-pie de Meknes. Rev. d’Elevage et de Med. Vet. des Pays

Trop. (n.s.) 3:52-53.

Gitz, S. — 1933 — (Hybridization of Brown Swiss bulls and yak cows). Probl. Zhivotm. No.
R ; 59-60. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 1 : 236. 1934.

Glanfield. John — 1950 — Sussex cattle in Southern Rhodesia. Sussex Cattle Brochure. Sussex
Herd Book Society. London. Pp. 64-66.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

297

Gold Coast — 1949 — Report of the Department of Animal Health for the year 1948/49. Accra.

Govt. Prtg. Dept. 12 pp. See other years also.

Gonzales, A. de J. — 1944 — Curso de gana nado vacuno ; raza Charolesa. Fomento 1(1) : 13.

- 1947 — El ganado Santa Gertrudis en la isla de Turiguano. Bull. Asoc. Gen. de Agr.

(Guatemala) 99:3-4.

Good, W. A. — 1946 — Dairy farming along the coastlands of British Guiana. Timehri 27 : 53-57.
Goodnight, C. — 1914 — My experience with bison hybrids. J. Hered. 5 : 197-202.

Goor, S.— 1948— Cattle in the Sudan. (In Hebrew) Hassedeh 28 : 357-358, 397-400.

Grana, F. M. de la — 1949 — Cronica ganadera de Cuba. 1. II. (Livestock in Cuba. I. II.).
Ganaderia (Madrid) 7 : 84-86 ; 434-437.

Graves, R. R. — 1947 — Crossing breeds of dairy cattle. Holstein-Friesian World 44 : 493, 573.
Gray, L. — 1950- — Bechuanaland and the Bamangwato. Farmer & Stock-Breeder 64 : 989. In¬
cludes cattle raising.

Greene, Bill — 1947 — Brahmans influence milk production on Anthony farms. Brahman
Breeder-Feeder 13 (10) : 37-39.

Gresham, Wilson — 1947 — The benefit of Brahman cattle in the U. S. Brahman Breeder-
Feeder 13(6): 3-6.

Griffiths, N — 1945 — The stamp of the Zebu. Walkabout 11(9) : 12-13.

Grimpet, J. — 1948 — Les vaches laitieres au Maroc. Colon. Franc, de Tunisie 58(2078):!, 3;
58(2079) : 1, 4.

Guillermo, M. — 1949 — Le zebu du Madagascar. Rev. d’Elevage et de Med. Vet. des Pays Trop.
(n.s.) 3:61-75.

Gutierrez de Miguel, J.— 1948 — Posibilidades ganaderas del Africa Ecuatorfal. Ganaderia
(Madrid) 6 : 237-239.

Gutterres, J. B. — 1948 — A bovinicultura Africana Portuguesa. Seu melhoramento. (Cattle
rearing and its improvement in Portuguese Africa). Rev. Med. Vet. (Lisboa) 43:49-71.
Haharagoda, J. — 1944 — Cross breeding of cattle in Ceylon. Trop. Agr. (Ceylon) 100:147-149.
Hamman, E. C. — 1946 — Problem of the Afrikander cattle breeder. Farmer’s Weekly (Bloem¬
fontein) 71:607.

- — 1947 — Die toekoms van die afrikanerbees (The future of the Africander cattle breed).

Landbouweekblad 29(1465) : 30-31.

- 1948 — The African cattle at exhibition and at the slaughterhouse. (In Afrikaans)

Landbouweekblad 30(1518) : 31, 50-51.

- 1949 — The Afrikander as slaughter animal. (In Afrikaans) Landbouweekblad 30(1551) :

44-45.

Hammond, J. — 1931 — Problems of tropical dairying. Conference Papers, 9th Internat. Dairy
Cong., Copenhagen. Section 5 : 27-38. Reprinted in Trop. Agric. 8 : 311-315.

- 1932- — • Report on cattle breeding in Jamaica and Trinidad. Great Britain. Empire

Marketing Board. London. No. 58 : 1-66, 64 figs.

— - -Edwards, J., and A. Walton — 1941 — Animal breeding in relation to environmental

condition. Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. England 102.

Hammer, R. S. — 1925 — The Canadian bison-cattle cross. Chap. 23. Cattle breeding. Pro¬
ceedings of the Scottish Cattle Breeding Conference, ed. by G. F. Finley. Oliver and
Boyd. Edinburgh.

Harrison, E. — 1941 — Considerations regarding stock farming in Trinidad with special refer¬
ence to the fresh milk industry. Tro*>. Agric. 18 : 137-139.

Hartung, A. M. — 1948 — They tried to produce a new kind of cow. West Livestock J. 34(B) :
118-119. Cattalo.

Helman, M. B. — 1946 — Caracterizacion de las razas Nelore, Guzerath y Gir. Agr. y Ganad.
22(9) : 3-9.

- 1948 — El Cebu en la Argentina. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 8(9) : 24-25.

- 1950 — Reflexiones sobre el Cebu y la hibridacion. Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 9(124)/

125) : 31-32.

Henderson, G. S. — 1917 — Pusa dairy herd. Agric. J. India 12 : 328.

- 1927 — The introduction of foreign milk stock into India for crossbreeding. J. Central

Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 1 : 7-8.

- 1927a — Evidence of officers serving under the Government of India. Rept. Roy. Comm.

Agric. India 1 : 137.

Hernandez, C. — 1950 — El Cebu en Cuba. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 10(5) : 44-50. See also Agro-
tecnica 4 : 65-77.

Hernandez Naus, A. — 1944 — La fecundacion y sus relaciones con la climatologia en el
ganado lechero. Indus. Lechera 26 : 549-565.

Herweijer, C. H.— 1950 — The development of cattle breeding in South Celebes and the possi¬
bility for development of (beef) cattle farms. (In Dutch) Hermera Zoa 57 : 221-239.
Hilder, R. A., and M. H. Fohrman — 1947 — Analysis of the production records of crossbred
dairy cattle. (Abs.) J. Dairy Sci. 30: 551.

- 1949 — Growth of first generation crossbred dairy calves. J. Agric. Res. 78 : 457-459.

Hoekstra, P. — 1950 — Veeteelproblemen in Indonesia gezien in het iicht der historie. (Cattle
breeding problems in Indonesia seen in the light of history). Groningen. Wolters.
Howe, J. W. — 1949 — The effect of varying amounts of Zebu blood on the adaptability of
dairy cattle to conditions in Jamaica. Trop. Agric. 26 : 33-42.

Imperial Council of Agricultural Research — 1941 — Milk records of cattle in approved dairy
farms in India. {Part I. Cows) Misc. Bull. 36. Manager of Publications, Delhi, India.
Institute of Inter- American Affairs — 1947 — Livestock in Peru. Including a description of
SCIPA’s cattle import program. A special report. Food Supply Division, Instit. Inter-
Amer. Affairs. Washington, D. C. 37 pp.

Ivanova, V. V. — 1938 — Kvoprosu izucenija plodovitosti samcov gibridov jaka s rogastym
skotom. (On the fertility of hybrids of yak x cattle). Izv. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. (Otd.
mat. - est., Ser. Biol.) 1938:883-884, 1 fig. (English summary). See also Anim. Breed¬
ing Abs. 7: 117, 1939.

— . — and I. M. Liubimov — 1948 — Fertile hybrid bulls. (In Russian) Useoiuzn. Akad.

Sel’skokhoz. Nauk im. V. I. Lenina. Dok. 13(11) : 42-48.

Iwanoff. E. — 1911 — Die fruchtbarkeit der hybriden des Bos taurus and des Bison americanus.
Biologisches Centralblatt 31 : 21-24.

Jacobs, W. S. — 1949 — History of Brahman importations. Amer. Brahman J. 3(11) : 15-17, 38.

298

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No.. 2
June 30

Jamaica Department of Agriculture — 1949 — Annual Report for the year ended 31st March,
1947. Kingston. Govt. Printer. 3u pp. See also other years.

Jauftret and Auiret — 1948 — Les laits et la production iaitiere au Tonkin. (Milk and milk
production in Tonkin). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n.s.) 2:5-30.

Johnson, R. — 1947 — Tailor-made cattle for Arizona. Ariz. Farmer 26(17) : 1, 8-9. Breeding
the Santa Gertrudis and Afrikander crossbred cows.

Johnston, D. P„ and S. Singh Kartar — 1930 — The Lyallpur Agricultural College dairy herd,
1914 to 1929. J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 3 : 132-141.

Jones, C. J. -1907 — Breeding catalo. Araer. Breeders’ Assoc. Ann. Rept. 3:161-165.

Jones, Howell B. — 1950 — C'harbray cattle at Hilltop Ranch. Zebu J. 2(3) : 22.

Joshi, N. R. — 1949 — Indian cattle strains and characteristics. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centen¬
nial. Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 17-28.

Kariha, K. P. R. — 1933 — Note on subject 15. Proc. Mtg. Bd. Agric. India 1 : 181-186.

- 1934 — A note on the comparative economic efficiency of the Indian dairy cow, the

half bred cow and the buffalo as producers of milk and dairy fat. Agric. and Live¬
stock in India 4 : 605.

Katz, C. — 1944 — La ganaderia del Ecuador. Ecuador. Primera Zona. Cam. de Agr. Rev.
6(53/55) : 37-46. Dairy cattle and milk production.

Kaura, R. L. — 1944 — Deterioration of cattle in certain parts of India and its probable causes
with some practical suggestions to overcome them. Indian J. Vet. Set. and Anim.
Husb. 14 : 132-145.

Keesee, Paul A., and Travis Richardson — 1949 — The Angus-Brahman beef breed. Tex. Live¬
stock J. 8(4) : 40, 48.

Keith, A. — 1948 — La raza Aberdeen-Angus en el pasado y en 1948. Aberdeen-Angus (Buenos
Aires) 1948(40) : 26-29.

Kelly, R. B. — 1932 — Zebu (Brahman) cross cattle and their possibilities in North Australia.
Australian Council Sci. and Industry, Pamphlet. 27.

- 1932a — The development of a new breed of cattle for a tropical environment. Austral¬
ian Vet. Journ. 8: 2.

- 1938 — Zebu- (Brahman-) cross cattle and their possibilities in North Australia. Aus¬
tralian Council Sci. and Indust. Res., Prog. Rept. 3:1-30, illus. (Mimeo).

- - 1943 — Zebu-cross cattle in northern Australia. Australian Council Sci. Indust. Res.,

Bull. 172.

- 1948 — Zcbu-cross cattle in Northern Australia. Observations in Queensland. Prog

Rep. Australian Council Sci. Indust. Res. 6 : 1-26. See also Brahman-Breeder-Feeder
15(3) : 7-8, 10-13.

- 1949 — Zebu cattle in Australia. Brit. Agric. Bull. 2 : 217-220.

Kendall, S. B. — 1948 — Relationship between breed of cattle and ability to maintain a con¬
stant body temperature under tropical conditions. Vet. J. 104: 112-115.

Kenya — 1946 — Colony and Protectorate of Kenya. Annual Report of the Veterinary Depart¬
ment 1944. Nairobi. Govt. Printer. 23 pp. See other years also.

Khan, A. W. — 1950 — Origin of the Hissar breed of cattle. Indian Farming 8 : 471-472. See
also Brahman Breeder-Feeder 16(2) : 16-17.

King, F. M. — 1944 — Red Africander cattle of South Africa. West. Livestock J. 22(43) : 61-62.
Includes description of the King Ranch in Texas.

Kleberg, R. J., Jr. — n.d. — The Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. Kingsville, Texas. 13 pp.

- 1931 — The Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. The Producer 13(1) : 3-7.

Knapp, B., Jr., Baker, A. L., and R. T. Clark — 1949 — Crossbred beef cattle for the northern
Great Plains. U. S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 810 : 1-15.

- - — -Baker, A. L., Quesenberry, J. R., and R. T. Clark — 1941 — Record of performance in

Hereford cattle. Bull. Montana Agric. Exp. Sta. 397.

Knapp, W. C. — 1950 — Weights, grades and yields of 7/8, 3/4, 1/8, Hereford-Brahman crosses.
Paper presented at 1950 meeting of Southern Agricultural Workers.

- Jones, H. C.» and J. K. Riggs — 1948 — Cross-breeding increases weight of cattle in

coastal areas. Cattleman 35(2) : 54. See also Tex. Agric. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. 1129.

- 1949 — Brahman-Hereford crosses for slaughter — calf production. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Prog. Rept. 1206 : 1-2. Popular version of data contained in this report was given in
Arizona Cattlelog 5(10) : 42-43. June, 1950.

— - 1950 — Value of Brahman-Hereford crosses demonstrated. Tex. Livestock J. 9(2) : 63.

Kone, K. — 1948 — Le boeuf au Lac Tchad de las region de NTJuigmi ; mileu d’elevage. (Lake
Chad cattle of the N’Guigmi Region and their environment). French West Africa.
Insp. Gen. de i’Elevage. Bull. Serv. Elev. Indus. Anim. Afr. Occid. Franc, (n.s.)
1(2): 47-65.

Kothavala, Z. R. — 1931 — Milk production in India. Ninth International Dairy Congress,
Copenhagen. Conference Papers, Section 5:1-10.

Kozarin, F. S. — 1933 — (Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids). Skotovodstvo, No. 11/12:40-47. See
also Anim. Breeding Abs. 2 : 12-13, 1934.

Kumaran, J. D. S. — 1947 — Dairy cattle improvement work of the Indian Agricultural Re¬
search Institute — India. (Abs.) J. Dairy Sci. 3.0 : 553.

Kushner, H. F. — 1938 — The blood composition in yaks, in cattle, and in their hybrids in
connection with the heterosis of the hybrids. C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., (n.s.)
19 : 185-188. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 7 : 117, 1939.

Kwashne, J., and Uriel Levy— 1944— Cattle breeding in Tunis. (In Hebrew) Hassadeh 24(5):
m-176.

Labarthe, C. A. — 1945 — A raca Holandeza e seus mesticos com o Zebu no melhoramento do
gado leiteiro na zona tropical. Rev. dos Criadores 16(15) : 26-27 ;16(6) : 9-12.

- 194g — Posibilidades de la utilization de algunas razas cebuinas en el mejoramiento

ganadero del norte de la Republica Argentina. Cong. Bras, de Vet. 3, Porto Alegre,
1945. Pp. 737-752.

Laguiche, J. de — 1943 — La race Charollaise en Amerique du Nord. C. R. Acad, d Agr. de
France 29 : 279-280. Introduction by M. Piettre.

Laing, A. D. G. M.— 1944 — Dairy farming in India : description of a dairy herd and its care
and management, on a military dairy farm. New Zeal. J. Agr. 68: 325, 327.

Laizet, G. — 1948 — La race bovine tarentaise nee et elevee en Algerie. Rev. Agr. de l’Afrique
du Nord 46 : 232-233.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

299

- 1949 — Monographic de la race bovine tarentaise nee et elevee en Algerie. Colon.

branc. de Tunisie 59(2085) : 3-4.

Lake, H. C. — 1947 — high living yak. Our Dumb Anim. 80(9) : 13.

Larrat, R., Camara, A., and P. Chalumeau — 1948 — Les bovins N’Dama du Senegal. French
West Africa. Insp. Gen. de 1’Elevage. B. des Serv. de 1’Elevage et des Indus. Anim.
(n.s.) 1(4) : 15-21.

Lawton, J. A. — 1950 — Eight years of Charbra breeding. Zebu J. 2(3) : 14.

Lecky, T. P. — 1934/35 — Dairy cattle breeding in Jamaica. J. Jamaica Agric. Soc. 1934/35:
38-39.

- 1949 — The Hope Jerseys ; a study of the bleeding of Jersey cattle at Hope Agricul¬
tural Station, Jamaica. Jamaica. Dept. Agr. B. (n.s.) 42:62.

Lee, D. H. K., and Ralph W. Phillips — 1948 — Assessment of the adaptability of livestock to
climatic stress. J. Anim. Sci. 7 : 391-425.

Leeward Islands — 1949 — Report of the Director of Agriculture for the year 1948. Bridgetown,
Barbados. Advocate Co., Ltd. Printers. 74 pp. See also other years.

Lerena, G. — 1948 — Las reses bravas ; relacion zootecnica de nuestro ganado indigena con las
castas de lidia. Chacrn 19(218) : 22, 109. Camargue cattle in Argentina.

Leroy, A. M. — 1946 — As fazendas de criacao experimentais brasileiras : utilidade e futuro dos
trabalhos de cruza Charoles x Zebu. Rev. de Agr. (Piracicaba) 21 : 379-381.

Lewis, R. D., et al — 1950 — Beef cattle investigations in Texas ; 1888-1950. Bull. Tex. Agr.
Exp. Sta. 724 : 1-79, 19 figs.

Liang, T. S. — 1948 — Studies on the Sikong yak. (In Chinese) Agr. Assoc. China J. 186:45-50.

Lisbre, F. X. — 1921 — Hybrides hybridite et hybridation. Mem. Acad. Sci. Belles-Lettres et
Arts (Lyon) 17 : 187.

Littlewood, R. W. — 1933 — Crossbreeding for milk. Indian J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb. 3:325-337.

Ljubimov, I. M. — 1938 — O rabote oirotskoi ipytnoi stancii po' gibridizacii jaka (Poephagus
grunniens L.) s. rogatym skotom (Bos taurus L.). (The work of the Oirat experiment
station on the hybridization of yak x cattle.) Izv. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. (Otd. mat -
est., Ser. Biol.) 1938:879-882, 1 fig. (English summary) See also Anim. Breeding Abs,
7 : 117-118, 1939.

Lourgs, B. — 1944 — O boi asiatico como fator economico na zona da mata. (Asiatic cattle as
an economic factor in the matas of Brazil). Campo (Rio de J.) 15:41-44.

Lus, J. — 1936 — Sarlykii hainyki (Yaks and their hybrids with cattle), in “Domasnie Zivotnye
Monogoloo” (The Domestic Animals of Mongolia), pp. 293-348. All Russian Academy
of Sciences. Reviewed by Kislovsky in J. Heredity 29 : 27-32.

Lush, J. A. — 1946 — Brahman cattle, 1920-1929. Brahman Breeder-Feeder. Jan. 1946 : 96.

— - -Jones, J. M . , Dameron, W. H., and O. L. Carpenter — 1930 — Normal growth of range

cattle. Bull. Tex. Agri. Exp. Sta. 409 : 1-34, illus.

Lynch, C. — 1946 — Experiencias na Australia com o gado Zebu. Agr. e Pecuaria 17(279):
33-34.

- 1946a — Australian Zebu cattle ; plan to develop tropical areas. New Zeal. Farmer

Weekly 67(12) : 11.

McCarthy Barry, L. L. — 1946 — El Cebu y el Charollais des razas que pueden resolver un
problema ganadero de suma importancia. Rev. Pecuaria, No. 97 : 30-31, 33.

McMena.min, J. P. — 1944 — Zebu cattle do well in New Guinea. Land (Syney) (Land Farm
& Sta. Ann.) No. 1709 : 37.

MacGuckin, C. W. — 1933 — Note on subject 10. Proc. Bd. Agric. in India 1933 : 146-149.

- —1933a — Circle standing orders. Northern Circle, Livestock. Lahore Cantt.

- 1937 — Crossbred and grade dairy cattle in India. Indian J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb.

7 : 263-272.

Magneville, A. — 1946 — La race bovine tarine. Rev. Agr. de l’Afrique du Nord 44 : 339-340.

Malbrant, R., Receveur P., and R. Sabin — 1947: — Le boeuf du lac Tchad. (Lake Chad Cattle) .
Rev. d’Elevage et de Med. Vet. des Pays Trop. (n.s.) 1 : 37-42 ; 109-129. Origin and
distribution of Kouri cattle.

Mandon, A. — 1948 — L’elevage des bovins et 1’ insemination artificielle en Adamaoua (Camer-
oun francais). ( Cattle breeding and artificial insemination in Adamawa, French
Cameroons). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n.s.) 2: 129-149.

Manresa, Miguel — 1934 — A quarter century of work on animal improvement. Philippine
Agric. 23 : 433-443, illus.

- 1937 — General observations on animal husbandry in India. Philipp. Agric. 26 : 341-376.

- 1939 — Animal breeding njethods used in the formation of types of cattle suitable for

raising in the tropics. Philipp Agric. 28 : 479-490.

- — -and F. Gomez — 1937 — Fluctuation of body temperatures in the Indian Nellore breed

of cattle. Philipp. Agric. 26(6): 504-507.

Maria Stell Estacion Sosa — 1949 — Brahman experiments in Paraguay, South America. Amer.
Brahman J. 4(7) : 13-15.

Marks, M. — 1948 — Nivernais Charolais. Amer. Brahman J. 3(4) : 7, 9.

Marsh. T. D., and Dawson, V. — 1947 — Animal husbandry in Malaya. I. Cattle in Malaya.
Malaya Agr. J. 30: 204-211. Breeds.

Masse, A. — 1950 — Ameliorer la production laitiere dans la race bovine Charolaise. Comptes
Rendus Acad. d’Agr. de France. 36 : 520-522.

Matoso, J. — 1944 — O Zebu nos tropicos. Rev. Ceres 6 : 82-91.

Matson, J. — 1928 — Some lessons learnt in regard to cattle and dairying during 25 years
farming in India. J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 2 : 5-12.

- 1929 — Report on Indian crosses. Imperial Bureau Animal Genetics. Ms.

- 1946 — The influence of heterosis in the progeny tests ; from records of 32 years’

breeding experience in seventeen herds of the Government of India’s dairy farms.
New Zeal. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 6 : 73-77, processed discussion 77-80.

Mauritius — 1946 — Colony of Mauritius. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture,
1945. Port Louis. J. Eliel Felix, Acting Govt. Printer. 34 pp. See other years also.

Menezes, D. G. de — 1944 — O rei zebu e seus aspectos e problemas atuais. (The Zebu and its
present prospects and problems). Bol. Indust. Anim. (n.s.) 7(3/4) : 201-214.

- 1946 — The Brahman cattle in Brazil. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 12(1) : 67-73.

Mercer. E. — 1948 — Wisconsin dairy cattle improve Guatemala stock ; pure bred Holstein,
Brown Swiss and Guernseys build more productive Central American herds. Wis. Agr.
& Farmer 75(18: 8.

300

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Mentenier, F. — 1947 — Apres les grands concours blancs 1’elevage nivernais progresses. J. de
ia France Agr. 87 : 141. Prices and development of the Charolaise cattle.

Metivier, H. V. — 1928— Tropical dairy cattle. Trop. Agric. 5: 131-133, 188.

Miller, J. G. — 1945 — Beef cattle production. Jamaica Agr. Soc. J. 49:197-199.

Miller, W. C. — 1946 — Survey of animal husbandry, feed, management and veterinary services
in the West Indies. Trinidad and Tobago. Bull. Devel. Welfare W. Indies, No. 19;
1-40 ; Ibid, British Guiana. No. 19A : 1-44.

- 1947 — Report on animal health and husbandry in the Gold Coast Colony. Accra. Govt.

Prtg. Office. 30 pp.

Montagnes, J. — 1946 — Cattalo, the new quadruped. Countryman 34 : 285. Cross between buf¬
falo and Canadian domestic cattle.

- 1947 — Add bisons to cattle and you have cattalo. Natl. Live Stock Prod. 25(6) : 16.

Moore, O. — 1945 — The cattle industry of Colombia. Foreign Agric. 9 : 150-156.

Moraes Filho, R. V. de — 1945 — El Zebu como factor decisive en el mejoramiento del ganado
paraguayo. Paraguay, Min. de Agric. Rev. 10 : 49-52.

Mornet, P., and K. Kone — 1941 — Le zebu peulh Bororo. (The zebu of the Bororo Fulani).
Bull. Serv. Zootech. Epizoot. Afr. Occid Franc. 4 : 167-180.

Morris, D. J. — 1945 — The A. P. George Ranch. Tex. Livestock J. 4(8) : 60; 4(9) : 49.

Morrison, F. B. — 1937 — Reports on livestock improvement. Philipp. J. Anim. Ind. 4 : 349-367.

Moya, M. A. de — 1946 — El Cebu como aporte a nuestra ganaderia. Agr. Venezol. 10(114):
23-28.

Mundhe, B. B. — 1944 — Nomadic cattle breeders of Gujerat and Kathiawar — 1. Indian Farm¬
ing 5: 315-317.

- 1945 — Nomadic cattle breeders of Gujerat and Kathiawar. II. Indian Farming 6 : 60-63.

Navarro, R. C. — 1945 — El ganado Cebu. M'ex. Sec. de Relacion Exteriores, Rev. del Com.
Exterior 10(3) : 17-22 ; 10(4) : 19-23.

Nelson, J. — 1946 — How practical are cattalo? Buffalos and domestic cattle have long been
crossbred. Amer. Feed & Grain Dealer 30(10) : 8-9, 27, 42.

Neto, F. A. — 1945 — O zebu brasileiro e a XI. exposicao de Uberaba. Bull. Soc. Coop, da
Indus. Pecuaria do Para. 13(58) : 15-17.

Netto, A. — 1947 — Uma importacao e uma raca bovina esquecida ; o gado Africander. Rev.
dos Criadores 18(1) : 42-44.

Nigeria— 1946 — Annual Report on the Agricultural Department for 1944. S. P. No. 13/1946.
Lagos. Govt. Printer. 47 pp. See other years also.

Northern Rhodesia — 1947 — Government of Northern Rhodesia. Veterinary Department. An¬
nual Report for the year 1945. Lusaka. Govt. Printer. 14 pp. See other years also.

Nyasaland-— Various Reports of the Department of Agriculture and the Veterinarians De¬
partment.

O’Brien, G. T. — 1944 — Livestock raising in the Andes. West. Livestock J. 22(43): 17, 70.
Mainly about the cattle of Peru.

Ochoa, F. — 1944 — El ganado de raza en los clirnas medios (de Colombia). Rev. Nac. de Agr.
(Bogota) 37(477) : 81-87.

Ogilvie, F. B. — 1947 — Cattle breeding in India ; the development of milk production in two
Indian breeds of cattle. J. Heredity 38(1) : 23-28. See also Cattleman 34(2) : 20-21.

Oliveira, L. C. de — 1945 — C'ontribuicao ao estudo das posibilidades da raca Gir. Soc. Coop, da
Indus. Pecuaria do Para. B. 13(55) : 26-28.

Olivier, L. — 1948 — Africander cattle breeder and his policy. (In Afrikaans) Landbouweekblad
30(1516) : 38-39, 60.

Oliver, A. — 1933 — The better economic exploitation of livestock in India. Agric. and Live¬
stock in India 3 : 573-578.

- — 1934 — Potentialities of dairying and mixed farming in India. Agric. and Livestock in

India 4 : 363-370.

— — — -1937 — Report on a village inquiry regarding cattle and the production and consumption
of milk in certain breeding tracts of India. Govt. Press Simla.

- - — 1938 — A brief summary of some of the important cattle breeds in India. Imp. (Indian)

Council Agric. Res., Misc. Bull. 17.

O’Loghlen, Frank — 1948 — Beef cattle in Australia. Sydney, Australia. F. H. Johnson Pub.
Co. See Review in Cattleman 34(9) : 77-78, 80-81.

Opperman, H. B. K. — 1949 — The Afrikander as draft oxen. (In Afrikaans) Landbouweekblad
30(1553) : 44-45.

Orford, H. J. — 1950— Sussex in South Africa with particular reference to its cross with the
Afrikander. Sussex Cattle Brochure. Sussex Herd Book Society. London. Pp. 60-63.

Ortega, P. M. — 1947 — La ganaderia y la agricultura en el Cauca. Ganado 1(3): 8-9. Cattle
raising and rice culture on a ranch in Department of Cauca, Colombia.

Paar, V. V. — 1923 — Brahman (Zebu) cattle. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmer’s Bull. 1361.

Pagot, J. R. — 1943 — Les Zebus de l’Azawak. Bull. des. Services Zootechniques et des Epi¬
zootics 6 : 155-163.

— — - — 1950 — Cattle of French West Africa. Cattleman 36(9) : 25-26, 58-64.

Parr, C. H., and S. Sen — 1947— Effects of four times milking and handling on the yield of
milk in cows of the Tharparkar breed. Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 17 : 75-84.

Pastoral Review — 1949 — Fertility and hardiness of cattle breeds. Effects of climatic condi¬
tions. Past. Rev. 59 : 722. Afrikander and Afrikander-Shorthorn cross.

Patil, M. D. — 1945 — Red calves in Kankrej cattle, a hereditary character. (Abs.) Indian Sci.
Cong., 32d, Nagpur, Proc. 3 : 36.

- 1945a — The sex-ratio in Kankrej cattle. (Abs.) Indian Sci. Cong., 32d, Nagpur, Proc.

3:36.

- 1945b — The weight at birth of calves of Kankrej cattle. (Abs.) Indian Sci. Cong., 32d,

Nagpur, Proc. 3 : 36.

Patil, S. T. — 1946/1947 — Study of the crossbreed strains evolved at the Agriculture Dairy
Farm, Nagpur, with special reference to their utility as dual purpose animals. Nagpur
Agric. Coll. Mag. 21 : 67-76.

- 1947 — Selection and upkeep of breeding bulls. Nagpur Agr. Col. Mag. 22(1) : 32-36.

Patton, T. W.— 1949— Southland cattle. Red Poll News 13(2): 20, 28-32. Name for cross
breed of Red Polled x Brahman.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate* Cattle, and Crossbreeding

301

Pepperal, E. A. — 1946 — The dairy industry of India. Report on an, investigation with recom¬
mendations. 1945. Manager of Pub. Delhi, India. 40 pp.

Peraza, V. M. — 1945 — El ganado Cebu en Cuba. Liborio 5(5/7) : 9-10.

Phillips, R. W.— 1944— The cattle of India. J. Heredity 35: 273-288. Also in Cattleman 31(3) :

11-16, 40-42. Devoted mainly to a description of the breeds.

- 1944a — Livestock improvement In China. Chinese Min. of Agr. and Forestry. Chung¬
king. 160 pp.

- 1946 — Adaptability of cattle to tropical and subtropical climates. Cattleman 33(1) :

16-17, 29, 32, 36-37. Very good, thorough discussion.

- 1946a — Bovine hybrids. Cattleman 33(3) : 13-16, 52.

- 1946b — A eriaeado do gado Zebu nos elimas quentes. Fazenda 41(1) : 46-49.

- 1947 — Breeding better livestock, in “Science in Farming.” U. S. Dept. Agric., Year¬
book of Agriculture 1943-47 : 33-60.

- 1947a — Producing better beefsteaks. U. S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook of Agric. 1943-1947 :

61-69.

- 1948 — Breeding livestock adapted to unfavorable environments. F.A.O. Agric. Studies

1 : 1-182, 71 figs., extensive bibliography.

— — —Black, W. H., Knapp, Bradford, Jr., and R. T. Clark — 1942 — Crossbreeding for beef
production. J. Anim. Sci. 1 : 213-220.

— , — --Johnson. R. G., and Raymond T. Moyer — 1945 — -The livestock of China. U. S. State
Dept. Pub. 2249 s 1-174, 77 figs., biblio.

- Tolstoy, I. A., and Ray G. Johnson — 1946 — Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. J.

Heredity 37(6) : 163-170 ; 37(7) : 207-215, ills.

Pic®, F. — 1937 — El mejoramiento del ganado lechery en los tropicos. Rev. de Agric. de Puerto
Rico 29 : 269-289, ills.

- 1946 — Razas de ganado leehero. Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 6(74/75) : 21-25. From El

Gran Diarlo de la Nacion.

Pierre— 1906 — L’Elevage en Afrique Occidental© Franeaise. ChalameL Paris.

Placier, R. — 1947 — La race bovine charolaise vivement appreciee aux quatre coins du monde.
Moissen 3(99) : 3.

Prafohu, S. S. — 1944 — Genetics and the (draft and dairy) cattle problem of India. Allahabad
Farmer 18: 60-76.

Prieto, R. — 1950 — Crianza de ganado Cebu en Cuba, eomo fuente fabulosa de riqueza. Rev.
Ganad. (Habana) 10(12) : 36-37, 48.

Prigent, R., Kane, P., and B. Ka — 1942 — Elevage du boeuf en Mauritanie. (Cattle breeding
in Mauritania). Bull. Serv. Zootech. Epizoot. Afr. Occid. Franc. 5:235-241.

Prunier, R. — 1946 — Les bcvins du Lac Tchad. Farm & Forest 7 ; 123-125.

Pugh, B. M. — 1946 — Agriculture in the Monba country of the Balipara Frontier Tract,
Assam. Allahabad Farmer 20 : 154-156.

Quate, G. S. — 1947' — Beef production in Guatemala. Amer. Brahman J. 2(1) : 8-9.

Quinlan, J., Roux, L. L., Van Aswegen, W. G„, and M. de Lange — 1948 — Researches into ster¬
ility of cows In South Africa. The Influence of : (I) Dry rations, (ii) Lack of exercise,
and (ii!) Lack of sunlight on reproduction of beef heifers and cows. Onderstepoort J.
Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 23(1/2) : 269-347.

Ragsdale, A. C., Brody, S., Thompson, H. J., and D. M. Worstell — 1948— Environmental
physiology with special reference to domestic animals. II. Influence of temperature,
50° to 105° F., on milk production and feed consumption in dairy cattle. Bull Mo.
Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. 425 : 1-27.

Ramsey, Cl — 1947 — A new breed of cattle. Farm & Ranch 66(9) : 6. C'harbray breed.
Rangaswamy, C. M., and T. M. Paul — 1946 — Augmenting milk production. Indian Vet. J.

23:112-117. Management of dairy cattle in India.

Reed, O. E.- — 1346 — Is the cross-bred dairy cow on the way? Country Gent. 116(6) : 15, 61-64.
- 1948 — Breeding experiments with dairy cattle. U. S. Bur. Dairy Indus. BDIM-Inf.-62,

6 p.

- 1949 — The progress in crossbreeding with dairy cattle of Indian • origin. Proc. 12th

Internatl. Dairy Cong. Sect. 1 : 607-608.

- 1949a — The influence on the efficiency of milk production in the tropics of the intro¬
duction of new breeds of dairy cattle, the improvement of fodder, supplies and other
measures. Proc. 12th Internatl. Dairy Congr. Sect. 6 : 308-313.

- 1950 — Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, 1950. U. S. Dept. Agric.

Washington. 26 pp.

Regan, W. A. — 1947 — Hybrid vigor In dairy herds by crossing .in breed. Calif. Dairyman
27(6) : 22-23.

Regan, W. M„ and G. A, Richardson — 1938 — Reaction of the dairy cow to changes in environ¬
mental temperature. J. Dairy Sci. 21 : 78-79.

Reyes, R. V, — 1947 — Explotacion del ganado en los tropicos gran-colombianos. (The cattle
industry in the tropics of Gran Colombia). Rev. Grancolomb. Zootec. Hig. Med. Vet.
1 : 592-598.

Rhoad, A. O. — 1935 — Production of Brazilian dairy cattle under penkeeping system. Zeitsehr,
f. Zucht., Reihe B. Tierzueht w. Zuchtungsbiol. 33 : 105-108, ills.

- 1935a — The dairy cow in the tropics. Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 28 : 212-214.

- 1936 — The influence of environmental temperature on the respiratory rhythm of dairy

cattle in the tropics. J. Agric. Set. 26 : 36-44.

- 1938 — Mejoramiento del ganado en la America Tropical. (The improvement of dairy

and beef cattl© in tropical America). Pan. Amer. Union, Ser. sobre Agric. 128:1-22,
ills.

- 1938a — Some observations on the response of purebred Bos taurus and Bos indicus

cattle and their crossbred types to certain conditions of the environment. Proc.
Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 31 : 284-295.

- 1940 — Absorption and reflection of solar radiation in relation to coat color in cattle.

Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1940 : 291-293.

• - 1941 — Climate and livestock production, in “Climate and Man.” Yearbook of Agri¬

culture 1941 : 508-516.

- 1943 — A criacao do gado leitero. (The breeding of dairy cattle). Ceres (Vicosa)

4 i 281-284.

302

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

- - 1944 — The Iberia heat tolerance test for cattle. Trop. Agric. 21 : 162-164.

- 1944a — El clima y la produccion ganadera. Rev. de Agr. (Costa Rica) 16:43, 45,

49-51. As related to cattle in Costa Rica.

- 1944b — Problemas en el meporameiento de los bovinos en el tropico. Rev. Pecuaria,

No. 66/67 : 11-13. Santa Gertrudis breed an example of what can be done.

- 1945 — El mejoramiento del ganado vacuno de carne y de ieche en la America tropical.

Rincon Campesino 6(57) : 18-23.

- 1949 — The Santa Gertrudis breed : the genesis and genetics of a new breed of cattle.

J. Heredity 40: 115-126.

- 1949a — Development of dairy breeds for the tropics. Reprint of paper presented at

the Twelfth International Dairy Congress, Stockholm, 1949. 4 pp. Originally printed
in Sect. 5 : 199-202, Papers and Communications.

- 1950 — The genesis and genetics of the Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. (Abs.)

Internatl. Cong. Genet. Proc. (1948) 8:650-651. 1949.

— - and W. H. Black — 1943 — Hybrid beef cattle for subtropical climates. U. S. Dept. Agr.

C'irc. 673: 1-11, 7 figs.

- 1949 — Hybrid beef cattle for subtropical climates. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(10) :

23, 26-30.

- Phillips, R. W„ and W. M. Dawson — 1945 — Evaluation of species crosses of cattle by

polyallel crossing. J. Heredity 36 : 367-374.

Ribeiro, J. A. — 1944 — Por que o Sul de Minas nao deve criar zebu ; o zebu como inimigo n. 1
da industria de laeticinios. Rev. dos Criadcres 15(8): 23-25.

Richards, P. H. — 1946 — Observations on the reproduction of zebu cattle in southern Nigerian
dairies. Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 23 : 103-108.

Riek, R. F., and D. H. K. Lee — 1948 — Reactions to hot atmospheres of Jersey cows in milk.
J. Dairy Res. 15 : 219-226 ; 227-232.

Riemerschmid, Gertrud — 1943 — Some aspects of solar radiation in its relation to cattle in
South Africa and Europe. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 18 : 327-353.

- and J. S. Elder — 1945— The absorptivity of solar radiation of different hairy coats in

cattle. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Ind. 20 : 233-234.

Riggs, J. K. — 1949 — Brahman cattle and their influence in beef production. Tex. Livestock J.
8(4) : 50, 52.

- 1950 — Crossbreeding and its influence in the development of cattle breeding program

for the South. Tex. Livestock J. 9(4) : 44-45.

Rivas Larralde, G. — 1944 — Cebu, el ganado del tropico. Agr. Venezolano 8(95/96) : 18-21.
Robertson, A. — 1949 — Crossbreeding experiments with dairy cattle. Commonwealth Bur.

Anim. Breeding and Genet. Anim. Breeding Abs. 17 : 201-208.

Rothwell, G. B. — 1924/30 — Report of the Dominion Animal Husbandman for the year end¬
ing March 31, 1924/30. Dom. Canada Dept. Agric. Govt. Printer. Ottawa.

Royal (Indian) Commission on Agriculture — 1928 — Abridged report. Govt. Central Press.
Bombay, India.

Ruiz Diaz, I. M. — 1950 — El ganado C’ebu. Rev. de Agr., Comm, e Indus. (Panama) 8(110):
26-27.

RusofF, L. L., and G. W. Scott — 1950— Blood studies of crossbred cattle (Abs.) Proc. Assoc.
So. Agr. Workers 47 : 85.

S — , D. W. G. — 1949 — Beef cattle potentialities of East and Central Africa. Fmr’s Wkly.
(Bloemfontein) 78:46-47, 49.

Sagstetter, G, — 1947 — Brahmans and their crosses ; how the infusion of blood of Indian
cattle is revolutionizing the Gulf Coast cattle industry. Stockman 7(10): 12, 107-110.
St. Croix, F. W. de — 1944 — Some aspects of the cattle husbandry of the nomadic Fulani (in
Nigeria). Farm and Forest 5:29-33.

St. Lucia — 1944 — Report on the Department of Agriculture, St. Lucia, 1943. St. Lucia. Govt.
Printer. 16 pp. See other years also.

St. Vincent — 1945 — -Annual Report on the Agricultural Department, St. Vincent, 1944.

Kingstown. Govt. Prtg. Office. 19 pp. See other years also.

Sanders, Alvin Howard — 1925 — The taurine world. Nat. Geog. Mag. 48(6) : 591-710, 76 ills.
Santiago, Mejia — 1945 — El ganado romo-sinuano : un product© de Colombia. Agr. Trop. 1(11) :
19-22.

Sarasti Aparicio, E. — 1946 — El ganado Cebu como marvilloso productor de carne y leche en
los tropicos. Asoc. Colomb. de Ganad. B. Ganad. 18 : 41-44.

Savage, F. I. — 1950 — Twenty years of Braford production. Zebu J. 2(3) : 12-13.

Saxena, H. C.— 1950 — The Red Sindhi herd of the Allahabad Agricultural Institute. Allaha¬
bad Farmer 24 : 193-206.

Sayer, Wynne — 1934 — Feeding and handling experiments on the Pusa pedigree Sahiwal herd.
Agric. and Livestock in India 4 : 105-126.

Schafer, E. — 1937 — Der wilde Yak (Poephagus grunniens mutus Perez.) Zool. Garten Leip¬
zig 9 : 26-34, 6 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 6 : 285, 1938.

Schneider, B. H. — 1944 — Breeding for milk production in India. Allahabad Farmer 18 : 2-36.
See also Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(2) : 24-27, 30, 41-46, 48-50, 52-53. A fine, well
documented discussion.

— — 1947 — Indian strains and characteristics. Amer. Brahman Cong. Proc. 1 : 100-129.

- 1948 — The doctrines of Ahimsa and cattle breeding in India. Sci. Monthly 67 : 87-92.

— 1949 — Cattle of India. Expanded from a talk made to Directors of A.B.B.A. November
8, 1948. Cattleman 36(2) : 23-25, 73-78.

- 1949a — The doctrine of Ahimsa and cattle breeding in India. Cattleman 35(9) : 26-28,

96-97. Reprinted from Scientific Monthly 67 : 87-92, 1948.

- 1949b — India’s gift to America. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial. Charleston, South

Carolina. Pp. 4-16.

- 1950 — Climate and cattle. The American Brahman 1(7) : 15-16, 20-21, 32-34. Excellent

paper.

- et al — 1948 — The composition of milk. Imperial Council Agric. Res. Misc. Bull. 51.

Schreiner, Charles, III — 1947 — Brahman cattle and their introduction into the U. S. Brah¬
man Breeder-Feeder 13(8) : 7-12.

Schutte, D. J. — 1935 — Factors affecting the growth of range cattle in semi-arid regions.
Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indust. 5 : 535-617.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding

303

Scruggs, C. G.' — 1948 — The Beefmaster blend. Prog. Farmer, Tex. Ed., 63(4) : 17.

Seudder, Carl, Jr. — 1948 — Brahman crossbreeds for beef production. Brahman Breeder-Feeder
14(7) : 5, 42-43.

Seath, D. M. — 1947 — -Heritability of heat tolerance in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 30 : 137-144.

■—and G. D, Miller — 1946 — The relative importance of high temperature and high humid¬
ity as factors influencing respiration rates, body temperature, and pulse rate of dairy
cows. Jour. Dairy Sci. 29 : 465-472.

- — -1947 — Heat tolerance comparisons between Jersey and Holstein cows. J. Anim. Sci.

6(1) : 24-34.

Seychelles — 1941/45 — Colony of Seychelles. Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture
for the years 1939/1944. Victoria. Mah§. Govt. Printing Office. 9 pp. ; 7 pp. ; 5 pp. ;
5 pp. ; 6 pp. ; 7 pp.. See other years also.

Shah, R. B. — 1947 — The Gujerat — Kankrej. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(7) : 1-9.

Shearer, E. — 1909 — Recent exports of high class Indian cattle. Agric. J. India 4: 390-391. .

Shephard, C. Y. — 1944 — Report on agricultural policy for Fiji and the Western Pacific High
Commission territories. Legislative Council, Fiji. Council Paper No. 24. Reconstruc¬
tion Paper No. 7, C. F. 2/24. Suva. F. W. Smith, Govt. Printer. 40 pp.

- - - — -1945 — The Western Pacific High Commission Territories. (I) Tonga. (II) Solomon

Islands. (Ill) Gilbert Islands. (IV) New Hebrides. Trop. Agric. 22 : 160-163 ; 179-183 ;
200-202; 216-221.

Shrode, Robert R., and R. E. Leighton — 1950 — The possibility of using Brahman blood in the
breeding of dairy cattle. Tex. Livestock J. 9(4) ; 48-49.

Sikka, La! Chand — 1931 — Statistical studies of records of Indian dairy cattle. Indian J. Vet
Sci. Anim. Husk 1:63-98. II. (1933). Ibid 3:240-253.

Simmons Quiroz, H. — 1946 — Tipos, clases y razas de ganado vacuno y su presentacion para
exhibirlo. Panama. Min. de Agr. y Com. Rev. de Agr. y Com. 5(54) : 49-73.

Singh, B. — 1947 — The blood-group identification of various Indian breeds of cattle in India.
Indian Vet. J. 24(1) : 13-30. Tests with Holstein-Friesans and various Zebu breeds.

Smith, C. — 1949- — Zebu. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(6) : 5-10.

Smith, H. M. — 1948— Some reports on crossbreeding beef cattle in Southwest Texas. Bull.
Tex|. State Bd. Voc. Education 487 : 1-32 21 figs.

Stallworth, M. C. — 1948 — Brahman cattle. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(6) : 21-23, 28.

Staniforth, A. R. — 1948 — Dairy farming in the tsetse fly belt of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
East African Agr. J. 13 : 224-227.

Stegemann, H. de M. — 1949 — Zebu cattle on Marajo. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(8) : 7-9.

Stewart, J. L. — 1949 — Africa awaits Union's indigenous breeds ; value of African Shorthorn,
Afrikander and Zebu as basis for development ; need for hardy milkers. Farmer’s
Weekly (Bloemfontein) 78: 4(1-47, 49.

Sylvestre, P. E.„ Logan, V. S., and G. W. Muir — 1948 — Hybridization of domestic cattle and
. the bison. Dom. Can. Dept. Agric. Nov. 19, 1948. 4 pp. Mimeo.

Swaziland Department of Native Land Settlement — 1947 — Annual Report for the year ending

31st December, 1946. Mbabane. Dept. Nat. Land Settlement. 10 pp. See also other years.

Tabor, G. E. — 1948 — Production for profit. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(2) : 48-52.

- 1948a — Ninety-nine years of crossbreeding. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(6) : 5-6, 8-9,

12-15, 29.

— — ■ — 1948b — Bos indlcus, the packers’ premium. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(10) : 13-14,
16-17.

Tanganyika Territory — 1941/45 — Annual Reports of the Department of Veterinary Science
and Animal Husbandry for the years 1939/40. 1942/44. Dar Es Salaam. Govt. Printer.
4 pp. ; 8 pp. ; 15 pp. ; 17 pp. ; 20 pp. See other years also.

Teige, J. — 1950 — The Santa Gertrudis cattle in Texas. (In Norwegian) Buskap ©g Avdratt
1950(2) : 12-14, 49.

Terrazas, I. — 1948 — El Zebu para Bolivia. Campo (La Paz) 2(20) : 5-7.

Tobback, L. — -1944 — Cattle-breeding in the Belgian Congo. Anglo-Belg. Tr. J. 31 : 152-155.
Reprinted from Message (Belg. Rev ) No. 38:36-41.

Trinidad and Tobago — 1945/46 — Administration Reports of the Director of Agriculture for
the years 1944/45. Trinidad and Tobago. Govt. Printer. 16 pp. ; 20 pp. See other years
also.

Turbet, C. R. — 1949 — The acclimatization of European breeds of cattle in the tropics. Fiji
Dept. Agric, J. 20 : 70-74.

Uganda Protectorate — 1940/1945 — Annual Reports of the Veterinary Department for the years
ended 31st December, 1939/44. Entebbe. Govt. Printer. 23 pp. ; 7 pp. ; 6 pp. ; 6 pp. :
8 pp. : 12 pp. See other years also.

Union of South .Africa. Dept, of Agriculture — 1947 — The Drakensberger. I. — III. Farming in
South Africa 22 : 783-794, 830.

- 1947a — Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture for the year ended 31st Au¬
gust 1946. Farming in South Africa 22 : 77-351. See other years also.

U. S. Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs — 1 945 — India’s cattle improve trop¬
ical American breeds. Foreign Com. Weekly 19(6) : 6-7,41.

Ussery, H. E. — 1947 — The range cattle industry in Venezuela. A special report. Food Supply
Division, Instit. Inter-Amer. Affairs.. Washington, D. C. 15 pp. A reprint of the
1946 edition.

Vasqwez, J. N. — 1947 — Desarrollo y fomento de la ganaderia bovina en el Dto. Torres, Estado
Lara. Agr. Venezel. 11 (20) : 12-16.

Vasseur, A., and G. Belle — 1950 — Le lait devan t la justice; contribution a 1’etude des laits de
vaches de race Hollandaise produits au Maroc. Terre M’arocaine 24 : 400-402.

Veiga, J. S. — 1945 — A pele e a pelagem na raca Gir. Rev. Rural Bras. 25(294) : 14-17.

— - — — — -Chieffi, A., .and O. M. Paiva — 1946 — Duracao do periodo de gestacao em femeas da
raca Nelore e idade na epoca da primeira cria (Gestation period and age at the first
calf in Nellore cows (Ongole breed). Sao Paulo U. Facial, de Med. Vet. Rev. 3(3) :
55-59. English summary.

— — — -Chieffi, A., and J. Abreu — 1948 — Desenvolvimento ponderal de animals das racas indi-
anas, do naseimentos aos 24 meses, criados na Fazenda Experimental de Criacao, em
Uberaba. (Weight increase in Zebu cattle from birth to twenty-four months at the
Experimental Farm, Uberaba). Publ. Inst. Zootec. (Rio de J.) No. 1:1-48. English
summary.

304

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Ver, R. Z, — 1950 — The growth and development of some purebred and grade calves. Philip¬
pine Agric. 33 : 149-165.

Vera Perez, L. — 1946 — Un tipo de ganado bovine ideal para el Estado de Tabasco. Tierra
(Mexico, D. F.) No. 13:702-704.

Vianna, A. T., and R. M. de Miranda — 1948 — C'ontribucao ao estudo do comportamento do
charoles e dos mesticos charoles — cebu na F. C. de S. Carlos. (A study of Charolais
and Charolais-Zebu crossbreeds at the Experimental Farm of Animal Breeding, San
Carlos). Publ. Inst. Zootec. (Rio de J.) No. 2:1-31.

Villares, J. B. — 1943 — O gado indiano e a pelagem da raca Gir. Sao Paula (State). Sec. da
Agr., Indus, e Com. Notas Agr. 6 : 480-483. A strain of Brahman breed of beef cattle.

— - 1945 — Contribuicao para o estudo da raca Nelore. I. Nelore de pele preta e Nelore de

pele cremosa. Rev. Rural Bras. 25(294) : 24-27.

- 1945a — Contribuicao para o estudo da raca Nelore. Rev. dos C'riadores 16(3): 11-19;

16(4) : 9-15.

- 1946 — As racas zebuinas na XII Exposicao Nacional de Animais e Productos Derivados.

Sao Paulo. Dept, da Prod. Anim. B. de Indus. Anim. (n.s.) 8(4) : 84-97.

- 1946a — A representacao das racas indianas. Rev. dos Criadores 17(11) : 57-59. Zebu

cattle.

Villares, J. B. — Jordao, L. P., and F. P. Assis — 1947 — Climatologia. VIII. Posibilidades do
Zebu na producao de leite em Sao Paulo, Rev. dos Criadores 18(10) :64-68 ;18 (11) -.40-44.

- 1947a — Zootechnic climatology. VIII. Possibilities of Zebu cattle in milk production in

Sao Paulo. 1. Milk production in tropical regions. (In Portuguese) Rev. dos Criadores
18(9) : 31-34.

- 1947b — Zootechnic climatology. VIII. Possibilities of Zebu cattle in milk production

in Sao Paulo. (In Portuguese) B. de Indus. Anim. 9(1/2) : 3-21.

- 1947c — Livestock climatology. VII. Possibilities of Zebu in Sao Paulo milk produc¬
tion. B. Milk-producing capacity of the Zebu breeds. (In Portuguese) Soc. Rur. Brasil-
eira. Rev. 27(325) : 12-16.

Villegas, V. — 1939 — Livestock industries of Cochin China, Cambodia, Siam, and Malaya,
Philippine Agric. 27 : 693-725.

- — 1948 — (Importation of cattle from Pakistan). Philipp. Agric. July/Sept. 1948: 79-81.

Vlasov, P., Gershenzon, S., and A. Poliakov — 1932 — (Yaks). Probl. Zhivotn. No. 1:48-57, 4
figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 1 : 95-96, 1933.

Ware, Sir F. — 1947 — Indian cattle in the United States of America. Empire J. E'xpt. Agric.
15: 213-215.

Watson, J. A. S. — 1930 — Cattle breeding and its problems. J, Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and
Dairying in India 3: 142-146. Reprinted from J. Univ. Coll, of Wales 16.

Whitcomb, Gale — 1949 — The Brahman in America. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial.
Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 114-120.

- 1950 — The Brahman in America. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 16:16, 18, 20, 22.

White, W. T., Phillips, R. W.. and E. C. Elting — 1946 — Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids in
Alaska. J. Heredity 37(12) : 354-358.

Willemse, G. S. — 1950 — Africander the best beef breed for Southern Africa. Rhodesian
Farmer 4(4) : 20.

Williamson, G. — 1947 — The Tharparkar or Thari breed of cattle ; definition of characteristics.
Indian Farming 8 : 65-69.

Wilson, S. G. — 1946 — The seasonal incidence of calving and of sexual activity in Zebu
cattle in Nysaland. J. Agr. Sci. (London) 36,: 246-257.

Work, S. H., and L. R. Smith — 1926 — The livestock industry of Nicaragua. For. Agric. Rept.
U. S. Depit. Agric. 12 : 1-49.

Wright, N. C. — 1937 — Report upon the development of the cattle and dairy industries of
India. Govt. Printing Office. Mgr. of Pubs. Delhi, India.

— - 1946 — Report on the development of cattle breeding and milk production in Ceylon.

Eastern No. 179. Sessional Paper XX. Colombo, Ceylon. Govt. Press.

Zamora, C. O. — 1946 — Cross breeding Brahmans and Holsteins in Guatemala. Amer. Brahman
J. 1(3) : 10.

Zawadowsky, M. M. — 1931 — Zebu-yak hybrids. J. Heredity 22 : 296-313.

Zuitin, A. I. — 1930 — (Yaks). Izv. Biuro Genetike (Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R.) (Bull. Bur. Genetics)
1930(8) : 77-89, 3 figs. English Abstract, pp. 88-89. See also U. S. Exp. Sta. Rec. 64(5) :
430. 1931.

- 1935 — (Chromosomes in yaks). (Poephagus grunniens L.). C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. Sci.

U.S.S.R., (n.s.) 4:81-83, 1 fig. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 4:33.

- 1938 — New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). C. R.

(Dokl.) Acad. Sci. U.S.S R., (n.s.) 19:201-202, 3 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs.
7: 118-119. 1939.

- and V. V. Ivanova — 1936 — The data on the structure of the testes of hybrids of yak

and cattle. C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. U.S.S.R. (n.s.) 4(13) : 75-77. See also Anim. Breeding
Abs. 5 : 398.

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Giant Walking Stick

305

NOTES ON THE GIANT WALKING STICK, MEGAPHASMA
DENTICRUS (STAL) (ORTHOPTERA: PHASMATIDAE) 1 2

ORIN P. WILKINS 2
and

OSMOND P. BRELAND 2
The University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

This walking stick is of considerable interest because it is the largest
species that occurs in the United States. Despite the large size of the insects,
however, they are not seen very often in some areas where they are known
to occur. This is doubtless due to their stick-like form and dull coloration,
and also to the fact that their movements are few and deliberate.

The female of this phasmatid was originally described from Louisana
and placed in the genus Diapberomera (Stal 1875). Scudder (1901) retained
the species in this genus and reported collecting several specimens from
Texas. In 1903 Caudell, in a revision of the group, erected the genus
Megapbasma for this species, described the male and redescribed the female.
Since that time there have been a few papers published relative to incidental
observation and collection of the species. Somes in 1916 pointed out that
Megapbasma denticrus was not uncommon in the Ozark region although it
had heretofore been regarded as primarily a Gulf State form. He found
adults and young on trees and shrubs and postulated that their habits were
probably similar to those of Diapberomera femorata (Say), the best known
and most widely distributed species of phasmatid in the United States.
Beamer (1932) recorded the species from Kansas, and Balduf (1942)
identified a specimen from Illinois. Megapbasma denticrus is now known
to occur in a relatively large area in the central and southern United States
(Hebard 1943). This region is bounded on the east by Louisana and Indiana,
and on the north by Illinois, Iowa and Kansas. The known western limits
are Kansas, Oklahoma and the Chisos mountains, Texas. This phasmatid
also occurs in Mexico ( Shelf ord 1908).

Until 1949 it was generally believed that the gaint walking stick was
relatively rare in the region of Austin, Texas. The writers and other
workers had collected an occasional specimen, but never more than a few
per season. On July 22, 1949, Mr. Alvin Flury, a graduate student, reported
a large concentration of walking sticks in a area approximately four miles
east of Austin. Investigation revealed that the insects were Megapbasma
denticrus. The writers studied this aggregation intermittently over a period
of several weeks, and more than 100 living specimens were brought to the
laboratory for additional observation. The following notes are a result of
this work.

1. The family name is also written as Phasmidae ; some workers consider the walking sticks
as a distinct order (Phasmida or Phasmatodea), and recognize several families.

2. The writers appreciate the assistance of Dr. A. B. Gurney who confirmed the determina¬
tion of the insects and who gave valuable suggestions relative to phasmid literature. They
also wish to thank M'iss Grace Hewitt who made the drawings, and Mr. Robert Hedeen
who helped in the work.

306

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIELD OBSERVATIONS

The walking sticks occurred in a small patch of woods which covered
an area roughly 600 by 450 yards. The trees were principally elm ( JJlmus
eras si folia and Ulmus americana) and mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa) , al¬
though an occasional tree of other species was present. The trees and shrubs
varied from a few inches in height to a maximum of some 100 feet. The
highest concentration of the insects was in the lower branches of the trees,
but a few were observed as high as 50 to 60 feet in some of the larger
trees.

The insects were found principally on elm. There were approximately
as many elms as all other species of trees combined, but the relatively small
number found on other trees indicated some preference for elm. Of 51
specimens collected throughout the area, and which were associated with a
particular kind of tree, 3 8 were from Elm. Seven were found on cedar,
while two were recovered from mesquite, hackberry and gum elastic. Only
a few specimens were found on the ground, and none were seen in a
meadow which bounds the wooded area on three sides. Despite the relatively
large number of the insects, there was no indication that foliage had been
damaged as sometimes occurs in the presence of large concentrations of
D. femorata. In fact none of the insects were ever seen to eat in the field.

A majority of the walking sticks were either in actual copulation or
were seen in pairs within a foot or so of each other. The act of oviposition
was not observed in the field, but occasional small objects which were heard
hitting the leaves may have been eggs. The ground was heavily littered
with debris, and less than a half dozen eggs were discovered although several
attempts were made to find them. The number in this concentration was
probably similar to the one reported from Kansas by Reamer in which he
observed several hundred specimens (Hebard 1943). It was estimated that
there were well over 1000 insects in the Austin concentration. The principal
difference in these two aggregations was apparently in the proportion of
males and females. In Kansas less than a dozen females were seen, but in
this one, the proportion was more nearly equal. In one collection of 88
specimens, 39 were females and 49 were males.

The insects in the above collection were measured from the anterior
end of the head to the tip of the abdomen. The males ranged from 99 mm.
to 13 8 mm.; the females from 112 mm, to a maximum of 155 mm.
Although the smallest female was considerably smaller than the largest male,
only once was the female of a copulating pair observed to be the smallest.
In this instance the female was 112 mm, long as opposed to 125 mm. for
the male.

By the end of August, only a few individuals were still alive in the
field. Several dead specimens were observed still clinging to trees and shrubs.
During the summer of 1950, several trips were made to the same area, but
no walking sticks were observed. The wife of the owner of the property,
who originally discovered the aggregation, stated that she had seen only
an occasional specimen throughout the summer. It will be of interest to see
whether or not large numbers occur in 1951, since it is generally accepted
that the eggs of some phasmatids do not hatch until the second year.

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Giant Walking Stick

307

LABORATORY OBSERVATIONS

More than 100 living insects were brought into the laboratory and
confined in wire cages for observation. Elm leaves were supplied for food
while water was furnished in dishes into which were placed the bases of
twigs to make the water more easily accessible. The phasmatids showed a
distinct preference for the top and sides of the cages and here they congre¬
gated in groups, often remaining motionless for long periods of time.

EATING AND DRINKING

Although feeding was not observed in the field, several individuals of
both sexes were seen to take food in the laboratory. This process was
essentially the same in all observed cases. The insects would start eating at
the edge of a leaf and move gradually inward for a short distance. Eating
continuously they would then circle back toward the leaf margin. As a
result, they made small crescent-shaped cuts in the leaf margin. They
would then return to the original starting point and repeat the process
which gradually enlarged the semi-circular indentation. All insects observed
began their feeding at a margin to their left and proceeded toward their
right. Insects were seen to take food only during the first week in captivity,
although some lived for an additional two weeks.

Several males were seen to drink, but no females. These insects des¬
cended the branches, paused just above the water and then immersed their
heads completely below the surface. The insects remained in this position for
several minutes during which time the mouth parts were in continuous
motion. After removing their heads from the water the walking sticks
usually climbed up the branches and took up their usual position near the
top of the cages.

COPULATION

Copulation was observed in the cages in the laboratory, and as a rule,
pairs would remain either partially or completely engaged for several hours.
The usual procedure was as follows: a male would approach a female and
assume a dorsal position. The male would then curve his abdomen lateral
and ventral to that of the female, at the same time rotating the posterior
segments somewhat so that the ventral surfaces could be applied to the
ventral surfaces of the female’s abdomen. The claspers of the male which
extend ventrally from the last abdominal segment, would then grasp the
first complete abdominal segment of the female. (Morphologically, the first
complete abdominal segment is the second one; the first being partly fused
with the metathorax) . The tip of the male’s abdomen was then pushed
backward under that of the female and the two ventral surfaces were ap¬
posed. The claspers grasped firmly the female’s abdomen near the base of
the eighth true segment and sexual union made between the genitalia which
occur in the ventral region of the eighth segment of both sexes. One pair
was seen to remain in the copulation position almost continuously for more
than seven hours. During this period, the claspers were released only once
for a period of five minutes, after which copulation was resumed.

308

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

EGGS AND EGG DEPOSITION

Many species of phasmatids such as Diapheromera femorata , simply
drop their eggs at random with no attempt to conceal them (Hutchings
1920). However, a few species, the so-called Florida or two-striped walking
stick (Anisomorpha buprestoidea (Stoll) for example, are known to make
some provision for the protection of the eggs. The females of the above
species have recently been reported to dig holes in the ground in which
they deposit the eggs (Hetrick 1949). Other phasmatids such as Pseudo-
sermyle tr uncat a Caudell, glue their eggs to a substratum (Caudell 1914).

The bottoms of the wire cages containing the walking sticks were
covered with white paper so that if eggs were deposited they could be easily
seen. The writers’ attention was first attracted to egg deposition by the
sounds made by the eggs striking on the floor of the cages. The first egg
deposition was observed the first afternoon of captivity, and during sub¬
sequent days, more than 750 eggs were secured. This continued inter-
mittantly for approximately a week after which no eggs were obtained,
although some insects lived a total of three weeks in captivity. So far as
could be determined, no preference was shown for a particular time of day
for egg deposition. At night, eggs striking the paper could be heard for
some time after lights were turned off in the laboratory.

All females actually observed depositing eggs did so either during the
copulatory process or with several males clustered around them. During
copulation, the male disengaged the genitalia from that of the female before
the egg appeared; the claspers, however, retained their grasp at the base of
the eighth abdominal segment. The abdomen of the female could be seen

TWO VIEWS of an egg of the giant walking stick, Megaphasma denticrus (Stal).

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Giant Walking Stick

309

to contract and the egg would appear beneath the eighth abdominal segment.
The- genitalia would usually be reengaged just anterior to the egg before the
egg was completely extruded. The average time for complete egg deposition
was approximately seven minutes and in some cases several eggs were
deposited consecutively at five to seven minute intervals.

The eggs of M. denticrus (Fig. 1) are seed-like objects varying in color
from a light to a dark brown. They are approximately 4 % millimeters long
and three millimeters in diameter. A lighter longitudinal area occurs on
one side, in the center of which is an oblong area that is raised slightly
above the general surface of the egg. At one end is a grill-like cap somewhat
variable in structure; a circlet of hairs is attached at the base of the cap.
The end opposite the cap is rounded with a small irregular projection near
the center. When the eggs are deposited, the rounded ends appear first and
the raised area is usually directed dorsally. The writers have not seen the
eggs of D. femorata , but from the published descriptions (Hutchings 1920
and others) , the eggs of M. denticrus while distinct, appear to be somewhat
similar. Several hundred of the eggs were placed in a finger bowl lined with
filter paper and the finger bowl put in a large glass dish containing moist
cotton. The dish was kept covered and at laboratory temperatures, while
eggs were dissected periodically to check embryonic development.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND EMERGENCE

The first dissections were made within a week after the eggs were
deposited. At this time, the egg contents consisted of a membraneous sac
filled with a semi-fluid orange-colored material. On that part of the mem¬
brane in contact with the raised portion of the egg covering was a region
resembling this area in shape. Near the end of September, some two months
after the eggs were deposited, a thickened whitish area appeared inside the
membrane, ventral to the differentiated area on the membrane. This region
continued to differentiate and by the end of October, recognizable em¬
bryonic insects were present. Near the end of November completely
developed insects occurred in many of the eggs examined, and at this time
nymphs emerged normally from several eggs.

Just before emergence the fully developed nymph is coiled within the
egg with the tip of the abdomen in contact with or very near the head.
It greatly resembles the nymph of Aplopus maye'ri Caudell within the egg
as figured by Stockard (1909). The legs are mostly enclosed within the
circle of the body, with the antennae curled posteriorly alongside the ab¬
domen. The head is nearest the end of the egg with the grilled cap, while
the dorsal part of the thorax is directly under this end. The dorsal part
of the abdomen passes under the raised outer region of the egg, curves
downward around the end of the egg and passes anteriorly to the head.

Emergence of the nymphs was observed several times, and this occurred
through the end of the egg on top' of which is attached the grilled cap
noted above. The function of this grill work, if any, was not determined.
It was easily detached and many were knocked off by accident. In most
cases the caps had already separated from the eggs before emergence began.
The significance of this separation, and whether or not there is a mechanism
that influences this are not known. In a few cases, the caps were seen to be
still attached to the operculum of eggs from which young phasmatids had
apparently emerged.

310

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

At the time of emergence, a circular region of the egg, or operculum,
separates from the remainder of the egg although it may remain partially
attached along one edge. From the hole thus formed the nymph starts
emerging. The first part to appear is the dorsal region of the thorax which
is pushed outward until the head is freed from the egg. The insect slowly
draws itself out, the antennae and distal regions of the legs being the last
parts of the body to be freed. In some cases the tarsi could not be entirely
freed from the egg and the insects died within a short time. The complete
emergence process as seen in the laboratory required from several to more
than 24 hours.

Approximately 3 5 nymphs emerged over a period of several weeks.
These were a bright green in color and varied in body length from nine to
15 millimeters, the average being approximately 12. A variety of green
leaves and grasses were supplied, but none were seen to feed. Elm leaves,
which adults had been observed to eat earlier in the season, were no longer
available at the time of nymphal emergence. Some of the insects lived for
several days but all died without molting. No emergence occurred after
March 1, 1950, which was approximately eight months after the first eggs
had been deposited.

SUMMARY

1. An aggregation of more than 1000 specimens of the giant walking
stick, Mega phasma denticrus (Stal) was discovered near Austin, Texas, in
July, 1949. Field observations extending over several weeks have been
recorded.

2. Measurements were made of large numbers of both males and
females and more than 100 were collected and confined in the laboratory.

3. Copulation, feeding and egg deposition in the laboratory, and the
structure of the eggs have been described.

4. Several hundred eggs were deposited in the laboratory. These were
kept at laboratory temperatures and dissected at intervals. General obser¬
vations on development are recorded.

5. More than 30 nymphs emerged in the laboratory but all died without
molting. The process of nymphal emergence from the egg is described.

LITERATURE CITED

Beamer, Raymond H. — 1932 — The giant walking-stick (Megaphasma denticrus (Stal) found
in Kansas. Journ. Kansas Ent. See. 5 : 28.

Caudell, A. N. — 1903— The Phasmidae, walking sticks of the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 26 : 863-886.

- 1914 — The egg of Pseudosermyle truncata Caudell. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 16 : 96.

Hebard, Morgan — 1943 — The Dermaptera and orthopterous families Blattidae, Mantidae and
Phasmidae of Texas. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 68 : 239-310.

Hetrick, L. A.— 1949 — The oviposition of the two-striped walking stick, Anisomorpha bupres-
toides (Stoll) (Orthoptera, Phasmidae). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 51:103-104.

Hutchings, C. B.— 1920 — Popular and practical entomology. Walking sticks. Can. Ent. 52:
241-245.

Scudder, Samuel H. — 1901 — The species of Diapheromera (Phasmidae) found in the United
States and Canada. Pschye 9 : 187-189.

Shelford, R. — 1908 — Phasmidae. Biologia Centrali-Americana, Insecta. Orthoptera 2 : 343-377.
Somes, M. P. — 1916 — The Phasmidae of Minnesota, Iowa and Missouri (Orth.). Ent. News
27 : 269-271.

* Stal, C. — 1875 — Recensio Orthopterorum. Pt. 3:1-105. Stockholm.

Stockard, Charles R. — 1909 — Inheritance in the “walking stick’’, Aplopus mayeri. Biol. Bull.
16: 239-245.

* Original not seen.

1951, Mo. 2
June 30

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water

311

PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIES USING SEA WATER

GUST AYE HEINEMANN *

Southern Alkali Corporation,

Corpus Christi, Texas

The diminishing availability of fresh water supplies has tended to
bring to the forefront the industrial utilization of seawater for such pur¬
poses where it can be used. Due to its high salinity, the use of seawater
is limited and, for that reason, it cannot be used directly for boiler purposes.
It does, however, find extensive use as a coolant in various types of plants
such as for turbine condensers, in central power plants, in chemical and
other industrial plants, in the manufacture of various products from sea¬
water and, to some extent, in oil refineries. As an example of some of the
tremendous quantities of seawater used for cooling purposes, it might be
pointed out that in Corpus Christi the industrial utilization of seawater
as a coolant exceeds by approximately six times the entire domestic and
industrial uses of fresh water.

Along with the advantages accruing from the use of seawater as a
cooling medium, there are also a number of disadvantages. One of these
disadvantages, or problems, is that of fouling, which may be defined as the
presence of various forms of algae, barnacles, mussels, oysters and other
forms of marine growth. Although this problem is by no means peculiar to
seawater, it is believed that in the usual case the problem is considerably
more severe than with fresh water. Whereas, in the normal fresh water
supply we are not concerned with shell growths, this becomes a serious
problem in most instances where seawater is being used.

The effect of such growths may be felt in several ways. First, due
to the rough surface and to the volume occupied by such fouling in cases
where seawater is pumped through pipe lines or heat exchange equipment,
the carrying capacity of the lines or of the other units may be seriously
diminished. In the case of heat transfer equipment, the fouling has the
added effect of lowering the heat transfer coefficient, thus forcing the
unit to operate far below its rated capacity. This would be a most serious
consequence in the operation of such heat exchange equipment as turbine
condensers which are usually designed very closely, and where small
differences in capacity can produce wide changes in the power output of
the turbine.

The two previously mentioned effects are quite apparent, but there
are others which may require some additional explanation. Wherever shelled
growths cement themselves to a metal surface, a corrosion cell may be set
up which will result in deep pitting at that point. If the shelled organism
is completely adherent to the metal at the spot where it is attached, little
or no corrosion may be expected. In many cases, however, the surfaces are
uneven, allowing water to penetrate beneath one portion, thus setting up a
condition favorable to the formation of an oxygen concentration cell. In
other words, there will be different oxygen concentrations at the points
underneath the cell base and elsewhere at the surface of the metal, setting

* Address given at Rockport, Texas. October 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of
Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

312

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

up an electrolytic cell which is likely to cause attack at one point. This
is particularly common in the case of many species of barnacles and may
occur with other growths with equal facility.

Another different but important form of corrosion is encountered
when in the process of expansion of the base by growth, an organism
surrounds and covers another organism which ultimately dies. Following
death of the organism, decomposition will set in with probable formation
of hydrogen sulfide, causing an acid condition and resulting in accelerated
corrosion at that point. Still another detrimental effect which may be
noted is in areas where shelled organisms have developed, and where the
velocity of the water is relatively high. In this instance, a turbulent area
is set up immediately adjacent to the shell, frequently causing erosion or
pitting of the pipe or tube. Although the mechanism of this attack may
not appear to be obvious, it becomes understandable when one considers
the rather great turbulence set up by the water passing by a barnacle or
other shell at rather high velocity. This turbulence will greatly erode the
metal and cause pitting much in the same manner as continually dropping
water will wear away a stone.

In the previous discussion, several of the problems associated with the
effects of fouling in the use of seawater have been enumerated. Although
the problems mentioned could be extremely serious, if not controlled, there
are, fortunately, effective means of control of such growths which are not
too difficult to apply in most instances. Probably the most common use of
prevention is the use of chlorine. In the presence of active or residual
chlorine in the water, the growth of fouling organisms is effectively
prevented. Therefore, if sufficient chlorine is added to the water at all
times there can be no growth of fouling organisms. While the continuous
addition of chlorine to the water is certainly thoroughly effective in
preventing such growths it has been found that it is not always necessary
to add the chlorine continuously for effective control. Starting with a
perfectly clean surface over which seawater is flowing it has been found
that initially only a relatively few organisms with algae or shell growths
will affix themselves to the surface and commence the reproduction cycle.
If therefore the chlorination cycle is adjusted so that these organisms are
permitted to grow to the point where they can be killed with subsequent
dosage of chlorine and before they have had an opportunity to develop to
the point where they are so firmly entrenched on the surface that they
cannot be easily removed the control is virtually as effective as with
continuous chlorination. This then has the effect of resulting in a consider¬
able saving of chlorine as compared to the method of continuous chlori¬
nation.

Inasmuch as exact cycles to be used will depend in large measure
upon the rate of growth and type of fouling organisms, these cycles will
vary considerably from one area to another. For instance, in the relatively
warm waters of the Gulf Coast, it may be necessary to chlorinate for
periods as long as forty minutes out of each two hours. In the cold northern
waters, chlorination may be reduced to time sycles such as fifteen minutes
during each eight hours, and in some instances, may be completely elimi¬
nated during certain seasons of the year. Where the fouling is principally
the result of mussel groths, abnormally warm water temperatures in a
particular area may also be effective in stopping the growth of these

1951, No. 2
June 30

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water

313

organisms. As an example, it has been reported at the recent A.S.M.E.
meeting in New London, Connecticut"' — that the mussels which are preva¬
lent in the New England area will not grow when the water temperature
is in excess of 82°F. This, of course, does not apply to waters in the Gulf
Coast area where the growth of shelled organisms may be extremely prolific,
even at temperatures as high as 90°F.

It has also been found that when shelled organisms such as mussels
are the cause of fouling, intermittent chlorination such as that previously
mentioned is effective up to the time when they have had an opportunity
to develop their protective shell. After the shell has been developed, the
mussels will close their shell when irritated by the presence of residual
chlorine and can exist for periods as long as 3 to 4 days or more without
being forced to open the shell and be killed by the chlorine. For this
reason, if chlorination is being established in a plant where no control has
been attempted or where, due to interruptions in the chlorination cycle,
the mussels have been given an opportunity to develop their protective
shell, it is necessary to chlorinate continuously without interruption for
at least 3 to 4 days to effect a kill. At the time when the Southern Alkali
plant commenced operations in 1934, some delays were encountered in the
installation of chlorination equipment, making it necessary to operate the
plant for a period of several months prior to establishing fouling control
by the use of chlorination. Based on experience which had been reported to
us by others, a 3 to 4 day chlorination period was employed before
endeavoring to work out an intermittent control cycle. After a period of
about three days, it was found that all the screens in the seawater lines
were clogging so badly that it was necessary to keep someone on the job
almost continuously to clean them. During a relatively short interval
following the three day continuous chlorination period, many hundreds of
bushels of mussels and other shelled growths were flushed from the line.
This serves to indicate the rapid growth of these shelled organisms under
favorable conditions.

Although chlorination is the most widely used means of control, other
forms may be used under special circumstances. In a few cases, the use of
hot water has proved to be very effective in controlling fouling where the
particular pipe line or piece of equipment may be taken out of service or
the conditions altered in some manner so that hot water may be introduced
into the unit. This has been used to some extent locally in a power station
having two parallel intakes. While one intake was being used as such for
a period of time, the other was used as a discharge for the warm water
for the condensers. During the time that a particular intake was being used
for the incoming cool water, considerable fouling would develop in that
intake. When the flow was reversed and warm water discharged through
it, the fouling organisms were effectively killed. Effective control was
established in this manner without the necessity of resorting to chlorination.

A third method of controlling fouling which may be applied is in the
use of high copper alloys. For this to be effective, however, it is necessary
for the rate of corrosion attack on the copper to be at such a rate that the
thinning will be approximately one-thousandth of an inch per year or
greater. Unfortunately, there are a number of conditions which may

Control of Marine Fouling in Sea Water Conduits and Cooling Water Systems Including
Exploratory Tests on Killing of Shelled Mussels, by Harold E. White.

314

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

prevail to prevent this rate of attack or to render the copper ineffective in
the prevention of fouling. These conditions may be enumerated as follows;

1. The copper alloy may be protected galvanically by a less noble metal
such as iron or steel.

2. A calcareous or lime deposit may form on the metal from the sea¬
water, protecting the surface from attack.

3. Adherent corrosion products may form a film on the surface,
protecting the base metal from further attack.

4. The metal surface may be accidentally or intentionally coated with
grease or oil.

There are a few specialized cases where copper sulfate can be applied
to the water for the purpose of preventing the growth or killing fouling
organisms. However, because of difficulties involved in the application of
copper sulfate, it is not used as a common means of control.

Under certain conditions, hydrogen sulfide may be present in the sea¬
water, especially in coastal areas. The presence of the hydrogen sulfide
under these conditions may be attributed to pollution of the water with
domestic sewage or organic waste of various types which tend to decrease
the concentration of oxygen in the water. In cases where pollution is
sufficiently intense to result in anaerobic conditions, hydrogen sulfide may
be produced as the result of the reduction of sulfates which are normally
present in the water. Although the presence of hydrogen sulfide in the
water may tend to act in a manner very similar to that of chlorine, being
toxic to many of the fouling organisms, it can be extremely corrosive to
many metals and particularly to copper alloys, such as those commonly used
for turbine condensers and other similar equipment. Although the addition
of the chlorine to such waters will oxidize the sulfide to the sulfate form,
this means of control is usually impractical because of extremely high
chlorine demand under these conditions. Because of this fact, copper alloys
of a type tending to be relatively resistant to the action of hydrogen sulfide,
are indicated under these conditions. The various copper alloys used for
seawater service will be discussed later.

The second phase of the discussion will involve the consideration of
various corrosion problems encountered in the use of seawater and the
mitigation of these problems. Considering, first, the corrosion of iron and
steel by seawater, one problem which is commonly encountered is that of
sheet piling. Surprisingly enough, the corrosion of sheet piling is said to be
quite uniform on specimens exposed throughout the world, with the
average corrosion rate approximating a penetration of .005 of an inch per
year. The attack on the piling is usually most pronounced in the splash zone
just above the high tide level, and to a lesser degree just, below the mean
low tide level. The mechanism of this attack will not be discussed, it having
been covered very thoroughly in an article by H. A. Humble. *

There are several possible means of protection which can be applied
to sheet piling. Probably the simplest of these in areas where the wave
action is not severe, is the application of a heavy grease coating, particularly
of the type containing a corrosion inhibiter. While this is by no means
completely effective, it is of considerable assistance in reducing the rate of
attack. A second means of protection and one which is treated in consider-

* Cathodic Protection of Steel Piling on Seawater, by Mr. H. A. Humble, buplished in the
September, 1949, issue of CORROSION.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water

315

able detail in the paper by Mr. Humble is the use of cathodic protection.
In this instance, blocks of magnesium are connected electrically to the
piling at suitable intervals, and immersed in the water. In this type of
protection, the magnesium, being submerged in the water, sets up a battery
action resulting in the gradual attack of the magnesium but protecting the
piling adjacent to it. Unfortunately, cathodic protection is of lesser value
in the splash zone just above mean high tide, but since this represents the
easiest spot in which to apply protective coatings such as paints or greases,
a combination of the two systems is usually desirable, where the rate of
attack on the piling is of sufficient magnitude to warrant these measures.

For piping seawater, either steel or cast iron is satisfactory to a certain
degree, although the corrosion may be severe, and especially so in the case of
steel. Generally speaking, the composition of steel, until one gets in the high
alloy range, is not of particular consequence, although there is frequently
some diminution in the extent of pitting with some of the low alloys. Nor¬
mally stainless steels are not recommended for use with seawater due to
their tendency to pit in the presence of chloride ions. In a few cases, however,
the type 316 stainless steel alloy, which contains from sixteen to eighteen
per cent chromium, ten to fourteen per cent nickel, and two to three
per cent molybdenum has been used successfully. Normally it can be used
successfully only under conditions of high velocities which tend to minimize
the pitting effect. There has been a considerable tendency to play down the
use of stainless steel in seawater, in fact to the extent that distributors of
stainless steel have very definitely discouraged its application. A few tests
have been in service at this plant for several years in which the appearance
of the 316 stainless steel alloy has been excellent. In view of the fact, how¬
ever, that stainless steel can be subject to very severe pitting under certain
conditions, its use has not been particularly encouraged.

Although cast iron is attacked quite similarly to low alloy steel, the
graphite phase remaining on the surface as a result of the corrosion tends
to exert a controlling effect after the first attack. In other words, the first
attack is on the iron itself, leaving a layer on the surface which is fairly
high in graphite and which is not, in itself, attacked. Low alloy cast irons
are said to be somewhat better than straight cast iron.

Probably the most economical and effective means of piping seawater,
particularly the larger size pipe, is by use of cement lined cast iron or steel,
which is finding increased usage in many localities for either seawater, or
for that matter, for fresh water.

In the absence of a suitable photograph of the inside of a pipe line
used to conduct seawater,, Figure 1, showing the interior of a cast iron
cooling box, will serve to illustrate the effect of sea water on cast iron.
This unit consists of a number of cast iron tubes each 2-5/16” outside di¬
ameter by 1-3/4” inside diameter inserted into a cast iron tube sheet. Sea¬
water flows through the tubes and is used to cool a solution on the outside.
It will be noted that the interior of each tube is virtually blocked as the
result of tuberculation. Tuberculation is a form of rusting caused primar¬
ily from oxygen in the seawater which attacks the cast iron, forming rounds
of rust which increase in size over a period of time. When a unit of this
type has been in operation for a period of not over three to four months,
the tubes are virtually blocked and must be cleaned.

31 6 The Texas Journal of Science

FIGURE 1.

***■***+ r!

;i: ■ " ■ .?■• - ; .■■■ ■ ;

FIGURE 2

1951, No. 2
June 30

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water

317

Figure 2 shows one of the tubes which has been removed from service
and the tuberculation scraped from it, exposing a layer of graphitized iron.
This particular tube was in service for a period of approximately 4-5 years,
at which time it was taken out of service because there was so little metal
remaining that it was no longer serviceable. The inner layer represents the
graphitized iron, while the thinner outer layer represents the parent metal.
In this particular illustration the section has been allowed to dry, causing
a separation between the graphitized metal and the parent metal. Under
service conditions, no apparent gap exists between the two sections.

As has been previously mentioned, much of this attack can be attrib¬
uted to the presence of oxygen in the water, resulting in the formation of
the rust spots or tubercles on the surface of the metal. This attack leaves
the graphitized area depleted in iron and with little mechanical strength.
There have been some claims that the attack is accentuated by bacterial
action, but it does not appear to be a factor in this particular case. Oxygen
corrosion of this type can be practically eliminated by means of vacuum
deareation of the water where the problem is of such a magnitude that the
relatively high cost of deareation equipment can be justified.

A typical installation for deareation of water consists of a tank packed
with rick-rack or a number of wooden slats stacked over each other. The
water enters the tank at the top, falling over the rick-rack, exposing a large
surface for the removal of the oxygen. A high vacuum, usually of 27” of
mercury or greater, is applied to the tank and the deareated water continu¬
ously removed from the bottom by means of an atmospheric leg or pump.
Unfortunately, this operation is moderately expensive and frequently cannot
be justified despite its effectiveness.

Another means of circumventing the effects of oxygen attack is the
use of galvanizing or the application of zinc coating, which is very useful
in many instances. Although the rate of attack of seawater on zinc is mod¬
erately high, a typical galvanized coating will prolong the life of steel or
cast iron piping in seawater by at least several years. It also has the addi¬
tional advantage over some other types of coating that if there is a defect
or scratch in it, as long as the coating exists it will protect the steel. Figures
3 and 4 will illustrate, to some degree, the effectiveness of the use of gal¬
vanizing which was applied to some cast iron coolers of the trombone type.
In this type of cooler, seawater is allowed to fall over a series of cast iron
pipes, in this case 8” in diameter, stacked on top of each other with a short
gap between. In Figure 3 a portion of such a cooler which has not been
galvanized is illustrated after approximately three years service. From the
roughened surface, it can be seen that the attack has been very severe. In
this instance, a portion of the rust scale has become partially loosened from
the pipe, thus providing an insulated blanket and reducing the capacity of
the particular unit to a great extent.

Figure 4 illustrates a similar unit in operation the same length of time.
This unit was galvanized and it can be seen that none of the roughened
effect appears as in Figure 3, and the capacity of this unit is essentially the
same as when it was new.

Although five years or more service life may be expected for galvan¬
izing in this particular case, in other instances where galvanizing has been
used on steel piping in cooling service the life has been in the order of only

318

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

FIGURE 3

■■ ■

FIGURE 4.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Problems of Industries Using Sea Water

319

1-2 years. The life of galvanizing in seawater service will depend a great
deal upon the exact conditions under which it is used and the thickness of

the galvanized coating applied.

Another means of mitigation or corrosion by seawater is the use of non-
ferrous tubes, particularly the copper alloys. For turbine condensers, marine
piping, particularly in the smaller sizes, and in other similar applications
involving the use of seawater, certain copper alloys have been found to be
extremely effective. This is not true, however, in a soda ash plant which
involves the use of ammonia in the system. In this instance, copper alloys
cannot be used because of the possibility of contact with the ammonia which
causes an extremely high rate of attack on copper or its alloys. This explains
the considerable use of cast iron for soda ash production in place of the
copper alloys which have much lower corrosion rates.

TABLE I
COPPER ALLOYS

Copper

Nickel

Zinc

Aluminum

Tin

90-10 Cupro Nickel (a)

...89

70-30 Cupro Nickel ....

. . . 70

Aluminum Brass (b) ...

... 16

21.95

Aluminum Bronze .

...95

Admiralty Alloy .

... 10

Muntz Metal . .

. . . 61.5

38.5

. .

Red Brass . . . .

. . . 85

(a) 1% Iron Added

(b) 0.05% Arsenic Added

Table I will illustrate some of the principal copper alloys which are
found to be very resistant to seawater attack. The first listed, the so-called
90-10 Cupro Nickel, is a comparatively new alloy. Although it has not had
wide usage up to the present time, it is becoming increasingly popular and
gives indications of being one of the principal alloys for future turbine con¬
densers and similar applications. The second alloy listed is also extremely
effective and is the Navy standard 70-30 Cupro Nickel. This alloy may be
obtained as such or with the addition of a small percentage of iron which is
presumed to increase its resistance to impingement attack. The third alloy,
illustrative of an aluminum brass composition, has also been found to be a
very excellent metal for marine applications, as has aluminum bronze. The
last three alloys listed are some of the older ones and, while they still find a
great deal of use in marine service, they are becoming of diminishing im¬
portance. Until fairly recently the Admiralty alloy or one of its several
variations was used in virtually all marine installations. The Muntz metal
alloy is still used to some extent, particularly for tube sheets and similar uses.
Red Brass is fairly effective for small piping and is quite readily available,
although it is not normally used in the larger applications.

Although atmospheric corrosion problems may not have a direct bear¬
ing on the industrial utilization of seawater, it is necessarily obvious that
where seawater is used increased corrosion may be expected from the location
of a plant in a coastal area due to the presence of salt air and the high humid¬
ity conditions prevailing in the area.

320

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

For the protection of steel structures and equipment, a number of paints
have been developed which are quite effective in reducing the amount of
corrosion. The more common of these involve the use of red lead or zinc
chromate primers followed by the application of a suitable resistant finish
coat. In the painting of steel, the preparation of the surface is of first im¬
portance and regardless of the quality of the primer or finish used, the over¬
all job is of little value if the surface on which the paint is applied is not
thoroughly cleaned.

Although it is not always possible to sandblast the surface, it is, never¬
theless, by far the most superior method of surface preparation. In instances
where sandblasting is not possible, it may be necessary to resort to other
means such as wire brushing, chipping, etc., but in the latter cases the paint
life would possibly be one-half of what might be expected where the surface
had been properly cleaned such as by sandblasting. Where practical, the use
of galvanized steel, preferably followed by the application of a resistant
coating is very effective in preventing corrosion. Actually, the galvanized
metal itself, without the protection afforded by the coating material, will
last for a number of years. However, due to the fact that the application
of a protective finish, such as a bituminous material, is very cheap and easy,
and since little or no surface preparation is required, the applications of such
coatings are usually indicated and will prolong the life of galvanized metal
indefinitely.

Another structural material which is believed will find a surprising
amount of use in coastal areas is aluminum. Actually, when we speak of
aluminum, we are speaking not of a single metal or alloy but one of a number
of alloys.

TABLE II
ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Per Cent of Alloying Elements — -Aluminum and Normal Impurities
Constitute Remainder

Alloy

Copper

Silicon

Manganese

Magnesium

Zinc

Chromium

1.2

24S

0.6

1.5

61S

0.25

0.6

1.0

0.25

63S

0.4

0.7

52S

2.5

0.25

75S

1.6

2.5

5.6

0.3

Table II illustrates some of the more common types of aluminum alloys
which are very useful and which will find increasing usage in coastal areas.
The 3S alloy is the so-called commercially pure aluminum with the addition
of 1.2 % manganese. This is a very common type and is very resistant to salt
air and salt water corrosion. The 24S alloy illustrates a type of aluminum
alloy which is very useful in many applications, but is definitely not indi¬
cated for use in coastal areas without proper protection. The presence of
copper in that alloy tends to accelerate corrosion from exposure in coastal
areas. Specimens of aluminum of -that alloy exposed under such conditions
are likely to fail after a relatively short time because of severe pitting, unless
coated with a protective material which may be either in the nature of a
paint or by another expedient which is similar to galvanizing. In the latter
case, a thickness of another aluminum alloy is applied to the surface of the

1951, No. 2 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 321

June 30

base metal. This surface layer may comprise 5 to 10% of the total thickness
of the metal and will consist of an aluminum such as the 75S containing
moderate amounts of magnesium and zinc. Protection to the base metal is
afforded by the fact that the surface layer is more active than the base
metal, much as galvanizing is to steel. In the event of any attack on the
surface either by pitting or by mechanical damage, the base metal is pro-
tected even up to the time when as much as 50% of the surface layer has
been destroyed. This combination, which is known as Alclading, affords
the mechanical benefits of a base metal with good mechanical but poor
chemical properties with good chemical resistance on the surface layer.

Other alloys listed, such as the 52S, 6 IS and 63S each provide certain
combinations of mechanical properties and reasonable chemical resistance
in marine atmospheres and are frequently used in that service. However,
due to the fact that aluminum is a relatively active metal, certain precau¬
tions must be employed when it is used, especially in marine exposures. Under
normal circumstances it must not be coupled with other metals such as
copper alloys or with iron and steel. In this instance, proper protective means
must be used to prevent such metallic contact. An exception to this rule,
and one which is somewhat surprising, is the use of stainless steel with alum¬
inum. In this instance there appears to be no significant acceleration of the
corrosion of the aluminum by virtue of the contact with stainless steel.

By means of illustration of the relative resistance of aluminum in
marine atmospheres as compared to steel, a set of test panels have been
exposed in an area where they are consistently subjected to atmospheric con¬
ditions prevalent in this locality and to a virtual rain of seawater spray. In
this series of panels was included an unpainted steel panel approximately 16
gage thickness. At the end of the first year’s exposure the steel panel had
completely disintegrated so that it was no longer possible to hold it on the
test rack. The aluminum panels have been exposed in this location for a
period of four years and are still in excellent condition.

It is the hope that in this presentation some indication of the problems
encountered in industrial utilization of seawater have been enumerated. By
no means have all of them been covered and the impression should not be
gained that all the problems have been solved. Actually, we have some
only a very short way in the solution of the problem of the industrial utili¬
zation of seawater, and there is a great deal of work to be done in the future
before a final answer can be obtained.

322

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF
MALEIC HYDRAZIDE ON TOMATO AND ETIOLATED
BEAN PLANTS

VICTOR A. GREULACH
Department of Botany
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, N. C.

The writer (1950) has reported much more marked growth inhibition
of tomato plans by maleic hydrazide than that observed by Schoene and
Hoffmann (1949), including inhibition of leaf growth, changes in leaf
morphology, and inhibition of growth of stems in diameter, none of which
was reported by Schoene and Hoffmann. Since the plants treated by the
writer were younger than those used by Schoene and Hoffman the experi¬
ments reported here were conducted on plants which were not treated until
they were 47 days old, in an effort to secure information as to the effect of
age at time of treatment on the degree of growth inhibition and response
secured. The effect of the maleic hydrazide on the reproductive develop¬
ment of the tomato plans was also observed, since delay and inhibition
of reproduction by maleic hydrazide has been reported for other species
by Naylor (1950), Miller and Erskine (1949), White (1950) and Moore
(1950).

Mitchell, Wirwille and Weil (1949) have reported that nicontinium
compounds have interesting growth inhibiting effects on bean plants grown
in complete darkness, inhibiting both hypocotyl and stem elongation and
promoting growth of leaves and stem diameter, thus virtually counteracting
the morphological etiolation effects. Since maleic hydrazide has not been ap¬
plied to plants kept continuously in the dark the experiment reported here
was conducted in an effort to determine whether its effects might be similar
to those of the nicotinium compounds.

Methods . Seeds of Earliana tomatoes ( Lycopsersicon esculentus L.) were
planted in flats on February 11, 1950 and transplanted to 4-inch clay pots
on March 3, one plant per pot. On March 30 the plants were sprayed with
water or one, 10, 100, 500, 1000 or 2000 p.p.m. of the diethanolamine
salt of maleic hydrazide, with 10 plants per treatment. The lengths of the
main stems and branches were measured weekly for five weeks, and at each
of these times observations were made of the general condition of the plants,
and the flowers and fruits were counted. Seeds of Red Valentine beans
( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were planted in 4-inch clay pots on February 13,
1950 in a dark room, where they were kept throughout the experiment.
On February 20, when the plants averaged 7.3 cm. in height they were
sprayed with water or one, 10, 100 or 1000 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide
(M. H.), six plants per treatment. Measurements of hypocotyl and stem
length and observations were made at two-day intervals until eight days
after treatment.

Results. The amount of stem growth of the tomato plants from the
time of treatment to the end of the experiment (five weeks) is shown in
Fig. 1 and in Table I. Concentrations of 100 p.p.m. and less caused no in-

1951, No. 2
June 30

Effects of Maleic Hydrazide on Plants

323

hibition of growth, while the growth inhibition by 500 and 1000 p.p.m. did
not appear to be statistically significant. The 2000 p.p.m. concentration of
M. H. did inhibit growth significantly, but growth was reduced to only
about half that of the controls by the end of the five weeks, while with the
tomato plants treated when 20 days old and reported on by the writer pre¬
viously (1950) the growth of plants which received 2000 p.p.m. of M. H.
was only l/20 of the growth of the controls. In the previous experiment
the plants completely stopped growth within six days after treatment, but
in this experiment it was three weeks after treatment until growth finally
stopped.

TABLE I

Effect of maleic hydrazide on etiolated beans 4 days after treatment and on tomatoes
35 days after treatment, with standard deviations.

Concentration
of M. H., p.p.m.

Beans

Tomatoes

Hypocotyls,

cm.

Stems,

cm.

Stems,

cm.

Flowers,

number

13.2±0.77

10.5±2.6

22.0±4.6

5.4±2.4

14.6±1.65

8.9±0.6

22.3±4.7

6.6±1.8

12.0±2.3

9.3+2.0

2 1.4 ±3. 2

4.2±2.6

100

12.9±2.4

10.1 ±0.7

20.5±4,1

5.7±2.2

500

16.5±3.1

4.3±2.8

1000

3 3. 6 ±2.1

1.8 ±1.-3

16.9±4.2

3.4±2.5

2000

10.3 ±=1.9

0.6±0.9

EFFECT OF 1000 and 2000 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide on the growth of tomato
plants treated 47 days after planting. The growth curves for 1, 10 and 100 p.p.m.
were almost identical with the curve for the controls, while the curve for 500 p.p.m.
was essentially the same as the curve for 1000 p.p.m. These were omitted from the
graph to avoid a confusion of closely spaced lines.

324

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Loss of apical dominance and subsequent branching occurred in only
half of the plants receiving 2000 p.p.m., in one of the plants receiving 500
p.p.m., but not in any other treatment. The branch on the plant sprayed
with 500 p.p.m. was 42 cm. long, while the branches on the plants sprayed
with 2000 p.p.m. of M. H. averaged 41.4 cm. in length at the end of the
experiment. There was no inhibition of stem growth in diameter nor of leaf
growth. No anthocyanin developed in any of the treated plants, nor were
there any modifications of leaf morphology such as reported previouly by
the writer ( 1950) .

Blooming began about a week later in the plant which received 10
p.p.m. or more of M. H. than in the controls or the plants sprayed with
one p.p.m. However, a significant reduction in the number of flowers per
plant on a cumulative basis was effected only by 2000 p.p.m. (Table I) . Half
of the plants in this treatment had not developed any flowers by the end of
the experiment. Although too few fruits developed on any of the plants by
the end of the experiment to permit any valid generalization, it is interest¬
ing that none of the fruits on plants sprayed with 1000 or 2000 p.p.m. at¬
tained a diameter of more than 0.5 cm. before abscising. The other treat¬
ments did not appear to affect fruit development.

No concentration of M. H. used inhibited the growth of the etiolated
bean hypocotyls, and only the 1000 p.p.m. concentration inhibited the
growth of the stems (Table I). This concentration inhibited stem growth
completely within 96 hours, while all other plants continued to grow until
the end of the experiment. No treatment affected leaf development or stem
diameter, and even the plants rceiving 2000 p.p.m. had a structure typical
of etiolated plants.

Discussion. A comparison of the effects of M. H. on the tomato plants
in this experiment with those on younger plants in a previous experiment
(1950) indicate that age of the plants at the time of treatment is probably
an important factor in the degree of growth inhibition and morphogenic
effects produced. The experiments also indicate that 100 p.p.m. or lower
concentrations of M. H. have virtually no effect on either beans or tomatoes
as used in these experiments, which is in line with the findings of various
other investigators. However, it should be noted that both 10 and 100
p.p.m. did delay the appearance of flowers on the tomato plants by about a
week, which indicates that reproductive development may be affected by
lower concentrations than vegetative development, although only 2000
p.p.m. brought about marked inhibition of reproductive development. Al¬
though all plants treated with 2000 p.p.m. of M. H. completely stopped
growing, it should be noted that only half of them lost apical dominance
and developed branches. As far as could be determined, apical dominance
was lost only when the terminal bud died, which does not agree with the
observation of Naylor and Davis (1950).

The marked difference in response of the etiolated bean plants in this
experiment to M. H. and in the experiment of Mitchell, Wirwille and Weil
(1949) to nicotinium compounds indicates that the two growth inhibitors
act in fundamentally different ways. The failure of the M. H. to inhibit
hypocotyl growth while it did inhibit stem growth provides added evidence
that it inhibits cell division rather than cell elongation, as has been sug¬
gested previously by Greulach and Atchison (1950).

1951, No. 2
June 80

Effects of maleic hydrazide of Plants

325

SUMMARY

1. Etiolated bean plants seven days old and tomato plants 47 days old
were sprayed with various concentrations of maleic hydrazide.

2. Concentrations of one, 10 and 100 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide had
no effect on the growth of bean plants in the dark, while 1000 p.p.m. in¬
hibited stem growth but not growth of the hypocotyls.

3. Concentrations of one, 10 and 100 p.p.m. did not effect the growth
of the tomato plants; 500 and 1000 p.p.m. caused slight growth inhibition
of dubious significance; 2000 p.p.m. caused marked growth inhibition.

4. The effects of M. H. were much less marked than in plants in a
previous experiment which were treated at an earlier age. There were no
effects on stem diameter, leaf size or leaf shape as in the previously reported
experiment, nor did any anthocyanin develop.

5. Apparently apical dominance was lost only after the death of the
terminal bud.

6 . Reproductive development of the tomatoes was almost completely
inhibited by 2000 p.p.m., while lower concentrations exhibited some inhibi¬
tory effects.

LITERATURE CITED

Greulach, Victor A. — 1950 — Growth inhibition and injury of plants by maleic hydrazide.
Texas J. Sci. 2 : 219-221.

- andEarlene Atchison — 1950 — Inhibition of growth and cell division in onion roots by

maleic hydrazide. Bull. Torey Bot. Club 77 : 262-267.

Miller,, Richard R. and Donald Erskine — 1949 — The prevention of fruit formation on some
ornamental trees. Proc. Nat. Shade Tree Conf. 25 : 88-100.

Mitchell, John W., J. W. Wirwille and Leopold Weil — 1949 — Plant growth regulating prop¬
erties of some nicotinium compounds. Science 110 : 252-254.

Moore, Rufus H. — 1950 — Several effects of maleic hydrazide on plants. Science 112 : 52-53.
Naylor, Aubrey W. — 1950 — Observations on the effects of maleic hydrazide on the flowering
of tobacco, maize and cocklebur. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 36 : 230-232.

— - and E. A. Davis — 1950 — Maleic hydrazide as a plant growth inhibitor. Bot. Gaz. 112 :

112-126.

Schoene, D. L. and Otto L. Hoffmann — 1949 — Maleic hydrazide, a unique growth regulant.
Science 109 : 588-590.

White, David G. — 1950 — Blossoming of fruits delayed by maleic hydrazide. Science 111 : 303.

326

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

BOOK REVIEWS

STUDIES IN MUSLIM ICONOGRAPHY. I. THE UNICORN. Richard Ettinghausen. Wash¬
ington. The Freer Gallery of Art. ix, 209 pp., 48 pis. 1950. $3.00.

The history of the unicorn is long and varied and the description of
this fabulous beast took many forms. Some benighted writers had the termer-
ity to refer to it as merely a horse with a horn, but the Romans were more
explicit. Pliny states that the very fierce animal called the monoceros "has
the head of the stag, the feet of the elephant, and the tail of the boar, while
the rest of the body is like that of the horse; it makes a deep lowing noise,
and has a single black horn, which projects from the middle of its forehead,
two cubits in length. This animal, it is said, cannot be taken alive.”

The myth, as has been shown by Odell Shepard (Lore of the Unicorn,
1930) and Willy Ley (The Lungfish, the Dodo and the Unicorn, 1948)
undoubtedly originated with the rhinoceros, of which reports had reached
the Western countries from time to time.

However, until the present volume, little was known of the unicorn
in Mohammedan literature, or, more specifically, of its pictorial representa¬
tion in Muslim books and art.

Ettinghausen has done a superlative piece of research on this and has also
shown that the horn so highly prized by apothecaries of the world of Islam,
was, as is shown by pictorial representations, generally walrus tusk. More
rarely it was the horn from a narwhale.

Many illustrations of the beast are found in the old Mohammedan texts.
They called it (mostly) karkadann, which is also the name of rhinoceros,
and it took every conceivable form. Ettinghausen’s plates show lupine uni¬
corns, antelope-like unicorns, unicorns that look like cattle, leonine forms,
and half a dozen others, while one karkadann even looks like a rabbit!

Ley has pointed out that the unicorn myth began to die out in Europe
once the rhinoceros became known to many people. Apparently the same
thing happened in the Muslim world, for Ettinghausen notes that "in the
eighteenth century, al-Qazwini manuscripts of inferior quality, and thus
destined for the simple and impecunious, showed illustrations of the karka¬
dann, in which a kind of dreary resemblance to the rhinoceros emerged.
The text, of course, still tells the old tales and superstititions, but the minia¬
tures have now nearly caught up with the actual animal. The encounter with
reality is, however, disenchanting. The ferocious and yet impressive character
of the old monster has gone and all that remains is an immense and unpre¬
possessing hulk of a body. No new ramifications of the age-old myth could
possibly grow up around this sort of an animal.”

The book is a beautiful example of typography, and the plates are both
excellent and interesting. The extensive bibliography (282 titles) adds a
great deal to the worth of the publication, also, because it lists English trans¬
lations of a great deal of Asiatic material. The book is interesting if you
are interested in the history of science and the beginning of things, and
should have some appeal for zoologists. It is a readable, accurate account of
a belief that is extremely old, and a fine job.

1951, No. 2
June 30

Book Reviews

327

THE BEHAVIOR OF ENGINEERING METALS. H. W. Gillett, John Wiley and Sons,

1951.

This excellent book may well be described as its author’s biography, for
his life was so completely devoted to this field and so many subjects are
covered, that it is really the work of a lifetime. In an effort to be broad, it
has been necessary to be concise, and one wishes that Dr. Gillett had lived
to expand this book into an encyclopedia.

Anyone working with metals should have an acquaintance with this
book. Ferrous as well as nonferrous metals are included, the treatment being
roughly in proportion to their use in industry. The range of data covered
may be visualized by noting some of the Chapter Headings; The Statistical
Approach, Light Wrought Alloys, Titanium and Zirconium, Metal Films
and Surfaces, Severe Service at High and Low Temperatures.

Besides introducing the reader to numerous details under these heads,
almost every chapter contains a lengthy list of references for further details.
This list goes far to bridge the gap between a brief, index work, and an en¬
cyclopedia. Here, again, is a sign of Dr. Gillett’s own merit, for in almost
every case, these references are to recent, native publications that can be
secured, rather than to erudite and inaccessible ones.— -Charles e. balleisen,

SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS.

NANSEN. E. E. REYNOLDS. Penguin Books. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England. 1949.

One Shilling Six.

1951 marks the ninetieth anniversary of the birth of Fridtjof Nansen.
His was a varied life; one that would well bear imitating by scientists of
today. He was not only a great scientist but also a great citizen and humani¬
tarian. His investigations in the field of oceanography and the marine sciences
are well matched by his performance as Norwegian Minister in London and
by his gigantic activities when attempting to resettle the DP’s of World
War I. With all his interest in the sciences, he never forgot that the progress
of civilization is made by the collective action of individuals and that those
individuals should be considered as individuals and not merely as so many
thousand subjects.

Perhaps his outstanding achievement was the arctic voyage in the
"Fram.” This was an undertaking approached only by the exploit of Admiral
Byrd in spending the antarctic winter alone, many miles from the rest of
his men. Nansen and his men embarked in the Fram in 1893 and sailed east¬
ward from Norway along the coast of Siberia. As winter approached, they
turned north, became frozen in the ice, and slowly drifted north and west.
After more than a year of this slow drifting, Nansen and a single companion
left the ship and traveled across half the frozen arctic sea to Spitzbergen.
Both he and his companion, the Fram and all her crew arrived safely in
Norway after three years of traveling.

Nor was this his only such experience. A few years before, he had led
the first party to cross the Greenland ice cap. Truly, a study of his methods
and work is well worth while today. His exploits, risky as they may seem
to us, were carefully planned beforehand in every last detail and to such an
extent that he was seldom, if ever, confronted by an unexpected situation.
This tedious attention to detail and endless planning paid off well in all his
work.— CHARLES E. BALLEISEN, SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, SAN
ANTONIO, TEXAS.

O *

S o

x 5>

OJ M

d *3
T3

" M G
OJ)

c/3

O C

Q-g

1951, No. 2
June 30

Regional Meetings

329

PROGRAM

Texas Academy of Science

Regional Meeting

Corpus Christi
April 6, 7, 1951

HEADQUARTERS NUECES HOTEL

Section 1 — Physical Sciences
Room 227 Nueces Hotel

FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00-12:00

F. F. Mikus, Presiding

9:00 Decomposition Pressures of Ammonium Formate
Robert B. Hill, Texas A. and I. College

9:20 Adaptation of the Electron Microscope to Electron Diffraction Studies of
Molecular Vapors — Paul Cutter, Del Mar College
9:55 An Hypothetical Cosmogony — James C. Axtell, Texas A. and I College
10:00 Radiological Medicine-— W. R. Metzger, M. D., Corpus Christi, Texas
10:45 Certain Techniques of Velocity and Energy Selection
Emmett Wiley, Texas A. and I. College
11:10 Adult Education Through Industrial Research

Charles O. Balleisen, Southwest Research Institute
11:35 The Program of the Department of Oceanography at A. and M. College of
Texas — -Dale F. Leipper, A. and M. College of Texas

Section 11 — Biological Sciences
Lounge Room Nueces Hotel
FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00 - 12:00

E. R. Bogusch Presiding

9:00 Science as a Basis for Physical Education

Eldon D. Brinley, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
9:20 The Import of Catastrophic Mass Mortalities Along The Texas Coast for
Conservation of Marine Fisheries

Gordon Gunter, Inst. Marine Science, Port Aransas, Texas
9:40 Air-borne Molds as Causes of Respiratory Allergic Diseases in Texas
Homer E. Prince, M. D., Houston, Texas
10:00 Free Amino Acids of Mosquitoes (334 x 4 lantern)

Don W. Micks, Med. Branch, Univ. of Texas, Galveston, Texas
10:20 A Proposed Standard for Testing Industrial By-Products to Be Released in
Marine Waters

F. M. Daugherty, Jr., Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas
10:40 Conservation

Everett R. Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin, Texas
11:00 A Check List of Birds of the Rio Grande Delta
Mrs. Irby Davis, Harlingen Schools

11:20 Notes on the Taxonomy of the Giant Water Bugs (Belostomatidae) of the
Western Hemisphere (334 x 4 lantern) — D. Warren Craik, U. C. C.

11:40 Brush Invasion in the Texas Tamaulipan

Edwin R. Bogusch, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas

1951, No. 2
June 30

3 30 The Texas Journal of Science

FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 2:00 - 5:00

Pauline James, Presiding

2 :00 Incidence of Tapeworm Occurrence in Turkeys
Raymond Henry, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
2:15 Current Status of White-winged Dove in Texas
Charles Hand, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
2:30 Food Analysis of Bob White Quail

Arturo Garcia and Alonzo Lopez, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas
2 :45 Texas Cave Fauna — -Barbara Jesse, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas
3:00 The Diet of the Woodrat During Periods of Drought
Barbara Everhart, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
3:15 Melanistic Tendencies of Troost’s Turtle

Robert Pruessner, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas
3:30 Population Studies of Turtles in Kleberg County

Edweina Edwards, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas
3 :45 The Occurrence of Coliform Bacteria in South Texas Waters
Aubrey McCameron, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas
4:00 Forms of Native Wildlife on Padre Island

Fred Bucanek, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
4:15 Age Immunity in Transplantation of Rat Tumor
John B. Loefer, Foundation of Applied Research
4:35 Viola reidia Corp. sp. nov.

Mrs. Bruce Reid, Big Thicket Association, Silsbee, Texas
4:45 Preliminary Notes on Nesting Association in a Texas Pond
Pauline James, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas

Section III — Social Science

Crystal Room, Nueces Hotel

FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00 - 12:00

C. A. Gregg, Presiding

9:00 Purpose and Function of Municipal Government in Organized Society
W. C. Collier, City Manager, Corpus Christi, Texas
9:30 Failing Responsibilities to Our Children

Jere A. Daniel, Probation Officer, Juvenile Dept., Corpus Christi, Texas
10:00 Legal Requirements for Educational Administrators in Texas Public Schools
James W. Askew, Superintendent Schools, Skidmore, Texas
10:30 The Importance of History— -James A. Creighton, Roy Miller High School
11:00 The Importance of Understanding Economics and Its Place in the General
Social Science Field — Mr. John Perkins, Del Mar College

FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 2:00-4:00

Minton White, Presiding

2:00 The Impeachment of James E. Ferguson— R. W. Steen, Texas A. & M.

2:30 Teacher Tenure in Texas— E. L. Bowden, U. C. C.

3:00 — -The Library as a Patent Force in the Social Growth of the Community
Richard Gillespie

SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 9:00 - 12:00

Paul Cutter, Presiding

9:00 Esterification of Maleic Anhydride

Ben F. Freasier, Texas A. and I. College
9:30 Hydrolysis and Saponification of Dimethyl Maleate
Robert D. Seeley, Texas A. and I. College
10:00 A Chemical Interpretation of the Reaction of Alkali Metals with Liquid
Ammonia — William C. McGavock, Trinity University
10:30 The Gasogene — J. A. Scanlan and B. H. Amstead, University of Texas
11 :00 The Strength of Metals at Low Temperatures
John R. Watt, University of Texas
11:40 Solutropes — F. F. Mikus, Texas A. and I. College

June 30
1951, No. 2

Regional. Meetings

331

SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 8:00 - 12:00

D. Warren Craik, Presiding

8:00 Simple Monochrome and Duochrome Photomicrography in High School
Biology — John W. Sarver, W. B. Ray High School, Corpus Christi, Texas
8:20 Effects of Soil Media Upon the Rooting of Ornamental Plants.

Leo L. Bailey, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
8:40 Distribution of Phosphate and Nitrogen in Root Tips (334 x 4 lantern)

W. E. Norris, George Turner and James Moyer, SWTSTC, San Marcos, Texas
9:00 Use of Different Indices in Measuring Respiration of Different Segments of
the Growing Root Tip (334 x 4 lantern)

W. E. Norris, James Moyer, and George Turner, SWTSTC, San Marcos, Texas
9:20 Food Analysis in Notropis venustus venustus from Lake Travis
L. V. Guerra, University of Texas

9 :40 Home Ranges of Peromyscus maniculatus and Perognatbus hispidus in
Johnson-grass pasture — L. K. Hay, University of Texas
10:00 Local Differentiation in the Pocket Gopher ( Geomys per sonatas) in
Southern Texas — -T. E. Kennerly, University of Texas
10:20 Local Variation in Populations of the Collared Lizard (Crotaphytus collaris )
W. L. Thompson, University of Texas
11:00 The Reptiles and Amphibians of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province
Ralph W. Axtell, University of Texas
11:20 Mammals of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province
W. F. Blair, University of Texas

11:40 Curve Fitting— Ben South, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas
SATURDAY, APRIL 7—9:00 - 12:00
E. L. Bowden, Presiding

9:00 Social and Educational Problems Facing Youth of Spanish Name in Texas
A. O. Lerma, Member of Board of Education, Corpus Christi
9:30 Religious Education in Texas— Nat. C. Bettis, U. C. C.

9:30 Social Science Apace with Educational Developments
Jack L. Martin, T. C. U.

10:00 Personnel Relations

Fenton Holm, Personnel Director, Corn Products Refining Company
10:00 Guiding Principles in Curriculum Making for Science
Lewis R. Fisher, Texas A. & I. College

Junior Academy
Terrace Room, Driscoll Hotel
SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 9:00 - 12:30

Velma Wilson, Presiding

9:00 Greetings from the Texas Junior Academy Committee
Wayne Taylor, Denton High School
9:15 Production and Investigation of Smoke Rings
Ed Coughlin, Roy Miller High School
9:30 Infant Mortality in Texas

Sandra Hollenbeck, Harlingen High School
9:45 Gulf Coast Chemical Industries

Grace Riemann, Brownsville High School
10:00 Garments from Gas— E. T. Lindsey, Assistant to the Plant Manager,

Celanese Corporation of America, Bishop, Texas
10:30 Construction of a Radio— Seinwil Perl, Brownsville High School
10:45 Extraction of Caffeine from Tea

Evelyn Sutter, Brownsville High School
11:00 Famous Experiments in Science— Marion Bennett, Ray High School
11:15 A Jet Propulsion Model — -Hector Cisneros, Brownsville High School
11:30 Crystals— Robert Lattimore, Brownsville High School
11:45 Various Micro-organisms Observed in a Hay - Infusion
James Wicker, Roy Miller High School
12:00 Building an Electric Motor— Alan Lilyholm, Roy Miller High School
12:15 Silkworms- — -Sister Aloysius, Incarnate Word Academy, Corpus Christi

332

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June SO

El Paso Meeting

GENERAL PROGRAM

8:00 P.M.

8:30-10:00 A.M.
10:00-12:00 A.M.

12:30- 1:15 P.M.

2:00- 4:30 P.M.
4:30- 6:00 P.M.

7:30 P.M.

9:00-11:00 A.M.
10:00-12:30 A.M.
11:00-11:45 A.M.

12:00- 1:30 P.M.
12:00- 1:30 P.M.

1:30- 3:30 P.M.
1:30- 5:30 P.M.
3:30- 5:00 P.M.

3:30 P.M.
7:00 P.M.

SUNDAY, APRIL 29, 1951

Meeting of the Executive Committee, S. W. Div., A.A.A.S.
Library, Science Bldg., Texas Western College

MONDAY, APRIL 30, 1951

Registration. Foyer Magoffin Auditorium, T.W.C. Registration
will continue through Wednesday.

General Session. Magoffin Auditorium, T.W.C.

Music: T.W.C. Music Department
Address of Welcome: President Wilson H. Elkins
Response: Prof. C. W. Botkin, President, S. W. Div. A.A.A.S.
Greetings: Dr. Howard A. Meyerhoff, Administrative Secre¬
tary, A.A.A.S., Washington, D. C.

Greetings: Dr. Kirtley F. Mather, President, A.A.A.S., Harvard
University.

Luncheon will be served at the College Dining Hall, followed
by address by Dr. Kirtley F. Mather on "Earth and Man
Today.”

Section Meetings.

Reception at the home of President and Mrs. Elkins, T.W.C.
Campus.

Dinner in Juarez, New Tivoli Cafe.

TUESDAY, MAY 1, 1951

Section Meetings.

Field Trip to Phelps Dodge Refinery.

A lecture including slides and movies on "The Use of Tissue
Cultures in Experimental Biology and Medicine,” by Dr. C.
M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, The University of Texas, Galves¬
ton. Dr. Pomerat is a member of the Texas Academy of
Science.

Luncheon, College Dining Hall.

Joint luncheon of the Texas and New Mexico Academies of
Science. Green Room, Hilton Hotel.

Section Meetings.

Guided tour through Fort Bliss.

Open House of Cotton Memorial Building (art exhibit and
refreshments) and the El Paso Centennial Museum. Campus.
Section Business Meetings.

Annual Dinner. College Dining Hall.

Greetings: Dr. C. C. Doak, President of the Texas Academy
of Science.

Address of Prof. C. W. Botkin, retiring President. "Some
Contributions of the Desert to Man’s Welfare.”

WEDNESDAY, MAY 2, 1951

A.M. Business Session and Election of Officers, Southwestern Division.

Magoffin Auditorium.

A.M. Section Meetings.

P.M Luncheon. College Dining Hall.

P.M. Joint Symposium on "Potentialities of Desert and Arid Lands.”
P.M. Guided tour through American Smelting and Refining Plant.
P.M. John Wesley Powell Lecture: "Nature and the Question of Rain
Making,” Dr. E. J. Workman, President, and Director of
Research and Development, New Mexico School of Mines,
Socorro, N. M. Magoffin Auditorium.

THURSDAY, MAY 3, 1951

Trip to White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. Time and place of
rendezvous and route to be taken will be announced at the General Business Session,
Wednesday.

9:00-10:00

10:00-12:00
12:00- 1:30
1:30- 5:30
2:15
8:00

1951, No. 2
June 3©

The First Idealist

333

THE FIRST IDEALIST

A jellyfish swam in a tropical sea,

And he said, "This world it consists of me:

There’s nothing above and nothing below
That a jellyfish ever can possibly know
(Since we’ve got no sight, or hearing, or smell),
Beyond what our single sense can tell.

Now, all that I learn from the sense of touch
Is that fact of my feelings, viewed as such.

But to think they have any external cause
Is an inference clean against logical laws.

Again, to suppose, as I’ve hitherto done,

There are other jellyfish under the sun,

Is a pure assumption that can’t be backed
By a lot of proof or a single fact.

In short, like Hume, I very much doubt
If there’s anything else at all without.

So I come at least to the plain conclusion,

When the subject is fairly set free from confusion,
That the universe simply centers in me
And if I were not, then nothing would be.”

That minute, a shark who was strolling by
Just gulped him down, in the twink of an eye;
And he died, with a few convulsive twists.

But, somehow, the universe still exists.

Grant Allen

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the editor, Texas journal of
science, BOX 867, rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to
minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of
the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced
with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small
type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction
than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some
authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬
cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to
bibliographies.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper:—

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Literature Cited

The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible*

These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as
they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

- 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps.

- 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Texas Journal of Science

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬
sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.

8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish
proofs to the editor so that two copies may be sent to the author for
proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have
to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted
on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

Pages Pages Pages

1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84

Each Additional 100 Copies
1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Pages
12 to 16
15.40

5.81

The Editorial Board

The Texas Journal of Science

June 30
1951, No. 2

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist
1404 Esperson Bldg.

Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex.

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. FA-7086

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting
Horvitz Research Laboratories
Houston, Texas

Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer
Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376

SHERMAN NELSON

- OIL —

Royalty — Leases
Seguin, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Cqnsulting Geologist
2101-03 Alamo National Building
SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

HERSHAL C. FERGUSON

Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist
Esperson Building
HOUSTON, TEXAS

8251^2 Gravier Street New Orleans, La.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL
ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys
317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

COCKBURN OIL
CORPORATION

1740 Commerce Building
HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum
DALLAS, TEXAS

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY
Lubbock, Texas

Consulting Geologists
Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental" Building
DALLAS, TEXAS

FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS
COMPANY, INC.

Contractors and Engineers
3018 Leeland

Houston, Texas Phone AT-2451

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

Continued

COASTAL OIL FINDING
COMPANY

Gravity Meter Surveys
Esperson Building

Houston 2, Texas

As a courtesy to the Academy, in
doing business with our advertis¬
ers, please make mention of the
fact that you saw their advertise¬
ment in The Texas Journal of
Science.

FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM

Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9

“Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz

“Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . §3.00

“Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . . . $2.00

(Limited edition)

Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles —

Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector's Item) . $1.25

Quality

TIRES and BATTERIES

AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

A MUST for Visitors

TURF GRILL

2216 Market • Galveston, Texas

1951, No. 2
June 30

The Texas Journal of Science

TAYLOR EXPLORATION
COMPANY

SEISMIC SURVEYS
CONSULTING

2118 Welch
Houston, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 2
June 30

Petroleum Products
of proven quality

AMERICAN

BRAHMAN

BREEDERS

ASSOCIATION
2711 S. MAIN •

EMBLEMATIC

OF THE BEST
IN MODERN

MERICAN BEEF
BRAHMANS

HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC.

1007 South Shepherd Drive
Houston, Texas

Established — 1932

June 30
1951, No. 2

The Texas Journal of Science

c4lway,3 ChooAe an
Affiliated National Hotel!

29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities
AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS

Hotel

ALABAMA
Admiral Semmes .

. Mobile

Hotel

Thomas Jefferson .

..Birmingham

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Hotel

Washington .

...Washington

INDIANA

Hotel

Claypool .

..Indianapolis

LOUISIANA

Jung

Hotel .

New Orleans

Hotel

DeSoto .

New Orleans

NEBRASKA

Hotel

Paxton .

. Omaha

NEW MEXICO

Hotel Clovis . Clovis

SOUTH CAROLINA
Hotel Wade Hampton . Columbia

TEXAS

Hotel Stephen F. Austin..

Hotel Edson .

Hotel Brown wood .

Hotel Baker .

Hotel Travis .

Hotel Cortez .

Hotel Buccaneer .

Hotel Galvez .

Hotel Jean LaFitte .

Coronado Courts .

Miramar Court .

Hotel Cavalier .

Hnt.pl Plaza

. Austin

. Beaumont

. Dallas

. El Paso

. Galveston

. . Galveston

. Galveston

. Laredo

Hotel Lubbock .

. Lubbock

Hotel Falls .

. Marlin

Hotel Cactus .

HMel Mpnjpr

....San Angelo
..San Antonio

Angeles Courts .

...San Antonio

VIRGINIA

Hotel Mountain Lake Mountain Lake

Hotel Monticello . Norfolk

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
Gun Perforating

Houston, Texas

ROBERT H. RAY CO.
Gravity Meter Survey

and

Interpretation

FOREIGN - DOMESTIC

2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas

QUINBY se7!cTen*

1951, No. J
June 30

HOUSTON, TEXAS

wines.' i i q r K r,K s
A Nl) A II A M l': A t; n r S

i From the World’*
L Markets! -

»j+ «j* «j+ *j. -*j* *j* ♦** *j* *j* *j. «j* »j«

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

3806 Cedar Springs Rd.

Dallas 4, Texas

1152,/2 North Second St.

Abilene, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

“A name worth remembering”

You can benefit from our many
years experience in the personnel
field.

Executive, Office, Sales and Technical
Personnel

Member National Employment Board,
Chamber of Commerce and Employment
Counselors

409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg.
Houston 2, Texas

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President : John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Human health, hygiene and public health:

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor : Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities :

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. :

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station

Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston

Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin

A. B. Melton, Denton

Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouncillors :

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations..

J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors :

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin
UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston
Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls.

J, G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A, Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Cfiemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur . . . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific work ere
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of eciepce
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly.

Other publications are memorials, monographs* surveys and news letters.

MEETINGS : State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall/ and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES : Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each.

CHAPTER FOUR

the Fascinating Story of the Search for Oil

X.rl Specialized seismograph

equipment used today in the continuing search
for new oil reserves has evolved from years
of laboratory and field work by geologists
and physicists ... by mechanical, electrical
and electronic engineers ... by hundreds of
practical men with an inbred aptitude for pe¬
troleum exploration. Still, exhaustive work
and study go on in an effort to further im¬
prove present equipment. In General Geophys¬
ical laboratories, scientists and engineers de¬
sign and build every piece of equipment used
by General field crews. Other General tech¬
nicians are investigating theories advanced for
the development of new specialized equip¬
ment. That’s why General is better equipped
today than ever before to accurately locate
and determine conditions favorable to find¬
ing new oil reserves.

± it/ J ./ A. With the acceptance of

geology by the oil industry as a guide to pros¬
pecting, the technique of first importance to
the industry became that of surface structural
mapping ... of a hunt for surface anticlines.
About the year 1913, however, detailed sur¬
face mapping with the plane table — taken
over from the topographic branch of the
United States Geological Survey by W. T.
Griswold in mapping the Cadiz, Ohio, quad¬
rangle — became the order of the day. By the
middle 20’s, practically all of the areas re¬
garded as attractive for oil prospecting in the
Mid-Continent had been mapped and the
method had practically exhausted its useful¬
ness. From E. DeGolyer’s Book, etThe Devel¬
opment of the Art of Prospecting ”

THE

SEPTEMBER 30, 1951

PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY
THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951)

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological
V. Pres. Sec. III. Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological

C. C. Doak
Willis G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair

C. D. Leake

D. B. Calvin
W. Frank Blair

Roy Donahue
Horace R. Blank

V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young
Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte

Junior Academy Greta Oppe

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Elected Director W.
Elected Director
Elected Director

W. R. Woolrich, Dean
L. W. Blau
E. DeGolyer
J. Brian Eby
0. S. Petty

C. C. Doak
W. G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
Armstrong Price
Gordon Gunter
Don O. Baird

A and M College
Texas Christian U.

P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of T.
A and M College
Marine Inst., U. of T.
S.H.S.T.C.

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950)
Engineering, U. of T.
Humble Oil & Refining Co.
DeGolyer & McNaughton
Consulting Geologist
Petty Geophysical Co.

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
Rockport
Galveston
Galveston
Galveston
Austin
College Station
College Station
College Station
College Station
Galveston

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
College Station
Port Aransas
Huntsville

Austin
Houston
Dallas
Houston
San Antonio

Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews,

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardln-Simmons
Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C.

Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor
Brownwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M.

Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C.

Corpus Christi

R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U.
PftllflB

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U.

V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly
Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.
Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Haskell M’cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan

Geology, University of Houston
Freeport

C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co.
Galveston

C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech
J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech

Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech
Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C.
E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word
J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research
Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

- C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor
Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

Volume III, No. 3 Published Quarterly at

September 30, 1951 San Marcos, Texas

(Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Texas, March 21, 1949)

The Texas Journal of Science

- ★ -

EDITOR

J. L. Baughman
Chief Marine Biologist
Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission
Rockport, Texas

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr. Charles F. Squire
Dept, of Physics
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

Dr. Claude C. Albritton. Jr.
Dept, of Geology
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas

Dr. W. Frank Blair
Dept, of Zoology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

Dr. Thomas N. Campbell
Dept, of Anthropology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

Dr. John G. Sinclair
Dept, of Anatomy,
Medical Branch
University of Texas,
Galveston, Texas

Manuscripts and correspondence on the
Journal should be addressed to
The Editor

Texas Journal of Science
Box 867
Rockport, Texas

ADVERTISING MANAGER
Guy N. Turner
1404 Esperson Building
Houston,,, Texas

Volume III

Number 3

CONTENTS

- + -

The Southwest Research Institute. Ray Neumann . 335

The Use of Rock Wall Construction by the Indians of

the Big Bend in Texas. Victor J. Smith . 343

Vegetaiton of the Southwest — -Past and Present. Howard J. Dittmer . 350

Small Stream Water Utilization Problems — Texas. Trigg Twichell . 356

A Survey of the Sites of the Paleo-Indian in the Middle

Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico. Frank C. Hibben . 362

Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Fred R. Haeberle . 368

Exfoliation and Weathering on Granite Domes

in Central Texas. Horace R. Blank . . 376

Toxicity Levels of Hydrocyanic Acid and Some Industrial

By-Products. F. M. Daugherty, Jr . 39 1

Suitable Media for Growing Mass Cultures of Pneumococcus.

John B. Loefer and Russell G. Weichlein . 397

The Reduviidae of Texas. Joe C. Elkins . . 407

Ecological Distribution of the Birds of the Stockton Plateau in

Northern Terrell County, Texas. Wilmot A. Thornton . 413

The Eels of the Northern Gulf Coast of the United States

and Some Related Species. Isaac Ginsburg . 431

Description of a New Pelecypod of the Genus Anadara

from the Gulf of Mexico. Leo George Hertlein . 487

Notes . 490

Book Reviews

493

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL LABORATORIES of Southwest Research Institute, with
Cable House in right background. A landmark in the vicinity, Cable House has been
converted into offices and library for the Institute. These buildings are but two of
fourteen which comprise the laboratories and shops of Southwest Research Institute.

THE SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE

RAY NEUMANN
Director of Public Relations
Southwest Research Institute

A nonprofit, public service organization conducting scientific research
for industry on a cost-fee basis, Southwest Research Institute has grown in
three years from a twelve-man staff in two buildings to more than 200
people in fourteen buildings.

Located on 4,000 acres of fertile Essar Ranch soil immediately west
of historic old San Antonio, the Institute is flanked by two sister research
units in the Institute of Inventive Research, which assists inventors, and
the Foundation of Applied Research, which is concerned largely with funda¬
mental work in medicine and agriculture.

0CT2 6 1951

335

336

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

INTERIOR VIEW of Southwest Research Institute’s machine shop.

The purpose of the three-unit structure, dedicated to making science
work for the common man, is to provide the ways and means of solving
industrial research problems, find manufacturers for worthwhile inventions,
develop preventatives and cures for the ills of man and beast, and in general
to better the lot of mankind.

Founded by Tom Slick, youthful San Antonio oil producer and rancher,
the organization has a panel of trustees composed of eminent scientists and
technologists, educators, scientific editors and industrialists from over the
United States. These men govern the operation of the organization.

Taking orders from the trustees is the staff whose head is Dr. Harold
Vagtborg, widely known as the builder of Armour Research Foundation
and more recently president of Midwest Research Institute. Dr. Vagtborg,
a native of Copenhagen but reared and educated in this country, is one of
the leading proponents of industrial research in the nation. He was chosen
by the Institutes’ trustees as the man best able to develop them in the
interest in public service.

All people connected with the institutions are cognizant of the fact
that "today’s science is tomorrow’s industry” and in order to better serve
the area in which they are located, Southwest and its affiliates concern
themselves not only with industrial but with agricultural and livestock
research, utilizing Essar Ranch for test acreage.

1951, No. 3 Southwest Research Institute 337

September 80

THE FOUNDATION OF APPLIED RESEARCH and Southwest Research Institute conduct
continuing programs in agriculture. This is a scene wherein Dr. Frederick Bieberdorf,
Botanist (left) and Dr. John Loefer, Biologist, (right foreground) are examining soil
being seeded with Australian type of buffel grass.

S'wRI was established specifically to assist manufacturers, trade asso¬
ciations, processors, growers, governmental agencies and individuals to
improve their products, to utilize wastes and by-products, to solve technical
problems and to build new industries. The laboratories5 research program is
geared entirely to industrial progress.

With an experienced staff, Southwest, largest of the three scientific
units, is assisting manufacturers and processors not only in the southwest,
but throughout the United States and in such countries as Cuba, Brazil,
Peru, Panama, Mexico and several European nations to secure their com¬
petitive positions and increase profits by providing pooled research facilities
and technological manpower at a considerably lower cost than by other
means.

To large corporations, the Institute with its excellent equipment and
able staff offers the fresh approach , often the key to solving difficult
industrial problems. To the new or small company it brings the services of
a large departmentalized research organization at a fee based on actual cost
in manhours and laboratory expenses. For all practical purposes, the Institute
functions as an extension of a business organization’s own technological
facilities.

Because companies sponsoring research projects are usually seeking to
improve products or processes, and prefer not to inform their, competitors
thereof, many of the Institute’s projects are conducted in a completely

338

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

DR. FREDERICK BIEBERDORF, Institute Botanist, examines culture of airborne molds.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Southwest Research Institute

339

EVALUATING NEW TYPE of cattle spray at Southwest Research Institute

confidential manner. Therefore the Institute seldom discloses the names of
sponsors or the nature of research projects. Past sponsoring companies,
however, have included the Texas Company, Celanese Corporation of
America, United Gas Pipeline Company, Clarke Brothers, Butler Manu¬
facturing Company, Continental Oil Company, the Office of Naval Re¬
search and many other Government agencies.

Altogether, Southwest Research Institute has served more than 400
companies, groups and individuals and is now conducting research at a rate
of $1,000,000 a year- — all on a cost basis.

Assisting Dr. Vagtborg as Department heads are such well-known
scientists and technologists as Mr. Don Abbott, Director of Special Projects;
Dr. Paul M. Erlandson, Chairman of Physics; Dr. W. B. Mather, Chairman
of Mineral Technology; Mr. N. C. Penfold, Supervisor of Engines, Fuels
and Lubricants Research; Mr. C. D. Pengelley, Chairman of Engineering
Mechanics; Dr. C. L. Shrewsbury, Chairman of Agricultural Chemistry
and Associate Director of the Foundation of Applied Research; Mr. C. W.
Smith, Director of Housing and Construction Technology, and Dr. J. S.
Swearingen, Chairman of Chemical Engineering.

The organization includes a rapidly expanding technical library of
more than 7,000 volumes and the Departments of Biology; Botany; Chem¬
istry; Engines, Fuels and Lubricants Evaluation and Development; Physics,

340

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

ELECTRONICS RESEARCH is occupying engineers and physicists at Southwest Research
Institute. Here is specially built machine designed to bring to a successful conclusion a
research project sponsored by a manufacturing company.

SCENE IN SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE foundry where castings are made in the
building of new machinery to perform new processes developed in laboratories of
Foundation of Applied Research and Southwest Research Institute.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Southwest Research Institute

341

ENGINES, FUELS and LUBRICANTS RESEARCH occupies an entire department of South¬
west Research Institute.

Electronics and Instrumentation; Engineering Mechanics; Chemical Engi¬
neering and Mineralogy. These are augmented by the Institute’s large
machine and carpenter shops.

Unique in that it is closely affiliated with two other scientific research
institutes as well as a ranch, Southwest also has the distinction of working
principally in seven large common denominator fields of activity in its Divi¬
sions of Fire Technology, Oceanography and Meteorology, Petroleum Tech¬
nology, Housing, and Construction Technology, Special Projects, Military
Research and Development, and in the foreign field with an International
Division.

Inauguration of each of the Divisions was undertaken only after
exhaustive studies showed the Institute how it could best serve the public
interest in the commercial, industrial and agricultural development of the
Southwest and the Gulf Coast.

The Housing and Construction Technology Program, for example, is
two-fold in that it performs research and field studies in construction tech¬
niques and also conducts a nationwide program of quality housing. The latter
assists the public, merchant builders and architects in identifying quality
in materials and workmanship by awarding certificates of approval on
housing units which pass its rigid standards of quality.

THE INSTITUTE OF INVENTIVE RESEARCH

Providing a comprehensive service at no initial cost to inventors in
order to develop worthwhile inventions, the Institute of Inventive Research
also assists manufacturers and processors by providing them with new items

342

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

for their production lines. In addition, the Institute also serves society by
bringing to completion new products and processes which might otherwise
be abandoned.

To date, IR has screened more than 42,000 invention submittals of
which it selected only 141 for development. At present, its development
program is closed to the acceptance of additional items until such time as
it has marketed a number of those now being tested and patented.

Samples of this organization’s work may be found in the new Poulter
Method of Seismic Exploration for oil which eliminates the drilling of shot
holes ordinarily used in this work; the Youtz-Slick Lift-Slab Building
Method successfully used to reduce costs in erecting concrete slab buildings;
an insecticide spray gun which eliminates the formerly tedious labor of
mixing insecticides with water, and other devices and processes.

THE FOUNDATION OF APPLIED RESEARCH

Engaging in virtually any field of scientific inquiry giving promise of
yielding practical benefits to mankind, the Foundation of Applied Research
is the oldest of the three organizations and owns the property, buildings
and equipment with which they operate.

This organization’s activities have covered research programs in such
spheres as medicine, biology, botany, agriculture, livestock improvement and
veterinary science. Among its programs presently is one exploring a new
approach to the problem of cancer.

Southwest and its affiliated organizations, their qualified staffs and
modern equipment are able to undertake almost any type of scientific re¬
search. In scope, their objectives are as broad as the industrial potentials of
the Southwest region itself.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rock Wall Construction

343

THE USE OF ROCK WALL CONSTRUCTION BY THE
INDIANS OF THE BIG BEND IN TEXAS

VICTOR J. SMITH

Sul Ross State College
Alpine, Texas

Possibly the most picturesque develoment of Indian life in America lies
in the Southwestern area of the United States and includes the present states
of Arizona and New Mexico as well as a small amount of Western Texas.
This is a region of cliffs, canyons and plateaus; of limited fertile areas ad¬
jacent to springs or bordering mountain streams and the more placid rivers.
Between these fertile districts stretch areas of mountain and semi-arid
country.

Texans reluctantly admit that the Big Bend was practically without
pottery making and that to the west the arts of both pottery making and
masonry wall construction for shelter had been developed to a marked de¬
gree. At the same time, we wonder just how much culture spread had
been under way or what diffusion of ideas related to several important cul¬
ture traits might have been in process when arrested by the increasing in¬
roads of the European settlers which finally stopped the normal exchange
of ideas between adjacent areas.

Contrasting strongly geographically with other portions of Texas, it
is not surprising that the area of West Texas included in the great bend
of the Rio Grande has yielded evidence that these prehistoric peoples left
many clues indicating the development of a culture peculiarly their own,
but in some respects similar to their neighbors to the West and Northwest.

FIGURE 1 — Low walls built between larger boulders for partial protection. Supposed
to have been covered overhead with skins. Lympis Canyon.

344

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

FIGURE 3 — Byrd Mine "Handprint Shelter." Typical wall work in front of small
room shelter. This "cave" contained many interesting handprints made
by scraping away the background from smoke covered rock.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rock Wall Construction

345

It is the purpose of this paper to report on the evidence of the use of
rock wall construction by the Indians dwelling in the Big Bend of Texas.
The evidence reported upon falls into seven types or categories, each dis¬
cussed in terms of a typical site as follows:

RUBBLE FILLING FOR PROTECTION AGAINST WEATHER

At a small "room shelter” fourteen miles north of Alpine on the
Davidson Ranch the Indian "tenants” had improved this small naturally-
formed room by filling in a space on the northwest side of the room with
roughly piled rock wall work which formed an effective protection against
wind and weather. In other shelters, however, the idea never seemed to have
occurred to the occupants. It may have been that an easier method was used
in which skins were stretched over the opening.

ROUGH ROCK WALLS BETWEEN VERTICAL ROCKS AT THE SIDES OF
CANYON WALLS

These are frequently observed at the top of the talus slope, are usually
from three to four feet high and sometimes span the "V”-shaped opening
between rocks from three to six feet apart. Some of the walls are com¬
pletely filled in behind; others stand without fill as if they served for small
pens or storage areas. Some were thought to be graves but proof of such
burials has not been established. Those lower in the valleys, especially along
Lympia Creek, would well serve for small animal pens or storage bins.

WALLS BETWEEN ROCKS TO MAKE ROOM SHELTERS

Somewhat similar to the above, but found on level areas where rock
boulders jut up in favorable three or four-group arrangements, are observed
rough wall spans between the boulders to a height of three or four feet, one
side open and evidently suited to skin covering to complete an entirely satis¬
factory room shelter. These "casas” occur along Lympia and elsewhere.

FIGURE 4 — Sunny Glen "Cave.” A long wall enclosed this shelter.

346

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

FIGURE 5 — Open wall along trail thought to be an ambush or protection

against raiders.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rock Wall Construction

347

ROCK WALL WORK IN FRONT OF LARGE ROCK SHELTERS

The most important and extensive of several such uses of rock wall is
to be observed in Sunny Glen Canyon where a large overhanging rock shelter
is further protected by a low rock wall some twenty feet long and three
feet high. This wall was so constructed as to afford protection to the occu¬
pants of the shelter against an enemy approaching from the valley below
as well as from small animals and unpleasant air currents.

HILLTOP ROCK CIRCLE FORTIFICATIONS

The most interesting of several rock circle walls is to be seen on the
old Hancock Ranch north of Alpine and not far from the Mendoza Trail,
now almost identical with the Santa Fe right-of-way between Presidio and
San Angelo. Artifacts attested to a village or camp site near a small spring
at this point. Back of the camp is a sharp escarpment continuing for some
distance so that a group occupying the camp was well protected from the
rear. Just south of the camp was a small conical hill which overlooked the
valley approaches to the north and south. On the top of this hill was dis¬
covered a low stone wall some twenty or more feet in diameter. The circular
fortification commanded the slope and could have been defended by a small
group of warriors against a considerable number of attackers.

Near this fortified hill, to the south, was observed a cluster of numer¬
ous "beehive” or conical shaped rock mounds, heaped from the good supply
of loose rocks at hand. Excavations determined no positive evidence of their
use as graves though the slightly hollow core and deposits suggested their
use as hastily made graves.

SMALL ROCK CIRCLES CALLED "MACHINE GUN NESTS”

At many points in the Big Bend rock circles are found. Some are
quite large in diameter and are so spaced as to suggest their use in cere¬
monial gatherings. Others are from six to ten feet across and seem to have
been used as weights to hold down the edges of circular tents in areas where
stake driving was most difficult. Another huge rock circle, more than 100
feet in diameter, with spaced rocks or boulders, the size of which would
require many men to move into symmetrical position is found in Sunny
Glen canyon. Since such circles are not classed as walls, they are not dis¬
cussed further in this report.

The use of low rock walls in circular form commonly called "machine
gun nests” may be best observed at the top of a long low ridge projecting
from the flat valley near Skillman Grove in Jeff Davis County. Here a group
of six such protective walls range along to top of a high ridge. To the north
was a steep slope up which an enemy must climb exposed to the fire from
the chain fort above. To the south the defenders were protected by a high
bluff. A number of broken arrow points were picked up in the area below
these walls.

AMBUSH OR TRAIL FORTIFICATIONS

A. Rising sharply out of Ranger Canyon and leading "over the hills”
to the country south of Alpine, may be seen a definitely travelled trail.
Ranchmen say that this path has been used since the earliest settlers came
to the ranch country. As one climbs up the steep incline no sign of rock
wall work is to be seen. If one pauses about two-thirds up the steep wind-

348

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

ing trail, however, and looks back, he will see a low rock wall built from
a huge boulder close beside the path, first at right angles to the trail and
then curving some twenty feet to the left, which would flank any group
of unwelcome travellers making the ascent. All of this rock work is com¬
pletely hidden to this day by mountain shrubbery from the low side and

FIGURE 6 — Typical rough wall work found throughout the Big Bend in Texas.
Used for fortifications and protection against weather.

FIGURE 7 — Remains of wall built up to overhanging rock ceiling to form rooms.
Doorway has caved away since first observed.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rock Wall Construction

349

the whole setting forms an ideal protection for a party, however small,
who might be determined to defend the passage or to surprise intruders.

B. A similar situation, but on less rugged terrain, may be observed
near the Alpine-Fort Davis highway just as it enters Musquiz Canyon. Fol¬
lowing a path during a reconnaissance trip, the writer climbed over what
first appeared to be a low rock mound. Upon investigation, this proved to be
a portion of wall which had been tramped down by constant passage of
cattle and deer. Again the layout had the appearance of military breast¬
works in the form of a defensive wall well • screened by native vegetation to
one coming up the canyon. Looking back from the upper side, however,
low walls are to be seen from boulder to boulder and curving to form a
protection for as many as thirty men hidden to defend the approach or to
surprise a party for booty.

WALLED ROOMS

All of the wall work discussed thus far has been in the nature of un¬
coursed rubble, without evidence of mortar or any great knowledge of
coursed masonry. Only once was our search for the typical walled room
and doorway, of the Southwest been rewarded. High on the south hogback
of Twin Sisters Mountain lies a peaceful little valley, with running water
and safe from the trails below. Ranchmen have found it profitable to dam
this stream which now affords a good supply of water for cattle on the
upper pasture of the Lane Ranch. Here the overhanging rock shelter, so
often found with high ceilings, hangs low so that the idea of building up
the wall to touch the "ceiling” was used. The result was two rooms with
doorways. Our first trip to this interesting spot developed evidence of a
small camp site as well as the walled shelters. Due to the presence of rattle¬
snakes, no complete excavation was made. Several years later a second ex-
pendition was to find that time and construction work on the dam had
resulted in rapid deterioration and the loss of some of the camp area under
the surface of a small lake. Here, however, was definite evidence of the use
of doorways and multiple rooms as well as some mud mortar used to make
a tighter and stronger wall. The camp evidence was not unusual, being
similar to many other open camps with their flint chippings, broken, mor¬
tars, pestles, mullers and rock fragments. A mile away, down in Ranger
Canyon, the Cave Dwellers of the Big Bend had lived for many years in
a huge shelter yielding specimens of basketry, sandals and many artifacts
typical of the Cave People, but no wall work.

This evidence, from widely scattered observations in West Texas,' seems
to indicate that the idea of masonry walls for protection and shelter was
gaining a slow foothold among the Trans-Pecos groups and that the use
of walls for protection from an enemy was rather widely known and used.

350

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

VEGETATION OF THE SOUTHWEST-
PAST AND PRESENT * **

HOWARD J. DITTMER * *

Biology Department
University of New Mexico

Southwestern United States has a topography as extreme as any in
continental North America and undoubtedly exceeded by few areas in the
world. The lowest point in this region is 137 feet above sea level in the
Southwestern corner of Arizona; while the highest points are above 14,000
feet, reached by several peaks in Colorado and 13,600 feet in the Sangre
de Cristo range of New Mexico.

Consequently we have a great diversity of flora inhabiting these many
topographic types. Not only have we altitude to consider in studying the
distribution of plants, but the area embracing over 3 50,000 square miles
has a considerable spread in latitude. In middle western U. S. the land ex¬
tending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains is flat and,
broken only by the river valleys, has little variation in vegetation. In South¬
western U. S. we have a vast desert vegetation, with many different arid
regions each occupied by its own particular dominants. The northern arid
plains are dominated by Sage brush, ( Artemisia tridental a) and some species
of rabbit brush. These regions are conspicuous in northern Arizona and
northern New Mexico, extending into Colorado and much farther north¬
ward, far out of our range. The salt plains are generally occupied by salt¬
bush, ( Atriplex spp. ) , Allenrolfea occidentals, greasewood ( Sarcobatus
vermiculatus) , and salt grass ( Distichlis stricta) Fortunately this associa¬
tion is much more limited and is generally confined to arid salt valleys, as
the Estancia valley of New Mexico and certain playas in southern and
western Arizona. Next to the salt-enduring vegetation, and now occupying
very extensive areas of southern New Mexico and many parts of Arizona,
is the creosote-bush ( Larrea tridentata) and salt bush ( Atriplex spp) asso¬
ciation. Creosote bush prefers a loose well-drained soil and is usually found
on sloping, rolling land. Although some species of salt bush are often found
with it, this plant usually grows in a more compact soil, often occupying
the lower slopes and flat areas between dominant stands of creosote bush.

Most conspicuous in southwestern flora are the cacti and their rela¬
tives. Southern Arizona’s vegetation is unique with this type of plant. Here
we have many more different species and a few unusual genera found no¬
where else. For most of us it is a great thrill to see for the first time the
giant Sahuaro, the organ pipe cactus, and the Joshua tree. These plants,
although conspicuous in the flora of the southern Arizona desert, grow in
close association with many other species including the acacias, franserias,
prickly pears and chollas; farther up the slopes in the desert areas are the
palo verdes, ocotillos, and Lycium. Although some few grasses will descend

* The writer is indebted to the American Philosophical Society for a research grant from its
Penrose Fund to further work in this investigation.

** Presented at the joint meeting of the Texas Academy of Science and the American Asso¬
ciation for the Advancement of Science, El Paso, April 30, May 1, 2, 1951.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Vegetation of the Southwest

351

into these desert areas, the little grazing that occurs has almost completely
removed them so that grasses, in general, have remained in the higher areas
of more adequate rainfall.

Considering the total area of Southwestern United States, grasses oc¬
cupy at least potentially by far the greatest acreage. This is especially true
of New Mexico, western Texas, the Colorado plains areas, and approximately
one-fourth of the state of Arizona. Except for the mountain areas, almost
all of New Mexico could be considered a grassland even though considerable
areas of this land no longer have grass as the dominant plant. For many
years this region has been overgrazed to the extent that palatable species no
longer grow under the minimum climatic conditions provided. Instead, we
find the grasses replaced in the southern portion of the state by desert shrubs
such as creosote bush, mesquite, and tarbush. The middle and northern lati¬
tudes have had their grasses replaced by sagebrush, snakeweed, and rabbit
brush. The sandy-area grasses have been replaced by Dalea, mesquite,
Ephedra and a few hardy annuals.

In western Texas extending down into the Big Bend country, in New
Mexico in isolated areas, and especially in Arizona around the elevations of
4,500 feet, there is a chaparral cover, often exceedingly dense in its habit
of growth. Some of the shrub and tree species that compose this area are
Manzanita, madrona, mountain mahogany, buckthorn, and Apache plume.
In the upper areas of this belt, the scrub live oak is often a very important
member of the association. Generally the land occupied by these communi¬
ties is rough and of poor grazing quality. This belt forms the meeting place
of the desert grassland and woodland communities.

Quite comparable to this chaparral association is the pinon-juniper belt
generally north of the chaparral and occupying the foothills of mountains
of somewhat better climatic conditions than those to which we have previ¬
ously referred. Few mountain areas in the southwest are so dry and so hot
that they will not have a pinon-juniper association. The one-seeded junipers
occupy the lower areas of this belt while the pinon pines grow better in the
upper margins. Above this belt and extending down into it slightly in the
northern areas is Juniperus scopulorum, while in the southern area the alli¬
gator-bark juniper is more prominent. This association ordinarily would
make good grazing land, because the blue grama grass occupies most of the
soil between these trees. However, as is so common throughout the south¬
west, overgrazing has hit this belt as hard as the grasslands themselves. An¬
other plant found in this belt, although it does better in the high grassland
area, is winterfat ( Eurotia lanata) . It is one of the outstanding browse
plants throughout the southwest, but in many areas it has been almost com¬
pletely wiped out.

To many people, the loveliest areas of the southwest are the mountains.
In most sections the forests begin at an altitude of 6,000 feet but you feel
you have really reached timber when you are around 7,000 feet. Here the
ponderosa pine, most valuable tree of the southwest, predominates. Associat¬
ing with the yellow pine, and extending much above it in elevation, is the
Douglas fir. Although a much larger tree than the ponderosa pine, it is not
as abundant. If it were it would greatly exceed the pine in value. Higher
still is the Engleman spruce, and in our northern mountains the Colorado
blue spruce. In patches throughout most of our mountains, often occupying
considerable areas, are the white fir and aspens. Other trees, as well as num¬
erous colorful shrubs and herbs, contribute to the flora of these mountains.

352

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Southwestern mountains provide playgrounds and recreational areas for
thousands both winter and summer. In addition, they contribute greatly to
the economy of other thousands. Forests are also necessary for the protec¬
tion of our water sheds in addition to the more tangible uses we commonly
think of in connection with timber. It is our earnest hope that they will
be judiciously used and not exploited as extensively as our grasslands.

One hundred years ago travel throughout the southwest was at a
snail’s pace compared to that of today. Consequently it was necessary for
the early settlers and explorers to carry food with them or live off the land.
Since vegetation was so necessary for their successful migrations, these early
travelers took close cognizance of it. It is very enlightening to read the day
by day accounts of these travelers, and from them we can piece together
the flora present at that time and make a comparison with that of today.

One very interesting expedition, in charge of Lt. Edward F. Beale
(Re-edited by Lesley, 1949), involved the use of camels as pack animals.
The expedition began in San Antonio, Texas, and shortly after leaving there
the recorders began to describe the vegetation. In the vicinity of the Sabanal
river the log includes these comments, "Post oak and mesquite are the
principal growth of timber.” "The first part of our journey today carried
us through a country very much like that of yesterday, during which dis¬
tance (15 miles) grass was very abundant” . . . "As soon as the camels ar¬
rive they are turned loose to graze, but appear to prefer to browse on the
mesquite bushes and the leaves of a thorny shrub, to the finest grasses.”

About 75 miles farther another comment was made from which the
following quotation is taken. "This morning we found at our camp, for the
first time, a shrub, of which we are to see a great deal between this and the
end of our journey, and in many places shall find no other wood. It is
as greasewood, and I was delighted to see the camels seek it and eat it with
the greatest apparent relish.”

North of El Paso Lt. Beale made some additional comments concern¬
ing grass. Fie was now in the Jornado del Muerto range about 20 miles
northeast of Las Cruces. He says, "Nothing could exceed the beauty of
the country we have travelled over this morning. The whole extent, as far
as vision reached ahead, was a level plain, covered thickly with the most
luxurious grass, and filled with beautiful wild flowers, while on each side
the mountains in the distance, nearly covered with clouds, loomed up
grandly. Hundreds and hundreds of thousands of acres, containing the
greatest abundance of the finest grass in the world, and the richest soil are
here lying vacant, and looked upon by the traveller with dread, because of
its want of water.”

All the way up the Rio Grande to Albuquerque the expedition en¬
countered excellent grazing land and a valley with many cottonwood trees
on the banks. Peculiarly, no comment is made of creosote bush. Consid¬
ering the prevalence of this shrub, now dominant over much of the area
traversed by the expedition, it seems reasonable to assume that one hundred
years ago blue grama grass occupied the land now supporting little more
than creosote bush. Overgrazing probably removed the grass, allowing the
creosote bush to come in from outlying areas.

From Albuquerque, Beale’s expedition traveled westward. The same
favorable comments were made concerning the abundance of grass. In
the Zuni country of western New Mexico he made this comment, "What
a stock country! rI have never seen anything like it; and I predict for this
part of New Mexico a larger population . .

1951, No. 3
September 30

Vegetation of the Southwest

353

In northern Arizona the expedition traversed some mountain country
in the vicinity of Mount Sitgreaves. Here Lt. Beale measured a pine tree
which he says was 19 feet in circumference and of very great height. This
expedition finally reached California where Lt. Beale had a home. He had
traveled from the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Pacific Ocean with¬
out the loss of a single man through a country of hostile Indians and a
region seriously short of water. Fortunately grass was much more abund¬
ant then than it is now. I venture to say such an expedition today over
the same route would be far more hazardous if it were done with the same
equipment, roads, and animals as used in 18 50. The only change would
be in the amount of grass available.

Somewhat earlier, a trader began a series of journeys into the south¬
west from Independence, Missouri. In all he made eight trips. On some he
stopped at Santa Fe, and on one or two occasions he went as far as Chi¬
huahua City. This man was Josiah Gregg (1849a, 1849b), from whose ac¬
counts the following notations are taken.

Gregg described what he considered the southwest’s finest heritage.
"But by far the most indigenous product of the soil of New Mexico is
its pasturage. Most of the high table-plains afford the finest grazing in the
world, while for want of water, they are utterly useless for most other
purposes. That scanty moisture which suffices to bring forth the natural
vegetation is insufficient for agricultural productions, without the aid of
irrigation. The high prairies of all Northern Mexico differ greatly from
those of our border in the general character of their vegetation. They are
remarkably destitute of the gay flowering plants for which the former are
so celebrated, being mostly clothed with different species of a highly nutri¬
tious grass called grama , which is of a very short and curly quality. The
highlands, upon which alone this sort of grass is produced, being seldom
verdant till after the rainy season sets in, the grama is only in perfection
from August to October. But being rarely nipt by the frost until the rains
are over, it cures upon the ground and remains excellent hay ... equal if
not superior to that which is cut and stacked from our western prairies.”

Gregg writes about the mountains from El Paso northward as being
clothed with pine, cedar, and a dwarf species of oak, and that the valleys
are timbered with cottonwood and occasionally mezquite. He becomes
most enthusiastic about the country in his description of the northern
mountains when he journeyed westward from the vicinity of Taos. About
this country he recorded, "Between the Brazos and Red River, there is
surely the most beautiful and picturesque region I have ever beheld. I saw
some of the finest timber, generally oak ... not that scrubby oak which
characterizes so much of the Texan territory . . . but large black and bur-
oak; such as would answer all the purposes for which the largest timber
is useful. Between those two rivers, no doubt there is destined to be one of
the most dense and prosperous settlements. The fertility of the soil is not
exceeded by any I have seen; and, from the high and undulating character
of the country, there can be no doubt of its being very healthy.”

Whipple’s ( 18 56) expedition in 18 53 covered much the same territory
as Beale in going westward to California from Albuquerque. However, he
entered the Southwest from the east. In northeastern New Mexico, on suc¬
cessive days he made these comments concerning the vegetation, "We en¬
camped near the mouth of Wine creek, where were acres of land covered

354

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

with grape-vines, looking like a cultivated vineyard . . . wild grapes were
again abundant, tempting the men, some of whom had already suffered
severely from eating to excess.”

Whipple and his party traveled through the Inscription Rock region
of New Mexico then on to the Little Colorado and southwestward into Ari¬
zona. The descriptions of the flora recorded by Whipple and his botanist,
Dr. Bigelow, indicate that the species of plants and general distribution of
them were much the same then as today with the exception of grass which,
of course, was more abundant then. Writing of this more southern vege¬
tation Whipple states: "Upon the slopes of the hills we find in the vege¬
tation an agreeable change from that of the higher country we have left.
Agave Mexicana is quite abundant. It is the beautiful American aloe, or
Century plant, called in this country Mexcal. The Apaches roast it for food;
Mexicans distil from it a spiritous liquor.” Farther along in the vicinity of
Pueblo Creek Whipple says, "The rich black loamy soil we have passed
over is covered most luxuriantly with the excellent grama-grass, so often
referred to as being abundant throughout this region, called by Mexicans
'de china.’ ”

The cacti greatly impressed Dr. Whipple and Dr. Bigelow; many refer¬
ences are made about them and new species were described. In the vicinity
of the Rio Santa Maria they collected species of Cereus, Opuntia , and a
Mamillaria; they also described a large Echinocactus (hedgehog cactus)
which was used not only for food, but also served as the sole culinary ap¬
paratus. Naturally the one that impressed them most was the Cereus gigan-
teus (giant sahuara) which they found scattered upon the hills and which
Whipple states has never before been seen except in the vicinity of the
Rio Gila. The cacti apparently were even more abundant as they proceeded
westward, but in the record they still state that grama grass is growing
upon the hills. In this desert region a direct quotation, I believe, would again
be appropriate. "The country affords excellent grazing lands, similar to,
but less extensive than those of New Mexico. The grass is highly nutritious.
Cactaceae are abundant. Tall and beautiful yuccas, the offensive Larrea
Mexicana (creosote bush), and obione (greasewood) , complete the vegeta¬
tion. Wood is almost entirely wanting. For campfires we depend upon twigs
of obione or the soft pulpy stalks of the yucca.”

Traversing the Southwest, the Military Expedition headed by Emory
(1848, 18 57) left Fort Leavenworth, went directly west to Pike’s Peak,
and then southward. Lt. Abert made most of the notes for the party and
listed a great number of plants all along the route. In northeastern New
Mexico camp was made in a place which was described as a beautiful valley
of fine grass and pools of cool water, where the wild liquorice grew plenti¬
fully. The stream near which they camped was a tributary of the Moro.
Continuing southward, the party camped near the Rio Pecos where the
village of Pecos is situated and where they found excellent grass. Travelling
southwestward, this military party recorded the Mimbres mountains as being
traversed by small streams of pure water and fringed with a stunted
growth of walnut, live oak, and ash. The soil was observed as of excellent
quality from the valleys to the hilltops and covered with a luxuriant
growth of grama grass. The expedition everywhere found abundant grass,
wrote enthusiastically of the cacti in Arizona, and finally described the
live oaks and wild oats in California. In southwestern New Mexico extend¬
ing from Silver City south to the Mexican border, but especially south of

1951, No. 3
September 30

Vegetation of the Southwest

355

Animas, there are several small areas of large live oaks. In appearance this
type of vegetation is very similar to the live oaks in eastern California. The
big difference today is that wild oats occupy the soil under and around these
oaks in California while in New Mexico grama covers much of the soil
where it has not been overgrazed, and where it has the prickly poppy and
herb P silo strophe are very successful invaders.

The early explorers, including the Spanish of the 16th and 17th cen¬
turies, record few if any species present then that we do not have today.
However, there have been some changes. Deciduous species such as walnut,
ash, hackberry, and even cottonwood occupied in greater numbers more
valleys and stream beds than they do today. Probably the necessity of fire
wood and building material caused their removal. In the mountains, more
recent lumbering operations have seriously depleted many forest lands which
have not been properly replanted.

But the most serious maltreatment of our natural vegetation has been
carried out on our plains and mesa lands. Settlement of the southwest by
"Anglos” and increase in the numbers of Mexicans and Spanish Americans
in the last seventy years has apparently resulted in serious depletion of
southwestern soils and a tremendous change in grassland vegetation. Once
described by early settlers as the finest grazing land they had ever seen, these
highland grasslands now support a dominant vegetation of creosote bush, tar-
bush, and other unpalatable species. Restoration by these soils to the luxuri¬
ance of grass that once covered them cannot be accomplished in a short
time. An article published last year and written by Dr. J. L. Gardner (1950)
reports that some of this land now protected from grazing for 30 years is
but slowly recovering its grassy cover. To be sure, it has a much better
stand of grass than that of unprotected land, but a human generation is a
long time to wait for restoration and again ultimate usage. If we are to use
our ranges for grazing as extensively as we once did a more successful grass
will have to be discovered or greater rainfall will have to be provided for
more vigorous growth of the species we now have.

LITERATURE cited

Emory, Lieut. Col. W. H. — Notes of a military reconnaissance, from Fort Leavenworth, in
Missouri, to San Diego, in California, including part of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and
Gila Rivers. Washington. Wendell and Van Benthysen. Printers.

- 1857 — Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey made under the

direction of Secretary of the Interior. Vol. 1. Washington. A, O. P. Nicholson, Printer.
Gardner, J. L. — 1950 — Effects of thirty years of protection from grazing in desert grassland.
Ecology 31(1) s 44-50.

Gregg, Josiah — 1849 — Commerce of the prairies or the journal of a Santa Fe trader during
eight expeditions across the great western prairies and a residence of nearly nine years
in northern Mexico. 2 vols, Philadelphia, J. W. Moore.

Lesley, Lewis Burt — 1949 — Uncle Sam’s camels, the journal of May Humphreys Stacey sup¬
plemented by the report of Edward Fitzgerald Beale (1857-1858). Cambridge. Harvard
University Press.

Whipple, A. W. — 1856 — -Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practi¬
cable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific
Ocean made under the direction of the Secretary of War in 1853-4, according to ac¬
counts of Congress of March 3, 1853, May 31, 1854, and August 5, 1854. Vol. III.
Washington, Beverley Tucker, Printer.

3 56

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

SMALL STREAM WATER UTILIZATION
PROBLEMS— TEXAS

TRIGG TWICHELL * **

Hydraulic Engineer
U. S. Geological Survey
Austin, Texas

Small streams draining areas of 50 square miles or less and having a
sufficient quantity of water of good chemical quality that can be converted
to beneficial uses are a great asset to any community. The successful devel¬
opment of these streams as a dependable source of water supply is depend¬
ent upon basic water resources data. Today more than 2 million people living
in 139 Texas towns and cities depend upon streams for their domestic
water supplies. Eighty-three of these towns are utilizing the water resources
of small streams. A further analysis shows that of these 83 towns 68 have
outgrown the present source of supply; consequently, new facilities must
be constructed to meet current and anticipated demands. Hauling water to
meet the domestic and sanitary needs of communities is a common event
for some towns during periods of even normal rainfall. The people in some
west Texas towns, at times, have paid more for a barrel of drinking water
than for a barrel of crude oil.

Small streams are utilized by many farmers, small municipalities and in¬
dustry for irrigation, stock, and water supply purposes with varying de¬
grees of success. Without adequate stream-flow information investments
for such utilization frequently result in a loss to the users. The unregulated
flood flow of many small streams in practically every section of the state
carries away fertile soils and destroys or damages bridges and other valu¬
able property. Towns and cities are finding it increasingly difficult to design
storm sewers and open channels to drain flood flows from valuable property.
It is estimated that over 50 per cent of the cost of all highway bridges is
for structures crossing streams draining less than 10 square miles. Large
sums of money are now being spent on joint soil and water conservation
measures. Soil conservation agencies are now planning the construction of
many hundreds of flood detention and water conservation reservoirs for
controlling floods on streams draining areas of 1 5 square miles or less. These
reservoirs will be designed for controlling floods that may be expected to
occur once every ten years, with larger flood flows being only partially con¬
trolled because this is now believed by the designers to be the most eco¬
nomical practice for current conditions. The cost of these programs, if
executed, will be many million dollars.

A review of engineering reports of major floods that have occurred on
small streams traversing San Antonio, Houston, Fort Worth, Coleman,
Wichita Falls, and numerous other towns, readily reveals the enormous dam¬
age to property and loss of life that result from unregulated flood flows.
Much property damage is due to the fact that owners of overflow lands are
not aware of the possible flood discharge, flood heights, and the frequency
with which major floods may occur. In 1921 a flood in the Apache, Alazan,

* Publication authorizd by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey

** Presented at the Texas Academy of Science Meeting, College Station, Texas, April 7, 1951

1951, No. 3
September 30

Small Stream Problems

357

San Pedro and Olmos Creeks and the San Antonio River, each draining less
than 50 square miles, destroyed or damaged property valued at $3,245,700,
and caused the loss of 52 lives in the City of San Antonio and vicinity.
In 1946 San Antonio experienced another major flood resulting in the loss
of several lives and property damage estimated at $2,606,300. Stream flow
records collected during this flood show that Olmos Reservoir on Olmos
Creek held back flood waters which otherwise would have greatly increased
flood damages, and that the unregulated streams whose flood plains were
clogged with homes and other developments caused the major damage.
United States Geological Survey publications — Water Supply Paper 488,
"The Floods in Central Texas in September 1921,” and Circular No. 32,
"Floods of September 1946 at San Antonio, Texas,” prepared in coopera¬
tion with the Texas State Board of Water Engineers, contain valuable basic
hydrologic data that will be needed by designing engineers in planning
additional flood protection for that community. Unfortunately this type
of basic information is available for only a very few small watersheds in
Texas.

The increasing number of thickly populated centers, the construction
and maintenance of the highway system, the expansion of industry, the in¬
creased demands for electric power, and the need for conserving the soil
and water of the state, all introduce engineering problems that deal with
the control and conservation of the surface water resources of small streams.
As a result of these complex activities, factual information that shows the
true stream flow or runoff characteristics of small streams is necessary.
Before the designing engineer can proceed with plans for the construction
of bridges and flood control or other water-use structures, he must determine
from the most dependable sources the pertinent flow characteristics of the
respective stream. Stream flow does not occur in a uniform pattern —
climatic conditions, surface geology, vegetation, topography, evaporation
and transpiration are -factors that affect the variations of flow. Major floods
occur infrequently and at irregular intervals often many years in length;
the smaller floods occur more frequently and at shorter intervals of time;
and ordinary and drouth flows fluctuate with rainfall. Drouths of five-year
duration are not uncommon in west Texas. There is no way to measure
accurately the variations of stream flow except from continuous records of
flow collected for ten or more years at or near the site of the proposed de¬
velopment.

When factual stream flow data are not available, the engineer must
make the best possible estimate of flood or drouth flows, average annual
flow, etc., from rainfall data and theoretical means which are subject to
considerable error and which tend to encourage over-design in order to
insure safety.

An example of the means employed in estimating extreme flood flows,
flood frequencies, average annual flow and the flow during extended drouths
where factual information is not available, is demonstrated in the Corps
of Engineers’ report on Hords Creek Reservoir near Coleman, Texas. The
following excerpts are from Appendix I entitled "Hydrology” of that
report:

"The rainfall records at Coleman (Nr.), Glen Cove, and Santa Anna cover a
short period of time during which no major storms occurred over the watershed.
The rates therefore do not indicate the maximum rates that have occurred or will
occur on the watershed. Hourly rainfall records are available at Abilene, Austin and
Taylor .. . .

358

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

"Storms experienced over watershed. — Little is known of the storms that have
occurred over the Hords Creek watershed . . . Based on information obtained from
local residents the July 1900 storm reached cloudburst proportions in the headwaters
of Hords Creek. However, at Coleman only 5.40 inches of rainfall was recorded dur¬
ing the storm period . . .

"Floods. — The maximum known floods that have occurred on the Hords Creek
watershed are those of July 1900, September 1900, and July 1932. No definite in¬
formation is available as to the stages or discharge reached by the floods of July and
September 1900. Local residents testify that the September 1900 flood was slightly
higher at Coleman than the flood of July 1932. The flood of July 1900 was reported
to have taken the lives of ten people residing in the lowlands adjacent to Coleman
and to have caused considerable property damage. The flood of July 1932, the maxi¬
mum of record, was the only flood along Hords Creek for which highwater marks
could be recovered . . .

"Resources. — A study was made of the water resources of the Hords Creek water¬
shed that could be made available as a water supply for the city of Coleman by pro¬
viding conservation storage in the proposed reservoir. The only records of runoff
available for Hords Creek are those estimated for the gage above Coleman (drainage
area 64 square miles) for a three-year period 1941 to 1943, inclusive . . . This short
period does not include the critical drought period and is not long enough to pro¬
vide a good average. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the runoff at the dam site
by other means for the period 1906 to 1940, inclusive . . .

"The estimated average annual net evaporation loss from the proposed Hords
Creek Reservoir would amount to 30.1 inches over the perior 1906-1943, inclusive.
During the critical period of storage, September 1915 through September 1918, the
estimated net annual evaporation loss would be 43.0 inches. The maximum annual
net evaporation loss was 53.6 inches in 1917.

"Reservoir design flood. — Hydrologic data for the Hords Creek watershed is
very limited; therefore, the magniture of the floods that have occurred at the dam
site and at Coleman are unknown, except as indicated by high-water marks and re¬
ported by old residents.”

These statements illustrate the manner in which factual hydrologic
data are utilized in planning this type of project, and where factual data are
not available show the extent to which the designing engineer must use
estimated factors to plan an expensive structure to protect the population
of a town from flooding and to impound water for municipal needs.

The Corps of Engineers analyzed all available but fragmentary factual
hydrologic data not only for the Coleman vicinity but that available for
other areas having, what is believed to be, similar rainfall and runoff char¬
acteristics. Basic data fell far short in supplying the information needed and
it was necessary to employ synthetic methods in estimating flood and other
runoff characteristics of Hords Creek. Other engineers may agree that the
methods used in making these estimates provide the necessary factor of
safety for flood control and municipal water supply. It is recognized, how¬
ever, that a more efficient design and probably a material saving of money
could have been made if continuous stream flow records of this creek had
been available for a period of twenty years or longer.

The Corps of Engineers fully recognizes the importance of having
basic hydrologic data for planning flood control and water conservation
projects. In 193 8 Congress authorized the Corps of Engineers to make
comprehensive investigations of the flood control needs on the major streams
of the country. That agency examined the stream flow investgiation pro¬
grams conducted by the U. S. Geological Survey in cooperation with states
and municipalities. In Texas where this program was found inadequate, the
Corps of Engineers transfered funds to the Geological Survey for the estab¬
lishment of new gaging stations at critical points on the major streams
and their larger tributaries. Over fifty new gaging stations were estab¬
lished at that time for planning flood control projects. As the proposed con-

1951, No. 3
September 30

Small Stream Problems

359

struction programs developed, new gaging stations were added, and where
reservoirs had been constructed gaging stations were installed to facilitate
and to check the operation of the respective projects. These gaging stations
usually record the flow entering the reservoir, the daily content of the
reservoir, the quantity of water diverted from the reservoir, and the quan¬
tity passing downstream. This information is not only of value in operating
or improving the respective projects, but furnishes hydrologic information
that will be highly useful in planning new developments in the same
vicinity.

It is gratifying to note that through the foresight of the Texas State
Board of Water Engineers, the U. S. Geological Survey, and the Corps of
Engineers, many valuable basic stream flow data have been available to the
planning and designing engineers for practically all major flood control and
water conservation projects constructed on the larger Texas streams during
the past few years. Some of these records, such as those for the Trinity
River at Dallas, Brazos River at Waco, Colorado River at Ballinger and
Colorado River at Austin, record daily stream flows from as early as 1898.
These long-time records show flow characteristics of these major rivers for
both flood and drought periods, including the historical floods of 1908, 1913,
1935, 1936 and 1938. The correlation of a long time record, such as those
mentioned, with a shorter record and historical flood peaks at a proposed
construction site is invaluable in developing stable structures, economical
design and proper uses of the water. The rapidity with which the Hords
Creek project developed did not permit time to obtain important stream
flow data and it was necessary that the engineers design the project on less
dependable information. Factual stream flow information now being col¬
lected on Hords Creek will be utilized by the Corps of Engineers in check¬
ing the operations of the reservoir and to provide a sound basis for im¬
provements if necessary.

Hords Creek Reservoir has a storage capacity below the top of the
service spillway of 2 5,3 00 acre-feet which includes 2,240 acre-feet of con¬
servation storage for the City of Coleman’s water supply. Inflow from the
48 square miles above the dam since the gates were closed April 7, 1948,
has been considerably below the estimated average annual runoff. Records
show that during this three-year period the runoff, all of which was re¬
tained in the reservoir, has been less than one-half of the estimated average
annual yield. The maximum quantity of water stored so far was 4,080 acre-
feet August 9-10, 1949, and at the end of February 195 1, 2,380 acre-feet
was impounded. Since November 1949 diversions for municipal use have
averaged about 3 5 acre-feet per month. This briefly illustrates the small
yields of a watershed when droughts or sub-normal rainfall occur.

The chemical quality of water is also an important factor in deter¬
mining the practical uses to be made of a particular water resource. In West
Texas especially, highly mineralized soils or geologic formations over or
through which water flows contribute a natural mineral contamination that
in many localities renders the water unfit for all beneficial uses. Chemical
quality of water investigations have been initiated recently to study the
quality of water on a few of the west Texas streams. These investigations
should be expanded to obtain information on every stream of the region
that may serve as a source of water supply.

360

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Wasteful water-use practices should be eliminated and all types of
water developments coordinated where feasible. The consumption of water
for non-beneficial uses should be reduced to a minimum. In this connection
it is believed advisable that the stockmen, farmers and others be furnished
basic information that would improve the design of and reduce water losses
through evaporation from the thousands of stock ponds and other small
reservoirs that have been constructed in recent years. By general observa¬
tion the majority of stock ponds are dry following periods of low rain¬
fall. These ponds are usually saucer shaped, having relatively large water
surfaces with maximum water depths of not over four or five feet. As a
result most of the water may be dissipated through evaporation during one
relatively short drought period. Ponds constructed so they are narrow and
deep or trench-like and properly proportioned to the drainage basin would
reduce the ratio of the water lost by evaporation to that stored in the ponds.
Also, a careful study of the actual water requirements for stock and do¬
mestic needs should be made, and when known, the pond constructed to
impound only the amount of water that will meet these needs and pro¬
vide for anticipated evaporation and other losses. This type of pond con¬
struction will allow excess flows to pass on downstream for the beneficial use
of others.

In the past the demand for stream flow data and the manner in which
funds have been provided have limited investigations principally to the larger
streams of the state. Of the 242 stations now in operation less than 5 percent
of them are on streams draining areas of less than 200 square miles. Runoff
characteristics of the small streams are quite different from those of the
larger streams. Floods are of very short duration, and extended droughts may
reduce the flow to zero or very small quantities for much longer periods of
time than for larger streams. Wider variations in actual water yield may
occur between adjacent small streams than between the large ones because of
abrupt changes in topography, geology and vegetation. Although it is not
possible to collect stream flow records on every small stream, through a
planned investigation that recognizes variations in climate, geology, topog¬
raphy and vegetation, it is possible to collect records of representative small
streams that will supply valuable basic data for planning and designing all
types of water control structures, bridges etc.

Basic data on water resources, topography and geology are essential in
planning for orderly development and the continued economy of a region.
The planning and designing engineer of any resources project (private or
government) must have pertinent basic data for the specific area under
study if he is to develop stable and serviceable structures.

The collection of these data is fundamentally a function of govern¬
ment. Such data are not only used extensively by many Federal agencies
but the comprehensive scope of such investigations and the planning and
cost of these operations can only be executed and sustained by stable gov¬
ernmental agencies, staffed with specialized technical and administrative per¬
sonnel. For example, the collection of much of the water resources infor¬
mation requires obtaining information at or near points of proposed de¬
velopment many years in advance of construction and through extended
climatic cycles. The financing of such projects by private concerns is not
feasible. The importance of obtaining basic data in natural resources develop-

1951, No. 3
September 30

Small Stream Problems

361

ment was emphasized by the Commission on Organization of the Executive
Branch of the Government (Hoover Commission). The Task Force in
Natural Resources (Appendix L) states on page 27:

"It is foolhardy, however, for the Federal Government to undertake a develop¬
ment program running into billions of dollars without spending enough money to
obtain basic hydrologic data essential to sound planning and construction . . . The
Committee, therefore, recommends the immediate expansion of the programs of the
basic data collecting agencies, so the topographic mapping, ground water studies,
stream gaging program, sedimentation studies, evapotranspiration studies, and runoff
and erosion studies can keep pace with development programs.”

A technical review of past water development projects (dams, bridges,
irrigation, hydroelectric and municipal water supply) within Texas reveals
a surprising number of projects that have been structural or economic
failures because the planners and designers did not have sufficient basic data.

The Texas State Board of Water Engineers and the U. S. Geological
Survey, through their cooperative investigational programs, are now form¬
ulating plans for the establishment of a number of stream flow stations on
typical small streams in various sections of the state in order to obtain this
much needed information. It will be necessary, however, that appropria¬
tions, both from the state and the federal government, be increased before
this expanded program can be inaugurated.

362

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

A SURVEY OF THE SITES OF THE PALEO-INDIAN IN THE
MIDDLE RIO GRANDE VALLEY, NEW MEXICO

FRANK C HIBBEN *

Department of Anthropology
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, New Mexico

In the years since the war, five major sites and a number of minor
ones have come to light in the Middle Rio Grande Valley which seem to
extend the Cochise variety of gathering culture farther east than heretofore
demonstrated.

ALBUQUERQUE SITE

The first of these sites was encountered accidentally during the normal
activities of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel Products Company. The
main gravel pit of this concern lies on the southern edge of Albuquerque,
New Mexico, involving two river terraces in that area. The commercial
workings at this spot have penetrated deeply through recent alluvia and
into stratified gravels. Professor Kirk Bryan has worked in this area with
a view towards more exactly dating the gravels with the various stages
of the Wisconsin Recession. Unfortunately, Professor Bryan’s untimely
death has halted these researches, as yet unfinished. However, the work
thus far accomplished as well as the abundant faunal material, indicated
that the gravels are Pleistocene and of considerable antiquity.

Some twenty-two feet below the original surface in this gravel pit, an
occupation level was encountered as the power shovel removed sand and
gravel during the commercial operations. The area was marked by scat¬
tered circular hearths in the form of lenses of charcoal. In general the de¬
marcation of the occupation level could be traced with accuracy by a thin
line of humus, although gravel and water-laid lenses of sand occurred both
above and below the cultural stratum. Along this occupation line as well
as embedded in the semi-consolidated gravels below occurred a considerable
number of faunal remains. Those which occurred definitely in the cultural
stratum are here listed in order of importance:

Mammoth _ ( Elephas sp.)

Bison _ ( Bison sp.)

Horse _ ( Equs sp.)

Camel _ ( Camelops sp.)

Wolf _ ( Canis or hi pus)

Large cat _ ( Felis sp.)

Ground Squirrel ( Citellus sp.) **

Segments of mammoth tusks and whole teeth were common on and
around the site area. Long bones and fragments of other mammals of typical
late Pleistocene assemblage also occurred frequently. Most of the bones

* Presented at El Paso during the 1951 joint meeting of the Texas Academy of Science and
the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

^Identification of these remains is still in progress.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites

363

were surrounded or accompanied by yellow ochre, a circumstance which has
been noted at other Early Man sites in the Rio- Grande area. Some of the
bone specimens were somewhat rolled as though water-washed.

At this same occupation level there were recovered forty-two crudely
chipped implements. Undoubtedly many more were not recovered as the
nature of the commercial operations here precluded screening or careful
excavation. The employees of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel Products
Company were most cooperative in recovering bones and implements from
this level. In many cases, however, it was impossible to determine without
fear of equivocation that the implements or the faunal material originated
from the one stratum. Enough implements, however, were found in place
to justify the supposition that all similar tools came from the one area
and at a single level. During the course of anthropological meetings in Al¬
buquerque in 1947, Professor Loren Eiseley, Dr. T Dale Stewart, Dr C Ber¬
trand Schulz and Dr Helmut de Terra examined the site and aided with
their various professional opinions

The Albuquerque site is distinctive in that the tools are of rude outline
and indeterminate usage. No projectile points of any description were re¬
covered, and the chipping techniques exhibited in the artifacts seem to
denote a rudimentary tradition of stone working. Some time ago Professor
Bryan (Bryan, 1938; 1939) pointed out that there were certain evidences
in the southwestern area which seemed to indicate the existence of cultures
marked by rudely chipped implements apparently without projectile points.

The material of the artifacts from the Albuquerque pit is a cherty
slate. These pieces were originally pebbles which were roughly chipped on
one or two sides to form a chopper or scraper. The instruments vary in
outline and size with little classification possible.

Perhaps the most revealing item of the Albuquerque site was a single
basin-shaped milling stone of sandstone which occurred on this same level.
This was recovered in place so its location could be verified. The occurrence
of a milling stone of this form associated with mammoth and other fauna of
late Pleistocene date does not appear startling in light of the Cochise finds
(Sayles and Antevs, op. cit.) from southern Arizona. Professor Bryan was
much impressed by a similar find of a milling stone from the Durst Horizon
near Abilene, Texas.

The entire area of the occupation site in the Albuquerque gravel pit
was perhaps an acre. The operations of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel
Products Company have now gone beyond the limits of the charcoal and
instrument bearing stratum. There are, however, indications of other similar
sites not only in this pit, but also in others in the Albuquerque area. In the
gravel pit of the Springer Company to the north of Albuquerque there have
occurred fire hearths, the bones of mammoth, horses, and occasional rough
implements whose provenience unfortunately could not be exactly deter¬
mined.

' COMANCHE SPRINGS SITE

Some twenty-five miles to the south of Albuquerque in the vicinity
of the small town of Tome, another place of importance in the survey of
Early Man was discovered by, two students of the University of New Mex¬
ico"'. This site is known locally as Comanche Springs. At this spot a con¬
siderable volume of water issues out of the piedmont of the Manzano Moun¬
tains not far from the mouth of Comanche Canyon (Denny, 1941). In re-r

364

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

cent times there has been erosional cutting through the alluvia so as to re¬
veal cross-sections of the deposits in a series of jagged arroyos. Near the
confluence of two arroyos, just below Comanche Springs proper, a bone
bed of limited extent has been revealed by erosion.

The Comanche Springs bone strata lie some eight feet below the origi¬
nal surface of the ground, although the terrain is so eroded that the primary
level is difficult to determine. The bones are embedded near the base of a
blue clay stratum which is clearly demarked in a basin-like depression of
some two acres extent. Professor Bryan noted that the Comanche Springs
site was similar to the stratification at Clovis, New Mexico (Antevs, 193 5,
1950). Apparently the Comanche Springs area was a pond or basin possibly
with the same general geologic history as the area of Blackwater Draw near
Clovis.

Mixed with the bones at the bottom of the blue clay layer and scattered
along the soil line which marked the edge of the original depression, some
twenty-two rough implements have been recovered. These implements are all
of quartzite of varying degrees of fineness and texture. The shapes and out¬
lines display the same rude and casual manufacture as the tools from the
Albuquerque gravel pit site. A number of the pieces from Comanche
Springs may well be rejects or flakes incidental to manufacture. Some, how¬
ever, are indubitably scrapers or choppers of sorts (see illustrations).

Several basin-shaped milling stones of shallow depression have also
been found at the Comanche Springs site. Unfortunately, none of these
was found in place, although their disposition seemed to indicate that they
had weathered out of the same stratum as the bone material in the normal
course of erosion. There is considerable Pueblo and Apache material of more
recent centuries in this same area and some artifacts of obviously late date
are strewn on top of the most recent alluvial deposits.

Of the general dating of the artifact and bone bearing level of the
blue clay, however, there seems to be little doubt. All bone material iden¬
tified is bison. Most of the bison bones are friable and only one horn core
has been recovered to date. This one piece, however, is of the generally
straight variety which is associated with B. antiquus rather than with the
more modern forms. It is interesting to note that the artifact repertoire at
Comanche Springs is essentially the same as that in the Albuquerque pit. No
projectile points appear to be present. Only crudely chipped implements oc¬
cur at the site with the possibility of the presence also of basin-shaped mill¬
ing stones.

RIO PUERCO SITES

A third site, or series of sites, of importance have been encountered in
the very deep erosional cuts of the Rio Puerco de Este twenty-five miles to
the south and west of Albuquerque. The Rio Puerco is a tributary of the
Rio Grande which flows almost parallel to the latter, then converges to enter
the Rio Grande Valley near the small town of Bernardo. The Puerco Valley
is, however, separated from the Rio Grande by only a low divide and is, in
reality, a part of the main valley system. The recent history of the Rio
Puerco has been one of erosional cutting of great magnitude. This process,
while alarming to the Soil Conservation Service, has revealed a number of
deeply buried hearths and living areas which add materials to the sequence
of early life in the Albuquerque area.

* The author is indebted to Mr. John Fisher and Mr. Donald Narquis for their aid and
interest in locating this site.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites

365

The Rio Puerco fire hearths occur in groups such as the one five miles
down stream from the small railroad station of Suwanee. Here, approxi¬
mately ten circular areas of charcoal and ash have been cut through by the
main Rio Puerco and by several side arroyos. The charcoal lenses are ellipti¬
cal in cross section and from five to fifteen feet in diameter, roughly circular
in outline. Between these areas, occupational levels and soil lines can easily
be traced by scattered charcoal flecks and occasional implements. In general,
the fire hearths stretch along a primitive terrace level which dips sharply
toward the situation of the present Rio Puerco as though the occupation
represented by these hearths of charcoal had been situated on a slanting river
bank. The hearths now lie some thirty feet below the surface at their deep¬
est portion to twelve feet in the other extreme. There is considerable indica¬
tion that further studies may reveal a series of hearths at different levels, pos¬
sibly indicating a somewhat extensive occupation in this area.

Any doubt as to the human authorship of these charcoal lenses is re¬
moved by the presence of milling stones and manos accompanying them. At
the edge of one hearth, twenty-three feet below the surface, occurred two
basin-shaped milling stones lying together. In another charcoal area, three
well-formed one-handed manos had been placed in a small pile. Another
hearth produced a single mano of the same design. These basin milling stones
and the one-handed manos which accompanied them are of the same general
character as those from the Albuquerque gravel pit and the Comanche
Springs area. Their similarity to Cochise material is also obvious. It is more
difficult to determine the exact stage of the Cochise series where this simi¬
larity is greatest (Sayles and Antevs, op. sit.).

Rough stone implements from the Puerco sites are more scarce. Only
six have been recovered in indubitable association with the charcoal fire
lenses. These are, however, of the rough chopper-scraper type, similar in
these respects at least to the tools from the other Middle Rio Grande situa¬
tions. The materials from the Rio Puerco are chert and quartzite.

Bone remains are scarce to absent, in or around the Rio Puerco hearths.
A few splinters of bone appear and a single bison tooth has been identified.
Some faunal material has been recovered from comparable depths in the
banks of the Rio Puerco but not close enough to the fire hearths to arouse
more than casual interest.

Some pieces of charcoal in the hearth lenses are of sufficient size to
identify varieties of wood involved. These so far recognized include pine,
box elder, walnut, and cottonwood or poplar. *

Professor Bryan’s excellent work on the headwaters of the Rio Puerco
(Bryan, 1936) has unhappily not as yet been extended to cover the mid
portion of that drainage. Just before his death, Professor Bryan was work¬
ing on the sediments involved in the Rio Puerco fire hearths. From these
preliminary investigations the human evidences here appear to be related
to number two fill (Bryan, 193 6). This would indicate that the Puerco
sites are considerably later than evidence at the Albuquerque gravel pit or
Comanche Springs. Indeed, if Professor Bryan’s tentative identification of
the fill is substantiated by further work, the Rio Puerco fire hearths are
roughly contemporaneous with the middle levels of Bat Cave (Mangelsdorf,
1949). Although the primitive corn from Bat Cave was found in the lower
portions of the upper level, it arouses the possibility that even agriculture,

* Wood Products Laboratory, Washington, D. C.

3 66

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

as evidenced by the finds in Bat Cave, may overlap with levels heretofore
regarded as well before agricultural beginnings. Thus the users of the basin
milling stones of the Rio Puerco may possibly have ground corn on these
implements rather than gathering wild seeds as previously supposed.

The artifact complex of the Puerco fire hearths is essentially the same
as that in the other two areas of the Middle Rio Grande Valley. The Puerco
sites emphasize the basin-shaped grinding stone and the one-handed mano
to the semi-exclusion of the roughly-chipped tools, but the combination
is the same.

SANTA ANA SITES

In several dry canyons to the west of Santa Ana Pueblo on the Jemez
Wash, a series of fire hearths have been uncovered by recent erosion. This
area is no great distance from the Rio Grande Valley proper or the Puerco
sites just mentioned.

The Santa Ana hearths appear at all levels in the sides of the arroyos
and also have been laid bare by surface movement of wind blown material.
About a hundred hearths or charcoal lenses are scattered over an area of five
hundred acres which is cut by several arroyos. Most of these are charcoal de¬
posits occasionally in prepared pits. Some hearths are outlined by broken
boulder fragments showing the effects of fire. One charcoal area was sur¬
rounded and overlaid with large slabs of limestone.

None of the Santa Ana fire hearths are accompanied by pottery al¬
though the area is close to historic and prehistoric pottery sites. A few
hearths of the Santa Ana group are fifteen to twenty feet below the sur¬
face with two well defined silt depositions above. Indications of age from
geological correlations are yet to be determined.

Basin-shaped milling stones and one-handed manos accompanied a
number of these fire hearths. Crudely chipped choppers and scrapers are also
fairly common. Projectile points and chipped blades are scarce but present.

The projectile points are notched, stemmed and of considerable size
(largest 6 cm. in length). Although the series is too small as yet to draw
any conclusions, the few points recovered from the Santa Ana sites are very
similar to those from the San Pedro level of the Cochise series such as the
examples from Ventana Cave (Haury, 1950) of that horizon. The points
from the Santa Ana sites are also similar to those of the San Jose Complex
(Bryan, 1943) near Grants, New Mexico. The blades from the charcoal
lenses are lanceolate in outline. These occur in a number of connections in
Southwestern sites and are not especially chronologically diagnostic. The
exact typological connections of these sites may appear more clearly when
the collection of artifacts recovered is enlarged.

LA JOYA SITES

Near the small town of La Joya, fifty miles down river from Albu¬
querque, and on the La Joya Grant, another series of sites have come to light
which seem to belong to the early period of Rio Grande prehistory. These
are fire hearths and associated artifacts which have been uncovered by wind
erosion along the west side of the La Joya marshes and south of the marshes.
A number of deep blow outs with accompanying sand dunes have cut into
underlying sediments of old river terraces. Fire hearths have appeared in a
number of these depressions. Three basin-shaped milling stones and the same

1951, No. 3
September 30

Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites

367

number of one-handed manos have been found with two of the hearths re¬
vealed in this manner. Crudely chipped choppers and abundant flakes also
accompany the hearths.

There seems little doubt from all of this accumulated evidence that
there existed in this part of the Southwest during the late glacial and early
recent times a series of gathering cultures similar to those which have al¬
ready been demonstrated for southern Arizona.

LITERATURE CITED

Antevs, Ernst — 1935 — The occurrence of flints and extinct animals in the pluvial deposits
near Clovis, New Mexico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sex. Phila. 87 : 304-312.

- 1937a — Climate and early man in North America, in Early Man. J. B. Lippincott

Co. Philadelphia.

- 1937b — Studies on the climate in relation to early man in the Southwest. Carnegie

Institute Yearbook 36. Washington.

- 1950 — (Wormington, H. M.) Appendix by Ernst Antevs in Ancient Man in North

America. Denver Museum of Natural History Popular Series No. 4, 3rd. ed., revised.
Denver, Colorado.

Bryan, Kirk — 1936 — Successive pediments and terraces of the Upper Rio Puerco in New
Mexico. J. Geol. 44(2) : 145-172.

- 1938 — Prehistoric quarries and implements of pre-American aspect in New Mexico.

Science 87(2259) : 343-346.

- 1939 — Stone cultures near Cerro Pedernal and their geological antiquity. Bull. Tex.

Archaeological and Paleontological Society 2. Abilene, Texas.

- and Joseph H. Toulouse, Jr. — 1943 — The San Jose non-ceramic culture and its rela¬
tion to puebloan culture in New Mexico. American Antiquity 8 (3) : 269-280.

Campbell, E. W. C., et al. — 1937 — The archaeology of Pleistocene Lake Mohave. Southwest
Mus. Papers, No. 11. Los Angeles, California.

Campbell, William H. and Elizabeth W. Campbell — 1937 — The Pinto Basin Site. Southwest
Mus. Papers, No. 9. Los Angeles, California.

Denny, C. S. — 1941 — Quaternary geology of the San Acacia area, New Mexico. J. Geol.
49(3) : 225-260.

Haury, Emil W. (and collaborators) — 1950 — The stratigraphy and archaeology of Ventana
Cave, Arizona. University of New Mexico Press and University of Arizona Press,
Albuquerque and Tucson.

Mangelsdorf, Paul C. and C. Earle Smith, Jr. — 1949 — New archaeological evidence on evolu¬
tion in maize. Botanical Mus. Leaflets Harvard University 13(6) : 213-247.

Sayles, E. B. and Antevs, Ernst — 1941 — The Cochise Culture. Medallion Papers, No. 29.
Gila Pueblo. Globe, Arizona.

368

The Texas Journal of Science

195L No. 3
September 30

GULF COAST GEOSYNCLINE

FRED R. HAEBERLE
Standard Oil Company of Texas
Amarillo, Texas

INTRODUCTION

The concept of the geosyncline is originally an American idea. James
Hall, in 18 59, first mentioned the fact that the Appalachian Mountains
contained a greater thickness of sediments than the formations of equivalent
age exposed further to the west. These sediments were dominantly sand¬
stones and shales, thus the site of the present day mountain range was
originally an area of maximum accumulation of clastic sediments. This idea
was taken over by J. D. Dana, who proposed the term geosynclinals for
these belts of accumulation of thick sediments along borders of continents.
He gave three examples of geosynclinals, two of which are today included
in the Appalachian chain, and a third, the Triassic basin of Connecticut
which contains several thousand feet of continental, unfolded sediments.
Dana’s term has since been modified to geosyncline and applied in many
areas and in many different ways.

The region surrounding the Gulf of Mexico has been as thoroughly
explored, geologically speaking, as any area in the world. As a result of this
intensive study, the area is frequently referred to as a geosyncline. The
purpose of this paper is to briefly examine the "type” geosyncline and to
compare it with the Gulf Coast area. The region under study will be
restricted to the Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi coastal areas, as this is
the area generally considered to contain the Gulf Coast Geosyncline. For
reasons to be listed later, the study will be restricted to formations of
Cenozoic age only.

THE APPALACHIAN GEOSYNCLINE

Detailed studies of the Appalachian Geosyncline show that it has several
characteristics which might be used as criterion for comparison with other
areas. The geosyncline was rather long, extending from Alabama through
New York, Canada and at least as far as Newfoundland. It was generally
restricted in width to a band less than 150 miles, although at one time it
did extend from eastern New York State to Cincinnati, Ohio. Structurally,
the geosyncline was composed of a source area, a deep basin of clastic
deposition that shallowed toward a foreland of marine shale and limestone
deposition. At least three major basins that contain an unusually thick sedi¬
mentary section are known, one in Alabama, one in West Virginia, and one
in Pennsylvania. Large deltas have been recognized in several places, such as
the Queenston delta in New York and Pennsylvania in the Ordovician for¬
mations, the Catskill delta in the Devonian formations of New York and
Pennsylvania, and the Chaleur Bay delta on the Gaspe Peninsula of Canada
in the Devonian formations. The source area for the clastic material in the
geosyncline was to the east away from the present continent, while the geo¬
syncline itself was located on the continental block. Sediments that filled
the geosyncline as it slowly sank were elastics on the eastern side that

1951, No. 3
September 30

Gulf Coast Geosyncline

369

gradually graded into marine shales and finally into marine limestones fur¬
ther westward. The geosyncline was frequently altered by diastrophism and
finally destroyed during the Permian.

The other example cited by Dana was quite different. The Triassic basin
of Connecticut was only about 100 miles long and 2 5 miles wide. Struc¬
turally, it was a monocline formed by downfaulting along the eastern
margin. This created a basin into which from 10,000 to 13,000 feet of
elastics and a large amount of igneous material were poured. No marine
fossils or sediments are known. The source for the detrital material was to
the west.

There are some very prominent differences between the examples cited
by Dana. As more and more has been learned about the Appalachian area,
it has become more apparent that it has had a diverse history and its
structure is far more complicated than was believed in Dana’s time.

GULF COAST AREA

Figure 1 shows the outline of the region under discussion in this paper.
It has been limited to the Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi coastal regions
as extending the discussion either to the east or south would enter two
different provinces and introduce several extraneous problems.

For several reasons the author considers that deposition of the geosyn¬
clinal type of sediments began in the Gulf Coast in the early part of the
Cenozoic and not in the Upper Cretaceous. First, the Cenozoic deposits
differ greatly from the underlying Cretaceous formations, as the Lower
Cretaceous deposits are dominantly calcareous limestones and even the Upper
Cretaceous deposits are calcareous enough to be classed as marls. (Storm,
1945, p. 1307) The Cenozoic deposits are primarily elastics. There is a
disconformity, or in some places an unconformity, separating the Cretaceous

FIG.I. OUTLINE MAP OF AREA

FIG. 1 — Outline map of area under consideration. Region of Cenozoic deposition
shown by dashed line. Cross-sections indicated by lines A- A’, B-B’, and«C-C\

370

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

and Cenozoic formations. This break in deposition is general throughout
North America. If there is any Gulfward thickening or changing of the
Cretaceous sediments, it is hardy noticeable where the Cretaceous formations
have been penetrated by the drill. The Cenozoic formations definitely
thicken toward the Gulf and change to a more marine facies. There is
also a sharp faunal break between the two systems. In addition, faunal zones
of the Cretaceous, such as Exogyra cancellate and some 14 other species,
can be traced from Texas to New Jersey. This widespread range would seem
to indicate conditions of remarkable stability in a large area, not conditions
of geosynclinal development. There were periods during the Eocene when
downwarping and rapid sedimentation did not take place. This is demon¬
strated by the presence of lignite beds over a fairly large part of eastern
Texas during the Eocene and by the presence of some deposits of cannel
coal in Webb County. The presence of coal and lignite would indicate areas
of low relief, wide swamps, and a certain amount of stability over part
of Texas. That few beds of great thickness are known would seem to show
that the region, although stable, was far less stable than western Pennsyl¬
vania when the coal measures of that state were deposited. The fact that
the coal deposits of this area are limited both in size and thickness
seems to show that the general geosynclinal depositional conditions were
interrupted only briefly.

Since these differences indicate a different type of environment and a
different type of deposition between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, the
thickness of Mesozoic sediments beneath East Texas and Northern Mexico
will not be considered.

The evidence for classifying the Gulf Coast as a geosyncline is predomi¬
nantly found in the sediments of the region. The Cenozoic formations
thicken and dip toward the Gulf of Mexico, reaching an estimated thickness
of over 2 5,000 feet. The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the Sigsbee
Deep, reaches 12,000 feet, so it is believed that the Gulf Coast has the
general structure of a syncline, with the northern flank represented in the
present day Gulf Coast and the southern flank hidden beneath the Gulf
of Mexico. The sediments in the syncline are dominantly clastic in Texas,
Louisiana and most of Mississippi, largely the result of deltaic deposition.
In southeastern Mississippi there is a facies change from the clastic, deltaic
deposits to those of a marine facies. (Bornhauser, 1947, p. 707.)

That the Cenozoic deposits thicken toward the Gulf of Mexico has
been proven by thousands of wells. That they thin beneath the Gulf of
Mexico is logical, since the bottom of the Gulf is shallower than depths
reached by drilling on land, 20,000 feet in Mississippi and almost 15,000 feet
in Texas. Although it is logical, no proof in the form of well data exists
that this region has the structural form of an elongated syncline. However,
geophysical work (Barton, Ritz, and Hickey, 1936) indicates that a large
trough trends approximately parallel to the present coast line with its axis
slightly inland from the present shoreline. There is no evidence that the
formations have a definite synclinal structure in this trough however.

Sources for the sediments deposited in the Gulf Coast during the Ceno-
zcic were to the west, northwest and north. Ample source material was
available in these directions to supply the needed material to fill a large
trough such as is found here. Not all of the deposits in the Cenozoic are

1951, No, 3
September 30

Gulf Coast Geosyncline

371

deltaic, however. As one moves toward the Gulf of Mexico, as might be
expected, the deltaic sediments are gradually displaced by marine shales.
No marine limestones in any quantity are known .

The Cenozoic history of the Gulf Coast has been so well described by
various authors that there is little point in discussing it in detail. The
bibliography lists a few of the more recent important papers dealing with
this subject. It may be summed up briefly by saying that throughout the
Cenzoic the region was characterized by a series of transgressive and regress¬
ive seas with a gradual offlap of the Gulf of Mexico to the south and
southeast, so that younger formations were deposited successively closer to
the present day shore line.

Figures 2 A, B, and C are cross-sections drawn through the Gulf Coast
of Texas and Louisiana showing the generally accepted theories concerning
the structure of the syncline. The south flank of each of these cross-sections
is inferred and cannot be proven.

IS THE GULF COAST A GEOSYNCLINE?

Criterion as to whether the Gulf Coast is a geosyncline or not can come
only from comparison with the "type” geosyncline. This comparison may
be either structural, sedimentary or historical.

As previously mentioned, the Appalachian Geosyncline is composed of
three structural features; the source area, the basin of deposition and the
foreland. The source area was the old land mass of Appalachia, whether it
be called a continent or island archipelago. The basin area is today the
present Appalachian Mountains, while the foreland is the flat-lying lime¬
stone belt immediately west of the present mountains. In the Gulf Coast
the source area was the present continental mass, the basin of deposition ran
parallel to the edge of the Gulf of Mexico and the foreland is unknown.
Perhaps it did not exist.

FIG. 2A — Diagrammatic cross-section through Corpus Christi, Texas.
Modified from Storm.

372

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September SO

100 MILES
SCALE

FIG. 2B— -Diagrammatic cross-section through Houston and Galveston, Texas.
Modified from Barton, Ritz and Hickey.

FIG. 2C — Diagrammatic cross-section through Shreveport and Jennings, Louisiana.
Modified from Barton, Ritz and Hickey.

In neither the Appalachian nor the Gulf Coast was sedimentation uni¬
form. In both, localized areas are known that contain greater sedimentary
sections than is considered normal in nearby areas. In the Appalachian
region these areas are the three main basins mentioned above. In the Gulf
Coast, the Rio Grande Embayment, the Central or Houston Embayment and
the deep area around the present Mississippi River delta all have thicker
sedimentary sections than the intervening regions.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Gulf Coast Geosyncline

373

The angle of dip of the flanks of these two synclinal areas is quite
different. Both have one steeply dipping flank and one gently dipping one.
In the Appalachian Geosyncline the steeply dipping flank was located next
to the source area and the gently dipping flank was on the side of the
foreland. In the Gulf Coast this relationship is reversed and the gently
dipping flank is nearest the source area. As a result, the source area of the
Appalachian Geosyncline is extremely close to the belt of maximum deposi¬
tion and in the Gulf Coast they are separated by a considerable distance.
From this has risen the fact that thick conglomerate belts are common in
much of the Appalachian area but comparatively rare in the Gulf Coast.

The Appalachian Geosyncline was located on the edge of the craton,
the consolidated, immobile central shield of the continental mass. The source
for the sediments was on the seaward side, away from the craton, and the
clastic formations thicken toward it. The Gulf Coast had its source area
on the continental side nearest the craton and the clastic deposits thicken
away from it. In addition, the Gulf Coast syncline was not located on the
margin of the craton, but was a considerable distance from it.

Thus, structurally, the Gulf Coast resembles the Appalachian Geosyn¬
cline except for the location of the source area in relation to the belt of
maximum deposition and in the apparent absence of a foreland in the Gulf
Coast. In addition, the relationship of the downwarped area of the Gulf
Coast to the craton is obscure.

The sediments of the Appalachian Geosyncline were largely elastics
near the source, grading into marine shales and limestones as the foreland

was approached. The gradation from elastics to marine shales is known in

the Gulf Coast, but not the further gradation to limestones. Apparently
the deposition in the deep trough of both areas was characterized by the
rapid depositing of material from streams in a series of coalescing deltas
interbedded and interrupted by occasional marine invasions. Rock types
include graywackes, arkoses, sands, conglomerates and shales.

One of the interesting comparisons between the Gulf Coast area and
the Appalachian Geosyncline is found in the length of time the two existed.
The Appalachian Geosyncline lasted approximately 300 million years if it
is considered to have begun in Cambrian times and ended at the close of

the Permian. If it is considered to have lasted only until Middle Permian

times, the life of the geosyncline was still 270 million years. During this
time approximately 40,000 feet of sediments were laid down. The Gulf
Coast has had a maximum life of approximately 60 million years if it is
considered to have originated in Eocene times and is still in existence. If it
is considered to have closed at the end of Miocene times it had a life span
of less than 30 million years. This would indicate that deposition in the
Gulf Coast was at least four times as rapid as in the Appalachian
Geosyncline.

Lawson (193 8) has gone so far as to state that a geosyncline is not
developed until the depositional syncline is destroyed and mountain-making
inaugurated. If this be true, then the Gulf Coast can not be a geosyncline.
Most authorities believe that Lawson’s idea goes too far and that geosyn¬
clines can exist prior to their destruction. If the Gulf Coast and the
Appalachian Geosyncline are compared closely, eliminating the idea of
orogeny, many similarities can be noted. Sedimentary conditions are very
similar with the exception of the marine limestone facies. There are several

374

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3

September 30

differences between the two, such as the absence of the foreland, the
location of the deep basin of deposition and the source area, and the location
of the geosyncline with respect to the craton.

There is a growing tendency among geologists to speak of geosynclinal
sediments (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 443) and to consider any area containing a
certain type of sediment to be a geosyncline. This type of sedimentation is
generally deltaic and consists primarily of the graywacke suites and sand¬
stones mixed with shales. However, this may lead to confusion as it refers
solely to the deposits occurring in the deep trough of the geosyncline and
separates them from the foreland deposits. In many cases it is not so easy to
to separate them. The confusion between the use of the term geosynclinal
deposits by some and the restricting of the use of the term geosyncline to
structural features by other authors can be seen when the Michigan basin
is referred to as a basin by some authors and as a geosyncline by others. The
author has seen one example in which three small ''geosynclines” opened into
a large geosyncline. Wherever deltaic deposits are known, geosynclines have
come into existence. Efforts to separate geosynclines from basins by defining
geosynclines as large, elongated, thick sequences of deltaic deposits clarify
the issue somewhat, but there is little or no agreement as to what is large
or thick. It might be better to view geosynclinal deposits as a whole, com¬
bining the deep trough and the foreland deposits. Thus, geosynclinal deposits
would then consist of trough deposits grading gradually into foreland de¬
posits. They would not be separated into two distinct units. If one or the
other of the facies is absent, then the deposits would not be geosynclinal, but
would be separated into two subdivisions and handled separately.

If the view be taken that a geosyncline should have the same struc¬
tural features as the "type” geosyncline, then the Gulf Coast in not a true
geosyncline. Kay (1944) and Schuchert (1925) recognized the differences
between the Gulf Coast and the Appalachian Geosyncline and proposed the
terms exogeosyncline and parageosyncline, respectively, to distinguish be¬
tween them. If the view be taken that a geosyncline is an area containing a
great thickness of sedimentary deposits of the graywacke type, then the
Gulf Coast is still not a geosyncline as the deposits of this area are too well-
sorted to be classed as graywackes. However, if any area containing an
elongated belt of sedimentary rocks of great thickness is considered a geo¬
syncline, then the Gulf Coast is a geosyncline. In this case geosynclines are
probably much more common throughout the world than previously sup¬
posed.

So much more has been learned about the Appalachian Geosyncline
since Dana first proposed the term geosynclinals, it seems necessary to the
author to restrict usage of the term. The widespread application of the
term to any thick sedimentary basin destroys the significance of the term
as it is widely used today. So many other geosynclines in the past, the
Rocky Mountain or Franciscian or Alpine for example, correspond in their
major structural features, location and history to the "type” geosyncline, that
it seems advisable to limit the use of the term geosyncline to only those fea¬
tures that conform with the original. This is not intended to mean, as
Lawson suggests, that the geosyncline must be destroyed before it can be
called a geosyncline. Rather, it is intended to suggest that before an area
be referred to as a geosyncline, the presence of both trough and foreland
facies of deposition and a relationship between the depositional area and

1951, No. 3
September 30

Gulf Coast Geosyncline

375

the craton similar to that of the "type” geosyncline be established. It
would then be necessary to adopt some modifying term or terms to fit the
large basins of deposition that vary from the original specifications. Such
terms would indicate that deposition had occurred in a trough similar to the
depositional troughs of a geosyncline, but the foreland facies was absent.

ORIGIN OF THE SYNCLINAL AREA

The argument as to whether the mass of sediments in the Gulf Coast
caused subsidence there, or whether the mass of sediments accumulated as
a result of the subsidence has waged long and often furiously. The author
is inclined to agree with the school that feels that the weight of a sedimen¬
tary column alone is not sufficient to cause subsidence and that the sub¬
sidence is primarily the result of tectonic causes. Once started, the mass of
sediments may have assisted further sinking, but the origin was the result
of other causes. The Gulf Coast synclinal belt may well have had its origin
in the collapse and downwarping of the Gulf of Mexico plate, postulated
by Schuchert (1935, p. 21) as beginning in late Jurassic times. If this
downwarped area extended westward it would have removed the remnants
of Llanoria, the source for the clastic sediments of central Texas and Okla¬
homa during the Palezoic. By the end of the Paleozoic, Llanoria had been
so worn down that no material was coming from it. No Triassic or Jurassic
deposits are known in the eastern part of Texas, yet a good Cretaceous sec¬
tion is present. If the area were downwarped in late Jurassic times, it would
no longer act as a barrier and the Cretaceous seas would then spread across
Texas. Continued downwarping, possibly aided by faulting along the Bal-
cones zone, would permit the Gulfward tipping of the Cenozoic depositional
area and tilt the Cretaceous beds. According to Bornhauser (1947, p. 709),
southeastern Mississippi remained as a submarine platform or plateau sepa¬
rated by synclines from the land mass to the north. As the Gulf of Mexico
plate sank, this platform may have acted as a foreland and today stands
as the only possible remnant of that foreland available to us.

LITERATURE CITED

Barton, D. C., Ritz, C. H., and Hickey, M. — 1936 — Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Gulf Coast oil
fields. A.A.P.G. Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Bornhauser, M. — 1947 — Marine sedimentary cycles of Tertiary in Mississippi Embayment
and Central Gulf Coast area. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31: 698-712.

Carsey, J. B. — 1950 — Geology of Gulf Coastal area and continental shelf. Bull. A.A.P.G.
34: 361-385.

Dunbar, C. O. — 1949 — Historical geology. John Wiley. New York.

Kay, G. M,-— 1947 — Geosynclinal nomenclature and the craton. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31 : 1289-1293.
Lawson, A. C. — 1938 — The flotation of mountains — a theory of orogensis. Sci. Monthly 47 :
429-438.

Lowman, S. W. — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf Coast. Bull. A.A.P.G. 33 : 1939-1997.
Murray, G. E. — 1947 — Cenozoic deposits of central Gulf coastal plain. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31 :
1825-1850.

Pettijohn, F. J. — 1949 — Sedimentary rocks. Harpers. New York.

Schuchert, C. — 1925 — Sites and nature of North American geosynclines. Bull. G.S.A. 34:
151-230.

Stephenson, L. W. — 1933 — The zone of Exogyra cancellata. Bull. A.A.P.G. 17 : 1351-1361.
Storm, L. W. — 1945 — Resume of facts and opinions on sedimentation in Gulf Coast region
of Texas and Louisiana. Bull. A.A.P.G. 29 : 1304-1335.

376

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING ON GRANITE DOMES
IN CENTRAL TEXAS

HORACE R. BLANK
Department of Geology
A. & M. College of Texas

INTRODUCTION

Coarse-grained granite crops out over large areas of the Central Mineral
region of Texas in Burnet, Llano, Mason, Gillespie, and Blanco counties
(Paige, 1912, maps; Barnes, 1947, pp. 17-22, 44-87). At some places these
outcrops take the form of rounded hills or domes of bare rock, ranging
from a few hundred fee to more than half a mile in diameter, and rising
from a few feet to about 400 feet above the surrounding land surface.
These domes are particularly well developed in the vicinity of Enchanted
Rock, which is near the Llano-Gillespie county line about 19 miles south-
southwest from Llano, and in the neighborhood of Katemcy in northern
Mason County.

Enchanted Rock is the largest of a group of granite domes in its
vicinity. The main summit rises about 42 5 feet above Sandy Creek at its
base to an elevation of about 1800 feet above sea level. A photograph of
its north face appears in the Llano-Burnet geologic folio (Paige, 1912, illus.
sheet), and a description of the granite mass, with two excellent photo¬
graphs, is given by Barnes (1947, pp. 77-78 and Pi. 2 & 3). The present
writer studied the area on several occasions during the years 1947, 1948,
and 1949. His thanks are due to Mr. T. O. Toleman, of Georgetown, Tex.,
who assisted him on the longest of these visits and furnished several
photographs.

Outcrops in the neighborhood of Katemcy have also been described by
Barnes (1947, pp. 81-82, 86-87). The writer’s studies in this region were
made in the summer of 1949, and included several summits in the area
south-southeast from Katemcy, the Flatrock dome on the Katemcy-Fredonia
road about six miles east of Katemcy and three miles west of Fredonia,
and Spy Rock, about 3.5 miles southwest from Fredonia.

.At all these localities that rock is substantially the same. It is a coarse
pink granite consisting essentially of pink microcline, white plagioclase,
quartz, and biotite. The largest grains are those of the microcline, which at
places reach several centimeters in length and give the rock a porphyritic
texture. The quartz and biotite, though in grains much smaller than the
feldspars, are still plainly visible. Detailed descriptions, both megascopic and
microscopic, of the granite at Enchanted Rock, at a point 0.5 mile south¬
east of Katemcy, at Flatrock dome, and at Spy Rock are given by Barnes
(1947, pp. 77-78, 81-82, 86-87, and 86, resp.), together with chemical
analyses of samples from Enchanted Rock and from the Flatrock dome.
A Rosiwal analysis of a specimen from the Flatrock dome is given by
Keppel (1940, p. 975).

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

377

ORIGIN OF GRANITE DOMES

The formation of domes in granite and similar massive, coarse-grained
rocks is generally considered to be due to a process of exfoliation, whereby
relatively thin, curved sheets of rock spall off from the mass from time
to time, eventually imparting a rounded form to the remaining unbroken
mass. This process has been attributed to the unequal expansion and con¬
traction of the constituent minerals caused by temperature changes resulting
from insolation, but these changes have been shown to be inadequate by
Tarr (1915), Blackwelder (1933), and Griggs (1936). Exfoliation may
perhaps be caused by the hydration of minerals (Blackwelder, 1925), but
is believed to be more commonly due to the release of internal stresses as a
result of the relief of pressure accompanying the removal of the overlying
rocks by erosion (Matthes, 1930, pp. 114-117; Farmin, 1937; Reiche, 1945,
pp. 9-10).

White (1945; also 1944, p. 33 5) believes that exfoliation, although
present, plays a very minor part in the formation of the granite domes of
the southeastern Piedmont, and that their shapes are due primarily to
granular disintegration of the rock brought about by chemical weathering.

The writer’s studies indicate that in central Texas exfoliation and
granular disintegration are both important processes in the degradation of
the large granite exposures.

EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING AT ENCHANTED ROCK

EXFOLIATION

That exfoliation has been an important process in the formation of the
domes at Enchanted Rock is evidenced by the huge rock sheets whose
remnants cover parts of the dome surfaces (Fig. 1). These sheets range
in thickness from a few inches to more than ten feet, and conform in

FIG. 1 Exfoliation shells and residual blocks. View southwest from main dome,

Enchanted Rock, Texas.

378

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

curvature to the general surface of the dome The thicker ones are ex¬
tensively broken, by joints perpendicular to the dome surface, into large,
more or less rectangular blocks. Sheets of the order of one foot or less
in thickness are also abundant, and at places take the form of concavo-
convex lenses 100 feet or more in diameter. These break up into rectangular
slabs up to 2 5 feet in length, whose detachment from the main mass of
the dome is evidenced by their hollow sound when struck.

At a few places two of these slabs were found tilted upward against
each other in the form of a truss, with a triangular tent-shaped open space
beneath (Fig. 2). While some of these "tents” may be the result of lateral
pressure caused by creeping movements of the neighboring slabs, at others
the limbs of the truss are parallel to the topographic contours and evidence
of creep is lacking. These appear to be due to the actual popping up or
^'blistering” of the rock itself.

That such "blisters” are still forming may be seen on the east side of
the main dome. Here the granite is sound and unbroken in the larger sense,
but more or less circular sheets, from one half to one inch thick and several
feet in diameter, are continually loosening and spalling off from the rock
surface (Fig. 3). The spalls themselves quickly break up and disappear,
but their semi-detached edges are everywhere in evidence, and duplicate
the thicker slabs on a small scale.

On the very steep west and southwest sides of the largest dome the
expansion of the granite has caused the splitting off of enormous pieces of
rock, thirty or more feet thick and over a hundred feet high, along fractures
parallel to the nearly vertical dome surface. Some of these pieces, together
with many blocks from the somewhat thinner sheets, have tumbled forward
down the slope, resulting in a confused pile of blocks resting on each other
at all angles, with sizable openings or caves beneath and between them.

FIG. 2 — "Tent blister.” Southeast side of main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

379

iii#! s

FIG. 3 — -Recent exfoliation blisters. Southeast side of main dome,
Enchanted Rock, Texas.

FIG. 4 — Effects of irregular disintegration. Enchanted Rock, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

381

GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION

The numerous large blocks resting on many of the less steep slopes of
the domes at Enchanted Rock create the impression that they have split
off from the summits and then slid down to their present position. C'oser
examination, however, shows that most of them are still in place, and
although creep has occurred here and there, for the most part movement
of the blocks has been very slight, and they now rest in perfect order. Talus
slopes are absent except at the base of the very steep west side. In some of
the valleys between the domes the great blocks from the breaking up of
opposite exfoliation sheets almost meet, yet there is no evidence of the
smaller fragments which should have fallen or been washed into such places.

It is evident that a great deal of rock, loosened by exfoliation, has
disappeared from the surface of the domes, but that very little of it has
fallen or slid to their base. Instead the rock seems to have disappeared by
granular disintegration in place, and the resulting angular sand or gruss has
been washed into Sandy Creek and its tributaries.

This granular disintegration is the result of chemical weathering, as
pointed out by White (1945, p. 277). In the central Texas granites the
process seems to begin with an oxidation of the biotite and hornblende,
producing rusty stains, and a chalking of the plagioclase. Eventually these
minerals decompose or dissolve sufficiently to permit the rock to fall apart,
and the resulting sand is composed of microcline and quartz.

Weathering begins almost as soon as the sheets of rock are loosened by
exfoliation, making a sample of the entirely unweathered granite rather
difficult to collect. The unbroken dome surfaces seem perfectly sound and
hard, but the rock in all the loose slabs is at least somewhat rusted and often
somewhat friable. The surfaces of many of the large blocks crumble under
a hammer, and large microcline grains can easily be pried out from them.

The vertical surfaces of some of the larger blocks are pock-marked with
ridges and pits up to a foot or more in diameter, in a manner suggestive
of wind erosion. Pillar-like forms and pedestal rocks also occur here and
there (Fig. 4). All these forms appear to be due to local differences in the
rate of disintegration, and wind action has had little if anything to do
with their development.

EFFECTS OF RUNNING AND STANDING WATER

Water, on the other hand, seems to be a very important agent in the
process of granular disintegration. The larger blocks commonly show more
advanced disintegration toward the bottom than toward the top. The water
running down the surface of the unbroken granite both promotes the
disintegration of the loose blocks and removes the disintegration products,
with the result that the blocks become undercut. Spaces large enough to
walk through are commonly found beneath and between the larger ones, and
afford shade for the angora goats grazing in the vicinity. Continued under¬
cutting produces pedestal or "balanced” rocks, which may topple over before
they finally disintegrate. One such block at Enchanted Rock turned over
between 1947 and 1949.

Incised Channels — At a few places channels several inches deep have
been worn in the surface of the hard unbroken granite by the action of
running water alone. They must be due entirely to the solvent action of the

382

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

water, as there is no source of sand or other corroding material. The sides and
bottoms of the channels are rough from protruding quartz grains, but
much unattacked microcline is also evident, and apparently the mineral
which has suffered most from the corrosive action of the water is the
plagioclase. In its chemical attack the water may be assisted by acids from
the decay of the sparse grass on the top of the dome, or from the abundant
goat manure.

Weather Pits — Many shallow round or elliptical depressions in the solid
granite occur on the flat or gently sloping summits of several of the domes
at Enchanted Rock. They range from a few feet to 30 feet or more in
diameter, and from a few inches to about one foot in depth. Many retain
water for some time after rains. Most of them overflow or drain through a
low point of the rim into other depressions or down over the smooth granite
of the steeper slopes of the dome, but a few have no observable inlet or
outlet. Many contain gravelly soil, rich in particles of disintegrated granite,
which supports a little grass, cactus, and a few other plants, with an
occasional small live oak tree. Others show no soil, but contain disintegrated
granite gruss, often with small slabs of broken rock (Fig. 5). Similar small
slabs and blocks lie scattered over much of the summit of the main dome.

A few larger depressions were also observed, ranging up to 100 by 200
feet across, filled with soil and supporting grass and small trees. One of
these occurs on the summit of the first dome southwest of the main dome.
Another on the north side of the main dome, below the summit but at the
top of the very steep slope, is a pocket-like valley open on the north side
only and fully 1 5 feet deep, with steep side walls. These walls are exfoliating
inward, toward the depression, and breaking into large blocks.

Depressions on the flat summits of large exposures of granite and similar
rocks have been described by several observers. Mathes (1930, pp. 63-64
and Pi. 33) named those in Yosemite National Park ''weather pits”, and
believed their development to be promoted by the presence in the rock of
local aggregates of readily soluble minerals, and their enlargement to be due
to both chemical and mechanical weathering. Anderson (1931, pp. 58-59
and Pi. XIII) described "bath tub” depressions as much as four feet deep
on granodiorite in Cassia County, Idaho, which he attributed to the breach¬
ing by rain water of a "case-hardened” shell of chemically weathered rock.
Lester (1938) observed pits in granite and granite gneiss at and near Stone
Mountain, Georgia, and attributed them in part to exfoliation, in part to
solution, and in part to the abrasive action of wind-blown quartz. L. L.
Smith (1941) described the weather pits on granite in South Carolina in
considerable detail. He believed them to be initiated by small slight con¬
cavities produced by spalling, and to be enlarged by the more rapid chemical
weathering resulting from the accumulation of water and decayed vegetable
matter in the depressions. He ascribed the removal of the products of this
weathering to flushing of the pits by rain water and to deflation by wind
during dry weather. White (1944, pp. 3 37-3 39) attributed the weather
pits on the granites of the southeastern states to the breaching of "indurated
veneers” (similar to Anderson’s case-hardening) by patches of moss or
similar vegetation.

Depressions called "tinajitas” on flat surfaces of limestone in trans-Pecos
Texas were described by Udden (1925, p.5) and later by J. F. Smith and

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

383

Albritton (1941), and L. C. King (1942, pp. 104-105 and Fig. 118) noted
"rock tanks” on the surface of flat-lying sandstones in South Africa.

Whatever combinations of processes may be responsible for the growth
of weather pits in granite, it seems evident that at Enchanted Rock exfolia¬
tion plays a major role in their initiation. Most of these summit depressions
appear to originate as expansion blisters like those described above, and they
therefore may be of large size from their beginning. Around the edges of
many of them the rock sounds hollow, and here and there open spaces can
actually be seen where their rims are partially detached from the under¬
lying rock. Around some of the larger depressions the rims are rounded
convexly upward and inward (Fig. 5), suggesting that their originally
sharp edges have been modified by continued spalling. This would agree
with the definite evidence of exfoliation toward and into the largest hollows
above described. Some of the smaller weather pits show the etched and
slightly undercut edges noted by observers in other localities. At such pits
exfoliation spalling has either ceased or has been slower than the solution
of the rock.

Rock Doughnuts — -Two of the many weather pits found by the writer
at Enchanted Rock are surrounded by raised annular rims of solid granite.
The larger is located on the west side of the main dome, just above the
nearly vertical portion of the west face, and a smaller one occurs on the
east side of the first large dome to the southwest. These have been called
"rock doughunts” by the writer and are more completely described in
another paper now in preparation. Additional examples occur in the
Katemcy region.

The rock doughnuts consist of a nearly circular weather pit, from
about six inches to about six feet in diameter, encircled by a rounded
annular ridge up to about six inches high and 18 inches wide. In shape they
resemble half of a doughnut, or an automobile inner tube split in the plane

FIG. 5 — Weather pit, with remnants of exfoliation shell. Large pit with rounded
rim in right background. Summit of main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas.

384

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

of the wheel (Fig. 6). In some examples the annular ridge in turn is
surrounded by a shallow depression, which shows evidence of scour by
running water and connects with shallow channels in the rock above and
below. The larger doughnut at Enchanted Rock contains a little gravelly
soil, with grass, but no loose slabs or flakes, nor any other evidence of
derivation from an exfoliation blister. The granite in all parts of the
doughnuts apparently is identical with that in the surrounding dome surface,
and is sound and hard throughout.

The origin of the rock doughnuts is extremely puzzling, and the writer
has as yet no satisfactory explanation for them. Their rarity in comparison
with the total number of weather pits suggests that they are due to some
unusual modification or extension of the processes responsible for the latter.
They may possibly be due to differences in the corrosive effect of the
water in sheet floods descending the dome, caused by the checking of the
velocity of the water as it flows over a weather pit already full. This
explanation is difficult to apply to certain doughnuts in the Katemcy region
which occur on surfaces sensibly horizontal. Or water standing in a weather
pit may possibly penetrate the surrounding granite and indurate it on
evaporation, but no evidence of such induration was found by the writer
anywhere in central Texas. Thus there are serious objections to both these
explanations. The problem is more fully discussed by the writer in the
paper above referred to.

EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING IN THE KATEMCY REGION

EXFOLIATION

Exfoliation is much less evident on the domes of the Katemcy region
than at Enchanted Rock, although here and there its effects can be observed.
At various places in the large granite area south of Katemcy there are
clusters of blocks which appear to be the remains of thick exfoliation

FIG. 6 — "Rock doughnut.’’ Flatrock dome, three miles west of Fredonia, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

385

sheets. At Flatrock dome the walls of a hollow on the north side are breaking
up and moving inward much the same manner as at the large hollow on
Enchanted Rock. Small scale spalling, so prominent at Enchanted Rock,
is also taking place at some of the domes in the Katemcy region but is
much less pronounced.

GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION

On the other hand, solution and granular disintegration of the granite
appear to be the dominant processes. No talus was found around any of
the domes, but the flat country around and between them is largely covered
by "granite wash”, consisting of a coarse sand of quartz and microcline,
through which occasional outcrops protrude. As at Enchanted Rock, the
dome surfaces are, for the most part, hard and sound, but all detached
blocks and boulders show more or less weathering and friability. A very
perfect balanced rock, the result of disintegration and undercutting, was
found on one of the domes about two miles south of Katemcy (Fig. 7).
Others were noticed at Spy Rock. At the latter place solution and
disintegration have enlarged joints in one of the domes into canyons two
or three feet wide and 5 0 or more feet deep.

EFFECTS OF RUNNING AND STANDING WATER

The effects of running and ponded water are much more pronounced
in this region than at Enchanted Rock. They are shown in the development
of incised channels, in the dissection of the tops of some of the domes,
and in the nature of the weather pits.

On the south side of the Flatrock dome channels cut by running water
are well developed in a more or less dendritic pattern, and are incised several

FIG. 7 — Balanced rock. About two miles south of Katemcy, Texas.

386

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 80

inches into the solid granite (Fig, 8). As at Enchanted Rock, the sides and
bottoms of these channels are rough from corrosion rather than corrasion,
and there is no source of detrital material, other than disintegration of the
granite itself, which could have supplied the water with cutting tools.

The most striking example of water attack on the granite is found
at a small unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from Katemcy and
about 0.5 mile west of the county road. The entire top and south slope of
this dome are carved into a fantastic maze of weather pits, ridges, and
channels up to three feet deep. Most of the larger pits outlet through wind¬
ing channels connecting them with others and forming veritable incised
meanders, with thin-necked spurs and isolated knobs (Figs. 9 and 10). Small

FIG. 8 — Incised water channels. Flatrock dome, three miles west of Fredonia, Texas.

FIG. 9 — Dissected slope of unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast
from Katemcy, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

387

FIG. 10 — Dissected summit of unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from
Katemcy, Texas, showing deep weather pits and rock doughnuts.

388

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

new weather pits are forming on the tops of some of these knobs and else¬
where on the as yet undissected areas of the dome surface. The entire sur¬
face suggests karst topography in miniature, but on granite instead of
limestone.

Some of the weather pits contain a gruss of microcline and quartz.
From many others, whose outlets have been cut down to their floor levels,
this has been washed out, revealing a flat floor of hard granite. Many of the
larger and deeper pits show slightly undercut rims.

Over this entire dome the rock surface is rough, apparently from
differential solution of the minerals in the coarse-grained granite. The sides
and floors of the weather pits are also rough, but in many pits the rock is
considerably smoother in a narrow zone just below what appears to have
been a high water mark.

Very little exfoliation appears to be in progress on this dome, a few

thin spalls being the only indication of it. Likewise there is little direct

evidence of granular disintegration, probably because there are so few de¬
tached pieces on which its progress can be observed. The granite gruss on
the floors of some of the weather pits, however, and the granite wash sur¬
rounding the dome, indicate that solution and disintegration of the rock are
going on here as elsewhere.

The dissection of this dome and the "bath tub” size of the weather

pits seem analogous to the phenomena at the Cassia City of Rocks in Idaho

described by Anderson (1931, pp. 58-59), though on a smaller scale. No
"case-hardening,” however, nor any "indurated veneer” as described by
White (1944), was observed by the writer here or anywhere else in central
Texas.

Numerous weather pits were observed on other granite exposures in the
vicinity of Katemcy, although no other dome was dissected to the extent of
the unnamed one just described. For the most part the weather pits are
small, and none of the very broad, shallow type was observed. None could
be traced directly to exfoliation spalls, as at Enchanted Rock, for none had
semi-detached or broadly rounded edges. From all indications, both their
initiation and enlargement were due to solution and disintegration rather
than to exfoliation.

Several rock doughnuts were also found in the Katemcy region. Some
of these were more perfect than those at Enchanted Rock, and had rela¬
tively broader annular ridges.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

It would appear that both exfoliation and granular disintegration are
important processes in the formation and development of the erosion sur¬
faces on the granites of central Texas. At any one time and at any one
place either process may dominate the other, but both go on simultaneously,
as pointed out by White (1945, p. 277).

In central Texas exfoliation seems to be the first process, and the one
primarily responsible for the rounded forms of the dome. This is indicated
by the rock sheets, blocks, boulders, and blisters in all stages of detachment
so well shown at Enchanted Rock, and present though less abundant at
most of the exposures studied in the Katemcy region.

The writer has no doubt that this exfoliation is caused by the release of
stresses within the granite itself. Furthermore, this release must in many
cases be accomplished by the continuous removal by erosion of the outer

1951, No. 3
September 30

Weathering of Granite Domes

389

portions of the granite mass; otherwise exfoliation should long since have
ceased. The obviously recent expansion of the rock toward the nearest open
space, whether it be a hollow, a weather pit, or merely, as in one observed
case, a wide joint, seems convincing evidence that exfoliation is still going
on. The tent blisters and thinner exfoliation spalls are strikingly like the
manifestations of "popping rock” which the writer has experienced in deep
excavations into granite gneiss in New York City. In rocks which have
solidified or have otherwise been formed under stress, it would appear that
up until the time that all stress has been relieved every change in shape or
volume, from whatever cause, necessitates some readjustment of the rock.

Granular disintegration, the result of the chemical weathering and the
solution by rain water of some of the constituents of the rock, is respon¬
sible for the removal of the exfoliated granite and for the minor features
of the dome surfaces, such as incised channels, weather pits, and rock dough¬
nuts. On the unbroken dome surface this process must be extremely slow,
except perhaps where running water concentrates in channels. Pieces which
have become detached by exfoliation, however, are open to attack by air
and water from above and below. Attack seems to be more rapid from the
under side, where the water can remain longer in contact with the rock, and
undercutting results. This is in agreement with theories of the origin of
pedestal rocks advanced by Bryan (192 3, pp. 3-5; 1927, pp. 8-9) and by
Crickmay (1935, pp. 745 and 754), and the shapes of many of the parti¬
ally disintegrated boulders at Enchanted Rock seem to support their con¬
clusions.

Where the rate of exfoliation of a granite mass far exceeds the rate
of granular disintegration, the domes may acquire an imbricate structure, as
at Half Dome in Yosemite Valley, due to the accumulation and overlapping
of the exfoliated sheets (White, 1945, p. 277, referring to Matthes, 1930,
Pi. 48-50). Where the two are more nearly balanced, as at Enchanted Rock,
numerous detached sheets and blocks will be present, but there will also
be large areas of smooth unbroken rock surface. Where the rate of dis¬
integration exceeds that of exfoliation, as at the unnamed dome 1.5 miles
south-southeast from Katemcy, and probably also at the Cassia City of
Rocks in Idaho described by Anderson, detached boulders will be few, and
the dome surface wil be deeply pitted and dissectd.

It is evident that the periodic exfoliation of large, thick sheets of rock
would prevent the development of incised channels, sharp-lipped deep
wather pits, rock doughnuts, and any other products of the solution-
disintegration process which require a long time for their formation. Small-
scale exfoliation in the form of blisters and spalls, however, would initiate
and enlarge weather pits, which would be of the broad and shallow type.
Thus not only the abundance but also the nature of the weather pits should
give some indication of the balance between the two processes.

There remains the interesting question why, on the same type of
rock and under the same climatic conditions, exfoliation should be so much
more active at Enchanted Rock than on the domes in the Katemcy region,
about 3 8 miles to the northwest. That such is the fact further supports the
conclusion that exfoliation is caused by stresses inherited from the condi¬
tions under which the rock was formed, which are largely unknown but
which might be expected to vary locally. Enchanted Rock is somewhat

390

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

closer to the border of its granite mass than are the domes studied in the
Katemcy region. Beyond this nothing in the writer’s observations bears on
this particular problem.

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, A. L. — 1931 — Geology and mineral resources of eastern Cassia County, Idaho.

Idaho Bur. Mines & Geol. Bull. 14: 3 69 pp., 19 pi.

Barnes, V. E., Dawson, R. F., and G. A. Parkinson — 1947 — Building stones of central Texas.

Bull. Univ. Texas 4246: 198 pp., 5 pi. and map.

Blackwelder, E. — 1925 — Exfoliation as a phase of rock weathering. J. Geol. 33 : 793-806.

- 1933 — The insolation hypothesis of rock weathering. Am. J. Sci. 26:97-113.

Bryan, K. — 1925 — Pedestal rocks in the arid Southwest. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 760A: 1-11.

- 1927 — Pedestal rocks formed by differential erosion. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 790A : 1-19.

Crickmay, G. W. — 1935 — Granite pedestal rocks in the southern Appalachian piedmont. J.
Geol. 43 : 745-758.

Farmin, R. — 1937 — Hypogene exfoliation in rock masses. J. Geol. 45 : 625-635.

Griggs, D. T. — 1936 — The factor of fatigue in rock exfoliation. J. Geol. 44 : 783-796.

Keppel, D. — 1940 — Concentric patterns in the granites of the Llano-Burnet region, Texas.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 51: 971-1000.

King, L. C. — 1942 — South African scenery, a textbook of geomorphology. Oliver & Boyd, ltd.,
Edinburgh.

Lester, J. G. — 1938 — Geology of the region around Stone Mountain, Georgia. Thesis abstracted
in Univ. Colo. Studies, Gen. Series (A), 26:88-91.

Matfhes, F. E. — 1930 — Geologic history of the Ycsemite valley. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Paper 160: 137 pp., 52 pi.

Paige, S. — 1912 — Llano-Burnet folio, Texas. U. S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas, Folio 183 : 16 pp.,
1 illus. sheet, 6 maps.

Reiche, P. — 1945 — A survey of weathering processes and products. Univ. N. Mex. Pub. Geol.
1 : 87 pp.

Smith, J. F., and C. C. Albritton, Jr. — 1941 — Solution effects on limestone as a function of
slope. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 52 : 61-78.

Smith, L. L. — 1941 — Weather pits in granite of the southern piedmont. J. Geomorph. 4 :
117-127.

Tarr, R. S. — 1915 — A study of some heating tests, and the light they throw on the cause of
disaggregation in granite. Econ. Geol. 10 : 348-357.

Udden, J. A. — 1925 — Etched potholes. Bull. Univ. Texas 2509: 9 pp.

White, W. A. — 1944 — Geomorphic effects of indurated veneers on granites in the southeastern
states. J. Geol. 52 : 333-341.

- 1945 — Origin of granite dc-mes in the southeastern piedmont. J. Geol. 53:276-282.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc.

391

TOXICITY LEVELS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID
AND SOME INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS

F. M. DAUGHERTY, JR.

Marine Laboratory

Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission *
and

JACK T. GARRETT
Monsanto Chemical Company

INTRODUCTION

Disposal of industrial by-products has long been a major conservation
problem. In recent years chemical and other industries have come in ever in¬
creasing numbers to the Texas coast, bringing with them a threat to marine
resources. If properly handled, wastes of this type may be introduced to
marine waters without harmful results.

In many cases industries are approaching these problems with experi¬
mentation prior to the time of actual production. The compounds dealt with
herein are, in part, such by-products. In anticipation of other problems of
this nature it was deemed advisable to establish a standard for analyses
(Daugherty, 1951). Since the physical properties of salt water vary from
area to area a standard animal is indicated.

The pin perch, Lagodon rhomboides (Linnaeus) was chosen for three
reasons: (Daugherty, 1949; 1951):

1. It is found in great abundance.

2. It is widely distributed.

3. It occupies a position of low to median toxicity tolerance, when
compared with 21 common species of fish.

The method of Hart, Doudoroff, and Greenbank (1945), was con¬
sidered because of its consistency and reproductibility. In this method refer¬
ence water was used, acclimatization time was standardized, as was feeding
during acclimatization, temperature was rigidly controlled, and 24 hour
median tolerance limits were established. It was decided, however, that with
the natural uncontrollable physical properties of sea water a standard fish
rather than standard physical conditions would be more desirable. It is pos¬
sible, on this basis, for industries to conduct satisfactory tests to establish
safe tolerance levels of their by-products prior to disposal (Daugherty,
1951).

METHOD

Large battery jars were used as aquaria, each with 30 liters of fresh
sea water and a continuous air source. No attempt was made to control the
temperature, which varied from 13.7 to 20.4° C. Eight newly caught speci¬
mens of Lagodon rhomboides were placed in each aquarium and allowed an
acclimatization period of 22 to 24 hours. Thus, there was no necessity for
feeding or changing water. These fish ranged from 57 to 113 mm. standard
length. In each test or run one or two jars of fish were used as controls.

Present address : Suitland, Md., Division of Oceanography, U, S. Navy Hydrographic Office.

392

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

lip

7 - <■ • -~r

. , 'ppiT "*

.......

■■

' •

FIG. I — The toxic levels of hydrocyanic acid for Lagodon rhomboides.

FIG. 2 — The toxic levels of lactonitrile for Lagodon rhomboides.

393

1951, No. 3
September 30

Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc.

After the acclimatization period the test compounds were introduced
in a series of dilutions based on parts per million by weight. Tests were al¬
lowed to continue until all fish died or until it was evident that the remain¬
ing fish would survive. In some cases it was necessary to run second and
sometimes third tests in order to determine narrow toxicity levels. The time
of each death was recorded.

TESTS

HYDROCYANIC ACID — Hydrocyanic acid is a very weak acid that
hydrolyzes quite rapidly in a basic medium to produce relatively non-toxic
materials. Since the pH of sea water is slightly basic this hydrolysis is
favored, and tends to reduce the toxic effects.

A series of seven concentrations ranging from 0.010 to 1.000 p.p.m.
were treated. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 0.050 p.p.m.
(Table 1). There were no deaths in the control.

LACTON1TRILE — Lactonitrile is an a-hydroxy nitrile and as such is
unstable. This compound decomposes very rapidly in a basic medium to give
hydrocyanic acid and acetaldehyde, which are both toxic materials (Anon.,
1949). This is the reason that acetaldehyde was tested.

A series of 10 concentrations ranging from 0.0 5 to 3.50 p.p.m. were
tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 0.10 p.p.m. (Table 1).
There were no deaths in the controls.

ACRYLONITRILE-— Acrylonitrile is an olefinic cyanide that is quite
stable chemically and undergoes basic hydrolysis very slowly. The products
;>f this hydrolysis are amides and acids and do not represent particularly
toxic materials (Mamiya, 1941).

FIG. 3- — The toxic levels of acrylonitrile for Lagodon rhomboides.

394

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

FIG. 4 — The toxic levels of 1, cyanobutadiene 1, 3 for Lagodon rhomboides.

':L

Eff'It!

if:

1 1

; J

' j

MJr|

■■

■

}i|

L±i

% .

•

‘"i.j

? i

111

i/|

. |

fill

iggig

iPl]

its

■

; • ; •

r. ri.Lpj .j

rrt

flf: : t r;f

:::::

||i

jof

•-1

:fli

]-•; :;r j:.

. . , .

■ ;

: ; t

4|y

rat;]

• « -

o'- .

:3Xi±i.r~

, ± r.

illi

Wm.

* ' **

* f

. i .:

....

!ai|5

djji

i mw

fei

It |

r-irra

; ;;; .

1 fill

■: W[7r

: :: rfj

ill rlt It

/ i

. y :

«v?: 1 i

if!

Ffd

::::: u it

h:\- /

FIG. 5 — The toxic levels of acetaldehyde for Lagodon rhomboides.

m t Deaths 1 Percent Deaths

1951, No. 3
September 30

Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc.

395

A series of 16 concentrations ranging from 0.2 5 to 60.00 p.p.m. were
tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 20.00 p.p.m. (Table 1).
There were no deaths in the controls.

1 — CYANOBUTADIENE, 1, 3 — This compound is an olefinic cyanide
chemically very similar to acrylonitrile and undergoes basic hydrolysis to a
similar degree.

A series of 17 concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 80.0 p.p.m. were
tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 50.0 p.p.m. (Table 1).
There were no deaths in the controls.

ACETALDEH YDE— -Acetaldehyde is a carbonyl compound tested in
this problem because it is a decomposition product of lactonitrile.

A series of nine concentrations ranging from 5.0 to 70.0 p.p.m. were
tested. Deaths occurred only in 70.0 p.p.m. There were no deaths in the
controls.

TABLE 1— PERTINENT TOXIC LEVELS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID AND
OTHER COMPOUNDS TESTED.

Max. p.p.m.

Min. p.p.m.

24 hr. Med.,

Min. p.p.m.

Compound

at which
no deaths
occurred

at which
deaths
occurred

Tol. limit

Total deaths

Hydrocyanic Acid . .

. 0.050

0.075

0.069

0.100

Lactonitrile .

. . 0.100

0.250

0.215

0.500

Acrylonitrile .

. . 20.000

30.000

24.500

30.000

1, Cyanobutadiene 1,3

50.000

60.000

71.500

70.000

Acetaldehyde .

. . 60.000

70.000

# Two fish survived 96 hours.

DISCUSSION

Twenty-four hour median tolerance limits (Table 1; figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
were determined by plotting the toxic concentrations against the per cent
deaths on semi-log paper and interpolating (Williams, 1948). In the tests of
hydrocyanic acid, lactonitrile, and acrylonitrile, the 24 hour median toler¬
ance limits were found to be less than the minimum concentrations at which
deaths occurred (Table 1, Figs. 1, 2, 3). This would indicate that these com¬
pounds could only be discharged safely at the maximum concentrations at
which no deaths occurred, or preferably at a lesser concentration. This
should also apply to the other two compounds tested or to any toxic sub¬
stance. Materials introduced to sea water at these levels would be further
diluted and disseminated by its currents, thus increasing the margin of
safety.

In this series of tests the changes in pH and salinity were so insignifi¬
cant, that it is not deemed necessary to discuss them.

CONCLUSIONS

The compounds tested were found to be unsafe for disposal in sea
water when in excess of the following concentrations:

Hydrocyanic acid _ _ _ 0.0 5 p.p.m.

Lactonitrile _ _ _ 0.10 p.p.m.

Acrylonitrile _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20.00 p.p.m.

1, cyanobutadiene, 1, 3 _ 50.00 p.p.m.

Acetaldehyde _ ... _ 60.00 p.p.m.

396

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous — 1949 — Cyanamide new products bulletin. Technical Publication of the American
Cyanamide Company, New York. 1 : 74-82.

Daugherty, F. M. Jr. — 1949 — The effects of some chemicals used in oil well drilling on marine
animals. Unpublished report to the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

- - — 1951 — A proposed standard for testing industrial by-products to be released in' marine

waters. In Press.

Hart, W. B., Peter Doudoroff, and John Greenbank — 1945 — The evaluation of the toxicity of
industrial wastes, chemicals, and other substances to freshwater fishes. Contribution
of the Waste Control Laboratory. The Atlantic Refining Company. Philadelphia.

Mamiya, Yasumi — 1941 — Hydrolysis of acrylonitrile with caustic soda. Jour. Soc. Chem.
Indust. (Japan). 44:860-862.

Williams, James Elmer Jr. — 1948— The toxicity of some inorganic salts to game fish. Un¬
published Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Mass Culture of Pneumococcus

397

SUITABLE MEDIA FOR GROWING
MASS CULTURES OF PNEUMOCOCCUS * **

JOHN B. LOEFER AND RUSSELL G. WEICHLEIN * *

Foundation of Applied Research
San Antonio, Texas

The centrifugate from dense thriving cultures of Diplococcus Pneu¬
moniae was needed for certain experiments. The problem of producing such
cultures was a very real one even though much has been written about
growth of pneumococcci and many commercial media are recommended.
The organism is reputedly difficult to culture, and for this reason we
thought it worthwhile to outline some of the procedures which enabled
us to produce mass cultures repeatedly.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For these experiments we used Diplococcus pneumoniae , type II, strain
D39S, kindly furnished by Miss Amy S. Roe, to whom we are also indebted
for the formula of fresh heart-neopeptone broth medium, which is as fol¬
lows:

BEEF HEART INFUSION :

Fresh beef heart, chopped (free of fat) . 1 lb.

Water, distilled . 500 ml.

Heat to 80° - 85° C. for 45 to 60 minutes
and filter while hot.

FRESH HEART-NEOPEPTONE BROTH:

Beef Heart Infusion (prepared as above) . . 500 ml.

Water, distilled . . . 500 ml.

Neopeptone, Difco . 10 gm.

NaCl . . 5 gm.

Dextrose . 0.5 gm.

NaOH, N/l, adjust to pH 7.8 with approx . 14 ml.

The fresh heart-neopeptone broth medium will be referred to as FHNB.
Other abbreviations used are: BFII for Brain Heart Infusion, Difco; TP for
Tryptose Phosphate Broth, Difco; DHNB for dehydrated heart-neopeptone
broth (90 gms. of Difco Beef Heart for Infusion are substituted for the
pound of fresh beef heart in the first formula and this infusion is used in
the second formula). The eight Baltimore Biological Laboratory preparations
which were used are designated in table 1.

Stock cultures for each series were prepared in the following way.
Either dehydrated cultures or smooth colonies on blood agar base slants
were used to prepare a saline or FHNB suspension. After recovery from
a passage through mice, a stock flask of FHNB or other medium was inocu¬
lated and usually used at 12-24 hours, when percent light transmission was
approximately 50, to inoculate an entire series. The minimum ratio of in¬
oculum to medium inoculated was 1:300. All cultures were incubated at
37° C.

* Presented at 1950 Annual Meeting. Dallas, Texas.

** Aided by grants from G. D. Searle & Co., and Mr. and Mrs. Lewis J. Moorman, Jr.

398

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September So

An alkaline reaction appears to be essential for good growth of pneu¬
mococci (Dernby and Avery, 1918; Avery and Cullen, 1919; Lord and
Nye, 1919; Kelley, 1938). For this reason hydrogen-ion concentration of
all media was adjusted to pH 7.6-7. 8 with N/l NaOH before inoculation.
Readings of cultures were taken at intervals during the growth period
with a Beckham glass electrode pH meter. Whenever moderate to good
growth had occurred, pH of the cultures was ususlly 5.0 or below. Sterile
sodium carbonate solution (10%) was added to such cultures in quantity
sufficient to bring the reaction to pH 7.8 again. Subsequently, there was
another period of growth, providing other growth factors were present in
adequate amounts. This procedure was employed repeatedly. For practical
purposes, however, one or two neutralizations were usually sufficient to ob¬
tain very dense cultures.

In preliminary experiments, growth was visually estimated, and some
attempts were made to measure the quantity of bacteria per unit volume
of culture fluid with the protozoacrit devised by Elliott (1939), a modifi¬
cation of the hematocrit. Percent transmission of monochromatic light by
bacterial cultures proved to be most suitable for recording growth. It should
be pointed out here, however, that optical density of the cultures is in part
accounted for by precipitation of proteins which occurs when the reaction
falls to pH 5.0 or thereabouts as a result of acid formation in carbohydrate-
containing media. A Coleman Junior Spectrophotometer, model 6A, was
used, with wave length setting at 610 millimicrons. Each point on any graph
represents an average of several culture readings.

The bile solubility test was performed on most culture samples on
which transmission readings were obtained. This proved to be a very good
test for the pneumococcus in cultures less than 48 hours old, but bile solu¬
bility was not a reliable criterion of purity in older cultures. Samples from
cultures were frequently examined under a phase microscope and any con¬
taminated cultures were discarded.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Several types of commercial media, recommended for the culture of
pneumococci and other bacteria difficult to culture, were compared in a
preliminary test. Two percent concentrations of the media listed in Table

TABLE 1. GROWTH OF PNEUMOCCUS IN VARIOUS MEDIA

Percent

Growth at

Medium

Dextrose

3 days

Trypticase, BBL .

. 0.05

Trypticase Soy Broth, BBL ...

. 0.05

+ +

Nutri Peptone, BBL . .

. 0.05

Phytone, BBL .

. 0.05

+ +

Polypeptone, BBL . .

. 0.05

Thiotone, BBL .

. 0.05

Myosate, BBL .

. . 0.05

Thioglycollate Medium, BBL

. 0.05

+ +

FHNB .

. 0.05

+ + + +

BHI .

. 0.2

+ +

BHI+2% fresh serum .

. 0.2

TP .

. 0.2

TP + 2% fresh serum .

. 0.2

4 — b

TP-BHI (1:1) .

. 0.2

++ +

TP + 0.01% agar .

. 0.2

++ +

-|- = some growth

+ + + = good

growth

+ + moderate growth

4- + -f- + = excellent growth

1951, No. 3
September 30

Mass Culture of Pneumococcus

399

1 were prepared in five hundred ml. amounts. The pH of each was adjusted
to 7.6 and each type of medium was dispensed in equal quantities into
300 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks. All media contained dextrose, either 0.0 5 or
0.2%, as shown. Fresh bovine serum was added aseptically to two of the
several types of media designated. All flasks were given a one milliliter
inoculation from a 24-hour stock grown in a Trypticase medium. After in¬
cubation for three days, visual estimates of growth indicated that the fresh
heart-neopeptone broth medium was superior to the others tested.

In another experiment, flasks containing FHNB plus 0.0 5 and 0.2%
dextrose, respectively, were inoculated with Diplococcus pneumoniae. Yields,
as determined with the protozoacrit, were 2 5-30 times as high from the
cultures with 0.2% dextrose as from those containing only 0.05% sugar.
The pH also had changed from 7.6 to 4.9, whereas it remained near 7.0 in
the 0.05% dextrose-FHNB medium. It seemed obvious that the additional
carbohydrate was responsible for the increased yield and high acidity.

Growth enhancement by dextrose was noted by previous investigators
(cf. review by White, 1938, pp. 38-9). In some experiments as much as
8% dextrose was used. Other reports suggested that if more than 1% was
present, acid production was so great as to cause autolysis. Pochon (1940a,
1940b) used only 0.2-0. 4% for studies on growth in a peptone medium,
and most commercial dessicated media contains less. A paradoxical situa¬
tion appears to exist with respect to utilization of dextrose and growth of
pneumococcus. Dextrose in large amounts accelerates growth, but the acid
formed from it may cause death. According to Hewitt (1932) 77% of it is
converted to lactic acid. Lord and Nye (1919) indicated that pH 5.15 was
probably the death point for this bacterium. Saline suspensions at pH 5.3, in
fact, could not be tolerated for more than one hour; those at 5.6 for only
three hours, and at pH 6.1 survival time was only six hours.

It seemed logical, therefore, to provide sugar in large amounts, but to
neutralize the acid in cultures before the pneumococcus perished. The next
experiment described was planned to mediate the phases of this paradox and
to test the effect of different concentrations of dextrose.

Sixty liters of TP-BHI-FHNB (6:1:1) was prepared and autoclaved in
three-liter quantities in one-gallon glass containers. The pH was adjusted
to 7.8 by aseptic addition of alkali. Appropriate volumes of sterile solu¬
tions with high dextrose content were aseptically added to flasks to obtain
quadruplicate sets containing the following respective dextrose concentra¬
tions: 0.2, 0.82, 1.45, 2.7 and 5.2%. All flasks of media were uniformly
inoculated from a young FHNB culture. Samples were drawn from all cul¬
tures at intervals during a 49-hour period as designated in figure 1, which
shows light transmission and pH values. The small arrow preceding a pH
value signifies that the culture reaction was adjusted to that point. It may
be seen that there is a direct correlation between optical density and quan¬
tity of dextrose present up to 1.45%.

After 33 hours incubation, even though additional dextrose is present,
lack of some unknown factor or factors other than dextrose appears to limit
growth. It is patent that 0.2% dextrose is entirely inadequate for best
growth, even for a relatively short incubation period.

It was apparent from the results of the first experiment that other
peptone broths or combinations thereof might be more favorable to produc¬
tion of mass cultures than the TP-BHI-FHNB which was used in the dex¬
trose experiment. Accordingly, the media already referred to and some others

400

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

were prepared as per directions for each preparation (2.5-3 .7% concentra¬
tions) .Mixtures were also prepared as shown in figures 2 and 3. In all cases,
dextrose was added to obtain a 5% concentration and pH was adjusted to
7.8. There were four 5 00 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks for each respective type of
medium and each contained 2 50 milliliters. Each flask of the entire series
was inoculated with one milliliter from an 18 -hour stock culture (FHNB-
5% dextrose medium; % light transmission = 54). Light transmission and
pH readings were taken after an 18-hour incubation period and recorded as
shown in figures 2 and 3. The reaction of all cultures was adjusted to 7.8.
Following the addition of alkali, optical density of cultures decreased. In
favorable media (figure 2) recovery occurred rapidly and culture densities
at 46 hours reached what appears to be a maximum. The results also in¬
dicate that combinations of BHI and FHNB were better than either alone.
Autoclaving FHNB a second time appeared to be detrimental.

1951, No. S
September 30

Mass Culture of Pneumococcus

401

INCUBATION TIME-HOURS

402

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

In media that were less favorable to growth (figure 3), cultures, after
acid neutralization, did not recover their original density. This was inter¬
preted to indicate a lack of some factor or factors necessary for growth of
the bacterium.

Since there was no increased growth when the dextrose concentration
was greater than 2.7%, it was thought that possibly some factor was limit¬
ing the availability of dextrose. If such were the case, addition of the needed
substance to the medium should improve growth. A TP-BHI-FHNB
(6:1:1) medium was prepared in a quantity sufficient for 12 three-liter
cultures, as in the dextrose experiment described above. Four flasks received
thiamin enough to provide lfxg. per ml., and four other flasks received the
following mixture with final concentrations of each ingredient as indicated:

1951, No. 3
September 30

Mass Culture of Pneumococcus

403

Ingredient Concentration — 1 1 g. per ml.

Cysteine-HCl . 0.132

Glutamine . . . . . 0.132

Ascorbic acid . 0.066

Carotene . . . 0.0132

Vitamin A . . . . 0.0132

All flasks were inoculated from the same 18 -hour stock. Density and
pH readings were made at 10 hours and the hydrogen-ion concentration
was adjusted to pH 7.8. At 15 hours second readings were taken and adjust¬
ments made. Figure 4 indicates that neither the addition of thiamin nor the
addition of cysteine and the other compounds made any appreciable differ¬
ence in growth.

An experiment was also carried out in which different concentrations
of sucrose and dextrose were compared, both when filtered and aseptically
added to the FHNB medium, and when autoclaved together. Optical density
readings were taken on 2 2 -hour cultures without carbohydrate and on
cultures containing M/100, M/10 and M/l concentrations, respectively.

404

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Growth was best with M/lO and M/l sugars. Density of cultures was lower
with M/l 00 sugar and lowest in controls to which no carbohydrate had been
added. All dextrose and sucrose cultures were readjusted to pH 8. 2 -8. 6 and
reincubated several days longer when light transmission readings were re¬
taken. All cultures with M/ 1 0 and M/ 1 sugar had increased in density to
a comparable extent, whereas those with less than this amount had not.

The experiment verifies the findings shown in figure 1, which indicated
that when dextrose was present to the extent of 1.45%, growth was as
good after the first and second additions of alkali as when more sugar had
been added. In the present experiment either sucrose or dextrose, 1.7- 1.8%,
was adequate for maximum growth. Whether the sugar was sterilized by
filtration and added aseptically to autoclaved FHNB, or autoclaved with
it, made no appreciable difference in growth. The same was true when
2 M concentrations of these sugars were compared.

In figure 5 is shown graphically the data obtained from mass cultures

1951, No. 3
September 30

Mass Culture of Pneumococcus

405

designated as series II, III, IV and V. Various combinations of BHI and
FHNB were used with dextrose adequately supplied. By using these combi¬
nations and neutralizing the acid formed at one or more intervals during
growth very dense cultures were obtained. Percent light transmission at
harvest ranged from 26 to 32. It may be noted that after periods of growth,
the pH had fallen as low as 4. 7-4. 9. Series V indicates that after cultures
had fallen to pH 5.3, as the reading at 70 hours showed, growth continued
until light transmission at 91 hours had fallen to 28%, and final pH at
harvest was 4.9.

DISCUSSION

These experiments, in the main, have shown that the amount of utiliz-
able sugar and the reaction of the medium are two very important factors
that must be regulated for successful culture of pneumoccus en masse.
Although the importance of these factors has previously been recognized,
their practical application has been difficult. These experiments indicate
that hydrogen-ion concentration of cultures may remain as low as pH 4.7
for at least 24 hours and the pneumococcus still be viable. They also indi¬
cate that growth takes place at pH 5.3, for in series V growth continued
until the culture reached pH 4.9 twenty-one hours later. In a number of
cultures pH was raised from 5.0 or thereabouts to as high as 8.6, and dur¬
ing another incubation period growth continued until the reaction again
became quite acid. The degree of acid tolerance here reported is definitely
higher than that observed by Lord and Nye (1919). They indicated that
pH 5.15 was probably the death point. Dernby and Avery (1918) stated
that a pH above 8.3 would not permit growth, although pH 8.6 did not de¬
stroy our culture, even when they were exposed over 24 hours. It is quite
probable, of course, that a strain difference could account for the greater
tolerances we observed. Or perhaps conditions other than pH of the medium
we used were more nearly ideal and therefore permitted survival of the
pneumococcus.

Glucose may be replaced with sucrose or vice versa as Avery and
Cullen (1919) reported. The minimum concentration that was needed for
best growth at 3 3 hours was about 1.45%, although amounts used were as
high as 5.0%. Addition of thiamin did not yield increased growth when
high concentrations of sugar were used. Autoclaving sugar with the medium
was neither deleterious nor beneficial to growth.

Addition of blood and serum has been advocated to improve growth
in peptone media (White, 193 8, pp. 42-3). Kelley (1938) also reported
that growth in serum broth was better than in broth alone. In our experi¬
ments the addition of 2% fresh bovine serum to either TP or BHI contain¬
ing 0.2% dextrose yielded no better growth than controls without serum.

Many other factors have been reported to affect the culture of pneu¬
mococcus. Dubos (1948) emphasized the importance of a low redox poten¬
tial and pointed out the value of certain reducing agents and glutamine. A
mixture containing glutamine and cysteine was added to cultures in one
of our series, but they seemed not to stimulate growth that was already ex¬
cellent. It is quite probable that adequate quantities of these substances were
already provided by the complex FHNB medium, as well as adequate
amounts of choline, suitable amino acids, various vitamins and other sub¬
stances indicated as essential by the report of Adams and Roe (1945).

406

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

The synergistic effect of BHI and FHNB is interesting and could be
explained by the assumption that different essential factors are limited in
amount in each type of medium. The relatively unfavorable effect of TP
may be due to the fact that ,as conventionally prepared, its peptone content
is relatively low compared to that of BHI. Perhaps one or more essential
growth factors that it contains are used up after a short incubation period.
It remains to be determined whether or not an increased concentration of
the protein constituents of any of the media tested, with a corresponding
increase of the salt ingredients would benefit growth of pneumococcus.

It is also quite possible that TP may contain bacteriostatic substances.
If so, the addition of large quantities of thiols might serve to neutralize
them.

The best method for producing mass cultures of pneumococcus will
probably utilize a constant drip apparatus for the addition of alkali. This
would permit one to maintain the pH at or near the optimum level for
growth. Some preliminary results indicate that the technical difficulties are
readily surmountable, and the procedure would make continuous culture
possible.

SUMMARY

Various commercial media were tested for their capability of support¬
ing mass cultures of Diplococcus pneumoniae , type II. A fresh heart-neo¬
peptone broth medium, Difco Brain Heart Infusion or various combinations
of both were suitable. Combinations of the two were better than either
alone. It was necessary to provide a minimum of 1.45% dextrose to obtain
best growth after one or two pH adjustments. Amounts as high as 5%
did not improve growth under the conditions of the experiments. Sucrose
could be used to replace dextrose. Autoclaving sugar with the medium had
no deleterious effect on growth. Initial reaction of the medium was usually
pH 7.8, although viability was not lost when adjustments were made to as
high as pH 8.6. Viability was also maintained even though acidity became
as high as pH 4.7. Best results were obtained when the cultures were re¬
adjusted to their initial pH several times during their incubation period.

LITERATURE CITED

Adams, M. H., and A. S. Roe — 1945 — A partially defined medium for cultivation of pneu¬
mococcus. J. Bact. 49 : 401-409.

Avery, O. T., and G. E. Cullen — 1919 — Hydrogen ion concentration of cultures of pneumo¬
cocci of the different types in carbohydrate media. J. Exp. Med. 30 : 359-378.

Dernby, K. G„ and O. T. Avery — 1918 — -The optimum hydrogen ion concentration for the
growth of pneumococcus. J. Exp. Med. 28 : 345-357.

Dubos, R, J. — 1948 — Bacterial and Mycotic Infections of Man. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia :
785 pp.

Elliott, A. M. — 1939 — A volumetric method for estimating population densities of protozoa.
Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc. 58 : 97-99.

Hewitt, L. F. — 1932 — Bacterial metabolism. II. Glucose breakdown by pneumococcus vari¬
ants and the effect of phosphate thereon. Biochem. J. 26 : 464-471.

Kelley, W. H. — 1938 — Effects of acidity upon the growth of pneumococcus in culture media
containing proteins. J. Exp. Med. 67 : 667-674.

Lord, F. T., and R. N. Nye — 1919 — The relation of the pneumococcus to hydrogen ion con¬
centration, acid death-point and dissolution of the organism. J. Exp. Med. 30 : 389-399.
Pochon, J. — 1940a — Metabolism of some strains of streptococcus cultured in peptone-glucose
medium, ompt. rend. soc. biol. 134 : 366-369.

- 1940b — Influence of glucose on the metabolism of pneumococcus. Compt. rend. soc.

biol. 134 : 505-507.

White, B.— -1938 — The biology of pneumococcus. The bacteriological, biochemical and im¬
munological characters and activities of Diplococcus pneumoniae. N. Y. The Common¬
wealth Fund : 799 pp.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Reduviidae of Texas

407

THE REDUVIIDAE OF TEXAS

JOE C. ELKINS
American Optical Company
Instrument Division
Dallas, Texas

Before 1913 no comprehensive work on the family Reduviidae (Hemip-
tera, Heteroptera) existed for North America. Stal’s Enumeratio Hemiptero-
rum (1872) furnished a means for the determination of the genera then
known. Champion’s work on the Rhynchota (1898) considered the Redu¬
viidae of Central America, including many species that ranged as far north
as the United States. Fracker (1913) published the first North American
monograph, with a key to fifty-six genera and one hundred sixty-eight
species. Subsequently, Readio (1927) monographed the Reduviidae of
America north of Mexico, and although this work was essentially biological,
it did assemble the best of all previous work.

In 1906 Barber published a systematic account of the Heteroptera of
South Texas, which included the Reduviidae.

At the present time, Dr. R. L. Usinger, University of California,
Berkeley, California, is monographing the reduviid species of North America
with an additional consideration of the genera of the world. This project
will probably not be completed for several years because of the enormous
amount of work that such a task presents.

This paper represents a four year survey of the Reduviidae of Texas.
Due to the large area of the State, undoubtedly there are many more
species to be found.

The latest synonymy has been checked in accordance with the check
list of Wygodzinsky (1949).

All statements concerning habitat and distributional notes not other¬
wise credited are from my own observations.

I am deeply indebted to Prof. H. J. Reinhard, Texas A. & M. College,
College Station, Texas, for giving me access to the Texas A. & M. collection
for study, and for his wholehearted aid and advice. I also wish to thank
Prof. Juan Badillo, Texas A. & I. College, Kingsville, Texas, and Mr. H. A.
Freeman, Southern Methodist Unversitv, Dallas, Texas, for invaluable help
in collecting.

Subfamily APIOMERINAE

Apiomerus crassipes (Fabricius, 1803). HABITAT: In both trees and open fields. Es¬
pecially abundant in early fall on thistles and composite flowers. DISTRIBUTION: Com¬
mon throughout the State. Readio (1927) states that this species is probably universal
over the entire United States.

Apiomerus flaviventris Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION:
Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I personally have never seen an indi¬
vidual from the State.

Apiomerus immundus Hergroth, 1898. HABITAT: I have one individual collected with
a sweep net in open field. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas.
The sole individual in my collection was collected near the Red River north of Gains-
ville, 5-15-50.

Apiomerus longispinis Champion, 1899. HABITAT: The few individuals in my collec¬
tion were collected in open fields. DISTRIBUTION: Individuals from Bexar Co., Ft.
Davis, Kingsville, and College Station.

408

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Apiomerus spissipes (Say, 1825). HABITAT: Trees, bushes, flowers, and open fields.
DISTRIBTION: Throughout the State. Most abundant species of this genus.

Subfamily ECTRICHODIINAE

Rhiginia cinctiventris (Stal, 1872). HABITAT: Under stones, logs, and debris. Occas¬
ionally seen at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.

Rhiginia cruciata (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Under stones and logs. DISTRIBUTION:
Abundantly collected at electric lights through the summer along the Gulf Coast and
in East Texas. Sparse throughout the rest of the State.

Subfamily EMESINAE

Emesaya banksi McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Not known. I have one topotype
from Bexar County, collected floating in a stream. Obviously this individual had
either fallen off vegetation or washed from flood debris. DISTRIBUTION : Bexar County.
Emesaya brevipennis brevipennis (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Common in flood debris
and in Spanish moss. Readio (1927) reports this species as occurring about cob webs
in old barns and vacant houses. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.
Emesaya brevipennis australis McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris and
Spanish moss. DISTRIBUTION: East Texas and Gulf Coast.

Emesaya -incisa McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION:
Devil’s River, Val Verde Co.; Pecos River, Reeves Co.

Empicoris errabundus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Flood debris, Spanish moss, and under
dead leaves. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.

Empicoris reticulatus McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT : Flood debris,
Spanish moss, and under dead leaves. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State.
Empicoris rubromaculatus ( Blackburn, 1889) . New record. HABITAT : Readio (1927)
reports this species on dead willow branches, in Spanish moss, and on cabbage pal¬
metto leaves. DISTRIBUTION : One individual, College Station.

Empicoris subparallelus McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT : Not known. DISTRIBU¬
TION : Described from Cayamas, Cuba. McAtee & Malloch ( 1925) report one indi¬
vidual, a female, from Brownsville. I have never seen an individual from the State.
Gardena messalina McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT : Usinger (in litt. ) reports
finding this species in wood rat nests around Brownsville. DISTRIBUTION : Individuals
from Dallas, Commerce, Brownsville. Described from Victoria.

Gardena poppeae McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION:
In addition to one topotype from Victoria, I have three individuals collected along
the Guadalupe River, Gonzales.

Lutevopsis sp. New record. One individual, collected at an electric light, Harlingen.
The specific identification of this individual is doubtful; however, it better fits the
brief description that McAtee & Malloch (1925) ascribe to L. muscicapa Bergroth,
rather than L. longimanus Champion which is found in Mexico and Florida. Con¬
cerning the type locality of L. muscicapa, McAtee & Malloch ( 1925) state, "Dr.
Bergroth has expressed a doubt as to the region from which this species came. It is
labeled 'Borneo', but he suspects that it may really be South America.”

Metapterus aberrans McAtee & Malloch, 1925: HABITAT : One individual collected in
Spanish moss, San Marcos. DISTRIBUTION : Described from Austin. Other individuals
from College Station and San Marcos.

Met ap ter us annulipes ( Stal, 1866). New record. HABITAT : One individual found in
Spanish moss, San Marcos. Readio (1927) reports this species beneath bark and on
the foliage of shrubs, and hibernating beneath logs and old rails. DISTRIBUTION: One
individual, San Marcos; one individual, College Station.

Metapterus banksii McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT: One individual
collected along the Pecos River, Reeves Co.

Metapterus fraternus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Flood debris and Spanish moss. Oc¬
casionally found at electric lights. Readio (1927) reports finding individuals along
damp banks of ponds and beneath loose boards and sticks. DISTRIBUTION: Common
throughout the State. Most abunant of the genus.

Metapterus normae Elkins, 1951. HABITAT: One individual on a dead palm leaf; two
others at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Lower Rio Grande Valley. Three individuals,
Harlingen; one individual, Weslaco.

Ploiaria denticauda McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT: Not known.
DISTRIBUTION : One individual found at an electric light, Harlingen.

Ploiaria reticulata (Baker, 1910). New record. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION:

1951, No. 3
September 30

Reduviidae of Texas

409

Five individuals collected along the Guadalupe River, Gonzales.

Ploiaria similis McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT. Not known. DISTRIBUTION: De¬
scribed from Borwnsville. I have never seen an individual from the State.

Ploiaria texana (Banks, 1909). Described from College Station. McAtee & Malloch
(1925) state, "We have examined the type of this species (Mus. Comp. Zool.) and
possibly we have renamed it in our P. similis. However, the abdomen of type is miss¬
ing and the genitalia have neither been figured nor described; specific identification
thus is impossible.”

Ploiaria uniserata McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION:
Described from Brownsville. I have never seen an individual from the State.
Stenolemus spiniventris Signoret, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Mc¬
Atee & Malloch (1925) synonymously described this species as Stenolemus spiniger,
holotype and allotype, Brownsville. Other individuals recorded from Mexico and
Guatemala.

Subfamily HARPACTORINAE

Acholla multispinosa (DeGeer, 1773). New record. HABITAT: Foliage of trees. EIS-
TRIBUTION : Sixty individuals collected in Dallas. I have not seen this species from
any other portion of the State. Typically Canadian and Eastern United States in dis¬
tribution.

Arilus cristatus (Linne, 1763). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, flowers, and grassland. DIS¬
TRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.

Atrachelus cinereus (Fabricius, 1796). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, flowers, and grass¬
land. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State.

Castolus ferox (Banks, 1910). New record. HABITAT: Grass along roadside. DISTRI¬
BUTION : One individual, Big Bend National Park. Typically from Arizona.

Doldina interjungens Bergroth, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Grass and trees. Occas¬
ionally at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: One individual, College Station. Abundant
along Gulf Coast.

Doldina praetermissa Bergroth, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBU¬
TION: Sparse at electric lights in East Texas.

Pitchia aptera Stal, 1859. HABITAT: In grass along ponds and streams; grass in shady
protected places. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State.

Pitchia spinosula Stal, 1859. HABITATS Same as for F. aptera. Readio (1927) reports
finding individuals in bases of clumps of grass. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the
State.

Heza similis (Stal, 1859). New record. HABITAT: Readio (1927) reports an indi¬
vidual from the leaf of an oak tree. DISTRIBUTION: One individual in the Texas A.
& M. collection from the Big Bend National Park. Typically Florida in distribution.
Pselliopus harheri Davis, 1912. HABITAT: Trees and grass. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse
throughout the State.

Pselliopus cinctus (Fabricius, 1776). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and grass. DISTRIBU¬
TION : Sparse throughout the State.

Pselliopus latifasciatus Barber, 1924. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, grass, and flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.

Repipta flavicans (Amyot & Serville, 1843). HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION:
Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from
the State.

Repipta mucosa Champion, 1899. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio
(1927) lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State.
Repipta taurus (Fabricius, 1803). HABITAT: Trees, grass in shady spots, and Spanish
moss. Abundant at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common throughout the State.
Rocconota annulicornis (Stal, 1872). HABITAT: Mr. L. M. Sibley (in litt.) reports
taking this species with a sweep net in Southern Louisiana. DISTRIBUTION: Readio
(1927) reports this species from Texas. T have never seen an individual from the
State.

Sinea confusa Caudell, 1901. HABITAT: Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse
throughout the State.

Sinea complexa Caudell, 1900. New record. HABITAT: Grass and flowers. DISTRIBU¬
TIONS Rare in central and south Texas.

Sinea coronata Stal, 1862. HABITATS Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse in South
Texas.

410

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Sine a raptoria Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT: I have one individual collected by
Mr. O. Sanders in grass, Mexico. DISTRIBUTION : Two individuals, College Station.
Sine a rileyi Montadon, 1893. HABITAT: Shrubs and open grassland. DISTRIBUTION:
Sparse throughout the State.

Sinea diadema (Fabricius, 1796). HABITAT: Abundant in sunny grassland; less com¬
monly found in Spanish moss, shady situations, and on the foliage of trees and
shrubs. DISTRIBUTION: Exceedingly abundant throughout the State. Most common of
the genus.

Sinea sanguisuga Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Abundant
throughout the State.

Sinea spinipes Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Abundant in open grassland; sparse in forests.
DISTRIBUTION: Abundant throughout the State.

Sinea dejecta Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: One in¬
dividual from Dallas. Typically Mexican and Central American in distribution. Readio
(1927) reports this species from Arizona.

Zelus angustatus Hussey, 1925. New record. HABITAT: Grass in both sunny and
shady situations. DISTRIBUTION : East, central, and south Texas. Typically from
Florida.

Zelus audax Banks, 1910. HABITAT: Banks (1910) collected individuals from cedar
trees. DISTRIBUTION : One individual from Weslaco; one individual from College
Station.

Zelus bilobus Say, 1832. HABITAT: Trees, bushes, and grassland. Found hiberating in
Spanish moss. DISTRIBUTION : East, central, and south Texas.

Zelus cervicalis Stal, 1872. HABITAT: Grassland, bushes, and low trees. DISTRIBUTION:
Throughout the State.

Zelus exsanguis Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and open fields. DISTRIBUTION:
Common throughout the State.

Zelus laevicollis Champion, 1899. HABITAT : Grassland, Spanish moss, bushes, and
trees. DISTRIBUTION : Throughout the State.

Zelus longipes (Linne, 1767). New record. HABITAT : One individual collected in
grass on roadside. DISTRIBUTION : One individual, Hidalgo. Typically Mexican and
South American in distribution.

Zelus occidus Torre Bueno, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Grassland. DISTRIBUTION :
scarmce throughout the State. Typically Californian in distribution.

Zelus pictipes Champion, 1899. New record. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and grassland.
DISTRIBUTIONS Abundant in Lower Rio Grande Valley. Sparse throughout the rest
of the State. Readio ( 1927 ) lists this species from Arizona, Mexico, and Guatamala.
Zelus renardii Kolenati, 1857. HABITAT : Trees, bushes, Spanish moss, grassland, cul¬
tivated fields, and flowers. DISTRIBUTION : Abundant throughout the State. Most
abundant of the genus.

Zelus socius (Uhler, 1872 ) . New record. HABITAT : Trees, bushes, flowers, grassland.
DISTRIBUTION : Newt to Z. renardii, the most abundant species of the genus, which
makes it surprising that this constitutes a new record for the State.

Subfamily MICROTOMINAE

Microtomus purcis ( Drury, 1872) . HABITAT : Under the bark of trees. DISTRIBUTION :
Common throughout the State.

Microtomus luctuosus ( Stal, 1854) . HABITAT : Under the bark of mesquite trees. DIS¬
TRIBUTION : Sparse in South Texas.

Subfamily PIRATINAE

Melanolestes abdominalis ( Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848). HABITAT: Beneath rocks, logs,
and general debris. Common at lights. DISTRIBUTION: Abundant throughout the State.
Melanolestes picipes ( Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848). HABITAT: Beneath rocks, logs, and
general debris. Occasionally at lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.
Rasahus biguttatus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Under rocks and logs. DISTRIBUTION:
Sparse throughout the State.

Rasahus hamatus (Fabricius, 1781). HABITAT: Under rocks and logs. DISTRIBUTION:
Common throughout the State.

Rasahus thoracicus Stal, 1872. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: One individual
taken at electric lights, Hidalgo.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Reduviidae of Texas

411

Subfamily REDUVIINAE

Reduvius personatus (Linne, 1758). HABITAT: Under logs and in rodent nests. Oc¬
casionally at electric lights. Readio (1927) states, "There seems to be no doubt about
the species being normally an inhabitant of houses and other dwellings as nymphs,
and coming to the lights at night as adults.” DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the
State.

Zelurus bicolor (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927)
doubtfully lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State,

Subfamily SAICINAE

Oncer otrachelus acuminatus Say, 1831. HABITAT: In short grass in moist situations.
Common at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common throughout the State.
Oncerotrachelus pallidus Barber, 1922. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Abun¬
dant electric lights in west and south Texas.

Saica apicalis Osborne & Drake, 1915. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBU¬
TION: One individual collected at light, Texarkana. Typically Central American in
Distribution.

Subfamily STENOPODINAE

Ctenotrachelus mexicanus ( Champion, 1898) . New record. HABITAT : Not known.
DISTRIBUTION : One individual at electric light, Texarkana. Typically Mexican and
Central American in distribution. Readio (1927) lists this species from North
Carolina.

Diaditus pictipes Champion, 1898. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Common
at lights in Lower Rio Grande Valley.

Gnathobleda litigiosa Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT : Not known. DISTRIBUTION :
One individual at light, Dallas.

Narvesus carolinensis Stal, 1862. HABITAT : Under rocks and logs. Occasionally at
electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State.

Oncocephalus apiculatus Reuter, 1882. HABITAT : Under rocks, boards, and logs.
Nymphs occasionally found in grass. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State.
Found most abundantly at electric lights.

Oncocephalus geniculatus ( Stal, 1872) . HABITAT : Under rocks, boards, and logs.
DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State. Most abundantly found at electric lights,
Oncocephalus nuhilus Van Duzee, 1914. New record. HABITAT : Under rocks, boards
and general debris. DISTRIBUTION : Rare in Central Texas; common in south and
west Texas.

Pnirontis infirma Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Sparsely found at
lights throughout the State.

Pnirontis languida Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Commonly
found at electric lights in east, south, and west Texas; sparsely found at electric lights
in the rest of the State.

Pnirontis modesta Banks, 1910. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION :
Rare at electric lights in South Texas.

Pygolampis pect oralis (Say, 1832 ) . HABITAT : Under rocks and boards. Occasionally
found in grass. Found abundantly at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common through¬
out the State.

Pygolampis sericea Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Readio (1927)
lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State.

Stenopoda cinerea Laporte, 1833. HABITAT: Under rocks, boards, and logs. Abundant
at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State.

Subfamily TRIATOMINAE

Triatoma gerstaeckeri (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Nests of wood rat, Neotoma sp.,
crow’s nest, chicken houses, and in the stall of horses and cattle. In addition, Pack-
chanian ( 1939) has found individuals about hogs. DISTRIBUTION: San Marcos, San
Antonio, Pine Springs, Corpus Christi, Kingsville, College Station. In addition I
have individuals from Dallas and Denton counties that exhibit a more northern
range than is usually attributed to this species. Usinger (1944) lists specimens from
Brownsville, Sonora, Victoria, Los Borregos, Rio Frio, Santa Maria, Laredo, Beeville,
and Three Rivers.

412

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

T riatoma lecticularius (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Davis, et al. (1943), lists Neotoma
micropus as the host. DISTRIBUTION: One individual collected on an oak leaf at Elam
Springs, Dallas Co.

T riatoma lecticularius occulta (Neiva, 1911). HABITAT: Nest of Neotoma sp. DISTRI¬
BUTION: In my collection are individuals from College Station and Kerrville. Usinger
(1944) lists individuals from Maverick Co., Ervendberg, San Antonio, Three Rivers,
Temple, Winter Haven, and Cameron.

T riatoma neotomae Neiva, 1911. HABITAT: Neiva (1914) lists Neotoma micropus
as a host. DISTRIBUTION: Usinger (1944) lists this species from Brownsville.

1 riatoma protracta woodi Usinger, 1944. HABITAT: Usinger (1939) lists Neotoma
albigula as the host. DISTRIBUTION: Reeves County and Uvalde. Usinger (1944) lists
this species from Sunny Glen Ranch, Brewster Co.

T riatoma rubida uhleri (Neiva, 1911). HABITAT: Wood (1941) lists Neotoma
albigula, as the host for T. rubida. DISTRIBUTION: Usinger (1944) lists this species
from El Paso.

T riatoma sanguisuga (Leconte, 1855). HABITAT: Human habitations, dog houses,
chicken houses, rodent nests, stalls of horses and cattle. In addition, Usinger (1944)
records Neotoma floridana as a host. DISTRIBUTION: North, central, south, and east
Texas.

T riatoma sanguisuga indictiva (Neiva, 1912). HABITAT: Wood (1941) lists Neotoma
as the host, distribution: Usinger (1944) records this species from El Paso.

T riatoma sanguisuga texana Usinger, 1944. HABITAT: Neotoma sp. Occasionally found
at lights. Davis, et. al. (1943) lists Neotoma micropus as the host. DISTRIBUTION:
Uvalde, Kerrville, Camp Bullis, San Antonio, and Reeves County. Usinger (1944)
lists individuals from Uvalde, Duval Co., and Winter Haven.

SUMMARY

A survey of the Reduviidae of Texas revealed ten sub-families, thirty-
seven genera, ninety-four species, and seven subspecies of which tewnty-five
species constitute new records for the State.

LITERATURE CITED

Banks, N. — 1910 — Four new Reduviidae. Ent. News, Philadelphia. 21 : 324-325.

Barber, H. G. — 1906 — Heteroptera from southwestern Texas. Mus. Brooklyn Inst. Sci. Bull.
1 : 225-289.

Champion, G. C. — 1897-1901 — “Insecta. Rhynchota. Hemiptera-Heteroptera,” in Biologia Cen-
trali Americana. Vol. 2. London.

Davis, D. J., T. McGregor, and T. de Shazo — 1943 — Triatoma sanguisuga (Leconte) and
Triatoma ambigua Neiva as natural carriers of Trypanosoma cruzi in Texas. Pub.
Health Rep. 58 : 353.

Elkins, J. C. — 1951a — A new species of Metapterus. Field and Laboratory 2 : (in press).

- 1951b — A female neallotype of Emesaya incisa McAtee & Malloch, 1925. Field and

Laboratory 2 : (in press).

Fracker, S. B. — 1913 — A systematic outline of the Reduviidae of North America. Proc. Iowa
Acad. Sci. 19:217-252.

McAtee, W. L. and J. R. Malloch — 1925 — Revision of the American bugs of the Reduviid
subfamily Ploiariinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 67 : 135 pp.

Neiva, A. — 1914 — Contribuicas para o estudo dos Reduvidas Hematofagos. I. Mem. Inst.
Oswaldo Cruz. 6 : 36.

Packchanian, A. — 1939 — Natural infection of Triatoma gerstaeckeri with Trypanosoma cruzi
in Texas. Pub. Health Rep. 54 : 1547.

Readio, P. A. — 1927 — Biology of the Reduviidae of America North of Mexico. Univ. Kansas
Sci. Bull. 17 : 5-291.

Stal, C. — 1872 — Enumeratio Reduviinorum Americae, in Enumeratio Hemipterorum. Svenska
Vet. Akad. Handl. 10 (4) : 1-159.

Usinger, R. L. — 1939 — Descriptions of new Triatominae with a key to genera. Univ. Calif.
Publ. Ent. 7 (3) : 33-56.

_ 1944 — The Triatominae of North and Central America and the West Indies and their

public health significance. U. S. Pub. Health Serv. Pub. Health Bull. 288.

Wood, S. F. — 1941 — Notes on the distribution and habits of Reduviid vectors of _ Chagas’
Disease in the southwestern United States. 1 & II. Pan-Pac. Ent. 17 : 85-94, 115-118.
Wygodzinsky, P. — 1949 — Elenco Sistematico de los Reduviiformes Americanos. Univ. Naciona]
de Tocuman, Inst, de Med. Reg. 473 : 192 pp.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

413

ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BIRDS
OF THE STOCKTON PLATEAU IN
NORTHERN TERRELL COUNTY, TEXAS

WILMOT A. THORNTON *

Department of Zoology-
University of Texas

INTRODUCTION

Serious ornithological work has been carried out in very few areas of
Trans-Pecos Texas. Knowledge of the ecological distribution of birds in this
part of the state is decidedly limited. The Stockton Plateau, an extensive
limestone formation along the western side of the Pecos River, has never
been intensively studied in the past.

The northeastern part of Terrell County, on the Stockton Plateau, lies
within the Chihuahuan biotic province as restricted by Dice (1943) and
Blair (1950). Studies of avian distribution have been made in three other
areas of Trans-Pecos Texas, Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937),
the Guadalupe Mountains (Burleigh and Lowery, 1940), and northwestern
Presidio County (Phillips and Thornton, 1949). Of the three, the Guadalupe
Mountains lie within the Navahonian province of Dice (1943), and the
others lie in the Chihuahuan province.

Field work was carried out in an area of northeastern Terrell County,
on the ranch of N. D. Blackstone (Fig. 1) with frequent short trips to
areas on three neighboring ranches. The Dunlap ranch takes in part of the
Pecos River, and the Hicks and Chandler ranches are adjacent to the lower
part of Independence Creek where it has become a permanent stream.

Material was first collected and observations were first made on a
trip to the Blackstone ranch during the period of April 8 to 10, 1949. A
second very brief 24 hour stop-over was made on May 1. The bulk of the
collecting was done during a five-week period from June 5 to July 7, 1949.
Two additional trips were made to check the winter population of birds
on November 24 to 26, and December 28 to 3 0, 1949.

I wish to thank Mr. N. D. Blackstone for his many courtesies extended during the
periods of field work. Dr. W. F. Blair was most helpful in offering advice and criticism in
the preparation of this report.

I am especially indebted to Mr. T. E. Kennerly and Mr. C. H. Strachn, for major assist¬
ance in the collection and prepaartion of skins. To other members of the summer field party
to Terrell County in 1949 who contributd information, I extend my thanks. I wish, also, to
thank Mr. W. W. Milstead and Mr. M'. J. Fouquette who accompanied me on the November
trip as well as Mr. H. W. Phillips, who assisted in the collection and preparation of skins,
during the field trip in December.

I am grateful to Dr. George Miksch Sutton for critically reading the manuscript and for
kindly identifying many of the specimens.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE REGION

The Stockton Plateau is a westward extension of the Edwards Plateau.
The Pecos River separates these two areas of Cretaceous limestones. The
area studied in Terrell County lies in the northeastern part of the Stock-
ton Plateau.

* Presented at the 1950 Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas.

414

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September bu

Two factors of major importance are responsible for the gradual change
in plant and animal distribution on the two sides of the Pecos River. These
are topography and rainfall.

The average annual rainfall in the collecting area is seldom as much
as 16 inches as opposed to the increasingly heavier precipitation to the east
of the Pecos.

Weather stations to the east of northeastern Terrell County show a

much greater average annual rainfall than do the nearest stations west of

the Pecos. At Sonora, in Sutton County, and at Kerrville, in Kerr County,
the average annual rainfall for 15 and 36 years, respectively, was 22.71 and
2 8.92 inches.

The weather station at Fort Stockton in central western Pecos County
is approximately 100 miles northwest of the area under consideration. The
annual rainfall there, over a period of 5 6 years, has averaged 15.13 inches.

Sanderson is approximately 60 miles south and west of the area studied.
The records of rainfall for 12 years show an annual average of 12.08 inches
(U.S.D.A., 1930).

Going from the Edwards Plateau west to northeastern Terrell County,

on the Stockton Plateau, the land changes from comparatively level or

gently sloping areas of, for the most part, dense cedar brakes, to heavily
eroded areas forming sharp breaks in the topography. The surface is divided
into steep, flat-topped mesas with wide canyons between them. Mesas in
this area are considerably smaller than those found farther west (Tharp,
1944). Surface runoff on steep slopes has removed most of the normally
thin top-soil along mesa tops and sides, exposing the limestone beneath and
thereby severely limiting the amount of vegetation. In the broad canyons
or valleys between mesas and the wide flat areas at the mouths of these
canyons, where edaphic conditions are much more favorable, plant cover is
greater.

Recorded elevations at several oil wells on mesa tops in this area range
from 2,284 to 2,515 feet above sea level. The mesas rise 200 to 400 feet
above the floors of the inter-mesa valleys. A well located along the Pecos
River several miles above the Dunlap ranch has an elevation of 1,967 feet.
There is a difference of approximately 500 feet between the Pecos valley
and the mesa tops.

Webster (1950) described a number of associations for the Chihuahuan
biotic province in this area. Eleven of these major plant associations are here
described, in somewhat modified form. Although no species of bird could
definitely be said to be limited to any single association there were, never¬
theless, decided species preferences for certain associations over others. As
would be expected, availability of water provided a major limiting factor in
many cases.

The ecological association, as here defined, includes all plants and ani¬
mals occurring within a relatively stable environment regardless of the stage
of ecological succession.

CEDAR SAVANNAH ASSOCIATION

This is a characteristic association of flat mesa tops throughout the area. The
thin soil supports a scattered growth of small cedars ( Juniperus ashei) . Extensive
patches of tobosa grass ( Hilaria mutica ) and buffalo grass ( Buchloe dactyloides)
form the principal ground cover. Twenty-two breeding birds were recorded in this
association and, although no species were restricted to mesa tops, such forms as
mourning doves and western lark sparrows were common nesting birds.

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

1951, No. 3
September 30

MOUTH OF LIGON CANYON on Blackstone Ranch, northeastern Terrell County,
Texas. Inter-mesa valley in foreground with characteristic vegetation of rnesquite and
creosote bush. In the background a typical mesa slope shows the dominant cedar
( Juniperus Ashei ) of the cedar — ocotillo association. The persimmon — shinoak as¬
sociation can be seen as a dark line of vegetation along the base of the rimrock.

MESQUITE --CREOSOTE BUSH ASSOCIATION

The wide canyon floors between the mesas, and the broad, flat areas stretching
out from the canyon mouths are covered by a variety of minor plant sub-communities
here grouped in one extensive association. Mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora) and creosote
bush ( Larrea divaricata) constitute the dominant vegetative covering for the majority
of those areas where collecting was done. Forty-two of the 60 breeding or probably
breeding bird species were recorded in this extensive association, which includes
much of the available water in the form of wind-mill tanks. Cactus wrens, cardinals
and pyrrhuloxias were very common here. No species could be said to be definitely
limited to this association, although the gray vireo (Vireo vicinior ) was recorded
nowhere else.

PERSIMMON— SHINOAK ASSOCIATION

Below the rims of the mesas, underlying limestone formation outcrops, as a
"rimrock”. This rimrock is included in the persimmon — shinoak association. The
dominant woody vegetation, persimmon ( Diospyros texana ) and shinoak ( Quercus
sp. ) , is found along the base of the rimrock. Fourteen species of birds were observed
in this association. Nests of the turkey vulture, red-tailed hawk and canyon wren
were found here. Some of the others possibly nested here, but the nests were not
found.

416

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

M %

— ,1

HACKBERRY ASSOCIATION at Gravel Springs on Independence Creek, Blackstone
ranch, northeastern Terrell County.

H : 1

iliiliist

■n

INDEPENDENCE CREEK on Hicks ranch, northeastern Terrell County. Live oaks
line both sides of the creek here where it is a permanent stream.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

417

CEDAR- -OCOTILLO ASSOCIATION

The sloping sides of the canyons, between the persimmon — shinoak association
of the rimrock and the mesquite — creosote bush association of the canyon floor, are
considered a part of this association. Such plants as catclaw ( Acacia sp „) take the
place of ocotillo ( Fouquieria splendens) on more gentle slopes. In this association I
recorded twenty of the species that were breeding in the region. None was found to be
restricted to this association, although the rock sparrow and the canyon towhee
were probably more common along the higher levels of the slopes than elsewhere.

CEDAR- -SHIN OAK ASSOCIATION

Cedar and shinoak are the dominant woody plants in the narrow canyons. The
steep rocky slopes and the tall cedars in the canyon beds are the favorite haunts
of the jay ( Aphelocoma coerulescens) , and of some of the smaller species such as
Scott’s oriole, titmouse, and Arkansas goldfinch. Nineteen species of birds were
recorded from this association.

SALT CEDAR ASSOCIATION

Dense stands of salt cedar ( Tamarix gallica ) occur along both banks of the
Pecos River on the Dunlap ranch, growing to a height of 20 feet in some areas.
Alluvial soil under these trees is practically free of other plant growth due to intense
shading by the thick green canopy of leaves. Twenty species of birds were recorded
in this association. The most common were possibly Cooper’s tanager and the cardinal.
Screech owls were present in some numbers, and barred owls were occasionally
heard.

HACKBERRY ASSOCIATION

Two associations occur near Gravel Springs on the Blackstone ranch. One has an
almost pure stand, several acres in extent, of tall hackberry trees ( Celtis reticulata).
This association is encircled by the mesquite-sumac-condalia association to be discussed
below. The presence of permanent underground springs is undoubtedly mainly
responsible for the unusual growth of vegetation. Nothing comparable to this area
was found in any other part of the ranch. From the many feathers in the area and
from reports by Blackstone, this spot has long been a favorite roost for the wild
turkey. It was also found to be a common roost of many turkey vultures. Fifteen
species of breeding birds were observed. Cooper’s hawk and the black-chinned
hummingbird were nesting here. Gnatcatchers ( Folioptila caerulea ) and cardinals were
among the more common birds. It is surprising that mockingbirds, which were
common in nearby associations, were never observed in this area.

MESQUITE— SUMAC— CONDALIA ASSOCIATION

This association, an area of dense, for the most part impenetrable, brush,
surrounds the hackberry association at Gravel Springs. Among the 23 species of
birds recorded here, long-tailed chats were very common.

WALNUT— DESERT WILLOW ASSOCIATION

The stream bed of Independence Creek along its entire length is included in
this association. Walnuts ( Juglans rupestris ) and desert willows ( Chilopsis linearis)
are the dominant woody plants in the stream bed and extend back from it in many
places. Thirty-two breeding species of birds were found here.

FIELD ASSOCIATION

Several acres on Hicks’ ranch are irrigated through canals from a large spring.
Several of the fields are kept in cultivation, while others have been left in their
natural state. In these latter areas the vegetation has grown profusely. The luxuriant
plant growth in this association cannot be found elsewhere in the collecting area.
Dickcissels were observed only in this association, although they probably ranged
also along the stream bed in this area. Eighteen species were found to be present.

LIVE--OAK ASSOCIATION

Live oaks ( Quercus virginiana ) extend in a narrow strip on both sides of
Independence Creek, which is a permanent stream in this area. This association
proved of especial interest because it contained several species not recorded in any

418

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

of the other, more arid, associations. Two species not previously reported from the
Trans-Pecos were taken here; the yellow-throated vireo ( Vireo flavifrons ) , and the
white-eyed vireo ( V . griseus) . Twenty-three species of breeding birds were found.
Wood pewees, titmice, and cardinals were the most common.

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECEES

The following annotated list includes 84 species of birds seen or collected on
five trips, from April to December, 1949, to northwestern Terrell County. Seventy-two
of the 84 species were collected, and 12 are sight records. A total of 190 specimens
was collected from all trips. These are in the Texas Natural History Collection,
Department of Zoology, University of Texas. Numbers for the individual specimens
are the catalogue numbers in the Texas Natural History Collection. Wherever
possible, gonads of individual birds have been measured, using the largest testis or
ovum in each case. All measurements are in millimeters.

The nomenclature followed is that of the American Ornithologists’ Union,
Check-list of North American Birds (1931), with the exception of certain subsequent
changes of names put forth in the Supplements to the check-list.

Ardea herodias — Great Blue Heron. Sight Record: June 29, July 5. Great blue
herons were observed on several occasions, during June and July, flying over the
Pecos River and Independence Creek where the creek is a permanent stream.

Nettion carolinense (Gmelin) — Green-winged Teal. Sight Record: April 9. Two
green-winged teal were observed, in April, on the dirt tank at West Martin Well.

Cathartes aura teter Friedmann — Western Turkey Vulture. 1 ad. $ cedar
savannah association, June 26. Two nests, each with one juvenile not yet able to leave

i _

MILES

AREA STUDIED on Blackstone ranch in northeastern Terrell County.
Area studied (enclosed in half circle) at mouth of Independence Creek and
along Pecos River.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

419

the nest, were seen on June 8 and 9. These nests were in caves in the persimmon-
shinoak association along the rimrock of the mesa. One was trapped in a steel trap
in the cedar savannah association near West Martin Well. Measurements taken on
this specimen (in mm.) are: wing, 520; tail, 259; tarsus, 65; culmen, 2.5. These
measurements follow closely those for C. a . teter as described by Friedmann (1933).

Accipiter cooperii (Bonaparte) — Cooper’s Hawk. 1 juv. 2, hackberry association,
June 22. A nest of this species about 25 feet from the ground, in a hackberry tree,
was discovered on May 1 near Gravel Springs. An adult bird was on the nest. On
June 7 part of an eggshell, dull white in color, was found at the base of the nesting
tree, and the nest contained three young birds with the remiges just beginning to
develop. One was removed and eventually raised to maturity by J. S. Mecham, who
subsequently checked the nest several weeks after the young hawk was captured and
reported that the other nestlings were far advanced both in size and plumage as
compared to the one being raised in camp. On June 22, the two "nest” birds were
able to fly. One, a female, was collected.

Buteo jamaicensis fuertesi Sutton and Van Tyne — Fuertes’s Red-tailed Hawk.
1 yg. 2 , 1 yg. $ , persimmon-shinoak association, June 11, 13; 2 ad. 2, persimmon-
shinoak association, June 28-30. Two nests were observed, one on June 11 and one
on June 30, in the persimmon-shinoak association. The nest discovered early in June
was empty, while two fully feathered young birds were observed close by. The
second nest apparently had been empty for some time. This large species was the
most common hawk of the area, and it was observed most often around the mesa
tops and rimrock.

The young birds, male and female, are both heavily marked on sides and upp^
portions of the abdomen with large, black, arrow-shaped spots. The breasts of both
birds are colored a cinnamon-rufous. The lower part of the abdomen of the m?l
specimen is solid white; that of the female has a tinge of rufous. Thighs of both
are crossed with bands of dark brown, outlined with rufous.

Analysis of stomach contents of the four specimens showed an almost complete
diet of lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna) . Normal food of this species con¬
sists of small mammals and reptiles (Fisher, 1893). A complete examination was
made of the stomach contents of two of the specimens. The first stomach contained
one lubber grasshopper and the tail of a snake, possibly a ribbon snake ( Thamnophis
eques) . A second stomach contained parts of eight partially digested lubber grass-
hopers. These birds were present in November and December.

Circis cyaneus subsp. — Marsh Hawk. Sight Record: November 26. One marsh
hawk was seen in November at the mouth of Independence Creek.

Falco sparverius sparverius Linnaeus — Eastern Sparrow Hawk. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-
creosote bush association, November 24. There is no evidence that this species is a
summer resident in the area studied. A pair of these birds was recorded in November,
at Little Horse Head Tank. The male was collected at this time. Sparrow hawks
were present again in December, although not common at that time. The stomach
of the one specimen contained parts of Hymenoptera and Hemiptera.

Colinus virginianus — Bob-white Quail. Sight Record: June 10. This species
was occasionally reported in the cedar savannah association at West Martin Well.
On June 24, D. J. Edson observed a bob-white with several young in this association.

Callipepla squamata pallida Brewster — Arizona Scaled Quail. 1 ad. $ , mesquit -
creosote bush association, April 9; 1 ad. 2, cedar savannah association, June 17.
Several coveys of scaled quails were recorded during early April along mesa slopes
in the cedar-ocotillo association and in the mesquite-creosote bush association. A
single bird was collected in the cedar-savannah association near West Martin Well
in June.

Meleagris gallopavo intermedia Sennett — Rio Grande Turkey. Sight Record :
May 1, 1949. Wild turkeys were heard calling, and two were seen in the hackberry
association at Gravel Springs. Numerous wing and tail feathers were found in this
association. The buff color of the tips of the tail feathers indicates that these birds
belong to the race intermedia. The birds were infrequently observed during June and
July in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association and in the mesquite-creosote bush
association.

Chararins vocifems vociferus Linnaeus — Killdeer. 2 ad. 2 , ova enlarged, cedar
savannah association, June 8, 17; 1 ad. 2, ova enlarged, walnut-desert willow-
association, July 7. The killdeer is restricted to areas with available water, notably
windmill tanks in the different canyons, man-made dams across heads of steep canyons,
and lower Independence Creek, where it is a permanent stream.

420

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

On July 1, three juvenile killdeer were observed running about on a sandbar
of Independence Creek, near the Chandler ranch house.

Actitis macularia (Linnaeus) — Spotted Sandpiper. 1 ad. $, ovum 2.3 mm.,
May 2. A small rainpool in a low cleared area, in the mesquite-sumac-condalia
association near Gravel Springs, provided the only record for this species.

Zenaidura macroura marginella (Wood house) — Western Mourning Dove. 1 ad.
d, 12.6 mm., walnut-desert willow association, July 7. Nests of this species were
numerous in low cedar trees of the cedar savannah association. Measurements on
one adult male (in mm.) : wing, 149; tarsus, 22; bill, 14. The last nesting record
of one of these birds was made on July 7, in the mesquite-creosote bush association
of Ligon Canyon. The nest contained one newly hatched young and one pipped egg.
Nesting probably continues through the summer. The birds were present in large
numbers in December.

ColumBigallina passerina subsp. — Sight Record: April 9, July 2. This species
was first observed in the mesquite-creosote bush association near the Blackstone
ranch house in April. Blair saw one at Canyon Fifty-Six well in July.

Coccyzus americanus americanus (Linnaeus) — Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 1 ad. $, 2
ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-22; 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7
mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 5; 1 ad. $ , walnut-desert willow
association, June 8. This species was calling in May near Gravel Springs in the
mesquite-sumac-condalia and hackberry associations. A male collected then was
found to have enlarged testes. A nest containing two light blue, unspotted eggs was
observed in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon on June 18. A
female prepared on June 17 was found to have a crushed, hard-shelled egg in the
oviduct. The species was not found in November or December.

Geococcyx calif ornianus (Lesson) — Road-runner. 1 ad. $, egg in oviduct,
hackberry association, June 10; 1 yg. d, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 15.
Road-runners were observed only in hackberry, mesquite-sumac-condalia and mesquite-
creosote bush association. The range of these birds, however, probably included most
or all associations in the area. On June 10, a female collected from the hackberry
association was found to be carrying a dull white, hard-shelled egg measuring
38.2x30.1 mm. in her oviduct. Stomach contents of this bird consisted of three
partially digested lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna ) and fresh remains of a
blind snake ( Leptolyphlops d. dulcis) .

Otus asio cineraceus (Ridgway) — Mexican Screech Owl. 1 ad. $, live oak
association, July 2. Screech owls were most common in the live oak association
bordering Independence Creek between Hicks and Chandler ranches. They were
present, also, in the salt cedar association along the Pecos River near the Dunlap
ranch. Examination of stomach contents of one specimen showed parts of three
partially digested lubber grasshoppers. None were found in November.

Dr. Sutton tentatively identified the one specimen as belonging to the race
cineraceus , which is the breeding form in Brewster County, bordering Terrell County
to the southwest (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937).

Bubo virginianus pallescens Stone — Western Horned Owl. 1 ad. 9 , persimmon-
shinoak association, June 21. Horned owls were occasionally seen as they flew from
the heads of the steeper canyons. In these canyons, they remained during the day
within the comparative protection of the persimmon and shinoak, along the base
of the rimrock. The stomach of the one specimen collected was found to contain
many lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna ) and partially digested parts of one
tarantula.

The specimen agrees in color and size with specimens of pallescens from
Presidio County, Texas. The wing measures 340 mm.

Strix varia subsp. — Barred Owl. Sight Record: July 4. This species was heard
calling in July during evening and early morning hours on the Dunlap ranch, in an
area of dense salt cedar along the Pecos River.

Phalaenoptilus nuttalli subsp. — Poor-will. 1 ad. d , enlarged testes, cedar-ocotillo
association, April 11; 2 ad. $, breeding 1 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association,
June 12-18; 1 ad. d testis 5.5 mm., cedar savannah association, July 5. Poor-wills
were calling strongly from the cedar-ocotillo association on Blackstone ranch early in
April. During June and July, they were recorded from the cedar savannah, mesquite-
creosote bush, cedar-shinoak, and cedar-ocotillo associations. Dr. Sutton, after examining
these birds, preferred not to identify them subspecifically until able to investigate
further the validity of the race P. n. nitidus , described from the Nueces River, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

421

Stomach analysis on several of the specimens collected showed the presence of
Coleoptera, mostly June beetles of the family Scarabidae, several kinds of Lepidoptera,
and a few Diptera of the family Tipulidae.

Cbordeiles minor asseriensis Cherrie — Cherrie’s Nighthawk. 5 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ ,
breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 10-25; 2 ad. $, breeding, cedar
savannah association, June 10-17. Sutton examined seven of the specimens and
found them to be of the race asseriensis. Three specimens, however (numbers 92, 94,
95), he considered to be asseriensis approaching henryi. The latter subspecies is said
to be the breeding form in Brewster County, which borders Terrell County to the
southwest. Several of the birds collected were seen flying in pairs, with individuals going
through characteristic courtship antics of the species. Although no nests were located,
it is quite probable that all of these birds represent the breeding population in the
general area. The species was recorded from the cedar savannah association of the
mesa tops and from the mesquite-creosote bush association of the valley floors.
Analysis of the stomach contents of several of these birds, showed them to contain
large numbers of flying ants (Formicidae) with a few insects of the orders Homoptera
and Hemiptera, representing two families, the cicadas (Cicadidae) and the stink
bugs ( Pentatomidae ) .

Cbordeiles acutipennis subsp. — Texas Nighthawk. Sight Record: June 23. Indi¬
viduals probably referable to this species were observed flying low over the Pecos
River on Dunlap ranch. They flew quietly and were never observed in the
characteristic diving motions of Cherrie’s nighthawk (C. minor).

Archilochus alexandri (Bourcier and Mulsant)— Black-chinned Hummingbird.
1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9. These hummingbirds were
observed in April around mesquite trees near East Martin Well. A female was
collected at this time. A nest containing two very young birds was found in the
hackberry association on June 14. An adult bird was feeding the nestlings at the
time of discovery. The nest was situated well out near the tip of the limb, about
10 feet from the ground, in close proximity to the nest of a Cooper’s hawk.

Chloroceryle americana septentrionalis (Sharpe)— Texas Kingfisher. 1 ad. $
Independence Creek, June 23; 4 juv. $, Independence Creek, June 23. The A.O.U.
Check-list (1931), gives the breeding range of this species as extending westward
in Texas to take in Val Verde County. Discovery of these birds in northeastern Terrell
County constitutes a range extension of several miles and adds to the list of breeding
birds from Trans-Pecos Texas. Nests were found in the steep banks along Independence
Creek near the Chandler ranch house and in the banks and draws on both sides of
the Pecos River, near the mouth of Independence Creek. On June 22, W. W. Milstead
discovered a nest containing five juvenile birds, on the south side of a small, dirt
draw which empties into the Pecos River close to the mouth of Independence Creek
The entrance hole into the clay soil of the ravine bank was eight feet above the
muddy floor of the draw and had an approximate diameter of three inches. A tunnel
about 12 inches in length and curving slightly downward connected the entrance
with the nest cavity proper. The floor of this tunnel had been solidly packed by the
feet of the adult birds as they entered and left the nest. No nesting materials were
found in the cavity, which, according to Milstead, had a diameter of approximately
five inches. Examination of numerous other holes along Independence Creek showed
many variations in length and curvature of the tunnels. Some ran along for as much
as three feet with no nesting cavity present; others curved sharply before entering
the nest cavity; while still others ended blindly after only a few inches.

Dendrocopos scalaris symplectus (Oberholser) — Texas Woodpecker. 1 ad. 9,
1 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-20; 1 ad. $ No. 143, mesquite-
creosote bush association, June 25. Despite Todd’s (1946) contention that symplectus
is a synonym of cactophilus, Sutton’s examination of material while identifying my
specimens led him to believe that coastal birds of southern Texas and northeastern
Tamaulipas were whiter (especially above) than Arizona birds; he therefore named
my specimens symplectus approaching cactophilus. Two females from Hidalgo County,
Texas, are whiter above and slightly more pale gray below (with spotted chest
markings) than are the three specimens from Terrell County. These small wood¬
peckers were reported from most of the associations below the flat mesa tops during
June and July. They were not recorded in winter.

Muscivora forficata (Gmelin) — Scissor-tailed Flycatcher. 2 ad. $ , breeding, 1
juv. $ , 1 ad. ?, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9. Nests of this species
were located at tanks on the Blackstone ranch and near an artificial pond on the
Hicks ranch, which shows a possible preference of the species for nesting sites near

422

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

water. All were in the mesquite-creosote bush association. The species was recorded,
however, in several other areas, notably in the cedar savannah, live oak, salt cedar,
walnut-desert willow, and field associations.

Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens (Lawrence) — Ash-throated Flycatcher. 1 ad.
2, hackberry association, June 7; 1 ad. $, testis 10.0 mm., mesquite-creosote bush
association, June 16. Daily observations in June and July showed this species present
in at least six out of the 11 associations. They were recorded from the mesquite-
creosote bush, mesquite-sumac-condalia, hackberry, cedar-shinoak, live oak, and salt
cedar associations. One nest, examined on June 16, was in what was probably an
abandoned woodpecker hole in a fence post. The dark cavity contained three small,
whitish eggs with heavy dark streaks and one dead young. This had been pushed to
one side of the cavity. The adult female was captured as she attempted to fly from
the hole, and then released. The species was not recorded in November and December.

Contopus richardsonii richardsonii (Swainson) — Western Wood Pewee. 1 ad.
2 No. 194, live oak association, June 29. The live oak association on the Chandler
ranch proved to be the only area in which this species was observed during the
summer. It was not recorded in winter.

Pyrocephalus rubinus flammeus van Rossem — -Vermilion Flycatcher. 3 ad. $ ,
1 ad. $ , all breeding, 1 juv. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9-July5.
Three adult males measure (in mm.), respectively: wing, 81.5, 81.4, 85.0; tail, 61.0,
61.4, 61.2. All of them are very light in coloration, having a definite orange tint in
the crown and undersurface. They differ distinctly in color from comparative speci¬
mens of the subspecies mexicanus from southern Texas. The two breeding females
examined differ greatly in the plumage coloration on the belly and under tail coverts.
One is a salmon-pink, and the other is a light yellow. A nest examined on June
15 was approximately 10 feet from the ground in a mesquite tree of the mesquite-
creosote bush association. Located well out near the tip of a horizontal limb, it was
small and cup-like, and contained two newly hatched young.

Petrochelidon pyrrhonota tachina Oberholser — Lesser Cliff Swallow. 1 ad. $ ,
rock bluff association, June 23. A large nesting colony of cliff swallows, numbering
in the hundreds, was discovered by J. A. Herrmann along an overhanging bluff of the
Pecos River. One specimen was collected by him at this time. Sutton examined this
specimen and found it to be of the subspecies tachina. The wing measured 104 mm.
Examining this bluff on June 29, 1 found the area below the nests littered with
fragments of egg shells, with here and there a dead nestling which had apparantly
fallen from the nest. Clusters of old and empty nests were found in similar locations
bordering the river.

Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii (Baird) — Woodhouse’s Jay. 1 ad. 2,
ova enlarged, 1 yg. $ , 1 ad. $, 2 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, April
8-December 28; 1 yg. 2, cedar-shinoak association, June 15; 1 yg. $, persimmon-
shinoak association, June 18. Woodhouse jays could be found in most of the narrow
canyons and canyon heads in the persimmon-shinoak and cedar-shinoak associations.
They were observed infrequently in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon
Canyon. Present at all times of field work from April to December, these jays were
never seen or heard in the cedar-savannah association of the mesa tops. They are
undoubtedly permanent residents and breed in the area, although no nests were
found.

Cofvus cryptoleucus Couch — White-necked Raven. Sight Record: July 1. This
species was observed once; near the Hicks ranch headquarters.

Pams atricristatus subsp. — Black-crested Titmouse. 1 ad. $ , 1 juv. 2 , 1 juv. 2 ,
cedar-shinoak association, June 2 7 -November 25; 1 yg. $, testis 5.5 mm., live oak
association, June 30; juv. $ , persimmon-shinoak association, June 14. The one
adult bird measures slightly larger, for wing and tail, than comparative specimens
from Hidalgo and Webb Counties, Texas. The forehead has a tinge of rusty, but
coloration of back and sides is not appreciably different from that of birds from
southern Texas. This bird might tentatively be called P. a. sennetti (Ridgway).
Individuals collected during June and July were all young or juvenile birds. They
were most commonly found in steep canyons and canyon heads, where the dominant
vegetation consisted of cedar and shinoak.

Auriparus flaviceps ornatus (Lawrence) — Verdin. 1 ad. 2 , 1 ad. $ , breeding,
mesquite-creosote bush asociation, June 22-27 . These birds were breeding during
June and July and were recorded from the mesquite-creosote bush, cedar-shinoak,
mesquite-walnut and live oak associations. Three young birds were observed in the

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

423

mesquite-creosote bush association in June. Verdins were not found in November
and December. Van Rossem (1930) reviewed the races of A. flaviceps. The one
male collected agrees in size and color with his diagnosis of the subspecies ornatus.

Psaltriparus minimus plumheus (Baird) — Lead-colored Bush-Tit. 1 yg. 6,1 ad.
6, cedar-shinoak association, June 13-27. The bush-tit apparently prefers the cedar-
shinoak association found along heads of small, steep canyons. It was found there
in flocks of from 20 to 30 birds, and was also recorded from the mesquite-creosote
bush, cedar-ocotillo, and walnut-desert willow associations.

Thryomanes bewicki cryptus Oberholser— -Texas Wren. 3 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ ,
breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-30; 1 ad. S , breeding, 1 juv. 6 ,
cedar-shinoak association, June 13; 1 juv. 2, live oak association, June 30; 1 juv.
$ , cedar savannah association, July 6. Three specimens of the Texas wren were
examined by Sutton, who determined them as " Thryomanes bewicki cryptus approach¬
ing T. b. eremophilus ” This wren was most common in the mesquite-creosote bush
association, but it was also recorded from the cedar savannah, walnut-desert willow,
and cedar-ocotillo associations. It was present in the mesquite-creosote bush association
in November and December.

Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus couesi Sharpe — Cactus Wren. 2 ad. $ , breed¬
ing, 1 ad. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16-23; 1 yg. $, cedar-shinoak
association, June 15. Nests of this species were abundant throughout the mesquite-
creosote bush association, where it was one of the most common birds. Cactus wrens
were seen and heard occasionally in the cedar-shinoak and cedar-ocotillo associations.
One of the permanent residents of the area, this species was present in the more
densely vegetated parts of the mesquite-creosote bush association in November and
December. The nests were most commonly placed within the comparative security of
the tasajillo ( Opuntia leptocaulis) although some were placed six to eight feet high
in mesquite trees which offered little concealment. Each of the two nests collected
contained four eggs. Timothy grass ( Muhelenbergia monticola ) formed the lining
of the nest cavity, the tunnel to the outside opening, and the area around the mouth
of the opening. The bulk of the nest was composed of coarse sticks and twigs. Four
fresh eggs collected on July 6 have a rather unusual pattern for cactus wren eggs.
Ovate in shape, with a pinkish-white ground color, they are heavily spotted and
blotched with rufous, concentrated mostly around the larger end. Two were broken
in transit. The two remaining eggs measure (in mm.): 22.0x17.3 and 22.7x17.5,
the average for the two being 22.4 x 17.4. Measurements were taken on one other set
of four fresh eggs collected July 5. These have the more common salmon pink ground
color more or less evenly covered by small rufous specks. The measurements of these
four eggs average 23.0x16.4 mm. Dawson (1923) mentioned that there are two
egg-pattern types in this species.

Catherpes mexicanus albifrons (Giraud) — White-throated Canyon Wren. 1 ad.
6 , 1 ad. 2 , persimmon-shinoak association, June 29. Following Grinnell and
Behle (1935), only two subspecies of the canyon wren are here recognized within
the United States. Measurements on three adult birds are (in mm.) : one male; wing,
64.0; tail, 55.6; two females; wing, 64.3 and 59.4; tail, 54.6 and 52.5. Canyon
wrens were heard along the rimrocks of all mesas in the area studied. They were
often observed in the persimmon-shinoak association and in the walnut-desert willow
association. The species was present in November and December and appeared to be
a permanent resident.

Mimus polyglottos leucopterus (Vigors) — Western Mockingbird. 1 ad. S,
testis 10.1 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16. Mockingbirds were
common throughout virtually the entire area from April through December. They
were never observed in the hackberry association near Gravel Springs.

Oreoscoptes montanus (Townsend) — Sage Thrasher. 1 ad. 6, cedar-ocotillo
association, November 26. The sage thrasher was observed in the cedar-ocotillo
association of Ligon Canyon in November. The species was not recorded during the
spring or summer, and is probably a winter resident and transient in the area.

T urdus migratorius propinquus Ridgway — Western Robin. 1 ad. 2 , mesquite-
sumac-condalia association, November 25. Not present as a breeding bird during the
summer, the species was found to be very common throughout the area in November
and December.

Sialia currucoides (Bechstein) — Mountain Bluebird. 1 ad. 2, mesquite-creosote
bush association, December 28. Large flocks of bluebirds, or mixed flocks including
cedar waxwings, were observed at all of the tanks examined in the area in December.

424

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

One specimen was collected in the vicinity of Ligon Tank in the mesquite-creosote
bush association of Ligon Canyon. These birds are resident here only in winter.

Polioptila caerulea amoenissima Grinnell — Western Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. 1
ad. 3, hackberry association, June 7. Western blue-gray gnatcatchers were present in
large flocks in the hackberry association in May. This was one of the most common
species of this same association in June and July. They were also common in the
live oak association on the Chandler ranch. Occasionally they occurred in the cedar-
ocotillo association. The birds were not found in winter.

Regulus calendula calendula (Linnaeus) — Eastern Ruby-crowned Kinglet. 1 ad.
3, 1 ad. 9, cedar-shinoak association, November 25-26. Recorded only in November,
this species was collected only in one of the small "header” canyons of Ligon Canyon
in the cedar-shinoak association.

Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot — Cedar Waxwing. 3 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush
association, April 9, December 28. Cedar waxwings were present in large flocks at
East Martin Well on April 9. They were not observed again until November, when
large flocks were seen at several tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association.
These birds are probably winter residents.

Lanius ludovicianus — Shrike. Sight Record: December 29. Shrikes were recorded
only in winter, although some would be expected to be permanent residents (see
A.O.U. Check-list, 1931). In December, shrikes were not uncommon in the mesquite-
creosote bush association.

Vireo atricapillus Woodhouse — Black-capped Vireo. 1 ad. 3, cedar-shinoak
association, June 15. A single specimen of this species, in breeding plumage, was
collected in the cedar-shinoak association near the head of Ligon Canyon.

Vireo griseus noveboracensis (Gmelin) — -White-eyed Vireo. 1 ad. 3 testis 5.9
mm., live oak association, June 30. One male, in breeding condition, was collected
on the Chandler ranch in the live oak association. Sutton found this specimen to
conform to the race noveboracensis as reviewed by Burleigh and Lowery (1945).
Measurements of this male (in mm.) are: wing, 62.5; tail, 49.0. The white-eyed
vireo has not been reported from Trans-Pecos Texas before now, and this record
represents a westward range extension of several hundred miles for the subspecies
n oveboracensis.

Vireo bellii medius Oberholser — Texas Vireo. 1 ad. 3 , hackberry association,
June 7; 2 ad. 3, enlarged testes, live oak association, June 22, 30. The live oak
association of lower Independence Creek appeared to be the favorite haunt of these
birds. The species was recorded in only one other area, the field association on
Hicks’ ranch. Sutton made the subspecific identification.

Vireo vicinior Coues — Gray Vireo. 3 ad. 3 , mesquite-creosote bush association,
April 9-June 30. Breeding in June. These birds were recorded only from the mesquite-
creosote bush association. Three were seen in this association in the vicinity of East
Martin Well in April. One male, collected June 28. near Little Horse Head Canyon,
was found to have enlarged testes.

Vireo flavifrons Vieillot — Yellow-throated Vireo. 1 ad. 3, live oak association,
June 30. Several individuals of this species were seen and heard in the live oak
association on the Chandler ranch during the latter part of June and the first part
of July. Two other vireos ( V . bellii and V. griseus ) were seen and collected at the
same time. All three species were breeding in the area. This is the first record for
this principally eastern species in Trans-Pecos Texas.

Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus) — Myrtle Warbler. 1 ad. 3, mesquite-condalia
association, November 27; 1 ad. 3, mesquite-creosote bush association, December 28.
This species was heard and seen on November 26 in the mesquite-sumac-condalia
association at Gravel Springs, where one specimen was later collected. During
December, large flocks of them were present throughout most of the area, especially
in the mesquite-creosote bush association. They are winter residents in this part of
Terrell County. Measurements on two males (in mm.) are respectively: wing, 80
and 78; tail, 58 and 60.

lcteria virens auricollis (Lichtenstein) — Long-tailed Chat. 2 ad. 3, breeding,
mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 2; June 7. Chats were probably breeding
in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association at Gravel Springs, although no nests were
discovered. They were one of the common birds of this association. This species
was present in considerable number in the salt cedar association along the Pecos
River, and it was also seen in the walnut-desert willow association bordering parts of
Independence Creek. Present in the area from May to December, they are apparently

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

42 5

permanent residents. One chat was seen in December at Little Horse Head Tank
in the mesquite-creosote bush association. The tails of the two male specimens measure
(in mm.) : 82 and 81, respectively.

Passer domesticus — -English Sparrow. Sight Records: June 5 through July 7.
Individuals and nests were common at the Blackstone ranch headquarters. The species
was never recorded far from human dwellings.

Sturnella neglecta Audubon — Western Meadowlark. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote
bush association, November 24. The western meadowlark was present in considerable
numbers during November and December, but it was not recorded in the spring
or summer. This species was common in the mesquite-creosote bush association.

Agelaius phoeniceus subsp. — Red-wing. 1 ad. S, testis 11.1 mm., field
association, July 5. Red-wings were recorded from two associations. In June and
July, they were found in the field association in the vicinity of the Hicks ranch.
Individuals were unquestionably nesting in this association, although no nests were
observed. The only other record is from Little Horse Head Tank, in the mesquite-
creosote bush association.

Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) — Orchard Oriole. 3 ad. $ , 2 yg. $, all breeding,
mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-20; 1 juv. $ , walnut-desert willow
association, June 10. These birds were observed in all of their different plumages
during June and July. They were not found in November and December. Orchard
orioles were to be seen generally throughout the area below the mesa tops, but appeared
to be most common in the walnut-desert willow asscoiation near the Blackstone ranch
headquarters. A nest was examined on June 20 in a lone mesquite tree ( Prosopis
juliflora) near the Blackstone ranch house. Located near the tips of the branches
approximately 10 feet off the ground, the semi-pendent nest was composed chiefly
of horse hair with a few bits of string tightly interwoven and laced to the branches.
The nest lining had a considerable amount of sheep’s wool. One egg, with two holes
apparently pecked in it, was found stuck to the bottom. The egg had numerous
dark brown scrawls, heavy and light, on a white background, mostly at the blunter
end. The egg measured (in mm.) : 23.5 x 15.9.

Icterus cucullatus cucullatus Swainson — Swainson’s Hooded Oriole. 1 ad. $ ,
testis 8.2 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, July 7. The presence in Terrell
County of the nominate race of hooded oriole was one of the most interesting results of
my work. Sutton made the subspecific identification. Measurements (in mm.) on the
male collected are: wing, 83.5; tail, 93.0. This Mexican form has been taken in Texas
only twice before, once from Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937, Sutton,
1948) and once from the vicinity of Del Rio, in Val Verde County (Burleigh and
Lowery, 1941). A hooded oriole was seen in the mesquite trees near the Dunlap
ranch house on July 3. The bird, a male, was in fine breeding plumage. On July 7 a
male was collected from a mesquite tree near the Hicks ranch house. A female was
observed in this same area on July 6.

Icterus parisorum Bonaparte — Scott’s Oriole. 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7 mm., cedar-
shinoak association, June 29. A male and a female Scott’s oriole were seen by
Kennedy in a small draw west of Little Horse Head Canyon on June 27. He collected
an adult male with enlarged testes at the head of this same draw in the cedar-shinoak
association on June 29.

Icterus bullockii bullockii (Swainson) — Bullock’s oriole. 1 ad. $ , 1 ad. $,
all breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-25; 1 juv. $, live oak associa¬
tion, June 23. First recorded in May, Bullock’s oriole comprised a conspicuous
breeding resident. This species had a wide distribution in ecological associations of
the area, and was found from flat mesa tops down to broad inter-mesa valleys in
all but the most densely wooded areas. Average measurements on three adults (in mm.)
are: wing, 101.2; tail, 80.3; culmen, 19.0. These agree in size with the race I. b.
bullockii.

Molothrus ater obscurus (Gmelin) — Dwarf Cowbird. 2 ad. $ , 2 ad. $, breeding,
mesquite-creosote bush association, June 12-25; 1 ad. $ No. 462, testis 6.9 mm.,
cedar savannah association, June 17. This species seemed to be most concentrated in
the salt cedar and walnut-desert willow associations. It was observed, however, at tanks
in the mesquite-creosote bush association and in the cedar savannah association during
June and July. These birds were not found in winter. An adult female collected
on June 18 was found to have a soft-shelled egg in the oviduct.

Piranga rubra cooperi Ridgway — Cooper’s Tanager. 1 ad. $ , walnut-desert
willow association, June 8; 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association,
June 24. Cooper’s tanagers were most abundant during June and July in the mesquite-

426

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

creosote bush and salt cedar associations on the Dunlap ranch. They were also fairly
common in the walnut-desert willow, hackberry, mesquite-sumac-condalia and live oak
associations.

Richmondena cardinalis canicauda (Chapman) — Gray-tailed Cardinal. 1 ad. $,
testis 10.0 mm., cedar-shinoak association, June 8; 1 ad. $ , testis 10.1 mm., mesquite-
creosote bush association, June 14. The cardinal was one of the most common birds
in summer, fall, and winter, and was recorded in all associations except the field
association.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata subsp. — Pyrrhuloxia. 1 ad. $, ovum 2.1 mm., mesquite-
creosote bush association, June 10. Few associations in this area lacked pyrrhuloxias.
No evidence of their presence was found, however, during June or July in the
canyon heads, or in the hackberry association. They apparently preferred the more
brushy areas of the broad inter-mesa valleys and gentle mesa slopes. They were one
of the most common birds of the mesquite-creosote bush association, and were reported
daily from the following associations: cedar savannah, cedar-ocotillo, mesquite-sumac-
condalia, live oak, salt cedar and walnut-desert willow. Pyrrhuloxias form a part of
the permanent resident population of this area.

Guiraca caerulea interfusa Dwight and Griscom — Western Blue Grosbeak. 1 ad.
$ , 1 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16-26; 1 ad. $ ,
hackberry association, May 1; 1 ad. $ , testes enlarged, walnut-desert willow association,
June 14. This species was present in early May, but it was not recorded in November
and December. These birds were observed during June and July in six of the major
associations of the area, including the walnut-desert willow, field, live oak, mesquite-
sumac-condalia, hackberry, and mesquite-creosote bush associations. They were espe¬
cially common in the salt cedar association.

Passerina versicolor versicolor (Bonaparte) — Varied Bunting. 1 ad. $, testis 7.0
mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, June 10; 1 ad. $, testis 8.2 mm., mesquite-
creosote bush association, June 16. The two specimens were in fine breeding plumage.
One was taken in Ligon Canyon, and the other was obtained at Gravel Springs.
Testes of both males were enlarged.

Passerina ciris pallidior Mearns— Texas Painted Bunting. 3 ad. $ , 2 ad. $ , all
breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-26. Painted buntings were
first recorded in early May, in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association at Gravel
Springs. They were breeding in the area during June and July in the mesquite-
creosote bush association, and were also observed in the field, live oak, walnut-desert
willow and hackberry associations. Sutton made the subspecific determination. Three
adult males measure (in mm.), respectively: wing, 73, 73, 73; tail, 55, 56, 56.
Two females measure, respectively: wing, 68, 67; tail, 55, 53.

Spiza americana (Gmelin) — Dickcissel. 1 ad. $ , testis 7.6 mm., field association,
July 7. Several dickcissels were observed in the field association on the Hicks ranch
by Blair, where he collected one male. This appears to be the first record of the
dickcissel in Trans-Pecos Texas. While nests were not found, it is probable that these
birds formed part of the breeding population.

Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis (Say) — Common House Finch. 1 ad. $ , 1 ad.
$ , breeding, cedar savannah association, June 24. This species was recorded from
the cedar savannah association at West Martin Well. A pair was collected in this
area on June 24, and both birds were in breeding condition. The species was observed
once in the mesquite-creosote bush association. These finches were common in
November and December at Little Horse Head, Ligon, and East Martin Tanks, and at
Gravel Springs.

Spinus psaltria psaltria (Say) — -Arkansas Goldfinch. 1 ad. $, testis 5.7 mm.,
cedar-shinoak association, June 28. Few records of these goldfinches were obtained.
The one specimen was collected in Little Horse Head Canyon in the cedar-shinoak
association. They were observed on two different occasions in the walnut-desert willow
association near the Blackstone ranch headquarters.

Chlorura chlorura (Audubon) — Green-tailed Towhee. 1 ad. $, mesquite-sumac-
condalia association, November 25. Green-tailed towbees were found only in the
fall and winter, and apparently do not breed in the area. They were more often heard
than seen, and their cat-like mewing call was common in the mesquite-sumac-condalia
association, although the species was not restricted there. Individuals were found
to occur wherever brushy vegetation predominated.

Pipilo maculatus articus (Swainson) — Arctic Towhee. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote
bush association, November 24. Arctic towhees were observed in November in Horse
Head Canyon, in the thickest parts of the mesquite-creosote bush association. They

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

427

are considered winter residents. Measurements (in mm.) on the one specimen are:
wing, 86.0; tail, 96.0. The amount of white in the tip of the outer tail feather
measures 33.0 mm.

Pipilo fuscus texanus van Rossem — Texas Brown Towhee. 4 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , all
breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9-June 18; 1 ad. $ , testis 12.3
mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 2; 1 ad. $, testis 12.3 mm., cedar-
shinoak association, June 9.

This species was observed at all times of field work from April to December,
and is a permanent resident. Very secretive, they were recorded in all associations
affording enough vegetation for concealment, and were observed regularly in the
cedar-savannah, cedar-shinoak, cedar-ocotillo, mesquite-sumac-condalia and mesquite-
creosote bush associations. Measurements taken on six adult birds (in mm.) are:
wing, 92.0, 92.0, 95.0, 98.0, 100.0, 96.0; tail, 94.0, 97.0, 95.0, 98.0, 100.0, 96.0.
The averages on these six males are: wing, 95.5; tail, 96.6. These measurements
most closely approximate those for the subspecies texanus as described by van Rossem
(1934).

Calamospiza melanocorys Stejneger — Lark Bunting. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote
bush association, November 26. Lark Buntings were first recorded on November 26
near the tank in Ligon Canyon. Flocks of 20 to 30 were seen in many parts of the
mesquite-creosote bush association. They were present in much larger numbers in the
same association during December. This species is a winter resident.

Poocetes gramineus confinis Baird — Western Vesper Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-
creosote bush association, November 24. This species was recorded only in November,
when it was found in the mesquite-creosote bush association in Horse Head Canyon.
The one specimen, an adult male, measured (in mm.) : wing, 85.4; tail, 83.6;
exposed culmen, 11.0; depth of bill at base, 7.0. The bill is much darker in coloration
than in comparative material examined from Webb and Jim Hogg Counties, Texas.

Chondestes grammacus strigatus Swainson — -Western Lark Sparrow. 1 ad. $ ,
1 yg. $ , 2 ad. 9, mesquite-creosote bush association, April 8-November 25. The
cedar savannah association was favored by these birds during June and July, and it
was here that nests, eggs, and young were recorded. The lark sparrow was also
recorded from the walnut-desert willow, mesquite-creosote bush, and field associations.
In November and December, they were most common at tanks in the mesquite-creosote
bush association and at Gravel Springs in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association. A
nest containing six fresh eggs was discovered on June 10 in the cedar-savannah
association at West Martin Well. It was in a small cedar approximately five feet from
the ground and close against the main part of the trunk. The materials in the thick
outer cup consisted chiefly of cedar twigs and bark firmly held together by horse
hair, iavelina hair and grasses. Diameter of the circular nest opening was 57.1 mm.,
and the nest was 38.0 mm. deep. Each egg was quite blunt at both ends. One end
of the egg had a somewhat larger diameter than the other. The ground color was
white or faintly bluish white with dots and scrawls of a blue-black color, mostly
around the larger end. Each larger dot was outlined by a small, reddish-blue circle.
Measurements on five eggs (in mm.) are: 20.0x16.4; 20.5x17.3; 20.0x17.3;
20.0x17.0; 19.7 x 16.6; 19.6x16.2. The average of five eggs is 19.9 x 16.7.

Aimophila mficeps eremoeca (Brown) — Rock Sparrow. 1 ad. S, 1 ad. 9,
breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-16; 2 ad. $, breeding, cedar-
shinoak association, June 9, 10; 1 ad. $ , testis 9.0 mm., persimmon-shinoak association,
June 21; 1 juv. 9 No. 6 16, cedar savannah association, June 20; 1 ad. 9 No. 612,
persimmon-shinoak association, December 29. The rock sparrow is one of the
common breeding species and these birds were most often recorded from the higher
parts of the mesa slopes in the cedar-ocotillo association and from the steeper canyon
heads in the cedar-shinoak association. They were occasionally seen on the mesa tops
and in the Jbroad areas between the mesas. Sutton referred my specimens to the race
eremoeca. Measurements on the seven specimens (in mm.) are four males, wing, 62.5,
64, 67, 65; tail, 63, 65.5, 69, 70; three females, wing, 62, 62.5 — ; tail, 63, 66.5, 64.

Amphispiza hilineata deserticola Ridgway — Desert Sparrow. 1 ad. 9 , ova
enlarged, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 7; 1 juv. $ , cedar savannah
association, June 9; 1 juv. 9, 1 juv. $ , cedar-shinoak association, June 16-20. This
species was common and occurred in all associations studied. These birds seemed
most plentiful in the mesquite-creosote bush association, where several individuals in
juvenile plumage were observed. They were present in fall and winter, and they are
apparently resident in the area throughout the year.

Spizella passerina arizonae Coues — Western Chipping Sparrow. 1 Imm. $ ,
mesquite-creosote bush association, November 24. These birds were first recorded in

428

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

November from Little Horse Head Tank in the mesquite-creosote bush association.
They were also present in December and were observed throughout the general area.
They form a part of the winter resident population.

Spizella pallida (Swainson) — Clay-colored Sparrow. 2 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote
bush association, November 27, December 28. The clay-colored sparrow was a
common species throughout the mesquite-creosote bush association in November and
December. Since it was not found in the summer it appears to be a winter resident
only.

Spizella breweri breweri Cassin — Brewer’s Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote
bush asociation, December 28. Brewer’s sparrow was recorded only in December. The
one specimen was taken in the mesquite-creosote bush association at Little Horse
Head tank.

Spizella pusilla arenacea Chadbourne — Western Field Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , cedar-
ocotillo association, December 29. These sparrows were observed in December in
small flocks at all of the tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association. One specimen
was collected near the rimrock in the cedar-ocotillo association of Ligon Canyon. Its
measurements (in mm.) are: wing, 52.9; tail, 62.0; thus fitting the original
description for the race (Chadbourne, 1886).

Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys (Forster) — White-crowned Sparrow. 1 ad.
$ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 2. White-crowned sparrows were
abundant throughout the area in November and December. This was one of the most
common species present in December, when large flocks were seen. While it did
not form a part of the summer resident bird population, the species was present on
the Blackstone ranch as late as April 10.

Melospiza lincolnii — Lincoln’s Sparrow. Sight Record: November 25. Lincoln’s
sparrow was present in November at Little Horse Head and Ligon Tanks in the
mesquite-creosote bush association. The species is probably a winter resident.

TOTAL KNOWN AVIFAUNA

The 84 species of birds seen or collected in the area of study in northeastern
Terrell County are classed as summer resident breeding birds, winter residents,
permanent residents, or transients. Sixty of these 84 species were breeding in the
area as evidenced by nests and young, or by the presence of enlarged gonads and
condition of the plumage.

Twenty-three of the 60 species breeding or probably breeding in the area, April
through July, were present in November and December, and are considered to be
permanent residents. No individuals of the remaining 37 breeding species were
found in the area in November and December, and it is believed that they leave the
area before winter.

Twenty of the 84 species seen or collected appear to be winter residents only.
Four species, the raven, vesper sparrow, spotted sandpiper and green-winged teal,
possibly occur in the region only as migrants.

The raven is a common breeding bird in northwestern Presidio County (Phillips
and Thornton, 1949) and is a breeding bird in Brewster County (Van Tyne and
Sutton, 1937). The absence of this species as a breeding form in northeastern Terrell
County is unusual. Possibly further work in the area will reveal this species to be a
breeding bird rather than a transient.

FAUNAL AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE BIRDS

Eastern Terrell County is biologically a transitional area. The birds of this area
represent five major faunal elements. Twenty-three (38.3%) of the 60 breeding or
probably breeding bird species are wide ranging forms that occur throughout much
of North America and consequently occur in many biotic provinces.

Fourteen species (23.3%) have their centers of distribution in Mexico and
range into the region from the south, although some extend their range north of this
region. These forms include: Callipepla squamata, Chordeiles acutipennis, Chloroceryle
americana, Dendrocopos scalaris, Pyrocephalus rubinus, Pams atricristatus , Campylor-
hynchus brunneicapillus , Vireo vicinior, Icterus cucullatus, Icterus parisorum, Pyrrhu-
loxia sinuata, Passerina versicolor, Spinus psaltria, and Aimophila ruficeps.

Fourteen species (23.3%) range widely in the western part of North America
and occur there in several biotic provinces. Included here are the following species:
Geococcyx calif or nianus, Phalaenoptilus nuttalli, Archilochus alexandri, Myiarchus

1951, No. 3
September 30

Birds of the Stockton Plateau

429

cinerascens, Contopus richardsonii, Aphelocoma coerulescens, Auriparus flaviceps,
Psaltriparus minimus, Cat herpes mexicanus, Vireo Bellii, Icterus hullockii, Carpodacus
mexicanus, Pipilo fuscus, and Amphispiza bilineata.

Seven species (11.6%) range widely in the eastern part of North America.
These species are as follows: Meleagris gallopavo, Strix varia, Vireo griseus, Vireo
flavifrons, Icterus spurius, Spiza americana, and Passerina ciris.

Two species (3.3%) range in the Great Plains region south through central
and western Texas. These forms include: Muscivora forficata, and Vireo atricapillus.

The Pecos River has been used by numerous authors as a line of demarcation
separating eastern and western floras and faunas. Dice (1943) used this river as a
dividing line to separate his Chihuahuan biotic province in the west from provinces
farther east. Blair (1950) in his division of the state into biotic provinces uses the
Pecos River as a dividing line between the Chihuahuan province to the west and the
Balconian and Kansan provinces to the east. The principal barrier here, as he points
out, is not the river itself but a climatic factor, and the actual line of demarcation
may be as much as 100 miles wide.

The area studied in northeastern Terrell County, then, represents an area of
transition in regard to its avian fauna, with such forms as Vireo griseus, Spiza
americana , and Vireo flavifrons , which range chiefly in the eastern part of the United
States, breeding in the same localities with such western forms as Icterus hullockii ,
Carpodacus mexicanus , and Aimophila ruficeps.

The transitional nature of this area is indicated also by intergradation here
between several geographic races that occur west of the Pecos, in Brewster and Presidio
Counties and respective, related, races which are mostly found east of the Pecos River
in central and southern Texas. Several specimens of Chordeiles minor were determined
by Sutton to be C. m. asseriensis approaching C. m. henryi. The subspecies henryi is
thought to be the breeding form in the more western, Brewster County, while
asseriensis ranges east of the Pecos River (see A.O.U. Check-list, 1931). The wood¬
pecker, Dendrocopos scalaris, is of the race cactophilus in northwestern Presidio
County (Phillips and Thornton, 1949) and in Brewster County (Van Tyne and
Sutton, 1937). Dendrocopos s. symplectus is the probable form ranging east of the
Pecos River and south along the Texas coast. In northeastern Terrell County the
breeding birds were determined by Sutton as D. s. symplectus approaching cactophilus.
This is the eastern race symplectus which probably reaches the western limit of its
range in this area.

Webster (1950) discussed the transitional aspect of the vegetation. The creosote
bush-tarbush association covers extensive areas in the deserts of the southwestern
United States. In northeastern Terrell County the tarbush (Flourensia) has been
replaced by mesquite. The equivalent mesquite-creosote bush association covers a
large part of the surface in this region.

FOOD RELATIONS OF PREDATORS

Drought conditions in northeastern Terrell County in recent years have had a
very deleterious effect on plant and animal life in the area. Rainfall at Sheffield
totaled only 8.65 inches in 1948. Only 2.40 inches of rain fell there during the
first five months of 1949 (see U.S.D.A., 1948 and 1949). The effect of this long dry
period on animal life of the region was apparent during the summer field work.
Herrmann (1950) found the small mammal populations to be extremely low in the
summer of 1949.

Many of the predatory birds which depend upon small mammals for food were
forced to turn to other food sources or to leave that part of the drought area. Lubber
grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna) were very abundant throughout June and July
and were found to be the chief source of food for such species as the red-tailed hawk
( Buteo jamaicensis) , the screech owl ( Otus asio) , and the horned owl (Bubo
virginianus) . These three predators normally would feed on the small mamals, birds,
and reptiles in the area supplementing their diet, to a greater or less degree, with
insects (Fisher, 1893). It is of interest to note that these predators can, by changing
their food habits, apparently survive and breed in an area when their natural food
has become scarce. The stomach contents of all the predator species of birds examined
during June and July contained mostly lubber grasshoppers.

430

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

SUMMARY

Serious ornithological work has been carried out in very few areas of Trans-Pecos
Texas, and a knowledge of the bird distribution in this part of the state is decidedly
limited.

Field work was done in an area of northeastern Terrell County in April, May,
June, July, November and December, 1949.

The Stockton Plateau is a westward extension of the Edwards Plateau. The Pecos
River separates these two areas of Cretaceous limestones. The area studied in Terrell
County lies in the northeastern part of the Stockton Plateau.

Eighty-four species of birds were recorded. Twelve of these were recorded on
sight alone. Sixty of the 84 species were breeding or probably breeding in the area.
A total of 190 specimens was collected.

Fourteen species (23.3%) have their centers of distribution in Mexico and
range into the region from the south, although some extend their range north of this
region. Fourteen species (23.3%) range widely in the western part of North
America and occur there in several biotic provinces. Seven species (11.6%) range
widely in the eastern part of North America. Two species (3.3%) have their center
of distribution in the Great Plains region.

Drought conditions prevailed prior to the work in 1949. This long dry period
had a marked deleterious effect on the plant and animal life. The lubber grasshopper
( Brachystola magnet) was found to form the chief source of food for the predatory
bird species in this area during June and July.

LITERATURE CITED

American Ornithologists’ Union — 1931 — Check-list of North American Birds. American
Ornithologists’ Union, Lancaster, Pa. : 526 pp.

Burleigh, Thomas S. and George H. Lowery, Jr. — 1940 — Birds of the Guadalupe Mountain
region of western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. L. S. U. 8 : 85-151.

- 1941 — Hooded oriole again recorded in the United States. Auk 58 : 101.

- 1945 — Races of Vireo griseus in Eastern United States. Am. Mid. Nat. 34 : 526-530.

Blair, W. Frank — 1950 — The biotic provinces of Texas. Tex. Jour. Sci. 2 : 93-117.
Chadbourne, A. P. — 1886 — On a new race of the field sparrow from Texas. Auk 3 : 248.
Dawscn, W. L. — 1923 — The birds of California. South Moulton Co. 2:662-667.

Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The Biotic Provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor,
78 pp.

Fisher, A. K. — 1893 — The hawks and owls of the United States. Bull. U.S.D.A. 3 : 1-210.
Friedmann, Herbert — 1933 — Critical notes on American vultures. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 46:
187-190

Grinnell, J. and William H. Behle — 1935 — Comments upon subspecies of Catherpes mexicanus.
Condor 37 : 247-251.

Herrmann, J. A. — 1950— The mammals of the Stockton Plateau of northeastern Terrell
County, Texas. Tex. Journ. Sci. 2 : 368-393.

Phillips, Homer W. and Wilmot A. Thornton — 1949 — The summer resident birds of the Sierra
Vieja range in southwestern Texas. Tex. Jour. Sci. 1 : 101-131.

Sutton, George Mikseh — 1948 — Comments on Icterus c. cucullatus Swainson, in the United
States. Condor 50 : 257-258.

Tharp, B. C. — 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. and Trans. Tex.
Acad. Sci. 27 : 81-91.

Todd, W. E. Clyde — 1946 — Critical notes on the woodpeckers. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 30: 312.
United States Department of Agriculture — 1930— Climatic summary of the United States.

Sec. 33, Southeastern, Texas.

- 1930 — Ibid., Sec. 31, Southwestern, Texas.

United States Department of Commerce — 1948 — Climatological data, Texas. 53.

- - 1949 — Ibid. 54.

van Rosoem, A. J. — 1930 — The races of Auriparus flaviceps (Sundevall). Trans. San Diego
Soc. Nat. Hist. 6 : 199-202.

- 1934 — A subspecies of the brown towhee from south-central Texas. Trans. San Diego

Soc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 371-372.

Van Tyne, Josselyn and George Miksch Sutton — 1937 — The birds of Brewster County, Texas.
Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 37 : 1-119.

Webster, G. L. — 1950 — Observations on the vegetation and summer flora of the Stockton
Plateau. Tex. Journ. Sci. 2 : 234-242.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

431

THE EELS OF THE NORTHERN GULF COAST OF THE
UNITED STATES AND SOME RELATED SPECIES

ISAAC GINSBURG

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

INTRODUCTION

This paper is a continuation of studies carried out on the fishes of the
northern Gulf coast of the United States. The last account of the eels of
this region in a single publication, was included in a paper published nearly
60 years ago by Jordan and Davis (1891). The present paper brings the
account up to date and describes some new species.

The specimens on which this paper is based are chiefly from five
sources: those in the U. S. National Museum, and the Museum of Compara¬
tive Zoology; those collected by the "Atlantis” in 1937 and now deposited
in the Bingham Oceanographic Collection; those obtained by the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife research boat "Pelican” during 193 8-40; specimens obtained
by the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission and sent in by Mr. J. L.
Baughman. I wish to express here my gratitude to the authorities of these
institutions who granted me the privilege and the free use of their facilities
to pursue these studies.

The geographic limits with which this paper deals are from the Rio
Grande to the region between Cape Romano and Cape Sable, Florida. The
species recorded from, or those which have been found to occur in this
stretch of the coast during this investigation, are here treated. The Florida
Keys are not included. The fish fauna at the Keys is different, being, by and
large, similar to that of the West Indies and Central America.

Three extra-limital species are included. Two are from the Atlantic
coast of the United States, one obtained by the Pelican, the other by the
Albatross, both representing a new genus and species and encountered dur¬
ing the present comparative study. The third species, Gymnothorax ocellatus
from Brazil, is included for comparative purposes, because two Gulf species
often have been identified with it.

The main object of this paper is to elaborate the external characters
by which the species in the region concerned may be distinguished and
readily identified. While the species have been compared where necessary
and available with those from other regions to establish their identity, no
attempt was made to revise the families or genera to which they belong. As
this paper does not represent a revision of the genera on a world wide basis,
the given generic definitions include only the characters common to the
species here treated, and they are not repeated under the species accounts.
For the same reason, no attempt was made to compile a complete synonymy
or bibliography to the genera and species. As a further consequence, the
complete geographic distribution of every species was not determined from
records in the literature. However, in most cases all available specimens were
examined, including those from extra-limital localities, and the entire geo¬
graphic distribution of the specimens examined is stated under the accounts
of the species.

432

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 80

The classification of eels into families is at present in a state of flux,
and it is difficult to decide for the purposes of a faunal study of a limited
number of species, such as this paper is, their proper allocation by family.
The number of apodal families has been gradually increased by authors.
By this process of subdivision, each family comes to comprise one, or a small
number of genera that are more nearly related. On the other hand, in gen¬
eral, this process lends itself readily to continued expansion until a point
may be reached where the family as a convenient unit in classification loses
a great deal of its usefulness. It appears that this point has been reached and
exceeded with respect to the classification of the eels adopted by a number
of authors. The number of apodal families that have been proposed, which
contain but one or two or a small number of genera form a large percentage
of the total, strikingly more so than in other orders or suborders of fishes
that are now in an active stage of speciation, that is, excluding relict or
otherwise exceptional orders. This excessive splintering of the families does
not seem to represent a real advance in the classification of Apodes. Cer¬
tainly from the standpoint of convenience too many eel families have been
proposed.

Without attempting a complete historical review of family subdivision
of the Apodes, the following two authors who present the most compre¬
hensive outline of the subject are here briefly discussed. Regan (1912) in a
short paper divides the order Apodes into 17 families. Trewavas (1932),
after a study of "some rare eels” increases the number of families to 22.
However, these authors leave some important questions unanswered. How
many genera, in the few of their families that include a number of genera,
have they studied? Do the characters that they use for separating the fami¬
lies differ from genus to genus, and if so, to what extent? Are the bound¬
aries between the families sharply marked, or are some of the genera transi¬
tional as they often are in classification? Besides, the subfamily category is
a convenient device often used in taxonomic practice which might be ap¬
plied also in the classification of the Apodes.

The present stage of the subdivision of the Apodes into families being
unsatisfactory, in this faunal account especially, which represents but a
moderate segment of the total known number of genera and species of eels,
it seems best for the purpose of convenience to hold down the number of
families. Therefore, the species here treated are divided into 5 families. This
in general, is in accord with that used by previous authors, with the follow¬
ing exceptions. According to Regan and also Trewavas, Dysomma and Dy-
sommina should be placed in a separate family, Dysommidae; while Hoplun-
nis should probably be laced in the Nettastomidae according to the classifica¬
tion outlined by Trewavas. Workers who wish to pursue the division of
groups of genera in greater detail, might divide the genera here assigned to
the family Congridae, into three subfamilies, Congrinae, Nettastominae and
Dysomminae. However, it would seem best to defer any such division until
a thorough comparative study is made of these and related genera on a world
wide basis.

Judged by the material forming the basis of this study, it is apparent
that our present knowledge of the eels of the Gulf is fragmentary. (This
statement applies to other regions as well.) Of about half the species here
treated only one or a very few specimens have been collected so far, some

September 30
1951, No. 3

Eels of the Gulf Coast

433

of them taken from the stomachs of other fish. Some of the species have
not been rediscovered since their original description, on the basis of one
or two specimens, 60 years ago or so. Of the other species, excepting Anguilla
rostrata, the number of specimens collected up to now is very moderate.
This state of affairs is quite understandable. Eels living offshore are usually
obtained by trawling. However, they are generally tenacious of life, and
considering their shape and manner of locomotion, an eel finding itself in a
trawl is able to wiggle its way out through the meshes of the net. It is
only a luckless individual which is temporarily trapped by the mass of fish
in the trawl, that is landed on deck. From the preceding premises, it seems
reasonable to conclude that the number of species of eels which remain
unknown, constitute a considerable percentage of the total number of liv¬
ing species.

DEFINITIONS

Terms applied to certain measurements used in this paper have the following
significance.

LENGTH— total length, from tip of snout to posterior end of fish, including the
caudal fin when present, which in eels is short and forms a virtually negligible part
of the total length.

BODY— distance from tip of snout to vent.

TRUNK — distance from upper angle of gill opening to vent, or from its anterior
angle when the gill opening is horizontal or oblique.

TAIL— distance from vent to posterior end of fish, including the caudal fin when
present.

The above four measurements were made by stretching the specimen on a table,
sticking vertically 4 ordinary dressmaker’s pins in the table, at the two ends of the
fish, opposite the upper or anterior corner of the gill opening, and at the vent, and
measuring the distance between the pins by a steel tape graduated to millimeters.
The measurements as actually made deviate somewhat from measurements taken on a
straight horizontal line between verticals through those four points; but such devia¬
tion obviously is virtually negligible.

The following measurements were made with a Vernier caliper, except that the
antedorsal was sometimes measured by means of pins as outlined above, when that

measurement was long.

ANTEDORSAL — distance between tip of snout and origin of dorsal fin.

head — distance between tip of snout afid upper or anterior corner of gill open¬
ing.

UPPER JAW AND LOWER JAW — distance between the tip of either jaw and the
corner of the mouth as observed externally. The latter point is not easy to determine
with precision, and it also differs somewhat with the state of preservation of the
specimens. Consequently, these measurements are only roughly approximate.

.SNOUT— distance from its tip to anterior margin of eye.

EYE — horizontal distance between two vertical tangents, through anterior and
posterior margin of eye, respectively. The outline of the eye is indefinite in some
species, and the snout and eye measurements in such species are only very roughly
approximate.

DEPTH — -measured at a point just in front of vent, except where otherwise

specified.

PECTORAL — distance on a straight line between the upper angle of its base
and its tip.

CAUDAL — distance from its tip to end of last vertebra. This measurement is of
moderate importance in distinguishing a few of the species from their relatives, and
was determined only for such species.

MEASUREMENT— Figures for measurements given under each species refer to
percentages of the total length, except when otherwise indicated. As proportional
measurements change with growth, figures for measurements have been segregated
into size groups w’here the material permitted, generally into two size groups. In
such cases measurements of the smaller specimens are given in parenthesis. It is to
be noted especially that one important measurement, that of the tail, generally de-

434

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3

September 30

creases with growth, and conversely, the body increases. As the tail or body measure¬
ment is usually a good specific character, or even a generic character in a limited
sense, it is important to correlate it with the length of the specimens measured.

DENTITION — The dentition is of much importance in the classification of eels,
and is hereafter described under the various genera and species. On the roof of the
mouth cavity, the teeth are roughly disposed in three series, as follows.

1. A bilaterally symmetrical series on the side of the upper jaw, consisting
of one or more rows, depending on the genus or species. These teeth are hereafter
described as jaw teeth.

2. A median series on the anterior part of the upper jaw, consisting of a single
arched row, or of a patch of teeth. In the following descriptions the teeth in this
series are designated premaxillary teeth.

3. A series on the midline of the palate, behind the premaxillary teeth, consist¬
ing of one or more rows, or a tapering band, or a patch of teeth. These are hereafter
designated as palatal teeth. The latter term should not be confused with "palatine
teeth” used in describing the dentition on the palatine bones of other fishes. What
are designated as palatal teeth in this paper, are usually currently described by
authors as "vomerine” teeth. However, the homology of the dentigerous bones in
eels is still open to question, and the osteology of comparatively few species has so
far been elaborated by workers to serve as a basis for general conclusions. Further¬
more, the series of teeth on the palate differs in position with the species. Especially
in some exotic species from the standpoint of this paper having jaws of ordinary
length, the teeth on the palate are placed far back on the roof of the mouth, and
it is very doubtful whether they are borne by the vomer. It seems then that the term
"vomerine” teeth, designating teeth borne by a definite bone, the vomer, as used for
other fishes, does not always apply to eels. Therefore, for practical taxonomic pur¬
pose, the non-commital term palatal teeth is here used, simply signifying the median
series of teeth on the palate. This term is adequate and is generally useful in describ¬
ing the dentition in the species of this order.

The three series of teeth are confluent anteriorly or more or less separated,
depending on the genus or species and to some extent also on intraspecific individual
variability .-

The number of rows of teeth in any series is sometimes used as a specific or
even generic character, and it often is a usable taxonomic character. However, in using
this character, it should also be borne in mind that in many species the number of
rows increases with growth. This change with growth has been noted for several of
the species included in this account, as for instance in Ophichthus gomesii.

In listing the specimens examined under each species, M.C.Z. refers to the
Museum of Comparative Zoology; B.O.C. stands for Bingham Oceanographic Collec¬
tion; while numbers without letters are those in the catalog of the U. S. National
Museum.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF APODAL FISHES BASED ON THE SPECIES FROM THE
NORTHERN PART OF THE GULF

a. Posterior nostril placed above upper lip, on a horizontal through lower

margin of eye or higher. Without or with a slightly raised rim.
Caudal fin present, continuous with dorsal and anal, posterior end
of fish thus surrounded by a continuous fin fold.

b. Gill opening larger than eye. Pectorals present.

c. Scales present. Lower jaw somewhat projecting _

_ ANGUILLIDAE (p. 43 5).

cc. Scales absent. Upper jaw slightly or notably projecting

_ CONGRIDAE (p. 436).

bb. Gill opening subequal to or smaller than eye.

Pectorals absent _ MURAENIDAE (p. 458).

aa. Posterior nostril placed on upper lip or in that position when
lip undifferentiated, with a wide flaring margin (except
in Verma, an ophichthid genus lacking all fins, nostril
placed just above lip and without raised edge).

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

43 5

d. Caudal fin present, continuous with dorsal and anal -

_ • _ ECHELIDAE (p. 463).

dd. Caudal fin absent, posterior end of fish without fin fold,
dorsal and anal ending at some distance from posterior
end (absent altogether in Verma ) _ OPHICHTHIDAE (p. 465).

family AN GUILLID AE

This family is represented by only one species in the western Atlantic, the
common fresh water eel.

ANGUILLA Shaw

Anguilla Shaw, General Zoology, vol. 4, pt. 1, p. 1 5, 1803 (genotype
Muraena anguilla Linnaeus by tautonymy)

ANGUILLA ROSTRATA (LeSueur)

Muraena rostrata LeSueur, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1(5): 81,
October 1817 (Cayuga and Geneva Lakes, New York)

Muraena bostoniensis LeSueur, ibid. (Boston market, Massachusetts)
Muraena serpentina LeSueur, ibid. (Newport, Rhode Island)

Muraena argentea LeSueur, 1. c., p. 82 (Boston Bay)

Muraena macrocephala LeSueur, 1. c., p. 82 (Saratoga, New York)

Anguilla chrisypa Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag. & Critic. Rev. 2(2) : 1 2 0,
December 1817 (Lake George, Hudson River, Lake Champlain;
refers to LeSueur ’s paper, showing that it was published earlier)
Anguilla blephura Rafinesque, ibid. (Long Island)

Anguilla laticanda (an evident lapsus or printer’s error for laticauda) Rafin¬
esque, 1. c., vol. 3, no. 6, p. 447, 1818 ("Ohio Eel”)

Anguilla bostoniensis Gunther (in part), Cat. Fish. British Mus. 8: 31, 1870
(Boston; account based in part on specimens from China and Japan
and includes more than one species) — Jordan, Manual of the Verte¬
brate Animals of the Northeastern United States, p. 56, 1929 (S.
Greenland to Brazil)

Anguilla chrysypa Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 668,
1891 (Maine to Mexico and West Indies; synonymy) — Jordan and
Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 348, 1896 (Maine to Mex¬
ico; West Indies; synonymy)

Anguilla rostrata Bean, Science 29: 871, 1909 (states that rostrata has prior¬
ity over chrisypa)— Jordan, Copeia 1917: 86 ( rostrata has priority
over chrisypa) — Schmidt, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1924: 279-314,
1925 (life history) — Ege, Dana Report 16: 89 and passim, 1939
(literature on distribution summarized on p. 149; Labrador to
Guiana, including the West Indies; synonymy)

Scales cycloid, small, elongate, moderately imbricated with a peculiar and characteristic
arrangement in irregular groups, longitudinal axis of scales in any one group running either
downward and forward, or downward and backward, scales in one group running at right
angles to those in an adjacent group. Compressed, rather deep. Tail moderately tapering,
longer than body. Eye moderate, 2.C-2.8 in snout (in 4 specimens 530-624 mm). Mouth and
jaws of medium extent ; lower jaw 3. 0-3.1 in head ; angle of mouth approximately under
posterior margin of eye. Snout notably depressed, broad, blunt, 4.4-4. 9 in head ; lower jaw
somewhat projecting. Lips forming a well developed fold, separated by a rather deep
groove. Posterior nostril without a raised rim, placed near eye, on a horizontal through its
upper margin or a little below ; anterior nostril ending in a short tubule, placed near an¬
terior lateral corner of snout. Tongue free, well developed. Gill opening transverse, lateral,
near to and in front of pectoral base, its upper angle at some distance below upper pec¬
toral angle, its lower angle below pectoral base. Dorsal origin much nearer vent than gill
opening. Pectoral, dorsal, anal and caudal well developed, the latter three fins continuous.
Teeth of medium size, subequal, in tapering bands in jaws and on palate ; bands in jaws

43 6

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

of moderate width ; palatal band broad in front, becoming abruptly narrower and tapering
to a point opposite eye ; premaxillary teeth in a patch continuous with palatal band, except
for a slight, somewhat hourglass-like constriction between the two areas of teeth ; teeth in
jaw moderately or slightly separated from palatal and premaxillary teeth. Color olivaceous,
brownish or grayish, almost uniform except lighter on ventral aspect ; without spots or
other markings.

Measurements of 4 specimens 530-624 mm, and 2 specimens 188-271 mm, all six from
the Gulf Coast of the United States: body 43-46 (40-48), trunk 29-32 (27-30), tail 54-58
(57-60), antedorsal 34-36 (31-33), head 13.0-13.5 (12.5-13.5), upper jaw 3. 9-4.3 (3. 2-3. 7),
lower jaw 4.2-4.6 (3.6-4.1), snout 2.7-3.1 (2.4-2.7), eye 1.1-1. 4 (1.5-1. 6), depth 6.4-7.9 (6.3),
pectoral 4.7-5. 7 (3.7-3.91. In the two smaller specimens eye 1.5-1. 9 in snout, lower jaw
3. 3-3. 5 in head, snout 4. 9-5.1 in head. (These three ratios of the 4 larger specimens given
above in diagnosis.)

Two specimens from the coast of Massachusetts and one from Cuba, comparable
in size to the preceding 4 larger Gulf specimens, average the jaws, snout and pectoral
shorter and the eye larger, but the divergence is not pronounced.

Gulf Coast specimens of this species were examined from the following locali¬
ties: mouth of the Rio Grande, Fort Clark, Corpus Christi, Copano Bay, New Braun¬
fels, San Marcos Springs, Colorado River at Austin and Galveston Bay, Texas; Grand
Isle, Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; Vicksburg and Jackson, Mississippi;
Pensacola and Apalachicola, Florida. The largest specimen is 805 mm from Fort Clark.

This species is distinguished from all known Gulf eels by the presence of scales
which are arranged in a characteristic manner. It is often necessary to scrape off the
mucous in order to see the scales. The snout is notably broad and flat and the lower
jaw somewhat projecting. The dorsal origin is much nearer to the vent than the gill
opening. The teeth are rather small and in bands. It differs from Conger caudilimbatus
and most other eels here treated by the notably backward insertion of the dorsal fin.

NOMENCLATURE * — The scientific name of the common American fresh water eel
has been changed repeatedly and its usage is still marked by instability. The main
points in the nomenclatorial history of the species are, therefore, here briefly reviewed.

At the turn of the century, chrisypa, one of two names proposed by Rafinesque
in 1817 for this species, or its amended form chrysypa, was generally used by Ameri¬
can authors. Bean (1909) and Jordan (1917) concluded that the five names proposed
by LeSueur in the same year for this species, have date priority over Rafinesque’s
names, and LeSueur’s name rostrata which has line or page priority over his other
four names, came into general usage. In 1929, Jordan pointed out that Gunther
(1870) who presumably was the first reviser, chose the name bostoniensis, and since
then most American authors, but not all, used the latter name for the species. Ege
(1939) who published the most comprehensive account of the genus as a whole,
and the best one so far, uses the name rostrata.

Two names, bostoniensis and rostrata, are then currently in use for this same
species. The choice between these two names depends on a decision as to who was
the first reviser. The pertinence of accepting Gunther as the first reviser is open to
question. First, Gunther’s work is not a revision in the true sense of the word. It is
rather a compilation reinforced by original observations on a limited amount of
specimens. Second, Gunther did not separate his specimens properly, and his account
under the name bostoniensis is based on a mixture of two distinct species. Third,
Gunther was uncertain in regard to the status of all five names proposed by LeSueur
for this same species. While he places rostrata, argentea and macrocephala in the
synonymy of his bostoniensis, he lists serpentina among the doubtful species. On the
other hand, Ege’s work on the genus Anguilla is so comprehensive and of such quality
as to truly deserve the title revision. It seems to me that the extent and quality of an
author’s work should be considered in deciding the question as to who was the first
reviser. In case of doubt, especially, this latter factor should be considered. Therefore,
I accept Ege as the first reviser and the name rostrata, as used by that author is here
employed for the common American fresh water eel.

family CONGRIDAE

Scales absent. Moderately stout to slender. Tail moderately to much longer than
body, except a little shorter in Neoconger. Mouth rather small to large; upper jaw
slightly to notably projecting beyond lower, premaxillary teeth well exposed or
covered with the mouth closed. Lips separated from or continuous with surface of
skin. Posterior nostril placed in front of middle or lower half of eye, close to eye or

*This paper was written and submitted for publication before the revised international
rules of zoological nomenclature appeared in print, adopting the principle of page or line
priority, in place of the rule of the first reviser. According to the revised rules, the species
name of the common American fresh water eel should be rostrata, as it is here Used.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

437

at a moderate distance away, with or without a slightly raised rim. Anterior nostril
in a short, broad tubule, except in Neoconger , placed near end of snout or at a mod¬
erate distance behind, about on a horizontal through posterior nostril, except in
Congrina. Tongue free or adnate, depending on the genus. Gill opening moderate to
large, lateral or placed very low, that is, altogether entering ventral as well as lateral
aspect, transverse or horizontal. Dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal fins present, vertical
fins continuous around posterior extremity of fish; caudal short or rather long (for
an eel). Dentition differing widely with the genus; canines on palate present or
absent; jaw, as well as premaxillary teeth, subequal or differing moderately within
each series, without large canine teeth, except in Hoplunnis.

Of the species of eels here treated, those belonging to the family Congridae
differ from species of other families in external characters as follows. They differ
from the Echelidae and Ophichthidae in having the posterior nostril buccal, instead
of labial, and they differ further from the latter in having a caudal fin fold. They
differ from the Anguillidae in lacking scales, and from the Muraenidae in having a
pectoral fin and larger gill opening.

KEY TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES OF THE FAMILY CONGRIDAE

a. Palatal teeth small, in an elongate, rounded, or somewhat tapering

patch, or in a single row, without canines. Lower jaw about as wide
as upper.

b. Dorsal origin over pectoral or gill opening. Tail longer than body, 5 3-72.

Tongue free. Upper and lower lip differentiated. Palatal teeth not
extending to opposite eye. Eye large, 2.4-4. 1. Pectoral medium to
rather long, 4. 2-7. 4.

c. Snout only a little projecting beyond lower jaw. Premaxillary teeth

partly exposed and beginning nearly at end of snout. Upper lip in a
well developed, upturned fold, not covered by a fold of skin on
cheek. Caudal short, 1.1 -1.2.

d. Dorsal beginning approximately over middle of pectoral. Teeth in main

outer row somewhat incisor like, closely approximated.. ^

_ _ Conger caudilimbatus (p. 439).

dd. Dorsal beginning approximately over pectoral base. Teeth in

main outer row pointed, moderately spaced _

_ _ _ _ _ _ | _ -Congermuraena impressa (p. 441).

cc. Snout notably projecting beyond lower jaw, rather tapering.
Premaxillary teeth nearly all exposed, beginning consid¬
erably behind tip of snout. Upper lip moderate, not forming
an upturned fold, covered by a broad, thick fold in the
loose skin of the cheek. Caudal 2.2 -7.7 _ Congrina (p. 442).

e. Tail 61-71, depth 4. 5-6. 8, trunk 16.5-20.5. Teeth in palatal

patch subequal or the posterior teeth slightly larger, the
patch usually oblong, sometimes nearly wedge-shaped.

f. Body 39, antedorsal 19, head 19.5 and caudal 7.7 in a speci¬

men 128 mm. _ _ _ IJH _ _ _ _ _ Congrina macrosoma (p. 443).

ff. Body 29-35, antedorsal 12.5-14.0, head 13.5-18.0 and
caudal 2. 2-5. 2 in 6 specimens 75-308 mm; same measure¬
ments 31-37, 14.0-16.5, 14-17 and 3. 4-6.0 in 6 specimens

340-464 mm _ aG _ Congrina flava (p. 444).

ee. Tail 73, depth 3. 5-3. 6, trunk 13.5-14.5, antedorsal 13.0-13.5,
head 12.5-13.0 and caudal 2.2-2. 5 in 2 specimens 13 5-202
mm. Teeth in palatal patch unequal, the posterior teeth
nearly caninoid, the patch wedge-shaped. Congrina gracilor (p. 445).

438

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

bb. Dorsal origin over, or a short distance in front of vent.

Tail a little shorter than body, 47-49. Tongue virtually
adnate. Upper lip not, and lower lip slightly, differenti¬
ated. Palatal teeth extending to opposite eye. Eye small,

0.7-0. 9. Pectoral short, 1.8-2. 7. Caudal 2. 6-3. 3. Snout
tapering, short, extending moderately beyond lower jaw

_ Neoconger mucronatus (p. 446).

aa. A median row of widely spaced canines on palate. Lower jaw narrower
than upper. Tongue adnate.

g. Jaws somewhat beloniform, rather slender and bony. Upper jaw not

forming a trough for reception of lower jaw. Palatal canines in
median row 6-8. A very long canine on each side of lower jaw, other
teeth unequal. Premaxillary teeth canine, exposed. Body notably
slender and tapering, depth 2. 0-2. 7. Dorsal origin at a short dis¬
tance before gill opening. Tail 74-77 _ Hoplunnis (p. 447).

h. Teeth in jaws in three rows. Caudal probably short. Tail notably taper¬

ing at posterior end. Row of large teeth on palate flanked by small
teeth.

i. Anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw notably larger than outer

teeth, widely spaced. A row of small teeth in upper jaw at angle

of mouth between outer band of teeth and midline of palate. Large
palatal teeth 8. Antedorsal 10; head 11.5 -Hoplunnis tenuis (p. 448).
ii. Anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw not as large in comparison
with outer teeth, rather closely approximated. No row of teeth in
upper jaw behind outer band of teeth. Large palatal teeth 6. Ante-

dorsal 7.5; head 9— _ _ Hoplunnis diomedianus (p. 449).

hh. Teeth in jaws in two rows. Caudal notably long (for an eel). Tail
moderately tapering. Large palatal teeth not flanked by small teeth.
No row of teeth in upper jaw behind outer band of teeth. Large

palatal teeth 6 _ Hoplunnis macrurus (p. 450).

gg. Jaws anguilliform, covered with thick skin, the upper jaws having
appearance of eel-like width. Lower jaw fitting into trough formed
by upper jaw and soft parts surrounding it. Palatal canines in median
row 3-4, without small teeth beside them. Teeth in lower jaw sub¬
equal, without a long canine. Premaxillary teeth moderate, not ex¬
posed, or absent. Body moderately deep and tapering, depth 5 .6-5.7.

j. Vent at a considerable distance behind pectoral, tail 72. Dorsal origin at

a short distance behind end of pectoral. Band of teeth in upper jaw
extending nearly its entire length; dentition of lower jaw similar to
that of upper. No premaxillary teeth Dysommina rugosa (p. 450).
jj. Vent notably far forward, under end of pectoral; tail 81-83. Dorsal
origin a little in front of pectoral base. Band of teeth in upper jaw
short, ending before angle of mouth; dentition of lower jaw dissimi¬
lar to that of upper, teeth larger, in a single row, well spaced. Two
premaxillary teeth _ Dysomma apbododera (p. 452).

CONGER Cuvier

les Congres Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. 1, t. 2, p. 231, 1817 (French name
only; two species included, Muraena conger Linnaeus and M. my ms
L.; no genotype indicated).

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

439

Conger Oken, Isis, p. 1183, 1817 (Cuvier’s French name latinized) —
Internat. Comm. Zook Nomencl., Opinion 93, p. 5, 1926 (The name
Conger ascribed to Cuvier, 1817 and Muraena conger Linnaeus desig¬
nated as its genotype by plenary power.)

Ariosoma Swainson, Natural History of Fishes Amphibians and Reptiles,
voh 1, p. 220, 183 8 (genotype Ophisoma obtusa Swainson by subse¬
quent designation)

Ariosoma Swainson, 1. c„, voh 2, p. 196, 1839

Ophisoma Swainson, 1. c., voh 2, p. 3 34, 1839 (evidently a substitute name
for Ariosoma )

Ophisoma Swain, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1882: 283, 1883 ( Ophisoma
obtusa Swainson designated as genotype) .

Conger is near in relationship to Congermuraena and the differences between
them are discussed below under the account of the latter. The generic characters are
included below in the description of the single species here treated.

Of late years the name Ariosoma has been used by American authors for that
genus which was formerly known as Congermuraena. This unfortunate nomenclatorial
change stems from Jordan’s "Genera of Fishes” (1919, pp. 193 and 272). However,
Ariosoma is apparently a synonym of Conger , and is here added to the synonymy of
this genus, as a reexamination of the pertinent literature shows that Jordan’s con¬
clusion is not tenable.

Ariosoma was first introduced by Swainson (1938, p. 220) in connection with
a general discussion of the biology and anatomy of fishes, as a new genus with a
brief diagnosis- — which by the way applies to several congrid genera, but this is
beside the point — and without mentioning any species. Later, the same author (1839,
p. 196) in connection with a summary arrangement of the genera, includes Ariosoma,
with virtually the same diagnosis and again without mentioning any species. Further
on in the same volume (p. 334), where he gives a somewhat more elaborate account
of most genera, Ariosoma is left out, but he includes a genus Ophisoma for which he
gives virtually the same diagnosis as he previously gave for Ariosoma. He also places
Ophisoma in the same position with respect to the other genera, that was previously
occupied by Ariosoma. There is hardly any question that Swainson introduced
Ophisoma as a substitute for Ariosoma, although he does not so state. These two
names, therefore, must go together. Under Ophisoma he mentions two species, obtusa
and acuta, which he describes further on in the same volume (pp. 395-396), but no
genotype is designated.

Bleeker (1864, p. 20) recognizes, Ophisoma as a valid genus, the summary ac¬
count of which he heads as follows: ” Ophisoma Swns . — Ariosoma Ssnns. — Conger¬
muraena Kp.” Bleeker also states: "Spec. typ. Ophisoma balearicum Blkr. = Ophisoma
acuta Swns.?” Evidently what Bleeker did was to designate balearicum as the geno¬
type of Ophisoma; but this is unacceptable because balearicum was not one of the
originally contained species. Bleeker also indicated that the O. acuta of Swainson
might be the same as balearicum, but he questions it, and where an author uses a
query in indicating a genotype it cannot be accepted as a valid genotype designation.
Therefore, Jordan is in error in concluding that Bleeker designated a genotype for
Ophisoma and hence by implication also for Ariosoma for which Ophisoma is a sub¬
stitute.

Swain (1883) designates obtusa as the genotype of Ophisoma, which also must
be taken as the genotype of Ariosoma. These two generic names thus presumably
become synonyms of Conger, as O. obtusa Swainson is now thought to have been
based on a specimen of the common Conger conger, although it does not appear that
a definite study has ever been made to settle this question.

CONGER CAUD1LIMBATUS (Poey)

Ecbelus caudilimbatus Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat. Cuba 2:249, ph 2, fig. 8, 1867
(Cuba)

Ophiosoma caudilimbatus Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 424, 1868 (Cuba)
Conger caudilimbatus Poey, Emim. Pise. Cub., p. 152, 1876 (Cuba)

Conger caudicula Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 43 5, 1882 (Pensacola)

440

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3

September 30

Leptocep/oalus caudilimbatus Jordan and Davis, Rep.U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888:
666, 1891 (Tropical Atlantic, Pensacola to Madeira) — Jordan and
Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 3 5 5, pi. 57, fig. 149, 1896
(Tropical parts of Atlantic; Pensacola to Cuba and Madeira)

Moderately compressed to subterete, rather deep. Tail moderately tapering, moderately
longer than body. Eye large, 1. 0-1.2 in snout. Jaws and mouth medium large ; lower jaw
2. 7-3.1 in head; angle of mouth under space between posterior margin of pupil and eye;
premaxillary teeth partly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 4-5 in head, moderately
tapering, extending a little beyond lower jaw ; premaxillary teeth extending nearly to its
anterior margin. Upper lip well separated, in form of notably well developed, upward-
directed fold ; lower lip a well developed fold. Posterior nostril rather large, placed at a
moderate distance in front of eye and on a horizontal through its middle or a little below,
near edge of broad upturned lip, its margin slightly raised ; anterior nostril in a moderate
tubule, placed nearly on lateral profile at a short distance from end of snout. A pore in
front of and over anterior nostril ; one behind anterior nostril at beginning of lip fold, one
over and a little in front of posterior nostril. Tongue free, well developed. Gill slit mainly
lateral, transversely curved : of medium extent, its width about equalling distance between
the two fellows. Dorsal origin over middle of pectoral, varying a little both ways ; dorsal,
anal and pectoral fins rather well developed ; caudal comparatively short. Teeth in outer, in
the main, row in each jaw closely approximated, anterior teeth tapering, pointed, posterior
teeth, for greater extent of row, compressed, almost incisor like but their distal edge more or
less obliquely truncate, forming an almost continuous cutting edge ; inner teeth in jaws
mainly in one row, well separated from outer row, somewhat pointed but short and stout,
almost molar-like, the row ending for some distance before angle of mouth, smaller inner
teeth for a short distance anterior to stout teeth in two rows in upper jaw, in three rows
in lower jaw ; palatal patch of teeth wedge-shaped, not extending far backward, greater part
of patch consisting of two rows of short, stout, almost molar-like teeth, converging pos¬
teriorly to one tooth on midline, front part of patch, in a small area, having small, slender,
pointed teeth in 4 irregular rows ; premaxillary teeth in 4 irregular, lengthwise rows, the
teeth at the periphery of the patch larger than all other teeth, caninoid ; jaw, palatal and
premaxillary teeth fairly separated. Yellowish without distinctive markings, vertical fins
edged posteriorly with blackish or dusky.

In a small specimen from Key West, 128 mm (131526), the teeth are fewer, the palatal
patch ends in 2 stout teeth on midline, one behind the other, and the dorsal and anal are
edged with whitish. I assume that these are juvenile characters.

Measurements of 5 specimens 218-334 mm and one specimen 128 mm: body 43-46 (41),
trunk 26-29 (24), tail 54-57 (59), antedorsal 19-21 (2D, head 16.0-17.5 (17.5), upper jaw
6.0-7. 4 (6.4),' lower jaw 5. 5-6. 5 (5.7), snout 3. 5-4. 4 (4.1), eye 3. 4-4.1 (3.7), depth 4.9-6. 3
(3.9), pectoral 4.S-6.5 (5.4), caudal 0.5-1. 1 (1.2).

Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Dauphin Island, Ala¬
bama (B.O.C. 2937, collected by the Atlantis); Pensacola (30709, the type of
caudicula; 33000) and Key West (131526), Florida; Cuba (M.C.Z. 9324, two
cotypes of caudilimbatus). The measurements of these six specimens given above.
One specimen was taken by the Atlantis at 20 fathoms. No depth records are avail¬
able for the others.

This species is distinguishable from the Atlantic Conger oceanicus by the more
forward insertion of the dorsal, and by averaging a relatively longer body and shorter
tail. The species of Congermuraena have the dorsal origin still farther forward, over
the pectoral base.

CONGERMURAENA Kaup

Congermuraena Kaup, Cat. Apodal Fish Brit. Mus., p. 108, 18 56 (genotype
Muraena balearica De la Roche by subsequent designation)
Congromuraena Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 40, 1870 (evidently an
emendation of Congermuraena )

Congermuraena Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 659, 1891
(Congermuraena placed in synonymy of Ophisoma Swainson, but the
genotype of the former designated as balearica)

Congrellus Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales 23: 286, 1898 (genotype
Muraena balearica De la Roche by original designation)

The separation of Congermuraena as a genus distinct from Conger, rests on
tenuous grounds. The two genera are chiefly separated by the position of the dorsal
origin and the character of the dentition. However, the dorsal origin in Conger
caudilimbatus is intermediate between that of Conger conger and Congermuraena
impressa. Also, the inner teeth in the jaws of C. impressa are similar in form and
arrangement to the teeth in the outer row of C. conger or C. caudilimbatus.

In recent years the generic name Congermuraena was replaced by Ariosoma by
American authors. However, Ariosoma is apparently a synonym of Conger as dis¬
cussed above under that genus.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

441

CONGERMURAENA 1MPRESSA (Poey)

Conger impressus Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2:318, 1860 (Cuba)
Ophisoma impressus Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat. Cuba 2: 248, pi. 3, fig. 2, 1867
(Cuba)

Ophiosoma im pressus Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 424, 1868 (Cuba)
Congromuraena impress a Poey, Enum. Pise. Cub., p. 132, 1876 (Cuba)
Ariosoma minor Howell Rivero, Mem. Soc. Cub. Hist. Nat. 8: 3 39, 193 5
(Havana, Cuba)

Compressed to subterete, depth moderate. Tail moderately tapering for a moderate or
short distance, moderately longer than body. Eye large, 1.1-1. 3 in snout. Mouth and jaws
of medium extent ; lower jaw 3. 4-4.1 in head ; angle of mouth approximately under anterior
margin of pupil ; premaxillary teeth a little or slightly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout
3. 8-4. 7 in head, blunt or bluntly pointed, extending slightly or moderately beyond lower jaw,
the anterior premaxillary teeth placed nearly at its tip. Upper lip moderately or well de¬
veloped and separated by a groove, with an upwardly directed fold ; skin on cheek mod¬
erately loose not forming a fold to cover the lip ; lower lip separated forming a notably well
developed fold. Posterior nostril large, without a raised edge, placed at a moderate distance
in front of eye and a little below a horizontal through its middle ; anterior nostril with a
broad, low tubule, placed at lateral outline, a short distance from end of snout, at begin¬
ning of upper lip fold. A rather large pore directly behind anterior nostril, and a small one
near lip at a short distance from eye ; a medium sized pore at some distance over anterior
and posterior nostril. Tongue free. Gill opening transversely curved, lateral, placed rather
low, near ventral profile, of medium extent, the space between the two fellows wider than
the opening. Dorsal origin over gill opening ; dorsal, anal and pectoral rather well devel¬
oped ; caudal short. Teeth small, subequal, no canines ; in bands of moderate width in jaws,
4 irregular rows anteriorly tapering to 2 rows posteriorly ; palatal patch elongate, wedge-
shaped, 4 irregular rows anteriorly tapering to one row posteriorly for 1-3 teeth, ending
opposite posterior nostril ; premaxillary patch roughly in 6 rows on a transverse axis ; pre¬
maxillary, palatal and jaw teeth continuous, or nearly so, as a consequence, entire dentition
of upper jaw forming a broad area in front and continued backward in three tapering
bands ; posterior teeth in innermost row in jaws rather closely approximated, blunt, some¬
what compressed ; posterior palatal teeth stout and rather blunt ; other teeth slender, pointed ;
the preceding description of dentition based on specimens 211-235 mm ; in a 272 mm speci¬
men bands of teeth somewhat wider anteriorly and posterior single row of palatal teeth
continued to a vertical midway between posterior nostril and eye ; a specimen 180 mm dif¬
fering in that the jaws having a single row for a short distance near angle of mouth, a
continuation of the innermost row. Almost uniformly light brownish or yellowish, under
side of belly somewhat lighter ; no distinctive markings ; posterior part of vertical fins
edged with dusky or black.

Measurement of 4 specimens, 211*272 mm: body 45-48, trunk 29-31, tail 52-55, ante-
dorsal 16.5-17.5, head 16.0-17.5, upper jaw 4. 6-5. 6, lower jaw 4-5, snout 3. 4-4.6, eye 3. 1-3. 5,
depth 4.4-6. 9, pectoral 5. 0-6. 8, caudal 0.8-1. 2.

Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Cape Hatteras, North
Carolina (155002, collected by the Pelican); St. Augustine, Florida (155003, Peli¬
can); Dauphin Island, Alabama (B.O.C. 2938, collected by the Atlantis); Cuba
(37568, sent in by Poey and now labeled Congermuraena impressa; M.C.Z. 33452,
holotype of Ariosoma minor). Total examined 5 specimens 180-272 mm. Depth
records for the first 3 listed specimens range 11-20 fathoms.

The types of ( Ariosoma ) Congermuraena selenops (Reid, 1934, p. 4) have the
gill openings larger and placed lower than impressa and the two species also differ
in some proportional measurements as shown below. Norman (1925, p. 314) gives
some measurements of specimens from Brazil, which he identified as belonging to
Congermuraena opisthophthalmus (Ranzani) and Mediterranean specimens of C.
balearica (De la Roche). Norman’s measurements of 5 specimens of balearica 275-364
mm and 7 specimens of opisthophthalmus 175-280 mm, reduced to proportional figures
and compared with 2 types of selenops 342-474 mm and 4 of impressa 211-272 mm,
are as follows, the four ranges under each measurement are in order opisthophthalmus,
selenops, impressa and balearica : body 42-44, 43, 45-48, 47-48; trunk 26-28,
24-26, 29-31, 31-34; tail 57:58, 57-58, 52-55, 52-53; head 15-16.5, 16.5-18.5,
16.0-17.5, 14-15.5. Therefore, impressa has a longer body and trunk and shorter tail
than opisthophthalmus and selenops, while balearica diverges on the average still
farther from the latter two species in the same measurements. Also, selenops and
opisthophthalmus about agree in the body and tail measurements and differ in the
head and trunk measurements. Nearly the same differences and similarities are noted
in comparing impressa with balearica. The differences, in general, are not pronounced
and some of these names have been synonymized by authors. It is evident that the 4
species, if indeed all of them are distinct in reality, need to be further compared
directly by the study of adequate samples.

Norman’s Congromuraena guppyi from Tobago Island described in the paper
cited, is said to have: "Teeth bluntly conical or granular . . .” and apparently does
not belong to the genus Congermuraena.

442

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September SO

CON GRIN A Jordan and Hubbs

Congrina Jordan and Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus. Pittsburgh 10: 196, 1925
(genotype Congermuraena aequorea Gilbert and Cramer by original
designation)

Congrina Reid, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91 (15): 7, 1934 (discusses rela¬
tionship of Congrina, presents a key comparing it with some of its
near relatives, and names the species belonging to it)

Compressed, rather deep or depth moderate. Tail notably or excessively tapering,
considerably longer than body. Eye rather large, 1.1 -1.7 in snout. Jaws and mouth of
medium extent; lower jaw 3. 1-3. 8 in head; angle of mouth under space between
posterior margin of pupil and eye; premaxillary patch of teeth exposed with the
mouth closed. Snout 3.4-4. 3 in head, moderately tapering, extending notably beyond
lower jaw and premaxillary teeth. Upper lip moderate, not forming an upwardly
directed fold, separated by a moderate groove, closely apposed to edge of jaw; skin
on cheek and snout notably loose, forming a broad, thick fold overhanging and
covering the moderate lip; processes from buccal ossicle (see below) impinging on
loose skin of fold, and may be seen or felt without dissection. Lower lip differentiated,
forming a well developed fold. Posterior nostril large, near eye and on a horizontal
through its middle, its edge slightly or moderately raised; anterior nostril placed on
ventral aspect of snout or nearly so, opposite anterior part of premaxillary patch of
teeth, its edge well raised. Two pores, in a lengthwise row close to midline on ventral
aspect of snout, the posterior one near premaxillary teeth, the two fellow rows diverg¬
ing forward; a very large pore, about as large as nostril, on dorsal aspect of snout,
near its lateral profile and not far from its tip; a series of three pores along margin
of fold on cheek. Tongue free, well developed. Gill opening transversely curved,
lateral, of medium extent, the space between the two fellows wider than opening.
Dorsal origin over gill opening; dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal fins rather well
developed. Teeth rather short, pointed, differing moderately in size in different series;
teeth in jaws in bands tapering backward; palatal teeth somewhat stouter than
others, in a rounded or somewhat elongate or subtriangular patch, not extending to a
vertical through posterior nostril, moderate canines or caninoids in palatal patch
present or absent, depending on the species; premaxillary teeth somewhat longer
than others (excluding the canines when present), in a transversely oblong patch
somewhat rounded in front; palatal, premaxillary and jaw teeth slightly or hardly
separated from one another. Almost uniformly yellowish, under side of belly some¬
what lighter, sometimes with a purplish tinge; no distinctive markings; posterior part
of vertical fins usually edged with black.

The above is an outline of the characters common to the four western Atlantic
species examined. Their differences are outlined under the accounts of the species.

Congrina differs chiefly from Congermuraena and Conger as follows. In Congrina
the upper lip is narrow and closely apposed to the edge of the jaw. The skin on the
head is excessively loose, and forms a fold at the lower part of the cheek, which
covers the lip, at least in preserved specimens. The snout well overhangs the under¬
slung mouth, and its ventral aspect, from the premaxillary teeth to its tip is of con¬
siderable extent. The caudal is rather long and pointed. The pores on the snout and
cheek are excessively enlarged and numerous. In Congermuraena and Conger the upper
lip is well developed and forms an upwardly directed fold. The skin on the head is
moderately loose and does not form a fold, leaving the upper lip exposed. The snout
is obtuse and hardly extends beyond the premaxillary teeth. The caudal is short and
rounded. The pores are moderate in size and number. The above differences have
been determined mainly for the species here treated and for the genotype, aequorea
of Gilbert and Cramer. Whether Congrina can be separated on the basis of these
characters when all the relevant species are considered remains to be seen.

Reid (above citation) separates Congrina from Congermuraena (which he calls
Ariosoma) to a large extent by the structure of the buccal ossicle. I partly dissected
one specimen each of Conger oceanicus (Mitchill), Congermuraena selenops (Reid)
and Congrina flava (Goode and Bean), as follows. I made a longitudinal slit in the
skin of the lower part of the cheek, pulled the skin loose and deflected it both ways,
and cleaned away part of the connective tissue to partly expose the buccal ossicle.
While this, of course, does not constitute a thorough study of this structure, 1 nuy
in a preliminary way describe it as follows.

In all three species, the buccal ossicle is trough shaped, with the trough turned
on the side, and having its bottom entad and its open side ectad. From the upper and

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

443

lower margin of the lengthwise lips of the trough two or three bony processes extend
downward and upward, respectively. In C. oceanicus and C. selenops the processes are
rather broad and the opposite fellows from above and below are connected by a
strong ligament. They are not visible on the outside in undissected specimens. In
Congrina flava the processes are longer and narrower and rather loosely connected.
They impinge on the skin and may be appreciated on the outside or felt by pressing
a scalpel or needle against them. Evidently, the difference in this structure between
the three species is, in general, not fundamental. In none of the three species do the
bony processes enter the lip. Reid states: "bones of facial canal sending pointed
processes to edge of lip.” Evidently, by "lip” he meant the lengthwise fold of skin on
the lower part of the cheek, which, however, is separated from the narrow lip by a
lengthwise groove.

FIGURE 1. — Congrina macrosoma; from the holotype; Bingham Oceanographic Col¬
lection 3939; 128 mm, off Isle Derniere, Louisiana.

CONGRINA MACROSOMA , new species

Moderately deep, the tail moderately tapering. Palatal patch of teeth transversely oblong,
its posterior teeth only slightly larger than anterior teeth ; in a specimen 128 mm irregular
rows of teeth roughly as follows : anterior teeth in upper jaw 4, in lower jaw 5 ; across
widest part of palatal patch 6 ; premaxillary patch, across 7, along longitudinal axis 5.

Measurements of holotype: body 39, trunk 19, tail 61, antedorsal 19.0, head 19.5, upper
jaw 7.4, lower jaw 5.5, snout 4.8. eye 4.1, denth 6.4, pectoral 6.8, caudal 7.7.

HOLOTYPE — B.O.C. 39'39 ; Atlantis Station 2840 ; lat. 28° 19’ N, long. 90° 59’ W, off
Isle Derniere, Louisiana ; 31 fathoms ; March 25, 1937 ; 128 mm.

This species has a notably shorter tail and concomittantly a longer body than
its three western Atlantic congeners, the difference being of such degree as to make
it fairly certain that the one specimen examined represents a distinct species. On the
assumption that the holotype is a small specimen of a larger species, the difference is
probably greater than the single specimen indicates. In the species of Congrina, as

444

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 33

well as in other eels, the tail also differs intraspecifically with growth, being relatively
longer in the smaller specimens; while the small holotype has the tail shorter than
larger specimens of the other three species. This species also has the antedorsal, head,
jaws and caudal longer than in the other three species. The dentition is about as in
flava and it is probably most nearly related to that species.

CON GRIN A FLAVA (Goode and Bean)

Congermuracna flava Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichthy., p. 13 8, pi. 42, fig.
1 59, 1895 (off Trinidad, Grenada and Florida, lectotype indicated
below) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 357,
1896 (after Goode and Bean)

Congrellus flavus Jordan and Everman, ibid., pt. 4, pi. 5 8, fig. 150, 1900
(generic name changed in labeling figure)

Congrina flava Reid, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91(15): 7, 1934 (placed in
Congrina)

Moderately deep, the tail moderately tapering in comparison. 'Palatal patch of teeth
usually transversely oblong in the smaller specimens, longitudinally oblong in large fish,
sometimes nearly wedge-shaped jin a small specimen); the teeth in the patch subequal or(
the posterior teeth slightly larger. Bands and patches of teeth increasing in width and size
with growth ; not arranged in regular rows, but very roughly, in terms of irregular rows,
in 2 specimens 183 and 464 mm, respectively, as follows : anterior part of upper jaw 4 and
7 rows, of lower jaw in 5 and 8 rows ; widest part across palatal patch 6 and 8 rows ; pre¬
maxillary patch, across 7 and 10 rows, along longitudinal axis 6 and 9 rows.

Measurements of 11 Gulf of Mexico specimens divided into 3 size groups 340-464 (6),
183-308 (4), 75 (1) ; the following measurements given in same order: body 31-37, 31-33, 29;
trunk 17.0-20.5, 16.5-18.0, 17 : tail 63-69, 67-69, 71 ; antedorsal 14.0-16.5, 13.5-14.0, 13 ; head
14-17, 14.5-15.5, 13.5 ; upper jaw 5. 3-6.2, 5. 5-5. 6, 5.2 ; lower jaw 4.1-5. 1, 4. 1-4.3, 4 ; snout

3. 8- 4.1, 3. 7-4.1, 3.8; eye 2.4-2.9, 2.4-3.1, 1.9; depth 4.S-6.8, 5.1-6.5, 4.7; pectoral 5.0-6.7,

4.9- 5. 7, 5 ; caudal 3. 4-6.0, 2. 2-5. 2, 4.3. The lectotype from Trinidad, 240 mm : body 35, trunk
17.5, tail 65, antedorsal 16.5, head 18, upper jaw 5.8, lower jaw 4.9, snout 4.2, eye 3.2,
depth 5.8, pectoral 6, caudal 4.9. As compared with like sized Gulf specimens, the Trini-

FIGURE 2. — Congrina flava ; U. S. N. M. 155001; 183 mm; off Padre Island, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

445

dad specimen has a moderately shorter tail and longer head. These might prove to be popu¬
lation differences.

Specimens examined from off the following localities: Trinidad (44612, the lecto-
type; 152573 taken with the lectotype). Yucatan (M.C.Z. 28080; Blake Station
CCLXIV) ; Padre Island, Texas (154999 and 155001, collected by the Pelican) ;
Mississippi Delta, Louisiana (155000 and 155004, collected by the Pelican; B.O.C.
3923-4, collected by the Atlantis); Dauphin Island, Alabama (B.O.C. 3927, Atlantis).
Total examined 13 specimens 75-464 mm; taken in 14-89 fathoms.

LECTOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 44612. As two species were included in the original
account, a specimen from off Trinidad, 240 mm, a drawing of which was published
by the authors, is hereby designated as the lectotype.

The differences between flava and macrosoma and gracilior are discussed under
the accounts of those two species. Structurally flava is nearest to macrosoma.

CONGRINA GRACILIOR, new species

Congermuraena flava Goode and Bean (in part), Ocean. Ichthy., p. 13 8,
1895 (The holotype and para type have been separated from the
specimens listed in the original account.)

Slender, tail notably tapering, becoming almost hair-like for some distance posteriorly.
Palatal patch of teeth wedge-shaped ; the posterior teeth in patch larger than anterior
teeth, nearly large enough to be designated caninoid. Teeth in 4 irregular rows in upper
jaw anteriorly, in 5 rows in lower jaw ; palatal patch in 4 rows at widest part ; premaxillary
patch in about 8 irregular rows across and 5 along a longtitudinal axis.

Measurements of 2 specimens 135-202 mm : body 27, trunk 13.5-14.5, tail 73, antedorsal
13.0-13.5, head 12.5-13.0, upper jaw 4. 8-5.0, lower jaw 3. 7-3. 8, snout 3. 2-4. 2, eye 2. 6-3.0, depth
3. 5-3. 6, pectoral 3. 9-4. 2, caudal 2. 2-2. 5.

HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N. M. 44617; Albatross Station 2402, lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’
30” W ; 111 fathoms ; March 14, 1885 ; off Cape San Bias, Florida ; 202 mm.

PARATYPE.— M.C.Z. 37165; Blake Station CCLXIV; lat. 23° 13’ N, long. 89° 10’ W; off
Yucatan, Mexico ; 84 fathoms ; 135 mm.

This species compared with nearly like-sized specimens of macrosoma, flava
(Goode and Bean) and thysanochila Reid (1934, p. 7), is strikingly more slender,

Figure 3. — Congrina gracilior; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 44617; 202 mm; off
Cape San Bias, Florida.

446

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 80

and its posterior end, for a considerable distance, is very attenuated, almost hair-like.
It has a shorter body, trunk, antedorsal and head and a longer tail than the other
three species. The palatal patch of teeth is wedge-shaped as in thysanochila, while the
size of the teeth in the patch is intermediate between that species and the other two.
In thysanochila the posterior teeth in the palatal patch are notably enlarged, canine
to caninoid; in macrosoma and flava the teeth in the patch are subequal or the pos¬
terior teeth slightly enlarged; while in gracilior the posterior teeth are intermediate in
si2e.

NEOCONGER Girard

Neoconger Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10: 171, 1858 (geno¬
type Neoconger mucronatus Girard by monotypy)

Chrinorhinus Howell Rivero, Proc. New England Zool. Club 13: 8, 1932
(genotype Chrinorhinus torrei Howell Rivero by monotypy)

This is a strongly marked genus, differing especially from all other congrid
genera here treated by the point of insertion of the dorsal, over the vent or nearly
so. The generic characters are included under the account of the single species de¬
scribed below where it is compared with another western Atlantic species of this genus.

NEOCONGER MUCRONATUS Girard

Neoconger mucronatus Girard, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10: 171,
18 58 (St. Joseph Island, Texas) — Girard, U. S. and Mex. Bound.
Survey, Ichthyology: 77, 18 59 (St. Joseph Island, Texas) — -Jordan
and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 646, 1891 (after Girard) —
Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 3 62, 1896 (after
Girard)

Subterete, depth moderate; skin rather loose and preserved specimens often having a
characteristic wrinkled appearance, forming a honeycombed or transversely ridged effect.
Tail hardly tapering, except at the very end, a little shorter than body. Eye small, 2. 3-3. 4
in snout. Jaws and mouth small ; lower jaw 3. 1-3. 8 in head ; angle of mouth slightly behind
eye, premaxillary teeth not exposed with mouth closed in normal position. Snout short,
4. 6-5.2 in head, tapering, extending moderately beyond lower jaw. Upper lip continuous with
skin of cheek or separated by a slight groove at posterior part of mouth ; lower lip slightly
better differentiated. Posterior nostril rather large, elongate, placed near eye and on a
horizontal through its middle, with a slightly raised rim ; anterior nostril smaller, without
raised rim, at a moderate distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate or slightly free for a
short distance in front. Gill opening transverse, placed on lower half of side, distance be¬
tween the two fellows subequal to opening. Dorsal rather low, its origin sometimes over
anus, usually a short distance more anteriorly ; anal somewhat higher than dorsal. Pectoral
short. Caudal of medium length. Teeth small, tapering, pointed, very moderately differing
in different regions ; in two irregular rows in jaws anteriorly, becoming one row posteriorly
or one row throughout ; palatal teeth in one or two rows anteriorly, one row posteriorly,
reaching to opposite eye or nearly angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth in two short, slightlv
diverging rows, somewhat overlapping palatal and jaw teeth or closely approximated. Color
in all specimens except one, yellowish without distinctive markings; a small specimen (98
mm) is much lighter than the others ; one specimen having a closely woven reticulate pat¬
tern of very fine brown lines against a lighter background.

Measurements of 8 specimens 210-302 mm and 1 specimen 98 mm; body 51-53 (53). trunk
42-44 (42), tail 47-49 (47), antedorsal 48-52 (51) ; the following measurements determined
on only 5 of the larger specimens: head 8.5-10.2 (11.5), upper jaw 2. 9-3. 8 (4.3), lower jaw
2. 5-3. 2 (3.8), snout 1.8-2.3 (2.4), eye 0.7-0.8 (0.9), depth 4.1-5.2 (3.6), pectoral 2.0-2. 7 (1,8),
caudal 2. 6-3. 3 (3.1). Contrary to the general trend in the ontogeny of eels, the small speci¬
men of this species has the tail as short as^ in extreme variants of the large specimens, in¬
stead of being longer as in other eels.

Specimens examined from or off the following localities : Mississippi Delta,
Louisiana (B.O.C. 29346, Atlantis). The following lots all from Texas: Padre
Island (154997, Pelican); Corpus Christi Pass (154998, Pelican); St. Joseph Island
(861, 4 cotypes). Total examined 9 specimens 98-302 mm. Depth records for all
except the types, range 11-70 fathoms. The head of an eel which Woods (Copeia,
1942 (3) : 191) identified as of this species, apparently does not belong to it, judged
by the author’s description.

Neoconger torrei (Howell Rivero), the holotype of which was examined (M.C.Z.
32786), differs from mucronatus as follows: the tail is slightly longer than the body,
51 per cent in length; the palatal teeth end slightly more forward, under anterior
margin of eye; the tongue is free to a greater degree than in an extreme variant of
mucronatus. The differences are slight and more adequate samples need to be com¬
pared directly, if these two species are really distinct. From all other Gulf eels N.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

447

mucronatus is easily distinguished by the combination of its generic and specific
characters.

HOPLUNNIS Kaup

Hoplunnis Kaup, Abh. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4(abt. 2): 19, 1860 (geno¬
type Hoplunnis schmidti by monotvpy)

Compressed, very slender. Tail tapering, much longer than body. Eye medium,

2. 8- 3. 7 in long snout. Jaws somewhat beloniform, long (for an eel), slender, bony,
covered with a moderate or thin skin; lower jaw somewhat narrower than upper,

1.9- 2. 1 in head. Mouth large, its angle a little behind eye. Premaxillary and jaw

teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout long, 2. 5-2. 9 in head, a little projecting
beyond lower jaw. Lips hardly or slightly differentiated from rest of skin. Posterior
nostril large, elongate, with a very slightly raised rim, placed at a moderate distance
in front of eye and opposite its middle; anterior nostril large, its rim well raised,
not far from end of snout. A row of 4-5 large, elongate pores on lower part of cheek,
at edge of jaw; a small pore in front of anterior nostril and another one farther in
front, near tip of snout; 2 larger, widely spaced pores at some distance behind an¬
terior nostril. Tongue adnate. Gill opening lateral but low, in front of and in large
part below pectoral base, somewhat oblique or curving transversely, of medium extent,
somewhat smaller than space between the two fellows or subequal to it. Dorsal origin
at a moderate distance before gill opening; dorsal and anal fins rather well devel¬
oped; pectoral moderate; caudal moderate to rather long. Teeth slender, pointed; in 2
or 3 irregular rows on side of jaws; lower jaw with a large upright tooth on a side
near its anterior end (in 2 specimens a smaller tooth directly behind it on one side),
3-4 small teeth in a row in front of large tooth (in one specimen a small tooth
forming part of a second row); inner row of teeth dissimilar in the two jaws, in lower

jaw anterior inner teeth for greater part of jaw much larger than other jaw teeth,

widely spaced in diomedianus and macrurus, close-set in tenuis; premaxillary teeth
5 in a curving row, the anterior or middle tooth largest, the posterior tooth very
small (premaxillary teeth preserved in one specimen, in the other three specimens
examined partly destroyed, but the traces left seem to agree with above statement) .
Midline of palate with a row of 6-8 very large, upright fangs; a median row of 2-4
small teeth directly in front of the large teeth, one similarly small tooth sometimes
forming a rudimentary second row; small teeth beside or between the large teeth
present or absent.

This genus is strongly characterized, especially by its dentition and jaws. The
median row of palatal 6-8 fangs and the relative size and arrangement of the teeth

in the jaws are unlike that of the other species here treated. The jaws are slender

and uneel-like in appearance. In the shape of the jaws it approaches the genus Netta-
stoma jRafinesque. These two genera also have the dentiiton of a similar pattern, dif¬
fering in that Hoplunnis has some of the teeth long, fang-like. Although the diverg¬
ence is considerable the two genera are probably not too remote in relationship.

I found it very difficult to solve to my entire satisfaction the problem of specia-
tion in the genus Hoplunnis with the available material, and my tentative solution
here expounded is based to a large extent on the biologically unsatisfactory method
of drawing conclusions by analogy, based on my experience in the study of intra¬
specific variability in other species of eels and fishes in general. Only four Gulf
specimens of Hoplunnis were examined. The morphological differences between these
four specimens are such as to make it seem likely that they belong to three species,
considering intraspecific variability and interspecific differences in most other eels.
Tentatively, the four specimens are so treated. Nevertheless, by some stretch of the
imagination, the differences between these four specimens might be conceived as
coming within the range of variability of a single species. On the other hand, offshore
or deep water eels are difficult to obtain in numbers. It will probably be many years
before adequate samples are obtained to determine intraspecific individual variability,
ontogenetic changes and sex differences. Meanwhile, it is thought desirable to display
the morphological differences between the four specimens by separating them into
3 species, and it is very probable that this treatment will prove to be correct.

Specimens of the genotype, H. schmidti, from Puerto Cabello, are not available
for comparison. Judged by its account it differs from the three species here described
as follows. Unlike tenuis and diomedianus it has two rows of teeth in the jaws. It

448

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3

September 30

Figure 4. — Hoplunnis tenuis ; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 152574; 390 mm; off

Cape San Bias, Florida.

differs from macrurus in having small teeth alongside the palatal fangs, and the figure
indicates that it has a short caudal. It differs from all the three species in having 10
palatal fangs.

HOPLUNNIS TENUIS, new species

Notably tapering-, becoming- very attenuated and narrow at posterior end. Caudal dam¬
aged but apparently short. Teeth in jaws in 2 rows anteriorly, becoming 3 rows posteriorly
for greater extent of jaw ; teeth in outer row very small ; teeth in inner two rows larger
anteriorly becoming smaller posteriorly, near angle of mouth the teeth in the 3 rows sub-
equally small, except those in inner row of lower jaw slightly larger than others ; teeth in
middle row similar in both jaws, moderately larger than those in outer row anteriorly,
gradually decreasing in size posteriorly : anterior teeth in inner row of upper jaw slightly
larger than those in middle row, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly ; anterior teeth in
inner row of lower jaw, for its greater extent, notably large as compared with outer teeth,
nearly straight, 10 in number, very widely spaced, moderately decreasing in size posteriorly
then becoming abruptly smaller and approximated at some distance before angle of mouth
and also decreasing in size posteriorly. Large palatal teeth in median row 8 (a smaller
tooth between the last two fangs) ; teeth in row flanking median row numerous, small,
close-set. A row of moderate length having small teeth, in upper jaw near angle of mouth,
on a line between outer band of teeth and midline of palate. (Small teeth in front of large
canine of lower jaw destroyed.)

Specimen examined apparently faded ; ground color light yellowish ; upper aspect, and
side of posterior part of tail, sprinkled with tiny dark spots, generally with diffuse bound¬
aries, many of them in form of a ring, often having a black central point.

Measurements of a female 390 mm : body 25.5 ; trunk 14 ; tail 74.5 ; antedorsal 10 ; head
11.5 ; upper jaw 6.0 ; lower jaw 5.6 ; snout 4.6 ; eye 1.2 ; depth 2.7 ; pectoral 2.7 ; caudal dam¬
aged, probably close to 1.0.

HOLOTYPE— U. S. N. M. 152574. Albatross Station 2402, lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’
30” W, off Cape San Bias, Florida ; 111 fathoms ; March 14, 1885 ; female with ripe eggs,
390 mm.

This species is nearest diomedianus, differing chiefly in having the anterior large
teeth in the inner row of the lower jaw widely spaced and fewer, a row of teeth in
upper jaw at angle of mouth behind the outer band, and 8 fangs on the palate. The
antedorsal and head are longer than in diomedianus, and the small teeth on the palate
alongside the fangs are smaller and much more numerous.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

449

HOPLUNN1S DIOMEDIANUS Goode and Bean

Hoplunnis dtomedianus Goode and Bean, Ocean. Ichthy., p. 146, pi. 43, fig.
163, 1895 (Albatross Station 2402; lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’ 30”
W; off Cape San Bias, Florida; 111 fathoms; longitude given in
original account an error) —Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 47(1): 361, 1896 (after Goode and Bean)

Hoplunnis schmidti Jordan and Evermann, ibid., pt. 4, pi. 5 8, fig. 151, 1900
(the figure, evidently a copy of that by Goode and Bean, bearing
different name than text)

Notably tapering, becoming narrow and attenuated posteriorly. Caudal damaged but
apparently short. Dentition about as described above for tenuis with the following exceptions :
inner anterior teeth in lower jaw somewhat smaller, slightly curved, rather close set, 18-21
in number (counting on both sides) ; large palatal teeth in median row 6 ; teeth flanking
median row somewhat larger, spaced, few (4 on right 3 on left) ; no row of teeth in upper
jaw near angle of mouth entad of the outer band. Small teeth in front of large canine of
lower jaw preserved, 3 on right side, 4 on left with a still smaller tooth in a second row.

Specimen examined apparently faded ; ground color yellowish ; with very small dark
spots, very sparse anteriorly, somewhat more numerous on posterior part of tail ; some of
the spots in form of a tiny dark point surrounded by diffuse dark ring ; caudal, and posterior
part of dorsal and anal for a short distance, black.

Measurements of a male 424 mm : body 22.5 ; trunk 13.5 ; tail 77.5 ; antedorsal 7.6 ;
head 9.2 ; upper jaw 4.6 : lower jaw 4.5 ; snout 3.2 ; eye 1.1 ; depth 2.0 ; pectoral 1.7 ; caudal
damaged, probably near 1.0.

LECTOTYPE — Goode and Bean state that they base their species on a "single
individual.” However, since they give the correct range of 6-8 for the large teeth
on the "vomer” they apparently had more than one specimen. According to the Na¬
tional Museum catalog, the number given by the authors in the original account,
44240, contained 3 specimens one of which was deposited at Stanford. The jar bear¬
ing the given number now contains two specimens which were examined and found
to represent two species. In order to avoid ambiguity one of these specimens, a male
424 mm, apparently the one figured and described in the original account, is here
designated as the lectotype. The other specimen is here made the holotype of tenuis.

The species is nearest tenuis as discussed under that species.

FIGURE 5. — Hoplunnis macrurus; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 152565; 373 mm;

off Mississippi Delta.

450

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

HOPLUNNIS MACRURUS , new species

Posterior taper moderate. Caudal notably long (for an eel). Teeth in jaws in 2 rows;
teeth in outer row small ; teeth in inner row of upper jaw moderately larger anteriorly, be¬
coming smaller posteriorly to subequal outer teeth at angle of mouth ; anterior teeth in
inner row of lower jaw, for its greater part, large, nearly straight, widely spaced, 10-15 in
number, decreasing in size posteriorly, at some distance before angle of mouth becoming
rather abruptly smaller and close-set, at angle of mouth only slightly larger than outer
teeth. Large palatal teeth in median row 6 ; no smaller teeth alongside main row ; in female
3 small teeth on midline, one each on the posterior interspaces between the large teeth, these
small teeth absent in male. Upper jaw without a row of teeth near angle of mouth behind
outer band. Three small teeth in front of anterior large canine of lower jaw.

Ventral aspect and greater part of side light yellowish ; dorsal aspect dusky, under
magnification tiny black points surrounded by very narrow light area very sparsely scattered
within dusky ground color ; midback with a series of light colored spots against the dusky
background ; a narrow zone immediately below the dusky area thickly sprinkled with very
small spots ; the dusky area petering out at a moderate distance from end ; the very small
spots continued and spreading over this moderate posterior extent, rather profuse above,
very sparse below ; with a slight irrideseent silvery tinge all over ; caudal and posterior
end of dorsal and anal black.

Measurements of 2 specimens 373-411 mm : body 24.0-25.5, trunk 13.5, tail 74.5-76.0,
antedorsal 9.5-10.0, head 10.5-12.0, upper jaw 5. 4-5. 8, lower jaw 5. 2-5. 8, snout 3. 8-4. 3, eye
1.3, depth 2. 4-3.0, pectoral 2. 5-2. 8, caudal 4. 1-4.6.

HOLOTYPE'. — U. S. N. M. 152565; iat. 29° 14’ N, long. 88° 35’ W; off Mississippi Delta,
Louisiana ; 40 fathoms ; Stewart Springer ; July 13, 1950 ; male, 373 mm.

PARATYPE.— U. S. N. M. 152566; lat. 29° 11’ N, long. 88° 50’ 30” W; off Mississippi
Delta, Louisiana ; 38 fathoms ; Stewart Springer ; September 12, 1950 ; female with ripe eggs,
411 mm.

The teeth in the inner row of the lower jaw of macrurus are as in tenuis; while
the absence of a row of teeth in the upper jaw behind the outer teeth and the number
of fangs on the palate are as in diomedianus. It differs from both in having 2, instead
of 3, rows of teeth in the jaws. The posterior part of the tail is not as attenuated as
in the other two species. The caudal of macrurus is rather unusually long, and it
probably differs from tenuis and diomedianus also in this character; but this is not
altogether certain because the caudals in the specimens examined of those two species
are somewhat damaged.

DYSOMMINA, new genus
Genotype: Dysommina ntgosa, new species

This genus differs from Dysomma by the more backward position of the vent and
the more forward position of the dorsal origin. The two American species belonging
to these two genera which were directly compared also differ considerably in the
dentition as discussed below. The gill opening is horizontal instead of being vertical
or nearly so. In the position of the vent and the dorsal origin, Dysommina nearly
agrees with Dysommopsis Wood-Mason and Alcock (1891, p. 137) but differs from
the latter in having pectorals.

Nettastoma brevirostre Facciola (1887, p. 166) appears to be another related
species from the Mediterranean. Judged by its account, that species is either referable
to Dysommopsis or should be referred to still another distinct genus. It seems to
nearly agree with Dysommopsis muciparus in the relative positions of the dorsal
origin, gill opening and vent, and in lacking pectorals; but the two species seem to
differ in the dentition, although neither description is given in sufficient detail for
constructive comparative purposes. Grassi and Calandruccio (1896, p. 349) did
establish a genus Todarus based on N. brevirostre Facciola, without discussing its
characters. However, the name Todarus is preoccupied, according to Neave’s "Nomen-
clator Zoologicus.”

DYSOMMINA RUGOSA, new species

Notably compressed, moderately deep. Tail moderately tapering, much longer than body.
Eye rather small, 2.2 in snout. Mouth and jaws rather large ; lower jaw 2.4 in head, narrow,
fitting into a trough formed by upper jaw and its surrounding soft parts ; anterior aspect
of both jaws corrugated with transverse, well developed ridges formed by skin ; angle of
mouth under posterior margin of eye ; teeth not exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 3.4 in
head, blunt, extending a little beyond lower jaw. Upper surface of head to some distance
behind eye, and lower jaw, with small papillae and tiny cilia-like outgrowths of skin, sparse
posteriorly more numerous anteriorly. Upper lip not differentiated ; lower lip separated by a
slight groove at angle of mouth only. Posterior nostril notably large, placed at a short dis¬
tance from eye, opposite its lower half, with a raised, slightly fimbriated border ; anterior
nostril in a short broad tubule, placed not far from end of snout. Pores rather small, 4 on
lower part of cheek near rim of gape, almost but not altogether aligned in a lengthwise
row, the first under anterior nostril, the fourth under middle of eye ; one behind anterior
nostril and one over it ; a somewhat larger pore nearly in a horizontal line with latter, at
some distance behind,, and somewhat nearer midline. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, alto-

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

451

FIGURE 6. — Dysommina rugosa; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 131594; 196 mm;
off Cumberland Island, Georgia.

gether entering ventral as well as lateral aspect, placed horizontally, below and its greater
part in front of pectoral base, of medium extent, subequal to distance between the two
fellows. Dorsal origin at a short distance behind end of pectoral ; dorsal and anal rather
well developed ; pectoral rather small ; caudal comparatively well developed, truncate. Teeth
in jaws small in bands of 4 irregular rows, extending from anterior end of jaws to angle of
mouth ; palatal teeth 4 moderate canines, widely separated, in a median row, the first placed
a little behind beginning of jaw teeth, the fourth opposite anterior margin of pupil ; each
tooth placed in center of hummock of soft tissue; no premaxillary teeth (first tooth per¬
haps homologous with anterior 2 teeth on palate of Dysomma aphododera, see discussion be¬
low). Almost uniformly yellowish; the fins somewhat lighter; no distinctive markings.

Measurements of type specimen: body 28.0, trunk 13.5, tail 72, antedorsal 18.5, head
15.5, upper jaw 6.5, lower jaw 6.4, snout 4.4, eye 2.0, depth 5.6, pectoral 3.2, caudal 3.2.

HOLOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 131954. Albatross Station 2667; lat. 30° 53’ N, long. 79° 42’
30” W ; off Cumberland Island, Georgia ; 273 fathoms ; May 5, 1886 ; 196 mm.

The two American related species, Dysomma aphododera and Dysommina rugosa
differ further, besides the characters discussed above under the genus, in the den¬
tition as follows. In D. aphododera the band of teeth in the upper jaw is notably
shorter than in D. rugosa. The dentition in the lower jaw of D. aphododera is differ¬
ent than that in the upper, consisting of a single row of larger teeth, while in D.
rugosa the dentition in both jaws is similar. On the plate, D. aphododera has 3 spaced
teeth on the midline preceded by two smaller teeth side by side; while D. rugosa has 4
spaced teeth on midline only. Therefore, for descriptive purposes D. aphododera is
said to have premaxillary teeth, while D. rugosa is said to lack such teeth. However,
these statements perhaps overemphasize the difference, as it is possible that the
anterior median tooth of D. rugosa is properly homologous with the two anterior
teeth of D. aphododera.

DYSOMMA Alcock

Dysomma Alcock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)4:459, 1889 (genotype
Dysomma bucephalus Alcock by monotypy) — Alcock, Descriptive
Cat. Fish. Investigator, p. 192, 1899.

452

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Dysomma is compared above under Dysommina with two related genera. It is
distinguished from other congrid eels by the anterior position of the vent in combi¬
nation with the moderate jaws, the narrow lower jaws and the dentition. The generic
characters are included below under the description of aphododera, the one species
here treated.

I am not altogether certain that aphododera is congeneric with bucephalus, the
genotype of Dysomma. It nearly agrees with the published figure of that species in
general appearance; and the position of the vent and the dorsal origin. However,
the dentition of bucephalus is not described in sufficient detail for constructive com¬
parison. These two species are further compared below. Sinomyrus angustus Lin
(1933) is probably congeneric with aphododera, judged by its original description.
Several other species have been described under Dysomma since it was first estab¬
lished, none of them from American waters. The several species described need to
be compared directly, as it is possible that they are not all congeneric. References to
these species are given by Bohlke (1949).

DYSOMMA APHODODERA, new species

Compressed, moderately deep. Tail moderately tapering, much longer than body ; vent
on a vertical through tip of pectoral or slightly before ; trunk a little shorter than pectoral.
Eye small, 3.0-3. 5 in snout. Jaws rather long ; lower jaw 2.5 in head, notably narrow, noting
into a trough formed by upper jaw and its surrounding soft parts ; anterior aspect of both
jaws corrugated by moderate, transverse ridges in the skin ; teeth on side of upper jaw
slightly exposed with the mouth closed. Mouth large, its angle at a considerable distance
behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw. Snout 4.5 m head,
blunt, extending a little beyond lower jaw. Upper surface of head to some distance behind
eye and lower jaw, with small tabs, numerous anteriorly, becoming fewer and smaller
posteriorly. Upper and lower lip not differentiated. Posterior nostril large, with slightly
raised rim, placed close to eye, at its lower part ; anterior nostril not far from end of
snout, in a short, broad tubule. Pores rather small, 4 pores in a row on cheek near rim of
gape, the first a little behind anterior nostril, the fourth under posterior margin of eye;
a pore behind anterior nostril, one over it, about halfway to midline, and another one a
rather short distance behind latter. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, its entire outline

FIGURE 7. — Dysomma aphododera; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 154992; 218
mm; off Padre Island, Texas.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

453

entering ventral as well as lateral aspect, placed under pectoral base, its position oblique
but more inclined to the vertical, rather small, subequal to space between the two fellows.
Dorsal origin a little in front of pectoral base ; dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal moderately
developed. Teeth in upper jaw small, pointed, in a narrow band having two irregular rows
anteriorly and three posteriorly, the inner teeth somewhat larger than outer, the band be-
beginning at some distance from anterior end of jaw, about opposite first palatal canine, and
ending at some distance before angle of mouth ; teeth in lower jaw much larger than those
in upper jaw, in one row, widely spaced, about 7 on a side ; palatal teeth largest of all, 3
straight, widely spaced canines in a lengthwise row on midline, the last one opposite eye ;
premaxillary teeth 2, side by side, somewhat larger than teeth in lower jaw; each tooth,
except those in upper jaw, suri'ounded by a thick, conical hummock of soft tissue. Yellow¬
ish, nearly uniform, anterior ventral aspect somewhat lighter ; no distinctive markings.

Measurements of 2 specimens 218-226 mm : body 17.5-18.5, trunk 2. 5-3. 2, tail 81-83,
antedorsal 13.5, head 14.5-15.5, upper jaw 6. 4-6. 9, lower jaw 5. 7-6. 2, snout 3. 2-3. 5, eye 1. 0-1.1,
depth 5. 6-5. 7, pectoral 3. 7-3. 9, caudal 2. 7-2. 8.

HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N. M. 154992. Pelican Station 117-1 ; lat. 26° 30’ N, long. 96° 26’
W ; off Padre Island, Texas ; 50 fathoms ; February 5, 1939 ; 218 mm.

PARATYPE. — U. S. N. M. 154993. Pelican Station 108-11 ; off Port Aransas, Texas ; 37
fathoms ; 226 mm.

As compared with the account of D. bucephalus Alcock (see citation under
genus) aphododera differs in having the position of the vent a little more backward
in relation to the position of the pectoral, and the pectorals shorter. Very likely
other differences will appear on direct comparison of specimens.

Table 1. — Erequency distribution of the tail length in 3 species of Gymnothorax ,
segregated by size; expressed as a percentage of the total length.

454

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Table 2. — Frequency distribution of the trunk length in 3 species of Gymnothorax,
expressed as a percentage of the total length.

Table 3. — Frequency distribution of the head length in 3 species of Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

45 5

4 56

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Table 4. — Frequency distribution of the depth of the body in 3 species of
Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length.

species specimens distribution

length of 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

depth measured just before anus

saxicola

285-380

nigromarginatus

294 - 37 6

ocellatus

344 - 366

saxicola

395-447

nigromarginatus

390-452

ocellatus

388-431

saxicola

471-583

nigromarginatus

611

ocellatus

497 - 542

depth measured at gill opening

saxicola

285 - 380

nigromarginatus

294 - 376

ocellatus

344 - 366

saxicola

395 - 447

nigromarginatus

390-452

ocellatus

388-431

saxicola

471-583

nigromarginatus

611

ocellatus

497 - 542

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

457

Table 5. — Frequency distribution of the length of the lower jaw in 3 species of
Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length.

Table 6. — Frequency distribution of the snout length in 3 species of Gymnothorax ,
expressed in thousandths of the total length.

species

length of
specimens

distribution

29 32 35

saxicola

285-380

n igro ma r gin at us

294-376

ocellatus

344 - 366

saxicola

395 - 447

nigromar ginatus

390-452

ocellatus

388-431

saxicola

471-583

nigromar ginatus

611

ocellatus

497 - 542

458

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

Table 7. — Frequency distribution of the numerical value of the ratio of the tail
divided by the head in 3 species of Gymnotborax.

family MURAENIDAE

Three species belonging to this family, comprised within one genus, occur in the
northern part of the Gulf. They may be distinguished from other Gulf eels by their
small gill opening in combination with the absence of a pectoral, the medium or
rather large mouth with strong jaws, and the single row of rather broad, subtriangular,
shark-like teeth in the jaws. Characters common to the three species and one South
American species which is here included for comparative purposes, are stated under
the following account of the genus.

GYMNOTHORAX Bloch

Gymnotborax Bloch, Ichthyologie ou Histoire Naturelle . . . des Poissons, pt.
12, p. 67, 1797 (genotype Gymnotborax reticularis Bloch by subse¬
quent designation) — Internat. Comm. Zool. NomencL, opinion 93,
in Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 73 (4): 5, 1926 ( Gymnotborax reticularis
fixed as the genotype by the plenary power of the commission).

Variably stout anteriorly, well tapering posteriorly. Tail longer than body or
moderately shorter. Eye and snout medium; mouth and jaws medium to rather large,
angle of mouth behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye about bisecting lower
jaw or slightly nearer angle of mouth; usually upper jaw slightly longer than
lower, sometimes the lower jaw slightly longer, often the two jaws subequal. Pre¬
maxillary teeth not exposed with the mouth closed. Lips not differentiated. Posterior
nostril medium, without a raised margin, placed a little above eye, on or directly
behind a vertical through its anterior margin; anterior nostril ending in a tubule, near
end of snout, on a horizontal through middle or lower margin of eye. Tongue adnate.
Gill opening equalling eye diameter, varying a little both ways, placed on middle of
side or a little below. Dorsal and anal rather well developed, continuous with caudal,
the dorsal becoming notably high in large specimens. Dorsal origin placed in advance
of gill opening. (It is difficult to localize with precision the point of origin of the
dorsal in the species of this genus without dissection. Hence, the point of origin given
under the species accounts is approximate only. Especially, the antedorsal measure-

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

459

ments given below are very roughly approximate.) Pectoral absent. Teeth in jaws
rather broad, compressed, tapering, in a single row, posterior and greater number of
teeth rather abruptly smaller than a few anterior teeth, subtriangular, pointing upward
and backward, somewhat shark-like; premaxillary teeth indistinguishably forming one
continuous row with teeth on side of upper jaw; a median row of small palatal
teeth placed notably backward, beginning at a point opposite eye (sometimes a few
teeth beside main row); anterior palatal fangs present or absent depending on the
species.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF GYMNOTHORAX

a. Teeth entire; 2-3 median anterior fangs on palate; with a light reticulate

pattern against dark background _ moringa (p. 459).

aa. Teeth in jaws serrate; without median fangs on palate; with whitish
spots against a darker background.

b. Anal usually almost solid black or brown; dorsal typically with a broad,

black or brown interrupted margin. Head 12.6-18.9.

c. Tail 45-54 in the larger specimens; dark lengthwise lines on head usually

well marked; white spots larger _ saxicola (p. 461).

cc. Tail 54-59 in the larger specimens; dark lengthwise lines on head very
faint or absent; white spots typically smaller and more widely spaced.

_ _ nigromarginatus (p. 461).

bb. Anal usually with a series of spots resembling the segments of a circle;
dorsal typically with a series of bands arranged in pairs. Head 11.2-

13.7. Tail 54-57. White spots rather large and widely spaced __ _

_ « _ ocellatus (p. 463 ) .

GYMNOTHORAX MORINGA (Cuvier)

Muraena maculata nigra Catesby, Natural History of Carolina, Florida and
the Bahama Islands, vol. 2, pi. 31, 173 8
Muraena moringa Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. 2, vol. 2, p. 352, 1829 (based
on Catesby) — Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 120, 1870 ("Tropi¬
cal parts of the Atlantic’5)- — Jordan, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 7: 197,
188 5 (Catesby’s plate identified)

Gymnothorax moringa Goode, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 72, 1876 (Catesby’s
plate identified with specimens from Bermuda) — Jordan and Davis,
Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 601, pi. 75, 1891 (Pensacola to Rio de
Janeiro and St. Helena)

Lycodontis moringa Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 395,
pi. 65, fig. 171, 1896 (Pensacola to Rio de Janeiro and St. Helena)

Moderately stout anteriorly becoming notably so in large specimens. Tail longer than
body. Eye 2.1-2; 4 in snout ; lower jaw 2. 0-2.2 and snout 4.8-5. 3 in head. Gill opening sub¬
equal to eye diameter or a littie larger. Dorsal origin on a vertical nearer gill opening
than angle of mouth or midway between. Teeth entire ; 2-3 large moveable fangs in a
median row on palate a little behind premaxillary teeth, widely separated from posterior
row of small palatal teeth ; 2 anterior teeth at symphysis somewhat smaller than teeth
immediately following.

General color brown with irregular, tortuous yellow lines forming a reticulate pattern
extending on the dorsal and anal ; on underside of head and trunk yellow color expanded
and color pattern may be described as a yellow ground color irregularly spotted with brown.

Measurements of 2 specimens 879-894 mm and 2 specimens 579-704 mm : body 45-47
(43-44), trunk 31 (29), tail 54-55 (56-57), antedorsal 11.5-12.0 (11), head 14.5-17.0 (14.0-15.5),
upper jaw 7. 1-8.0 (6.6-7.0), lower jaw 7. 2-7. 8 (6. 4-6.9), snout 2. 9-3. 6 (2. 8-2. 9), eye 1.3-1. 5
(1.3-1. 4), depth 6.8 (6.3-7. 9).

Localities for the above 4 specimens: Gulf of Mexico (43948, sent in fresh by
a New Orleans fish dealer, exact locality not given). Key West (35036) and Garden
Key (6794), Florida. The specimens examined, except possibly the first one listed,
are not from the northern Gulf coast. Baughman (1950, p. 128) states that Reeve
M. Bailey identified a specimen from Freeport, Texas in the U. M. M. Z. as belong¬
ing to this species.

460

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. S
September SO

FIGURE 8. — Gymnothorax saxicola; U. S. N. M. 152241; 420 mm;
off Pensacola, Florida

FIGURE 9. — Gymnothorax saxicola; U. S. N. M. 154989; 395 mm;
off Charleston, South Carolina.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

461

This species is readily distinguished from all Gulf eels by its distinctive color
pattern. As compared with 'the other two Gulf muraenid species it differs in having
entire, instead of serrated, teeth in the jaws, and in having 2-3 anterior, moveable
fangs on the midline of the palate.

GYMNOTHORAX SAXICOLA Jordan and Davis

Gymnothorax ocellatus var. saxicola Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm.

Fish. 1888: 606, 1891 ("abounds about the Snapper Banks”)
Lycodontis ocellatus saxicola Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.

47(1): 399, 1896 (Pensacola Snapper Banks; Cuba)

In medium sized specimens rather stout anteriorly, and tail usually longer than body,
sometimes subequal to it; stouter, tail shorter than body in large fish. Eye 1.3-1. 8 in snout;
lower jaw 2. 2-2. 9 and snout 4.5-6. 0 in head. Gill opening subequal to eye diameter or a
little smaller. Dorsal origin on a vertical midway between angle of mouth and gill opening,
varying a little both ways. Teeth in jaws rather well serrated on anterior and posterior
margin, except anteriormost teeth usually serrated on posterior margin only ; row of small
palatal teeth very variable, usually 6-10 in number, varying 2-13 ; anterior fangs on midline
of palate absent ; teeth at symphysis subequal to teeth immediately following.

Ground color on side and dorsal aspect brown of a variable shade of intensity, some¬
times with a grayish tinge ; with whitish rounded spots against the darker background ;
spots relatively large (as compared with nigromarginatus) , usually subequal to interspaces
or nearly so, often rather smaller than interspaces ; in the smaller specimens spots often
wider than interspaces, the darker color then forming a reticulate pattern around the spots ;
ventral aspect almost uniformly whitish or yellowish, except in the larger specimens color
pattern of sides often faintly continued on ventral aspect ; an area on side and underside
of head, directly behind gill opening, with well marked, lengthwise, dark streaks more or
less irregular and anastomosing ; a moderate extent near end of fish with white, lengthwise,
oblique or confluent bands ; dorsal with a broad black or dark brown margin, interrupted
(might also be described in other words as margin having a series of short bands), some¬
times continuous or nearly so for a variable distance at posterior part of fish ; anal usually
almost all black or brown.

Measurements of 9 specimens 380-471 mm: antedorsal 11.5-15.0, upper jaw 5. 7-8.0, eye
L 7-2.5.

Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Cape Lookout and
Cape Fear, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; Cumberland, Sapelo and
Ossabaw Islands, Georgia; Amelia Island, Biscayne Bay, Key West, Cape Sable, Clear¬
water Harbor, Cedar Keys, Cape St. George, Cape San Bias and Pensacola, Florida;
Mobile, Alabama. The available depths for some of these lots range 11-50 fathoms.
Total number of specimens examined 39, 249-583 mm, including 4 taken in Florida
without more definite locality records. The largest specimen is from Charleston.

NEOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 34280; Cedar Keys, Florida; Henry Hemphill; 430 mm.
As no type appears to have been set aside by Jordan and Davis, the above specimen
is hereby designated as the neotype. The authors mention Cedar Keys in their account
and the specimen designated is possibly one of those examined by them; but there is
no way now of definitely identifying their specimens.

This species is very close to nigromarginatus and the differences between them
are discussed under the account of that species.

GYMNOTHORAX NIGROMARGINATUS (Girard)

Neomuraena nigromarginata Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
10: 171, 1858 (St. Joseph’s Island, Texas) — Girard, U. S. Mex.

Bound. Surv., p. 76, pi. 41, 18 59 (based on same specimen)
Gymnothorax ocellatus var. nigromarginatus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S.

Comm. Fish. 18 88: 606, 1891 (based on type)

Lycodontis ocellatus nigromarginatus Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 47(1): 399, 1896 (Pensacola; St. Joseph’s Island, Texas)

Moderately stout anteriorly in the larger specimens. Tail longer than body. Eye 1. 4-2.0
in snout ; lower jaw 2. 3-3. 3 and snout 4. 7-6.0 in head. Gill opening somewhat smaller than
eye diameter. Dorsal origin on a vertical usually nearer gill opening than angle of mouth,
sometimes midway between. Dentition virtually the same as that described above for saxicola-

General color pattern about the same as in saxicola differing from that species as fol¬
lows : white spots smaller than in saxicola, smaller than interspaces, sometimes subequal to
interspaces in the smaller specimens ; dark lengthwise streaks on head rather faint or im¬
perceptible ; a moderate distance near end of fish with comparatively large, rounded cr
elongate white spots.

Measurements of 7 specimens 391-452 mm: antedorsal 11.0-13.5, upper jaw 5. 3-6. 4, eye
1. 2-2.0.

Specimens examined from or off the following localities : Padre Island, St.
Joseph Island and Galveston, Texas; Point au Fer, Isle Derniere, Mississippi Delta,

462

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

FIGURE 10. — Gymnothorax nigromarginatus; U. S. N. M. 131153; 433 mm;
off Morgan City, Louisiana.

and Errol Island, Louisiana; Pensacola, Florida. Depth records are available for 9 out
of 12 lots and range 10-35 fathoms. Thirteen specimens examined, 294-452 mm, six
of which were obtained by the Pelican and 3 by the Atlantis.

In addition to the above 13 specimens, one large specimen, 611 mm. (M.C.Z.
35110) from Pensacola, differs considerably in its proportional measurements, as
shown in tables 1-7. Its shorter head and more slender body are notable, especially
in consideration of the regular changes in growth shown by the other two species.
Two suggestions might be made to explain these differences. First, it might be sug¬
gested that it is an abnormal specimen. It is abnormally large in size for its species;
and correlated with its unusual size, its body proportions are also abnormal. Second,
it is possible that the normal growth changes in this species, when the specimens
attain to a relatively large size are different than in the other two species with which
it is here compared.

NEOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 7004; St. Joseph Island, Texas; Wurdemann; 391 mm.
According to Girard’s account his type specimen bears U. S. N. M. number 860; but
that number cannot now be located. The specimen designated as the neotype bears
the same data as Girard’s original specimen, and judging by his plate, it is also of the
same length. Consequently, it is very likely that it is Girard’s original type and that
inadvertently it has been entered twice in the National Museum catalog.

This species is very close to saxicola and single specimens cannot always be iden¬
tified with certainty. The bulk of specimens, especially the larger specimens, are dis¬
tinguishable at a glance by differences in the color pattern. In typical nigromarginatus
specimens the white spots are smaller, and the lengthwise lines on the head are faint
or absent, instead of being well marked as in typical saxicola. In comparing the size
of the spots it should be noted that in both species, in general, the spots relatively
decrease in size with growth and specimens of approximately like size are best
compared. Sixteen of the specimens of both species examined were collected recently
by the Fish and Wildlife research boat ' Pelican” and by the "Atlantis.” The others
preserved for longer periods, some of them for 60 years or more, generally show the
color pattern fairly well.

The two species also differ in proportional measurements. Seven such measure¬
ments are presented in tables 1-6. They are of differing degrees of divergence, and

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

463

intergrade more or less with the extent of intergradation more pronounced in the
smaller specimens. The greatest degree of divergence is shown by the tail length which
intergrades very moderately in the two smaller size groups. The length of the lower
jaw intergrades widely in the smaller specimens, less so in the larger fish. However,
the latter measurement is not as reliable as that of the tail, because it is not susceptible
of precise determination. Of the characters determined the least degree of divergence
is shown by the snout length. One ratio between two of these measurements, the tail
length divided by that of the head (table 7), shows a moderate degree of inter¬
gradation in the larger fish.

All in all, it is evident that we are dealing here with two distinct, but morpho¬
logically more or less overlapping populations. In general, the differences between
them are somewhat like the differences between two subspecies of the same species;
but the degree of divergence is perhaps greater than what is usual between two
coordinate subspecies. This combined with the fact that the two populations also over¬
lap geographically at least over a part of their ranges perhaps makes it desirable to
treat them as two independent species.

GYMNOTHORAX OCELLATUS Agassiz

Gymnothorax ocellatus Agassiz, Selecta genera et species piscium . . . Brasil-
iam, p. 91, pi. 50b, 1829 (Brazil)

Moderately stout anteriorly in the larger specimens. Tail longer than body. Eye 1.4-1. 9
in snout ; lower jaw 2. 2-2. 5 and snout 4. 3-5. 6 in head. Gill opening subequal to eye diameter
or a little smaller. Dorsal origin nearer gill opening than angle of mouth. Dentition virtually
as described under saxicola except that the serrations are rather weaker.

General color pattern very similar to that of saxicola and nigromarginatus, with white
spots against a darker background ; the white spots about as large as in saxicola, but rather
more widely spaced than in that species, the interspaces generally wider than the spots
somewhat as in nigromarginatus ; lengthwise dark lines on head well marked or faint (the
latter perhaps due to fading, specimens examined having been preserved for about 85
years) ; dorsal typically with a series of short, wide, somewhat oblique, black or brown
bands, usually arranged roughly in pairs, the interspace between the two in the pair less
than preceding and following interspace, a streak on margin of fin of same color as bands
bridging over interspace between the two in a pair, but not the space between adjacent
pairs ; bands often very short not extending far below margin (color pattern of dorsal of
such variants approaching that of saxicola or nigromarginatus), often the two bands in the
pair more or less fused, becoming normally so for some distance near end of fish ; anal with
a series of spots in form of segments of a circle with the curved side proximad, the straight
side usually coalesced with adjacent ones forming a continuous dark margin for the fin.

Measurements of 10 specimens 242-542 mrn : antedorsal 8.5-12.0, upper jaw 4.8-5. 9, eye
1.3-1.9.

The above 10 specimens from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (M.C.Z. 9067 and 9086).

The typical color pattern of the dorsal and anal in ocellatus is unlike that of
saxicola and nigromarginatus; although there is considerable variation and individual
variants sometimes approach those two species in the color of the fins. The white
spots are usually as large as in saxicola. but rather widely spaced as in nigromarginatus.
In most proportional measurements (see tables 1-6) ocellatus nearly agrees with
nigromarginatus , in the trunk length it is nearer to saxicola, while the head is shorter
than in both northern species.

family ECHELIDAE

Species belonging to this family have, like the Ophichthidae, the posterior nostril
placed on the lower lip or the edge of the gape. They differ from the Ophichthidae
in having a caudal fin, the dorsai, anal and caudal fin fold being continuous around
the posterior end of the fish. Two species of this family, belonging to separate
genera, occur in the Gulf.

KEY TO TFIE SPECIES OF ECHELIDAE

a. Dorsal origin in front of vent. Palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly be¬
coming one row posteriorly, extending to opposite angle of mouth.

-- - Myrophis punctatus (p. 464).

aa. Dorsal origin behind vent. Palatal teeth one or two only, placed between
beginning of rows of jaw teeth; without a band or row of teeth on
midline of palate _ Ahlia egmontis (p. 465).

464

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

MYROPH1S Liitken

My ro phis Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. Foren. Copenhagen 1851: 14,
18 52 (genotype Myrophis punctatus Liitken by monotypy)

This genus is compared with Ahlia under the account of that genus.

MYROPHIS PUNCTATUS Liitken

Myrophis punctatus Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. Foren. Copenhagen
1851: 15, pi. 1, figs. 2 and 2b-d, 18 52; also, in a translation of the
article in Archiv Naturg., Jahrg. 18, bd. 1, p. 270, 18 52 (said to
have been brought by an expedition to the West Indies, locality not
stated) — Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 640, 1891
(West Indian Fauna, from Texas to Surinam) — Jordan and Ever-
mann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 371, 1896 (West Indian Fauna,
coast of Texas to Surinam) — Parr, Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll.
3 (4) : 12, 1930

Myrophis lumbricus Jordan and Gilbert, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 261, 18 82
(Galveston, Texas)

Slender, compressed or rounded. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering. Eye
medium, 1.3-2. 3 in snout, covered by thick skin. Mouth and jaws moderate; lower jaw 3. 4-4. 5
in head ; angle of mouth at seme distance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye
about bisecting lower jaw or a little nearer angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth covered or
moderately exposed with the mouth closed. Snout rather blunt, moderately projecting beyond
lower jaw, 5. 7-7. 9 in head. Upper lip not differentiated ; lower lip separated by a groove
for about its posterior half or more, narrow. Posterior nostril large, located on rim of
gape, just in front of a vertical through anterior margin of eye, its outer half with a rather
wide, flaring border, its inner margin not raised ; anterior nostril placed near lateral profile,
at a short distance from end of snout, in a short tubule, broader at the base, its distal
margin irregularly sinuate, its upper part with a small somewhat pointed tab. Tongue
adnate. Gill opening lateral, somewhat oblique, rather small, less than the distance between
the two fellows. Dorsal origin usually midway between gill opening and vent or moderately
nearer vent, sometimes a little nearer gill opening ; dorsal, anal and caudal fins rather low,
continuous around posterior end. Pectoral moderate (for an echelid). Teeth rather small,
pointed, moderately differing in size; no canines; teeth in upper jaw in two irregular
rows ; anterior teeth of lower jaw somewhat larger and in two rows, in one row poster¬
iorly ; palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly, in one row posteriorly, the teeth growing-
smaller backward and extending approximately to opposite angle of mouth ; premaxillary
teeth in one arched row, usually 5 in number, varying 3-7 ; jaw, palatal and premaxillary
teeth in rather close proximity to one another.

Ground color yellowish or brownish ; anteriorly lower half a nearly uniform color,
upper half or so very thickly peppered with tiny dark specks, the speckled part increasing
in width posteriorly to cover nearly entire side near posterior end of fish.

Measurements of 7 specimens 223-356 mm and 4 specimens 121-146 mm : body 39-41
(38-40) ; trunk 30-31 (28-29) : tail 58-61 (60-62) ; antedorsal 24-29 (24.5-26.0) ; head 9.0-10.5
(9-11) ; upper jaw 2. 5-3. 3 (2. 5-3. 2) ; lower jaw 2. 1-3.1 (2. 1-3.0) : snout 1.3-1. 8 (1.2-1. 9) :

eye 0.6-0. 9 (0. 6-1.1) ; depth 2. 7-3. 2 (2. 7-3. 4) ; pectoral 1.3-2. 2 (1.0-1. 5) ; distance from dorsal
origin to vent 11.5-15.5 (12.0-14.5), 1.9-2. 6 (2. 0-2. 4) times in trunk.

Specimens examined from the following localities: Corpus Christi, Aransas Pass,
Copano Bay, Warwick Bayou and Galveston (including the type of Myrophis lumbri¬
cus, 30896), Texas; Grande Isle, Louisiana; Biloxi, Mississippi; Dauphin Island, Ala¬
bama; Boca Grande and Fort Jefferson, Florida; Beaufort, North Carolina. The largest
specimen is 356 mm, from Beaufort.

One large specimen, 426 mm, landed at Freeport, Texas, by a fishing boat, pre¬
sumably taken off the coast of Texas, and submitted by J. L. Baughman differs from
the smaller specimens on which the above account is based, as follows. The teeth are
more numerous; in three irregular rows in the upper jaw; in two rows in the lower
jaw; in three rows on the palate tapering to one row posteriorly. Many of the teeth
are comparatively stouter and not as pointed as in the smaller specimen. The pre¬
maxillary teeth are absent, but the bone is irregularly pitted and it seems as though
teeth were present in earlier life. Its other characters, as well as its proportional
measurements, agree with or fall within the range of variation of the smaller speci¬
mens. It is darker than the smaller specimens; but the densely puncticulate color
pattern of punctatus is evident, although somewhat obscure. It is evidently an indi¬
vidual of this species, the differences noted being due to its size.

The smaller specimens of this species are apparently taken along the coast,
generally in muddy places; although habitat data for most constituent samples exam¬
ined are lacking. The large specimen, brought in by a fishing boat, was very likely
taken offshore. The fragmentary data available would then seem to suggest that the
smaller specimens live inshore and move out offshore to attain to some size.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

46 5

AHLIA Jordan and Davis

Ahlia Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 639, 1891 (genotype
My ro phis egmontis Jordan by original designation and by monotypy)

This genus differs from Myrophis Liitken by the absence of a row of palatal
teeth. Parr (1930) reduces Ahlia to the synonymy of Myrophis chiefly because of the
discovery of new species showed that the position of the dorsal origin, one of the
two characters by which the two genera were formerly distinguished, cannot be main¬
tained. He then suggests the possibility that the difference in the dentition might be
a growth character. However, I examined small specimens of A. egmontis, as small
as 57 mm, and find that the dentition is essentially as in the adult, including the
lack of a median palatal row of teeth. As the palatal dentition is one of the main
characters, perhaps the primary character, that is currently used for separating echelid
genera, and it is in general of generic importance in the classification of apodal fishes,
it seems that the difference in the dentition is enough to maintain Ahlia as distinct
from Myrophis, af least tentatively, until the family is revised. As to the dorsal origin,
it appears that in many related echelid species, this character differs widely with the
species and varies intraspecifically to a considerable extent. Consequently, this char¬
acter, as it relates to such species, is best considered as being important at the species
level only.

The status of Ahlia is also discussed by Myers and Storey (1939, p. 158) and
Wade (1946, p. 199), who conclude that it deserves recognition.

AHLIA EGMONTIS (Jordan)

Myrophis egmontis Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 36: 44, 188 5
(Egmont Key, Florida) — Parr Bull. Bingham Ocean. Coll. 3(4): 9,
193 0 (included in key)

Ahlia egmontis Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 639, 1891
(based on type)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.
47: 73 0, pi. 60, fig. 15 8, 1896 (based on type)

Slender, compressed. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering. Eye medium, 1.3-2. 3 in
snout. Mouth and jaws moderate ; lower jaw 3. 5-4.0 in head ; angle of mouth at a moderate
distance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye nearer angle of mouth than tip of
lower jaw ; premaxillary teeth covered or a little exposed with the mouth closed. Snout
blunt, moderately projecting beyond lower jaw, 5. 1-6.1 in head. Upper lip not differentiated ;
lower lip partly differentiated by a short groove at angle of mouth. Posterior nostril large,
placed at rim of gape, its larger part within the gape, under anterior margin of eye, its
outer anterior part only with a wide, flaring, soft margin ; anterior nostril a broad, low
tubule, placed at lateral profile a short distance from end of snout, upper margin of tubule
indented, with a narrow, short tab rising from low point of indentation. Tongue adnate. Gill
opening lateral, moderately oblique, rather small, less than space between the two fellows.
Dorsal origin at a moderate distance behind vent ; dorsal, anal and caudal moderately de¬
veloped, continuous around posterior end. Pectoral moderate (for an echelid), subequalling
snout. Teeth in jaws in one row ; in upper jaw the rows from the two sides approach closely
in front ; palatal teeth two, side by side, or one on midline, placed so as to bridge space
between the two rows of jaw teeth or slightly in front ; premaxillary teeth 3-5, in a curved
row. Color almost uniformly yellowish or brownish in gross effect, without definite color
marks visible to naked eye ; under magnification tiny, almost microscopic, dark dots appear,
very densely sprinkled over entire fish except lower part of head and trunk and fins.

Measurements of 3 specimens 329-410 mm and 2 specimens 209-276 mm: body 42-43
(40-41), trunk 33-34 (33). tail 57-58 (59-60), antedorsal 43-45 (44-45). head 8.4-8.9 (7.9-S.4),
upper jaw 2. 6-2. 7 (2. 5-2. 7), lower jaw 2.2-2. 4 (2. 1-2. 3), snout 1.4-1. 5 (1.4-1. 6), eye 0. 8-1.0
(0.6-0. 9), depth 2.7 (2. 0-2. 7), pectoral 1.3-1. 7 (1.0-1. 6), distance vent to dorsal origin 1. 2-3.0
(3. 6-4. 7).

Specimens examined from the following localities in Florida: Egmont Key (the
type, 35086), Boca Grande, Alligator Reef, Tortugas. The largest specimen is 410
mm.

This species is readily distinguished from Myrophis punctatus, its nearest rela¬
tive in the Gulf by the position of the dorsal origin behind the vent, the presence
of only one row of teeth in the jaws and the absence of a row of palatal teeth.

family OPHICHTHIDAE

Scales absent. Moderately stout to excessively slender and worm-like. Tail longer
than body to shorter than trunk. Mouth small to very large, upper jaw longer than
lower and premaxillary teeth, wTien present, more or less exposed, except in Mystrio-
phis jaws subequal in front. Lips partly or almost wholly separated by a groove, or
continuous with surface of head. Posterior nostril large, rounded, partly or wholly
surrounded by a raised membranous edge, placed on lip (or in a position normally

466

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

occupied by the lip, when lip indistinguishable), under anterior margin of eye or
more forward, except in Verma a narrow slit placed just above lip. Anterior nostril
opening in a bulging tubule, or a spheroidal protuberance, except in Letharchus, placed
nearly in a horizontal line with posterior nostril. Tongue adnate, except in Mystriophis
and Gordiichthys. Gill opening transverse, oblique, or lengthwise in large part, mod¬
erate or large. Dorsal, anal and pectoral fins present or absent; caudal absent, the
dorsal and anal, when present, terminating at some distance before end of tail, leav¬
ing posterior point without fin fold. Teeth tapering, pointed, small to large, moder¬
ately or hardly differing in size in different series in most genera; palatal and jaw
teeth in one to four irregular rows, depending on the species, and also on intraspecific
change with growth in some species; premaxillary teeth in a single arched row, mod¬
erately or well separated from palatal and jaw teeth, except absent in Letharchus.

For practical purposes, based on readily determinable, external characters, fishes
of this family are recognized by the finless posterior point, and by the position of the
posterior nostril, placed on the lip or just above it.

KEY TO THE OPHICHTHID EELS HERE TREATED

a. Lips differentiated by a well marked groove. Posterior nostril an elongate

or oval slit, without a raised flaring rim, with a straight flap attached
, entad of the upper margin; placed directly above groove separating

lip. All fins absent. Tail longer than body. Worm-like _

_ Verma kendalli (p. 468).

aa. Lips not differentiated or only slightly so near angle of mouth. Posterior
nostril variably large, rather rounded, with a broad flaring edge;
placed on rim of gape, or slightly above. Dorsal present (hidden in
Crypto pterygium and visible externally as a slight ridge) ; anal and
pectoral present or absent.

b. Dorsal origin behind gill opening. Posterior nostril moderately large,

placed a little above rim of gape and at some distance in front of
eye (except in Ophichthus gomesii) . Tail longer than body. Pectoral
rather well developed. Comparatively stout eels, with a variably
large gape and strong jaws and dentition (except in O. gomesii).
Teeth in jaws extending their entire length.

c. One or two teeth on palate and 2-4 anterior teeth on side of each jaw

notably larger than others, canine. Tongue free. Jaws subequal in
front _ Mystriophis (p. 468).

d. Largest spots in medium sized specimens subequal to distance from tip

of snout to posterior margin of eye, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows
at widest part of spotted area (spots change in size and number

with growth, see descriptions and discussion in text) _

_ Mystriophis intertinctus (p. 470).

dd. Largest spots in specimens of about comparable size subequal to snout,

roughly in 3 lengthwise rows _ Mystriophis mordax (p. 470).

ddd. Largest spots in specimens of about comparable size a little smaller

than snout, roughly in 6 lengthwise rows _

- Mystriophis punctifer (p. 474).

cc. Teeth medium to rather large, their size only moderately differing in
the different series. Tongue adnate. Snout moderately projecting be¬
yond lower jaw _ Ophichthus (p. 475)

e. Tail 53-57; lower jaw 2. 1-2. 5 times in head. Palatal teeth in one row,

except 2 teeth side by side in front of row present or absent. Pos¬
terior nostril moderately large, placed a little above edge of gape
and at some distance before eye. With a median row of white spots.
Teeth rather large.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

467

£. Dorsal origin over end of pectoral or at a moderate distance more for¬
ward or slightly behind. Antedorsal distance 14.0-17.5. White spots

comparatively large, eye divided by largest spots equalling 0.7- 1.4 _

_ _ _ 2 _ Ophichthus ocellatus (p. 476).

ff. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a distance
nearly equalling snout length. Antedorsal distance 19.0. White

spots rather small, the largest 2 in eye _ _ _

_ _ _ 1 _ Ophichthus gut lifer (p. 476).

fff. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a distance a
little over three snout lengths, nearly equalling postorbital part of

head. Antedorsal distance 23.5. White spots subequal to eye _

■ _ _ _ Ophichthus retropinnis (p. 477) .

ee. Tail 62-67; lower jaw 2. 8-3. 2 times in head. Palatal teeth in 2 rows,
becoming 4 irregular rows in large specimens. Posterior nostril not¬
ably large, placed on rim of gape under anterior margin of eye. With¬
out a median row of white spots. Teeth moderate. Dorsal origin

over pectoral end or a short distance more forward _

_ _i~- _ _ _ _ _ Ophichthus gomesii (p. 478).

bb. Dorsal origin before gill opening, on a vertical a little behind angle of
mouth. Posterior nostril notably large, placed on rim of gape under
anterior part of eye. Tail shorter than body. Pectoral very small or
absent. The depth moderate or notably slender, with small mouth and
rather weak jaws. Snout tapering, well overhanging lower jaw.

g. Anterior mandibulary teeth moderately or slightly larger than posterior

ones; anterior palatal, and premaxillary teeth, when present, mod¬
erately large. Tongue adnate (unknown for Crypto pterygium) .

h. Dorsal, and anal when present, exposed.

i. Pectorals very small. Gill opening lateral, transverse or oblique, the dis¬

tance between the two fellows subequal to opening. Tail subequal
to trunk or moderately shorter, tail 44-47, trunk 47-50. Very slen¬
der, subterete to moderately compressed, the depth 1.1 -2. 6. Teeth
in upper jaw beginning before eye and ending a short distance from
angle of mouth. Anal present _ Bascanichthys (p. 478).

j. Depth 1.7-2. 6, 2. 2-3.1 times in head; upper jaw 1.2-1. 8 times in depth

_ __ — - - - - — - - Bascanichthys teres (p. 479).

jj. Depth 1.1-1. 6, 3. 4-5. 4 times in head; upper jaw 0. 7-1.0 times in depth

- - - i - - - Bascanichthys scuticaris (p. 480).

ii. Pectorals absent. Gill opening placed low, near ventral profile, its out¬
line altogether visible when viewed from ventral aspect, running
lengthwise in large part, the space between the two fellows less than
the opening. Tail much shorter than trunk; tail 39-41; trunk 51-54.
Moderately elongate, compressed, the depth 2. 2 -3.0. Row of teeth
in upper jaw very short beginnning under eye and ending some dis¬
tance from angle of mouth.

k. Anal fin and premaxillary teeth present .. Callechelys muraena (p. 480).

kk. Anal fin and premaxillary teeth absent _ Letharchus velifer (p. 481).

hh. Dorsal and anal fins hidden under the skin, visible externally as a

slight ridge. Tail 33, trunk 61. Slender, compressed, depth 1.7 _

- - - - Cryptopterygium holochroma (p. 482).

gg. Anterior mandibular teeth rather well or notably larger than posterior
ones; anterior palatal and premaxillary teeth well enlarged (perhaps

468

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

enough so to be designated canine). Tongue free (unknown for
irretitus ). Tail 3 5-3 6, trunk 5 8. Body excessively elongate, worm¬
like, the depth 0.9-1. 3 _ ... Gordiichthys (p. 483).

I. Palatal teeth in one row, anterior 4 large, posterior 6 abruptly smaller

- - - _ Gordiichthys irretitus (p. 483).

II. Palatal teeth 5, large, in two rows; no small teeth behind anterior large

ones - Gordiichthys springeri (p. 484).

VERMA Jordan and Evermann

Verma Jordan and Everman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 374, 1896 (geno¬
type Sphagehranchus kendalli Gilbert by monotypy)

This genus differs from all other eels here treated by the absence of all fins.
The posterior nostril, in its position and structure, differs from other ophichthid eels
(and from echelids as well), and it is doubtful whether this genus properly belongs
to the Ophichthidae.

VERMA KENDALLI Gilbert

Sphagehranchus kendalli Gilbert, Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 9: 310, 1891 (off
Turkey Key, Florida; 2 5 fathoms) — Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S.
Comm. Fish 1888: 615, 1891 (based on type)

Verma kendalli Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 375,
1896 (apparently based on original specimen)

Very slender, rounded, vermiform. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering for a
rather short distance. Eye very small, 1.8-2. 9 in snout. Mouth and jaws medium ; lower
jaw 3. 5-4. 8 in head ; angle of mouth at a considerable distance behind eye ; tip of lower
jaw only a short distance in front of vertical through anterior margin of eye ; premaxillary
teeth slightly or hardly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout rather long, 5. 3-5. 8 in head,
tapering, notably projecting beyond lower jaw. Lips differentiated by a well developed
groove, except for a short distance in front. Posterior nostril an elongate narrow or oval
slit, without a raised edge, with an oval flap attached a little within its upper margin,
placed just above groove separating lip, under anterior margin of eye ; anterior nostril a
broad somewhat elongate tubule, placed on ventral aspect cf snout, near lateral profile, at
some distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate. Gill openings medium, oblique, placed
very low, its complete outline better viewed from ventral than lateral aspect, the space be¬
tween the two fellows narrower than opening. All fins absent. Teeth small, pointed, taper¬
ing ; no canines ; in one row in jaws and on palate ; palatal teeth extending to a short dis¬
tance behind a vertical through posterior margin of eye ; premaxillary teeth moderately
larger than others, in a V-shaped row, typically 5 in number, often any one tooth in row
missing ; jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth rather well spaced. Color a nearly uniform
yellowish, sometimes with a grayish or purplish tinge ; no distinctive markings in preserved
specimens.

Measurements of 5 specimens 171-311 mm: body 45-47, trunk 40-41, tail 53-55, head
6. 0-6. 3, upper jaw 2. 2-2. 8, lower jaw 1.3-1. 8, snout 1.1 in all, eye 0.4-0. 6, depth 1.2-1. 4.

Specimens examined, including the type (44304), taken on the coast of Florida
in 25-42 fathoms, off the following localities: Turkey Key, Key West, Fowey Rock,
Miami. The largest specimen is 311 mm.

This species is readily distinguished from all eels here treated by the following
combination of characters: its extremely slender, vermiform body, the characteristic
overhanging long, tapering snout, the structure and position of the posterior nostril,
the absence of all fins and the dentition.

M YSTRIOPHIS Kaup

Mystrio[)his Kaup, Cat. Apod. Fish. Brit. Mus., p. 10, 18 56 (genotype
Ophisurus rostellatus Richardson by monotypy)

Echiopsis Kaup, ibid., p. 13 (genotype Ophisurus intertinctus Richardson by
monotypy)

Crotalopsls Kaup , Abhand. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4 (abt. 2): 12, 1860
(genotype Crotalopsis punctifer Kaup by monotypy)

Moderately deep, moderately tapering for a rather short distance posteriorly,
subterete to moderately compressed. Tail a little longer than body. Eye medium,
1.5-2. 7 in short snout. Mouth and jaws large; lower jaw 1. 8-2.1 in head; angle of
mouth far behind eye, posterior margin of eye considerably nearer tip of snout than

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

469

angle of mouth; jaws subequal in front or upper slightly longer than lower. Snout
rather short, 6. 3-8. 3 in head, very moderately tapering. Lips not differentiated. Pos¬
terior nostril moderately large, placed slightly above rim of gape and a little in front
of eye, its outer rim widely flaring, inner rim slightly or moderately flaring; anterior
nostril placed rather close to posterior one, with a moderately raised suborbicular
tubule. Tongue moderately free. Gill opening placed on lower half of side, trans¬
versely curved, large, wider than the distance between the two fellows. Dorsal origin
behind a vertical through end of pectoral at a distance about equal to pectoral length,
varying a little both ways; dorsal and anal fins rather well developed; anal having a
variable stretch, at a short distance from its end, lower than parts immediately pre¬
ceding and following; a similar stretch on dorsal i .sually of lesser development. Pec¬
toral moderately developed. Teeth tapering, pointed; size of teeth differing widely in
different positions, some of them conspicuously large, canine; teeth in jaws extend¬
ing over their entire length; palatal and jaw teeth in two rows for their greater
part, the two rows in the jaw well separated; teeth in lower jaw in one row anteriorly,
in two rows on side for nearly its entire length, the posterior 2 to 4 teeth in the
anterior single row rather large, canine, graduated, growing larger posteriorly, the
teeth in the outer row directly behind canines small, increasing in size posteriorly,
becoming large on middle of side, but not as large as anterior canines, then decreas¬
ing again backward to angle of mouth, teeth in inner row small, not notably differing
in size; relative size of teeth on side of upper jaw about same as in lower, except
some small teeth, in front of anterior 2-4 canines, placed directly over anterior canines
of lower jaw, anterior canines of upper jaw placed directly over the small teeth fol¬
lowing the canines in lower jaw, teeth in inner row of upper jaw somewhat larger
than similarily placed teeth in lower jaw; premaxillary teeth 4-9 in a single curved
row, decreasing in size from symphysis backward, well or moderately separated from
teeth on side of jaw; one large straight canine, the largest of all, on midline of palate,
at a short distance behind premaxillary teeth, very often a second tooth very close to
and before, beside or behind it, the second tooth, when present, usually smaller,
sometimes the two teeth subequal, posterior palatal teeth comparatively small, in
two rows converging backward and becoming a single row for a short distance pos¬
teriorly, not reaching to opposite angle of mouth, often a few additional teeth form¬
ing additional rudimentary one or two rows; the small palatal teeth separated by a
short interval from the one or two anterior canines.

Ground color usually yellowish or brownish sometimes grayish, with a pinkish
tinge; the ventral aspect moderately or notably lighter than upper part, uniformly
colored; upper part for about half or two-thirds the width spotted; spots on head
very small or mere dark points, thickly sprinkled, becoming larger on nape; dorsal
and anal with a dark or black margin, continuous or interrupted.

Mystriophis differs from Ophichthus in having well developed canines; the snout
is shorter and does not project beyond the lower jaw, and the mouth is larger. It
differs from all ophichthid genera here treated, except Gordiichthys, in having the
tongue moderately free.

Jordan and Davis (1891,p. 634) place the species here described in the genus
Mystriophis, and this treatment was generally followed by later authors. However, the
type of that genus, Ophisurns rostellatus Richardson (18 44, p. 105), is described by
its author, and by Gunther (1870, p. 56), as having the palatal teeth canine and in
a single row. It is, therefore, possible that it is genetically distinct from the species
here included in Mystriophis. If so, our species should be placed in Echiopsis. But
lacking specimens of rostellatus for comparison current usage is here followed.

Structural characters given under the genus heading are practically the same in
the three species here treated and are not repeated under their accounts. The size and
number of the spots differs with the species and intraspecifically with growth. The
spots are not arranged in definitely regular rows, especially in the species in which
the spots are numerous. However, in order to present the differences between the
species they are described as though they were in rows. The number of rows as stated
under the species descriptions rather refers to the number of spots touched by an
imaginary very narrow transverse band placed across the widest part of the spotted
area.

The characteristic color pattern of every species evidently does not fade except
after very long immersion in preservative. It is well marked in every specimen form¬
ing the basis of the following accounts of the species. A few specimens examined
that were preserved nearly 100 years ago are partly faded and are not included in
these accounts.

470

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

I have been unable to solve with a measure of satisfaction the problem of
speciation among the Gulf eels of the genus Mystriophis by means of the available
material. Proportional measurements and the dentition are nearly alike in the speci¬
mens examined, or they do not indicate any possible differences of specific magni¬
tude. They differ conspicuosly in the color pattern, in the relative size and number
of the spots. A comparison of large available specimens shows such a striking differ¬
ence in the color pattern that taxonomists will generally agree that more than one
species is involved. The main difficulty is that the size and number of spots change
with growth. They decrease in relative size and increase in number as the fish grows.
Therefore, in order to distinguish the species properly by the color pattern, it is nec¬
essary to have an adequate sample in a graded size range in every species and compare
specimens of approximately like size. Such a necessary collection of specimens is not
now available. Consequently, a final and definitive solution of the problem must await
the accumulation of more extensive collections.

Tentatively, based on the scant number of specimens examined, three Gulf species
are here distinguished by color only. What is presumably the type of one species,
mordax, was examined. The proper application of the other two names, intertinctus and
punctifer, the types of which were not examined, is attended with a considerable
measure of doubt.

Three large specimens of punctifer, 890-1190 mm, compared with 2 specimens
of mordax 940-1110 mm, and 3 specimens of intertinctus 842-977 mm, have the spots
much smaller and much more numerous. The 3 specimens present such a strikingly
different appearance that there is hardly any question that they belong to a distinct
species. While it is difficult to express such a difference in terms of definite figures,
it is decidedly abrupt without any gradually intergrading specimens. In a 646 mm
specimen of punctifer the spots are relatively larger and less numerous than in the
large specimens of the same species; but distinctly smaller and more numerous than
in comparable specimens of the other two species.

The difference in the color pattern between mordax and intertinctus is not as
striking as between either one of these species and punctifer. When compared size for
size, the spots in mordax are smaller than in intertinctus (but notably larger than in
punctifer ) and more widely spaced. The difference in appearance is such as to indicate
to a high degree of probability that the specimens examined represent two distinct
species.

MYSTRIOPHIS INTERTINCTUS (Richardson)

Ophisurus intertinctus Richardson, Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 102, 1844
(West Indies)

Ophichthys intertinctus Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 57, 1870 (West
Indies)

Mystriophis intertinctus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888:
63 5, 1891 (West Indian fauna, north to western Florida)

In specimens 230-372 mm largest spots larger than distance from tip of snout to pos¬
terior margin of eye, roughly in 2 lengthwise rows, without smaller interpolated spots ; in
specimens 728-842 mm largest spots slightly larger than snout and eye combined, roughly in
3 lengthwise rows, a few smaller spots interpolated between the larger ones : in specimens
958-977 mm largest spots subequal to snout and eye combined or slightly smaller, roughly
in 4 rows, a moderate number of smaller spots interpolated between the large ones.

Specimens examined from off or at the following localities: Cape Fear, North
Carolina (151927, 151981); Clearwater Harbor (23635) and Pensacola (17126,
32758), Florida; west Florida (22865, 49797); St. Thomas (6956, specific identifi¬
cation of locality not given). Altogether 8 specimens examined 230-977 mm. The
largest specimen is from off Cape Fear; the largest Gulf specimen is 842 mm from
Pensacola.

This species is recognized by its large spots as discussed under the account of
the genus.

MYSTRIOPHIS MORDAX (Poey)

Conger mordax Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2: 319, 1860 (Cuba)
Macrodonophis mordax Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat, Cuba 2: 2 52, ph 2, fig. 9, 1867
(Cuba) — Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 42 5, 1868 (Cuba)

Crotalopsis mordax Poey, Enum. Pise. Cub., p. 153, 1876 (Cuba)

Table 8. — Ranges of proportional measurements of three species of Mystriophis, segregated in size groups,

expressed as a percentage of standard length.

1951, No. 8
September 80

Eels of the Gulf Coast

471

472

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

FIGURE 11. — -Mystnophis intertinctus; U. S. N. M. 151927; 977 mm;
Cape Fear, North Carolina.

FIGURE 12. — Mystnophis mordax; U. S. N. M. 152990; 1110 mm;
off Mississippi Delta.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

473

FIGURE 13. — Mystriophis mordax; from the type; M. C. Z. 9220; 940 mm;
Cuba; specimen evidently faded in part.

In a specimen 351 mm largest spots a little smaller than snout and eye combined,
roughly in 3 lengthwise rows ; in specimens 428-671 mm largest spots about equalling
sncut, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows; in 2 specimens 940-1110 mm largest spots smaller
than snout and a little larger than eye, roughly in 4 lengthwise rows ; interpolated spots
in all specimens, many or in moderate numbers.

Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Padre Island, Texas
(154995, Pelican Station 113-8; 30 fathoms); off Mississippi Delta; 30 fathoms;
Stewart Springer; 1110 mm; the largest specimen (152990); Tampa (152251) and
Garden Key (5984), Florida; Cuba (M.C.Z. 9217 and 9220, the latter the type).
Altogether 6 specimens 351-1110 mm.

In the size of the spots this species is in a sense intermediate between mordax
and intertinctus, but distinctly nearer the latter and rather widely discontinuous with
that of mordax. The spots are smaller and usually more widely spaced than in like-
sized specimens of intertinctus. Specific differences in the size and spacing of the spots
on the nape, as well as on the body, are well marked on direct comparison of speci¬
mens size for size. The relationship between the three species is further discussed
under the account of the genus.

It is doubtful whether the specimen which is entered as the type of mordax in
the catalog of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, is in reality the same specimen
which served as the basis of Poey’s description of that species. The author states:
"Le corps . . . couvert de taches . . . les plus grandes ne depassant pas cinq milli¬
metres . . .” This statement applies well to large specimens — such as Poey described
— of that species which is here designated as punctifer: ; while the largest spots in the
presumed type specimen actually are about 10 mm. Assuming that this specimen is
the type, it is difficult to see how Poey could have made this error in view of his
categorical statement. Nevertheless, the name here applied is based on the assumption
that it is the type. A minor discrepancy is in the length of the specimen. Poey gives
the length of his specimen as 990 mm, whereas the specimen in the M.C.Z. measures
940 mm. However, this discrepancy may be explained as being partly due to shrink¬
age and partly to the difficulty of making very accurate measurements of eels which
have become curled in preservative.

474

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

MYSTRIOPHIS PUNCTIFER (Kaup)

Crotalopsis punctifer Kaup, Abh. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4 (abt. 2): 13,
pi. 1, fig. 3, 1860 (Puerto Cabello) — Springer and Allen, Copeia,
1932 (2): 105 (off Horn Island, Mississippi; specimen now bears
U. S. N. M. 12 591 1 and is the largest one included in the following
account)

Ophichthys punctifer Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 56, 1870 (Puerto
Cabello)

In a specimen 646 mm largest spots slightly smaller than snout, slightly larger than
eye, an imaginary narrow transverse band crossing widest part of spotted area touching
about 6 of larger spots ; interpolated spots moderately smaller than large spots ; in 3 speci¬
mens 890-1190 mm largest spots smaller than eye, the above imaginary band touching about
10 spots ; spots variable in size but not definitely divisible into two size groups.

Specimens examined: Texas; landed by a fishing boat at Freeport, Texas, appar¬
ently captured off the coast of that state, sent in by J. L. Baughman of the Texas
Game, Fish and Oyster Commission; 2 specimens 890-950 mm (152240). Off Corpus
Christi Pass, Texas; Pelican Station 108-12, lat. 27° 42’ 30” N, long. 96° 21’ 30” W;
35 fathoms; 646 mm (154996). 12 miles off Horn Island, Mississippi; Stewart
Springer; November 17, 1931; 1190 mm (125911).

This species is characterized by its small and numerous spots when compared size
for size with specimens of the other two species of Mystriophis, as discussed under the
account of the genus.

FIGURE 14. — Mystriophis punctifer; U. S. N. M. 125911; 1190 mm;
off Horn Island, Mississippi.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast .

475

OPHICHTHUS Ahl

Ophichthus Ahl, Specimen Ichthyologicum de Mureana et Ophichtho. Inaug.
Dissert. LJpsala, p. 6, 1789 (genotype Muraena ophis Linnaeus by
later designation)

Ophichthys Bleeker, Atlas Ichthyologique des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises
4: 36, 1864 ( Ophichthys [sic] opbis Ahl = Muraena ophis Linnaeus
designated as genotype)

Moderately deep, tapering. Tail longer than body. Eye medium, 1. 3-2.0 in snout.
Mouth and jaws rather large; lower jaw 2. 1-3.2 in head; angle of mouth at some dis¬
tance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye bisecting lower jaw or a little
nearer its tip than angle of mouth; premaxillary teeth slightly or a little exposed with
the mouth closed. Snout of moderate length and taper, 4.8-6. 1 in head, moderately
extending beyond lower jaw. Lips hardly or very moderately differentiated, lower lip
usually somewhat more so than upper. Posterior nostril placed at some distance before
eye and a little above rim of gape, its size and raised rim moderate (except in
gomesii, see its description); anterior nostril ending in a tubule, near edge of gape at
a moderate distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate. Gill opening placed on lower
half of side, transversely curved, moderately large, subequal to interval between the
two fellows. Dorsal origin behind gill opening, differing from a short distance in
front of a vertical through end of pectoral to a moderate distance behind. Dorsal and
anal fins rather low or moderate, more or less modified posteriorly, a variable stretch
of fin lower than parts immediately preceding and following, the rays in this stretch
thicker than others (see below discussion of this structure). Pectoral comparatively
rather well developed. Teeth tapering, pointed, moderate to rather large, moderately
differing in size in different areas, none conspicuously larger than others to be desig¬
nated canine; teeth extending over entire length of jaws; typically teeth in jaws in
two rather well separated rows and in one or two rows on palate depending on the
species; inner row of lower jaw often more or less incomplete in ocellatus and retropin-
nis\ in gomesii teeth in jaws and on palate increasing in number with growth to form
bands of teeth in large specimens; premaxillary teeth 4-8 in a single curved row, some¬
times one tooth behind row in gomesii; groups of premaxillary, jaw and palatal teeth
slightly or rather well separated from one another.

The differences between Ophichthus and the other genera of its family are indi¬
cated in the key. It is most nearly related to Mystriophus and the differences between
them are discussed under that genus.

The name Ophichthus rests on uncertain grounds; because later authors failed
to identify definitely Muraena ophis Linnaeus which has been designated by Bleeker
as the genotype of Ophichthus.

Norman (1922, p. 296) describes a new genus and species, Acanthenchelys
spinicauda, based on a specimen from Tobago. He also states that Ophichthus ocellatus
LeSueur belongs to the new genus which is "distinguished by the structure of the
anal fin . . . having a series of short spines not far from the end of the tail.”

I made an attempt to study the variability of this character in ocellatus and the
other species here placed in Ophichthus and found it very difficult of precise determi¬
nation; because it is not sharply marked and depends to a large extent on the state
of preservation of the specimens. Often the fins are contracted and adhere tightly to
the body, or the specimens, including the fins, are too hardened by the preservative.
Subject to these serious limiting factors, this structure and its variability may be de¬
scribed as follows.

In ocellatus the anal fin for a moderate and variable stretch, at a moderate dis¬
tance before its end, is lower than the parts immediately preceding and following.
The rays in this stretch are shorter and thicker and rather spine-like in appearance.
Usually they are flexible at the tips, but sometimes moderately pungent. Often speci¬
mens seem to have this structure poorly developed or lacking, but such specimens are
usually hardened by preservative and it is not possible to be certain whether the seem¬
ing lack of the structure is due to preservation. In favorably preserved specimens, the
same structure is discernible also in the dorsal fin. Sometimes it is present in the
dorsal and seemingly lacking in the anal or vice versa.

In the one specimen each examined of guttifer and retropinnis this structure is
present both in the dorsal and anal.

In gomesii the same structure is discernible in the dorsal and anal in favorably
preserved specimens, except that it is not as well developed as in the preceding three

476

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

species, the rays are not as thick and they are more flexible. Also, the modification
seems to be more often lacking than in ocellatus.

Because of the difficulties in the precise determination of this character, it is not
used here for the practical purpose of distinguishing the genera and species.

OPHICHTHUS OCELLATUS (LeSueur)

Mur aeno phis ocellatus LeSueur, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia 5: 108, pi.
4, fig. 3, 1 82 5 (South America)

Ophichthys ocellatus Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 68, 1870 (Mexico)
Ophichthus ocellatus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 630,
1891 (Snapper Banks near Pensacola) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 383, pi. 64, fig. 169, 1896 (West Indian
fauna, south to Brazil, north to Pensacola) — Schroeder, Copeia
1941 (1): 45 (off Pensacola; guttifer synonymized with ocellatus )

Lower jaw 2. 3-2. 6 in head. Dorsal origin usually in front of a vertical through pectoral
end, at a distance about equalling eye diameter, varying from half an eye diameter to
nearly the length of the snout (in 17 specimens), often directly over pectoral end (in 6),
sometimes slightly behind this vertical (half an eye diameter behind in 1). Teeth rather
large ; teeth in inner row of lower jaw. except for a short distance anteriorly, smaller than
those in outer row and variable in number from a nearly complete row to a few ; most
inner teeth of upper jaw subequal in size, and also in number to outer teeth ; palatal teeth
in a single row extending to opposite posterior margin of eye or moderately behind, except
often two small teeth, side by side, in front of anteriormost tooth, sometimes two such
pairs or only one such tooth or absent altogether, anterior 2-5 teeth in main row rather
large, subequal or moderately unequal, usually separated by an interval from following
teeth, latter teeth smaller and decreasing in size posteriorly.

Ground color brown above, yellowish below ; a row of rather large white spots, nearly
median in position, along almost entire length of fish ; largest spots in any one specimen
usually about equalling eye diameter, the ratio of the eye divided by the spot varying 0.7-1. 5 ;
nuchal region often with a whitish, rather narrow stripe anteriorly and a few irregularly
scattered spots, smaller than the median spots, posteriorly, sometimes with some other,
shorter stripes or rows of small eoalescent whitish spots ; pores on head and lower jaw
often marked by small brown spots.

Measurements of 6 specimens 393-588 mm and 2 specimens 162-293 mm : body 46-47
(43-44), trunk 33-35 (32-33), tail 53-54 (57), antedorsal 14.0-17.5 in 21 specimens 342-594
mm (14.0-14.5), head 12.0-13.5 (10-11), upper jaw 5. 0-6. 3 (4.1-5. 0), lower jaw 4.6-5. 9

(3. 8-4. 3), snout 2.2-2. 7 (1. 9-2.0), eye 1.2-1. 7 (1.2), depth about 3. 3-4.1, not accurately de¬
terminable in most specimens examined (3.6), pectoral 4. 4-5. 5 (2. 7-3. 6). Upper jaw in head
2. 1-2.3 (2. 2-2. 5).

Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Mobile, Alabama;
Pensacola (including those recorded by Schroeder, 10 of those specimens that were
preserved; M.C.Z. 35109), Cedar Keys, Englewood, Nassau Sound, Captiva Key and
Matanzas Inlet, Florida; Brunswick, Georgia; Charleston and Sullivan Island, South
Carolina; Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina. Six depth records recorded for the lots
examined range 5-79 fathoms. The largest specimen is 640 mm from off Matanzas
Inlet.

The difference between this species, retropinnis and guttifer are discussed under
the account of the latter.

OPHICHTHUS GUTTIFER Bean and Dresel

Ophichthys guttifer Bean and Dresel, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 2: 99,
18 84 (Gulf of Mexico)

Ophichthus guttifer Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 630,
1891 (Snapper Banks near Pensacola)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 383, pi. 64, fig. 168, 1896 (Snapper Banks
off Pensacola)

Lower jaw 2.1 in head. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end, at a dis¬
tance nearly equalling length of snout. Teeth rather large ; inner teeth in lower jaw, except
for a short distance anteriorly, smaller than those in outer row, and fewer in number, more
widely spaced ; teeth in both rows of upper jaw subequal in size and number ; palatal teeth
in a single median row divided into two parts by a short interval, anterior part in front
of eye level consisting of 4 teeth, increasing moderately in size posteriorly, posterior part
longer, ending on a vertical at some distance behind eye, the teeth decreasing in size
posteriorly.

Light brown above, yellowish below ; a lengthwise, nearly median series of white spots
from head to within a short distance from posterior end, largest of white spots approxi¬
mately 2 times in eye ; nuchal region with a transverse row of very small whitish spots
anteriorly, and some shorter lengthwise rows in front of it, and with a few small, irregu¬
larly scattered, whitish spots posteriorly.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

477

Measurements of type specimen : total length 572 mm, body 46, trunk 33, tail 54, ante-
dorsal 19, head 13, upper jaw 6.5, lower jaw 6.1, snout 2.5, eye 1.4, depth 3.8, pectoral
4. Upper jaw in head 2. ....

Specimen examined: sent by Silas Stearns from Pensacola, Florida, without
further data, probably captured by a fishing boat in the Gulf of Mexico, the type of
species (32647).

Three species of Ophichthus occurring in the Gulf, ocellatus, guttifer and retro-
pinnis, agree in having a median series of white spots, and nearly agree in the den¬
tition, in the relative length of the body and tail and most other measurements. The
differences between them are here conveniently discussed together.

The chief difference is in the relative position of the dorsal origin. In 24 speci¬
mens of ocellatus examined, 23 have the dorsal origin on a vertical through the end of
pectoral or a variable and short distance in front of this vertical, varying to a snout
length in front as a maximum. In only one specimen of the 24, the dorsal originates
slightly behind this vertical, at a distance about equalling half an eye diameter. In the
single known specimen of retropinnis the dorsal origin is at a distance behind that ver¬
tical equalling a little over three snout lengths. Although retropinnis was not rediscov¬
ered since it was described more than 60 years ago, it is evidently a valid species. The
size of the white spots in retropinnis is about as in ocellatus.

The dorsal origin in the single type specimen of guttifer is rather intermediate
between the above two species, but nearer to ocellatus. It is behind the vertical indi¬
cated above, at a distance slightly less than the length of the snout or about equalling
\V2 times the eye. The type of guttifer thus differs appreciably from the 24 speci¬
mens of ocellatus examined. Another difference is in the size of the white spots which
are appreciably smaller in the type of guttifer. The size of the white spots in ocellatus
varies with the individual and also in different parts of the body of the same specimen.
The size of the largest spots in the 24 specimens of ocellatus examined varies from a
little larger than the eye to slightly more than 2/3 the eye diameter as a minimum,
while in guttifer the largest spots are Vi the eye diameter. The relative size of the
spots in the two species is fairly indicated in the two figures published by Jordan and
Evermann ( above citation ) .

From the above comparison of the type of guttifer with a fair sample of ocellatus ,
24 specimens from a considerable geographic range of the species, I draw the follow¬
ing conclusion. There is some possibility that the type of guttifer is an extreme variant
of ocellatus. However, in that case it would be necessary to assume that it is an ex¬
treme variant in two characters. Considering the evidence, it is more likely that it
represents a valid species. Furthermore, in order to solve the entire problem satisfac¬
torily it is necessary to determine the intraspecific variability in the position of the
dorsal origin and the size of the spots in retropinnis also. Since the position of the
dorsal origin in the cype of guttifer is to a certain extent intermediate between that in
ocellatus and retropinnis, there is also a remote possibility that guttifer is based on an
example of retropinnis. Consequently, from a practical viewpoint it seems best to
recognize tentatively all three species as distinct. Very likely this will prove to be
correct after an examination of adequate samples when they become available.

Differences in the position of the dorsal origin between the three species are also
shown by the relative length of the antedorsal distance; 14.0-17.5 per cent of the
length in 23 specimens of ocellatus, 19.0 and 23.5 in the types of guttifer and retro¬
pinnis, respectively.

OPH1CHTHUS RETROPINNIS Eigenmann

Ophichthys retropinnis Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 10: 116, 1888
(Pensacola, Florida; taken from the stomach of a fish)

Ophichthtts retropinnis Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 630,
1891 (based on same specimen) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 46(1): 3 83, 1896 (Snapper Banks off Pensacola)

Lower jaw 2.4 in head. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a dis¬
tance a little more than three snout lengths, nearly equal to postorbital part of head. Teeth
rather large, inner row of lower jaw incomplete and the teeth notably smaller than in
outer row ; in upper jaw both rows complete and the teeth subequal ; palatal teeth virtually
in a single row extending to a vertical a little behind eye, the teeth decreasing in size pos¬
teriorly, a short interval between third tooth in row and the following teeth, two teeth side
by side, one on either side of midline, at some distance in front of and smaller than first
tooth in median row.

The specimen examined, taken from the stomach of a fish, is in an early stage of
digestion. The skin on the left side is nearly all gone, but on the right side enough is left
to show a number of the white median spots the largest of which are subequal to the eye.

478

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 3(J

Measurements of type specimen : length 523 mm, body 47, trunk 35, tail 53, antedorsal
23.5, head 12, upper jaw 5.2, lower jaw 4.9, snout 2.2, eye 1.5, depth 3.2, pectoral 5.1. Upper
jaw in head 2.3.

Specimen examined: the type (38054), 'taken from the stomach of some
other fish” and "sent in by Mr. Silas Stearns,” presumably taken by a fishing boat off
Pensacola, Florida.

The differences between this species, ocellatus and guttifer are discussed above
under the account of the latter.

OPHICHTHUS GOMES1I (Castelnau)

Opbisurus gomesii Castelnau, Animaux nouveaux ou rares l’Amerique du
Sud, p. 84, pi. 44, fig. 2, 18 5 5 (Rio de Janeiro)

Opbicbthys gomesii Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 60, 1870 (after
Castelnau)

Opbicbtbus gomesii Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 632,
1891 (Charleston to Rio Janeiro) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 47 (1): 3 84, 1896 (South Carolina to Rio de
Janeiro)

Lower jaw 2. 8-3. 2 in head. Posterior nostril notably large, its rim well developed, placed
on edge of gape under anterior margin of eye. Dorsal origin varying from a point over
pectoral end to a point more forward about equalling snout. Teeth moderate, arch of pre¬
maxillary row often curving sharply at symphysis resulting in a V shaped row, sometimes
having gross effect of two nearly parallel, approximated rows at anterior end of upper jaw,
sometimes one tooth not aligned in the row, placed on area bounded by arch ; in medium
sized specimens, 320-420 mm, in two rows in jaws, inner teeth slightly smaller than outer ;
in such specimens palatal teeth in two moderately or well separated rows anteriorly, con¬
verging posteriorly and becoming a single irregular row for a short distance at its posterior
end, the palatal teeth moderately decreasing in size posteriorly and extending to a point
about opposite angle of mouth : with growth, maxillary, palatal and mandibular teeth in¬
creasing in number, the bands of teeth in 4 irregular somewhat incomplete rows at about
600 mm ; in 2 specimens 211-238 mm teeth in jaws in 2 rows as previously stated for the
medium sized specimens, but outer row of mandibular teeth incomplete posteriorly. Yellow¬
ish or brownish, darker above, lighter below, dorsal and anal edged with black for ihe.r
greater part or only posteriorly, no distinctive markings.

Measurements of 18 specimens 319-609 mm and 2 specimens 211-238 mm: body 36-38
(33-34), tail 62-64 (66-67), trunk 25-27 (22-24), antedorsal 13.0-15.5 (13), head 10.0-12.0
(10.5-11.5), upper jaw 3. 7-4.5 (4.2), lower jaw 3. 3-4. 2 (3. 5-3. 7), snout 1.9-2. 4 (1.8-1. 9), eye
1.0-1. 4 (1. 2-1.4), depth 4.0-5. 1 (3. 6-4. 2), pectoral 3.6-5. 1 (4.2-4.5). Upper jaw in head 2. 5-2. 8
(2. 5-2.7).

Specimens examined from the following localities: Charleston, South Carolina;
Cape Canaveral, Key West, Gulf Port, Apalachicola, Cape San Bias, and Pensacola,
Florida; Bayou La Batre, Alabama; Mississippi Sound; Bayou St. Denis and Grand
Isle, Louisiana; Freeport, Port Aransas and Padre Island, Texas; Puerto Rico; Rio de
Janeiro. Only one depth record, 13 fathoms, is available for the lots examined. Most
other specimens were apparently taken in shallow water. The largest specimen is 609
mm, taken in Bayou St. Denis.

This species is easily distinguishable from the other three species of its genus
here treated by its notably longer tail, the shorter trunk, the presence of 2-4 rows of
palatal teeth, the position of the posterior nostril and the absence of white spots.

In the size of the mouth and the strength of the jaws, this species is somewhat
intermediate between the two major groups of genera, not counting V erma, dist¬
inguished in the key. In the relative length of the tail it diverges notably from both
groups. In the position and structure of the posterior nostril it nearly agrees with the
second group. On a constructive revision of the family it might be found desirable to
place gomesii in a genus distinct from that of the three other species here placed in
Ophichthus.

BASCAN1CHTHYS Jordan and Davis

Bascanicbthys Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. F’ish. 1888: 621, 1891
(genotype Caecula bascanium Jordan by original designation)

Very slender, depth 1.1 -2. 6; subterete to moderately compressed, or subtriangular
in cross-section. Tail a little shorter than body. Eye small, 1. 8-3.6 in short snout.
Mouth and jaws small; lower jaw 4. 3-6. 7 in head; angle of mouth behind eye, a ver¬
tical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw, varying a little both ways;
premaxillary teeth a little exposed with the mouth closed. Snout short, 5-9-7. 9 times
in head; subconical; well projecting beyond lower jaw. Upper lip not differentiated;

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

479

lower lip separated by a slight groove at angle of mouth. Posterior nostril notably
large, placed on rim of gape under anterior half of eye, its outer half with a broad,
flaring, raised margin, inner half without raised margin; anterior nostril a broad,
bulging, low tubule, placed at edge of gape directly in front of lower jaw. Tongue
virtually adnate, its rim slightly projecting. Gill opening placed on lower half of
side, transversely rounded, of moderate extent, subequalling space between the two
fellows. Dorsal origin on head, a short distance behind a vertical through angle of
mouth; dorsal and anal low or moderate. Pectoral very small; in medium sized speci¬
mens subtriangular and its length about equalling eye diameter, becoming rather
broad and slightly longer in large fish. Teeth pointed, only moderately differing in
size in different areas; no canines; teeth in lower jaw extending over its whole length;
teeth in upper jaw beginning before eye and ending a short distance from angle of
mouth; jaw teeth typically in one row, often an incomplete second row in upper
jaw varying from one to a few teeth in the larger specimens, infrequently a second
row in small part in anterior portion of lower jaw; palatal teeth in two rows anter¬
iorly tapering to one row or one tooth on midline posteriorly, ending more or less
before a vertical through angle of mouth; premaxillary teeth usually 3, disposed as
the apices of an imaginary triangle, varying 2-4; premaxillary and anterior palatal
teeth subequal and moderately larger than all others.

The preceding description of the dentition is based on the specimens examined
of teres and scuticaris, with the exception of one large specimen of scuticaris in which
the teeth, especially the premaxillary teeth, are in greatly increased numbers as de¬
scribed under its species.

Ground color brownish or yellowish, variable, light to dark; upper half darker
than lower; a longitudinal, nearly median row of whitish spots, along nearly entire
length of fish, curving upward in front of gill opening, the spots sharply marked or
faint, often absent, each spot directly over a pore; dorsal and anal usually lighter
colored than body. Both species have the same variable color pattern.

BASCANICHTHYS TERES (Goode and Bean)

Sphagebranchus teres Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 436, 18 82
(West Florida)

Caecula bascanium Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 36: 43, 188 5
(Egmont Key, Florida)

Bascanichthys bascanium Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888:
621, 1891 (based on type) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 47 (1): 379, 1896 (based on type)

The number of teeth not showing a definite change with growth in 8 specimens 351-798
n?rn. exaiRined : teeth in upper jaw in one row, except a second row in small part con¬
sisting of 1-2 teeth in 3 specimens 419-525 mm ; in all specimens one row in lower jaw, on
palate 2 rows anteriorly tapering to one row posteriorly, 2-3 premaxillary teeth.

Measurement of 5 specimens 486-798 mm : body 53-55, trunk 47-50, tail 45-47, antedorsal
2. 1-3.1, eye 0.3-0. 5 and 1.8-2. 6 times in snout. In 8 specimens 351-798 mm : head 4. 1-6. 5,
depth 1.7-2. 6, upper jaw 1. 1-1.8, lower jaw 0.9-1. 2, snout 0. 6-1.0. Depth 2.2-3. 1 times in
head ; upper jaw in depth 1.2-1. 8, lower jaw in depth 1.6-2. 2, snout in depth 2. 1-3.1. Snout
5. 9-7. 9, and lower jaw 4.6-6. 7 times in head.

Specimen examined from Corpus Christi, Texas; Mississippi coast; Lemon Bay,
Florida; also the type specimens from "West Florida.” The largest specimen is from
Corpus Christi.

LECTOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 31457. The type jar contains 3 specimens, one of them
stouter than the other two and its depth falls near the center of the range of varia¬
tion of teres\ the others approach the distribution of scuticaris. As the two species ap¬
proach closely in their distinguishing characters, it seems best to designate a lectotype,
and the deeper specimen, 525 mm long, is so designated.

The differences between this species and B. scuticaris are discussed under the ac¬
count of the latter.

SYNONYMY. — The type of bascanium was not examined. (The type specimen ap¬
pears to have been lost; see Storey 1939, p. 75.) That name is placed in synonymy
on the basis of the original description. Jordan states that bascanium differs from
scuticaris and teres "by the shorter head and better developed pectoral fin.” The head
in the type of bascanium was 4.5 per cent of the total length, which falls within the
range of variation of teres , The size of the pectoral increases in large specimens of
both teres and scuticaris, and the size of the type of bascanium, 31 inches, is near the

480

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

maximum attained by either species, which accounts for the "better developed pec¬
toral.” The depth of the type specimen, 2.5 times in head, is near the center of the
range of variation of teres and outside that of scuticaris.

BASCAN1CHTHYS SCUTICARIS (Goode and Bean)

Sphagebranchus scuticaris Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 2: 343,
18 80 (Cedar Key, Florida)

Bascanichthys scuticaris Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888:
621, 1891 (Pensacola, Punta Rassa and Egmont Key, Florida)™
Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 378, pi. 63,
fig. 165, 1896 (West coast of Florida)

The number of teeth increasing with growth. In upper jaw teeth in a single row in 2
specimens 260-370 mm; in 11 specimens 464-623 mm in a single row or partly in 2 rows
depending on the individual, in one row in the largest of these, in 2 rows in small part in
smallest. In lower jaw in one row in all the above 13 specimens, except in 2 rows in small
part anteriorly in one specimen 568 mm. In same 13 specimens, palatal teeth in 2 rows
anteriorly tapering to a single row or to one tooth on midline posteriorly, and premaxillary
teeth usually 3, varying 2-4. l'n the largest specimen (755 mm, the type), in upper jaw in
2 rows and partly in 3 rows, in lower jaw in 2 rows in large part on palate in 3 irregular
rows anteriorly tapering to 1 tooth on midline ; premaxillary teeth in greatly increased
numbers, 10 altogether, irregularly arranged.

Measurement of 6 specimens 531-755 mm : body 53-55, trunk 48-50, tail 45-47, antedorsal
2. 0-3. 5, eye 0.3-0. 5 and 2. 0-3. 6 times in snout. In 13 specimens 260-755 mm; Head 4. 8-6. 5,
depth 1.1-1. 6, upper jaw 1.3-1. 9, lower jaw 0.9-1. 5, snout 0. 7-1.1. Depth in head 3. 4-5. 4
times, upper jaw in depth 0. 7-1.0, lower jaw in depth 0.9-1. 6, snout in depth 1. 1-2.0. Snout
5. 9-6. 9 and lower jaw 4. 3-5. 7 times in head.

Specimens examined from Aransas Bay, Texas; Pensacola, Cedar Keys (the type,
23636) and Lemon Bay, Florida; off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The latter
specimen taken by the Pelican at 11 fathoms; no depth record available for the others.
The largest specimen is the type, 755 mm.

This species differs from B. teres chiefly in proportional measurements, the most
conspicuous of which is the body depth, scuticaris being more slender. Most specimens
are distinguishable on sight by this difference when compared size for size. Others,
at a glance, appear to be intermediate in body depth. But determination of the pro¬
portional depth measurements of all available specimens shows no intergradation
between the two species although they closely approach in this character. Further¬
more, scuticaris, while having a more slender body, averages a longer head, upper and
lower jaw, and snout. Therefore, the ratios of these four measurements as compared
with the depth measurement, are given under both species, in the same order, for
the purpose of comparison. This should help to place specimens which are near the
borderline with respect to depth measurement.

CALLECHELYS Kaup

Callechelys Kaup, Cat. Apod. Fish. Brit. Mus., p. 28, 18 56 (genotype Calle-
chclys guicbenoti Kaup by monotypy)

This genus, judged by the one species studied, C. muraena, is nearest to Let bar-
chus. Both genera about agree in the position, direction and shape of the gill open

ing, the short row of teeth in the upper jaw, the rather high dorsal fin, the short tail

and the absence of pectorals. Callechelys differs in having an anal fin. The generic
characters are included below in the description of the single Gulf species examined.
Another species previously described from the Gulf from a single specimen which
was not examined is discussed below.

CALLECHELYS MURAENA Jordan and Evermann

Callechelys muraena Jordan and Evermann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 9: 466,
18 86 (Snapper Banks between Pensacola and Tampa Bay) — -Jordan
and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 620, pi. 87, 1891 (based

on type) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 378, pi.

63, fig. 164, 1896 (based on type)

Compressed, moderately slender. Tail shorter than trunk. Eye small, 1. 8-2.0 times in
short snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 4. 2-4. 3 times in head ; angle of mouth at a
considerable distance behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin of eye nearer tip of
lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout
short, 7. 0-8. 5 times in head, its dorsal aspect rounded, notably overhanging the short lower
jaw. Lips slightly differentiated near angle of mouth. Posterior nostril notably large, placed

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

481

on rim of gape under anterior margin of eye, its anterior rim well developed and flaring,
its posterior rim moderately so ; anterior nostril ending in a rather well developed tubule,
placed on lateral profile, somewhat nearer end of snout than posterior nostril. Tongue
adnate. Gill opening placed low, its entire outline visible on ventral as well as on lateral
aspect, placed horizontally in large part, curving downward in front, the space between the
two fellows smaller than opening. Dorsal and anal fins rather well developed, dorsal begin¬
ning on head not far behind angle of mouth ; no pectoral fin. Teet'h medium, moderately
differing in size ; in one row in jaws ; row in upper jaw short, beginning at posterior nostril
and ending at some distance before angle of mouth, the teeth small ; row in lower jaw
beginning at symphysis and ending at angle of mouth, the teeth rather large anteriorly
decreasing in size posteriorly ; palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly one row posteriorly,
anterior teeth comparatively large, 3 in each row, teeth in posterior row 3-4, smaller ;
premaxillary teeth 3, the anterior one on midline, the other two side by side, behind and
close to anterior tooth, the teeth about as large as the anterior palatal teeth. Ground color
yellowish, rather thickly spotted or clouded with rather small, diffuse, brown spots.

Measurements of 2 specimens 329-584 mm: body 60-61, trunk 52, tail 39-40, antedorsal
2. 8-3. 2, head 8. 1-8.4, upper jaw 2. 3-2. 6, lower jaw 1. 9-2.0, snout 1.0-1. 2, eye 0.5-0. 6, depth
2. 4-3.0

Two small specimens, 84-167 mm, have the upper jaw and palatal teeth some¬
what more numerous and the rows a little longer. Proportional measurements also
differ moderately from the larger specimens, as follows: Body 55-5 6, trunk 47-49,
tail 44-4 5.

Specimens examined all from the west coast of Florida: Snapper banks between
Pensacola and Tampa Bay (37996, the type 329 mm). Pensacola Harbor (44651,
584 mm). Clearwater Harbor (39652, 167 mm). Marco ( 152252, 84 mm).

This species is readily distinguished from other Gulf ophichthids, except C.
perryae, by the combination of its generic and specific characters. Its relationship is
discussed above under the genus.

Storey (1939, p- 71) describes a new species, Callechelys perryae , based on a
specimen, 734 mm, taken off Sanibel Island, Florida. Converting the author’s given
figures to percentages of the total length to make them comparable with the method
of description used in this paper, the proportional measurements of her type specimen
are: trunk 61, tail 33, antedorsal 2.5, head 6.7, snout 0.9 and eye 0.3. This specimen
then has a notably longer trunk and shorter tail than the 4 smaller specimens in¬
cluded in the above account.

LETHARCHUS Goode and Bean

Letharchus Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 436, 1882 (genotype
Letharchus velifer Goode and Bean by monotypy)

This genus is readily distinguished from the other ophichthid genera in the
Gulf by the presence of a well developed dorsal fin in combination with the absence
of anal and pectoral fins. Other notable characters are the absence of premaxillary
teeth and the relatively short tail. The non-tubular anterior nostrils constitute a good
distinguishing character. The generic characters are included below under the descrip¬
tion of the single species known from the Gulf. This genus is structurally nearest
Callechelys as discussed under that genus.

LETHARCHUS VELIFER Goode and Bean

Letharchus velifer Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5:437, 1882
(West Florida) — -Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 18 88:
616, 1891 (Pensacola)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 47: 375, pi. 61, fig. 160, 1896 (Snapper Banks off Pensacola
and Tampa)

Compressed, depth medium. Tail shorter than trunk, moderately tapering for a short
distance posteriorly. Eye very small, 1.7-2. 2 in the very short snout. Mouth and jaws small ;
lower jaw 5. 3-6. 6 in head ; angle of mouth behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin
of eye nearer end of lower jaw than angle of mouth. Snout very short, 9.4-10.9 in head,
notably produced beyond lower jaw, its dorsal aspect rounded. Lips differentiated poster¬
iorly by a moderate groove extending forward to under eye. Posterior nostril large, placed
on ventral aspect of lip under anterior part of eye, anteriorly with a wide, flaring, soft
margin, posteriorly with hardly any raised margin ; anterior nostril without a raised rim,
its margin irregularly scalloped, placed on ventral aspect of snout, near lateral profile agd
at a moderate distance from its tip. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, its entire outline en¬
tering ventral aspect, nearly lengthwise in position, the two fellows diverging only slightly
backward, the space between them at their anterior end much narrower than the opening.
Dcrsal fin present, rather high (for an ophichthid), beginning on head at a short distance
behind angle of mouth. Anal and pectoral fins absent. Teeth medium, moderately differing
in size, no canines ; teeth usually in one row in jaws ; row in upper jaw short, beginning-
near posterior nostril and ending at some distance before angle of mouth ; row in lower
jaw about reaching angle of mouth or nearly so ; extent of palatal teeth moderate, ending
at a short distance behind eye, in two rows anteriorly, usually in one row posteriorly ;

482

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

sometimes teeth in upper jaw in two rows or palatal teeth 2-rowed all the way ; anterior
palatal teeth somewhat larger than others premaxillary teeth absent. Almost uniformly
brown of variable shades of intensity, except lower part of head somewhat lighter, without
distinctive color marks ; dorsal fin in contrast light colored with a dark margin.

Measurements of 5 specimens 311-454 mm: body 59-62, trunk 51-54, tail 39-41, antedorsal
2.7-310, head 7. 6-8.0, upper jaw 1. 7-2.0, lower jaw 1. 2-1.5, snout 0.7-0. 9, eye 0.3-0. 5, depth
2.2-3. 0.

Specimens examined: West Florida (31-458, the types) and Gulf of Mexico
(43571), without any more definite locality. Pensacola, Florida, (44868). Pensacola
Harbor (44650, 44659, 44661). Off Deadmans Bay, Florida, 10 fathoms, 60 mm
(131944). Total number of specimens 26, 48-488 mm.

The striking distinguishing characters of this species, as compared with other
Gulf eels are stated under the genus heading.

CRYPTOPTERYGIUM, new genus

Genotype. — Crypto pterygium holochroma, new species.

This genus is apparently near Callechelys, differing chiefly in that the dorsal and
anal fins are hidden under the skin. Other generic characters are included below in
the description of the genotype.

CRYPTOPTERYGIUM HOLOCHROMA, new species

The single specimen on which this species is based came to me dissected
in small part. Possibly it was also mutilated in part while being captured.
As a consequence, the presence or absence of pectoral fins, the precise shape
of the gill opening and the structure of the tongue are not definitely deter¬
minable. Also, a small part from the ventral aspect has been cut away and

FIGURE 15. — Cryptopterygium holochroma; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 154994;
801 mm; off Cape Fear, North Carolina.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Eels of the Gulf Coast

483

the precise position of the anus is unknown. Therefore, the determined rela¬
tive length of the body and tail, and also that of the head and trunk, on
account of the injury to the gill opening, might be somewhat off. However,
I am confident that any such error is slight. Otherwise, the specimen is in
good condition and its essential characters and relationship readily determin¬
able. Its striking color pattern should result in the identification of the
species when rediscovered, without difficulty.

Slender, moderately compressed. Tail about one half as long- as body, well tapering.
Eye very small, 2.9 times m snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 5.2 in head ; angle of
mouth at a considerable distance behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin of eye
nearer tip of lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed with the mouth
closed. Snout moderate, 6.9 in head, well projecting beyond lower jaw. Lips not differen-
entiated. Posterior nostril large, placed on edge of gape under anterior part of eye, with a
raised, thin, flaring rim, well developed anteriorly, moderate posteriorly ; anterior nostril
in a tubule placed on ventral aspect of snout, a short distance behind its end, at the lateral
profile. (Gill opening placed low, oblique, of moderate size, a little larger than space be¬
tween the two fellows; gill openings partly destroyed and given description tentative.)
Dorsal and anal rays rather well developed but hidden under the skin, the fins visible ex¬
ternally as a slight mid-dorsal and ventral ridge. Teeth slender, pointed ; no canines ; teeth
in upper jaw small in a very short row (4 on one side 6 on the other), beginning near
posterior nostril and ending far from angle of mouth ; teeth in lower jaw considerably
larger, in one row extending nearly entire length of jaw ; palatal teeth still larger, in
two rows somewhat diverging backward, 3 in each row and one on midline behind and
between the two rows ; premaxillary teeth two, side by side, about as large as palatal teeth ;
upper jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth widely spaced.

Ground color whitish, with a yellowish tinge in places ; thickly covered all over, includ¬
ing ventral aspect, with black spots ; a row of large spots saddled on back, roughly quad¬
rangular but their boundaries irregular, unequal in size, spaced irregularly, sometimes two
coalescent, in general growing smaller posteriorly; a similar row of spots on ventral aspect
of tail ; a very irregular row of smaller, rounded spots below the large spots on trunk ;
still smaller spots, of variable size, rather thickly and irregularly scattered all over, includ¬
ing the ventral aspect and the spaces between the larger spots described ; spots on head
distinctly smaller than those on body and tail.

Measurements of type specimen : total 801 mm, body 67, trunk 61, tail 33, antedorsal
2.1, head 5.7, upper jaw 1.7, lower jaw 1.1, snout 0.8, eye 0.3, depth 1.7.

HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N.M. 154994; Pelican Station 183-9; lat. 33° 30’ N, long. 78° 13’
30” W ; off Cape Fear, North Carolina ; 12 fathoms ; trawl.

This species is easily recognized by its having the dorsal and anal fins covered
by skin and visible externally as a slight ridge, and by its profusely, all over, spotted
color pattern, including the ventral aspect.

GORDIICHTHYS Jordan and Davis

Gordiichthys Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 644, 1891
(genotype Gordiichthys irretitus Jordan and Davis by original desig¬
nation)

The genotype of Gordiichthys was based on a single mutilated specimen (see
below), and the genus placed in the family Muraenesocidae. I now examined another
specimen in a better state of preservation which is an ophichthid and is described
hereafter as Gordiichthys springeri. This latter specimen has the same pattern of den¬
tition as G. irretitus, although it differs in detail. The two species also nearly agree in
the shape of the head, the extreme slenderness, the extent of development of the dorsal
fin, and the relative length of the body and tail. Therefore, I conclude that the two
species are near in relationship and belong to the same genus, perhaps to two closely
related genera. From this it further follows that Gordiichthys is more properly placed
in the Ophichthidae.

GORDIICHTHYS IRRETITUS Jordan and Davis

Gordiichthys irretitus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 18 88: 644,
1891 ("from the spewings of snappers ... on the Snapper Banks at
Pensacola’5)

This species is known only from the type, a specimen in an advanced
state of digestion taken from the stomach of a fish. The type consists of
two separate parts which appear to belong to the same specimen; but even
this is not altogether certain. The lower part of the trunk, and an undeter¬
mined posterior part of the fish, probably a short part, are altogether miss¬
ing. The skin is gone and the structure and position of the nostrils and gill

484

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

opening are indeterminable, and the presence or absence of a pectoral fin is
not definitely determinable. Assuming that the two parts belong to the same
fish and that only a small posterior part is missing, the following very
roughly approximate measurements have been determined. Total length 75 5
mm. Body 64, tail 36, antedorsal 2.7, depth 0.9.

Mouth small ; snout tapering, well overhanging the lower jaw, premaxillary teeth ex¬
posed. Teeth variably stout more or less recurved, short or of moderate length, compara¬
tively few in number, in one row in jaws and on palate ; teeth in upper jaw 9 on right
side 6 on left, moderate as compared with the largest teeth, decreasing in size posteriorly,
the row beginning under eye and ending at some distance from angle of mouth ; anterior
3 or 4 (differ on the two sides) in lower jaw large and very stout, gradually decreasing in
size posteriorly (a small tooth at symphysis in front of anteriormost and largest tooth on
left side only), these followed by 5 or 6 abruptly smaller teeth but also gradually decreasing
in size posteriorly, the row extending nearly from symphysis to angle of mouth ; anterior 4
palatal teeth large and very stout (the second tooth short but also stout in specimen ex¬
amined), followed by 6 abruptly smaller teeth, the row extending to opposite angle of
mouth ; premaxillary teeth 3 closely approximated, 2 side by side and one in front bridging
the space between them, somewhat stouter and larger than any of the other teeth.

This species is compared with G. springeri under the account of the latter. While the
single known type specimen is in a bad state of preservation, the characters of the species
are so well marked, as compared with other known Gulf eels, that there should be no
difficulty in identifying specimens when the species is rediscovered.

GORD11CHTHYS SPRINGERI , new species

Very elongate, depth 1.3 per cent, compressed anteriorly, rounded posteriorly. Tail
shorter than trunk. Eye small, 2.1 times in short snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw
5.1 in head ; angle of mouth at some distance behind eye, a vertical though posterior margin
of eye somewhat nearer tip of lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed
with the mouth closed. Snout short, 7.7 in head, notably extending beyond short lower jaw.
Lips probably not differentiated (not well preserved). Posterior nostril on ventral aspect of
lip, under anterior part of eye. (Anterior nostril largely destroyed, probably in a short
tubule at a short distance from end of snout.) Tongue free. Gill openings placed low, nearly
horizontal posteriorly, curving downward anteriorly, the space between the two fellows

FIGURE 16. — Gordiichthys springeri; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 121604;
372 mm; off Salerno, Florida.

1951, No. 3
September 30

' Eels of the Gulf Coast

485

narrow, less than diameter of small eye. Dorsal origin at a short distance behind a vertical
through angle of mouth; dorsal and anal rays rather well developed (the skin binding and
covering the rays largely missing). Pectorals absent. Teeth small and medium, depending
on their position, recurved ; upper jaw with a short row of 5 small teeth, beginning under
posterior part of eye and ending at some distance before, angle of mouth; lower jaw with
one row of teeth (10 on right side, 5 on left, some apparently missing on that side), extend¬
ing from its anterior end to within a moderate distance of angle of mouth, the first tooth
small, the second notably larger, decreasing in size posteriorly ; palate -with a group of 5
teeth, 4 larger than lower jaw teeth, roughly arranged in 2 closely proximate rows, the fifth
tooth smaller on median line, between and at front of two rows, no other teeth on palate ;
premaxillary teeth 3, about as large' as palatal teeth, closely approximated, 2 side by side
and one in front and between them (latter tooth mising in specimen examined, but scar
left by it faintly evident). Ground color a light yellowish; with large brown spots, subeqral
to length of snout, varying moderately both ways, the spots irregularly arranged, very
roughly in two very irregular rows. The color pattern is preserved in about the posterior
half of the fish. Anteriorly the skin is largely digested ; but some small patches of skin
which are still partly preserved show traces of the brown spots.

Measurements of type specimen : body 65, trunk 58, tail 35, antedorsal 2.2, head 6.4,
upper jaw 1.8, lower, jaw 1.3, snout 0.8, eye 0.4, depth 1.3.

HOLOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 121604. From stomach of Carcharhinus milberti taken off
Salerno, Florida; in 18 fathoms; July 1-3, 1943; Stewart Springer; 372 mm.

This species is evidently nearest Gordiichthys irretitus. The two species seem to
nearly agree in some important proportional measurements and in the size of the
mouth, jaws, snout and eye. The general character of the dentition is similar in both
species. However, because of the state of preservation of the two available specimens,
especially the bad state of preservation of irretitus, no detailed comparison can now
be made between the two species, except to note a well marked difference in the den¬
tition on the palate. In irretitus the palatal teeth are in a single rather long row, the
anterior four large, followed by 6 smaller teeth. In springeri the palatal teeth are 4
large ones (and a fifth smaller tooth) in 2 irregular rows and without any smaller
teeth behind. This difference might prove to be of generic value when specimens in
a good state of preservation are compared. The large teeth in irretitus are also notably
stouter than in springeri.

The species is named after Mr. Springer who obtained the type specimen
from the stomach of a shark.

LITERATURE CITED

Baughman, J. L. — 1950 — Random notes on Texas fishes. Texas Jour. Sci. 2 : 127-128.

Sleeker, Pieter — 1864 — Atlas Ichthyologique Des Indes Orientales Neerdlandaises, t. 4.
Amsterdam.

Bohlke, James E. — 1949 — Eels of the genus Dysomma, with additions to the synonymy and
variation in Dysomma anguillare Barnard. Proc. California Zool. Club 1(7): 33-39.
Facciola, Luigi — 1887 — Intorno a due lepadogastrini ed tin nuova Nettastoma del mare di
__ Sicilia. Naturalista Slciliano. 6:163-167.

Grassi, B. and S, Calandruecio — 1896 — Sullo sviluppo dei Murenoidi. Atti della Reale Acad¬
emia del Lincei, Rome (ser. 5) 5 (1) : 348-349.

Gunther, Albert — 1870 — Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum. Vol. 8. London.
Jordan, David Starr and Bradley Moore Davis — 1891 — A preliminary review of the apodal
fishes or eels inhabiting the waters of America and Europe. Rep. II. S. Comm. Fish.
1888:581-677.

Lin, Stra-Yen — 19-33 — A new genus and three new species of marine fish from Hainan Island.
Llngnan Sci. Jour. 2(1): 93-96.

Myers, George S. and Margaret H. Storey — -1939 — Hesperomyrus fryi, a new genus and species
of echelid eels from California. Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 1(4) : 156-159.

Norman, J. R. — 1922 — A new eel from Tobago. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 10:296-297.
Norman, J. R. — 1925 — A new Eel of the Genus Congromuraena from Tobago, with notes on
C. balearica and C. opisthophthalmus. Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 15 : 313-314.

Parr, Albert Bide1 — 1930 — Teleostean shore and shallow-water fishes from the Bahamas and
Turks Island. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll. 3(4).

Regan, C. Tate1 — 1912 — The osteology and classification of the teleostean fishes of the order
Apodes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. S, 10 : 377-387.

Reid, Earl D. — 1934 — Two new eongrid eels and a new flatfish. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.
91(15).

Richardson, John — 1844 — Ichthyology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Erebus and Terror. 1844-48.
London.

Storey, Margaret Hamilton — 1939 — Contribution toward a revision of the ophichthyid eels.
I. The genera Calleehelys and Bascanichthys, with descriptions of new species and
notes on Myrichthys. Stanford Ichthy. Bulk 1(3) : 61-88.

Trewavas, Ethelwyn — 1932 — A contribution to the classification of the fishes of the order
Apodes, based on the osteology of some rare eels. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 1932:
639-659.

Wade, Charles B. — 1846 — Two new genera and five new species of apodal fishes from the
eastern Pacific. Allan Hancock Pac. Exp. 9(7) : 181-213.

Wood-Mason, J. and Alfred Alcock — 1891 — On the results of deep-sea dredging during the
- season 1890-91. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, 8 : 119-138.

CORRECTION

In the account of Prionotus punctatus in this Journal, vol. 2 no. 4, p. 513, 1950, five-
specimens are correctly listed from Uruguay. However, in discussing some special features
of. these specimens the word “Paraguay9’ has been erroneously substituted for “Uruguay”
in 4 places on the same page.

486

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

A New Pelecypod

487

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PELECYPOD OF THE GENUS
ANADARA FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO

LEO GEORGE HERTLEIN
California Academy of Sciences

A series of nine specimens of an arcid bivalve referable to the genus
Anadara were recently sent to me by Mr. J. L. Baughman, of the Game,
Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport, Texas, These specimens, the largest
of which measures 45 mm. in length and the smallest one 2 5.2 mm., were
taken southeast of Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 fathoms. This pelecypod is
said to occur abundantly in that area below the 40-fathom line.

Comparison of shells of this species with those from east American
waters as well as a search of the literature has failed to reveal any which are
identical. The species is here described as new and is illustrated. It is named
for Mr. j. L. Baughman who presented the specimens to the California
Academy of Sciences. The photographs used for illustrations were made
by Frank L. Rogers.

class PELECYPODA
order PRIONODESMACEA
FAMILY ARC1DAE
genus Anadara Gray
Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species
Plate A, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Shell of medium size, fairly thick, subrhomboidal, elongated, quite
convex, posterior end slightly higher, obliquely rounded, anterior end with
a faint depression just below and parallel to the hinge margin, the anterior
dorsal margin sloping slightly outward and downward then merging into
the broadly rounded ventral margin; umbos high, inflated, with a slight
medial depression at the beaks; sculpture consisting of 26 rather high,
squarish ribs some of which are faintly medially grooved toward the central
portion of the ventral margin and as they approach the ventral margin all
tend to become subobsolete; the ribs are lower on the posterior slope; the
interspaces are wider than the ribs over most of the shell but on the anterior

4 - PLATE A

FIGS. 1-6 — ■ Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species. Holotype, from off Port Aransas,
Texas, in 40 fathoms. Length, 45 mm.; height, 25.4 mm.; convexity (both
valves together), 28 mm. Fig. 1. View of exterior of right valve. Fig. 2. View
of anterior end. Fig. 3. View of interior of specimen shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 4. Umbonal view. Fig. 5. View of exterior of left valve. Fig. 6. View
of interior of specimen shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 7 — Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species. Paratype, from the same locality
as the holotype. Length, 44 mm.; height, approximately, 28 mm.; convexity
( both valves together ) , 34.4 mm. Umbonal view. The valves of this specimen
are much more convex and have a wider cardinal area than the holotype.

488

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

portion they are about as wide as the ribs; concentric sculpture consisting
of fine lines of growth which form fine beading on the tops of the ribs,
also there are irregular concentric grooves representing growth stages cardi¬
nal area moderately wide, slightly wider anterior to the umbo, bearing 5 or 6
chevron-shaped ligamental grooves, the upper portion of the cardinal area
beneath and anterior to the beaks is sculptured only with longitudinal lines
of growth; hinge with rather fine teeth, 32 in the anterior series, 3 8 in the
posterior series; ventral margin of valves with crenellations corresponding
to the external ribs. Dimensions: length, 45 mm.; height, 2 5.4 mm.; con¬
vexity (both valves together), 28 mm.

Holotype, No. 9539 and Paratypes Nos. 9540, 9541, 9542, 9543, Calif.
Acad. Sci. Dept. Paleo. Type Coll., from off Port Aransas, Texas, in 40
fathoms; J. L. Baughman, collector. A paratype has been deposited in the
Department of Paleontology at Stanford University and another in the
San Diego Society of Natural History. Eight paratypes, also from southeast
of Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 to 50 fathoms, were taken (September 16,
1951) since the original lot. These have been assigned Nos. 73 6A-H in the
museum of the marine laboratory of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission.

The original nine specimens of this new species do not vary greatly in
their general characters. The only notable difference is in one specimen (Plate
A, Fig. 7) in which the cardinal area is exceptionally wide with corres¬
ponding convexity of the valves, and the irregular constrictions of the
valves at various stages of growth are accentuated. The length of this shell
is slightly less than that of the type specimen but the convexity (both
valves together) is 34.4 mm. rather than 28 mm., and the width from the
upper portion of the cardinal margin of one valve to the other is approxi¬
mately 9 mm. in comparison to approximately 5.5 mm. on the type and
the ligamental grooves are more numerous. Study of the series of specimens
suggests that the differences may be considered individual variation probably
due to habitat.

The species here described as new appears to have its greatest affinities
with Miocene forms of the Atlantic slope and West Indies rather than with
any known living species.

The shell of Anadara baughmani n. sp. resembles that of the species
described as Barbatia ( Dilnvarca ) dasia Woodring ( 192 5) from the upper
Miocene of Bowden, Jamaica, but differs in the much more rounded and
more obliquely sloping posterior dorsal margin in comparison to the
straighter more nearly vertical slope of the Bowden species.

The shell of the new species differs from that of Area ( Anadara ) pro-
pearesta Mansfield (1932) described from the Choctawhatchee, upper Mio¬
cene of Florida, in that the posterior dorsal margin is less obliquely sloping
the anterior end is shorter in proportion to the length, in the fewer teeth
and in that the cardinal area appears wider than on the Floridan species,

The shape of Area dariensis Brown & Pilsbry (1911) described from
the Miocene Gatun formation, Isthmus of Panama, is somewhat similar to
that of the new species. The fossil form differs decidedly in the more num¬
erous ribs (31) many of which are deeply grooved medially and in tfu
straight obliquely truncated posterior dorsal margin.

The general appearance of the species here described as new is some¬
what similar to that of Area ( Scapharca ) concinna Sowerby (1844) a trop¬
ical west American species, but differs in the less numerous ribs, greater con¬
vexity, equal valves and thicker shell.

1951, No. 3
September 30

A New Pelecypod

489

LITERATURE CITED

Brown, Amos Peaslee, and H. A. Pilsbry. — 1911 — Fauna of the Gatun formation, Isthmus of
Panama. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 63 : 336-373. Page 362, pi. 22, fig. 10, July 27,
1911. “Gatun formation. Isthmus of Panama.” (Miocene).

Mansfield, Wendell Clay. — 1932 — Miocene pelecypods of the Choctawhatchee formation of
Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 8 : 1-240, 3 figs., 34 pis., Oct. 8, 1932. Page 52, pi. 5,
figs. 2, 4, 6. “Upper Miocene: Cancellaria zone — station 11732, borrow pit near Jackson
Bluff, Leon County, type locality (seven valves).” Florida.

Sowerby, George Br,ettingham, 2nd.— 1844 — Conchologica Iconica .... continued by G. B.
Sowerby, in Reeve “Conchologica Iconica.” 20 vols., London. See Area eoncinna
Sowerby, Conch. Icon. Vol. 2, Area, sp. 34, pi. 6, fig. 34, Februrary, 1844. “Hab. Gulf
of Nicoiya, Central America (found in coarse sand at the depth of twelve fathoms) ;
Cuming.” — Maury, Paleontogr. Americana, Vol. 1 (4), 1922, p. 187(25), pi. 29(1),
fig. 10 (as Area (Scapharca ) eoncinna). Panama.

Woodring, Wendell Phillips. — 1925 — Miocene mollusks from Bowden, Jamaica ; pelecypods
and scaphopods. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 366 : 1-222, 28 pis., May, 1925. Barbatia
(Diluvarca)dasia Woodring, page 46, pi. 5, fig. 4. Bowden, Jamaica. Upper Miocene.

490

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

NOTES

RECORDS FROM EAST TEXAS OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH, SEMOTILUS ATRO-

MACULATUS, NOTROP1S CORNUTA, AND MICROPERCA PROELEARIS.

Of the many collections made in East Texas during the past two years
several contain specimens that merit published record. Three of these species
— Semotilus atromaculatus atromaculatus (Mitchill), Notropis cor nut a
hole pis Hubbs and Brown, and Micro per ca proeiearis Hay— -are not included
in Baughman’s Random Notes on Texas Fishes (Tex. Jour. Sci., 2, 1950:
117-138, 242-263).

Semotilus atromaculatus atromaculatus has been collected in: (1)
Venado Bayou, A/2 miles west of San Augustine, San Augustine County,
in the Neches River System; (2) Harris Creek, 7 /2 miles east of Tyler,
Smith County, in the Sabine River System; (3) creek, 1 mile east of
Gilmer, Upshur County, in the Lake Caddo drainage; and (4) Haggerty
Creek, 7 miles east of Marshall, Harrison County, in the Lake Caddo drain¬
age. These four records indicate that this species is fairly widely distributed
in the northeastern corner of Texas.

Notropis cornuta isolepis has been collected in Texas only in the Lake
Caddo drainage, as follows: (1) Haggerty Creek, 7 miles east of Marshall,
Harrison County; (2) Lawrence Creek, 6 miles northwest of Marshall, Harri¬
son County; (3) Eagle Creek, 4^2 miles west of Harleton, Henderson
County; and (4) creek, 1 mile west of Harleton, Harrison County. These
four records indicate that this species is common in the Lake Caddo area
of Texas. Since Lake Caddo drains into the Red River, from which this
subspecies was described, this range extension is not surprising.

M icroperca proeiearis , or a closely related species, has been collected more
frequently in Texas than either of the two previous species. The records are:
(1) Peach Creek, 14 miles east of Conroe, Montgomery County, in the San
Jacinto River System; (2) creek, 6 miles east of Livingston, Polk County,
in the Trinity River System; (3) creek, 1 mile west of Saratoga, Hardin
County, in the Neches River System; (4) Lake Caddo, 5 miles northeast of
Karnack, Harrison County (3 times); (5) Haggerty Creek, 3 miles north¬
west of Karnack, Harrison County, in the Lake Caddo drainage (2 times);
and (6) Rice’s Creek, 4 miles west of Maud, Bowie County, in the Sulphur
River drainage (Red River). The specimens from the Red River system
seem to differ slightly from those found in the Neches, Trinity, and San
Jacinto River systems. — clark hubbs, department of zoology, univer¬
sity OF TEXAS.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF DIONDA EPISCOPA SERENA IN THE

NUECES RIVER, TEXAS.

On April 15, 19 51, while George G. Henderson, Jr., John D. Riggs,
and the author were collecting fishes in the East Fork of the Nueces River at
Barksdale in Edwards County, Texas, Dionda e pisco pa serena Girard was ob¬
served to be unusually colorful. The most pronounced coloration change that
had taken place was the addition of considerable bright yellow-orange. This
color was present on the proximal two-thirds of all fins and formed a streak,
especially bright anteriorly, from the tip of the snout to the anterior base

1951, No. 3
September 30

Notes

491

of the anal fin. The yellow-orange color was superimposed on the normal
color pattern, with no other major changes noted.

Two breeding schools of Dionda were observed. The first was at the
head of an artificial seep-spring inflow, about 50 feet long, located below
the low-water bridge on State Highway 5 5. The water temperature here
was 18° C, one degree cooler than in the main stream. The area was
densely packed with breeding fish. When the collecting party approached,
the majority of the fish departed for deeper water. Some, however, remained
lodged in the gravel at the spring source. A few of these were found to have
died. When the area was examined closely, a few eggs were discovered in
the gravel. While looking for the eggs, the party discovered several breeding
individuals, which had become buried in the spring as far as one foot from
the water edge and more than one inch underground. These fish were in
underground water and became very active when exposed. Shortly after the
examination of the spawning area, the fish were again observed spawning at
the same spot.

The second spawning locality, with a water temperature of 17° C, was
at a natural seep spring at the side of the river about a hundred feet down
stream from the first. In this locality the spring was in the stream course
at a depth of about one inch. When first examined the fish were breeding in
an area about three feet square. The school was so thick that many fish were
out of the water. As in the first locality the fish left the spring when it was
approached. The area was re-examined five times at intervals of approxi¬
mately five minutes and the fish were found to be breeding each time,
although in smaller numbers than at the first examination. Each time the
fish milled around, as though greatly agitated. The spawning was apparently
taking place in the inch of water overlying the spring. The heavy, but non¬
adhesive eggs became lodged in the gravel of the spring.

Three hauls with a six-foot common-sense mesh seine were made around
the second locality. Due to the shallow water and gravel bottom, a large
majority of the specimens escaped capture. Enough fish, however, were ob¬
tained in the breeding area to show what species were most prevalent. As
might be expected Dionda episcopa serena Girard, comprising about 75% of
the specimens, was dominant, while it ranked sixth in the main stream. The
next most common species was Gambusia af finis Baird and Girard, which
ranked seventh in the main stream. The abundance of Gambusia in shallow
water is to be expected. The third most common species is Poecilichthys
lepidus (Baird and Girard), which was almost as abundant as the Gambusia.
It also ranked third in the main stream. The abundance of this species in
the still water might be explained by its choice of gravel bottom with spring
water flowing over it. Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard) and Herichthys
cyanoguttatus cyanoguttatus Baird and Girard were collected in small num-
ers around the breeding locality. These species ranked fifth and eleventh re¬
spectively in the main stream. A single specimen of Lepomis megalotis aquil-
ensis (Baird and Girard) was taken. This species ranked fourth in the main
stream. The stomachs of the fishes collected around the breeding locality
were checked for Dionda eggs with negative results. Several other species
from the main stream were not collected around the breeding locality. They
were, in order of abundance: Notropis amabilis (Girard) (first in abund¬
ance), Notropis venusta (Girard) (second), and rarely Campostoma anom-
alum pullum (Agassiz), Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede) , Astyanax fasci-
atus mexicanus (de Filippi) , Notropis lutrensis Notropis venusta hybrids,

492

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 8
September 30

Ame turns natal is (LeSueur), and Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) . The
absence of Notropis venusta and N. ambalis in the breeding area was to be
expected since they are not frequently found in shallow water. The remain¬
ing five species and the hybrids were taken so rarely in the main stream that
their absence in the breeding area can be explained without any consideration
of the somewhat atypical ecology of the locality. — -clark hubbs, depart¬
ment OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS.

1951, No. 3
September 30

Book Reviews

493

BOOK REVIEWS

THE WOODBINE AND ADJACENT STRATA OF THE WACO AREA OF CENTRAL
TEXAS; A SYMPOSIUM FOR THE 1951 FIELD TRIP, SPONSORED BY THE
EAST TEXAS GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Edited by Frank E. Lozo with the assistance
of Bob F. Perkins. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas. 161 PP-

Price $6.25 (paper cover), $7.50 (cloth cover).

Occasionally there is published a symposium which is not only a must
in the library of a geologist but also one which is of considerable interest to
those who are not geologists, especially geographers and historians. This is
such a volume in that its main theme is the Woodbine formation, a geologic
formation which is of great economic importance to Texas, the United
States, and the world. As stated in the publication, the Woodbine has pro¬
duced oil, up to January 1, 1951, in the amount of 5.27 percent of the total
world production, 8.44 percent of the total United States production, and
2 5.16 percent of the total oil produced in Texas.

The East Texas Geological Society of Tyler, Texas, the editors, authors,
and Southern Methodist University, are to be congratulated for the assem¬
blage of nine excellent papers in one volume. These papers are:

The Grand Prairies of Texas, Frank Bryan

History of Discovery and Development of Woodbine Oil Fields in East Texas,
C. I. Alexander

Comparative Status of the Woodbine in Oil Production, G. J. Loetterle
The South Bosque Field, McLennan County, Texas, J. C. Price
Geology of Belton Reservoir Area, Leon River, Bell County, Texas, Jack Colligan
Geology of Whitney Reservoir Area, Brazos River, Bosque-Hill Counties, Texas,
Arthur M. Hull

Stratigraphic Notes on the Maness (Comanchee Cretaceous) Shale, Frank E. Lozo
Woodbine Sandstone Dikes of Northern McLennan County, Texas, John Napier
Monroe

Stratigraphy of the Woodbine and Eagle Ford, Waco Area, Texas, W. S. Alkins
and Frank E. Lozo

The Woodbine and Adjacent Strata of the Waco Area of Central Texas
The papers are all well written and greatly clarified by good diagrams
and photographs, all of which have been enhanced by excellent reproduc¬
tion and printing on a good quality of paper. The volume presents new
material and data heretofore unavailable to the geological profession and also
assembles in one publication previous ideas about the stratigraphy and cor¬
relation of the Woodbine and related formations. — John t. rouse.

THE CLIMATE NEAR THE GROUND. Rudolf Geiger. Translated by Milroy N. Stewart.

Harvard University Press, 1950.

This book presents an almost-untouched field of meteorology to the
American scientist. It consists mainly of a collection and analysis of exist¬
ing data in the field of micro-climate as developed in Germany. The au¬
thor points out that many of the conclusions made regarding habitat and
environment are in error because of the bases on which meteorological ob¬
servations are taken.

It is customary, he says, to take weather data at 1.5 or 2 meters above
the ground in order to eliminate some major anomalies which occur closer
to the surface. Geiger points out that it is precisely this 2 -meter layer in

494

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

which practically all animal and vegetable life exists. Consequently it has
been possible to explain by the methods of microclimatology. Consequently,
a study of this layer (microclimatology or micro-meteorology) is essential
in explaining many growth and living patterns.

In human life, there are many subconscious decisions made to avoid
unfavorable microclimatic factors. For example: building houses on hilltops
to secure cool evening breezes, walking on the shady side of streets, swim¬
ming in cool pools on hot days. Similarly, many animals and plants seek
locations and changes in environment in order to subsist.

This book is of great value to anyone working in biological and eco¬
logical fields. It may well serve as an inspiration for others to accumulate
and publish like data on North America. — Charles e. balleisen.

HINDEASTRAEA DISCOIDEA WHITE FROM THE EAGLE FORD SHALE, DALLAS

COUNTY, TEXAS. Bob F. Perkins. Fondren Science Series Number 2. 11 pages, 2

figures, 3 plates, April 17, 1951. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas.

$1.00.

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN UPPER CRETACEOUS

CORALS, 1785-1950. Bob F. Perkins. Fondren Science Series Number 3, 45 pages,

1 plate, April 30, 1951. Southern Methodist University Press. Dallas, Texas. $1.50.

These two papers are somewhat complementary. In the first the writer
gives a systematic description of Hindeastraea discoidea White and discusses
the taxonomy of the genus. The description of the species includes measure¬
ments of 17 specimens. The two collecting localities are shown by map,
figure 1. Figure 2 is a columnar section showing the stratigraphic position
from which the specimens were secured. The author speculates regarding
conditions of sedimentation in the upper Eagleford. A bibliography of 9
references is cited. The one criticism is that no detailed sedimentary analysis
of the material of the collecting horizons is given. Such analyses are highly
desirable because of the increasing importance of paleoecology.

The second paper is in two parts. The first a bibliography of North
American upper Cretaceous corals from 1785-1950 in which 52 papers
are cited, pages 7-15, inclusive. The papers are annotated. The second part,
pages 16-45, inclusive, is a catalogue of genera and species. Sixty- two
genera are recorded and 117 species either specifically identified or unde¬
termined are listed. In addition reference is made to 13 indeterminate species.
Geological formation and collection locality for each species record is cited.
The plate shows the distribution of North American upper Cretaceous corals,
with reference to the distribution of Late Cretaceous land masses and sea¬
ways.

The new Fondren Science Series is being well established with these
valuable additions to geological literature.— -marcus a. hanna.

1951, No. 3
September 30

The Texas Journal of Science

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not

more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the paper can be
improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Literature Cited

The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible.

These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as
they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.
J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

- 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps.

- -1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬
sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

Pages Pages Pages

1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12

4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84

Each Additional 100 Copies
1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89

Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author's
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

Pages
12 to 16
15.40

5.81

The Editorial Board

1951, No. 3
September 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

1 Geological and Geophysical Surveys

Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. FA-7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

Horvitz Research Laboratories

Houston, Texas

Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street

COCKBURN OIL

CORPORATION

1740 Commerce Building

HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

COASTAL OIL FINDING
COMPANY

Gravity Meter Surveys

Esperson Building

Houston 2, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental Building

DALLAS, TEXAS

HERSHAL C. FERGUSON

Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist

Esperson Building

HOUSTON, TEXAS

825 3^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La.

E. DARRELL WILLIAMS

Consulting Geophysicist

3114 Prescott Street 1

Houston 5, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3

September 30

Humble
rest rooms
are

extra dean;
Humble
service is
something
extra, too!

First for
extra quality

Texas’ Own

GASOLINE

First in the field of extra quality gasoline,
Humble Esso Extra still sets the pace!

Check these extra values : extra quick starting;
extra anti-knock performance; controlled
volatility that delivers extra power, a patented
solvent oil that keeps engines extra clean.

You’ll get improved performance and extra
pleasure from your car with Esso Extra. Stop at
the Humble sign in your neighborhood and
fill up with Texas’ own Esso Extra, the
gasoline that gives you something extra for your

money

1951, No. 3
September 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Quality

TIRES and BATTERIES

AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’

HOUSTON, TEXAS

icaici: iooos

^ > -

W I NES,; L I QU E U.R S
A N I) C II A MT A G N E S

| Front; the World’s
L Markets! ^

FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM

Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9

“Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz

“Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . . . $3.00

“Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00

(Limited edition)

Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles —

Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector's Item) . $1.25

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

A MUST for Visitors

When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or
for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you’ve
had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf
Grill. Don’t miss seeing one of the South’s finest
eating rooms.

TURF GRILL

2216 Market • Galveston, Texas

1951, No. 3
September 30

The Texas Journal of Science

SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC

1007 South Shepherd Drive
Houston, Texas

Established — 1932

»■»%« >i< »*-» ♦y* .*•» >*■»

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS S

3806 Cedar Springs Rd.

Dallas 4, Texas

11 52Vi North Second St.

Abilene, Texas

AMERICAN
BRAHMAN
BREEDERS
ASSOCIATION
2711 S. MAIN

EMBLEMATIC

OF THE BEST
IN MODERN

AMERICAN BEEF
BRAHMANS

• HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

QuiNBY L7i':rnt

’ ' MkIIII llllllil

“A name worth remembering” [

You can benefit from our many
years experience in the personnel \

field. j

Executive, Office, Sales and Technical |

Personnel

Member National Employment Board, Si

Chamber of Commerce and Employment j

mugmk jragH

Counselors t

409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg. [

Houston 2, Texas jj

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 3
September 30

c4lway,3 Ckoode an
Affiliated National Hotel!

29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities
AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS

ALABAMA

Hotel

Admiral Semmes .

Thomas Jefferson .

. Mobile

..Birmingham

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Hotel

Washington .

...Washington

INDIANA

Hotel

Claypool .

...Indianapolis

LOUISIANA

Jung

Hotel

Hotel .

DeSoto .

.New Orleans
New Orleans

NEBRASKA

Hotel

Paxton .. . . .

. Omaha

NEW MEXICO

Hotel

Clovis . .

SOUTH CAROLINA

Hotel

Wade Hampton .

. Columbia

TEXAS

Hotel Stephen F. Austin..

Hotel Edson .

Hotel Brown wood .

Hotel Baker .

Hotel Travis _

. Austin

. Dallas

Hotel Cortez .

. El Paso

Hotel Buccaneer .

. Galveston

Hotel Galvez .

. Galveston

Hotel Jean LaFitte ...

. Galveston

Coronado Courts .

. Galveston

Miramar Court .

. Galveston

Hotel Cavalier .

. Galveston

Hotel Plaza . .

. Laredo

Hotel Lubbock .

. Lubbock

Hotel Falls .

. Marlin

Hotel Cactus .

Hotel Menger .

..San Antonio

Angeles Courts .

...San Antonio

VIRGINIA

Hotel Mountain Lake Mountain Lake

Hotel Monticello . Norfolk

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
Gun Perforating

Houston, Texas

ROBERT H. RAY CO.

Gravity Meter Survey

and

Interpretation

FOREIGN - DOMESTIC

2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas

1961, No. I
September

The Texas Journal of Science

TAYLOR EXPLORATION
COMPANY

SEISMIC SURVEYS
CONSULTING

2118 Welch
Houston, Texas

1951, No. 3
September 30

The Texas Journal of Science

W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY

Domestic — Export

LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS

for

Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service
Laboratories

HOUSTON, TEXAS U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA.

As courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our advertisers, please make
mention of the fact that you saw thir adverisement in The Texas JOURNAL OF
Science.

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS

President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Human health, hygiene and public health:

C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices.

C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin
Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos
Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities :

Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin
Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc* :

L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Cocouncillors :

Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station

Miss Francis Moon. Department Public Welfare, Houston

Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin

A. B. Melton, Denton

Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station
Young scientific talent:

C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas
Cocouncillors :

Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M.

High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston
Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.

J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin
Cocouncillors :

Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas
Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin
Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M.

Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth

J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston
Food quality and responsible factors.

L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston
Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops.

J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport
Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges.

B. -B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton.

Cocouncillors :

Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin
Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin
Forest and range. Forests as lumber.

Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station
Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc.

Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio
Underground water and rivers.

Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston
Oil and gas.

William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin

Sulphur.........:.... . . . . .

Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative.

F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin
Metals

Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston
Paleontological collections.

Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin
Archeological collections.

T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin

PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections : Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into ihree branches: East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP : “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science” is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated to
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly.

Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters.

MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of each year.

DUES : Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 Jn one payment.

Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each.

V ; . •'

<MI

CHAPTER FIVE in the Fascinating Story of the Search for Oil

•' * -*■ S -L in orcier to push the search
for new oil reserves into previously inaccessible
areas and to work under adverse climatic con¬
ditions, General Geophysical crews today also
have completely portable, climate-proofed seis¬
mograph equipment at their command. De¬
veloped in General laboratories, this completely
unitized, air-craft type construction equipment
adds new strength, portability, convenience
and dependability to seismograph operations.
General's portable seismograph equipment was
designed specifically to provide trouble-free
service under all advrse conditions encountered
in marsh, swamp, arctic and foreign countries
without sacrificing the standards of per¬
formance characteristic of other General in¬
struments. And General promises further
progress in the future in the search for oil
reserves.

Aft' Core drilling for structure

was suggested by Burton as early as 1917 and
was introduced into Oklahoma in 1919 simul¬
taneously by Dr. W. A. J. M. van der Gracht,
who had used the diamond drill with great
success in Holland, 1905-15, and who had used

Roumania

it in structural determination
before 1914, and by M. M. Travis, formerly of
the Midco Petroleum Company. Its initial and
a very important success was that of outlining
the north extension and limits of the Tonkawa,
Oklahoma pool in 1922. Core drilling con¬
tinued at a very active rate in Oklahoma until
it was superseded by the reflection seismograph
and continued to be used in Western Kansas
for the determination of structure of such slight
degree that it was within the limits of error
of the seismograph (as used at that time).
From E. DeGolyer’s book, "The Development
of the Art of Prospecting ”■

The Library

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951)

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Editor

Pres. Conserv. Coun.

Rep. to A.A.A.S.

V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical
V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological
V. Pres. Sec. III. Social
V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological

C. C. Doak
Willis G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
J. L. Baughman
J. G. Sinclair

C. D. Leake

D. B. Calvin
W. Frank Blair

Roy Donahue
Horace R. Blank

V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young
Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte

Junior Academy Greta Oppe

President

Ex. Vice President
Secretary-Treasurer
Im. Past President
Elected Director
Elected Director
Elected Director

BOARD OF

C. C Doak
W. G. Hewatt
Gladys H. Baird
C. M. Pomerat
Armstrong Price
Gordon Gunter
Don O. Baird

DIRECTORS

A and M College
Texas Christian U.

P. O. Box 228
Medical Br., U. of T.
A and M College
Marine Inst., U. of T.
S.H.S.T.C.

W. R. Woolrich, Dean
L. W. Blau
E. DeGolyer
J. Brian Eby
0. S. Petty

BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950)
Engineering, U. of T.
Humble Oil & Refining Co.
DeGolyer & McNaughton
Consulting Geologist
Petty Geophysical Co.

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
Rockport
Galveston
Galveston
Galveston
Austin
College Station
College Station
College Station
College Station
Galveston

College Station
Ft. Worth
Huntsville
Galveston
College Station
Port Aransas
Huntsville

Austin
Houston
Dallas
Houston
San Antonio

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, University of Houston
Freeport

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons
Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C.

Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross
Wm. McAnulty,, Science, Sul Ross
Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T.
Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar
Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor
BroWnwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne
College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M.
Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M.

Commerce

Elsie Bodemen, Biology, E. T. S. C.

Corpus Christi

R. A. , Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U.
Dallas

E. P. Oheatum, Biology, S.M.U.

V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly
Arthur Richards, Geology; S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical
Denton

B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C.

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W.
Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U

C. M. Shigley, Research, Dow Chemical Co.
Galveston

C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T.
Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U.
Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T.
Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical
Huntsville

Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I.
Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtuann, Entdmology, Texas Tech
J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech

Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech
Nacogdoches 1

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C.
E. L. Millet, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word
J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research
Jacob Uhrieh, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.C.
Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton
Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor

Haskell McClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Flpyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

Volume III, No. 4 Published Quarterly at

December 30, 1951 San Marcos, Texas

(Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Texas, March 21, 1949)

The Texas Journal of Science

— ★ -

EDITOR

J. L, Baughman
Chief Marine Biologist
Texas Game and Fish Commission
Rockport, Texas

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Dr. Charles F. Squire
Dept, of Physics
The Rice Institute
Houston, Texas

Dr. Claude C. Albritton, Jr.
Dept, of Geology
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas

Dr. W. Frank Blair
Dept, of Zoology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

Dr. Thomas N. Campbell
Dept, of Anthropology
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas

Dr. John G. Sinclair
Dept, of Anatomy,
Medical Branch
University of Texas,
Galveston, Texas

Manuscripts and correspondence on the
Journal should be addressed to
The Editor

Texas Journal of Science
Box 867
Rockport, Texas

ADVERTISING MANAGER
Guy N. Turner
1404 Esperson Building
Houston, Texas

Vol. III

No. 4

CONTENTS

The Longhorn Tin Smelter. H. F. van der LAAN _ 495

Land Use. PAUL WALSER _ 508

A Study of Secularization, Depressed Folk Populations, Suicide, and
Crime in the United States and Wort Worth as a More Intimate
Local Situation. DR. AUSTIN L. PORTERFIELD _ 516

The Distribution of Discolored Sea Water. HELEN LAUDAU HAYES

and THOMAS S. AUSTIN _ _ 530

A Review of Certain Aspects of Cetacean Physiology.

LELA MAE JEFFREY _ 542

Climatic Limits Affecting Distribution of Mesquite in Texas.

EDWIN R. BOGUSCH _ 5 54

Attempt to Grow Hops in Northeastern Mexico. J. N. STERN _ 5 59

Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods. D. S. HUGHES and

J. H. STANBROUGH _ _ _ , _ 5 68

•Foraminifera of the Glen Rose Formation of Central Texas.

FREDERICK L. STEAD _ _ _ 577

Statistical Study of Irvingella, Upper Cambrian Trilobite.

ROBERT BYRON GAINES, JR. _ 606

North American Marine Nematodes. B. G. CHITWOOD _ 617

DR. C. M. POMERAT, A Distinguished Scientist _ 673

Book Reviews _ _ , _ 679

A Message to Members _ _ _ _ 682

JAN 3 1 1952

c4eSop Sags dome interesting things

about the beasts of the forest.

They, too, were having some sort
of Annual Meeting, at which
there was much boasting going
on, after the manner of bipeds and
quadrupeds everywhere.

Each animal had impressive numbers
of offspring of which to boast; and
it was with some satisfaction that
the lesser animals put the question
to the Lion, "And how many do you
have at one time?” To which the
Lion replied,
majestically and with
some nonchalance, "One! but that
one is a Lion.”

THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE is
surpassed by many publications in
volume of circulation — but it is without peer
in quality of its circulation.

By endeavoring to offer fair prices;
and by producing a magazine which is
now one of the outstanding publications
of its kind in America, the Texas
journal of science is striving to offer
an attractive and dignified medium for
certain type of advertisers.

IF YOU KNOW of any prospective advertisers
who might be interested in taking space
in our pages, you will be doing the
Academy a real service by directing them
to us . . .

THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

NOTICE

THE GRANT THAT MADE IT POSSIBLE TO SEND
EACH OF OUR COLLEGIATE MEMBERS A SUBSCRIPTION
TO THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE DURING THE
YEAR 1951 HAS EXPIRED. WE HOPE THAT THOSE
STUDENTS WHO HAD THIS COMPLIMENTARY SUB¬
SCRIPTION HAVE ENJOYED IT AND THAT IN THE
YEAR 1952 WE MAY WELCOME THEM AS FULL FLEDGED
MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY. SUCH MEMBERSHIP, IN¬
CLUDING A SUBSCRIPTION TO THE JOURNAL, IS $5.00
PER YEAR.

ALL INQUIRIES IN THIS REGARD SHOULD BE AD¬
DRESSED TO MRS. GLADYS H. BAIRD, SECRETARY,
TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, BOX 228, HUNTSVILLE,
TEXAS.

a J§

8 *

I? ^

§ S
00 &

O tof)

„ G

'Sa

« M-<

bJDrt

=§«
rG bfj
3 G
PQ X
u, T3
^ 6
u <^>
O .

"2 <L»
G </>
3 3

tuo <U

s-s

C/3

Q ~o

Wj O
G Q*

Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter

FIGURE 2 — ORE STORAGE. With bucket loader for reclaiming

THE LONGHORN TIN SMELTER
TEXAS CITY, TEXAS

H. F. van der LAAN
Tin Processing Corporation

INTRODUCTION

The Longhorn Tin Smelter in Texas City has a rather unique position
among Texas’ fast growing industries. In the first place, it is the only one
of its size in the entire Western Hemisphere. There are other small plants
but their combined yearly production is less than the output of one month
in Texas City. In the second place, unlike most Texas industries which,
generally based on oil and natural gas, obtain their raw material from within
the state, the tin smelter has to be supplied with tin concentrates produced
in foreign countries. Finally, only a very small part of the output is used
in Texas itself. Why then do we have this plant over here? In order to
answer this question we have to give a broad picture of the tin situation
in general.

495

496

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

The world production of tin is relatively small when compared to
other non-ferrous metals. Yearly output in 193 5-39 amounted to about
170,000 long tons. Due to World War II it first rose to 246,000 long tons,
then fell to less than 90,000 long tons after the conquest by Japan of the
main production area, Southeast Asia. Current production is again about
170,000 long tons per year. World output of lead amounts to six times
that of tin; zinc, ten times; and copper, twelve times.

Workable tin ore deposits in the world are mainly confined to three
areas, Southeast Asia, Bolivia, and Central Africa (see Table 1).

TABLE 1— DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD TIN ( IN CONCENTRATES) PRODUCTION

COUNTRY

1935-39

1949-50

Malaya .

. . . 32%

34%

Indonesia .

. . .17

Others in Southeast Asia (Siam, China, Burma,

Indo-China) .

. . . 18

Bolivia .

. . .15

Others in North and South America .

. . . 1

Africa (mainly Belgian Congo and Nigeria)

. . 12

All others .

. . 5

100%

The contribution of the United States amounts to less than .0 5 per

cent of the total.

The distribution of the smelter production is quite different. (See Table
2). Although transportation costs would be somewhat less on tin than on
ore concentrates, this advantage is in many cases more than offset by higher
costs of other materials needed in the smelting process or the absence of
skilled labor in the ore producing countries. Therefore a large part of the
ore is smelted in the industrial centers.

TABLE 2 — DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD TIN (METAL) PRODUCTION

COUNTRY

1935-39

1949-50

Malaya .

Others in Southeast Asia (mainly Indonesia

. . .45%

39%

and China ) .

. . 14

United Kingdom .

. . .20

Netherlands .

. . . 12

U. S. A .

. . . —

Others in North and South America .

. . . 1

All others .

. . . 8

Total .

. . 100%

100%

Before the last war practically no tin was produced in the United States
whereas this country consumed 64,000 tons per year or 40 per cent of world
production in 193 5-39 (72,000 tons or 42 per cent in 1950). It will be clear
from the above figures that ten years ago the tin position of the United
States was extremely vulnerable. If in case of war the country could do
without this this metal, it would not be so serious; but the opposite is
true. Substitutes for tin are unsatisfactory in most applications. Distribution
of tin consumption by products in the United States is shown in Table 3.

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

497

TABLE 3 — UNITED STATES — DISTRIBUTION OF TIN CONSUMPTION BY

PRODUCTS (1950)

Primary Tin Only

Tin and terne plate . 49%

Alloys (solder, bronze, babbitt, etc.) . 39

All others . 12

Total . 100%

As tin plate is the raw material for tin cans, every engine needs babbitt
and bronze bearings, and electrical equipment cannot do without soldered
joints, it is self-evident that a modern war cannot be waged without tin.

It is for these reasons that during the first World War when shipping
was hazardous, a few tin smelters using Bolivian ore operated in this country.
After the emergency they had to be closed down, however, because with
their high costs they could not compete with foreign plants. An even worse
situation developed in the beginning of World War II. Southeast Asia was
threatened by Japan and the continental smelters were already cut off by
German occupation so that the entire tin supply of the Allies might become
(and eventually was) restricted to Bolivia and Central Africa. Smelting
facilities of any consequence would then be available only in England and
on a smaller scale in the Belgian Congo, and they were not sufficiently
equipped to treat all the low grade impure Bolivian concentrates formerly
handled by Dutch and German plants.

Again the establishment of a smelter in the United States became neces¬
sary, but on account of the experience after the first World War, it could
not be expected that private enterprise would take the risks involved. For
that reason the Government had to step in. Through its agency, the Recon¬
struction Finance Corporation, it gave the assignment to build and operate
a plant, for and on its behalf, to Tin Processing Corporation, a wholly owned
subsidiary of the N. V. Billiton Maatschappy. Based on this company’s ex¬
perience with low grade Bolivian concentrates in its smelter in Arnhem,
The Netherlands, it was the only one which could guarantee the quality of
the product and acceptable tin losses.

Obviously, the plant had to be located on or near the coast. The Gulf
Coast was chosen because it is nearest to Bolivia and offers inexpensive fuel
(natural gas) and relatively cheap hydrochloric acid, which latter material
consumed in large quantities in the purification of the ores is an important
cost factor.

Operations at the Longhorn Tin Smelter started in April 1942, and
maximum production was reached in 1946 with 43,500 long tons (45 per
cent of the then very low world production). At present the output is about
32,000 long tons per year. During the war the concentrates were supplied
by Bolivia and the Belgian Congo to which additions could be made from a
stockpile of Indonesian ore obtained before Japanese occupation. After the
war most of the Belgian Congo material again went to Belgium; but instead
of that, a part of the Indonesian and Siamese production came to Texas City.
Small quantities are also obtained from Mexico and Portugal and the few
tons produced in the U. S. A. In addition to that, some domestic tin-
containing industrial residues are treated.

498

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

TABLE 4 — ORE BASIS — LONGHORN TIN SMELTER

County of Origin

(Yearly Averages)

Tons Ore % Tin

Tons Tin

Distribution

Ore

in %
Tin

1942-46

Bolivia .

. 59,000

25,000

Belgian Congo . . .

6,300

4,600

Indonesia (stocks)

. 4,500

3,400

Miscellaneous . . . .

700

300

Total .

. .70,500

33,300

100

1949-50

Bolivia .

. . 50,600

17,100

Indonesia .

. 15,800

11,400

Siam .

. . 4,400

3,300

Belgian Congo . . . .

. 1,600

1,200

Miscellaneous . .

. 2,100

1,200

Total .

. .74,500

34,200

100

The ore basis of the plant during the war and at present is shown in
Table 4. Because the Bolivian concentrates are of much lower grade than the
others, their share is much less on the tin than on the ore basis.

GENERAL REMARKS ON TIN METALLURGY

In principle, the production of tin from tin ore concentrates is a very
simple process. One can do it in any coal-burning stove at home by mixing
the proper amount of tin ore with the fuel. The metal would run out into
the ash pan. Commercial operation would not be different except in scale
and the problems of tin metallurgy would be mainly of a mechanical nature,
if it were not for two things, namely, the necessity to keep losses at a mini¬
mum and to make a pure product. Up to a certain extent this is of course
true for any metallurgical process but is especially so for tin on account of
its relatively high value. Before the war the price of a pound of tin (40c)
was four times as much as a pound of copper and nine times that of lead or
zinc. In 1949 when tin sold at $1.00 per pound these ratios were 5 times
for copper, 6.5 for lead, and 8 for zinc. Recently, the difference has been
even greater.

Whereas good quality tin can be produced from alluvial concentrates by
direct smelting and very little refining, the Bolivian concentrates would yield
a very impure metal if treated in this way. In order to compete with tin
made from alluvial ores, impurity removal and control is of the utmost im¬
portance. Tin which fails to meet grade A specifications (a minimum of
99.8 per cent tin and maxima for individual impurities) has a lower value
and is difficult to sell, especially in this country, because it can only be used
for a limited number of applications. There are two ways to reach this ob¬
jective. One may either refine the metal electrolytically (as was done in this
country during the first World War) or remove the bulk of the impurities
before the material is submitted to smelting. The latter method is the one
applied at Texas City.

ORE CONCENTRATE COMPOSITION

The chemical analysis of the concentrates treated at the Smelter varies
widely. The tin content of Bolivian material, for instance, runs from 18-66
per cent whereas the alluvial concentrates from Southeast Asia and Africa

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

499

contain 72-75 per cent. Most of the tin is in the form of cassiterite (SnCL)
although some tin sulphides occur also. The rest of the concentrates is made
up mainly of iron oxide and sulphides, silica and silicates. In addition to
that there are smaller quantities of other non-ferrous metals like zinc, lead,
antimony, arsenic, copper, and bismuth. Table 5 shows the approximate
average composition of the two principal kinds of concentrates.

TABLE 5 — ANALYSIS OF CONCENTRATES

Constituent Bolivian Alluvial

(Indonesia, Belgian Congo, Siam)

Tin . 34% 73%

Iron . 18 2

Silica . 14 1.5

Sulphur . . 7 .4

Alumina . 4 2

Tungsten oxide . 6 .2

Zinc . 6 .09

Lead . 5 .04

Arsenic . .4 .03

Antimony . 4 .02

Copper . 2 .01

Bismuth .05 .02

Silver . 5 oz/short ton trace

The reason for the large difference between both is that the Bolivian ores
occur in the original veins in which they were deposited together with many
impurities, whereas the alluvial ores in Southeast Asia and Africa are sandy
products of erosion which has broken down and carried away most of the
original surrounding rocks and impurities.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT AND PROCESS

UNLOADING, SAMPLING, STORAGE

The plant is situated about 4 miles from the Texas City docks where
concentrates were unloaded before the explosion disaster of 1947. Since that
time they are routed via Galveston. The material is packed in bags on ac¬
count of its high value. Each bag contains 75 to 100 pounds. At the docks
they are put on trays and carried to the plant by railroad flatcars. Lift trucks
are used for unloading and transporting to the sampling units.

The bags are slashed, or, in case they have to be returned for reuse,
carefully opened by hand. The concentrates from here on are transported
by conveyor belts. Material coarser than *4” first passes a cone crusher. The
next step is sampling which consists of cutting out automatically 10 per
cent of the material, of which the composition is representative of the whole.
The process is repeated until about 150 pounds (l/400th of the original
weight) is obtained. This sample is further cut down in several steps and
ground finer at each step, until finally a few grams still representative of
the original material can be submitted to chemical analysis. Sampling and
chemical analysis have to be done with utmost care because payment for tin
content and deductions for impurities depend on this and are also the basis
for the metallurgical balance of the plant and the determination of losses.

The concentrates themselves are transported by a set of belt conveyors
to any desired point in the building. Mixes of lots are made up according
to their chemical composition. Each succeeding lot is spread out over the
previous one, like layers in a pancake, so that when the ore is reclaimed for

500

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

treatment each bucketful contains a part of all the lots in a mix. The re¬
claiming is done with a bucket loader (see Fig. 2). The filled buckets move
on trailers to the various parts of the plant. This form of transportation
is preferred to conveyors on account of its greater flexibility, which is im¬
portant in view of the varying composition of the material.

PURIFICATION OF BOLIVIAN ORES BY ROASTING AND LEACHING

Figure 3 shows a flow sheet of this part of the process which consists
of roasting the ores, leaching with hydrochloric acid, and re-roasting the
leached products. The waste acid is retreated for the recovery of the hydro-
cloric acid and byproducts.

FL013HLEST PURIFICATION BOLIVIAN COICENTRATE3

Salt

Bolivian Concentrates

Hydrochloric Acid

Boasting Kilns

Residua

Leaching In Ball Boilers

— I

Vasts Acid and Slimes

Re roasting in Kilns

Thickeners

>lter

Siloes

Drum Filter

Vasts Acid

Slimes

Neutralization

Diao Filter

Vasts Acid

Cementation

Reduced

Liquor

Silver-Copper

Cements

Ra roasting in Kilns

Market

Concentration

Steel ter

Crystallization

Calcination

FIGURE 3— FLOWSHEET Pur¬
ification of Bolivian Ores.

Hydrochloric

Acid

Iron Oxide
Calcines

Returned to
Leaching

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter

FIGURE 4 — ROASTING KILNS. With feed hoppers at right and feed hoppers for
ball boilers at left. Impure Bolivian ores are roasted to remove part of
the impurities and tc make others more soluble in the subsequent acid
leach.

ROASTING

Roasting is heating at a relatively low temperature so that sintering
or smelting of the material does not take place. Its purpose is to remove part
of the impurities (especially sulphur) and to convert others into a form
which is more easily soluble in the subsequent acid leach. Salt is added to
assist in some of the reactions. The furnaces are rotary kilns of which the
plant has ten. They are brick lined (50 feet long) cylinders which have a
diameter of 4 feet and rotate at a slight angle from the horizontal. The ore
is fed at one end and gradually moves downwards. From the other end the
kilns are heated with natural gas. The material is transported to the kiln
feed hoppers and from the roasting to the leaching department in ore
buckets by overhead cranes.

LEACHING

The roasted materials are leached with strong hydrochloric acid
at a temperature of about 220°F. Most of the metallic impurities like iron,
lead, copper, silver, etc. go into solution whereas the tin oxide is hardly
attacked.

502

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No, 4
December 30

Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter

FIGURE 5 — BALL BOILERS. In which roasted impure Bolivian concentrates are
leached with hydrochloric acid.

Leaching is done in twelve ball boilers which are rotating hollow spheres
(diameter 12 feet) constructed of steel plate with a rubber lining to prevent
corrosion of the steel and a acid brick lining to protect the rubber from
the abrasive ore. The trunnions are hollow and serve to admit and remove
acid and steam for heating. The ore is charged through a circular opening,
closed by a cover. After leaching, the waste acid is removed; it is not clear
but contains a lot of ore slimes. The leached residue is washed by substitut¬
ing the cover by a screen, turning the ball boiler until the screen is under¬
neath and pumping water through the material. The washed residue goes
back to the roasting kilns for elimination of the last traces of removable
impurities.

Waste acid and slimes are separated in thickeners and drum vacuum
filters. Thickeners are circular settling tanks. The clear liquor flows over the
rim whereas the slimes collect at the bottom. A further removal of waste
acid takes place on drum filters, which are hollow cylinders lined with filter
cloth rotating around a horizontal axis. The inside is under vacuum. The
material is picked up from a container underneath and gradually loses the
waste acid in the section above the liquid level. The filter cake is repulped
with lime water for neutralization and then again filtered on a disc filter.

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

503

This consists of cloth lined discs working in the same way as the drum
in the first filter. The product finally goes back to the kilns for roasting.

The cleared waste acid consists of a solution of various chlorides, mainly
iron and also some free acid. Its disposal has been a problem for many years.
Running it into Galveston Bay had to be stopped because of alleged inter¬
ference with marine life. As a preliminary measure all waste acid was then
stored in ponds (see Fig. 1). This could not go on indefinitely because the
material is a hazard, especially during hurricanes. Therefore a process was
worked out to reconvert the iron chlorides into fresh acid which can be
reused and an iron oxide byproduct. A plant to accomplish this has been
built and is, at the moment, in the starting-up stage. In short the process
is as follows. The waste acid is first brought into contact with scrap iron
which precipitates most of the impurities like antimony, arsenic, copper, sil¬
ver, etc., in metallic form. This is done to prevent them from contaminating
the product acid, and at the same time they become an asset because the
product has considerable value due to its silver and copper content. After
this the liquor consists mainly of a solution of ferrous chloride. This is con¬
centrated and crystallized. Crystals containing the ferrous chloride in hy¬
drated form are dried and then roasted. The ferrous chloride reacts with
water vapor from the crystal water and oxygen from the air forming hydro¬
chloric acid, which is caught in absorption towers, and an iron oxide calcine.

In the leaching and acid recovery departments all equipment has to be
resistant to the very corrosive acid and chloride solutions. Steel has to be
protected by rubber lining or acid resistant paint whereas plastics are also
used extensively.

smelting

The purpose of smelting is twofold:

1. Separation of the tin from the oxygen with which it is combined
(the reducing agent is coal which takes over the oxygen and forms carbon
dioxide) .

2. Smelting together of the remaining substances of the ore like silica,
iron oxide, and alumina, in order to form a liquid slag from which the tin
droplets can settle out (limestone is added to promote fluidity) .

Impurities like lead, antimony, etc. are also reduced and go into the
raw tin. The same applies to part of the iron. The further the reduction of
tin is carried through, the more iron is reduced. If one would convert prac¬
tically all the tin in one step, such a large amount of iron would go into
the metal that it could not be handled anymore in the refinery. It is for that
reason that smelting is performed in two steps. In the first step (ore smelt¬
ing) raw tin with a low iron content is made and a certain amount of tin
is left in a partly reduced conditioh in the slag. The rich slag, assaying about
2 5 per cent tin, is resmelted in the second step (slag smelting) producing an
alloy of tin and iron called hardhead and a discard slag containing about
1,5% tin. The hardhead is returned to the ore smelting step where the iron
reacts with fresh tin oxide under formation of iron oxide, which goes into
the slag, and the tin joins the raw metal.

The reactions are actually even more complicated because the reduction
from tin dioxide (SnC>2) to tin goes via tin monoxide (SnO). This tin
monoxide is very volatile at the prevailing furnace temperature. The conse-

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

5 04

quence is that part of the tin leaves the furnace with the gas which, there¬
fore, has to undergo an extensive treatment for recovery of the valuable
metal

The various materials which make up the furnace charges, like ore,
leached residues, slag and other intermediate products, coal and limestone,
are fed at preset rates from a row of bins onto a belt conveyor. After passing
a paddle mixer the charge drops into buckets which are emptied into the

_ FLOISHEET SMELTING AND REFINHC _

Alluvial Ore a

Bolivian Residues and Slimes

Dust

Ore Re verberatory Furnaces
Raw Tin

Rich Slag

Discard
Slag

- I

Dump

Refinery

Iron Removal

Slag Reverberatoiy Furnases^

Hardhead Dust

Dross

Metal

High Impurity
Metal

Low Impurity
Metal

Refinery

Duqp

Alloy Dross

Refined Alloy

Casting

FIGURE 6— FLOWSHEET. Smelting
and Refining, Longhorn Tin Smelter.

Copan

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

505

Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter

FIGURE 7— REVERBERATORY FURNACES (center) In which the tin is reduced
to metal and the balance of the concentrates forms a slag. Regenerators
are at the left, "tin floats” and slag granulating launders at right. In
foreground, dross liquating furnace.

furnace hoppers by overhead cranes. Smelting is done batchwise in ten rever¬
beratory furnaces which are in essence covered rectangular containers (forty
feet long and twelve feet wide) made of firebrick. They are heated from
either end with natural gas. The heat of the flame is not only given off
directly to the charge but also to the roof which, in turn, transmits heat to
the charge by radiation (reverberation). Temperatures in the furnace finally
reach about 2700 °F which is necessary to obtain a fluid slag. The direction
of the flow through the furnace is reversed every hour. The burned gas passes
a regenerator, a structure filled with a checkerwork of brick, to which it
gives off part of its heat. The combustion air enters through another regen¬
erator which has been heated by the furnace gas in the preceding cycle. The
air is therefore hot when it enters the furnace which increases the flame
temperature, hence the amount of heat transferred to the charge in a certain
time, thus increasing the capacity of the furnace. After a charge is ready,
tin and slag are removed through separate tap holes. The tin is collected in
"floats”, rectangular brick lined containers, whereas the slag is granulated
by dropping it when still hot and fluid through a stream of water. The sud¬
den cooling causes the slag to break up into small particles which can be con¬
veniently rehandled. The gas goes through flues to an electrostatic precipi-

506

The Texas Journal of Science

1961, No. 4
December 30

tator. This consists of a set of tubes with a wire in the center connected
to high voltage rectifiers. The dust particles, when passing through the tubes,
obtain electric charges and are attracted to the (grounded) tubes to which
they give off their charge. The collected dust drops into hoppers and is
pneumatically transported to the charge bins of the furnaces.

refining and casting

Raw tin carried by crane from the furnaces is poured into kettles (cast
iron, half spherical containers, heated by gas with a capacity of about 50
tons of metal). Molten tin can be handled like water. It can be pumped
with centrifugal pumps and refining processes, like filtering and precipita¬
tion reactions, are possible which are similar to what chemical plants do
with watery solutions. By cooling to a temperature slightly above the melting
point of tin, iron crystallizes out as a tin-iron compound. Most of this can
be removed by skimming off the top layer. The skimmed off material (dross)
is returned to the ore reverberatory. Small crystals are eliminated by pump¬
ing the tin through a porous tile filter. Part of the dross contains such a
large amount of metallic tin that it is worthwhile to put it first into a
liquating furnace in which the excess tin is sweated out.

Metal from alluvial concentrates and part of the Bolivian residues is
already low enough in impurities after this treatment and can go on to cast¬
ing. Metal from other Bolivian residues and slimes still contains too much
antimony, copper, and arsenic. These are removed by addition of aluminum
which forms insoluble compounds with these elements. The only difference
with a precipitation reaction in a watery solution is that the crystals obtained
do not sink to the bottom but go to the top where they can be skimmed
off. After the removal of the excess aluminum with caustic soda, this metal
is also ready for casting.

A typical analysis runs as follows:

Sn .

. 99.87%

Fe .

. .003%

Sb .

. 031

Ag .

. 004

As .

. 020

Cd .

. nil

Pb .

. 042

Ni & Co .

. .002

Bi .

. 005

S .

. 002

Cu .

. 022

Zn .

. trace

The aluminum dross containing a lot of entrained tin in addition to the
mentioned impurities is resmelted with slag which serves to take up the
aluminum. The resultant metal after again being refined to remove arsenic
and iron is marketed under the name of Copan. It is an alloy of about 80-90
per cent tin, 10-15 per cent antimony, and 2-5 per cent copper. It is a very
good raw material for the manufacture of babbits (bearing metal) which
have aproximately the same composition.

Tin is cast in bars or pigs weighing about 83 pounds. The molds moving
on a horizontal endless belt pass a rotating pouring spout which device insures
that each mold receives the same amount of metal. A slight dross layer is
skimmed off by hand. Covers attached to another endless belt are placed on
top whereas water sprays cool the bottom and sides of the mold. The purpose
of this arrangement is to freeze the top part last thus preventing the forma¬
tion of shrinkage cavities. If these occur and are accidently filled with water
during transportation or storing, explosions might occur when the bars are
melted by the consumer. The cover also carries the trademark. The bars are

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Longhorn Tin Smelter

507

Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter

FIGURE 8 — CASTING MACHINE. Tin is poured at the right into molds moving
to the left on a conveyor belt. The second conveyor at the top carries
the covers. At the left, stackers and trailers with finished tin bars each
weighing 83 pounds.

discharged onto a conveyor from which they are picked up by a hydraulically
operated stacker which puts them on trailers for transportation to the ware¬
house. All handling there is by lift trucks. The trademark is Longhorn Three
Star (two star and one star have been used for lower grade products which
are no longer made).

MISCELLANEOUS DATA

Natural gas (about 1,000 BTW per cu. ft.) is piped into the plant
at a pressure of 200 lbs. per f. sq. in., which is reduced to 10 lbs. for use in
the furnaces. Its consumption is 110,000,000 cu. ft. per month. Power is
suplied from the outside to a substation which has six 500 KVA trans¬
formers. Monthly consumption is 1,000,000 KWH. Water is partly obtained
from wells on the property and partly from the Galves’ton Water Company
which brings water into the district from the Brazos River. The laboratory
makes 12,000 determinations of tin and impurities in concentrates, inter¬
mediate products, and metal per month. About half of these are specto-
graphic. The plant employs around 8 50 people. The capital investment in
equipment is approximately $12,000,000.

LAND CAPABILITY CLASSES

SUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION

m CULT tVAT lOfj - RASTURg , HAY, WQ3&.ANS AND WlPUEgl

r ; assumes good ms, mtimamm practices owuy

n : MODERATE CONS£ R VArtQK Tf? ACT iCES 8EC-£CSARY

HQ RESTRSCTiCGS !N USE

MODS ft ATE SSSTR CTiO.VS >N USC

SEVERE RESTRICTIONS W USE

BEST SUITED EOS YpslDUEE AND RECREATiON

HEX ; jRTENSiVE CONSERVATION PRACTICES NECESSARY
I¥ 1f>£8£NNiAL VESETATiON- INEftEaUSRT CULT ! VAT tCKM

Courtesy, U. S. Soil Conservation Service.

LAND USE

PAUL WALSER *

State Coordinator
Soil Conservation Service
Temple, Texas

The term land use is meaningless unless it is qualified. I shall have
to define good land use and bad land use.

Let us examine the use of land by aboriginal people who had not
yet domesticated any animals nor discovered the secret of seeds. These people
took their food where they found it and lived under a situation that was
ideal from the standpoint of the land. The aborigine stayed in one place,
or roamed around according to his success in finding food. He undoubtedly
remained near one source of water or another. Water was probably no
great problem for this man because of the ideal natural situation I mentioned
before. I doubt if primitive man ventured far into desert areas. We can
assume that he stayed in humid territory or at least no more than
sub-humid.

* Presented at the second Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Sciences of the Texas Game, Fish
and Oyster Commission Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas, April 6-9, 1950.

508

1951, No. 4
December 30

Land Use

509

The land over which this early man moved was covered with trees,
shrubs, vines, or grasses. The water cycle was complete. Raindrops or snow
falling to earth first struck the tree tops and the tops of other plants.
The drops and snow flakes then fell softly from there and sifted and
trickled through the brush or grass to come to rest momentarily in the
leaf litter and other mulch that lay on the surface of the soil. This water
filtered slowly through the mulch and was absorbed by the humified layer
of soil immediately beneath. With more and more precipitation the top
layer of soil became saturated and water infiltrated into deeper layers of
soil, following root channels, worm holes and other openings, and finally
entered the cracks and pores of bed rock deep in the ground. When this
infiltering water reached an impervious layer, water accumulated there,
the water level rose, and lateral pressures moved the water to points where
it emerged again from the earth. These were the springs that fed the
streams that flowed through the land of our aborigine. There were many
times, of course, when there was so much rain that all of it could not be
taken into the earth. This extra water flowed toward the streams, slipping
cleanly and quietly into the streamflow. Streams were thus able to flow
uniformly throughout the year regardless of season.

Birds and beasts of all sorts, as well as our aboriginal man had no
problem about water and little more about food. Fish abounded in the
streams. The fish were seldom disturbed even with occasional floods. These
floods rose and receded slowly and in any event were rarely caused by
muddy water except after some rare catastrophic geologic change. These
floods invariably were dissipated into swamps and marshes and so. through¬
out the year there was little or no disturbance where fresh water met the
sea. Oysters, clams, lobsters, shrimp, and other fish that love this part-
salt-part-fresh water, thrived in teeming millions.

This was the land on which primitive man lived. There was a natural
balance between water and land. Soil was being constantly formed and
improved. When soil movement took place it was merely a step in the
natural production of new soil. Vegetation of all sorts grew thickly over the
soil. Microscopic life in the soil was at its best. Springs, lakes and streams
were maintained at uniform levels. The balance of soil, water and organic
life provided food for fish, fowl, beast, and man.

Was this good or was it bad land use? There was no destructive soil
erosion eating land faster than soil could be formed. There were no roaring,
raging floods occurring season after season, year after year. Dry seasons came
and went, but vegetation retained its vigor on the basis of abundant
moisture stored in the soil.

Aboriginal man certainly did not practice bad land use. His life
activities left no more mark on the land than did that of any other of the
wild creatures living there. Was this then good land use?

By my definition it was neither good nor bad land use. Primitive man
did not use the land. Trees grew old, died and rotted. Fruit ripened and
was never eaten. Thousands of things were there for man to use but he
did not know it! He was destined to remain a savage until he did start
using the land. And, so long as he remained a savage-— so long was he to
remain few in number-— just another wild creature without significance
among many wild creatures.

510

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

WHAT CAN HAPPEN when land is not properly used is shown in this picture, which
was taken near Decatur, Texas. C. C. Rich purchased the farm in 1885. Approxi¬
mately 80% of the land had been cleared for cultivation four years prior (1881).
The remaining 20% was cleared by Mr. Rich about five years later. Cotton and corn
were the principal crops grown on the farm with moderate to high yields produced
each year, depending principally upon rainfall. During this first period of 15 to 18
years, yields of 400 to 500 pounds of lint cotton and 60 bushels of corn per acre
were common. About 1900, one small gully formed but could be crossed with til¬
lage implements until about 1905, at which time other lateral gullies began to form,
and by 1915 sheet and gully erosion had destroyed the field for cropping purposes.
Since that date the gullies have increased in width and depth and are now 2’ to 15’
deep. Sheet erosion has removed practically all the topsoil, which in a virgin condi¬
tion is about seven inches in depth. From the time this farm was cleared until about
1915, it supported one farm family. Today, no buildings or improvements are lo¬
cated thereon. Two-thirds of the area (upper slopes) was abandoned in 1951. The
remaining one-third (lower slopes) was abandoned in 1921.

Now let us examine land use as practiced by civilized man. Our
aborigine took his first step toward civilization when he discovered he
could plant seeds in the soil and grow his own food where he did not have
to travel far to get it. He did not progress, however, until he found that
he could grow more food on a given area if he tilled the soil around his
seedling crop. Meantime he had also cut down his need for hunting by
domesticating animals that would give him meat and hides at home. The
fourth big step leading to civilization came when some smart member of
the primitive group observed that certain rocks, when burnt by fire, *
produced a substance that fire would no longer burn and was hard, difficult

1951, No. 4
December 30

Land Use

511

to break and if ground or hammered would hold a point or an edge for a
long time. Man then had a good axe with which to clear land and, with
metal on the plow point, tillage of the soil became a fine art.

With the consequent great increases in production from the soil men
found it convenient to divide their labor. Some, relieved from food-getting,
became craftsmen, others became merchants to distribute the wares of the
craftsmen. Still others found time to indulge their curiosity or imagination
about many things-— and art and science were born.

With all this came also increased population. More and more land was
needed for grazing flocks and herds— -more and more land had to be plowed.
Populations grew so large that the land would not produce enough here
and there over the world. Great migrations took place and made history.
The last great migration was the one that finally brought the United States
into existence.

Wherever people migrated they took their own arts and crafts with
them and then absorbed the arts and crafts of the people who were already
on the land. This generally led to improvements of old tools and machines,
and invention of new ones. But the pattern of land use remained the same
— ever increasing numbers of cattle, sheep and goats-— ever widening areas
of cleared and cultivated land.

The settlers of America found the land in exactly the condition I
have described as ideal for the land. The activities of the American Indian
had made little change in the natural soil-water-plant-animal balance. The
settlers found a land of abundance— -and more of it than these people
could ever have dreamed. The settlers brought with them the accumulated
knowledge of the ages plus a landhunger that was soon to prove of
revolutionary proportions, capable of conceiving a new form of govern¬
ment heretofore unrecorded in history.

The pattern of agriculture was the same as ever. The inherent richness
of the American soil poured forth bountiful crops. Population grew faster
here than usual because the natural increase was constantly supplemented
by immigration from other lands. There was so much land — enough for all
who might come, it seemed.

Within a period of two hundred years, much of it within the last
seventy-five years, the face of an entire continent was changed. Where
vast forests once grew there are great areas of farms. Most of what once
were thousands of square miles of unbroken grass land are now cultivated

fields. Meantime great cities were piled up near streams where once an Indian
cupped his hands to drink while a deer watched from hiding in the brush at
the water's edge. Other great cities also stand now where formerly both In¬
dian and deer moved quickly on-— unaware of the gigantic store of water
lying there deep below the ground into which the white man was later to
sink his wells.

The pattern of agriculture was the same. It was the same as that fol¬
lowed by the peoples in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, Italy.
There was only one difference. In America the people took advantage not
only of the combined learning and inventiveness of all the varied races who
made up the population but they also found enormous stores of metal and
other natural resources. These the Americans processed into tools and ma¬
chinery with power and efficiency beyond the wildest imagination of the
ancient peoples. The American people accomplished in a few years what

512

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

it took generations to do in olden times. But the agricultural pattern was
the same — the widespread removal of vegetation and intense tillage prac¬
tices carried on without regard to topography or climate. Was this good
land use? If it was good then surely we should not have been compelled to
dig the ancient cities of Persia, Egypt, Carthage, and Rome from under
the accumulated dust of ages where these cities had long remained forgotten
by men!

Let us assume for the moment that bare soil cannot be eroded by wind
or rain. Let us then look at a large area of land upon which there is no
vegetation of any sort. What happens to the water cycle? Raindrops fall to
earth. (Remember — we assume no soil erosion). Just as soon as the rain¬
drops strike the earth they seek a lower level. Some of the drops would soak
into the ground but as quickly as several drops get together the water flow
begins. These little waters meet others. The flow gets larger. It isn’t long
before the flow is strong enough for most of the water to leap across any
openings that may be in the soil. Little waters become bigger waters. The
water rushes to the stream, to the river, and, in a tumbling flood, flows to
the sea — returning to the ocean one hundred days, or one hundred years
too soon!

(We still are not admitting that soil erosion is possible.) What happens
to the streams followed by the birds and beasts, and providing life for fish?
The water from each rain is gone so fast that only the springs keep up
stream flow. The underground reservoirs that feed the springs are not
recharged and the springs soon cease to run. The rivers become dry washes
except when they are filled with swift flowing floods. So much water comes
down the river — when it does come — that it meets the sea with enough
force to drive the salt water far from shore holding it there long enough
to disrupt and kill the animal life that likes neither all fresh nor all salt
water. When the flood has at last poured itself out there is no longer any
fresh water pressure at the mouth of the river and the salt water returns —
to flow as far upstream as the level will permit. This finishes the story.
There is no chance for fish life the entire length of the river. Nor for any
other life.

Now let us add soil erosion to this picture. Raindrops kick the bare
soil around, plugging the soil pores and literally putting a raincoat over
the soil. After the first few moments of rainfall little or no water is ab¬
sorbed in the soil. Particles of soil loosened by raindrops are rolled or floated
away in the runoff. As friction is increased soil is cut away in chunks. Water
that normally would have been absorbed into the ground is collected in
gullies and is immediately dumped into the streams. Mud and sand fill the
stream bed reducing its capacity. A small rain, under these circumstances,
can cause a flood. When the flood finally recedes it drops its load of sediment.
This is no longer soil. It is merely the "bones” of former soil. The rest has
gone to make the sea more salty.

After the rain stops the wind takes over. It, too, tears the soil apart
carrying the lighter richer particles far and wide, dropping the "bones” be¬
hind.

A succession of such destructive processes can bring about cataclysmic
results. We suspect that some of the deserts of the modern world were
brought about in just this fashion. How else can we explain the existence

1951, No. 4
December 30

Land Use

513

Courtesy, U. S. Soil Conservation Service

SUCH EROSION can be controlled and produce conditions like these being inspected
by Dr. Hugh Bennett, Chief, U. S.. Soil Conservation Service. Here, on Jones Creek
in Iowa, proper land use measures have effected noticeable reduction in runoff, a
very decided step towards conservation of the land.

of long abandoned cities in the heart of these modern deserts when we are
sure that the ancient people who once lived there had neither knowledge nor
facilities for rapid transportation, nor for the canning or refrigeration of
food?

Any process which ultimately destroys the soil-water-plant-animal bal¬
ance on the land is bad land-use. That is not just my definition. It is bad
land-use as defined by Nature herself. She has laid out her deadly definition
of bad land-use for all of us to see. The fact that we have so long been
blind is our fault, not Nature’s!

We now have a definition of bad land-use and no land-use at all
Good-land-use must lie somewhere between these two. We do not want
the virgin conditions of the land of the aborigines if for no other reason
than that our modern way of life is founded on the proposition that food
is gathered by a few leaving the rest free to produce the many other things
that make civilized life so much better than savage life.

But, since we want to continue our present mode of life, we must some¬
how preserve the productivity of the soil needed by our food gatherers
and, at the same time maintain the water supplies required by the producers
of other goods who live in our towns and cities. We have gone a long way

514

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

down in our short occupation of this American land. What we once as¬
sumed to be inexhaustible has now been reduced to between one-third and
two-thirds of its former abundance.

We must make a compromise— on the one hand meeting the laws of
Nature, on the other providing for the needs of our civilized life.

Such a compromise is not only possible, it is also practical and profit¬
able. The truth of this statement is daily becoming more and more evident
as farmers and ranchers in Texas and the United States push their soil
conservation district programs forward. This compromise is good land use.
It means looking closely at the differences in topography, soils, and climate.
It also means deciding what the land needs to improve the soil and protect
it against erosion. These two studies are actually an inventory of the land
that, once taken, shows the productive capability of the land. Land falls
into two major classes: (1 that which can be cultivated and (2) that which
should not be cultivated. Land that can be cultivated is land that will not
be seriously eroded so long as certain precautions are taken. The kinds of
land that should not be cultivated are: land that is already seriously eroded;
land that will erode if cultivated even under the most intensive preventive
measures; or land that is too rough, or wet to be cultivated. This is the
first step in the compromise that means good land use — namely, deciding
what the land is capable of producing without danger to the land.

The next step in good land use is to follow a plan that takes into con¬
sideration not only the needs and capabilities of one piece of land but the
relation of that piece of land to the needs and capabilities of other adjoining
pieces of land. This plan, in addition, must meet the needs and recognize
the capabilities of the people who operate the land for which the plan is
made. Such a plan is not to be made haphazardly by rote or rule-of-thumb.
Making such a plan involves technical skill in agronomy, engineering, for¬
estry, biology, hydrology and other related fields. In soil conservation dis¬
tricts technicians of the Soil Conservation Service assigned to assist farmers
and ranchers in the districts are trained in these scientific fields. The farmer
or rancher and his neighbors go over their land with the technician and
plan the conservation treatment and use of the land. This is the beginning
of group action — which also is part of the definition of good land use.

The next step in reaching the compromise between Nature and civiliza¬
tion is the application of the soil and water conservation measures to the
land. Farmers and ranchers do this by working in groups on their common
problems. Here too they must receive advice as needed from trained tech¬
nicians. Measures are not established singly but according to the support
one measure gives another. Following natural principles, vegetation is used
to the utmost even on the cultivated fields. Soil is left bare as little as pos¬
sible. Green cover and mulches protect the soil surfaces between row crop
seasons. Crops are rotated to avoid over-workig the land. Cultivation is on
the level around the hill instead of up and down the slope. Wind-and-water-
erosion-resisting crops are grown in strips between cultivated rows. Organic
matter is turned back to the soil. Where lime and mineral fertilizers have
been depleted these are added. Where practical and feasible, water-logged
soils are drained and dry soils are irrigated. Steep and erodible land is planted

1951, No. 4
December 30

Land Use

515

to grass or trees. Gullies are stabilized, and erosion is controlled in water¬
ways— -with vegetation. Farm ponds are built and farm roads and fences
are laid out as nearly as practical on the contour.

In addition to these measures odd areas of land are protected against
erosion with plants that provide food and cover for wildlife. These areas
include fence rows, and rough, isolated, and irregularly shaped areas, stream
banks, pond edges, and field edges adjoining woodland.

As I said before, farmers and ranchers work in groups — neighbor help¬
ing neighbor in controlling their common erosion problems. Not only is
there coordination of effort within groups, but there is coordination from
one group to another. This is the way the soil conservation district program
works. The effectiveness of this soil conservation district program lies in
the fact that it is possible not only to control erosion from field to field, but
from farm to farm, and so on — over an entire watershed. Such cooperation
on the part of landowners and operators effects the compromise between
the requirements of Nature and the needs of modern man. Only by the ap¬
plication of these coordinated soil and water conservation measures across
the entire face of our nation can we hope to maintain our modern civili¬
zation on a permanent basis because — -it is the only way by which the soil-
water-plant-animal relationship may be restored to a normal balance.

When we have achieved this, we shall have good land use.

516

The Texas Journal of Science

195l, No. 4
December 30

A STUDY OF SECULARIZATION, DEPRESSED FOLK
POPULATIONS, SUICIDE, AND CRIME IN THE UNITED
STATES AND IN FORT WORTH AS A
MORE INTIMATE LOCAL SITUATION *

DR. AUSTIN L. PORTERFIELD
Department of Sociology
Texas Christian University

This study attempts ( 1 ) to establish indices of secularization, suicide,
and crime by states in the nation and (2) to show how these phenomena are
related to comparable periods and places. Of necessity it faces first, however,
the problems of definition and procedure, beginning with the concept of
secularization.

TiaUEE 1: SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND SUICIDES IN FOBT WORTH
PER 1000 POPULATION OVER 24 TEARS OLD IN 1940

r-l

H ^5

t-iHHHHOICVItUCM

Index of Socio-Economic Status

* This study was made possible by a grant made the author through the Texas Christian
University Research Committee operating with funds provided jointly by the Carnegie
Foundation and the University. In fact two grants have been drawn upon— one made in
1947 and one in 1950.

1951. No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

5 17

THE meaning of secularization

Secularization is the process by which a "sacred” gives way to a
"secular” society. This process, as Howard Becker describes it, includes: first,
a lessening of the intensity of kinship bonds among a people; second, a loos¬
ening of friendship and neighborhood ties and the breakdown of primary
and neighborhood groups; third, a reduction in the indigenous origins of
regional and community populations on the one hand or a depletion of the
local folk through migration on the other, accompanied, fourth, by much
institutional dislocation; and fifth, a breakdown in the prevailing mores- —
morals, religious sanctions, class, caste, and prestige patterns- — associated
with the appearance of strange ideas, strange peop^, and strange machines.
The new community made up of fragments of other populations, of "hu¬
manity uprooted,” is already secularized.

indices of secularization

Howard Becker and others have elaborated the concept of seculariza¬
tion in their writings. Robert Redfield and R. M. Maclver contrast the urban
and the folk society in terms comparable to the secular and the sacred.
These are ideal polar types. As Ogburn and Nimkoff suggest, "actually
there are not just two polar types, highly integrated folk societies and loose¬
ly integrated urban societies, but a series of communities varying in degree

FIGURE 2: S0CIQ-ECGI0M1C STATUS ASW SUICIDES
IH PCET VOBTH P® 1000 TOTAL P0PULATI0H

2 o
- -

«H

2k0

220

200

ISO

l60

l40

120

100

—r~

— r“

T“

■ 1

~r~

~~ r-

•

• ft

•

• •

•

_ 1 _

♦

— L_

8 5

88j?u>§o8i?

Index of Socio-Economic Statue

518

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, Mo. 4
December 30

of integration which are distributed along a continuum between these ex¬
tremes/' Nobody, however, has gone far enough in the development of
indices by which "a series of communities varying in degree of integration”
can be "distributed along a continuum.” This is the challenge which brings
about this study.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE INDEX

Techniques of measurement, to be valid, must be hypothetically rele¬
vant to what is being hypothetically measured. Thus, significant aspects
of the process of secularization and of societies that have become more or
less secularized should form the foundation of any sacred-secular index based
on the idea of a continuum between two poles. It cannot be assumed, bow¬
er, that any index can be established which will unerringly locate a series
of populations inhabiting specific areas at the exact points or in the exact
order in which they belong along such a line. It is assumed that measures of
urbanization, industrialization, non-membership in churches, and non¬
nativity (as here defined) by states in our nation would be indicative, with¬
out such exactness, of the extent to which their respective populations feel
the impacts of a secular society or culture, as analyzed by Becker and briefly
outlined above.

The index of non-nativity, for example, is established by adding the
number of people living in the state (in 1940) not born in it to the
number born in it but not living in it on the same date and finding

IIOUBX 3* nrasffld AHT’ SUI0IE®g a
ICHI WORSES FCR SMOTED HUES

Index of Dependency 193&*T94?

1951, No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

519

what percentage this total is of the prevailing population. Then this per¬
centage of non-nativity for each state is compared with the corresponding
percentage for all the states combined. Non-nativity (so defined) stands at
45 per cent for the nation as a whole. This measure is taken as the founda¬
tion of the index score 100, and the scores for the individual states revolve
around the national ratio as percentages of it in the familiar manner. The
percentage of non-nativity for Nevada is 111.3; for North Carolina 25.7.
Thus the former is seen to be 247 of the rate for the nation as a whole;
and the latter, 57 per cent. Then these percentages are simply read as index
scores for the respective states.

This index is full of significant implications. To leave a state for an¬
other lessens the kinship bonds, loosens friendships and neighborhood ties,
reduces indigenous populations, and contributes to institutional dislocations
back home, while adding to the population of the new state a stranger. In
the meantime, another stranger may be entering the state which has lost an
indigene, a kinsman, a neighbor, a friend.

Added to this process are the processes of urbanization and industriali¬
zation for which indices (in Porterfield and Talbert’s book, crime, suicide,
and social well-being) have previously been supplied. Since these pro¬
cesses may go on within a state, shifting citizens within instead of across
state boundaries, it is not surprising that indices of urbanization and indus¬
trialization, though positively correlated as series, are not so related to the
non-nativity series in the 48 states. But since both contribute to the anony-

FIGURE 4: HOUSING AND SUICIDES IN HOKTiORIH

8558 .8 8558

H H H H H

Index of Housing

8 8 5

CM CM CM

520

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

mity and impersonality of secular society, the three series can logically be
combined by states, together with a fourth important series, which is highly
correlated with non-nativity. This fourth series is made up of index scores
for non-church membership by states as indicative of a type of institutional
dislocation closely related to the breakdown of the mores. This index, like
the others, is built around 100 as representative of the ratio of non-member-
ship in churches (in 1936) * for the nation as a whole.

It is then assumed that the mean of the index scores of these four con¬
ditions in each state is a rough measure of its degree of secularization.
Nevada, for example, has index scores for non-nativity, urbanization, indus¬
trialization, and non-church membership of 247, 70, 95, and 195 respec¬
tively. The mean of these four scores is 151. The corresponding scores for
Mississippi are 75, 3 5, 28, and 100 respectively, with a mean score of 60.
Thus 151 and 60 are taken as indicating the relative percentages of seculari¬
zation in the two states which stand at the top and the bottom of the series.

INDICES OF SECULARIZATION AND SUICIDE

Indices of secularization by states thus established are given in Table 1.
The Northwestern and Northeastern states are at the top of the list, and
the Southern and Southwestern at the bottom, with some notable exceptions.

FIGURE 5i mmSE MD SUICIDES IIT
FORT WORTH FOR SELECTED TEARS

•H

* This year was chosen of necessity, since the last dependable data are found in the
Census of Religious Bodies: 1936.

1951, No. 4
December 30

SECULARIZATION . . . SUICIDE, AND CRIME

521

TABLE 1

INDICES OF SECULARIZATION BY STATES BASED ON THE ARITHMETIC MEAN
OF INDEX SCORES FOR URBANIZATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, NON-NATIVITY,
AND NON-MEMBERSHIP IN CHURCHES: 100 IS THE SCORE FOR THE NATION.

State

Index of sec-

Urban-

Industrial¬

Non¬

ularization

ization

nativity

members

Nevada .

. . . . 151

247

192

Washington . . . .

. . . . 1 44

108

169

204

California .

.... 143

126

144

175

Delaware .

. . . . 139

230

132

102

Oregon .

. . . . 137

183

185

Wyoming .

. . . . 127

229

161

Colorado .

. . . . 124

192

135

New Jersey . . . .

. . . . 122

144

164

105

Michigan .

. . . . 121

118

143

130

Maryland .

. . . ro

105

169

101

106

Illinois .

. . . . 119

130

138

103

104

Rhode Island . .

. . . . 116

162

137

Montana .

. . . . 115

184

156

New Hampshire

. . . 114

102

103

158

Connecticut ....

. . . . 113

120

160

New York .

. . . . 112

147

150

Massachusetts . . .

. . . . 112

158

135

Ohio .

. . . . Ill

118

136

Arizona .

. . . . 110

182

130

Florida .

. . . . 110

147

139

Idaho .

. . . . 109

195

135

Oklahoma .

. . . . 109

166

151

Missouri .

. . . . 104

128

115

Kansas .

. . . . 104

162

130

Indiana .

. . . . 102

108

106

United States . . .

. . . . 100

100

Pennsylvania ....

.... 98

118

121

Minnesota .

. . . . 93

102

Vermont .

. . . . 92

122

100

Tennessee .

. . . . 92

154

Nebraska .

. . . . 91

141

108

Wisconsin .

. . . . 89

West Virginia . .

. . . . 88

147

Maine .

. . . . 87

120

Utah .

. . . . 85

New Mexico ...

. . . . 85

145

Iowa .

. . . . 83

121

South Dakota . . .

. . . . 81

155

100

Georgia .

. . . . 80

Texas .

. . . . 80

112

Kentucky .

.... 74

118

North Dakota . . .

. . . . 72

141

Arkansas .

. . . . 71

126

Alabama .

.... 69

100

Louisiana .

.... 67

North Carolina . .

.... 66

100

South Carolina . .

.... 66

Mississippi .

.... 60

100

522

The Texas Journal of Science

1951. No. 4
December SO

Indices of suicides by states, previously established (in crime, suicide
and social well-being in your state and city) are compared with in¬
dices of secularization in Table 2. The two series are significantly, even
remarkably, correlated. The Pearsonian coefficient is +80. The closest posi¬
tive relationship of a single sub-factor with suicide is that of non-nativity.
It is represented by a coefficient of +66. Non-nativity seems to be more
important than urbanization in the causation of suicide. Perhaps "non¬
nativity” is an index of unrest and escapism in general, of which suicide is
also an index. Perhaps non-membership in churches is influenced by non¬
nativity which, in turn, is caused by unrest and attempts to eccape from it
in an atmosphere of insecurity- — fear and fallibility.

THE SECULAR SOCIETY, THE FOLK SOCIETY, SUICIDE, AND HOMICIDE

It is an understatement to say that these aspects of a secular society
are not positively related to homicide and other serious forms of crime. In
Table 2, the index of secularization is presented in reverse as a folk-society
index by states and compared with indices of suicides and homicide in col¬
umns standing side by side with the secular index. The results are surpris¬
ing. The index scores for secularization and homicide are on opposite sides
of 100 in 33 states and, of course, on the same side of 100 in an equal num¬
ber of cases when compared with the folk-index scores. The populations of
only six states more "secular55 than the average may live up to the popular
(and frequent sociological) expectation that the secular society holds the

JTOTBS 6s 1AKD USE MD SUICIDES I1T POET IfOHOT

Index ©f Transition ®r Land Uaa

1951, No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

523

TABLE 2

INDICES OF SECULARIZATION, SUICIDE, AND HOMICIDE BY STATES FOR THE

years 1930, 193 5, 1940, and 1945 with the mean rates of these

CAUSES OF DEATH FOR THE NATION AS A WHOLE REPRESENTED BY THE
4 INDEX SCORE OF 100.

State Secular

Index

Nevada . . . 151

Washinton . 1 44

California . . . 143

Delaware . 139

Oregon . 137

Wyoming . 127

Colorado . . 124

New Jersey . 122

Michigan . 121

Maryland . 120

Illinois . . . 119

Rhode Island . 116

Montana . 115

New Hampshire . 114

Connecticut . 113

New York . 112

Massachusetts . 112

Ohio . Ill

Arizona . 110

Florida . 110

Idaho . 109

Oklahoma . 109

Missouri . . 104

Kansas . 104

Indiana . 102

United States . 100

Pennsylvania . 98

Minnesota . 93

Vermont . 92

Tennessee . 92

Nebraska . 91

Wisconsin . 89

West Virginia . 88

Maine . 87

Virginia . 86

Utah . 85

New Mexico . 85

Iowa . 83

South Dakota . 81

Georgia . 80

Texas . . 80

Kentucky . 74

North Dakota . 72

Arkansas . . 71

Alabama . 69

Louisiana . 67

North Carolina . 66

South Carolina . 66

Mississippi . . . . . 60

Suicide

Folk

Homicide

Index

234

139

145

156

135

151

103

134

101

105

104

146

101

111

108

118

145

100

300

111

131

111

112

.53

108

100

102

108

114

109

249

121

110

115

112

114

148

115

116

167

118

137

119

120

128

123

125

291

125

159

135

255

139

141

196

145

271

149

108

152

342

152

200

167

295

524

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

life of the other man cheaper than the average. Its people, however, seem to
hold their own lives less dear than in the folk society, since the suicide and
secular scores are on the same side of 100 in 3 6 instances; but the suicide
and folk scores are on the opposite side of 100 in the same number of in¬
stances. This is in line with the hypothesis that suicide and homicide are op¬
posite types of response to a sense of frustration.

FACTORS CONDUCIVE TO CRIME IN AMERICAN FOLK SOCIETIES

The more "primitive” folk societies about which Redfield and others
write should be less given to both suicide and crime than many present day
groups. Our data do not suggest that the less secularized populations are
"more given to crime” just because they are less secular. It is depressed
folk societies in local conflict which become involved in crime rather than
the more urbanized, industrialized, non-native groups with fewer members
in churches. It is the societies marked by rurality, depressed populations as
indigenous or locality groups trampling on one another’s toes. It is the people
with a status consciousness which may be ethnically slanted. It is the people
whose convictions, rationalizations, and sense of infallibility set them at
war with one another, though rooted in the same landscape. In such a so¬
ciety there may be a greater tendency to strike the other down when he
gets in your way and to find the act justified by the existing situation and
the mores; or at least understandable as anger displacement. In the secular
society, the isolated and baffled suicide may not get close enough to others
to hit anybody but himself; at least anybody against whom he feels resent¬
ments.

The data which suggest this characterization of depressed folk groups
as related to crime may be found in Table 3, which gives the concept a nu¬
merical definition as a composite of four sub-factors; depressed classes,
rurality, locality, and color. The index of depressed classes is simply the
index of "social well-being” (as based on 28 sub-factors in crime, suicide,
and social well-being) reversed. The index of rurality reverses the index of
urbanization. "Locality” is indicated by the number of churches (as nucle¬
ated institutions which are nailed to the landscape) per 100,000 population
by states as compared with the number in the nation as a whole; and the
index of color compares the percentage of non-whites in each state with
the percentage in the entire nation.

No one need be surprised that the incidence of congregations is in¬
cluded in the index of depressed folk among status-conscious groups in con¬
flict. Limited space precludes the presentation of the arrays of the sub¬
factors in the depressed folk index here; but a comparison of the indices
of depressed classes and of congregations per 100,000 population shows the
scores for both to be on the same side of 100 in 3 8 states and on opposite
sides only 9 times. The coefficient of correlation is +.8 5. The apparent
reason for this correlation is that the presence of depressed and color groups
(who are also depressed) in the population requires more congregations
per 100,000 population to serve folk fragments than where class and race
divisions are not so sharp.

The comparison of indices of depressed folk and homicide for the
period studied presents a positive coefficient of +.92; of depressed folk and
serious crimes during 1937-39, +.94; of depressed folk and suicide, -~J3. The
series on which these correlations are based are found in Table 3.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

525

TABLE 3

indices of suicide and crime compared with indices of depressed-folk

PATTERNS BASED ON DEPRESSED CLASSES, RURALITY, LOCALITY, AND COLOR
AS ASPECTS OF THE POPULATIONS OF THE 48 STATES: 100 IS THE SCORE FOR

THE ENTIRE NATION.

State

Depressed-Folk

Crime index

Homicide

Crime index:

Suicide

index

1937-1939

index

selected years

index

Mississippi . . . .

. 280

142

295

158

South Carolina .

. 260

206

200

170

Alabama .

. 224

216

271

201

Georgia .

. 223

276

291

216

Arkansas .

. 212

188

196

165

North Carolina .

. 194

336

342

275

Louisiana .

. 187

142

108

125

Virginia .

. 174

250

167

213

Florida .......

. 159

230

300

196

100

Tennessee .

. 158

285

249

210

North Dakota .

. 157

South Dakota . .

. 145

Kentucky .

. 131

255

222

215

New Mexico . . .

. 131

160

137

134

Texas .

. 131

175

159

163

Oklahoma

. 130

140

131

130

West Virginia .

. 129

141

148

Arizona .

. 127

190

145

168

118

Maryland .

. 109

117

121

105

Delaware . . . . .

. 109

104

110

Idaho .

. 102

111

Kansas .

. 101

* 83

102

Montana .

. 99

146

Nebraska .

. 98

121

Wyoming .

. 98

103

151

Vermont .

. 97

114

Missouri .

. 96

112

102

111

Nevada .

. 94

108

139

147

234

Indiana .

. 92

103

106

118

Iowa .

. 91

119

Maine .

. 87

115

Minnesota . . . . .

. 82

Colorado .

. 80

110

134

Oregon .

. 77

117

121

135

Utah .

. 77

110

105

Pennsylvania . . .

. 77

Ohio .

. 76

100

109

Wisconsin. .

. 74

115

Washington . . .

. 74

101

110

145

New Hampshire

. 72

101

Michigan .

. 71

101

Illinois .

. 70

104

New Jersey . . .

. 63

101

California .

. 60

111

108

156

Connecticut . . .

. 58

110

New York . . . .

. 56

111

Rhode Island . .

. 51

Massachusetts . .

. 49

52 6

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

CLASS, SUICIDE, DEPRESSED FOLK, AND JUVENILE JAIL COMMITMENTS
WITHIN A SINGLE CITY AS COMPARED WITH THE NATIONAL PICTURE

Porterfield and Talbert’s studies of 10 5 American cities, 86 of which
were compared as southern-Non-Southern pairs of equal population elimi¬
nate the factor of rurality as far as possible in comparing indices of suicide

table 4

INDEX OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS IN FORT WORTH BY CENSUS TRACTS,
BASED ON THE AVERAGES OF INDICES FOR HEALTH, HOUSING, DEPENDENCY,
AND TRANSITION OR HETEROGENEITY OF LAND USE FOR SELECTED YEARS.

Census

Status Rank :

Deficiency:

Index of

Index

Index of

Tract

high to low

low to high

health re-

housing

of depend¬

land use

index*

index**

versed

reversed

ency

T and H#

200

185

169

154

147

143

141

139

103

135

130

106

125

107

100

125

123

133

120

100

119

116

114

106

112

122

108

106

100

135

104

100

128

100

All

100

106

137

110

107

104

154

113

137

130

114

120

143

140

114

132

105

132

119

149

124

104

118

143

130

132

120

103

123

182

135

118

130

112

179

135

147

141

153

100

139

133

130

169

123

152

110

105

186

208

157

145

152

117

215

177

135

128

230

213

180

156

119

279

167

200

161

133

219

233

219

217

128

374

256

300

370

118

353

357

* Index of deficiency reversed.

** Index is mean of indices in last four columns.
± T and H : Transition and heterogeneity.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

527

and homicide; but it seems advisable to study the social structure of a single
American city in order to make some internal comparisons in a much more
limited universe. For this purpose we have carried on studies in Ft. Worth
in 41 census tracts or areas on which we could get comparable data for
various periods."' In the process we have developed, by methods the descrip-

table 5

INDICES OF SUICIDES (43 8 cases: 1930-1949) BY census tracts in fort
WORTH BASED ON RATES PER 1,000 POPULATION, ALL AGES, AND RATES PER
1,000 POPULATION OVER 24 YEARS OF AGE IN 1940, COMPARED WITH
INDICES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (OR DEPRESSED CLASSES AS
A REVERSE SERIES).

Census

Status rank :

Depressed

Suicide

Suicide index:

tract

high to low

classes :

index :

over 24 years

index

low to high

all ages

old, 1940

index

200

122

115

185

228

215

169

154

145

147

143

129

116

141

111

108

139

206

241

133

130

125

105

107

125

123

120

112

115

119

140

134

119

100

116

114

108

120

112

102

108

111

100

All

100

106

152

139

107

114

33 .

114

106

108

119

110

105

124

132

124

118

135

122

118

135

139

152

135

134

157

107

129

177

180

123

133

200

134

142

219

300

188

149

* Faculty members have had the help of Leonard Cain and Roy G. Moore.

528

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

tion of which is precluded by space limitations, indices of relief based on
rates of clearance through the social service exchange from 193 6 through
1946; indices of housing based on rents, overcrowding, and houses in need
of major repair; indices of health based on deaths from tuberculosis, pneu¬
monia, and prematurity; and indices of residential desirability or of hetero¬
geneity and of transition in land use based on the city zoning map (1947) ;
and, finally, a composite index which we call an index of socio-economic
status based on the mean of these four index scores for each census tract
(See Table 4). Then we have prepared indices of suicide by census tracts
based on the rates of suicides occurring per 1,000 population (in 1940) over
a twenty year period extending from 1930 to 1949, inclusive (see Table 5).

There is no positive relationship between indices of suicide and socio¬
economic status, suicide and housing, suicide and relief, or suicide and health
by census tracts in Fort Worth, as can be observed in Table 5.

When comparisons are made, however, which involve a combination
of the factors of class status with the factor of fragmentized folk-groups
in depressed areas as indicated by the number of churches per 1,000 popula¬
tion in three groups of census tracts which have 0-4, 5-9, and 10 or more
churches per census tract respectively, there is an interesting and significant
difference in the results.

Table 6 not only presents this comparison but makes another with the
rates for juvenile commitments known to have been made to the city jail
in 1945. It becomes clear that in those areas where congregation rates, de¬
pendency rates, indices of depressed classes in general are high, suicide rates
are relatively low and delinquency jail commitments are high; but where
congregation and dependency rates are low, suicide rates are relatively
high and delinquency rates low. The local study apparently confirms the
conclusions suggested by the study of the entire national scene"' *. It also
helps to show where troubles take their people irrespective of class, how¬
ever different may be the nature or the sources of the trouble.

table 6

DISTRIBUTION OF 438 SUICIDES (1930-1949) AND OF JUVENILE JAIL COM¬
MITMENTS (1945) PER 1,000 POPULATION BY CENSUS TRACTS IN FORT
WORTH WITH 0-4, 5-9, AND 10 OR MORE CHURCHES WITH TELEPONES
(1948) COMPARED WITH RELIEF RATES (1936-1946) AND INDICES OF

DEPRESSED CLASSES IN 40 CENSUS TRACT AREAS IN THREE GROUPS

Number of census

tracts in

Church Mean index

Mean

Rates

and population of each group.

rate per

depressed

annual

juven¬

Number

Popu¬

No.

Total

1,000

classes

relief

ile

sui¬

tracts

lation

churches

no.

people

rates

cases

cides *

churches

per 1,000 population

58.596

0-4

.800

21.8

2.368

2.675

58,365

5-9

1.336

101

37.3

3.821

2.484

55,324

10-

162

2.928

150

67.2

6.652

2.440

All

172,385

0-26

287

1.665

100

41.2

4.235

2.535

* Number is rate for entire period per 1,000 population.

** The author is reading all the newspaper accounts of all the suicides that have occurred
in Fort Worth during the years 1930-1949. He finds nothing in those accounts to suggest
that upper class people do not commit suicide in the same measure if not to a greater de¬
gree than others. Our statistics show that Census tract 22, with the second highest index
of socio-economic status in the city has the highest crude suicide rate of all ; and it has
the second highest rate per 1,000 people over 24 years old in 1940.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime

529

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The data herein presented indicate that indices of secularization as fitted
to Becker’s analysis and based on indices of non-nativity (as herein defined),
urbanization, industrialization, and non-church membership vary greatly by
states in the nation. The most secularized areas are in the Northwest and
the Northeastern sections of the nation. The least secularized states are in
the South and the Southwest. It is in the latter areas, however, where indices
of depressed folk groups are highest.

Accompanying high indices of secularization are high scores for suicide
but not high crime scores. Accompanying high indices of depressed folk
groups are high indices of crime but relatively low suicide scores. The secu¬
lar society is marked by the anonymity, isolation, fallibility, fear, and insti¬
tutional dislocation that are conducive to suicide. The fragmentized folk so¬
ciety is marked by the local face to face contacts of depressed and frus¬
trated groups with more or less "infallible” sanctions to support them in
their conflict. Classes high and low have their troubles both as groups and
persons; but the response they make to their troubles depends upon complex
psychological and cultural definitions of the total situation.

530

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISCOLORED SEA WATER

HELEN LANDAU HAYES AND THOMAS S. AUSTIN
U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office
Washington, D. C.

INTRODUCTION

Discolored water is recognized as patches, streaks or very large areas
of more or less opaque brown, yellow, red and other tints on the water, or
under the surface. These areas frequently resemble shoals. The purpose of
this paper and accompanying chart is to demonstrate the geographical fac¬
tors in the distribution of discolored water. We hope that this will be a sig¬
nificant contribution both to the mariners’ problem of the clarification
and correction of erroneous notations of shoal water on existing charts,
and to the solution of the far reaching problem of the red tide.

Since about 18 80 the Hydrographic Office has been receiving discolora¬
tion records from many sources, chief among which is the Merchant Marine.
Reports in American and foreign scientific publications and nautical journals
have likewise been used, the hydrographic bulletin. Hydrographic Of¬
fice Pilot charts, and the marine observer of the British Meteorological
Office, have been most helpful. This collection of observations forms the
basis for the accompanying chart and probably comprises the most complete
record of the distribution of discolored water.

HISTORY

The phenomenon of the discolored water has undoubtedly been observed
by voyagers and inhabitants of coastal areas since before the beginning of
the written record. One of the earliest reports is found in the Bible, (seventh
chapter of Exodus, the twentieth and the twenty-first verses:)

“And all of the waters that were in the river (The Nile) were turned to blood
and the fish that was in the river died ; and the river stank, and the Egyptians
could not drink of the water of the river.”

Such reports may be found, also in the Iliad and the works of Tacitus
and in the logs of a number of navigators of the 16th century and on.

A few early records may be found with detailed description of the
discoloration and of the organisms which cause it. For example, in 1594, Sir
Richard Hawkins, entering a cove in the Straits of Magellan, observed a
bright red discoloration of the water. He stated, "they sounded a cove some
sixteen leagues from the mouth of the straits, which after we called Crabby
Cove. It brooked its name well for two causes; the one for that all the water
was full of a small kind of red crabbes; the other, for the crabbed moun¬
tains which overtopped it; a third, we might add, for the crabbed enter¬
tainment it gave us.” Again, specifically mentioning discolored water, Simon
D’Cordex in 1598, reported "having passed the Rio de la Plata, the sea ap¬
peared as red as blood, the water was full of little red worms which when
taken out jumped from the hand like fleas. Some were of the opinion that
with seasons of the year the whales shook these worms from their bodies but
of this they have no certainty.” The available records prior to 1800 attrib¬
ute the discoloration in the sea to various factors such as sea dust, submarine
earthquakes, submarine sulphur springs, spawn of fish, etc. In 1729, during
the voyage of the ship St. George Capt. William Dampier described an en¬
counter with discolored water off the coast of Peru as follows:

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

531

“The 19th instance, our men all being at dinner and our ship about ten leagues
off shore, going with a fine fresh gale of wind at East, we were suddenly sur¬
prised with the change of the colour of the water, which looked as red as blood
to as great a distance as we could see, which might be about seven or eight
leagues. At first we were mighty surprised ; but recollecting ourselves, we
sounded, but had no ground at one hundred and seventy fathoms. We then
drew some water up in buckets, and poured some in a glass. It still continued
to look very red, till about a quarter of an hour after it had been in the glass ;
when all of the red substance floated on the top, and the water underneath
was a clear as usual. The red stuff which floated on top was of a slimy sub¬
stance, with little knobs, and we all concluded it could be nothing but the
spawn of fish.”

During the 19th century with the increase in shipping and the publi¬
cation of the results of scientific expeditions and private investigations, con¬
siderable interest was aroused in the distribution of and the explanation for
discolored water. Sailing directions requested that areas of discolored water
be carefully surveyed and sounded to eliminate the possibility of their being
recorded on the charts as shoal areas, and statements were published in nau¬
tical journals to the effect that some of the areas then reported as shoals were
thought to be discolored water.

In recent years outbreaks of discolored water appearing off the Florida
and California coasts have been watched and studied with increasing in¬
terest. Comparison of data from the many known affected localities provides
clues for the study of these areas which may, in turn, contribute to the
discovery of the direct cause or the possibility of prediction of the phe¬
nomenon.

NOTE: In the interest of the first mentioned problem, the U. S. Navy Hydrographic
Office has issued a request to mariners to take soundings in discolored water to insure
correct diagnoses before reporting. It has also requested reports on observations of discolored
water as a check on present shoal notations.

CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION

The causes of the normal color of the sea are physical. The charac¬
teristic indigo of the open ocean can be explained by the scattering of the
light as it reflects from the water. In the reflected light the reds and yellows
are absorbed, leaving the greens, blues, and violets, which in combination
give indigo. Coastal waters are normally greener, often with shades of
brown or yellow. These colors can be traced to the pigments in the neritic
plants and animals, the color of the bottom where the water is shallow, and
to the runoff and erosion products from the shore. Water masses of different
origins also, are often recognizable by local color differences at their con¬
vergence.

The discolorations under discussion are however, largely biological in
origin. They are caused by groups in the plankton ranging in size from
microscopic bacteria and diatoms to the macroscopic jellyfish and Crustacea,
which carry pigments (most frequently red) in their bodies. These colored
forms are universally distributed, although differing in species composition,
from the Polar waters to the tropics. Although they occur in almost all
waters in large numbers, their color does not become apparent until they
exceed their normal abundance. Allen (1942) gives an idea of the numbers
necessary to cause color; "Even an experienced observer may sail through
an expanse of water showing a dingy chocolate or other inconspicuous color
and think nothing of it, although the microscopic organisms causing the
color may be present in numbers of one-half million to a full million per
liter of sea water near the surface. Yet the difference between that color
and one of distinct redness may rest only on the presence of another million

532

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

or two- — .” The combination of factors which constitute optimum condi¬
tions for these organisms and cause them to reproduce at so abnormal a
rate is quite complex and is incompletely understood.

Since the zooplankton feed on the phytoplankton, it is the production
of the latter which is the basis of the problem. Their production is depend¬
ent on abundant food in the form of nutrient salts (particularly nitrates,
phosphates and dissolved organic matter) and radiant energy from the
sun to enable the plants to utilize these nutrients. These conditions are found
more often in coastal waters than far offshore. Here, the zone of decom¬
position (on the bottom) lies close to the productive zone (the surface),
supplying the nutrients in abundance. Where the water is deep and the
shore steep-to, upwelling may occur, with the same advantageous effect.
Variations in environmental factors constitute another control over the pro¬
duction of plankton. An excellent example is to be found in the polar
waters. During the long period of darkness, the production of the diatoms
is limited by the lack of sunlight necessary to the process of photosynthesis.
During this period the nitrates, phosphates, and silicates utilized during the
summer months, are returned to the sea by the decomposition of the organic
matter. These nutrients are fairly evenly distributed throughout the surface
waters by turbulence. In the spring, with the return of sunlight, this rela¬
tive increase in nitrates and phosphates permits diatom "blooms” and the
subsequent greenish discoloration of the surface waters. This control of the
growth of phytoplankton by the nutrient salts, nitrogen and phosphate and
other elements, is expressed in Liebig’s law of the minimum which states that
growth is limited by the factor that is present in minimimal quantity.
Oxygen is never a limiting factor here because it is constantly renewed by
wave action and the continual exchange of water. It is along the coasts
therefore, that sudden unpredictable changes in the physical-chemical en¬
vironment take place, so frequently inducing prolific reproduction of the
various discoloring organisms.

The open ocean, on the other hand, is a fairly stable homogenous
medium. Its supply of plankton is scanty, due in part to the persistent
thermal stratification which prevents renewal of nutrients from the bot¬
tom to the euphotic zone. Even here however, discoloration can occur, as
normal local environments are often drastically affected by meteorological
conditions.

When the necessary combination of factors reaches the optimum for
some colored species or group of species, they increase in such tremendous
numbers that they "bloom” and cause discolored water. Related to this
optimum is the fact that the natural destructive controls, such as predators,
competitors, etc. are often destroyed or subsequently decreased in effective¬
ness, being outnumbered by their enemies. This upheaval continues until the
balance is re-established, either because the lack of supplies for the enlarged
population results in the organization of a competitive regime, or their own
metabolic toxins cut them down, or a change in the hydrological conditions
occurs. A change in wind or tide is sometimes sufficiently effective to dispel
the red water. A rise in the number of predators brought about by the in¬
crease in their food supply may also occur. These may kill off the original
population and themselves become the dominant factor. Torrey (1902)
reports that during an occurrence of red water on the California coast, the
dinoflagellate, Noctiluca appeared in great numbers and devoured Gonyaulax

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

533

with avidity. Also Whitelegge (1891), reporting on the discoloration of the
waters of Port Jackson, states that Gymnodinium spirale appeared at the cli¬
max of the Glenodinium production and devoured the latter until the gastric
cavities of the Gymnodinium were so gorged that they were almost unrecog¬
nizable, being forced out of shape by the contents of their stomachs.

The dinoflagellates, a common component of plankton, is the group
most frequently noted as a cause of the red color. Whitelegge (1891a and
b) reporting discoloration at Port Jackson, New South Wales, identified the
causative form at that time, as the dinoflagellate genus, Glenodinium. (Ko-
foid in 1911 called it Gonyaulax) . Okauaa (1916) reporting on red water
in Yokohama harbor in 1919-21, blames Cochlodinium catenatum. Noctiluca
is also common here and is probably one of the guilty organisms. Discolora¬
tion accompanying the "Sennir,” "Kananir,” or "Kedunir,” local names for
the phenomenon of red water on the Malabar and South Kanara coast, is
due to a Euglenid and/or Noctiluca. Noctiluca is also considered respon¬
sible in South Africa (Gilchrist 1914). Manila Bay has frequent occurrences
of discolored water due to Peridinium. Species of Gonyaulax are common
forms off the North American west coast and have been considered among
the probable culprits in recent Florida outbreaks. Off the coast of the
Kanagawa Prefecture on Honshu, the "Akashio” (red tide) occurred four
times between 1907 and 1911, two years in June, due to Polykrikos and two
in August due to Gonyaulax. The alga T richodesmium erythraeum is also
red, and is so regularly abundant in the Red Sea and in the Vermilion Sea
(Gulf of California), that these waters have been named for the color.
Purple sulfur bacteria ( Beggiatoa , etc.) have been considered as the cause
of a distinct red color along the Holstein coast and elsewhere. Anaerobic
conditions and the presence of hydrogen sulfide, with a large quantity of
decomposing organic material are favorable media for their development
and these conditions are not uncommon in "red water” areas. ZoBell (1946)
states that the purple bacteria grow throughout the entire temperature
range of the sea.

Blooming of any microscopic organism forming a scum will give some
color to the water. This is usually dark green or brown. Those with pig¬
ments in their bodies however, are the ones that account for the reds, yel¬
lows, blacks, oranges, etc. Among the most common color producers are,
the flagellates, Gonyaulax polyedra, G. polygramma, G. catenella, Pyrocystis
sp., Noctiluca sp., Gymnodinium flavum, G. brevis, Peridinium sanguineum,
P. depressum, P. crassipes, Am phidinium fusiforme, A. operculatum, Proro-
centrum micans, Pouchetia rosea, Ceratium tripos, C. furca, C. fusus, Gleno¬
dinium rubrum, Mesodinium rubrum, Cochlodinium catenatum, Polykrikos
sp.; various copepods, notably the arctic forms, Metridia longa, M. lucens,
and Oncaea coni f era; Euglenids; Euphausids; Munida larvae and several algae
and diatoms. It may be noted that many of these forms are also luminous,
and occurring in abundance, cause "phosphorescent” seas.

While most organisms have characteristic colors, differences in color
of certain forms has been noted by Abbott (1944) and Martin (1929).
They found normally yellow or green forms under certain conditions, ap¬
pearing brown, brown forms changing to red, etc. These changes are charged
to a variety of factors including the angle and intensity of transmitted or
reflected light, and physiological changes in the cells because of tempera¬
ture changes or age.

534

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

DISTRIBUTION

The phenomenon of discolored water is almost cosmopolitan in distri¬
bution, although individual species causing discoloration may have a rela¬
tively localized rnge. There are reports of it from the antarctic seas, the
temperate seas, the tropical seas and the arctic.

Although records included on the accompanying chart are mainly
those submitted by the merchant marine, and are therefore restricted to
commercial ship lanes, other data obtained by scientific expeditions and
coastwise vessels corroborate the theory that discolored water is primarily
a coastal phenomenon.

The areas best known for discoloration are areas of upwelling. Here,
at seasons when the current regime is proper for the phenomenon, the cold
deep waters are brought up to the surface, carrying with them nitrogen and
phosphates from decomposition products. This suddenly abundant supply
of nutrients is often a "trigger mechanism” for the plankton bloom. Up-
welling is common off the coasts of Peru and Chile, the coast of Latin
America, Mexico and California, the Florida keys, the Malabar and South
Kanara coasts in southwest India at certain seasons, the Madras coast in
southeast India, Walvis Bay and elsewhere in southwest Africa, the Arabian
coast between Aden and Perim, the east Japan coast and the East Australian
coast. In many of these areas, the discoloration is an annual occurrence and
may be seasonal.

As in upwelling, a general change of water mass may also occur by
a change in current direction. This may also be seasonal, as it is in cases
of El Nino and Aquaje , off the Peruvian coast.

Before discussing these currents, it would be well to describe briefly
the normal currents and temperature distribution off the west coast of Peru
from Pisco north to the Gulf of Guayaquil.

The Peru current, also known as the Humboldt current, which moves
from south to north, is a northerly branch of the Pacific Antarctic Drift
and is particularly noted for its sustained low temperatures (mean annual
temperature close to the shore line of central Peru is 10 to 11° C. lower
than the theoretical value for that latitude). This low temperature extends
from a point somewhere south of 45° S. to Punta Arina, 4° 40’ S, and is
caused by the upwelling of the deeper waters. Among the northern coast of
Peru, the current normally swings to the west and converges with the
Equatorial Counter Current running East. The line of convergence marked
by a "tide rip,” runs along irregularly from Punta Aguja to the Galapagos
Islands. The Counter Equatorial Current, which normally turns north¬
ward along the coasts of Ecuador, Colombia and Central America, season¬
ally swings to the south during January-March, bringing a counter cur¬
rent of warm water down the coast of Peru, displacing the ordinarily cold
water of the Peru Coastal Current. This influx of warm water may reach
as far south as Salaverry, 8° 13’ S, and even occasionally Pisco. The drastic
temperature reversal causes widespread mortality of littoral invertebrates,
fish and even guano birds. The disturbance to the planktonic life common¬
ly results in extensive discoloration.

A similar current change occurring father south during the months
of April through June is called Aquaje . High temperatures appear off the
coast of Peru between the latitudes 9° and 12° S, caused by the movement

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

535

inshore of the outlying oceanic waters of high temperature and relatively
high salinity. As is true of El Nino , the surface waters are usually colored
blood red.

Polar waters are often discolored in spring because of the abundance
of winter-accumulated nutrients.

These are regular occurrences whose causes are clearly marked. Dis¬
coloration however, can occur locally and unexpectedly even in mid-ocean.
Here the causes are obscure. Some meteorological quirk or unusual tem¬
perature change may bring it about. In coastal waters, even the addition
of trace elements brought down with river runoffs has been considered a
possible cause. Thus it would seem that regularity of environmental cycles
brings about a regularity in occurrences of discolored water, and where
there is a variable ecological regime, discoloration occurs only sporadically.

IMPORTANCE

The interest in discolored water is not limited to the mariner. Inhabi¬
tants of shore communities where discolored water recurs, find the phenom¬
enon very disturbing. In many of the outbreaks, notably the one in Florida
in 1947, the great numbers of organisms dying and decomposing in the
water produced an ugly, evil-smelling scum, and with the rapidly depleted
oxygen supply killing fishes by the millions and driving them ashore, the
stench becomes unbearable. The decay and anaerobic conditions frequently
also contribute to the production of hydrogen sulfide gas, the substance
with the "rotten egg smell” which has blackened the paint on houses near
the beach and the brightwork on ships passing through it. Because this
aspect is so conspicuous, the Peruvian outbreaks are called "El Pintor”, "The
Callao Painter.”

Besides these odors, an irritating vapor was noted in the *47 outbreak
which affected the mucus membrane of the nose and throat, causing extreme
discomfort even to people living several miles from the beach.

Certain of the discoloring organisms have been found to be definitely
poisonous, and it is believed the mortality among the invertebrates and
fish is caused by the toxins as well as by the oxygen depletion. Although
the exact nature of the poison is not yet known, it is known to be suffi¬
ciently potent to be fatal even to humans who may eat oysters, clams,
mussels, etc., which have the organisms in their stomachs.

These conditions and the red water may last only a few hours, wash¬
ing away with the tide, or may persist for days and weeks until dispersed
by the wind, which mixes the water and causes the products of the de¬
composition to sink to the bottom, or to be diluted until they are no longer
critical.

The losses to the shell fisheries industries are tremendous for, although
some fish caught by the tide can swim out of the area, the sessile animals
can protect themselves only by closing their shells. If the outbreak lasts
more than a few hours they are annihilated. Even among the birds which
are dependent on marine forms for food, the mortality is extensive. The
Guano industry in Peru is imperiled regularly by El Nino and the Aquaje.

Not all discoloring organisms are poisonous, of course, and discolored
water is not always destructive. Some outbreaks in fact, would pass un¬
noticed if they did not occur in a locality under the attention of hydrolo¬
gists.

DISCOLORED WATER

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

S3 6

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

537

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbot, C. E. — 1944 — Concerning the ecology of Euglena sanguinea. Turtox News. 12 .

Aiyar, R. G. — 1936 — Mortality of fish on the Madras coast in June 1935. Curr. Sci. Bangalore.
4 : 483-489.

Allen, W. E. — 1921a — Fisheries of the Pacific, ocean pasturage and ocean fisheries. Proc.
First Pan-Pac. Sci. C'onf. 1 : 213-220.

- 1921b — Preliminary statistical studies of marine phytoplankton of the San Diego

Region, California. Proc. First Pan-Pac. Sci. Conf. 1 : 537-554.

- 1921c — Problems of floral dominance in the open sea. Ecology 2:26-31.

- — 1925 — Statistical studies of surface catches of marine diatoms and dinoflagellates

made by the yacht Ohio in tropical waters in 1924. Trans. Amer. M'icrosc. Soc.
44 : 24-30.

- - — 1928 — Quantitative studies on inshore marine diatoms and dinoflagellates collected in

southern California in 1924. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Tech, ser, 1 : 347-356.

- 1929 — Ten years of statistical studies of marine phytoplankton at the Scripps Insti¬
tution of Oceanography. Science 70:416-419.

- 1933- — “Red Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1933. Science 78 : 12-13.

- 1935 — “Yellow Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1935. Science 82 : 325-326.

- - — 1936 — Surface plankton diatoms in the North Pacific Ocean in 1934. Madrono 3 : 1-3.

- - — 1937 — A large catch of Noctiluca. Science 86:197-198.

— - 1938 — “Red Water” along the west coast of the United States in 1938. Science

88 : 55-56.

- 1941 — Twenty years’ statistical studies of marine plankton dinoflagellates of southern

California. Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s., 151.

- 1945 — Occurrences and abundances of marine plankton diatoms offshore in southern

California. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 64 : 21-24.

- 1946 — “Red Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1945. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 65 : 149-153.

- 1946 — Significances of “Red Water” in the sea. Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s.,

287.

Anonymous — 1934 — Chemicals repulse ravages of Red Tide. Scientific American.

Atkins, W. R. G. — 1923 — The phosphate content of fresh and salt waters in its relationship
to the growth of algal plankton. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. 13 : 119-150.

Baker, C. L. — 1933 — Formation of Indo-Pacific Coral Reefs and Atolls. Pan-Amer. Geol.
60 : 15-24.

Barnes, H. T. — 1932 — The physiological effect of Tribydrol in water. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
18(1) : 136-137.

Baughman, J. L. — 1947 — The Florida Red Tide. Tex. Game and Fish 15(12) : 6, 20-21.

Beebe, W. — 1926 — A note on the Humboldt Current and the Sargasso Sea. Science 63: 91-92.
- 1926 — The arcturus adventure. New York. 425 p., 77 illus., maps.

Bohnecke, G. E. Hentschel, and H. Watlenberg — 1930 — Uber die hydrographischen, chemi-
schen und biologischen Verhaltr.isse an der Meeresoberflache zwischen Island nnd
Gronland. Ann. Hydr. Mar. Met. 58 : 233-250.

Bonnot, P. and J. B. Phillips — 1938 — Red water, its cause and occurrences. Calif. Fish and
Game 24(1).

Boschma. H. — 1926 — On the food of coral reefs. Proc. Acad. Sci. Amsterdam 29 : 993-997.
Bowen. I. S. and F. A. Jenkins — 1946 — Transparency of ocean water. Journ. Opt. Soc.
Amer. 36 : 617-623.

Brongersma-Sanders, M. — 1945 — The annual fish mortality near Walvis Bay (South West
Africa!, and its significance for paleontology. Summary of a lecture delivered to the
Zool. Soc. on January 23, 1943. Arch. Neerland. Zool. 7 : 291-294.

- 1947 — On the desirability of a research on certain phenomena in the region of up-

welling water along the coast of southwest Africa. Proc. Acad. Sci. Amsterdam
50: 659-665.

—— — 1948 — The importance of up willing water to vertebrate paleontology and oil geologv.
Verhandelingen der KoninkJijke Nederlandsche Akad. Van Wetenschappen, Afd.
Natuurkunde. Amsterdam Tweedie Sectie, D1 45(4) :1-112.

Bruns. F. — 1931 — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vegetation des peruanischen Kustengebeites.

Mitt. Inst, allgen. Bot. Hamburg' 8 : 1-85.

Buchanan, J. Y. — 1910 — Color of the sea. Nature. 84 : 87-89.

Bullen, G. E. — 1908 — Plankton studies in relation to the western mackerel fishery. Journ.
Mar. Biol. Ass., n.s., 8 : 269-303.

Burtt, J. L.— 1852 — On fish destroyed by siilphuretted hydrogren in the Bay of Callac. Amer.
Journ. Sci., ser. 2, 13 : 433-434.

Cabasso, V. and H. Roussel — 1942 — E'ssai de’ explication du nhenomene dit “Des eaux rouges”
du lac de Tunis. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Tunis 31(3/4) : 203-211.

Cadenat. J. — -1946 — Une peche miraculeuse d’anchois a Goree. Bull. Inf. Corr. Inst. Francais
Afr. noire. 32 : 28.

Carfllo, D. C- N. — 1892 — Estudios sobre las corrientes oceanicas y especialmente de la cor-
riente Humboldt. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima. 2:72-110.

Carpenter, A. and D. Wilson-Barker — 1915 — Nature notes for ocean voyagers, being personal
observations upon life in “the vastv deep” etc. London. 181 p.

Carter. H. J.— 1 858 — Note on the red colouring matter of the sea around the shores of the
Island of Bombav. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., s. 3, 1 : 258-262.

Cheever. H. T. — 1850 — The whaleman’s adventure in the southern ocean. Ed. by the Rev. W.
Scoresby. London.

Chidambaram, R. and M. K. Anny — 1944 — Note on the swarming of the planktonic algae,
Trichodesmium erytbraeum in the Pamban area and its effert on the fauna. Curr. Sci.
Bangalore 13(101 : 263.

Clarke. G- L.. and D. D. Bonnet — 1939 — The influence of temperature on the survival, growth
and respiration of Calanus finmarchicus. Biol. Bull. 76(3) : 371-383.

Classen, Th. — 1930 — Periodisches Fischsterben in Walvis Bay, South West Africa. Palaeo-
biologica 3 : 1-13.

Clemens, W. A. — 1935 — “Red Water blooms” in British Columbia waters. Nature 135 : 473.
Clowes, A, J, — 1938 — Phosphate and silicate in the southern ocean. Discovery Repts, 19 : 1-120.

538

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Coker, R. E. — 1910 — The fisheries and guano industry of Peru. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish
28(1) (1908) : 333-365.

- 1918 — Ocean temperatures off the coast of Peru. Geogr. Rev. 5 : 127-135.

- 1920 — Habits and economic relations of the Guano birds of Peru. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus. 56: 449-511.

Collingwood, C. — 1868 — Observations on the microscopic alga which causes the discoloration
of the sea in various parts of the world. Quart Journ. Microsc. Sci., n.s., 8 : 85-92.
Colnett, J. — 1798 — A voyage to the South Atlantic and around Cape Horn into the Pacific
Ocean. Printed for the author by W. Bennett. London. 179 p., pis., charts.

Cook, J. — 1777 — A voyage towards the South Pole and round the world performed in his
Majesty’s ships the Resolution and Adventure in the years 1772-1775. London. 378 p.
Copenhagen, W. J. — 1934 — Occurrence of sulfides in certain areas of the sea bottom on the
South African Coast. Fisheries and Mar. Biol. Surv. Union South Africa. Rept.

6: 11 p.

Covell, W. P. and W. F. Whedon — 1937 — Effects of the paralytic shell-fish poison on nerve
cells. Arch. Pathology 24(4) : 412-418.

Crossland, C. — 1928 — Notes on the ecology of the reef -builders of Tahiti. Proc. Zool. Soc.
London. 1928: 717-735.

Cupp, E. E. — 1943 — Marine plankton diatoms of the west coast of North America. Bull.
Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. 5 : 1-238.

Dakin, W. J. and A. Colefax — 1933 — The marine plankton of the coastal waters of New
South Wales. Pt. 1. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Whales 58 : 186-222.

Dampier, W. — 1927 — A new voyage around the world ... 3 vols. London (James Knapton).

1703-1709. The Argonaut Press, London, 1927. 376 p. illus. maps.

Dareste, C. — 1855 — Memoire sur les animalcules et autres corps organises qui donnent a la
mer une coleur rouge. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.. ser. 4, 3 : 179-239.

Davis, C. C. — 1948 — Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and animal
mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz. 109: 358-360.

Deacon, G. E. R. — 1937 — The hydrology of the southern ocean. Discovery Rents. 15 : 1-124.
Denison, W. — 1862 — On the death of fishes during the monsoon off the coast of India.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 18:453.

Dreverman, F. — 1931 — Einjahrlich wiederholtes Massensterben von Fischen und seine
Bedeutung Natur u. Museum 61 : 468-474.

Ehrenberg, C. G. — 1830 — Neue beobachtungen uber blutartige Erscheinungen in Aegypten,
Arabien und Sibirien nebst eine Ubersicht und Kritik. Poggendorf’s Ann. Phys.
Chem. 18 : 477-515.

- 1860 — Meeresleuchten im Gulf von Neapol. Petermanns Geogr. Mitteil. Pn. 192-193.

Ellis, D. — 1932 — Sulfur bacteria, a monograph. Longmans Green and Co. New York. 261 p.
Fish, C. J. — 1926 — Seasonal distribution of the plankton of the Woods Hole Region. Bull.
U. S. Bur. Fish. 41(19251:91-179.

Fitch, C. P., L. M. Bishop, W. L. Boyd, R. A. Gortner. C. F. Rogers, and J. E. Tilden —

1934 — Waterbloom as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals. Cornell Veterinarian
24: 30-39.

Fitz-Roy, R. — 1839 — Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships Adventure and
Beagle, between the years 1826 and 1836. London. 505 p. Appendix.

Forbes. C. — 1858 — On a quantity of crabs thrown up on the beach in Payta Bay. Qunrt.
Journ. Geol. See. London 14:294.

Forti, A. — 1933 — 11 fenomeno del “lago di sangue” uello stagno di Pergusa in Sicilia alia
meta di Settembre 1932. Nuovo gior. Botan. Hal. 40: 76-78.

Francis, G. — 1878 — Poisonous Australian lake. Nature 18:11-12.

Gilchrist, J. D. F. — 1914 — An enquiry into the fluctuations in fish supply on the South
African coast. Mar. Biol. Rep. Cape of Good Hope Rent. 2: 8-35.

Galtsoff. P. S. — 1949— The mystery of the red tide. Scientific Monthly 68(21 : 109-117.

Gillam, W. G. — 1925 — The effect on live stock of water contaminated with fresh water algae.
Journ. Am. Vet. Med. Ass., n.s., 20:780-784.

Glazier. W. C. W. — 1882 — On the destruction of fish by polluted waters in the Gulf of
Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. (18811 4:126-127.

Glennan, A. H, -1887 — Fish killed by poisoned water. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 6(1886) :
10-11.

Goor, A. C. L. Van — -1920 — Biidrage tot de kennis der blauwwieren voorkomende in het
zoetwaterplankton van Nederland. Verh. Rapp. Rijksinst. Visscherijonderz. (The
Hague) 1 : 1-51.

Gran, H. H. — 1927 — The production of plankton in the coastal waters of Bergen, March-
April 1922. Rep. Norweg. Fish, and Mar. Invest. 3(8) : 1-74.

Gravier, C. — 1908 — Sur quelques traits de la biologie des recifs coralliens. Bull. Soc. Phil.
Paris, ser. 9, 10 : 144-162.

Gunter, Gordon, F. G. W. Smith and R. H. Williams — 1947 — Mass mortality of marine ani¬
mals on the lower west coast of Florida, November 1946 -January 1947. Science
105(2723) : 243-267.

Gunther, E. R. — 1936a — A report on the oceanographical investigations in the Peru Coastal
Current. Discovery Rents. 12:107-276. ,

- 1936b — Variations in behavior of the Peru Coastal Current, with an historical dis¬
cussion. Journ. R. Geogr. Soc. 88 : 37-65.

Haltermann, H. — 1898 — Uber gelbe Wasserbluthe des Meeres (Trichodesmium) . Ann. Hydr.
Mar. Met. 26 : 302-311.

Hardy, A. C. — 1936 — Plankton ecology and the hypothesis of animal exclusion. Proc. Linn.
Soc. London Sess. 148 : 64-70.

- - —and E. R. Gunther — 1935 — The plankton of the South Georgia whaling grounds and

adjacent waters, 1926-1927. Discovery Repts. 11 : 1-456.

Hart, T. J. — 1934a — “Red Water Bloom” in South African seas. Nature 134 : 459-460.

- — - 1934b— On the phytoplankton of the southwest Atlantic and the Bellinghausen Sea,

1929-1931. Discovery Repts. 8 : 1-268.

- 1942— Phytoplankton periodicity in Antarctic surface waters. Discovery Repts. 21:

261-356.

Harvey, H. W.— 1934 — On the rate of diatom growth. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., n,s., 19 : 253-275.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

53 9

Hayren, E. — 1940 — Tre fall av vegetationsfargning sommaren 1939. Mem. Soc. Fauna and
Flora Fennica 16:2-3.

Hendey, N. I.— 1937 — The plankton diatoms of the southern sea. Discovery Repts. 16:
151-364.

Hentschel, E. — 1928 — Die Grundzuge der Planktonverteilung im Sudatlantischen Ozean.
Internat. Revue Hydrobiol. Hydrogr. 21 :1-16.

- and H. Wattenberg — 1930 — Plankton und Phosphat in der Oberflachenschicht des

Sudatlantischen Ozeans. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 58 : 273-277.

Herdman, E. C. — 1921-1924 — Notes on dinoflagellates and other organisms causing discoloura¬
tion of the sand at Port Erin, parts 1-4. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 35 : 59-63 ;
36: 15-30 ; 38: 58-67, 75-84.

Herdman, W. — 1911 — Dinoflagellates and diatoms on the beach. Nature 86: 554.

- 1912-1913 — Microscopic (minute) life of the (sea-) beach. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc.

26 : 46-57 ; 27 : 60-68. title varies.

Hesse, R. — 1924 — Tiergeographie auf okologischer Grundlage. Jena. 613 pp.

Hirasaka, R. — 1922 — On a case of discolored sea water. Annot. Zool. Japan. 10: 161-164.
Hornell, J. — 1917 — A new protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine fishes.
Madras Fish. Bull 11 : 53-66.

Ingersoll, E. — 1882 — On the fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc.. U. S. Nat. Mus.
4(1881) : 74-80.

Jefferson, J. P. — 1878 — On the mortality in the Gulf of Mexico in 1878. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 1 : 363-364.

- J. Y. Porter, and Th. Moore — 1878 — On the destruction of fish in the vicinity of the

Tortugas during the months September and October. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1 : 244-245.
Jenkins, F. A. and I. S. Bowen — 1947 — Dust makes the ocean blue. Sci. News Letter 51 : 140.
Jespersen, J. — 1923 — On the quantity of macroplankton in the Mediterranean and the At¬
lantic. Rept. on the Danish Ocean. Exps. 1908-1910 to the M'ed and Adj. Seas. Misc.
papers. 3(7) :

Jones, T. R. — 1882 — Notes on the sudden destruction of marine animals. Geol. Mag. London,
n.s., 9 : 533-540.

Jouan, H. — 1875 — Melanges zoologiques. Mortalite sur les poissons a la cote de Malabar.
Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Cherbourg 19 : 232-245.

Juengst, H. — 1937 — Fishsterben im Kurischen Haff. Geol. der Meere und Binnengewasser
1 : 352-354.

Kaiser, E. — 1930 — Das fischsterben in der W alef ischbucht. Palaeobiologica 3: 14-20.

K»ufmann. P. — 1897 — Sur le pretendu du Nil Vert. Revue d’ Egypte Kairo 4: 113.

Ketchum, B. H. and J. Keen — 1948 — Unusual phosphorous concentrations in the Florida red
tide sea water. Jour. Mar. Res. 7(1) : 17-21.

Koch, H. J. — 1939 — La cause des empoisonnements paralytiques provoques par les moules.
Comptes Rend. Ass. franc, av. sc. 63 : 654-657.

Kofoid. C. A. — 1911 — Dinoflagellata of the San Diego Region. The genus Gonyaulax. Univ.
Cal. Publ. Zool. 8 : 187-269.

- - 1911 — The genus Gonyaulax with notes on its skeletal morphology. Univ. Cal. Pub.

Zool. 8 : 187-286.

— - and O. Swezey — 1921- — The free-living unarmored Dinoflagellata. Mem. Univ. Calif.

5: 1-528.

Koppen, W. — 1932 — Feuchtluftwusten, Aufquellwasser und Lebensmenge. Ann. Hydro, mar.
Met. 60 : 468-469.

- - 1934 — Klima der Halbinsel Santa Elena (Ekuador) und neues Auftreten des Nino-

Stromes. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 62:277-278.

Kristensen, I. — 1943 — Mededeeling over massale vischsterfte. Het Aquarium (Utrecht) 14 : 18.
Klunzinger. C. B. — 1901 — Uber die physikalischen, chemischen und biologischen ursachen
der farbe unserer gewasser. Jhfte. Ver. natk. 57 : 321-346.

Lavalle y Garcia, J. A. de — 1914 — -El guano y la agricultura nacional. Lima. Ill pp.

- 1917a — La contra corriente ecuatorial como cause determinante del fenomeno marino

eonooido con el nombre de “Aguale.” Bol. Soc. Geogr. Tima 33:313-330.

- - 1 917b — Informe perliminar sobre la causa de la mortalidad de las aves occurrida en

el mes de marze del presente ano. Mom. Comp. Admin. Guano. Lima 8a: 61-88.

- 1924 — Communication on : Emigration and rnortalitv of guano birds in the months

of .April. May and June, 1923. Mem. Comp. Admin Guano, Lima 15a: 94-107.

Lees, G. M. — 1937 — “Black Sea” conditions in the Arabian Sea. Bull. Am. Ass. Petr. Geol.
21 : 1579-1582.

Liebert. F. and W. M. Deems — 1920 — Onderzoek naar de oorzaak van een vischsterfte in
den Polder Workumer-Nieuwland nabij Workum. Verb. Rapp. Rijksinst. Visscheri-
jonderz. (The Hague) 1 : 81-93.

Lindemann, E. — 1924 — Ded Bau der Hulle dei Heterocapsa und Kryptoperidinium foliaceum
(Stein). Bot. Archiv. 5:114-120.

- 1926 — Massenst°rben von Fischen infolge einer Hochproduktion von Panzergeisslingen

(Peridineen). K. Mitt. Mitgh Ver. Wasservers. Abwasserbes. (Berlin) 2:113-119.
Lohmann. H. von — 1903 — Neue untersuchungen uber den reichtum des meeres an plankton
und ubar die hraucbharkeit vo^ebfnrlonen von fangmethoden. Wissenschaftliche

meeresuntersuehungen. n.f. abt. Kiel 7 : 1-86.

Lund. E. -T. — 1935 — Some facts relating to the occurrences of dead and dying fish on the
Texas coast during June, July and August, 1935. Ann. Rept. Tex. Game, Fish,
Ovster Comm. 1934-35. pp. 47-50.

McClendon. .T. F. — 1918 — On changes in the sea and their relation to organisms. Pap. Dept.
Mar. Biol. Carn. Instn. 12 : 213-258.

Marshall and Orr — 1930 — Sedimentation on Lew Isles Reef. Grt. Bar. Reef Exp. 1 : 93-133.
1929-1930.

Martin. G- W. and T. C. Nelson — 1929— Swarming of dinoflagellates in Delaware Bay, New
Jersev. Bot. Gaz. 88(2) : 218-224.

Matthews, L. H.— 1932 — Lobster-krill, anomuran Crustacea that are the food of whales,
Discovery Repts, 5 ; 4§7-484, 4 plates.

540

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Maury, M. F. — 1858 — E planations and sailing directions to accompany the wind and cur¬
rent charts. 8th ed. Washington, D. C. Wm. A. Harris, Printer.

Mayor, A. G. — 1918 — Toxic effects due to high temperature. Pap. Dept. Mar. Biol. Carn.
Inst. 12 : 175-178.

Meade, A. D. — 1898 — Peridinium and the “red water” of Narragansett Bay. Science 8:
707-709.

Mears, E. G. — 1943 — Boundaries of the Humboldt Current. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 33(5):

- - — 1943 — The Callao Painter. Scientific Monthly (October) 57:331-336.

- — 1944- — Research in Pacific Ocean Geography. Journ. of Geogr. 43(2).

Menon, K. S. — 1932 — A preliminary account of the Madras plankton. Rec. Indian Mus.
(1931) 33:489-516.

Meyer, K. F., H. Somer, and P. Schoenholz — 1928 — Mussel poisoning. Journ. Prev. Med.
2 : 365 et seq.

Michael, E. L. — 1921— Effect of upwelling water upon the organic fertility of the sea in
Jhe region of southern California. Spec. Pub. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 7(2) : 555-595.
Miyajima, M. — 1934 — La question de l’eau rouge un peril pour les huitres perlieres. Bull.
Soc. Centr. Agriculture Peche 41 : 97-110.

Moberg, E. G. — 1928 — The interrelation between diatoms, their chemical environment and
upwelling water in the sea off the coast of southern California. Proc. Nat. Ac. Sci.
Wash. 14 : 511-518.

Mobius, K. — 1880 — Beitrage zur meeresfauna der insel Mauritius und der Seychellen. Berlin.
Montagne, C. — 1844 — Sur le phenomene de la coloration des eaux de la mer rouge. Ann. Sci.
Nat., ser. 3, Bot. 2 : 332-362.

Moore, M. A. — 1882 — Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 4(1881) :
125-126.

Murphy. R. C. — 1923 — The oceanography of the Peruvian littoral with reference to the
abundance and distribution of marine life. Geogr. Rev. 13 : 64-85.

— - 1926 — Oceanic and climatic nhenomena along the west coast of South America during

1925. Geogr. Rev. 16(1) : 26-54.

- — 1936 — Oceanic birds of South America. 2 vols. New York. 640 pp.

- — 1937 — Notes on the findings of the “William Scoresby” in the Peru Coastal Current.

Geogr. Rev. 27(1).

Murray. J. and J. Hjort — 1912 — The depths of the ocean. MacMillan and Co., Ltd. London.
Neeb, G. A. — 1943 — The composition and distribution of the samples. Snellius Exp. Geol.
Res. 3. Bottom sample, sec. 2. 5 : 47-268.

Nelson. N. P. B. — 1903 — Observations upon some algae which cause “water bloom.” Minn.
Bot. Studies, ser. 3. 1 : 51-56.

Niemann, D. — 1914 — Eigenartige farbung des meerwassers. Ann. Hydrogr. und mar. Met. 42.
Nightingale, H. W. — 1936 — Red water organisms. Argus Press, Seattle. 24 pp.

Nichikawa, T. — 1901 — Gonyaulax and the discolored water in the Bay of Agu. Ann. Zool.
Japan. 4 : 31-34.

Otterstrom. C. V. and E. Steemann Nielsen — 1940 — Two cases of extensive mortality caused
by the flagellate Prymnesium paryum. Carter, Rept. Danish Biol. Sta. 44(1939) : 1-24.
Packard, A. S. — 1871 — An account of a recent trip to Key West and the Tortugas, Florida.
Bull. Essex Inst. 2(1870): 44.

Paul, J. H. — 1932 — The last crui«e of the Carnegie. Baltimore. 131 pp.

Paulsen, O. — 1934 — Red “water bloom” in Iceland Seas. Nature 134:974.

Peters. N. 1934 — Die Bevolkerung des Sudatlantischen Ozeans mit Ceratien. Wiss. Erg.

Deutschen Atl. Exp. “Meteor.” 1925-1927, 2(1) : 1-69.

Phifer, L. D. — 1933 — Seasonal distribution and occurrence of planktonic diatoms at Friday
Harbor. Washington. Univ. Wash. Pub. Oceanogr. 1 : 39-81.

Porter, E. M. — 1886 — Investigation of supposed poisonous vegetation in the waters of some
of the lakes of Minnesota. Fourth Bienn. Rept. Board Reg. Univ. Minn. Suppl.
1 : 95-96.

Porter, J. Y. — 1882 — On the destruction of fish by poisonous water in the Gulf of Mexico.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 4(1881) : 121-123.

Powers. E. B. — 1937 — Factors involved in the sudden mortality of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 67: 271-281.

Powers, P. — 1932 — Cyclotrichium meunieri sp. nov. (Protozoa, Ciliata) ; cause of red water
in the Gulf of Maine. Biol. Bull. 63 : 74-80.

Prinzmetal, M„ H. Sommer and C. D. Leake — 1932 — The pharmacological action of mussel
poisoning. Journ. Pharm. Exp. Therap. 46 : 63-73.

Purdy, J. — 1840 — Memoir descriptive and explanatory to accompany the charts of the At¬
lantic Ocean.

Rahm, G. — 1937 — Zoologische Probleme an der Sudamerikanischen Westkuste, besonders uber
das Massensterben im Pazific. C. R. 12e Congr. Int. Zool. Lisboa 1935. 2 : 1237-1247.
Raimondi. D. A. — 1891 — Fenomeno ilamado El Pintor. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 1 : 58-67.

- 1897 — Geografia fisica. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 7 : 241-310.

Rathbun, R. — 1893-1895 — Mortality of oysters in Galveston Bay. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish.
19: 23-26.

Rayleigh, Right Hon. Lord — 1910 — Colours of the sea and sky. Nature 83 : 48-50.

Riley, G. A. — 1937 — The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological con-
tions in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Journ. Mar. Res. 1 : 60-74.

Savage, R. E. and A. C. Hardy — 1935 — Phytoplankton and the herring. Part 1, 1921-1932.
Fish Invest. London. Min. Agric. Fish., ser. 2, 14(2, 1934) : 1-73.

- and R. S. Wimpenny — 1936 — Phytoplankton and the herring. Part 2, 1933-1934. Fish

Invest. London, Min. Agric. Fish., ser. 2, 15(1, 1936) : 1-88.

Schmitt, C. — 1947 — Der Blutsee. Univers 1,(12) : 293-294.

Schnakenbeck, W. — 1930 — Ueber die Ursacben der grossen Fischterben an der sudwest-
afrikanischen Kuste. Fischerbote 22 : 408-410.

Schott, G. — 1931 — Der Peru-Strom und seine nordliche Nachbargebiete in normaler Und
anormaler Ausbildung. Ann. Hydrogr. mar. Met. Berlin 49 : 161-169, 200-213, 240-252.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Distribution of Discolored Sea Water

541

— — — 1932 — The Humboldt current in relation to land and sea conditions on the Peruvian
coast. Geography (Manchester) 17 : 87-98.

Schweigger, E. — 1942 — Las irregularidades de la corriente de Humboldt en los anos 1925 a
1941; una tentativa de su exploracion. Bol. Compania Admin. Guano Lima 18(1):
27-42.

- 1945a — La “Legitima” corriente del Nino. Bol. Comp. Adm. Guano Lima 21 : 255-296.

t - 1945b — La “Corriente del Nino” y las temperaturas estivales de la corriente peruana.

Revista Ciencias Lima 47(451) : 63-86.

Seydel, E. — 1913 — Fischsterben durch Wasserblute. Mitt. Fischerei-Ver. Prov. Brandenburg,
n.s., 5:87-91.

Sheppard, G. — 1931 — Plankton changes on the coast of Ecuador. Nature 127 : 629-630.
Sherwood, G. H. and V. H. Edwards — 1901 — Red tide in Narragansett Bay, R. I. Bull. U. S.
Fish Comm. 21 : 30.

Sjostedt, L. G. — 1924 — Tva nya saltvattensflagellater fran Oresundsomradet, etc. Act. Univ.
Lund. N. F. avd. 2, 20(5) : 20 pp.

Smith, H. M. — 1908 — Peridinium. Phillipp. Journ. Science 3:187-188.

Smith, F. G. W. et al. — 1947 — Red tide and fish mortality on the Florida West Coast. Spec.
Service Bull. Univ. Miami Mar. Lab. 5 pp.

Sommer, H. and F. N. Clark — 1946 — Effect of red water on marine life in Santa Monica
Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game 32 : 100-101.

- and K. F. Meyer — 1937 — Paralytic shell-fish poisoning. Arch. Pathology 24(5) : 560-598.

— - et al. — 1937 — Relation of paralytic shell-fish poison to certain plankton organisms

of the genus Gonyaulax. Arch. Pathology 24 : 537-559.

Spangler, A. M. — 1893(94) — The decrease of food-fishes in American waters and some of
the causes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 13 : 21-35.

Steers, J. A. — 1929 — The Queensland coast and the Great Barrier Reefs. Geogr. Journ. 74:
232-257, 341-370.

Stiglich, G. — 1918 — Derroterc de la costa del Peru. Lima. 205 pp. illus. charts.

- 1925 — El fenomeno maritimo del Aguaje. Rev. Mar. Peru 10(1) : 25-40.

Storey, M. — 1937 — The relation between normal range and mortality of fishes due to cold at
Sanibel Island, Florida. Ecology (Brooklyn) 18:10-26.

- and E. W. Gudger — 1936 — Mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida

1886-1936. Ecology (Brooklyn) 17 : 640-648.

Streets, T. H. — 1878 — The discolored water of the Gulf of California. Amer. Nat. 12 : 85-92.
Strodtmann, S. — 1898 — Ueber die vermeinte Schadlichkeit der Wasserblute. Forschungsber.
Biol. Stat. Plon. 6:206-212.

Sverdrup, H. U.— 1930 — Some oceanographic results of the Carnegie’s work in the Pacific.
The Peruvian Current. Trans. Am. Geophys. Un. 11 meet. Pp. 257-264.

- M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming — 1946 — The Oceans, their physics, chemistry and

general biology. New York. 2 ed. 1087 pp.

Taylor, H. F. — 1917 — Mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Rept. U. S. Comm.
Fisheries. 1917, App. 3 : 1-24.

Thompson, E. F. — 1939 — Chemical and physical investigations. The general hydrology of
the Red Sea. Sci. Rept. John Murray Exp. 1933-1934, 2(3) : 83-103.

Torrey, H. B. — 1902 — An unusual occurrence of Dinoflagellata on the California coast. Am.
Nat. 36 : 187-192.

Uda, M. — 1934 — Hydrographical studies based on simultaneous oceanographical surveys
made in the Japan Sea and its adjacent waters during May and June 1932. Rec.
Oceanogr. Works Japan 6 : 19-107.

U. S. Hydrographic Office — 1920 — Mexico and Central America pilot (West coast) from
the U. S. to Columbia including the Gulfs of California and Panama. P. 79. 6 ed.
419 p.

Veenhuyzen, J. C. — 1879 — Communication on: Trichodesmium erythraeum. Natuurk. Tijdschr.
Ned. Indie 38 : 150-151.

Walker, S. T. — 1884— Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 6(1883) :
105-109.

Webb, J. G. — 1887 — The mortality of fish in the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm.
6(1886) : 11-13.

Weigelt, J. — 1930 — Vcm Sterben der Wirbeltiere. Festschr. J. Walther, Leopoldina 6:281-340.
Whitelegge, T.— 1891a — On the organism discoloring the waters of Port Jackson. Rec.
Austral. Mus. Sydney 1 : 144-147.

- 1891b — On the recent discolouration of the waters of Port Jackson. Rec. Austral.

Mus. Sydney 1 : 179-192.

Wilhelm, G. O. — 1930 — Las mortandades de jibias (Omastrephes gigas) en la Bahia de Tal-
cahuano. Bol Soc. Biol. Concepcion (Chile) 3:23-38.

- 1932 — Das Massensterben von Tintenfischen in der Bucht von Talcahuano. Atti 11

Congr. Int. Zool. Padova 1930, 1 : 334-339.

Willcox, J. — 1887 — Fish killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida. Bull.
U. S. Fish Comm. (1886) 6 : 123.

Woloszynska, J. and W. Conrad — 1939 — Pyrodinium phoneus n. sp. agent de la toxicite des
moules du canal maritime de Bruges a Zeebrugge. Bull. Mus. Hist. nat. Belgique
15(45] ; 5 pp.

Woodbury, L. A. — 1941 — A sudden mortality of fishes accompanying a supersaturation of
oxygen in Lake Waubesa, Wisconsin. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 71 : 112-117.

Woodcock, A. H. — 1927a — Air-borne drops of sea water over a beach. Woods Hole, Mass. Ms.
- — 1947b — “Red Tide” study. Woods Hole, Mass. Ms.

- — 1948 — Note concerning human respiratory irritation associated with high concentra¬
tions of plankton and mass mortality of marine organisms. Jour. M'ar. Res 7(1) :
56-62.

Zelizko, J. V. — 1934 — Neue Belege ueber dfe Ursachen des Massentodes rezenten Wirbeltiere.
Paleont. Zeitr. 16 (%) : 91-94.

ZoBell, C. E. — 1946 — Marine Microbiology. Chronica Botanica Co. Waltham, Mass. 240 pp.
Zorell, F. — 1928 — Der “El Nino” Strom in Jahre 1925. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 56: 166-175.

542

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

A REVIEW OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF CETACEAN
PHYSIOLOGY

LELA MAE JEFFREY

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif,
and

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas

Cetacea comprise an order of the class Mammalia and include whales,
dolphins and porpoises. All have a streamlined body with finlike forelimbs
and tail, but no external hind limbs. Some are especially adapted for pro¬
longed submergence. They are distinguished by the fact that they are the
only mammals which are entirely independent of land. The order Cetacea
is subdivided in accordance with anatomy and phylogeny into suborders
Mysticeti and Odontoceti. The Mysticeti include baleen whales which do
not possess teeth but instead long plates of frayed baleen which they use to
strain out their food from sea water. The0 Odontoceti are toothed whales
which are further subdivided into those with teeth in the lower jaw only,
the sperm whales, and those with teeth in both jaws, dolphins, porpoises and
beaked whales.

Some of the physiological capacities of cetaceans are sufficiently re¬
markable to have attracted the attention of even casual observers. Biologists
and physiologists are interested in cetaceans for the additional reason that
the group presents challenging problems in physiological adjustments which
smaller animals do not present. The group is important in a comparative
sense also to those interested in evolutionary processes, for it is generally
recognized that they are mammals which left land for the sea. Structural
features suggest that whales evolved from early mammalian carnivores that
first lived on land and later took to the sea. Whalebone whales are believed
to have descended from some kind of primitive toothed whale (Drinker,
1949). Primitive whales first appeared in the middle Eocene (40 million
years ago) . In addition, cetaceans give physiologists a natural experiment ac¬
centuating certain physiological processes common to all mammals, the most
obvious example being the diving capacities of some.

ANATOMICAL ADAPTATIONS

Cetaceans are adapted anatomically for a complete marine existence in
many ways (see Hyman, 1942). They have a very streamlined form. Fins,
hind limbs, and hair on the major parts of the body are lacking. The fore¬
limbs are converted to flippers with no external trace of digits. The relatively
large head* which tends toward the shape of a bird’s head, ^passes directly
into the trunk. Other features tending to make the cetaceans more stream¬
lined are (1) inguinal teats (2) abdominal genitalia (3) disappearance of
external ear.

Cetaceans move very rapidly, several times as fast as man. Their
streamlineness and aquatic existence are factors in this ability, but the prin¬
cipal reason is the extremely powerful tail, greatly expanded and ending in
horizontal flukes.

1961, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

543

Courtesy, Dr. Raymond M. Gilmore

A bull sperm whale, 51 feet long.

A finback being hauled out. This whale was around 65 feet in length.

544

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

The so called nostrils open far back on top of the head and can be
closed by a valve. This enables them to inhale air without exposing a large
portion of the body to the atmosphere.

Sinclair (1950) reports the olfactory nerve of the porpoise has almost
completely degenerated, probably because the olfactory organs cannot be
used under water. However, the porpoise and probably the whale have a
highly specialized ear. According to Sinclair (1950), the auditory nerve of
the porpoise is relatively quite long and leads to a bone that is not part of
the skull but ventral to it. The ossicles are fused and the middle ear cavity
is obliterated. According to Sinclair, this is a unique sonar device, the
mechanism of which no one has completely worked out. Porpoises are com¬
monly noted for their sensitivity to sound.

The brain of cetaceans is highly convoluted (Hyman, 1942), but a
complete analysis of the brain (porpoise in this instance) shows that the
areas of the brain which are highly developed in man are simplified in the
porpoise, but the temporal lobe, especially the center of acoustic reception,
is more highly specialized in the porpoise than in man (Sinclair, 1950).
The cerebellum is apparently as complex as that of lower primates.

The great sperm whale has a rather unique anatomical adaptation in a
box-like head which is caused by the presence of a large oil cavity holding
as many as 20 barrels of oil (Hyman, 1942). The cavity is above the skull
and is formed by a transverse crest behind the nares plus the concave surface
of the premaxillae and maxillae.

FOOD RELATIONS

Whalebone or baleen whales swim with partially open mouth through
thick masses of food which consists usually of small crustaceans such as
Euphausia or Calanus or any other small animal, such as herring,, which live
in great concentrations near the surface in certain areas, at certain seasons.
At intervals, the whale closes its mouth and with its tongue forces the water
out at the sides of the baleen, acting as a retaining sieve for the food. Large
baleen whales eat several barrels of such food in a day, and some of them
grow to be the largest of all animals. Examples of the baleen whales are the
humpback, blue, finback, gray, right, sei, and little piked whales. The
feeding grounds of these whales are in the high latitudes in spring and sum¬
mer where upwelling water with high nutrient concentrations causes a large
diatom population which brings in turn swarms of tiny crustaceans to the
surface to feed on the plants (Kellogg, 1940). Migration routes of baleen
whales depend on the seasonal location of the feeding grounds.

The toothed whales include not the largest but some of the most ac¬
tive, predaceous species of the order Cetacea- — killer whale, white whale,
porpoise, dolphin and the narwhal. Some of the larger toothed whales such
as the sperm and killer have throats big enough to swallow giant squid,
seals, sharks and man. However, a man probably would not live to tell the
experience because he would probably be crushed in two before being
swallowed, and if not, he could not possibly survive the strong gastric
juices. Baleen whales have throats only a few inches in diameter. Dolphins
and porpoises have many teeth in their jaws, and capture and eat animals
such as fish, eel and squid. Each genus or species generally has its own
particular type of fish or mollusk to feed on (Kellogg, 1940).

1951, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

545

A humpback, about 40 feet long.

Courtesy, Dr. Raymond M. Gilmore

A finback whale emerging from a dive.

546

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

RESPIRATION

Contrary to a once popular idea, water does not enter the laryngeal
region of cetaceans as they rush open mouth to food, because the nasal
passages do not open into the throat as in land mammals but are connected
directly with the windpipe (Kellogg, 1940). Nor for the same reason can
water enter the mouth when the whale is feeding and be spouted out the
blowholes on top of the head as once believed. Actually spouting is pro¬
duced by air being forcibly discharged from the lungs under pressure and
supersaturated at body temperature with moisture whereupon is produces a
"spout” (Kellogg, 1940).

In their respiratory processes cetaceans appear to differ essentially from
land mammals in that they are less sensitive to a wide range of CO2 con¬
centration than man, or perhaps their respiratory center depends entirely
upon lack of oxygen for stimulation. At any rate, Irving ( 1938) found
considerable quantities of CO2 dissolved in the blood and body fluids of
cetaceans. Laurie ( 1933 ) found large volumes of CO2 in urine and allantoic
fluid and a slight supersaturation of nitrogen. The same phenomenon was
noted for the duck by Orr and Watson (1913), for seals by Irving, et al
(1913), and for beavers and muskrats by Irving (193 8b). Their breathing
was not much increased by inhaling 10% CO2.

Laurie ( 1933) estimated the basal metabolic rate in blue and fin whales
to be 2.5 calories/kg/day. The rate for man is about 32.9 calories/kg/day.
He also noted that the weight of the blue whale lung is 1.2% the weight of
its soft parts; whereas for man it is 2.4%, and on the basis of those figures he
concluded that the vital capacity of a whale may be approximately one-
half that of man in proportion to total weight, which was unexpected.

One of the most fascinating facts about the cetacean group is that
some of its members dive to considerable depths and remain submerged for
periods of time remarkable for mammals apparently without suffering from
the bends, which is a result of bubble formation in the blood system caused
by a sudden release of too high a concentration of nitrogen and other gases
into the blood capillaries. Without an oxygen supply man cannot stay sub¬
merged longer than 2-5 minutes (Teruoka, 1932). There are somewhat
varying reports on the length of time certain cetaceans can remain sub¬
merged, and in many cases the validity of some reports on this subject is
questionable. Andrews (1916) reported a blue whale stayed down 50 min¬
utes. Scammon (1874) reported the sperm whale stayed down 75 minutes,
the bowhead 80 minutes, and the bottlenose whale 2 hours. The blue whale
in normal feeding descends 100 to 300 feet and stays down 10 to 20 min¬
utes. The bottlenose whale feeds on the bottom on octopuses. Gray (1927)
reported that large Greenland whales descended 700 to 800 fathoms and
remained for nearly an hour when harpooned. Whether this observation of
wounded whales gives any reliable indication of their normal diving habits
is questionable. Scholander (1940) attached recording manometers to har¬
poon lines and found that fin whales descended from 2 84 to 1164 feet with¬
out dying from the bends. The whale that made the deepest dive came to
the surface and towed the boat for some time before it was killed. Laurie
(1933 ) reported a sperm whale off the coast of Peru caught in a broken
cable at 3,000 feet. The questions involved are how do cetaceans escape the
bends, and what mechanisms do they possess to store enough oxygen for
their metabolic needs while submerged.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

547

There have been a number of theories to explain the cetaceans’ ap¬
parent avoidance of the bends. Campbell (1934) postulated that a whale
avoids the bends by filling its lungs with sea water upon submergence. That
idea, of course, has never been confirmed. A rather elaborate theory with
apparently much laboratory work behind it is that of Laurie (1933). He
stated that he found that the nitrogen capacity of whale blood is more
than twice that of human blood, and the nitrogen which whale blood takes
up from air at atmospheric pressure cannot be extracted by evacuation if
sufficient oxygen is present. He purported to show that nitrogen fixation
was accomplished by bacteria ("X-organisms”) in the blood, and he believed
that this fixation might serve to protect whales from the bends. However,
Krogh (1934) thought Laurie’s proposed mechanism could not act fast
enough. He pointed out also that nitrogen fixation requires one volume of
oxygen to one volume of fixed nitrogen. Scholander (1940) found no evi¬
dence of symbiotic nitrogen fixing organisms in whale blood. Irving (1939)
thought after reviewing the literature up to that time that a whale swims
slowly down and up, and this activity favors the elimination of nitrogen
during ascent at the same rate as the solution occurred during the dive.
However, he had no explicit data indicating that whales dive and ascend
slowly.

Gray (1934) postulated that a whale may short-circuit pulmonary
circulation during submergence, by-passing the lungs and thus avoiding any
absorption of nitrogen under presure. Damant (1934) computed that at a
depth of 100 meters (11 atmospheres pressure) whale’s alveoli are contracted
so as to present but 1 / 1 1 of their surface volume at atmospheric pressure.
The bronchioles have thick walls and sphincter muscles which contract the
absorption area and thus obstruct most of the diffusion of nitrogen into
the blood and also favor discharge when the animal surfaces.

Drinker (1949) brought out the pertinent and crucial point that the
diving whale’s lungs contain only the nitrogen of the air breathed at the
surface. There is no continuous supply of nitrogen under pressure to mul¬
tiply the amount of gas dissolved in its blood and tissues, as in the case of
diving men with oxygen tanks.

Scholander (1940) and Drinker (1949) generally agree that the best
explanation of the apparent absence of the bends in whales is that the air
sacs of the lungs are continuously compressed as the animal goes down and
their walls are thickened, making the absorption of nitrogen taken at the
surface increasingly difficult. Slowed circulation during diving and the
shunting of circulation through the brain also lessens absorption. The circu¬
lation increases as the whale ascends and lungs return to normal size, all of
which causes nitrogen to be eliminated just rapidly enough so that bubbles
will not form in the capillaries.

Scholander (1940) showed that diving mammals are not completely
immune to the bends, for he lowered a seal 984 feet in 3 minutes and drew
it up in 9 minutes. It died promptly from the bends.

The means by which whales can store enough oxygen for their metab¬
olic needs while submerged have been rather completely enumerated by
investigators, Irving (1939), Ommaney (1933 ), Krogh (1934), Scholander
(1940), and Drinker (1949). According to Drinker (1949), a 150 pound
man has about 23 00 cc of oxygen available, and this lasts about 4 minutes
at very moderate work. Krogh (1934) estimates that an 89 foot blue whale
has available 2,800,000 cc, and swimming under water at 3 knots, it con-

548

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

sumes 53,000 cc of oxygen per minute. So, it stores enough oxygen for a
50 minute dive without overexertion. Irving (1939) reported that although
diving animals in general have a slightly larger volume of blood per unit
weight with a slightly greater oxygen capacity per corpuscle than their
terrestrial counterparts, this cannot begin to account for the tenfold greater
diving capacity of the blue whale over man. Irving (1939) and Scholander
(1940) both noted a reduction of oxygen supply to muscle tissues but a
good supply going through the sensitive brain tissue. Whale muscles are
particularly high in myoglobin, a tissue hemoglobin, which allows the tissue
to respire without free molecular oxygen from an outside source. According
to Scholander (1940), the muscles of the whale are capable of holding the
total oxygen store because of the high myoglobin content. Although storage
of oxygen in the lungs, blood, respiratory pigments of whales are propor¬
tionately higher than in man, there is still another storage mechanism.
Ommaney ( 1933) and Drinker (1949) both emphasize the significance of
the presence of networks of small arteries and large veins embedded in fat
at the base of the brain, in the chest and in the region corresponding to the
groin. These networks named retia mirabilia cause oxygen to be dissolved
and stored in the surrounding fat to be taken out when needed.

So apparently it can be concluded that the diving whale has sufficient
oxygen for its metabolic activities while diving because (1) storage of
oxygen in lungs, blood, in muscle myoglobin and fat is proportionately
high, (2) circulation is shunted so that to muscles it is minimum and to
heart and brain sufficient.

WATER BALANCE

There is abundant indication that cetaceans do not drink water, de¬
spite the fact that they live in the ocean all their lives. Irving ( 193 5 ) re¬
ported that seals were never observed to drink water, even if it were avail¬
able in abundance. Smith (1936) found only traces of Mg and SO* in the
intestinal residue of seals, and correspondingly low amounts in the urine, in¬
dicating minimal sea water ingestion. Geiling and Robbins (in Fetcher 1939)
analyzed stomach contents and feces of white whales and found them
"dry.”

Cetaceans have blood only a little more concentrated than that of
terrestrial mammals, and their urine is apparently somewhat more concen¬
trated than sea water. (Table I).

TABLE I. FREEZING POINT LOWERING OF THE BLOOD AND URINE OF MAN

AND VARIOUS CETACEANS (DATA FROM PROSSER, ET AL, 1950, P. 62),

Man

Dolphin (T ur stops tursio )
Balaeoptera sibbaldi
Balaenoptera borealis
Delphinus phocaena
Pollack Whale (B. borealis )

A of blood
.58°C
.83
1.26

.74

A of urine

2.6

2.46

1.83-2.49

Krogh (1939) from Irving, Fisher and McIntosh’s (1935) data on
water balance of seals made corrected calculations to apply to whales feed¬
ing either on vertebrates, with a comparatively low concentration of salts in
body tissues, or on invertebrates with a much higher salt concentration in

1951, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

549

their tissues. He reached the same conclusions for both kinds of whales as
Irving, Fisher and McIntosh ( 193 5 ) did for seals: i.e., whales take in no
more water than is contained in the food. Krogh stated that only insignifi¬
cant quantities of sea water are swallowed even in baleen whales because
the enormous tongue can act as a press to squeeze out the water. Closure
of the throat may also be of great significance. Further reference to Krogh’s
calculations will be made in the section on excretion.

Cetaceans do not need as much water as land mammals, for the fol¬
lowing reasons. Cetaceans obtain any cooling necessary primarily through
convection to the surrounding water without losing large amounts by evap¬
oration, as land mammals must. They have no need of sweat glands and
have none. Prosser states that the relative amount of water lost from the
lungs of cetaceans is probably not appreciable, because owing to increased
pressure under water, the animals may be able to extract more of the oxygen
and thus may not need to saturate so much air (Prosser, et al, 1950). An¬
other mechanism whereby cetaceans conserve water is the secreting of con¬
centrated milk. Krogh (1939) states whale milk to be only 40-70% water.
Zenokovich (1938) found the water content of several species of whales
to vary from 40-5 5% and the fat content to be 3 8-5 5%. Krogh thought
this low water content should be considered from the viewpoint of water
conservation of the mother. However, Zenovich emphasized the fact that
young whales are born without blubber and have to live solely on milk
for six months, so that the large amount of fat in the milk is essential. He
observed that the species which migrated earliest have the highest fat con¬
centrations of the milk. The comparatively low water content and high
fat content could serve a dual purpose, both water conservation and nu¬
trition.

EXCRETION

No striking differences in the excretory products of cetaceans and land
mammals have been found. The principal nitrogenous product is urea, as in
other mammals. Table II is an analysis of the filtered urine of whales by
Schmidt-Nielson and Johansen (1920).

Krogh (1939) believed that a whale kidney, regardless of the food
supply, could easily excrete the urea and salts from the water obtained in
the food. However, Fetcher and Fetcher (1942) do not agree with Krogh
on this point. It is their opinion that cetaceans feeding on marine inverte¬
brates may have some other mechanism for excreting salt other than the
kidney, although they apparently think the kidney is the most important
organ of excretion. They suspended male and female dolphins in air, fed
them solutions of .5 M NaCl and made analyses of urine, saliva and feces.
There were insignificant amounts of salt in saliva, and the feces were iso¬
tonic with the blood. Within a few hours 53% of the salt and 84% of the
water was excreted through the kidney. The blood chloride changed very
little, so they assumed a shift of tissue water. It was their opinion that (1)
Perhaps sea water in invertebrates can be "filtered” in the buccal region
and taken into the blood stream relatively salt free. However, the saliva
showed insignificant amounts of salt excretion. (2) Perhaps the dolphins
with which they were working could not live exclusively on invertebrates.
More work should be done before any final conclusion is made on the func¬
tioning of the organs of excretion of cetaceans that feed on invertebrates.

550

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

TABLE II. ANALYSIS OF FILTERED URINE OF WHALES. ( SCHMIDT- NIELSON
AND JOHANSEN (1920).

Constituents

Grams

per lite\

Total N

12.5 -

20.6

NHq

.47 -

9.1

Urea

15.2 -

24.6

Uric Acid

.08 -

.19

Hippuric Acid

.2 -

Protein

.6 -

2.1

Creatinine

.5 -

1.2

Sulfate

1.2 -

1.5

S-esters

.009-

.022

p9 oK

.58 -

2.87

9.3 -

13.4

Ca O

.10 -

.31

MgO

.10 -

.24

Na.,0

7.26 -

10.23

K„ O

2.75 -

3.30

TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The body temperature of whales is in the range of 3 6-37° C. Man has
essentially the same body temperature, 3 6.3-37.25° C. (Prosser et al, 1950).
This relatively high internal temperature is maintained in cetaceans by sev¬
eral mechanisms, some of which are slightly different in degree from those
in land mammals.

The source of primary heat in any homoiotherm (warm blooded ani¬
mal) is metabolic chemical reactions, although the high body temperature
of birds and mammals is not so much a result of faster oxidations as it is a
result of better insulation from the environment (Heilbrunn, 1943).
Cetaceans possess a heavy insulation of blubber, the thickness of which may
be related to the temperature of the water the species inhabits.

There is another important factor in heat retention in cetaceans. It is
a general rule that, as the surface of a homoiotherm organism increases in
proportion to its mass the total loss of heat increases, and so to maintain
its body temperature the organism compensates by using more oxygen and
thus producing more heat. In large cetaceans the ratio of the surface to the
volume is relatively small in comparison to man, in large whales only 1 / 1 0
as large.

A whale has about the same body temperature as man, whose testes are
contained in a scrotum for protection against high temperatures, but the
whale and seal, along with the rhinoceros and the elephant, have intra¬
abdominal testes ( Wislocki, 1933 ). This may have been a slow evolution
with time, with physiological adaptation of the sperm. The intra-abdominal
testes preserves the highly streamlined form also.

HORMONES AND VITAMINS

A surprisingly large amount of histological and biochemical work has
been done on thyroid, pituitary, pancreas and liver of cetaceans, but no
significant differences in the functions of the glands in cetaceans and land
mammals have been reported.

Graff in and Geiling (1942) weighed, photographed, and made his¬
tological studies of the thyroid gland of the little white whale, the sperm

1951, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

whale and the blue whale. The thyroid gland of the sperm whale weighed
1000-1400 grams, and that of a 77 foot blue whale weighed 3200-3700
grams. The histological structure of whale thyroid showed no significant
differences from that in nonaquatic animals.

Geiling, Tarr and Tarr ( 193 5); Riddle and Bates (193 5); Valso
(1934, 1938); Geiling (1940); Jensen, Geiling and Tolksdorf (1939);
and Oldham, Last and Geiling (1940) all made studies of the functions
of various parts of the pituitary gland of cetaceans. All their work led to the
conclusion that the same principles are found in cetacean pituitary as are
found in cow, hog, and armadillo pituitary. The purified extracts exhibited
parallel functions to those from land animals when injected into rats.

Yamagawa and Nishimura (1926) found that the adrenal gland of a
whale weighed 30 times as much as that of an ox, but the whale had a
smaller percentage of adrenaline than the ox. This might have been ex¬
pected since, according to Laurie ( 1933 ), the basal metabolism of a whale is
much lower than that of land mammals.

Yamagawa and Nakamura (1926) studied the pancreas insulin of the
whale, but the insulin found was of low potency. At the time this was
thought to be caused by autolysis of the hormone between the time of
capture and dissection.

Jacobsen (1942) in his review concluded that whale endocrines are
quantitatively and qualitatively equal to corresponding glands of cattle.
It was his strong belief that the blue whale represents an enormous potential
source of numerous important pharmaceuticals.

Several studies have been made on the vitamin content of organs of
whales. Vitamins A and to a negligible extent, D have been found in the
liver of several cetaceans. Oseki (1934) reported the liver of the sei whale
to contain Vitamin A, no B, some E and a protein content of very high
nutritive value. Embree and Schantz (1943) demonstrated in whale liver
oil considerable quantities of "provitamin A” which can be transformed
easily to Vitamin A.

CONCLUSION

There are many more interesting relations and facts about the physi¬
ology of cetaceans, but the better known ones were mentioned in this brief
paper. Certain anatomical features and physiological processes are empha¬
sized or highly evolved in Cetacea, and some are almost negligible, but it
appears that in general the differences in cetaceans as compared with land
mammals, are quantitative and not qualitative.

acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the criticisms, suggestions, and corrections
offered by Dr. Carl Hubbs especially, Dr. D. L. Fox, Dr. M. W. Johnson, all of
Scripps Institution of Oceanography of La Jolla, California. The author is indebted
to Scripps Institution of Oceanography for the use of its library and to the Southwest
Research Institute under whose auspices the work was revised and put into publishable
form.

SUMMARY

1. Cetaceans are adapted for a complete aquatic existence.

2. Whalebone whales feed on tiny crustaceans and small fish, whereas
toothed whales feed on squid and fish and various pelagic mollusks.

552

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

3. Whales apparently are not sensitive to high concentrations of C02 in
the body fluids as land mammals are.

4. The absence of decompression sickness in whales may be tentatively
explained by the fact that they do not dissolve nitrogen under pressure
in the blood, which would give trouble on ascent.

5. The ability of whales to stay submerged approximately ten times as
long as man may be tentatively ascribed to these facts:

(1) Oxygen is stored in lungs, blood, muscle myoglobin, and retla
mirabilia.

(2) Circulation is shunted so that it is minimum to the muscles and
sufficient to heart and brain.

6. Cetaceans apparently get all their water from their food. Reasons why
are cited.

7. The products of whale excretion are not significantly different from
those of land mammals.

8. The body temperature of whales, 3 6-37° C, is easily maintained by
(1) metabolic chemical reactions, (primary source), (2) insulation by
a relatively thick layer of blubber, (3) possession of a small ratio of
surface area to mass as compared with land mammals.

9. Whale endocrines are apparently almost quantitatively and qualita¬
tively equal to corresponding glands of cattle.

10. Vitamin and provitamin A are found in considerable quantities in
whale liver. Vitamins D and E are in smaller quantities.

LITERATURE CITED

Andrews, R. C. — 1916 — Whale hunting with gun and camera. New York.

Campbell, J. A. — 1934 — Whales and caisson disease. Nature London 134:629.

Damant, G. C. C. — 1934 — Physiology of deep diving in the whale. Nature London 133 : 834.

Drinker, C. K. — 1949 — The physiology of whales. Scientific American 181 (1) : 52-55.

Embree, N. D. and E. M. Schantz — 1943 — Kitol, a new provitamin A. J. Amer. Chem. Soc.
65: 913.

Fetcher, E. S. Jr. — 1939 — The water balance in marine mammals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 14:
451-459.

— — — and G. W. Fetcher — 1942 — Osmotic regulation in dolphins. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol.
19 : 123-130.

Geiling, E. M. K. — 1940 — The comparative anatomy and pharmacology of the pituitary gland
of unusual experimental animals. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 40 : 727-737.

- - Tarr, L. N. and A. de L. Tarr — 1935 — The hyprophysis cerebri of the finback (Balaen-

optera physalus) and sperm whale (Physeter megalocephalus). Bull. Johns Hopkins
Hosp. 57 : 123-135.

Graffin, A. L. and E. M. K. Geiling — 1942 — Observations on the structure of the thyroid
gland in whales. Anat. Rec. 83 : 367-377.

Gray, R. W. — 1934 — Whales and caisson disease. Nature London 134 : 853.

Heilbrunn, L. V. — 1943 — An outline of general physiology. Saunders. Philadelphia and
London.

Irving, L. — 1935 — The protection of whales from danger of caisson disease. Science 81 : 560.

- — - 1938a — The insensitivity of diving animals to COa. Amer. J. Physiol. 124 : 729-734.

- 1938b — Control of respiration in diving animals. Amer. J. Physiol. 123:107.

- 1939 — Respiration in diving mammals. Physiol. Rev. 19 : 112-134.

- Fisher, K. C. and F. C. McIntosh — 1935 — The water balance of a marine mammal, the

seal. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol. 6 : 387-391.

Jacobsen, Alf P. — 1942 — Endocrinological studies in the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus
L.) Hvalradets Skrifter Norske Videnskaps. Adak. Oslo. No. 24. 84 pp.

Jensen, H. ; Geiling, E. M. K. and S. Tojksdorf — -1939 — Gonadotropic activity of anterior pitui¬
tary in the Finback whale. Proc. Soc. Experim. Biol. Med. 42 : 470-472.

Kellog, R. — 1940 — Whales, giants of the sea. National Geographic 77 : 35-90.

Krogh, A. — 1934 — Physiology of the blue whale. Nature London 133 : 635-637.

- 1939 — Osmotic regulations in aquatic mammals. Cambridge Univ. Press. 242 pp.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Review of Cetacean Physiology

553

Laurie, A. H. — 1933 — Some aspects of respiration in the blue and fin whales. Discovery
Report 7 : 363-407.

Oldham, P. K. ; Last, J. H. and E. M. K. Geiling — 1940 — Distribution of melanophore dis¬
persing hormone in the anterior lobe of cetaceans and armadillo. Proc. Soc. Experim.
Biol, and Med. 43 : 407-410.

Ommanney, F. D. — 1933 — The vascular networks (retina mirabilia) of the fin whale (Balaen-
optera physalus) Discovery Report 7 :465-474.

Orr, J. B. and A. Watson — 1913 — Study of the respiratory mechanism in the duck. J. Physiol.
46: 337.

Oseki, T. — 1934 — Nutritive value of whale liver. Bull. Inst. Phys. Chem. Research (Tokyo)
13: 1160-5.

Prosser, C. L., ed. ; Bishop, D. W. : Brown, Frank, A. Jr.; Jahn, T. L. ; and V. J. Wulff —

1950 — Comparative animal physiology. W. B. Saunders. Philadelphia, London.

Riddle, A. and L. Bates — 1933 — An assay of sperm whale anterior pituitary powder. Johns
Hopkins Hosp. 57 : 139.

Scam m on, C. M. — 1874 — Marine mammals of the northwest coast of North America. San
Francisco.

Schmidt-Nielsen, S. and A. Johansen — 1931 — Composition of the urine of whales. Kgl. Norske
Videnskab. Selskab. Forh. 4 : 121-123.

Scholander, P. F. — 1940 — Experimental investigations on the respiratory function in diving
mammals and birds. Norske Vidensk. Akad. Oslo. Hvalradets Skrift. Sci. Results Mar.
Biol. Res. 22 : 1-131.

Sinclair, J. G. — 1950 — Some adaptive features of the porpoise head. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(1) :
139.

Smith, H. W. — 1936 — Composition of the urine of the seal. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol. 7 :
465-474.

Suzuki, M.- — 1933 — The stomach contents of the sperm whale. Japan. J. Med. Sci. II, Biochem.
2 : 7-9.

Teruoka, G. — 1932 — Die Ama Tind ihre Arbeit. Arbeitsphysiol. 5 : 239.

Valso, J. — 1935 — The hormone content of the pituitary gland of Balaenoptera sibbaldi. III.
Growth hormone. Klin. Wochschr. 14:1183-4.

Valso, J.— 1938 — Biochemical studies of whaling problems. I. 1. The hyprophysis of the blue
whale (Balaenoptera musculus, L.) Macroscopical and microscopical anatomy and hor¬
mone content. Hvalradets Skrifter Norske Videnskaps. Akad. Oslo. No. 16:5-30.
Wislocki, G. B. — 1933 — Relation of testes tc body temperature. Quart. Rev. Biol. 8 : 385-396.
Yamagawa, M. and N. Nakamura — 1926 — Chemical study on the marine mammals. III. The
pancreas of the whale. Insulin. J. Imp. Fish. Inst. (Tokyo) 22 : 26-8.

- - — and S. Nishimura— 1926 — Chemical study on the marine mammals. I. The adrenal of

the whale. Adrenaline. J. Imp. Fish. Inst. (Tokyo) 22 : 22-23.

Zenkovich, B. A. — 1938— Milk of large sized cetaceans. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R.
20 : 203-205.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

154

CLIMATIC LIMITS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION
OF MESQUITE (Prosopis juliflora) IN TEXAS

EDWIN R. BOGUSCH
Texas College of Arts and Industries
Kingsville, Texas

Studies on the past and present distribution of mesquite, Prosopis
juliflora and its varieties, indicate that its limits of spread are effectively
set by climatic factors. The name of the species here used is that as defined
by Benson (1941). Standley (1922) proposed Prosopis chilensis but later
(1926) returned the species to P. juliflora . Others (Cockerell, 1945) agree
with that change.

From an ecological viewpoint Bray (1904, 1906) made one of the
early significant studies on the natural distribution of the mesquite. He
records the evidence of spread over areas which now lie deep within its
present range.

Both Bray (1904) and Bailey (1905) left for us excellent maps of
the approximate range of the mesquite in Texas at the beginning of the
present century. These two maps, while not identical, differ in minor respects
only and provide us with an excellent base upon which to build comparative
studies showing today’s distribution.

The work reported here is the result of field studies made upon the
northern and western limits chiefly, with some attention devoted also to the
eastern margins. It has not been considered feasible at this time to engage
in a county by county survey of this eastern border.

From Professor B. C. Tharp (personal communication) we learn that
the mesquite has now spread eastward to Angelina County, nearly reaching
Louisiana at this point.

Published evidence summarized in another paper (Bogusch, 1950) gives
support to Cockerell’s (1945) contention that the mesquite is one of the
alien members of our flora, having come in from the eastern flank of the
Andes in Argentina. Bray (1906) also indicated that the major portion of
the vegetation of the Lower Sonoran Woodland of the Rio Grande Plain
came from the Mexican Plateau floral province. This vegetation has been
thoroughly described by Engler (1879). The mesquite is a part of this flora.

Ecologically the mesquite may be properly classified as a leaf xerophyte.
The compound leaves, consisting of many small leaflets, regulate transpira¬
tion losses and control the water economy by dropping leaflets until a water
balance has been established. This is especially evident along the southern
part of its Texas range.

The plant, furthermore, has roots which sometimes penetrate up to fifty
feet deep and regularly tap water supplies at half that distance. This root
penetration is partly due to the mesquite’s ability to accomplish root develop¬
ment under extremely low soil oxygen levels (Weaver and Clements, 1929).

Mesquite, wherever It occurs, can be looked upon as an indicator of
subirrigation and a relatively shallow water table. Since mesquite cannot
survive prolonged flooding, the water table must lie from a few feet below
the surface to not greatly below fifty feet in depth.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Climatic Limits Affecting Mesquite

555

Geographically, the mesquite forms its densest stand across Texas be¬
tween the limits set by the 18 -inch isohyet at the west and the 2 8 -inch
isohyet at the east (Fig. 1). This coincides with the belt of chernozem soils.
Since soils are in themselves partly the product of climate, this coincidence
assumes some significance.

The northern limit of the mesquite seems to be strongly influenced by
the frequency of microthermal years. Some differences exist today with
reference to the distribution of the mesquite when compared with the obser¬
vations of half a century ago. Professor R. J. Russell (personal communica¬
tion) reports that the farthest northern limit for the mesquite observed by
him was just four miles north of the Canadian River. Bray (1904) indicated
at the time of his studies that there was a partial invasion of the mesquite
into areas which now are termed microthermal areas by Russell (1945).
Bailey (1905) in his studies located the northern boundary for the mesquite
at a point south of the line where Russell indicates that the frequency of
occurrence of January mean temperatures which lie wholly below 32° F
exceeds half of the total number of years during any series under considera¬
tion.

FIGURE 1

556

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

On the basis of topographic interpretation, the northern observed limits
of the mesquite in Texas coincide with the eastern escarpment of the Staked
Plains. The mesquite skirts the edges of the plains, invades marginally, and
persists in the sheltered canyons and draws, where permanent or transient
streams provide subirrigation. Everywhere in this locality the mesquite is
shrubby rather than tree-like.

The area of maximum density of the mesquite has seemed relatively
stable in those climatic areas where less than one-half of the years are micro-
thermal. The boundary is not sharp, varying with the frequency of micro-
thermal years. Even under a high frequency of cold years, in areas where
the mesquite has once invaded, the shrub may persist even when severely
damaged by frost. The author has witnessed the effects of severe freezes in
the vicinity of Lubbock which during the winter of 1949 killed much of
the plant parts above ground. During the severe freeze occurring in the
winter of 1950, similar damage was observed as far south as Kingsville.
Killing in the latter case was far from uniform. In many such observed
instances of winter killing of the parts above ground, new growth developed
from underground buds when near optimum conditions returned.

Where the mesquite is subject to frequent winter killing, it behaves
often like a woody perennial herb. If a series of milder winters fails to injure
the growth, the shrub assumes again its usual habit and grows to considerable
size.

Although the mesquite occurs over much of the state, the maximum
abundance lies as a broad belt from the Rio Grande to the Red River. An
exception is the almost mesquite-free section which coincides with the Bal-
conian Biotic Province, as defined by Blair (1949). Evidence from half a
century ago (Bailey, 1905) would indicate that this belt comprises the
plant’s optimum climatic range as well as being a migration focus, especially
for its eastward spread in recent years.

Actually, the eastern and western limits are difficult to define on the
basis of precipitation alone. With some changes in the taxonomic variety
and a diminished density of stand, the mesquite extends westward across the
state and continues to the Pacific coast. In New Mexico and Arizona the
mesquite often constitutes the principal woody vegetation in the subirrigated
valleys (Shantz and Zon, 1924). This presence of Prosopis has been reported
by different authors as having been of long duration, antedating even the
cattle drives which have been often held responsible for its westward as well
as its northward march.

The eastward invasion is largely a result of changes brought about in
the natural plant cover through the impact of man’s activities; and this is,
in part, different from causes which effected the dense growth on the deltaic
soils of the Rio Grande embayment. A very active recent spread from the
brush areas into the destroyed grassland climax has occurred in the Texas
Tamaulipan Biotic Province.

Since the beginning of the study of the brush invasion, cattle have
received considerable credit as agents effecting distribution. Bray (1906),
Tharp (1926, 1944), and others have shown these agencies to have had
considerable effect, both in initiating conditions for a secondary sere by
close-grazing and hoof damage to ground cover, and then by planting the
undigested seeds with the manure.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Climatic Limits Affecting Mesquite

557

A second part of man’s influence, not always clearly recognized, has
been the rapid depletion of other timber by saw mills, land clearing, and
similar activities, followed by opening the soil through cultivation. Mesquite
seeds germinate best only where full light reaches the expanding cotyledons.
This has been frequently observed by the writer in grassland areas where
it has been possible to compare this growth after germination of mesquite
seedlings on bare ground. No significant figures can be presented at this
time to support these observations because the field conditions studied do
not meet the requirements of a controlled experiment. However, it seems
safe to say that strong shading is inimical to survival.

Following the technique of Went and Westergaard (1949) we have
verified the soundness of instructions of the Forest Service (1948) to germi¬
nate the seeds at a night temperature not much below 68° F and at a day
temperature not above 86° F. It is our observation that under natural con¬
ditions, germination follows only when a combination of optimum factors
exists. First, diurnal temperature fluctuation must lie principally within the
above limits. Second, moisture duration in the upper soil layers must persist
for a minimum of three to five days after germination.

The hypocotyl of the seedling makes phenomenal growth in the initial
stages, reaching a length of 7 to 10 cm. before the cotyledons are fully
expanded. Root contact with the zone of persistent soil moisture is thereby
established, and root growth keeps pace with the receding moisture level.

Because of these requirements of moisture persistence, it is doubtful
whether the mesquite can readily invade true nuclear desert areas. According
to Russell (1945) the Texas desert is considerably less than nuclear, since
some years of less than desert intensity occur. However, microclimates pro¬
duced through animal activity often provide, even in sub-desert years, condi¬
tions suitable for the establishing of the mesquite.

Went and Westergaard (1949) showed that seeds of many plants were
stimulated to develop more favorably and to germinate better after passing
through the digestive tract of certain animals. Our field experiences and
repeated observations lead us to believe that possibly the mesquite is similarly
affected.

In the microclimate provided by manure, even during cold weather,
the temperature remains near the optimum because of bacterial activity.
This is a phenomenon which the writer has repeatedly observed in the field.
Especially has the stimulus given to germination of ingested seeds which
were subsequently excreted with the manure been a common observation
upon the cattle ranches in southern and central Texas, and the writer holds
the belief that this is one of the most effective mechanisms whereby the
mesquite has been introduced into soils when the superficial soil moisture
was too low for competing plants to get started. Moisture conditions in the
manure are high and some of this moisture is transferred to the soil directly
beneath the manure. Thus the elongating hypocotyl can pass into the soil
and establish itself a root system which makes contact with a source of
water.

Martin (1949) reports that mesquite seeds of the variety velutina re¬
main viable for at least 44 years. Thus, seeds left in the soil may survive
even after enduring a long drought cycle and be ready to take advantage
of a favorable season to become established.

558

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Although Weaver and Clements (1929) report the ability of mesquite
roots to penetrate soils with an abnormally low oxygen content, the plant
cannot long endure flooding. Illustrations of this are rather abundant where
retention dams impound the stream flow and flood the mesquite thickets.
In Kleberg County the dead mesquite trunks are still standing after eleven
years of flooding, although the trees were killed during the first few months
after the overflow took place. Roots thus deprived of oxygen die and there¬
fore exclude the mesquite from areas where soils may suffer continuous
inundation because of prolonged rainfall.

Therefore, although the tolerance of the mesquite toward water ranges
through a wide series of conditions, a combination of high soil water and
low soil oxygen seems to provide the effective barrier against continued
spread eastward into increasingly humid regions into which the mesquite
might otherwise be expected to enter.

SUMMARY

1. The limits governing the spread of mesquite are determined by a
combination of several climatic factors.

2. In Texas the densest mesquite occurs generally in the chernozem
soils, lying in a broad belt between the 18- and 2 8 -inch isohyets.

3. The northern limit is apparently determined by the frequency of
microthermal years. Microthermal years have been defined as those in which
the January mean temperature lies below 32° F.

4. Westward the related varieties of mesquite extend beyond the limits
of the state.

5. The eastward spread of mesquite is largely due to changes in natural
vegetation brought about though the activities of man.

6. Cattle are important in the spread of mesquite largely by their pro¬
ducing microclimates more favorable for establishment of the plant.

7. The extent of soil saturation by water determines to a large extent
limits beyond which the mesquite cannot spread.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, Vernon — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna 25 : 1-222, illus.
Benson, L. — 1941 — The mesquites and screw-beans of the United States. Amer. Jour. Bot.
28(9) : 748-754.

Blair, W. Frank — 1949 — The biotic provinces of Texas. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(1): 93-117.
Bogusch, E. R. — 1950 — A bibliography on mesquite. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(4) : 528-538.

Bray, William L. — 1904 — -Forest resources of Texas. U. S. Bur. Forest. Bull. 47.

- 1906 — Distribution and adaptation of the vegetation of Texas. Bull. Univ. of Texas

82, Sci. Ser. No. 10.

Cockerell, T. D. . — 1945 — The Colorado desert of California, its origin and biota. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci. 48(1) : 1-39.

Engler, Adolf — -1879 — Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzewelt. Leipzig.
Forest Service — 1948 — Woody plant seed manual. U. S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Publ. 658.

Martin, S. Clark — 1948 — Mesquite seeds remain viable after 44 years. Ecology 29(3) : 393.'
Russell, Richard J. — 1945 — Climates of Texas. Anals Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 35: 37-52.

Shantz, H. L., and Raphael Zon — 1924 — Atlas of American Agriculture. Washington, D. C.
Standley, P. C. — 1922 — 1926 — Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23 :351-
353, 1657-1658.

Tharp, B. C. — 1926— Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th meridian. Univ. Tex.
Bull. 2606.

— - 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci.

27 : 81-91.

Weaver, John E., and F. E. Clements — 1929— Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill. New ork.

Went, F. W., and M. Westergaard — 1949 — Ecology of desert plants. Ecology 30: 26-38.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Hops in Northeastern Mexico

559

ATTEMPT TO GROW HOPS IN NORTHEASTERN MEXICO

J. N. STERN
University of Nuevo Leon
Monterrey, N. L. — Mexico

INTRODUCTION

Hops ( Humulus lupulus Linn, and maybe Humulus americanus Nutt)
are grown commercially for use in the brewing industry. They impart to
the beer a special flavor due principally to an essential oil and at the same
time act as antiseptic substances, permitting an easier pasteurization and
improving the keeping properties of the finished product.

Hop ( Humulus lupulus Linn) is an herbaceous perennial twining dioic
plant of European origin. The stem twists in a spiral direction from left
to right. It is still a matter of discussion whether some cultivated varieties
such as the "Clusters” belong to the species Humulus americanus . Many
botanists deny it, regarding the differences between the "Cluster” group
and other cultivated hops as too small for separating the former in another
species.

Hops can produce fertile seeds, but are commonly propagated by cut¬
tings which are sections of underground stems.

The parts of the plant used in the brewing industry for their active
substance are the female flowers, which enlarge greatly during the develop¬
ment of the ovary, forming the so-called "cones.” The substances extracted
from hop include bitter acids, resins, essential oil and tannin. The bitter
acids and resins improve the tests and the colloidal stability of the beer. The
bitter acids are humulon or alpha-bitter acid (C21 H30 O5) and lupulon or
beta bitter acid (C26 H38 O4). Both trace their origin to Quinone. By oxida¬
tion and polymerization, the acids are converted into soft resins soluble in
hexane and ether.

Humulon possesses a stronger antiseptic action and a more bitter taste
than lupulon. Hop contains a third resin, the gamma, which belongs to the
hard group and is of little or no value. Tannin and its oxidation product
phlobaphene react with proteins of the wort which are precipitated during
the boiling, improving the stability of the end product.

Before the second world war, most of the hops used in the Mexican
brewing industry were imported from Europe (Germany and Czecho¬
slovakia) , and when the hostilities started the product became scarce. More¬
over, the importation of hops from the United States was not always able
to meet the demand of a market in uninterrupted expansion, and this situa¬
tion made it impossible for the Mexican brewers to increase the produc¬
tion of beer to the limits of its potential consumption.

In an attempt to make the Mexican brewing industry independent of
foreign hops, a group of business men of northeastern Mexico started a
series of experiments in order to determine if this plant could be grown suc¬
cessfully in this part of the Mexican Republic. The first step was to estab¬
lish an experimental field with an area of 62.23 Hectares (155.58 acres) in
the vicinity of the highway Mexico-Laredo, about 150 miles from the
American border and at an altitude of approximately 1600 feet above sea

560

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

level. In addition, cuttings were divided among a group of farmers, who
received the necessary technical advice. The variety used in the experi¬
ments was mostly "Early Clusters ” of North American origin.

The experiment ended in a failure, and this paper is specially dedicated
to analyze and to study the causes which are responsible for the small yield
and little brewing value of hops which were obtained in this trial. In order
to avoid data which lack exactitude, such as those submitted by individual
farmers, this study will deal only with the results obtained in the experi¬
mental field.

SOILS

Selection of soil to grow hops depends on many factors, climate being
one of the most important. The soil of a commercial plantation must be
deep, because the roots of the plant penetrate it for many feet. Heavy and
wet soils are not suitable for the purpose. Sandy loams with a good drained
subsoil are excellent. Hops require considerable amounts of nitrogen, phos¬
phorus and potassium and deplete the soil of these elements, which must be
replaced by fertilizers.

There are not sufficient data in the literature about the requirements
of microelements, but probably hops do not differ much from other plants
in this regard.

Table I presents a few soil analyses from some North American hop
plantations (parts I and II) compared with the analyses of 15 plots of the
experimental field (part III).

As it can be seen, the soils of the experimental field do not have any
deficiency in potassium, phosphorous and nitrogen. The author made some
additional analyses, determining available elements which, in some samples,
in spite of the abundance of the total elements, presented a notable deficit.
This shortage was immediately corrected by application of mineral elements
and a cover crop of leguminous plants.

The physical and mechanical analyses gave satisfactory results. The
soil was also deep enough.

Two negative factors still remain: (1) The excess of calcium which
not only produces strong alkalinity, but also makes microelements insoluble,
and diminishes the utilization of phosphorous due to an unbalanced condi¬
tion between calcium and magnesium and (2) The low concentration of
boron, a deficiency, which was not corrected.

CLIMATE

Hops can be grown in a wide range of climatic conditions, provided
they exclude the extremely low and the extremely high temperatures. Very
cold winters may destroy a great number of plants and, likewise, continued
cold and damp weather in the spring are harmful to the crop. The plant is
produced most successfully In a temperate climate with a summer average
of 18.5° C (65° F) and a narrow range of daily temperature. In normal
conditions, hops have a long rest period (about 6 months). In the United
States, with exception of the Yakima Valley, hops, are grown in districts
with heavy rainfall and high relative humidity. In the Yakima Valley the
climate is dry, and summer temperatures are high. Still, the winter is long,
and the plant has the same rest period as. in other parts.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Hops in Northeastern Mexico

561

a ^

NfNrn^

00 r-H hNND

d h r-S o

h ON (N 00 Nf rfN VO

lh-

odd^d^r-Ii-H’

eo V)

O ti

« CS

CQ a

* «os

4) .5 <N Cuo 00

^•=3 ddiA'C
8

<N fN 00 Nf
oo so I -'

O X

<N \

C O H h 00 ^ IA
r-D ^ -h‘ d d r-: r~:

CC CN sc NO Nf OC oc VO
an sc an 'o an so i''" so

HfOOOH

so nt r-^

dodo

an cn oo r--~
h~ an an

NfCim'cr

O AN AN O

<NN ON CNNO

'—i NO so <N

HrHHIN

O O O O

N?TI so an h-

iArHh.ro
r<N h- cCN CN

(N s}1 SO O. Ol SO Ol C
C t' A A A rH h Cs

ndddoddd

1^-HhOOsOt^-hO
Cs AC'.Csr o o r-

MrC.fNtNiHSt(N(N

lAStCC r AS ITS o

N-f h rOhrnCSStSt

so i" O r an On so so

OOOANOOOO
OOOOlhOOAHC
O AN CN AN AN GN ON
SO A SO rH a rH (\J Ol

p c
gg

JG ^ A5

g‘«‘> c

-G c ^
u GS <u <h
CO O t-4 pH

-HfNfOSt

JU .S

C3 ^

> 3

! et

^ O

Jh £!
(Jo

c173
"g >■ ° Si
2 0-S3-S g

o<3s^ss

a eg
<u g
a. 5

o «
H>h

o so oo <n asooooo^oo Aoosost

P I"; p H so h^ ON rCN T-H an SO# CN o m

co^ANSor^i^sdsooodr^dsdoNoo

rfiSO

(AN O

1 — 1

cfN

fN rO

r— (

rTi

o o

A AC ASO OlOONhACNh-Ahr-l
r'-CNOOO'^SOSO(NSOOOOOSOOOOSO
Or-HCNO’-HOO--HOOOO'-Hr-<0

jG -

sooqco'Oooooqoooohoo'Ooooooo

r'c-'NO'hhCOhhh'hhhhh

ASOSOHSOSCOO-t-NOOO Asto
(NSONNOSOSOSOAAOOOOh'CNIH

AOmrooCfO''tmmcoroNfn(N

rn h\o o (N ^ p qq S hp. a mst

I'C rG xr oo so 00 so oo oj T‘ 2i Ntf" On

fN(N(N(N(N| CN CN CN 1 CN ^ CN CN ON

r^-(NOmoc\ioor-<Nor-'t^.r-

AhONt(N'hO(NCNA'OCNONCS

'xt,rfNNfr<NrfNr<NNt'r<NON<-<NNrON<NCN

oooooooooooooo

aN<N0C<N00AN»— IANNtlr-Hh-'st'rCN00

CC\(NCN(NOstAOOSOOOOhA

OIHHHH'N- lHrtH(\|HHH

000000000>TN0000

oooooosrooosorsioihooo

(N|HH|xHiOAr(M"0 h 0- O NT
ANXt'stl(N'^ATN<s(Nrrs(N'sJ,NCt,SOr^-''Ctl

<L>

(NfONt ASO^OO

(Nrost ASONCOONOrHCNrONT

Plot 15 5830 1740 400

562

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

The climate of the district which harbors the experimental field is re¬
corded in the meteorological maps according to the classification of W.
Koppen as type BWh corresponding to a dry subtropical climate. The classi¬
fication of C. W. Thornwaite lists it among the type EB’d or dry meso-
thermic climate with deficient rainfall, and the system of Glenn T. Tre-
wartha uses for it the symbols BWh, representing the climates of tropical
and subtropical deserts.

The meteorological maps use the mentioned classifications for a large
zone in Northeastern Mexico and neglect the climatic deviations, which can
be observed in many districts of this part of the Mexican Republic. It is
understood that for the purpose of introductions of new crops the local
deviations are more important than the mean climate of a given zone. In
the specific case of the experimental field it is of great importance to con¬
sider a factor which some meteorologists call "oceanity” because practically
all the rainfall and the relative humidity of the air depend on the winds
from the north which carry the necessary humidity from the Gulf of
Mexico. As it can be observed in Table 3, annual variations of rainfall are
extremely wide and this phenomenon affects equally the water table and the
temperatures. It is true that a lack of rainfall can be corrected as it was by
proper irrigation in the case of the experimental field, but the extremely high
temperatures which were observed in the winter months (Table 4) make
rather illusory or exclude the rest period of a plant.

It can be said without risk that the climate of the chosen district is not
suitable for growing hops or any other plant which normally needs a long
rest period during the winter.

table 2

RAINFALL IN MM. (1 INCH =25.4 MM.)

METEOROLOGICAL STATION ABOUT 2 MILES (3.2 KM. FROM THE
EXPERIMENTAL FIELD).

Jan. Feb. March Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Mean

monthly

rainfall, 21.7 23.1 15.5 28.7 42.0 84.6 72.9 62.6 204.6 109.6 25.5 23.7
15

years

TABLE 3

RAINFALL IN MM. (1 INCH =25.4 MM.)
METEOROLOGICAL STATION ABOUT 2 MILES (3.2 KM. FROM THE
EXPERIMENTAL FIELD).

1933 1939 1944 1945 1946

410.9 1,311-3

Annual rainfall Minimum Maximum

1930-1949 1930-1949 930.8 644.0 759.3

Mean annual
rainfall
1930-1949

700.5

1951, No. 4
December 30

Hops in Northeastern Mexico

°o

rCN

cCN

r-t

vo q

rCN

tb rH

T— *

»— < 1

T— 1

G _>*

</)

•g-s

T— <

CM 00

>-]

S e

l/N

cCN

oo o

,— i

i — i

t— i

ji g

C/3

IO.

q o

i-Q

rCN

vb cm

T— H

1-1

s^f

IT\

CM MT

rb d

-CN

rCN

cCN

CCN

cO cO

‘8 >»

cS — <

a -a

l/N

i r\

q. rq
rb oi

g §

G G

rCN

cCN

cO cO

-g s

rH ^r

On no

CO.

COi

CCN

cCN

CM CM

C fi

G 2
ca y

»-H

MT NO

<L> G

ON NO

r"<

r-H rH

t/j

§3

QJ G

1945

r-*

T— 1

cCN

q o

ON vb

s §

r— 1

r-H rH

C/5

C/D

>»

JJ G

MT1

Ml5

ccn q
MT »cn

i— i

r-H

q q

rb rb

S §

r-H r-H

1 ►*

ON MT

rq q

•a c

rCN

mt d

.a o

a ►.

§3

no q

a a

, rb

r-i

Ml5

o rb

• ^ H

s §

t— -4

s e

>»

C/5

§3

l-i

cO NO CM

^ G

cCN

S §

r-4

r~>

r-H rH

r— H

t—

February

March

April

May

• s

> •—

August

September

October

November

December

ClJ

564

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

CULTIVATION

It is considered unnecessary to give details of cultivation practices used
in the experiment. If they are mentioned it is only to say that this work was
entrusted to skilled specialists who made several trips to the United States
in order to become familiar with the most subtle details of cultivating hops.
It still remains to be seen if cultivation practices of a temperate climate can
be transferred without change to a zone where the biological cycle of the
plant is quite different. At least in one case the use of vegetable manure in
January and February proved to be harmful because the temperature of the
soil was unduly raised.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Hops, like all other plants, are subject to many diseases and pests, but
under normal conditions they can be controlled with not too great effort.

In the experimental field the infection was strong enough to induce Dr.
G. H. Godfrey, plant pathologist of the Texas Experimental Station in Wes¬
laco, to express the opinion that diseases and pests could be the primary
cause of the failure. (The loss in some plots was about 50 per cent). The
author, who during three years made the identification of the parasites and
pathogens, agrees that the lamentable state of the plantation due to diseases
is in great part responsible for the diminution of the yield, but believes that
in a more suitable climate most of the diseases would never progress. It is
interesting to note that most of the cuttings received from the United States
carried many plant pathogens, which in a temperate climate would probably
be suppressed by a vigorous plant.

The most important pests were Diabrotica duodecimpunctata, grubs
(larvae of Coleoptera) and root knot nematode Heterodera marioni. A bac¬
terial disease-Crown Gall ( Agrobacterium tumefaciens) was very serious and
probably for first time in the history of this disease a mortality of 30% can
be reported. Fungus diseases were in first line root rots. Table # 5 and 6
list the most important pests and diseases. The former dedicated to the
findings in the field and the latter listing the pathogens in and on the cut¬
tings. Cotton root rot was not found in the field but one of the individual
farmers sent a sample of hops infected with Vhymatotrichum omnivorum.

YIELDS AND BREWINR VALUE

The yields in the different plots were small. Likewise the hops were poor
in bitter acids and soft resins and were of a limited brewing value.

table 5

PESTS AND DISEASES OF HOPS IN THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD

Pests

Bacterial

diseases

Fungus diseases

1. Diabrotica

Crown Gall

1. Pythium sp.

(D. duodecimpunctata)

(Agrobacterium 2. Rhizoctonia

2. Grub

(Larvae of Coleoptera)

3. The root-knot nematode
(Heterodera marioni)

tumefaciens) .

solani.

3. Fusarium sp.

4. Verticillium sp.

5. Rosellinia

Mostly
rotting fi

(Graphium and §

Dermatophora

stages).

Remarks
Very high per¬
centage of crown
gall and root
rots.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Hops in Northeastern Mexico

565

Table 7 permits comparison of the yield of the experimental held with
similar yields in North America. Even the best plot shows a yield 3 times
less than the worst North American crop; 311 pounds per acre against 800.

The mean yield of 1946 (1945 is not worth mentioning) was only 112
pounds per acre. Compare Table 7.

The amount of resins and the brewing value of hops from the experi¬
mental held are compared with the yield of two North American and one
Canadian hop in Table 8.

Brewing value a +

table 6

INFESTATION IN CUTTINGS RECEIVED FROM THE UNITED STATES.

PATHOGENIC

ORGANISMS

Bacteria

Fungi

Nematodes

Remarks

Bacillus subtilis

# Fusarium sp.

Tylenchidae

Many fusaria

Micrococcus sp.

* Verticillium sp.

in tropical

Proteus sp.

* Pythium sp.
Diplodia sp.

* Phytophthora sp.

* Rhizopus sp.
Aspergillus sp.
Cercospora sp.

A fungus belong¬
ing to the
Basidiomycetes.

and sub-tropi¬
cal conditions
are pathogenic
for plants.

The Tylenchidae
were not
identified.

TABLE 7

YIELD PER PLANT AND AREA IN THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD.
CROPS OF 1945 AND 1946 COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGE

NORTH AMERICAN PRODUCTION.

Kilograms per hectare.

State of Washington
State of California
State of Oregon
State of New York

Plot ff 1
Plot ff 2
Plot ff 3
Plot jf 4
plot a 5
plot a 6
Plot jf 7
Plot if 8
plot a 9
Plot it 10
Plot a ii
Plot it 12
plot a 13
plot a i4
Plot if 15
Mean

Grams per plant.

1945

1946

140

3.3

110

2.8

1945

1344-2240
1568-2464
1112-1792
896- 1680
1946

14.00

155.0

8.21

81.24

12.79

116.71

9.83

9739

11.31

45.24

105.19

342.12

200.19

197.52

30.14

108.40

12.80

51.20

9.62

54.59

45.04

270.00

75.21

228.40

21.73

229.12

12.96

40.58

7.22

10.55

37.77

125.69

Pounds per acre.
1200-2000
1400 - 2200
1000-1600
800-1500

1945

1946

12.50

138.39

7.33

72.53

11.42

105.20

8.77

86.95

10.09

40.39

93.84

311.71

178.74

176.35

26.91

96.78

11.43

45.71

8.59

48.7 4

40.21

241.07

67.15

203.92

19.40

204.57

11.57

36.23

6.44

9.42

33.72

112.14

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

5 66

-TABLE 8

a , /?, AND y RESINS AND THE "BREWING VALUE” OF HOPS OF THE EXPERI¬
MENTAL FIELD. COMPARED WITH TWO AMERICAN AND ONE CANADIAN HOP.
(PERCENTAGE ON BASIS OF DRY MATTER) .

Brewing Value

Year of analysis

Resin

and remarks.

Experimental

Field

Plot # 2

Crop 1945

3.25%

7.61%

1.25%

5.15

1945

Experimental

Field

Plot jf 2

Crop 1946

2.34%

8.26%

1.45%

4.41

1946

Experimental

Field

Plot # 6

Crop 1946
Fancy

2.96%

7.34%

2.16%

4.79

1946

1949

California
(Cluster type)
Crop 1948
California

6.22%

12.38%

1.8%

9.32

Probable loss in
storage 8% of
total resins.

Crop 1949
Canada

6.13%

13.42%

2.06%

9.48

1949

Probable loss in

Crop 1948

6.13%

13.30%

0.85%

9.46

storage 8% of

total resins.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The attempt to grow hops in Northeastern Mexico ended in failure.

2. The causes of this failure are:

a. The climate, which eliminates the normal winter rest period of
the plant.

b. Pests and diseases, which increase in the case of weak plants.

c. Some imperfections of the soil. (Too much calcium, not
enough boron) .

3. If hops are to be introduced in Mexico, it must be in a different
climatic zone.

SUMMARY

The causes of failure to grow hops in Northeastern Mexico are analyzed,
concluding that climate is the primary factor responsible for lack of success.

Comparisons are made between North American yields and the crop
in the experimental field, where only 112 pounds per acre against 800 (the
smallest North American yield) were obtained; the brewing value was also
low. (About 50% compared with foreign hops.)

1951, No. 4
December 30

Hops in Northeastern Mexico

567

acknowledgment

The author is indebted to the industrial group, who started the experiment and
provided him with all the necessary documentation, in order to present this paper.

He expresses also his kindest gratefulness to his wife, Ph.C. Anita Stern, for
her great help in performing the soil analyses.

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous — 1947 — Hop production of the Pacific Coast. Bureau of Field Crops. Calif. Dep.
of Agric. (Transcription).

Castro de, Honorato — 1945 — Delimitacion de regiones climatologicas. Bol. Instituto de Inves-
tigaciones Cientificas 6:217-224. Monterrey, N. L. Mexico.

Contreras Arias, Alfonso — 1937 — Clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 1 : 16-18.

- 1937 — Clasificacion de los climas. Agr. 1 2 : 6-13.

- — 1938 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 4 : 34-42.

— - 1938 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 6 : 8-12.

- 1939 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 2. 14 : 17-24.

Fore, R. E., and I. D. Sather — 1941 — -La tecnica del cult.ivo (Traduccion al espanol).

Hoerner, G. R. and Frank Rabak — 1941 — Production of hops. Farmers Bui. 1842 U. S. Dept,
of Agr. 1842 : 1-40.

Stern, Jeannot — 1950 — Apuntes de Fitopatologia. Trabajo inedito.

568

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

TRANSMISSION OF ELASTIC PULSES IN RODS * **

D. S. HUGHES AND J. H. STANBROUGH * *
Department of Physics
University of Texas

Abstract : The transmission of elastic pulses through solid rods has been
investigated. A single input pulse gives rise to a series of pulses from which
it has been found possible to compute both the dilatational and rotational
velocities in the material. From these velocities the elastic moduli of isotropic
materials may be computed. The mode of transformation of the input pulse
has been studied and provides a thorough check on the computational pro¬
cedure. Two materials, pyrex glass and brass have been studied. The moduli
have been measured as functions of pressure and temperature up to 50,000
psi and 200° C.

INTRODUCTION

The velocity of elastic waves in solid media is determined by the elastic
parameters of the media and thus from a measurement of the velocities the
values of the elastic constants may be deduced. Isotropic solids are charac¬
terized by having two independent elastic constants. These may be given
as the bulk modulus and rigidity modulus, or Young’s modulus and
Poisson’s ratio, or by any other two independent constants. Corresponding
to the two elastic parameters it is frequently said that a solid admits two
independent elastic waves, the dilatational and rotational waves. In the first
the vibration is parallel to direction of propagation and in the second the
vibration is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. These waves are
thus sometimes referred to as the longitudinal and transverse waves. This
however is true only as long as the medium is effectively infinite in extent.

When a free boundary is introduced a third type of wave becomes
possible, the so-called Rayleigh or surface wave. In general as more bound¬
aries are introduced the possible behavior becomes more complex, with addi¬
tional wave types of different velocities.

The velocity of the dilatational wave is

* -a 2/3 u

1/2

where

k is the bulk modulus,
fx is the rigidity modulus,
and p is the density.

The velocity of the rotational wave is

1/2

Thus the velocity of the dilatational wave is greater than that of the
rotational wave and in general the fastest possible signal through a solid

* This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research under contract N6onr-266,
Task Order VIII, and by research grants from the Shell Oil Company and the Humble Oil
and Refining Company.

** Presented at the 1950 Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods

569

medium travels with the velocity Vi>. In any particular case the fastest
detectable signal may not travel with this velocity.

Pulses of comparatively low frequency through long thin rods may be
found to travel with the velocity

where E is Young’s modulus.

This velocity is frequently measured by finding the resonance frequency
of a rod. As usually carried out in the laboratory the length of the rod is
many times the diameter and frequencies in the sonic range are used. Under
these conditions the velocity Va will be obtained.

If the length of the rod is only a few diameters a laboratory specimen
will for practical purposes be rather short and the resonance frequencies
very high. The resonance conditions become very complex and the above
simple view is not applicable.

The velocity of waves through a rod may also be determined by meas¬
uring the time of transmission of a pulse through the rod. For practical
laboratory samples this time is very short, of the order of 10-20 /zsec. for
rods a few inches long; however, utilizing techniques and apparatus devel¬
oped for radar use these times can not only be measured but under good
conditions an accuracy of 0.02 /xsec. can be achieved.1

experimental procedure

A block diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The sample may
be either placed in open air or in a chamber and subjected to hydrostatic
pressure and elevated temperature. At the present time a hydrostatic pressure
of 90,000 psi can be generated and a temperature of 300° C.

The trigger pulse from the A.J.R. scope is delayed about 5 /xsec. and
then triggers the pulse generator. The pulse is amplified and impressed on

FIGURE 1- — Block Diagram of Apparatus.

^•Hughes, D. S., Pondrom, W. L., Mims. R. L., “Transmission of Elastic Pulses in
Metal Rods,” Physical Review, 75, 10, pp. 1552-1556, May 15, 1949.

570

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

* ^V-V* 'ff* VVW

* f i *

1t^ — » w

FIGURE 2 — Arrivals in Steel Rods 1 inch in Diameter of Various Lengths.

the driving crystal, which is an x-cut 5 me. quartz crystal. The pulse used
has a rise time of about 0.1 /xsec. and an amplitude of 800 volts. The decay
is exponential with a time constant of about 5.0 [xsec .

The transmitted pulse is received by an x-cut 5 me. quartz crystal
amplified and impressed on the A.J.R. scope. In making measurements the
crystals are laced on the sample, the trigger generator set to a frequency of
about 5 50 ps, and the received wave displayed on the oscilloscope screen. The
arrival times of the various waves are then read off on the scope.

RESULTS

The appearance of the received wave on the oscilloscope screen is shown
in the photographs of Fig. 2. The top and bottom traces are time markers at
10 /msec, intervals. The other traces show the arrivals through rods 2, 4, 6, 8,
and 10 inches in length. One trace shows the wave received with the crystals
in contact. The first arrival can be very accurately timed. It is found to
travel with the dilatational velocity of steel. The later arrivals it will be
noted follow the first at equal intervals independent of rod length. Fig. 3
shows the arrivals through steel rods 6” long of different diameters. The
diameters are IV2 inches for the lowest trace 1 inch, % inch, V2 inch and
V4 inch. It will be noted that the time of the first arrival is not affected by
change in diameter. It grows weaker with reduction in diameter and for the
smaller rods it is hardly detectable. Numerically the interval between first
and second arrival is linear with rod diameter.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods

571

illl

, :

\ s ■> < \

FIGURE 3 — Arrivals in 6-inch Steel Rods of Various Diameters.

Computation of the velocity of the first arrival shows it to be a
dilatational wave with the velocity

r , ~\//2

ly k + 2/3M

0 " [

The arrivals following the first have times given by

t - + n AT

where AT is proportional to the rod diameter and independent of length,
and n is an integer. For long rods very high values of n may be observed.
Thus trace 6 of Fig. 3, shows arrivals corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6. The first arrival corresponds to n = O.

FIGURE 4— Geometrical Wave Paths,

572

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

These data suggest that the arrivals for n =^= O have in some way trans-
versed the diameter of the rod one, two, etc., times. If we consider a plane
dilatational pulse traveling along the axis of the rod the boundary condi¬
tions at the wall can not be satisfied by this pulse alone. A rotational wave
arrives at the critical angle and crosses the rod. At incidence on the oppo¬
site boundary it gives rise to a dilatational wave traveling along the axis
and a reflected rotational wave again at the critical angle.

Thus in time we have paths such as that shown in Fig. 4, where

sin &

The time along such a path is

t/2

The time is independent of the position of the line AB, or all refracted
transformed waves arrive in phase. The refraction transformation can
occur any number of times leading to the expression for arrival times

fmns mT + "At

where

m - /, 3, 5, - - -

n - O, /, 2, - - -

0 — 2Dn tan $ ~ mL

D(V*~

<>'/z

From a large number of arrivals T and AT may be determined and hence
Vd and Vr.

From the equations

!/2

the bulk modulus and rigidity modulus may be computed and hence
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio.

With metals some 12 to 15 arrivals may be read and the values of T
and AT determined by least squares. Under these conditions an accuracy of
0.1 per cent may be obtained for the elastic moduli.

An alternative view of the transformation at the boundaries based on
wave fronts presents a better qualitative picture. Referring to Fig. 5, the
dilatational pulse AB gives rise to rotational wave fronts AC and DB at the
critical angle. As the pulse travels along, the segments AC and BC become
longer and finally reach the opposite boundary of the rod. On contacting
the boundary dilatational fronts DE and CF arise and spread into the rod
as well as rotational fronts DG and CH, as can be seen in Fig. 6.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods

573

This process is repeated, if the rod is sufficiently long, so that finally
the picture becomes that shown in Fig. 7. The lines AB, CD, EF, etc., repre¬
sent dilatational pulse fronts. AD and CB are traces of conical rotational
pulse fronts, etc. Thus at the end of the rod a series of dilatational pulses
will be detected with a constant time interval. The whole train may be re¬
flected and travel the length of the rod any number of times. All the energy
of the driving pulse was originally in AB. From this picture it is evident that
as the pulse travels down the rod the front AB loses energy to CD' which in
turn loses to EF. It is evident also that this loss will be more rapid the
smaller the diameter of the rod.

574

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

FIGURE 8 — Arrivals in Long Steel Rods.

These effects are shown in Figs. 2 and 3 but are more evident in Fig.
8. The upper trace shows arrival through a 6 inch rod, below this, in suc¬
cession, arrivals through 1 ft, 2 ft, and 4 ft rods. The oscilloscope timing
has been arranged so that the first arrivals are similarly located on successive
traces. The rapid weakening of the first arrival and the transfer of energy
to later fronts is plainly evident. It is also evident that the original pulses
are becoming broader and more complex, that is oscillations are being added;
the wave traces are becoming longer and the equivalent frequency lower.

Mr. W. L. Pondrom has investigated this problem mathematically and
concludes that ultimately this process of transformation and delay together
with the interference of the successive wave trains will lead to a wave
traveling effectively with the velocity

that is, the energy will be transferred along the rod at this velocity.

With increasing pressure the velocity becomes higher and usually the
arrivals sharper. This is shown in Fig. 9, which presents the arrivals through
a sample of quartz monzonite for various pressures and temperatures. The
time zero is off the figure but the displacement is the same for each trace.

The velocities Vd and Vr are simply computed from the times T and
AT with the length and diameter of the sample. From these data and the
density the elastic constants may be computed.

For most materials the velocities increase with increasing pressure and
decrease with increasing temperatures. Glasses, however, frequently exhibit
the inverse behavior. Fig. 10 shows the observed VD and Vr in pyrex as a
function of pressure and temperature.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods

575

y *

- - '/ * - *\V* - - - —I

576

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Table I shows computed elastic constants for pyrex at various tempera¬
tures and pressures and Table II lists the same data for brass. The absolute
accuracy does not justify four significant figures in the results, however the
relative accuracy is much higher than the absolute and the data as given
shows the variation in the elastic constants with pressure and temperature.

table I

Material: Pyrex (#105)

p = 2.285 gm/cm3
Pressure Vd Vr

IbsxlOOO m/sec m/sec

[x x 1011
dynes/ cm2

Ex 1011
dynes/ cm2

kxlOi1
dynes/ cm2

Temperature 25° C

5592

3389

.210

2.623

6.346

3.643

10°.0

5571

3393

.205

2.630

6.339

3.583

20.0

5558

3371

.209

2.597

6.279

3.596

30.0

5527

3364

.206

2.587

6.240

3.537

40.0

5506

3360

.204

2.580

6.210

3.493

Temperature 102° C

5633

3429

.206

2.687

6.478

3.666

10°0

5621

3385

.215

2.618

6.362

3.723

20.0

5599

3377

.214

2.606

6.329

3.692

30.0

5574

3368

.213

2.592

6.287

3.630

40.0

5555

3360

.211

2.580

6.249

3.606

Temperature 200° C

10.0

5633

3399

.214

2.639

6.405

3.728

20.0

5611

3428

.203

2.685

6.457

3.617

30.0

5605

3338

.225

2.545

6.234

3.77 6

40.0

5580

3318

.227

2.516

6.172

3.761

50.0

5558

3311

.225

2.504

6.135

3.781

TABLE

Material Brass (#108)

p = 8.464 gm/cm3
Pressure Vd Vr

IbsxlOOO m/sec m/sec

H x 1011
dynes/ cm2

Ex ion
dynes/cm2

kx 10*1
dynes/ cm2

Temperature 30° C

4266

2036

.353

3.508

9.489

10.72

10°.0

4269

2038

.356

3.515

9.533

11.03

25.0

4280

2042

.355

3.529

9.561

10.96

50.0

4317

2042

.356

3.529

9.570

11.07

Temperature 100° C

4244

2005

.356

3.402

9.229

10.71

25°.0

4255

2010

.356

3.402

9.278

10.77

50.0

4262

2009

.357

3.416

9.272

10.82

Temperature 205° C

4164

1948

.360

3.212

8.737

10.41

25°.0

4194

1962

.360

3.258

8.861

10.541

50.0

4214

1955

.363

3.235

8.817

10.711

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

577

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GLEN ROSE FORMATION
(LOWER CRETACEOUS) OF CENTRAL TEXAS

FREDERICK L. STEAD
Continental Oil Company
Midland, Texas

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this investigation is to assemble and interpret the data
regarding the microfauna, lithology, correlation, and environment of deposi¬
tion of the Glen Rose formation outcropping in central Texas.

Location — This study is based on 51 samples obtained from seven
measured sections of the Glen Rose formation in Travis, Hayp, and Comal
Counties of central Texas. (See Fig. 1.) The area studied is bounded on the

FIGURE 1— Index map of central Texas showing the location of the area
studied, which is shown by ruling.

578

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

east by the Balcones Fault zone, on the south and north by Latitudes 29°45’
and 30°30’ North, and on the west by 98° 15’ West Longitude. The loca¬
tions of the measured sections are indicated by chevrons on the county maps
(Figs. 2, 3, and 4) .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Doctors S. P. Ellison, Jr., H. B. Stenzel, and Keith Young, all
of the Department of Geology, University of Texas, who gave valuable advice and
criticism during the preparation of the manuscript. I am also grateful to Dr. F. L.
Whitney for his helpful suggestions of the collecting localities; and to Mr. 1. J. An¬
derson who helped with a part of the field work.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITIES

The localities described in this report are designated by the author’s
locality and sample numbers. The index road maps (Figs. 2, 3, and 4) are
modified from county base maps, 1946 edition, prepared by the Planning
Survey of the Texas State Highway Department.

COMAL COUNTY

Locality S48B — Lower Glen Rose beds exposed in continuous sequence
from the Guadalupe River bed below Crane’s Mill to the Salenia texana
Credner zone in the Crane’s Mill-Fischer Store roadcut 2.7 miles south of
Fischer’s Store. The section here measured 300 feet. Fifteen samples were
collected; 13 were fossiliferous. This section includes the first 5 faunizones.

Locality S48F — Upper Glen Rose beds outcropping on the high hill 2.1
miles southeast of Hancock. This section measured 430 feet and rests on
beds equivalent to the Salenia texana Credner zone of locality S48B. Fifteen
samples were collected from the upper 239 feet, only 10 were fossiliferous.
This section includes faunizones 7 through 14.

HAYS COUNTY

Locality S48C — Glen Rose ( Salenia texana Credner zone) exposed on
the east side of Ranch Road 12, % mile north of Cypress Creek on the
Wimberley-Dripping Springs road. Forty-two feet of exposure were meas¬
ured. Five samples were taken; four were fossiliferous. These samples include
faunizone 6, which contains the greatest number of species of foraminifera
of all sections studied.

Locality S48D — Upper Glen Rose beds outcropping on Lone Man
Mountain, on Sid Hall’s ranch, east of- Ranch Road 12, six miles south of
Dripping Springs. 200 feet of section was measured here. This section rests
on rocks equivalent to the Salenia texana Credner zone farther south. Six¬
teen samples were collected, twelve of these were fossiliferous. Fossils from
these samples were included in faunizones 7 through 11.

TRAVIS COUNTY

Locality S48A — Basal Glen Rose limestones and the underlying cross-
bedded Hensell sand exposed in roadcut 13.4 miles west of Beecave at Hamil¬
ton Pool. Ninety-five feet of section was measured here across the contact.
Six samples were taken but none proved fossiliferous. This section falls
within faunizone 1.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

579

FIGURE 2 — Map of a portion of Comal County, Texas, showing collecting localities
S48B and S48E. Extent and location of the measured sections and localities are
shown by chevrons.

Locality S48 F — Upper Glen Rose limestones and overlying Walnut for¬
mation exposed along roadcut 2.1 miles west of intersection of Spicewood
Springs road and Missouri Pacific RR crossing at the northwestern city limits
of Austin. Eighty feet of Glen Rose strata were sampled here. Fifteen sam¬
ples were taken, thirteen were fossiliferous. These samples fall within fauni-
zones 13 and 14.

Locality S48G — Upper Glen Rose and Walnut formations exposed on
Mt. Barker, l/4 mile northeast of Mt. Bonnell on Scenic Drive, Austin. One
hundred forty feet of section was measured. Samples were collected across
the contact. Only two of the Glen Rose samples were fossiliferous. These
two fall within faunizones 12, 13, and 14.

580

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

FIGURE 3 — Map of a portion of Hay£s County, Texas, showing collecting localities
S48C and S48D. Extent and location of the measured sections and localities
are shown by chevrons.

STRATIGRAPHY

The Glen Rose formation as exposed in the western parts of Travis,
Hays, and Comal Counties, Texas, (Fig. 1.), is thinly to massively bedded,
hard, dense or earthy, argillaceous limestone. Subordinate beds of calcareous
shales, clays, and sands occur at various stratigraphic positions in the
formation.

The total thickness of the Glen Rose as compiled from the measured
sections described in this study is 73 3 feet. The strike of the surface outcrops
of the Glen Rose approximates N. 10° E. and the regional dip is southeast
at an average rate of 5 0 feet per mile.

The Glen Rose formation overlies conformably the cross-bedded Hensell
sands of the Travis Peak formation. To the north and west, because of a
facies change, the basal contact is regarded to be gradational into the Hensell

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

581

FIGURE 4— Map of a portion of Travis County, Texas, showing collecting localities
S48A, S48F and S48G. Extent and location of the measured sections and localities
are shown by chevrons.

582

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 80

£T

VQODVUISO

ds sacnowoisoaaiao
as vNimoiiNHi
as VNia39iaoio
as wnsnaNdHA
as ^MiiMwviOHidoaidS
vivaawvD p vionin
as vamonin
sn30vi3Hoans sainnovaoiMwv

VS09fia VNUDNISVA
as VNimiwa
as VNnnwiDVA
vaovNaavans vNunouwai
vooiawAS vNnniino
as vNiinooianoNino
as smomsv
as vnvioa
as .vrasnaa

SISN3QNV1Q009 VNOXNVda
vNiaaAo vNnnNi9avw
vwiniw wmaimvHiHdo
V3ZIHDS S3aiONnm3NH3A
VWIWIIAI VNWVnnaOSN
VS08019 S3ai0^9VaHd01dVH
ld3QNVX33V VNIWWV"n38V"U
SISN31DN1VM SnNOOOAlOia
VJLV9IA3V1 V

siSN30Nvnaoo9 S3innovaowwv

dS V1131V330H0

vmoscru siaaoosia

ISNIXQV VNIIONIXSOO

vsioud vNiinmu

VOINOO VNIBHONOT
siA3vi yacdonns
ld3QNVX31V VNIWWV1031d0aidS

vivmDiwiaA vNnnocmnoNino
as vwno3Nno
3iSN30iu viyvnmxii
as vixviiMi

SliMilWIMl SlOIOHSWHdOTdVH

siSNsoNvnaoosens vnonin

sisNiaNtnoooosns vivNiMDioona

as VN19V1

VNVX31 W3N0D VNIlOlfflaO:

CSg>

—

TltltTTr

W-

mi:

ffipiif

1 951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

583

584

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December SO

sands by Cuyler (1939, p. 643) and Barnes (1940, p. 52). The reclassifi¬
cation of the Glen Rose limestone and the Hensell sand as members of the
Shingle Hills formation by Barnes (1948, p. 8) emphasizes the close relation¬
ship between the two members. The Glen Rose is overlain disconforably
(Scott, 1930, p. 51) by the Walnut formation (Fredericksburg group). The
base of the Walnut is generally recognized by the presence of a coquina of
Exogyra texana Roemer and Gryphaea sp. This zone has a wide geographic
distribution in north and central Texas. Northward, the upper Glen Rose
limestones interfinger with the Paluxy sands, which according to Hill (1901,
p. 170), represent the shoreward facies of the formation. Hence, the central
Texas limestones of the Glen Rose are to be regarded as neritic (Lozo, 1944,
p. 519).

Central North Southern

Texas Texas Oklahoma

Walnut formation of the Fredericksburg group

— - „ - - — - Disconformity _

(Paluxy )

Glen Rose _ ( )

(Glen Rose ) Antlers

Travis Peak _ Travis Peak)

FIGURE 5 — Correlation chart of the formations in the Trinity group between central
Texas and southern Oklahoma.

The Glen Rose formation of central Texas was first recognized as Lower
Albian (Lower Cretaceous) by Scott (1926, p. 15) and later by Spath
(1941, p. 310) on the basis of the ammonite fauna.

The Glen Rose is correlated regionally to the north with the Antlers
sand of Oklahoma by Lozo (1944, p. 519; and to the east with the upper
Glen Rose in the subsurface of Arkansas and Louisiana by Shearer (193 8, p.
725), and by Grage and Warren (1939, p. 289), and by Scott (1939, p.
977) on the basis of lithology, lateral gradation, and ammonite fauna. To
the west, these central Texas strata are traceable on the basis of lithology
and ammonite fauna into the Glen Rose formation of the Big Bend area
of west Texas (compare Graves, 1949), and the Glen Rose beds of the Little
Hatchet Mountains of New Mexico (Lasky, 193 8, p. 53 5 ); they are cor¬
related with the Mural limestone of the Bisbee group in Arizona by Darton
(1928) and by Stoyanow (1949, p. 40). To the south and southwest in
Mexico, the Glen Rose has been recognized on the basis of the ammonite
fauna by Imlay (1944, p. 1094) in northern Coahuila, eastern Chihuahua,
northern Sonora, and correlated with the upper part of the lower Cuchillo
formation of the Sierra de Santa Ana, with the lower part of the El Abra
limestone of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, with part of the El Coban
formation in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala.

PALEONTOLOGY

The distribution of the foraminiferal species in the Glen Rose is shown
in detail on the chart (Fig. 6.). The foraminiferal fauna consists of 13
families, 34 genera, and 43 species. Of these, 9 species are new and 18
species represent new stratigraphic or geographic occurrences.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

585

The foraminiferal fauna is dominated by orbitolinids and lituolids,
which range throughout the section. Agglutinated forms, such as Lituola,
Arnmob acuities, and Haplo phragmoides, are abundant. Although the calcare¬
ous forms outnumber the agglutinated ones in the number of species, they
are represented by only a few specimens.

All the washed samples examined were silty, with a variety of frag¬
mental remains of echinoids, mollusks, holothurians, crustaceans, foramini-
fers, and ostracodes. F’ive genera of Ostracoda ( Paracypris , Bairdia, Cythe-
ropteron, Cythereis, and Cytheridea) were encountered in the samples. These
genera are considered to be brackish water forms and are most abundant in
the shaly facies.

Orbit olina concava texana (Roemer) is recognized in and restricted to
beds of Lower Albian age wherever found in its world-wide distribution.

Biostratigraphy — The foraminiferal assemblages, according to their
order of stratigraphic occurrence, divide the Glen Rose into 14 faunizones
(modeled after Moore’s stratigraphic nomenclature, 1948). Fig. 6.

Three foraminiferal epiboles are recognized. These are, from the lowest
to highest: Orbitolina concava texana (Roemer), Coskinolina adkinsi Bar¬
ker, and Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool) . Eight foraminiferal teil-
zones were found. Five of these occur only in the Glen Rose while three
extend upward into the overlying Fredericksburg group.

The diagram (Fig. 7.) summarizes the zonation of the Glen Rose and
shows the ecologic relationship between the fauna and the lithology. Repre¬
sented are the occurrences of pelecypods, echinoids, and corals together with
some of the diagonostic foraminifera. The ammonite zonation of the Trinity
group proposed by Scott (1939, p. 980) is also included as far as it concerns
the Glen Rose formation. It provides a ready comparison of the central
Texas Glen Rose section with rocks of similar age elsewhere.

PALEOECOLOGY

Temperature — -The Glen Rose formation was deposited in relatively
warm waters as evidenced by the presence of corals (Wells, 1932, pp. 23 5-
2 56) and certain specific foraminifera throughout the formation. Compari¬
son with the bathymetric foraminifera fauna associations proposed by
Norton (1930, pp. 3 3 1-388), places the Glen Rose sea within Norton’s
bathymetric zones A and B with a temperature range from 18.9°-31.4° C.
This temperature zone is classed as subtropical by Vaughan (1940, pp.
43 3-468). Norton’s conclusions on foraminiferal family distribution that
apply to the Glen Rose fauna indicate other factors besides temperature
that are possibly more important. Some of these and their inter-relationships
are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Depth — Since temperature is a dominant factor influencing the vertical
distribution of foraminiferal species, the depth range assigned the Glen Rose
sea is based on the fossil foraminiferal assemblages. Norton’s zone A (1930,
op. cit.) is from 21° C. to 32° C. and the depth ranges from the strand
line to five fathoms. Norton’s zone B, next lower, has nearly the same tem¬
perature limits but the depth range is from five to 60 fathoms. Norton
found the Miliolidae show a definite decrease in this zone while the Lageni-
dae, Buliminidae, and Textulariidae are common. This same relationship was
found to exist in Glen Rose sediments. Lohman (1949, p. 1966), in the
examination of Recent forms from the Gulf of Mexico, found this also to be

5 86

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

FIGURE 7. — Paleontological zonation of the Glen Rose formation of Central Texas.

true of the Lituolidae, Nonionidae, and Kotalidae. The comparisons of the
occurrences of these critical families permits an interpretation of the average
depth of the Glen Rose sea in central Texas to have been from one to 60
fathoms. This estimate is perhaps too conservative due to the evidence such
as cross-bedded sand lenses* ripple-marks* coal seams* dinosaur tracks, oyster
beds, coral reefs, rudistids, salt, gypsum, celestite, and red beds, which point
to much shallower conditions.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

587

Density — The density distribution in sea water according to Sverdup
et al. (1942, pp. 137-146) depends upon the temperature and salinity. In
the lower latitudes of the subtropics the surface water is such that it cannot
sink to any appreciable depth. Consequently, the vertical distribution of
densities reflects the lateral mixing of the surface waters. However, in
shallow seas, the vertical circulation of water masses of varying densities
imposes a wide tolerance of temperature and salinity conditions upon the
benthonic foraminifera of these areas. This seems to be true of the shallow
Glen Rose seas.

Salinity- — In all seas, according to Wiist (193 6, pp. 347-3 59), the
salinity varies with latitude and reaches its maximum in subtropical waters
north and south of the Equator between 20° and 3 0° Latitude. The fauna
presented in this report was deposited in a sea within these critical latitudes
and reflects fluctuating depth and salinity conditions. There are certain
strata which contain a typically brackish, shallow water fauna composed of
ostracodes, pelecypods, gastropods, etc. Lozo (1944, p. 5 66) believes the
miliolids represent a brackish environment while the presence of Orbitolina
and Conorbina indicate the more normal salinity of marine conditions. These
genera, in the Glen Rose, are always associated with echinoids.

pH and CO 2 — Sea water is normally alkaline. High pH values occur
when the photosynthetic activity of plants has reduced the C02 content
of the sea water. At subsurface levels the pH will vary directly with the
reduction of the C02 content by biological activity. According to Sverdrup
et al. (1942, p. 208), areas of high temperature and active photosynthesis
will be where precipitation of CaCOs will most likely occur. In warm, clear,
subtropical seas, micro-organisms can produce conditions that result in the
incidental precipitation of carbonates under shallow water conditions. These
are the approximate conditions that may be interpreted as responsible for
the chalky Orbitolina biostromes of the lower Glen Rose formation.

Bottom material — -The nature of the bottom material is most important
to benthonic genera. Calcareous and argillaceous muds appear to have been
most preferred by the benthonic foraminifera of the Glen Rose. The result¬
ing marls and shaly-lime members usually contain agglutinated forms which
are rare in the siltier facies of the formation. The silts usually contain
calcareous-shelled ostracodes which are well preserved. This occurence tends
to rule out the possibility that solution removed the calcareous foraminiferal
tests from this material. Many of the specimens taken from samples of the
deeper water limestones show poor preservation due to dolomitization or to
partial or complete replacement by calcite. This alteration of the lime¬
stone rock suggests action of connate or meteoric waters.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Glen Rose foraminiferal fauna consists of 13 families, 34 genera
an 43 species.

2. This fauna is interpreted to be divided into 14 faunizones, 3 epiboles,
8 teilzones, and 12 biostratigraphic zones.

3. The assemblages contain an abundance of agglutinated arenaceous
foraminifera.

4. Comparative evidence suggests Glen Rose deposition took place on
a broad shelf in an environment of warm, shallow, subtropical seas.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

588

5. The Glen Rose fauna corresponds to the Fredericksburg and Washita
faunas of north Texas and correlates with the Antlers formation of southern
Oklahoma.

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS

order FORAMINIFERA
family AMMOD1SCINAE
Subfamily Ammodiscinae
Genus Lituotuba Rhumbler, 1895
Lituotuba Sp.

Plate 1, fig. 1

Test free, with prococulum and a long tabular undivided second chamber, early
portion coiled, later portion evolute; wall aggultinated with much cement giving a
smooth finish; aperture simple, round, and terminal.

Frequency: Rare. Represented by only one specimen.

Size: length 2.1 mm., diameter .7 mm.

Occurrence: Sample 3, locality S48E, faunizone Kgr 12.

Paleoecology : indicative of normal marine conditions.

family L1TUOL1DAE
Subfamily Haplophragmiinae
Genus Haplophragmoides Cushman, 1910
Haplophragmoides globosa Lozo
Plate 1, fig. 2-3

Haplophragmoides globosa Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat. 31 (3) : 543 , pi. 2, figs.
8a-c. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology 23(3) :249, pi. 46,
figs. 3a-b.

Frequency: common.

Size: diameter .6 mm., thickness .35 mm.

Occurrence: fraunizones Kgr 6 through Kgr 14. Very .common in Fredericks¬
burg group of north Texas.

Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water environment.

Haplophragmoides trinitensis Lozo
Plate 1, figs. 4a-b

Haplophragmoides trinitensis Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Naturalist 31(3) : 544, pi.
1, figs. 8a-b.

Frequency: Common.

Size: diameter .7 mm., thickness .2 mm.

Occurrence: All localities. Faunizones Kgr 3 through Kgr 14.

Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water environment.

Remarks : this species is found only in the Glen Rose of both north and central
Texas and may be interpreted as a guide fossil for the Glen Rose.

Genus Cribrostomoides Cushman, 1910
Cribroslomoides frizzelli n. sp.

Plate 1, figs. 5a-b

Test free, planispiral, fat, completely involute with seven chambers in the last
whorl; wall arenaceous and well cemented; aperture is a single elongate slit at base
of apertural face which is divided by tooth-like processes giving appearance of a linear
series of rounded openings.

Frequency: rare.

Size: diameter .5 mm., thickness .4 mm.

Occurrence: Sample 11, locality S48F, Travis County, Texas. Faunizone Kgr 14.
Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water.

Remarks: This same species has been noted in the overlying Walnut formation by
D. L. Frizzell (personal communication), although it has never been described.
Genus Ammobaculites Cushman, 1910
Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander
Plate 1, figs. 23-25

Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab.
Foram. Res., 6(1) :8, pi. 2, figs. 7-8. — Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology
17(5) :481, pi 77, figs. 9a-b. —Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat. 31(3) :537,

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

589

pi. 4, fig. 4. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology 23(3) :250,
pi. 46, figs. I4a-b.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: length 1.3 mm., diameter .75 mm., thickness .3 mm.

Occurrence: samples 12-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samp¬
les 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality
S48F. Faunizones Kgr 5 through Kgr 14.

Paleoecology : very shallow water.

Ammobaculites subcretaceus Cushman and Alexander
Plate 1, figs. 7-9

Ammobaculites subcretacea Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab.
Foram. Res., 6(1) :6; pi. 2, figs. 9-10. — Albritton, 1937, Jour. Paleontology
11(1) :20, pi. 4, figs. 3-4.

A. subscretaceus Cushman and Alexander, Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 (3) :538,
pi. 4, figs. 2-3. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :251,
pi. 46, figs. 9-13.

Frequency: Common in upper Glen Rose. Common in Fredericksburg group
of north Texas.

Size: average diameter .3 mm., thickness .15 mm., length .5 • — .7 mm.
Occurrence: sample 12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples
1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 11-14.

Paleoecology: very shallow water.

Ammobaculites laevigata Lozo
Plate 1, figs. 10-14

Ammobaculites laevigata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 (3) : 5 3 8, pi. 2, figs. 2-3.
Frequency: common in uppermost Glen Rose.

Size: diameter .63 — .68 mm., thickness .2 mm., length .85 — 1.10 mm.
Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples
1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Common in Fredericksburg
formations of north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 6-14.

Paleoecology: very shallow water.

Genus Flabellammina Cushman, 1928
Flabellammina alexanderi Cushman
Plate 1, figs. 15-18

Flabellammina alexanderi Cushman, 1928, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 4(1):
1, pi. 1, figs. 3-4. — Alexander, 1928, Jour. Paleontology, 2(1) :43, text figs.
1, 2. — Plummer, 1931, Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, p. 126. — Alexander and
Smith, 1932, Jour. Paleontology, 6(4) :300, pi. 45, figs. 1-5, 15. — Lozo,
1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 54 1 , pi. 4, figs. 15-16. — Loeblich and Tap-
pan, 1949, Jour Paleontology, 23(3) :252, pi. 47, fig. 16.

Frequency: Common.

Size: length .81 — 1.38 mm., breadth .51 — .85 mm.

Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples
1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 6 through
Kgr 14.

Paleoecology: very shallow water.

Remarks: according to Lozo (1944, p. 541), the lanceolate forms are meg-
alospheric and the spatulate forms are microspheric.

Genus Frankeina Cushman and Alexander, 1929
Frankeina goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander
Plate 1, fig. 6

Frankeina goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander, 1929, Contr. Cushman Lab.
Foram. Res., 5(3) :62, pi. 10, figs. 1-2. — Alexander and Smith, 1932, Jour.
Paleontology, 6(4):307, pi. 47, fig. 8. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat.,
31(3) :542, pi. 3, fig. 8.

Frequency: Rare. Represented by one specimen.

Size: length .55 mm., diameter .15 mm., width equitant portion .25 mm.
Occurrence: sample 1, locality S48C. Faunizone Kgr 6.

Paleoecology: indicative of normal marine conditions.

Remarks: this species has previously been considered a guide fossil to the
Goodland formation of north Texas.

590

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Subfamily Lituolinae
Genus Choffatella Schlumberger, 1904
Chojfatella stenzeli n. sp.

Plate 1, figs. 27-30

Test free, flattened, planispiral, composed of many narrow, arched chambers;
whorls embracing but not completely involute, general thickening of umbonal area;
wall finely agglutinated and smoothly finished, labyrinthic; aperture a linear series
of pores on the narrow septal face.

Frequency : Present.

Size: diameter .5 — .6 mm., width .35 — .5 mm., thickness .2 mm.
Occurrence: samples 10-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples
1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-2, locality S48E. Faunizones Kgr 5 through
Kgr 11.

Paleoecology : very shallow water.

Remarks: this genus is common in the Lower Cretaceous of Europe.

Genus Lituola Lamarck, 1804
Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool)

Plate 1, figs. 19-21

Reophax subgoodlandensis Vanderpool, 1933, Jour Paleontology, 7(4):407, pi. 49,
figs. 4-6.

Lituola inflata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 547, pi. 1, figs. la-b. Not
Lituola ( Haplophragmium ) inflata Reuss, Wright, 1875, Rept. Proc. Bel¬
fast Nat. Field Club, n.s., v. 1, App. 3, p. 82.

Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool), Loebich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleon¬
tology, 23(3) :253, pi. 48, figs. 1-7. *

Frequency: Abundant.

Size: length up to 7.2 mm.

Occurrence: All localities. Also present in Fredericksburg group of north
Texas. Faunizones Kgr 2-14.

Paleoecology: shallow water. Found in all facies of Glen Rose.

Lituola cf. earner at a Lozo
Plate 1, fig. 22

Lituola camerata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :544, pi. 1, figs. 4-5.
Frequency: Common in uppermost strata.

Size: length 2.65 mm., diameter 2.0 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48F. Is also very common in the Good-
land marls of north Texas. Faunizone Kgr 13.

Paleocology : shallow water.

Remarks: is found associated with Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman
and Alexander.

Genus Buccicrenata Loeblich and Tappan, 1949
Buccicrenata subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool)

Plate 1, fig. 26

Ammobaculites subgoodlandensis Vanderpool, 1933, Jour. Paleontology, 7 (4) :407
pi. 49, figs. 1-3. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 540, pi. 1, figs.
2-3, pi. 4, fig. 1; text figs. 15a-g.

Buccicrenata subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool), Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour.
Paleontology, 23(3) :253, pi. 47, figs. 5- 1 5b.

Frequency : Common.

Size: length varies from 1 to 2.5 mm., breadth up to 1.75 mm., thickness .80
mm.

Occurrence: all localities. Abundant in Walnut formation of Fredericksburg
group in north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 2-14.

Paleoecology: shallow water. Found in all facies of Glen Rose.

Remarks: this genus differs from Lituola in possessing a crenulate aperture
instead of a cribrate one (Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, p. 252.)

family TEXTULARIIDAE
Subfamily Spiroplectammininae
Genus Spiroplectammina Cushman, 1927
Spiroplectammina alexanderi Lalicker
Plate 2, figs. 1-2

1951, No. 4
December 80

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

591

Spiroplectammina alexanderi Lalicker, 1935, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 11
( 1 ) : 1 , pi. 1, figs. la-c. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 ( 3 ) : 5 48, pi. 4,
fig. 6. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23 ( 3) :2 54, pi. 47,
figs. 19a-b.

Frequency: common in lower Glen Rose strata.

Size: length .45 — .55 mm., width .3 mm., thickness .2 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. This
species is abundant in Goodland formation of north Texas. Lozo (1944, p.
549) proposed species be considered a guide fossil for the Goodland beds
in north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 3-6.

Paleoecology : found at all depths. Common in all facies of lower Glen Rose.
Spiroplectammina sp.

Plate 2, figs. 3-4

Test free, early portion planispiral, later portion biserial, chambers have a
deflated, sunken appearance; wall coarsely arenaceous and well cemented; aperture
appears to be an arched slit at base of last chamber.

Frequency: rare.

Size: length varies from .45 — .65 mm., diameter of coiled portion .4 mm.,
thickness .15 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-6, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 13.

Paleoecology: found at all depths. Occurs in upper marls of Glen Rose.
Remarks: this species very similar to S. scotti Cushman and Alexander, com¬
mon in Washita beds. Unfortunately, poor preservation makes positive iden¬
tification difficult.

Subfamily Textulariinae

Genus Textularia Def ranee, 1924
Textularia rioensis Carsey
Plate 2, figs. 5-6

Textularia sp. Carpenter, 1925, Univ. Texas Bull. 2544, pi. 17, Fig. 15.

Textularia rioensis Carsey, 1926, Univ. Texas Bull. 2612, p. 24, pi. 7, fig. 12.
Textularia conica d’Orbigny, Carsey, 1926, (Not d’Orbigny), Univ. Texas Bull. 2612,
p. 23, pi. 7, fig. 1.

Textularia rioensis Carsey, Plummer, 1931, Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, p. 128, pi. 8,
• fig. 6. — Tappan, 1940, Jour. Paleontology, 14(2) :98, pi. 14, figs. la-2b. —
Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5)485, pi. 78, figs. la-4. — Lozo, 1944,
Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 5 5 1 , pi. 3, figs. 7, 9a-b. — Loeblich and Tappan,
1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :254, pi. 48, fig. 11.

Frequency: present.

Size: length .45 — .65 mm., breadth .4 — .6 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples
1-11, locality S48D. Faunizones Kgr 3-10.

Paleoecology : shallow water.

family VERNEU1L1NIDAE

Genus V erneuilina d’Orbigny, 1840
V erneuilina sp.

Plate 2, fig. 7

Test free, triserial, transverse section triangular with rounded angles; chambers
slightly inflated, three per whorl, increasing in size toward the apertural end; distinct
sutures; wall coarsely agglutinated with much cement giving a smooth finish; aper¬
ture terminal, slit at base of apertural face.

Frequency: rare.

Size: length .8 mm., with .3 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-5, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 13.

Paleoecology: shallow water.

Remarks: this species differs from V erneuilinoides schizea (Cushman and
Alexander) in that it is coarsely arenaceous and does not have a lobulate
periphery.

592

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Genus Tritaxi a Reuss, I860
Tritaxi a glenrosensis n. sp.

Plate 2, figs. 8-11

Test free, triserial, transverse section triangular with acute angles, corners
slightly rounded; chambers distinct, three per whorl, rapidly expanding in size toward
apertural end; sutures distinct and slightly depressed; wall finely agglutinated, well
cemented giving a smooth finish; aperture a broad arch at inner margin of the
terminal chamber.

Frequency: common in lower Glen Rose strata.

Size: length from .5 — .7 mm. breadth from .4 • — .5 mm.

Occurrence: all localities. Faunizones Kgr 3 through Kgr 14.

Paleoecology : indicative of normal marine conditions. This form is found in
all facies of the Glen Rose.

Remarks: the triserial stage separates this form from T. plummerae Cushman,
found in the Washita group, which develops further to a uniserial stage.
Genus V erneuilinoides Loeblich and Tappan, 1949
V erneuilinoides schnizea (Cushman and Alexander)

Plate 2, figs. 12-13

V erneuilina schizea Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram

Res., 6(1) :9, pi. 2, figs. 13-14. — Cushman, 1933, Cushman Lab. Foram.
Res., Spec. Publ. 5, pi. 7, figs. 21a-b. — Cushman, 1937, Cushman Lab. For¬
am. Res., Spec. Publ. 7:8, pi. 1, figs 5-6. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat.,

V 31(3) :550, pi. 3, fig. 6.

V erneuilinoides schizea (Cushman and Alexander), Loeblich and Tappan, 1949,
Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :255, pi. 48, figs. 9-10.

Frequency: rare.

Size: length from .35 — .45 mm., breadth .17 mm.

Occurrence: samples 1-2, locality S48C. Faunizone Kgr 6. Common in Fred¬
ericksburg formations of north Texas.

Paleoecology: shallow water. Present in Glen Rose marls only.

family VALVULINIDAE
Subfamily Eggerellinae

Genus Cuneolina d’Orbigny, 1839
Cuneolina trinitensis n. sp.

Plate 2, figs. 14-15

Test free, flaring, compressed, with zig-zag line between chambers on the
narrow edge of the test, early stage generally conical with five labyrinthic chambers
per whorl, becoming quickly reduced to biserial form; wall is agglutinated with
much cement; aperture in adult is an elongate slit at the base of the inner margin of
the terminal chamber.

Frequency: common in lower half of Glen Rose.

Size: length from .45 — 55 mm., with .35 — .45 mm., thickness .2 mm.
Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. Fauni¬
zones Kgr 3 through Kgr 6.

Paleoecology: warm, shallow water.

Remarks: similar forms have been reported from the Sunnyland horizon
(Lower Cretaceous) of Florida by C. J. Reynolds (personal communica¬
tion). This species occurs only in the lower half of the Glen Rose in central
Texas and may be interpreted as a guide fossil.

Genus Coskinolina Stache, 1875
Coskinolina adkinsi Barker
Plate 2, figs. 16-18

Coskinolina adkinsi Barker, 1944, Jour. Paleontology, 18(2) :206, pi. 35, figs. 1-4.
—Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :550, pi. 5, figs. 3-6.

Frequency: abundant.

Size: height .35 mm., diameter varies from .3 — .35 mm.

Occurrence: samples 10-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samp¬
les 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality
S48F. Faunizones Kgr 5 through Kgr 14.

Paleoecology: shallow water.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

593

Remarks: this species has been reported from Fredericksburg group of central
Texas by Barker (1944, p. 207.)

Subfamily Ataxophragmiinae
Genus Dictyoconus Blanckenhorn, 1900
Dictyoconus walnut ensis (Carsey)

Plate 2, figs. 26-27

Orbitolina walnutensis Carsey, 1926, Univ. Texas Bull. 2612, p. 23, pi. 7, figs, lla-b;
pi. 8, fig. 3. — Adkins, 1928, Univ. Texas Bull. 2838, p. 62. — Vaughan, 1932,
Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash. Proc., 18 ( 10) :609-6l0.

Dictyoconus aegyptiensis walnutensis, Silvestri, 1932, Accad. Nuovi Lincei Mem., ser.
2, 16:377-381, pi. 1, figs. 10-12; pi. 2, figs. 3-5. — Silvestri, 1932, Paleon-
togr. Ital. n.s., 32:159.

D. walnutensis (Carsey), Davies, 1939, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans., 59(29) :775-776,
pi. 1, figs. 4, 6.

Probably not Orbitolina walnutensis, Lynch, 1933, Jour. Paleontology, 7(1) : 110-1 11.
Dictyoconus walnutensis (Carsey), Barker, 1944, Jour. Paleontology, 18 (2) :205-206,
pi. 35, figs. 5-9. — Lozo, 19 44, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :571, pi. 5, figs. 7-11,.
Frequency: common.

Size: height 1.25 mm., diameter 1.6 mm.

Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples
1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 6-14.
Paleoecology : very shallow water. Present in most upper Glen Rose marls.

family M ILIOLIDAE
Genus Quinqueloculina d’Orbigny, 1826
Quinqueloculina triangulata n. sp.

Plate 2, figs. 22-24

Test free, small, ovoid with pointed ends, coiling in five planes, each cham¬
ber a half coil in length, transverse section triangular in shape; chambers narrow with
little or no inflation; sutures distinct and slightly depressed; wall calcareous, imperfor¬
ate, with smooth finish; aperture rounded, at end of last chamber, no tooth visible.
Frequency: present.

Size: length varies from .45 — .7 mm., width varies from .25 — .45 mm.,
thickness .2 — .3 mm.

Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. Fauni-
zones Kgr 3 through Kgr 6.

Paleoecology: probably shallow. Present in shales and marls.

Quinqueloculina sp.

Plate 2, figs. 19-21

Test free, small, well rounded, inflated chambers with typical quinqueloculine
coiling, four chambers visible on one side, three on the other; sutures distinct and
depressed; wall calcareous, imperforate; aperture at end of last chamber, no tooth
visible.

Frequency : present.

Size: length .35 — .48 mm., breadth .28 — .35 mm., thickness .25 — .35 mm.
Occurence: samples 7-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples
1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones 9 to 14.

Paleoecology: very shallow, possibly brackish water.

Remarks: this species differs from Q. triangulata n. sp. in being well rounded
with inflated chambers. This species is similar to Q. minima Tappan des¬
cribed from the Duck Creek formation (Washita group) of north Texas, but
poor preservation makes positive identification difficult

family OPHTHALMIDIIDAE
Subfamily Ophthalmidiinae
Genus Ophthalmidium Zwingli and Kubler, 187G
OphtJoalmidium minima Tappan
Plate 2, fig. 25

Opthalmidium minima Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5) :49 1 , pi. 78, figs.
36-37b.

Frequency: rare.

Size: length .5 mm., thickness .05 mm., breadth .35 mm.

594

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Occurence: sample 1, locality S48C. Faunizone 6.

Paleoecology : probably very shallow.

Remarks: this species was first described from the Washita group of north
Texas. It is represented by only one specimen from the Glen Rose formation.

family ORB1TOLIN1DAE
Genus Orbitolina d’Orbigny, 1850
Orbit olina concava texana (Roemer)

Plate 2, figs. 28-30

Orbitulites texanus Roemer, 1849, Texas, Bonn, p. 392. — Roemer, 1852, Kreide-
bildungen von Texas, etc., p. 86, pi. 10, figs. 7a-d.

Orbitulites lenticularis , Karsten, 1856, Amtlicher Ber., 32 Vers. Deutsche Nat. Aerste,
Wein, p. 114, pi. 6, 6a-e.

Orbitulina venezuelana Karsten, 1886, "Geol. Colomb. bolivar.” etc., p. 62, pi. 6,
figs. 6a-e.

Patellina texana Hill, 1893, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc., vol. 8, p. 20, pi. 1, figs. 2 (after
Roemer), 2a-d. p

Orbitulina lenticularis 0 concava Lamarck) Gerhardt, 1897, Neues Johrb., Bd. XI, p.
194. K

Orbitolina whitneyi Carsey, 1926, Texas Univ. Bull. 2612, p. 22, pi. 6, fig. 9.
Orbitolina texana, Carsey, 1926, idem, p. 22, pi. 6, figs. 6a-c. — Hodson, 1926, Bulls.

Am. Paleontology, vol. 12, no. 47, p:: 5 , pi. 1, fig. 2.

Orbitolina texana asaguana Hodson, 1926, idem. p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 6, 8.

Orbitolina texana monagasana Hodson, 1926, idem. p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 7, 9.

Orbitolina thompsoni Hodson, 1926, idem, p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 1, 5-
Orbitolina texana, Silvestri, 1932, Paleont. Italia, n.s. vol. 32, p. 174.

Orbitolina whitneyi, Silvestri, 1932, idem. vol. 32, p. 174.

Orbitolina concava texana, Silvestri, 1932, Mem. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, ser. 2, vol.

16, pp. 372-376, pi. 1, figs. 1-9; pi. 2, figs. 1-2.

Orbitolina texana, Vaughan, 1932, Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash. Proc., vol. 18, no. 10, pp.
609-610. — Muir, 1936, Geology of the Tampico Region, Mexico, pp. 20,
21, 40, 96, 222, pi. 2, fig. D.

Orbitolina concavai\iexana,'rile<lberg, 1937, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 48, pp. 1986-
1987, pi. 4, rigs. 1-2.

Orbitolina texana, Davis, 1939, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans., vol. 59, pt. 3, no. 29,
pp. 783-784, lp. 1, figs. 1, 3, 7, 9, 12.

Orbitolina sp. ( ? texana (Roemer)), Vaughan and Cole, 1941, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec¬
ial Papers 30, p. 31, pi. 8, figs. 2-4.

Orbitolina concava texana, Barker, 1944, Jour. Pal., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 207-209, pi.
35, figs. 10-16. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat, 31(3) pi. 5,

Frequency: Abundant. ' .

Size: .8 to 4.3 mm. diameter, height .35 — 1.7 mm.

Occurrence: all localities. Faunizones 1 — 14.

Paleoecology: very shallow water.

Remarks: this species is usually found associated with echinoids in a chalky
lime matrix indicative of shallow marine conditions. Thin-section studies
of this form are difficult due to the agglutinated alveolar wall structure.
The calcareous particles are silt size and cemented with calcareous material.
The well preserved forms do not appear agglutinated but are smoothly fin¬
ished. Weathered specimens and any thin sections of the smoothly finished
forms will reveal this wall structure.

family LAGENIDAE
Subfamily Nodosariinae
Genus Lenticulina Lamarck, 1804
Lenticulina subarenacea n. sp.

Plate 3, fig. 2

Test free, small, planispiral, lenticular, thick, bilaterally symmetrical, close
coiled, involute; numerous chambers embracing to umbilicus; sutures indistinct; wall
hyaline and perforate; aperture at periphery of concave septal face, probably radiate.
Frequency: common in middle Glen Rose beds.

Size: diameter .5 mm, width .4 mm, thickness through center .25 mm.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

595

Occurrence: samples 7-9, locality S48D. Faunizone 9.

Paleoecology : found at all depths.

Remarks: surface ornamentation on this species is completely lacking. The
exterior is coarsely finished giving an agglutinated appearance.
Lenticulina sp.

Plate 3, fig. 1

Test free, small, lenticular, thick, bilaterally symmetrical, close coiled, involute;
numerous chambers embracing to umbilicus; sutures moderately oblique from thick¬
ened umbonal area; wall hyaline, perforate; aperture at periphery on apertural face,
probably radiate.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: diameter .7 mm., width .6 mm., thickness through center .45 mm.
Occurrence: samples 11-13, locality S48F. Faunizone 14.

Paleoecology: found at all depths.

Remarks: this species differs from L. subarenacea n. sp. in that it is larger
with a smoothly finished exterior and a thick umbonal area.

Genus Astacolus Montfort, 1808
Astacolus sp.

Plate 3, figs. 3-4

Test small, lenticular, chambers moderately inflated, 10 in last whorl; sutures
distinct, somewhat depressed; wall calcareous, perforate; aperture on periphery, prob¬
ably radiate.

Frequency: present.

Size: diameter .35 — .5 mm., thickness through umbo .15 mm.

Occurrence: samples 7-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples
1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones 9-14.

Paleoecology: usually found about 40 fathoms deep.

Remarks: This form is similar to A. comanchensis Lozo from the overlying
Fredericksburg group, but due to poor preservation, positive identification
is difficult.

Genus Aiarginulina d’Orbigny, 1826
t Marginulina cyprina Vieaux
Plate 3, fig. 5

Marginulina cyprina Vieaux, 1941, jour. Paleontology, 15(6) :625, pi. 85, figs. 3a-b.
— Lozo, 1944, Am. Midi. Naturalist 31 (3) : 5 56, pi. 2, fig. 9.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: height .4 mm., width .25 mm.

Occurrence: samples 1-2, locality S48C. Faunizone 6.

Paleoecology: common in all temperatures and depths.

Genus V aginulina d’Orbigny, 1826
V aginulina sp.

Plate 3, fig. 8

Test free, flattened, peripheral margin slightly curved, the other typically
convex, early portion coiled, later portion uniserial; sutures oblique, not too distinct;
wall hyaline, perforate, probably smooth finish; aperture at periphery, probably radiate.
Frequency: Rare.

Size: length 1.1 mm., width .45 mm.

Occurrence: sample 8, locality S48D. Faunizone 9.

Paleoecology : shallow water.

Remarks: in outline this form is similar to V. kochii Roemer which is rela¬
tively common in the Fredericksburg and Washita groups of north Texas.
V aginulina rugosa n. sp.

Plate 3, fig. 7

Test free, flattened, peripheral margin straight, early portion missing; wall
hyaline, perforate, smooth; sutures oblique and limbate; aperture at periphery prob¬
ably radiate.

Frequency : Rare.

Size: length .9 mm., width .5 mm.

Occurrence: sample 11, locality S48D. Faunizone 10.

Paleoecology: shallow water.

Remarks: this species differs from V. sp. in that it is considerably larger
and has limbate sutures.

596

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Subfamily Lageninae
Genus Lagena Walker and Jacob, 1798
Lagena sp.

Plate 3, fig. 6

Test free, small, well rounded, single chambered; wall calcareous, perforate,
smoothly finished; aperture simple, rounded, terminal, at the end of a short neck.
Frequency: present.

Size: length .65 mm., breadth .55 mm.

Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48B. Faunizones 1 and 2.

Paleoecology : warm, clear, shallow water.

family POLYMORPHINIDAE
Subfamily Polymorphininae

Genus Guttulma d’Orbigny, 1839
Guttulina symploca Loeblich and Tappan
Plate 3, fig. 9

Guttulina symploca Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :260, pi.
50, figs. la-2b.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: length .25 mm., breadth .15 mm., thickness .10 mm.

Occurrence: samples 7-8, locality S48D. Faunizone 9.

Paleoecology: shallow water less than 100 fathoms.

Subfamily Ramulininae
Genus Ramulina Rupert Jones, 1875
Ramulina protea n. sp.

Plate 3, fig. 10

Test free, large, branching, consisting of chambers connected by tubes, wall
calcareous, apparently imperforate; several rounded apertures, at the ends of the tubes.
Frequency: common.

Size: length up to 3 mm., greatest breadth .75 mm.

Occurrence: samples 6-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples
1-6, locality S48D; Faunizones 4-8.

Paleoecology: shallow water less than 100 fathoms.

Remarks: common in lower Glen Rose strata. Occurs in a variety of shapes.
Ramulina sp.

Plate 3, figs. 11-13

Test free, small inflated chambers originally connected by tubes; wall calcar¬
eous, apparently imperforate; apertures simple, rounded, at end of tubes.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: length .6 — .8 mm., width .5 — .6 mm.

Occurrence: samples 9-1 1, locality S48D. Faunizone 10.

Paleoecology: shallow water less than 100 fathoms.

Remarks: this species differs from R. protea n. sp. in being much smaller
and lagenoid in shape.

Genus Bullopora Quenstedt, 1856
Bullopora laevis ( Sollas )

Plate J figs. 14-15

Webbina laevis Sollas, 1877, Geol. Mag-., n.s., des. 2, 4(3) :103, pi. 6, figs. 1-3.
Vitreivebbina laevis (Sollas), Chapman, 1892, Geol. Mag., n.s., dec. 3, 9:54, pi. 2,
fig. 4. — Chapman, 1896, Royal Micr. Soc, Jour., p. 585, pi. 12, fig. 12.
Bullopora laevis (Sollas), Tappan, 1940, Jour. Paleontology, 14(2) :1 15, pi. 18,
fig. 6. — Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5) : 507, pi. 81, figs. 11, 12.
— Lozo, 1944, Amer. Midland Nat., 31(3) :560, pi. 3, fig. 2.

Frequency: Common.

Size: length .9 — .4 mm., chamber diameter .25 mm.

Occurrence: samples 6-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples
1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F.
Faunizones 4 — 14.

Paleoecology: very shallow water.

Remarks: this species was found attached to shell fragments and to echinoid

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

597

spines; some were found attached to the tests of the large foraminifer Orb¬
it olina con cava texana ( Roemer ) .

family BUL1MINDAE
' Subfamily Bulimininae
Genus Neobulimina Cushman and Wickenden, 1928
« Neobulimina minima Tappan
Plate 3, figs. 17-18

Neobulimina minima Tappan, 1940, Jour. Paleontology, 14(2): 117, pi. 19, figs.
5a-b. — Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5) : 507, pi. 81, figs. I6a-b.
— Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :263, pi. 51, figs. 1-2.
Frequency : Rare.

Size: .10 — .12 mm. in length, width .04 ■ — .05.

Occurrence: samples 1-2, locality S48C. Faunizone 6.

Paieoecology : warm shallow water.

Subfamily Reusellinae
Genus Reus ell a Galloway, 1933
Reu sella comalensis n. sp.

Plate 3, fig 16

Test free, triserial, sides slightly concave, triangular in cross section, broadest
at the apertural end; chambers numerous, closely appressed; wall calcareous, perforate,
smooth; aperture simple, presumably at the base of the inner margin of the septal
face of the last formed chamber.

Frequency: Rare, represented by one whole specimen.

Size: length .57 mm., breadth .25 mm.

Occurrence: sample 4, locality S48D. Faunizone 8.

Paieoecology: shallow water.

Remarks: the most important characteristic of this species is its development
without spines extending from the initial end or from its angles. The exist¬
ence of this form and its proper classification require either redefinition
of the genus or a modification of the original generic description to include
this new species.

family ROT AL11DAE
Subfamily Discorbinae
Genus C.onorbina Brotzen, 1936
Conorbina conica Lozo
Plate 3, figs. 19-21

Conorbina conica Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Naturalist, 31 (3) :562, pi. 2, figs. 6a-c, 7.
■ — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :264, pi. 51, figs.
7a-8.

Frequency : Common.

Size: diameter .5 — .7 mm., height .3 mm.

Occurrence: samples 6-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples
1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F.
Faunizones 4-14.

Paieoecology: marine,

Remarks: this species is generally found associated with Orbitolina concava
texana (Roemer) in the chalky lime facies of the Glen Rose. This species
has also been reported as common in Trinity and Fredericksburg groups
of north Texas.

Genus Discorbis Lamarck, 1804
Discorbis floscula Loeblich and Tappan
Plate 3, figs. 22-24

Discorbis floscula Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :265, pi. 51,
figs. 9a-ll.

Frequency: present.

Size: diameter .28 — .33 mm., width .25 — .30 mm., height .10 mm.
Occurence: samples 10-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. Fauni¬
zones 5 and 6.

Paieoecology: shallow water.

598

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

PLATE I

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

599

< - PLATE I

AMMODISCIDAE to lituolidae

FIGURE 1 — Lituotnba sp. Side view.

FIGURES 2-3 — Haplophragmoid's globosa Lozo. 2, side view of hypotype; 3A-B,
apertural and side views of hypotype

FIGURES 4A-B — Haplophragmoides trinitensis Lozo. Side and apertural
views of hypotype.

FIGURES 5A-B — Cribrostomcides frizzelli n. sp. Side and apertural views.

FIGURE 6 — Frankeina goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander. Side
view of hypotype.

FIGURES 7-9 — Ammo baculites subcretaceus Cushman and Alexander.

Side views of hypotypes.

FIGURES 10-14 — Ammohaculites laevigata Lozo. Side views of
typical hypotypes.

FIGURES 15-18 — ■Flabellam mina alexanderi Cushman. 15, 17, microspheric
hypotypes; 16, 18, megalospheric hypotypes.

FIGURES 19-21 — Lituola sub goodlandensis (Vanderpool.) Side views
of hypotypes.

FIGURE 22 — Lituola cf. earner at a Lozo. Side view of hypotype.

FIGURES 23-25 — Ammohaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander. 23, side
view of immature hypotype, X40; 24, side view of broken hypotype; 25, side
view of hypotype, 25.

FIGURE 26 — Buccicrenata sub goodlandensis (Vanderpool). Side view

of hypotype.

FIGURES 27-30 — Choffatella stenzeli n. sp. 27-28, side views through transmitted
light showing chamber arrangement; 29-30, side views.

600

The Texas Journal of Science

1961, No. 4
December 80

PLATE II

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

601

< PLATE II

TEXTULARIIDAE TO ORBIT OLINIDAE

FIGURES 1-2 — Spiroplectammina alexanderi Lalicker. Side views
of hypotypes.

FIGURES 3-4 — Spiroplectammina sp. Side views.

FIGURES 5-6- — Texularia rioensis Carsey. Side views of hypotypes.

FIGURE 7 — V erneuilina sp. Side view.

FIGURES 8-11 — Tritaxia glenrosensis n. sp. Side views showing chamber
arrangement and location of aperture.

FIGURES 12-13- — V erneuilinoides schizea (Cushman and Alexander).

Side views of hypotypes.

FIGURES 14-15 — Cuenolina trinitensis n. sp. 14A, 15 A, side views; 14B,
edge view; 15B, top view.

FIGURES 16-18 — Coskinolina adkinsi Barker. Side views.

FIGURES 19-21 — Quinqueleculina sp. Side views.

FIGURES 22-24 — Quinqueloculina triangulata n. sp. 22-23, side views of paratypes;

24A-B, top and side views of holotvpe showing triangular shape.

FIGURE 25 — Ophthalmidium minima Tappan. Side view of hypotype.

FIGURES 26-27 — Dicty conus ivalnutensis (Carsey). Side views of hypotypes.

FIGURES 28-30 — Orbitolina concava texana (Roemer). 28, thin-section view of
hypotype showing wall structure; 29, ventral view of hypotype; 30, dorsal
view of hypotype.

602

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

PLATE III

1951, No. 4
December 30

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

603

< - PLATE III

LAGENIDAE TO GLOBIGERINIDAE

FIGURE I — Lenticulina sp. Side view of figured specimen.

FIGURE 2 — Lenticulina subarenacea n. sp. Side view of holotype.

FIGURES 3-4 — Astacolus sp. Side views.

FIGURE 5 — Marginulina cyprina Vieaux. Side view of hypotype.

FIGURE 6 — Lagena sp. Side view.

FIGURE 7 — V aginulina rugosa n. sp. Side view of holotype.

FIGURE 8 — V aginulina sp. Side view,

FIGURE 9 — Guttulina symploca Loeblich and Tappan. Side view
of hypotype.

FIGURE 10 — Ramulina protea n. sp. Side view of holotype, shows its branching
development and simple apertures.

FIGURES 11-13 — Ramulina sp. Side views.

FIGURES 14-15 — Bullopora laevis (Sollas). 14, top view of hypotype attached to
shell fragment; 15, hypotype encrusted on large foraminifer Orbitolina concava
texana ( Roemer ) .

FIGURE 16 — Reusella comalensis n. sp. Side view.

FIGURES 17-18 — Neobulimina minima Tappan. Side views of hypotypes.

FIGURES 19-21 — Conorbina cornea Lozo. 19, 20, top views of hypotypes; 21, side
view of hypotype showing ventral side.

FIGURES 22-24 — Discorbis floscula Loeblich and Tappan. 22A-B, dorsal and ventral
views of hypotypes; 23, 24, dorsai and ventral views of hypotypes.

FIGURES 25A-B — Rotalia sp. Ventral and dorsal views.

FIGURES 26-28 — Globigerina sp. 26, 28, dorsal views; 27, ventral view.

604

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Subfamily Rotaliinae

Genus Rotalia Lamarck, 1804
Rotalia sp.

Plate 3, figs. 25a-b

Test free, small, trochoid, all whorles visible on dorsal side, only last whorl
visible on ventral side, small umbilicus present; ten chambers in last whorl, slightly
inflated; wall calcareous, perforate, surface pitted, tubercles present around umbonal
area; aperture a slit at base of last chamber on ventral side.

Frequency: Rare.

Size: length .4 mm., breadth .3 mm., thickness .1 mm.

Occurrence: sample 3, locality S48D. Faunizone 8.

Paleoecology : warm, shallow water.

family GLOBI GER1 N I DAE
Subfamily Globigerininae

Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826
Globigerina sp.

Plate 3, figs. 26-28

Test free, large, trochoid; chambers low spined, inflated, increasing rapidly in
size, four to five chambers in the last whorl; sutures depressed; wall calcareous, sur¬
face smooth, aperture at the base of the last formed chamber, opening into the umbilical
excavation.

Frequency: Common.

Size: diameter .4 — .65 mm., breadth .35 — .55 mm., thickness .20 — .37 mm.

Occurrence: samples 8-13, locality S48F. Faunizones 13 and 14.

Paleoecology: pelagic.

Remarks: this species is similar to G. cretacea d’Orbigny which occurs abund¬
antly throughout the Washita group (Tappan, 1943, p. 512) of north Texas.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnes, V. E. — 1940 — Cretaceous overlaps on the Llano uplift of central Texas. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am. 52(12) : 1994-5 (Abstract).

- 1948 — Ouachita facies in central Texas. Univ. Texas Bur. Econ. Geol. Rpt. Invest.

No. 2: 1-12.

Cuyler, R. H. — 1939 — Travis Peak formation of central Texas. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists 23(5) : 625-642.

Barton, N. H. — 1928 — “Red Beds” and associated formations in New Mexico, with an out¬
line of the geology of the state. U. S. Geol Survey Bull. 794 : 3-65.

Grage, V. P. and E. F. Warren, Jr. — 1939 — Lisbon oil field. Claiborne and Lincoln Parishes,
Louisiana. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 23(3) : 289.

Graves, Roy — 1949 — The geology of the Hood Spring Quadrangle, Texas. (Ph. D. Thesis,
Univ. Texas Library).

Hill, R. T. — 1901 — Geography and geology of the Black and Grand Prairies, Texas. U. S.

Geol. Survey, An. Rept. 21(7) : 666 pp., illus., maps.

Imlay, R. W. — 1944 — Cretaceous formations of Central America and Mexico. Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 28(8) : 1077-1190.

Lasky, S. G. — 1938 — Newly discovered section of Trinity age in Southwestern New Mexico.

Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 22(5) : 524-540, 4 figs.

Lohman, S. W. — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf Coast. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geolo¬
gists 33(12) : 1939-1997.

Lozo, F. E., Jr. — 1944 — Biostratigraphic relations of some North Texas Trinity and Freder¬
icksburg (Comanchean) foraminifera. Am. Mid. Nat. 31(3): 513-582, pis. 1-5, figs. 1-21.
Moore, R. C. — 1948 — “Stratigraphical Paleontology.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 59(4) : 301-326.
Natland, M. L. — 1933 — The temperature and depth — distribution of some recent and fossil
foraminifera in the southern California legion. Univ. Calif. Scripps Inst. Ocean¬
ography Bull. (Tech, series) 3(10) : 225-230.

Norton, R. D. — 1930 — Ecologic relations of some foraminifera. Univ. Calif. Scripps Inst.

of Oceanography Bull. (Tech, series) 2(9) : 331-388.

Scott, Gayle — 1926 — Etudes stratigraphiques et paleontologique sur les terrains cretaces du
Texas. Thesis, Universite de Grenoble. 218 pp., 1 fig., 3 pis.

- 1930 — The stratigraphy of the Trinity Division as exhibited in Parker County, Texas.

Univ. Texas Bull. 3001:37-52.

1951, No. 4
December 80

Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation

605

- 1940a — Cephalopods from the Cretaceous Trinity group of the ' south-central United

States. Univ. Texas. Bull. 3945:969-1106, figs. 138-179, pis. 55-68.

— - 1940b — Paleoecological factors controlling the distribution and mode of life of cre¬

taceous ammonoids in the Texas area. Jour. Paleontology 14(4) : 299-823, 9 text figures.
Shearer, H. K. — 1938 — Developments in south Arkansas and north Louisiana in 1937. Bull.
Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists 22(6) : 725.

Spath, L. F. — 1941 — On the boundary between the Upper and Lower Cretaceous. Geol. Mag.
78(4) : 309-315.

Stoyanow, A. — 1949 — Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy, southeastern Arizona. Geol. Soc. Am.
Mem. 38: 1-170, plates and figures.

Sverdrup, H. V., Johnson, M. W., and R. H. Fleming — 1942 — The Oceans, their physics,
chemistry, and general biology. New York. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1060 pp., plates and
figs.

Vaughan, T. W. — 1933 — The biogeographic relations of the orbitoid foraminifera. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sciences 19(10) : 922-938, 7 tables.

Wells, J. W. — 1932 — Corals of the Glen Rose. Bull. Gnol. Soc. Am. 41(1) : 206-207 (abstract).

606

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 80

STATISTICAL STUDY OF IRVINGELLA,
UPPER CAMBRIAN TRILOBITE

ROBERT BYRON GAINES, JR.

The Ohio Oil Co.

INTRODUCTION

Many species of the Upper Cambrian trilobite, Irvingella have been
described from the Wilberns formation of Texas. The principal aim of this
study was to test the validity of four of these species of Irvingella; in addi¬
tion to checking the possibility of their tests being curled or flattened in
preservation; and lastly to see if ontogenic changes during moulting could
be detected by quantitative means.

STRATIGRAPHY

The Wilberns formation was defined by Paige in 1911 and redefined by
Clouds Barnes, and Bridge in 1945, at this time being subdivided into five
members. Present usage utilizes Paige’s lower boundary but extends the upper

TABLE 1 - GENERALIZED GEOLOGICAL SECTION

Wilberns Formation

Members Trilobite faunas Brachiopod faunas

San Saba limestone
and Pedernales
Dolomite members
Point Peak shalebioherm
member

Morgan Creek limestone
member

Welge sandstone member

Saukinid faunas

Idah oia-Drumaspis-
Ptychaspis fauna
Conaspis fauna
Irvingella major fauna
Elvinia fauna
Elvinia fauna

Billingsella alata
fauna

Billingsella
coloradoensis fauna

Eoorthis fauna

boundary of the formation to the Cambrian-Ordovician contact.

The basal Welge member is about 12-20 feet of unglauconitic, reddish,
calcareous sandstone grading upward into the Morgan Creek.

The overlying Morgan Creek member is a medium to coarse grained,
abundantly glauconitic, well-bedded limestone about 120 feet thick. Lower
beds in contact with the Welge are somewhat sandy and reddish in color,
grading upward to gray and greenish-gray, more pure limestone. The
Elvinia trilobite fauna occurs in the lower 50 feet followed by the Eoorthis
brachiopod coquina which occurs with trilobites of the Conaspis fauna above.
Near the top of the Elvinia zone the Irvingella major fauna occurs. (Wilson
and Frederickson, 1950). The faunal unit contains an abundance of Irvin-
gella and limited numbers of Sulcocephalus, Kiov/ia, and Comanchia .

Strata bearing the Irvingella major fauna are usually found in the mid¬
dle of the Morgan Creek limestone member of the Wilberns formation in the
Llano uplift of Texas and in the middle of the Honey Creek limestone of
the Arbuckle and Wichita mountains in Oklahoma. Such strata are also
present in equivalent rocks in the Croixan region of Wisconsin and Minne¬
sota, the Rocky Mountains, and Missouri, but have not been found in the
Appalachians (Wilson and Frederickson, 1950).

1951, No. 4
December 30

Statistical Study of Irvingella

607

COLLECTING LOCALITIES

Collections were made by the writer and others at the following locali¬
ties (see Figure 1 ) :

49-1, Morgan Creek section is 9.2 miles north-northwest of Burnet along
the North Fork of Morgan Creek.

49-2, Little Llano River section, about 4 miles southwest of Cherokee.

49-3, Baldy Mountain section, about three-fourths of a mile south of the
Morgan Creek section at the junction of the North and South Forks of
Morgan Creek.

49-4, Marble Falls-Burnet Highway section is 4 miles north of Marble Falls
on the west side of the Burnet highway.

The localities are widely separated, over 20 miles apart, and the samples
vary lithologically with the different localities. The samples from the Morgan
Creek and Baldy Mountain sections are unglauconitic, clastic limestone,
while the other two localities are represented by glauconitic, clastic lime¬
stones.

608

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

The fossils are not orientated with the bedding planes nor sorted as to
size, but they tend to be more concentrated in pockets which are scattered
at different levels in the rock. The fossils are not broken nor abraded, and
do not give evidence of being worn. Some are wholly replaced by large
calcite crystals while others retain a brown layered test which represents a
finer replacement of the original carapace.

By examining thin slabs of rock from all the localities, an average of
six specimens of Irvingella per cubic inch was estimated. It is established
that within the 400-square mile area outlined by the localities and during
the time required to deposit the average of 18 inches of coquina, at least
290 billion moults of this trilobite were deposited. This must have repre¬
sented a sizable population.

METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

The idea of applying mathematical statistics to paleontology is rela¬
tively new. A recent summary of the methods in use today (Burma, 1948,
1949) indicated that these techniques are becoming more widely accepted.

FICrURS 2. Locettion of Measurements,

1, Specimen number

2, Length of cranidium in cm,

3, . Length of glabella in cm,

4, Basal width of cranidium in cm,

5, Y/idth of fixed cheeks in cm.

6, Y/idth of glabella at anterior furrow in cm.

7, Width of glabella at posterior furrow in cm,

9. Angle outside fixed cheek in degrees,

9, Curvilinear length in cm.

10. Angle of slope of fixed cheeks in degrees.

11. Angle of elope cf glabella plus fixed cheeks in degrees.

12. Curvilinear width in cm.

10, Height of glabella over fixed cheeks in cm.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Statistical Study of Irvingella

609

LENGTH OF GLABELLA IN CM .

HEIGHT OF
GLABELLA IN CM

SPECIMEN FROM MORGAN CREEK S LITTLE LLANO
RIVER SECTIONS

The methods used in preparation and study of the material were adapta¬
tions and extensions of those used by Wilson (1949) and Frederickson
(1949).

The material was prepared under a binocular microscope by the use of
a dental drill, and hand chisels made from phonograph needles. A projection
of the fossil on the ground glass screen of a Spencer camera with a magnifi¬
cation of 5x was measured with a millimeter scale. Angles were measured
in the same way with a protractor, while the circumference of curves was
taken with a piece of flexible copper wire.

The measurements (Figure 2) were made on material from two locali¬
ties: Morgan Creek and Little Llano River. By plotting the various characters
against each other, series of curves (Figures 3, 4, 5) were obtained. These
constitute the basis for remarks in the following section. An additional ran¬
dom count was made of the number of specimens in each half mm. size
range for the above two populations as well as for one from the Marble
Falls-Burnet highway.

systematic description

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

class ARACHNOIDEA
subclass T KILOBIT A
order Opisthoparia
family Komaspidae Kobayshi

Genus IRVINGELLA Ulrich and Resser 1924

Irvingella major Ulrich and Resser 1924
Plate 2, Figures 1-32

Irvingella major Ulrich and Resser, 1924, in Walcott, Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 75,
no. 2, p. 58, pi. 10, fig. 3.

610

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

LENGTH OF GLABELLA IN CM .

PERCENTAGE OF SPECIMENS

1951, No. 4
December 30

Statistical Study of Irvingella

o 2

= Ljl

LENGTH OF SPECIMEN IN MM

612

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

- , Walcott, 1925, Smith. Misc. Coll, vol. 75, no. 3, p. 98, pi. 15, figs.

26-29.

- , Shrimer and Shrock, 1944, Index Fossils of North America, p. 627, pi.

265, figs. 25-27.

- , Frederickson, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, vol. 23, no. 4, p. 353, pi. 69-

figs. 5-7.

Irvengella oblonga, Resser, 1942, Smith. Misc. Coll, vol. 103, no. 5, p. 17, pi. 3,
figs. 1-3.

Irvin gella plena, Resser, 1942, idem, p. 18, pi. 3, figs. 13-15.

Irvingella burnetensis, Resser, 1942, idem, p. 20, pi. 3, figs. 28-33.

- , Wilson, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, vol. 23, no. 1, p. 39, pi. 11, figs. 18,21.

Irvingella media, Resser, 1942, idem, p. 22, pi. 3, figs. 46-54.

- , Westergard 1947, (ref.), Sveriges Geologiska Under, ser. C, no. 489,

pp. 15-17, pi. 3, figs. 1-4.

- , Wilson, 1949, idem, p. 39, pi. 10, fig. 7, pi. 11, figs. 16, 17, 19, 20.

DESCRIPTION. — Cranidium convex, length ranges from 1.5 mm. to 10.0 mm.,
with the ratio of the width divided by the length averaging 0.78. Glabella very large,
cylindrical with front rounded, highly arched transversely over fixed cheeks, longitud¬
inally rising gradually above occipital furrow for half its length, then sloping abruptly
downward to the anterior furrow; three pairs of glabellar furrows: anterior pair very
faint, short, visible on large cranidia only, medial pair faint, short, and straight, pos¬
terior pair deep, oblique, and connected across the axis of the glabella by a straight
deep depression; occipital furrow deep and wide; occipital ring thick and non-tapered
laterally. Border non-tapered, defined by a faint marginal furrow, forms a straight bar
across the anterior end of cranidium; brim absent; ratio of fixed cheeks at widest
point divided by the glabellar width at the posterior furrow averages 0.39, narrow
slightly posteriorly, and narrow anteriorly until cut out by border on either side
of the glabella, arch gently, slope laterally downward anteriorly; palpebral lobes de¬
pressed, long and narrow, extend almost whole length of fixed cheeks with mid-point
opposite posterior glabella furrow, directed posterolaterally from border to transverse
median line at which point they turn to proceed directly posteriorly to a point lateral
to the occipital furrow where they terminate; ocular ridges absent; posterior limbs
short, straight, hardly distinct from fixed cheeks, traversed by a wide deep furrow and
parallel to vertical axis.

Facial suture originates at anterolateral corner of cranidium, trends posterolater¬
ally along margin of palpebral lobe to transverse median line, thence passes slightly
inward, making a wide curve before turning outward along margin of posterior limbs.

Free cheeks convex, widest part just anterior to posterior limbs and equal in
width to fixed cheek at widest part, border same width as border of cranidium for most
of its length, but slightly wider at intersection of genal spine and posterior furrow;
marginal furrow well defined, beginning anteriorly at the facial suture and paralleling
its course to widest part of fixed cheek, then bows outward and gently sloping down¬
ward to a point just below the posterior limb whence it swings inward toward the
limb; the rim under the eye band is narrow and vertical, following same course as
palpebral lobes, uniform thickness; ocular platform roughly triangular with base
at posterior furrow; genal angle about 90 degrees; genal spine approximately same
length as free cheek and tapers from width of border to a point.

Pygidium approaches a semicircle in outline, its appearance spadelike; axis oc¬
cupies about two-fifths total width and three-fifths total length of pygidium, stands
high with two large rings and a terminal segment; pleural segmentation absent, the
smooth pleural platform possessing a well defined thickened border generally flat-
lying.

DISCUSSION

Certain of the curves presented on Figures 3, 4, 5 have the points so
distributed that a straight line fits them fairly well. The slope of this line
represents the average ratio. Mechanical errors in measuring, and variability
of individuals cause these points to form a wide band instead of a thin line.

Figure No. 3 B demonstrates that as the glabella grows longer the width
increases at a proportionate rate.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Statistical Study of Irvingella

613

Figure No. 3 A shows that as the glabella grows wider its height in¬
creases proportionally.

On Figure No. 5 A the width of the fixed cheek shows a constant rate
of increase with an increase of width of the glabella until the specimen
attains a length of 6 or 7 mm. The larger specimens have different
proportions.

F’igture No. 4 B shows that as the glabella grows longer the curvilinear
length increases proportionately.

Figure No. 4 A shows that as the width of the glabella grows larger,
the curvilinear width increases at a proportionate rate.

Figure No. 5 B shows that the frequencies of occurrence of the various
sizes in the population increase rapidly until a size of about 6 or 7 mm. is
attained, after which the rate of increase drops abruptly. This curve illus¬
trates that the rate of growth is rapid in the juvenile, slowing up at the
holaspid stage and becoming almost nil at the gerontic stage.

Several other measurements were taken as shown on Figure 2, but for
various reasons the curves taken from them are not submitted. The principal
omissions are those measurements concerned with the fixed cheeks and the
various angles measured. The fixed cheeks were highly susceptible to break¬
age and it was rare to obtain a perfect one. A qualitative examination of
these figures, however, shows a tendency for the fixed cheeks to be relatively
smaller in the larger specimens. The angle of slope of the glabella and fixed
cheeks tends to be larger for the smaller specimens, but the angle outside
the fixed cheek does not vary with size and averages 130 degrees.

On all specimens examined the midpoint of the palpebral lobes was
opposite the posterior glabella furrow.

No cranidia less than 1 Z2 mm. long were found. This could indicate
that the animals smaller than this had no hard parts or the grain size of the
matrix is so large that anything smaller would not be preserved. The large
and small specimens are heterogenously mixed.

The frequencies of occurrence of the various sizes fit a normal curve
reasonably well. Fluxley (1932, p. 68) states in his chapter on arthropod
moulting:

. . . the large variations encountered, together with the variation in the post-
larval weight, are often sufficient to obscure any recurrent modality in the
sizes at which moulting occurs. In large populations of such species, moult¬
ing thus occurs at random at any size, and measurements of a heterogonic
organ whose growth-ratio is constant over long periods accordingly fall on a
continuous curve . . .

Therefore the smooth curves obtained do not necessarily eliminate the possi¬
bility of these being moults. Furthermore, the specimens are quite small
and the accuracy of half mm. measurements may not have been enough to
pick up the modes if present. It is significant that a normal curve was
formed, as such an unimodal curve is considered evidence of only one species.

Assuming a length of arc is constant, then if this arc is curved more
the chord of that arc will be proportionately shortened, or if it is curved
less a longer chord will result. Curves 4A and 4B show a constant relation¬
ship between the length and longitudinal circumference, and the width and
medial convexity. It does not seem feasible that such a condition would exist
if the tests had been crushed or curled in preservation. For example, if a
specimen had been flattened, the length of the glabella would be much great¬
er with respect to the longitudinal circumference than that same ratio on an
undamaged cranidium.

614

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
Pecember 30

1951, No. A
December 30

Statistical Study of Irvingella

615

The changes in the carapace due to increased size can be attributed to
advanced age. The chief change seems to be increased convexity of the
cranidium in general and the fixed cheeks in particular. The curves dealing
with the glabella show that it is relatively stable and not appreciably affected
by increased size. The curves incorporating the fixed cheeks, however, and
the size frequency plots indicate differences past the 6 mm. size, which might
be termed the gerontic stage. These specimens are characterized by deeper
furrows, more convexity of fixed cheeks, relatively narrower fixed cheeks,
and more tumid glabellas.

discussion of resser’s species

The consistency of the curves indicates that the writer’s material con¬
stitutes one species and the variation in size represents a growth series. The
foregoing synonomy includes only four of the numerous species of Irvingella
described from the Wilberns formation of Texas because these were based
on the only topotype material available to the writer at this time. Additional
material and work will be necessary to check the status of the remaining
species.

It is significant that all the specimens answering the description of I.
media are small and those like 1. burnetensis are larger with gradation in
between. I. plena is indistinguishable from I. burnetensis. I. oblonga was
named from a single broken specimen, and nothing answering its descrip¬
tion was found in the topotype material. Measurements taken on Resser’s
photographs were compared with those of populations studied by the writer.
The points were plotted into the curves as shown on Figures 3, 4, 5. In
Ressers’ ( 1 942 ) description of I. oblonga he emphasized the long narrow
glabella. The ratio of length of glabella to the width of glabella of Resser’s
specimens was compared to the writer’s measurements on his populations by
the method of Simpson and Roe (1939). The difference obtained by sub¬
tracting the mean of the character for the population from the measurement
of the character on a single specimen is divided by the standard deviation of
the larger sample, and this is called the deviation. When this deviation was
compared with a probability table (Simpson and Roe, p. 137) it was found
to have a value of 32. Assuming the character in the population varies as a
normal curve, then this indicates that 32 per cent of the specimens should
fall at a greater distance from the mean than this one. This is strong evidence
that this specimen could belong to the population measured by the writer as
this deviation is not considered significant.

< - EXPLANATION OF PLATE I

All Figures are Irvingella major.

1-9 illustrate growth series; dorsal view.

10-18 illustrate growth series; end view.

19-27 illustrate growth series; side view.

28, top view of free cheek.

29, under side of free cheek.

30-32, Pygidium: 30. Side view; 31. End view; 32. Dorsal view.
1J27, Collected from Morgan Creek section.

28, Collected from Baldy Mountain section.

29-32, Collected from Little Llano River section.

616

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

The coefficient of variation (V) is 100 times the standard deviation
divided by the mean. (Table 2) This was computed as 5.75 for the ratio of
the length of glabella to width of glabella. Simpson and Roe indicate that
for the majority of mammals V lies between 4 and 10. No work is available
to show what this value should be for arthropods.

TABLE 2 — DATA FOR MORGAN CREEK SECTION

Ratio

Mean

Deviation

Variation

Standard

Coefficient

Length glabella .

Width glabella

. 1.31

0.80

5.75

Width fixed cheek .

Width glabella

. 0.43

0.08

18.30

CONCLUSIONS

1. Some of the Texas species of Irvingella named by Resser in 1942
are invalid and should be referred back to I. major.

2. There is little or no evidence that the tests have been curled or
flattened in preservation (Curves 4 A and 4B).

3. There are no breaks in the size-frequency curves to indicate various
moult stages; however, this does not necessarily prove that they did not
moult. A growth curve for Irvingella is presented.

4. The gerontic specimens tend to have tumid glabellas over 6 mm.
in length, relatively small fixed cheeks, and deeper furrows. Cranidia as a
whole generally become more convex with increased size, and the fixed
cheeks in particular show this tendency.

5. The shape of the glabella tends to remain stable with increased
size, as does the angle outside the fixed cheeks.

LITERATURE CITED

Bridge, Josiah, Barnes, Virgil E., and Freston E. Cloud, Jr. — 1 947-— Stratigraphy of the
Upper Cambrian, Ulano Uplift, Texas Geol. Soc. America Bull. 58(1) : 109-124.

Burma, Benjamin H. — 1948 — Studies in quantitative paleontology: I. Some aspects of the
theory and practice of quantitative invertebrate paleontology: Jour. Paleontology
^2(6) : 725-761.

- 1949 — Studies in quantitative paleontology II. Multivariate analysis — a new tool for

paleontology and geology: Jour. Paleontology 23(1) : 95-103.

Cloud, Preston E., Jr., Bridge, Josiah, and Virvil E. Barnes — 1945 — Stratigraphy of the
Ellenburger group in central Texas — a progress report: University of Texas Pub.
4301 : 133-161.

Frederickson, E. A. — 1948 — Some Upper Cambrian trilobites from Oklahoma : Journ. Paleon-
tology22 (6) : 798-803, pi. 123.

- 1949 — Trilobite fauna of the Upper Cambrian Honey Creek formation : Jour. Paleon¬
tology 23(4) : 341-363, pis. 68-72.

- and James L. Wilson — 1950 — The Irvingella major faunizone. Ms.

Huxley, Julian S.— 1932 — Problems in relative growth. Dial Press.

Paige, Sidney — 1912 — The Llano-Burnet folio: U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, No. 183.
Resser, Charles E. — 1942 — New Upper Cambrian trilobites: Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 103(5).
Simpson, G. G., and Anne Roe — 1939 — Quantitative Zoology. McGraw-Hill.

Walcott, C. D. — 1924 — Cambrian trilobites. Smithsonian M’isc. Coll., 75(213) : 58, 98.

Wilson, James L. — 1948 — Two Upper Cambrian Elvinia zone trilobite genera: Jour. Paleon¬
tology 22(1) : 30-34, pis.

- 1949 — The trilobite fauna of the Elvinia zone in the basal Wilberns limestone °f

Texas: Jour. Paleontology 23(1) : 25-44, pis. 9-11.

1951, No. A
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

617

NORTH AMERICAN MARINE NEMATODES

B. G. CHITWOOD

Catholic University of America* * *

Washington, D.C.

INTRODUCTION

The first marine nematodes mentioned from North America were two
species described by Joseph Leidy in 1 8 5 5. Thereafter no publications oc¬
curred until N. A. Cobb began his series, the Contributions to a Science of
Nematology, in 1914. Later Steiner, All gen and the writer have recorded
forms. Actually the faunas have been very poorly worked up though few
new genera are now to be found. Many new species have been known for
periods of 10-3 0 ye^rs without their having been described. This is due
partlv to lack of qualified workers and partly to limited publication facili¬
ties. Since marine zoologists seem to desire a key to the North American
fauna we have prepared one. However, every collection turns up new species
or new records of European species. In this paper 3 new genera and 3 3 new
species are described from the vicinity of Rockport, Texas.

European study of marine nematodes dates from the early part of the
nineteenth century but the outstanding early works were by Bastian,
Biitschli, de Man, Marion and G. Schneider, with more recent studies by
Filipjev, Steiner, Micoletzky, Kreis, Ditlevsen, Allgen, Stekhoven, de Con-
inck, and W. Schneider. At least twenty times as many species have been
described from Europe as from North America. Hence we must always
check European literature before describing new species. The two most
comprehensive publications on the subject are those by Stekhoven (193 5)
and W. Schneider (1939). With these two references the worker can locate
many forms which may not be included in the present article. Original de¬
scriptions in this paper are based on specimens collected by Dr. E. G. Rein-
hard from the vicinity of Rockport, Texas. Certain types of marine nema¬
todes are notable bv their large numbers, others by their scarcity. This is
probably due to selective collection. All species previously recorded from
North America are included so far as we have been able to determine. Some
identifications made around 1941 for Dr. Zinn of Yale Uiversitv, Dr. Pennak
identifications made around 1941 for Dr. Zinn of Yale University, Dr.
Pennak of the University of Colorado and Dr. A. S. Pearse of Duke Univer¬
sity are also included for completeness. Unfortunately we do not have the
specimens.

DTSTRTBUTION AND ECOLOGY

LIFE HABITS. — As a general rule the soil nematodes belong to the Class Phasmidea
while the aquatic nematodes belong to the Class Aphasmidea. This is probably
correlated with the absence of hypodermal glands in the former group since hypodermal
glands make the cuticle much more permeable and nematodes with these structures
are usually more susceptible to drying. The caudal glands of the Aphasmidea are
highly advantageous as organs of attachment for aquatic nematodes. Of course we find
all gradations from relatively dry soil, through moist soil, swamp and marsh to
fresh and salt water.

^'Materials described in this paper were collected by Dr. E. G. Reinhard through the facilities
of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, at Rockport,
Texas.

** Supported in part by a grant from The Catholic University of America Research Fund.

618

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

Phasmideans invade fresh water rather commonly and fresh water nematodes
invade soil with considerable ease. Consequently there are many species which are
difficult to classify as soil or fresh water.

In the Phasmidea the superfamily Rhabditoidea feeds primarily on bacteria or
the products of their action on plants or animals. Many species are semi-parasites of
invertebrates. The superfamily is primarily terrestrial but several species may be
considered fresh water and a few very rare species are marine. The superfamilies
Tylenchoidea and Aphelenchoidea usually feed by puncturing living cells and sucking
the contents. They are both primarily terrestrial groups feeding on angiosperms or
terrestrial arthropods but a reasonable number feed on algae or are carnivorous. A
considerable number live in swamp to aquatic habitats but the only marine genus
is Halenchus.

Among the Aphasmidea the superfamily Dorylaimoidea is an example of a
diversified group. Apparently these forms are primarily fresh water with a very few
species living in brackish water or marine. The bulk of present day species, however,
are moist soil inhabitants, with a very few species characteristically marine or brackish.
The group is usually characterized as carnivorous but evidence is being obtained
that more and more species feed on algae, even in soil; a few species may feed
on roots of angiosperms. Only a very few species are marine. Kreis (1927) unsuccess¬
fully attempted to adapt the fresh water species Dorylaimus stagnalis to a marine life.

The superfamily Tripyloidea is typically fresh water though many species are
found in moist soil. A few genera of the subfamily Ironinae are marine. The super¬
family includes many carnivorous forms, others that feed on algae. The superfamily
Enoploidea is typically marine and the few forms reported from fresh water may be
errors. The group includes carnivorous and algae feeding types.

The superfamily Plectoidea is highly diversified as to habitat and probably also
in feeding. We would consider it as basically aquatic and saprophagous but many
species are found in moist soil. Entire subfamilies or families are characteristically
marine. None would be termed brackish.

The superfamily Axonolaimoidea is primarily marine but a few genera are
typically fresh water. Little is known of their feeding habits but we would presume
most of them feed on algae.

The superfamily Monhysteroidea is on the whole marine but the type genus,
Monhystera contains many species which live in fresh water. Most monhysteroids are
alga feeders but a few have been reported to be carnivorous, (ex. Siphonolaimus) ..

The superfamily Chromadoroidea is likewise aquatic with the bulk of the species
marine but species in several genera of the Chromadorinae are fresh water. The
Microlaiminae is a marine group while the Ethmolaiminae are fresh water forms.
Most of these feed on algae. The Cyatholaimidae and Tripyloididae are marine groups
though one or two species have been reported from fresh water; they include
carnivorous and phytophagous species.

The superfamilies Desmodoroidea and Desmoscolecoidea are both marine groups
but several genera of the former group and one species of the latter group
( Desmoscolex aquaedulcis Stammer, 1935) has been described from fresh water.

The reader will note we have pointedly omitted discussion of brackish water
nematodes. A very few species scattered through the Aphasmidean genera have been
termed brackish but no truly brackish fauna has been worked out even in Europe.
As a general rule one finds a quick change from fresh water to marine species,
genera and superfamilies. The transitional zone is usually rather poor in both
numbers of specimens and diversity of genera. De Coninck (1930) and others have
done extensive work attempting to establish the fauna of brackish soil and water but
no clear cut statements are available. The species and genera listed include soil, fresh
water and marine species which might well mean diverse habitats in a general
collection. Spot collection and salinity readings coupled with experimental adaptation
studies of individual species will be needed.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION — Most aquatic nematode genera which have been
described for 20 or more years have been found to be of world wide distribution.
Species are more apt to be specialized as to habitat, i.e., beach, shallows, breakers,
algae, or animals on which they feed than to coast of a given country. Many species
are found on the Atlantic Coasts of Europe and America while species are seldom
identified from both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of America. However, the
multitude of marine species and recent refinements in taxonomy cause us to be
extremely hesitant to discuss such matters as ocean currents and world fauna.
Identifications of species to date could easily be due to pure chance, i.e., the more

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

619

species that have been described from a given area and the more students of marine
nematodes the greater the probability that someone will find a species first described
on another coast or in another ocean. There is also a tendency for workers to find
genera and species described by themselves rather than those described by other
workers. This being the situation we feel at least 50 years will be required before
our information is sufficiently stabilized to permit general discussions.

TECHNIC

COLLECTION. — There are two major types of marine nematode collection (a)
beach screening and (b) selective sampling. In beach screening one obtains a large
diversity of forms which may or may not be true inhabitants of the. locale. It is
rapid and large numbers can be collected in rather high degree of purity. The most
simple procedure is to take three buckets, a 200 mesh screen and a bottle to the
beach. Skim the top one-half inch of sand into one bucket. Roil well. Let sand sink
and pour immediately into second bucket. Let settle (15 min.) while repeating
operation with third bucket. Pour off supernatant fluid of buckets 2 and 3. Rinse
bottom material through 200 mesh screen, pour into bottle and repeat the procedure.
In sampling the idea is to find quantities of individual species. The best procedure
is to collect algae, eelgrass, barnacles, rock scrapings, and dredgings. These may be
individually screened with a strong stream of sea water or they may be directly
examined under the microscope or preserved.

PRESERVATION. — We have found 4% of commercial formalin in sea water an
excellent preservative. However, study in the living condition or intra-mortem is
more enjoyable.

PICKING and MOUNTING. — Screenings or samples are put into Syracuse dishes
and individual nematodes picked up with a bamboo needle. The action is somewhat
like eating spaghetti with a knitting needle but very effective once one becomes
adjusted to it. Place specimens in a small drop of marine formalin (4%) on a
slide, support cover with glass wool, ring with a mixture of one-half vaseline-one-half
paraffin. Such material keeps for days. For permanent mounts transfer marine formalin
fixed material to 4% formalin-3 % glycerin with a trace of osmic acid. Evaporate to
glycerin, and mount in glycerin with glass wool supports. Ring with lacto-phenol —
gum arabic or permount.

measurement and DESCRIPTION. — All nematodes are measured using camera-
lucida sketches before identifications are made to species. Two systems of measurement
were developed: the Cobbian and Demanian Systems. The former was based on
decimals or percentage of lengths and widths at various places on the body, the
second on ratios of body parts. Since the latter has become standard in all present
works we shall follow it. Standard measurements according to de Man are:

Body length

Diameter

Length esophagus
Body length

c =-

Body length
Tail length

v =

Position of Vulva
Body length

Gi and G0 = % body length of each gonad.

In addition various structures are commonly situated or measured in terms of
many head diameters, body diameters, anal body diameters, or tail lengths. While
the general zoologist may find this a bit confusing at times, we cannot change the
whole subject to suit him. German works save space by such statements as: "Schw.
= 5AB.” In English this means "Tail length 5 anal body diameters.” Similarly
"KBo 1.5 KB” means literally head setae 1.5 head diameters in length. This is quite
simple and efficient.

GENERAL SYSTEMATICS

For those familiar only with parasitic worms we would advise some reading
on general morphology (See Chitwood and Chitwood, 1950). We divide the Phylum
Nematoda in two classes, Phasmidea and Aphasmidea. Most animal and plant parasitic
nematodes as well as the majority of soil inhabiting saprozoic forms belong to the
former group, while the majority of marine and fresh water nematodes belong to
the latter group. There are a few exceptional marine phasmideans and a few animal
parasitic aphasmideans (i.e., Mermithoidea, Trichuroidea and Dioctophymatoidea) .
The present series will combine in key form all previous records from North America
and new information will be inserted in the proper places.

620

The Texas Journal of Science

1961, No. A
December 80

class PHASMIDEA

Phasmids present; lateral excretory canals present; amphids pore-like; caudal glands
absent; hypodermal glands absent; terminal excretory duct sclerotized.

order RHABDIT1DA

Esophagus In three parts.

suborder RHABDITINA

Stylet absent, lateral canal on both sides of body.

1. Female with two ovaries, male with separate spicules. Long Island, N.Y. Rhabditis

marina Bastian, 1865.

2. Female with one ovary, male with fused spicules. Eggs of Ocypode albicans .

Beaufort, N.C. Parasitorhabditis ocypodis (Chitwood, 1935) n. comb. Syn.
Rhabditis ocypodis Chitwood, 1935.

Rhabditis marina Bastian, 1865

Female 2.4 mm.; a, 23; b,6.6; c,l4.7; V,52%. Tail conically attenuated with
rounded tip; phasmids at 43% of tail length; cuticle with striae 2.2/x apart resolvable
into rows of longitudinal ridges interrupted laterally by six longitudinal rugae.
HABITAT. — Seaweed, Long Island Sound. Collector, J. L. Bassen, 1941.
REMARKS. — This description agrees with that given by Steiner (1916) from
the "Barentsee” but not at all well with the original description as given by Bastian
(1865) from Falmouth, England. The latter author illustrates the tip of the female
tail as conically pointed and the b value is given as 9. It is possible that they do
not represent the same species but additional specimens are needed to substantiate
this point.

suborder TYLENCHINA

Stylet present, lateral canal on one side of body.

3. Tail ventrally hooked at tip. Galls of Pucus ( Ascophyllum) nodosus. Holland

and Woods Hole, Mass. Halenchus fucicola (de Man, 1892). .

4. Tail not ventrally hooked at tip. Aransas Bay, Texas. Halenchus mexicanus n. sp.

Halenchus mexicanus n. sp.

Juvenile female 1.94 mm. long: a, 28. 5; b,4.8; c,l4.5; V,48%. Labial region
with faint transverse striae, cheilorhabdions and internal head supports sclerotized;
stylet 19 g long, knobs rounded, dorsal gland orifice 3.4g from base of stylet. Meta¬
corpus 75 g from head, I6g long, with distinct valve; esophageal glands in ventral
column, containing three equally spaced nuclei. Excretory pore 130g from head.
Tail conoid, not hooked at tip.

habitat.' — Found free, depth of four feet, Aransas Bay, Texas, 1950.

REMARKS. — This species differs from H. fucicola (de Man, 1892) Cobb, 1933,
in the form of the tail. In that respect it is more like Halenchus zostericola (Allgen,
1934) n. comb., syn. Tylenchus zostericola . However, H. zostericola measured 1.7-2. 2
mm.; a, 65-75: b,9.7-10. These are all plant parasites and it would be interesting for
someone to find the host. Halenchus is the only known genus of marine tylenchs.
Peculiarly it combines the internal cephalic sclerotization of the Heteroderidae
(including Pratylenchus, etc.) with the esophagus of the Tylenchidae (Thorne’s
subfamily Neotylenchinae or Nothotylenchinae ) with the general habit of Tylenchus
and Ditylenchus . Halenchus mexicanus is rather upsetting to .group characters.
However, we feel it belongs to the family Tylenchidae even though it is a bit odd.

class APHASMIDEA

Phasmids absent; lateral excretory canals absent; amphids usually not pore-like;
caudal glands usually present; hypodermal glands usually present; terminal excretory
duct absent or very little sclerotized.

order ENOPLIDA

Esophagus cylindrical, two part cylindroid or conoid; amphids pocket-like (rarely
pore-like); ovaries always reflexed.

North American Marine Nematodes 621

suborder ENOPLINA

all stages; cephalic sensory organs commonly setose; caudal glands

SUPERFAMILY TR1PYLOIDEA Chitwood, 1937
not reduplicate. (Mostly fresh water.)

FAMILY Ironidae de Man, 1876

Stoma cylindrical.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Stylet absent in
usually present.

Cuticle at head

FIGURE 1 — A-B — Halenchus mexicanus : A — head. B — esophageal region. C —
Rhabditis marina, female tail. D-F — Leptosomatum elongatum : D — head of male,
of male. I-J —Viscosia mac ramp hida : I — head. J — tail of mail. K-N — Viscosia papillata :
K — head. L — excretory pore. M — male cloacal region. N — female tail.

E — head of female. F — tail of male. G-H — Anoplostoma copano : G — head. H — tail

622

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

SUBFAMILY Ironinae Micoletzky, 1922

Esophageal gland orifices (three) into stomatal region.

5. Cephalic setae present. Mass., N.Y. and N.C.

Ironella prismatolaima Cobb, 1920
Cephalic setae absent.

6. Spinerette opening ventral. Ocean Beach, Seaweed, Miami, Fla.

Trissonchulus oceanus Cobb, 1920

7. Spinerette opening dorsal. Aransas Bay, Texas.

Trissonchulus reversus n. sp.

Single juvenile, 1.16 mm.; a, 29; b,3.2; c,l6. Stoma 40//, long. Spinerette opening
dorsally on bluntly rounded tail.

HABITAT. — Chaetopterus tube and eelgrass, depth of 3 feet. Mud Island, Aransas
Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — This form apparently represents a new species since Cobb (1920)
plainly states the spinerette opens ventrally in T. oceanus.

SUPERFAMILY ENOPLOIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 1933
Cuticle of head reduplicate. (Marine).

family Enoplidae Baird, 18 53

Stomatorhabdions poorly sclerotized, without distinct stomatal capsule, stoma sur¬
rounded by esophageal tissue.

SUBFAMILY Enoplinae Micoletzky, 1922

With three bifurcate mandibles; esophagus cylindrical; amphids pocket-like; male
with tuboid preanal supplement.

Only ten cephalic setae. Enoplus Dujardin, 1845
Pigment spots absent.

8. Cephalic setae 0.3 head diameter; size 8-9 mm. Maine and New Jersey Coasts.

Enoplus marinus ( Leidy , 1855).

9. Cephalic setae 0.16 head diameter; size 2-3 mm. Woods Hole, Mass. (Collector,

R. W. Pennak, 1940).

Enoplus brachyuris Ditlevsen, 1923.

Pigment spots present.

10. Adults 2-3 mm. Teneriffe & N.C. Coasts.

Enoplus meridionalis (Steiner, 1921).

Adults 5-10 mm.

11. Spicules with straight handle. European 8c North American Atlantic Coasts

(New Foundland & N.Y.).

Enoplus communis Bastian 1865.

12. Spicules arcuate. Woods Hole, Mass. (Collector, R. W. Pennak, 1940).

Enoplus brevis Bastian 1865.

Cephalic setae 16

13. Lips not longitudinally striated.

Enoplolaimus propinquus de Man, 1922.

Lips longitudinally striated. Enoploides Saveljev, 1912.

14. Longest setae 0.6 head width. Coast of Europe & N.C. (Collector, A. S.

Pearse, 1942).

Enoploides amphioxi Filip jev, 1918.

15. Longest setae 1 head width. Coast of Europe & Conn. (Collector, D. J. Zinn,

1940).

Enoploides labiatus (Butschli, 1874).

16. Longest setae 1.2 head widths. Coast of Denmark and Woods Hole, Mass.,

(Collector, R. W. Pennak, 1940).

Subfamily Leptosomatinae Micoletzky, 1922
Without mandibles, posterior part of esophagus distinctly muscular, esophagus
usually cylindrical, rarely conoid, amphids pocket-like.

Stoma distinct, conoid. Rhabdodemania Baylis & Daubney, 1926.

17. Longest setae 0.5 head diameter; adults 3-4 mm. Coast of Ireland & Woods

Hole, Mass. (Collector, R. W. Pennak, 1940).

Rhabdodemania major Southern, 1914.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

623

18. Longest setae 1 head diameter; adults 1-2 mm. Beaufort, N.C.

Rhabdodemania minima Chitwood, 1936

Stoma not distinct.

Cuticle longitudinally ridged

19. With dorsal tooth and ocelli. Kingston Harbor, Jamaica.

Cophonchus ocellatus Cobb, 1920.

20. Without dorsal tooth or ocelli. Seagrass off Key West, Fla.

Xennella cephalata Cobb, 1920.

Cuticle not longitudinally ridged

With well developed internal sclerotized helmet.

21. Helmet deeply lobed posteriad, European & New Foundland Coasts (Collector,

Allgen, 1935).

Thoracostoma trickodes (Leuckart, 1849).

Helmet not deeply lobed posteriad.

Esophagus cylindroid.

22. Tail blunt. California Coast. Deontostoma californicum Steiner & Albin, 1933.

23. Tail attenuated. Woods Hole, Mass.

Tubolaimella setosa Cobb, 1933.

24a. Esophagus conoid. European & N.C. Coasts. (Collector, Chitwood, 1936).

Female. Leptosomatum elongatum Bastian, 1865.

Without well developed internal sclerotized helmet.

24b. Without paired rows of cervical setae.

Male. Leptosomatum elongatum Bastian, 1865.

With paired rows of cervical setae
Supplementary organ present.

25. c,7-12; setae 0.5 head diameter; European & New Foundland Coasts. (Collector,
Allgen, 1935).

Anticoma limalis Bastian, 1865.

26. c, 16-17; setae 0.7 head diameter. Beaufort, N.C.

Anticoma litoris Chitwood, 1936.

27. Supplementary organ absent. Paranticoma longicaudata n. sp.

Leptosomatum elongatum Bastian, 1865
(syn. L. elongatum v. acephalatum Chitwood, 1936).

Ocelli 80-100g from anterior end; cephalic sensory organs conoid papillae,
amphids Vz head diameter from anterior end. Tooth absent. Internal sclerotization
of head confined to female. Tail bluntly rounded in both sexes, 1.3- 1.8 anal body
diameters long. Male 7. 0-7.4 mm.; a, 48-92; b,7-8; c, 67-74; nerve ring 275-300 g
from anterior end; testis extending 60-65% length of body; spicules 65-77g long;
about 7/10 length of tail.

Female 6.2-8.0 mm.; a, 52-67; b, 6.2-7. 7; c, 52-80; V, 52-53%; gonads reflexed,
extending 23-30% and 22-38% length of body respectively; eggs 1-4 per uterus,
180-240g long by 80-10,0g wide. Coast of England and North Carolina.

REMARKS. — This form was originally described as a variety of Leptosomatum
elongatum on the basis of a single male. Further specimens found in a sponge
Hymeniacodon heliophila at Beaufort, N.C., July 13, 1949, permit us to synonomize
the variety. Bastian collected his original specimen, a male, from a reddish sponge
at Falmouth, England.

Paranticoma longicaudata n. sp.

Cephalic setae Yz head diameter; cervical setae 3 head diameters back, six
pairs, linear or grouped. Excretory pore 100-1 lOg from head, 1 1/2 body diameters
anterior to nerve ring. Nerve ring slightly posterior to base of esophagus. Excretory
cell opposite posterior part of esophagus. Tail distally filiform.

Male 1-. 0-1.66 mm.; a, 33-37; b, 5. 3-5. 8; c, 5. 3-6. 2; spicules arcuate 42g long,
with distinct handle and flange. Gubernaculum surrounds spicules. Tail 7-8 anal
body diameter in length. Preanal setae six pairs, postanal setae three pairs.

Female 1.6-1. 7 mm; a, 27-33; b,5.3-5.6; c,5.9-6.2; V, 39-42%; ^,200-220^;
G2,200-220g; eggs (maximum 2), 50-60 by 25-30 g; tail 11-12 anal body diameters
in length.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — This species contained round to capsuliform greenish intestinal cell
inclusions, pigmentation quite variable. Some specimens contained rather irregular
elongate masses similarly pigmented. We presume it eats algae in rather large
pieces. Sparse non-pigmented intestinal cells indicate differential function. The
present species may readily be distinguished from other species of the genus by the

624

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

position of the excretory pore. This structure is more anteriad in other species
(20-30/x, from head). The only species with a tail of comparable length is P.
bandaensis.

SUBFAMILY Phanodermatinae Filip jev, 1927

Amphids not elongate; stoma rudimentary; esophagus conoid, musculature weak;
cephalic setae 10; mandibles absent.

28. Coast of North Carolina Phanodermopsis longisetae Chitwood, 1936.

SUBFAMILY Oxystomininae (Micoletzky, 1924)

Amphids usually elongate, often tuboid internally; stoma unarmed; esophagus conoid,
musculature weak; cephalic setae usually 6, postcephalic 4; male without preanai
supplement.

Amphids tubiform.

29. Only four setae. Woods Hole, Mass. Halalaimoides acuminata Cobb, 1933
Cephalic setae 6 plus 4.

30. Setal circles not distinct. Woods Hole, Mass.

Tycnodora pachydermata Cobb, 1920
Setal circles distinct.

31. Setae 1 head diameter back. Coast of North Carolina.

Halalaimus caroLiniensis Chitwood, 1936

32. Setae 2 head diameters back. Coast of North Carolina.

Halalaimus parvus Chitwood, 1936

Amphids not tubiform.

Setae absent

33. 1'wo ovaries. Woods Hole, Mass. Angustinema nudum Cobb, 1933
One ovary

34. Amphids 1.5 head diameters back. Port Royal, Jamaica.

Nemanema simplex CoDb, 1920

35. Amphids over 2 head diameters back. Port Royal, Jamaica,

Schistodera exilis Cobb, 1920

Setae present

36. Two ovaries, Biscayne Bay, Fla. Porocoma striata Cobb, 1920
One ovary.

Oxystomina Baylis & Daubney, 1926.

37. Setae over 1 head diameter long. Beaufort, North Carolina.

Oxystomina alpha Chitwood, 1937

38. Setae 0.3 head diameters long. Coasts of Holland and N.Y.

Oxystomina cylindricauda (de Man, 1922)

family Oncholaimidae Baylis & Daubney, 1926

Stomatorhabdions heavily sclerotized; stoma somewhat capsuliform, only the posterior
part surrounded by esophageal tissue.

SUBFAMILY Oncholaiminae Micoletzky, 1922

Esophagus cylindrical, not crenate or conoid, vesiculate or multibulbar. Supple¬
mentary organs absent or pedunculate (not sclerotized).

Teeth absent or very weak.

39. Lips 6. Seaweed, Woods Hole, Mass.

Anoncholaimus mobilis Cobb, 1920

Lips 3.

Male without caudal alae.

40. Small tooth at anterior end of stoma. Bathing beach, Woods Hole, Mass.

Trilepta guttata Cobb, 1920

41. Teeth absent (eye spots at base of stoma). Woods Hole, Mass.

Asym-metrella glabra Cobb, 1920
Male with caudal alae. Anoplostoma Butschli, 1874.

42. Spicules flanged throughout length, not jointed. Brackish pond, Ocala, Fla.

Anoplostoma heterurum (Cobb, 1914) n. comb., syn. Oncholaimellus
heterurus Cobb, 1914

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

625

43. Spicules with distal half flanged. Eel grass, Copano Bay, Texas.

Anoplostoma copano n. sp.

Three well developed teeth.

Cuticle transversely striated. Oncholaimoides Chitwood, 1937

44. Longitudinal ridges pronounced. Beaufort, North Carolina.

Oncholaimoides rugosum Chitwood, 1937

45. Longitudinal ridges faint. Beaufort, North Carolina.

Oncholaimoides striatum Chitwood, 1937
Cuticle not transversely striated.

FIGURE 2 — A-B — Pontonema valviferum : A — head. B — tail of female.C-E —
Prooncholaimus aransas: C — head. D — tail of male. E — tail of female. F-H — Paran-
ticoma longicaudata : F— -head. G — male tail. H — spicules and gubernaculum after
clearing. I-J — Trissonchulus reversus : I — head region. J — tail.

626

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

46. Hypodermis with trabeculae. Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas.

Prooncholaimus aransas n. sp.

Females with two ovaries.

Spicules short and straight, demanian system absent.

Viscosia de Man, 1890
With ten cephalic setae (short)

47. Tail 3 anal body diameters long. Beaufort, NX.

Viscosia brachylaim oides Chitwood, 1937

48. Tail 8 anal body diameters long. Beaufort, NX.

Viscosia paralinstowi Chitwood, 1937
With no setae, 6 plus 10 papillae.

49. Tail attenuated (c, 11-12). Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas.

Viscosia macramphida n. sp.

50. Tail filiform (c,7-9) . Copano Bay, Texas.

Viscosia papillata n. sp.

Spicules elongate to setaceous.

Demanian system present. Adoncholaimus Filipjev, 1918

51. Only male known; spicules 2.5 anal body diameters long. Cape Breton Isle,

Canada.

Adoncholaimus punctatus (Cobb, 1914)

Female known.

52. Demanian system with one pair of exit pores; spicules 1.8 anal body diameters

long. Atlantic Coast of Europe and Mass. Adoncholaimus juscus (Bastian,
!865 )

53. Demanian system with seven pairs of exit pores; male unknown. Woods Hole,

Mass.

Adoncholaimus panicus Cobb, 1930
Demanian system absent.

54. Adults 3-4 mm. long. Rockport, Texas.

Pontonema valviferum n. sp.

Adults 14-20 mm. long.

55. Spicules not distinctly cephalated, Coast of . Maine.

Pontonema vacillatum Leidy, 1856.

56. Spicules distinctly cephalated. Atlantic Coast of Europe and New Foundland.

(Collector, Allgen, 1935).

Pontonema vulgar e Bastian, 1865
Females with one ovary.

57. Spicules setaceous. Coasts of Europe & Mass. (Cobb, 1932).

Metoncholaimus pristiurus ( zur Strassen, 1894)

Spicules short or moderate in length.

58. Stoma with two large subventral teeth, small dorsal tooth. Long Island Sound.

Metaparoncholaimus heterocytous Chitwood & Chitwood, 1938
Stoma with one large subventral and one small subventral and small dorsal
tooth.

Male with versatile median papilla. Oncholaimium Cobb, 1930

59. ct 20-30. Woods Hole, Mass.

Oncholaimium append iculatum Cobb, 1930

60. c, 50-70. Long Island, N.Y.

Oncholaimium oxyuris var. domesticus Chitwood & Chitwood, 1938
Male without versatile median papilla.

Oncholaimus Dujardin, 1845

61. Head pigmented. Woods Hole, Mass.

Oncholaimus nigrocephalus Cobb, 1930

62. Head not pigmented. Woods Hole, Mass.

Oncholaimus serpens Cobb, 1930
Anoplostoma copano n. sp.

Cephalic setae ten in number, I head diameter long; amphids 2 4g from anterior
end; stoma lOg long by 5g wide. Esophagus cylindrical.

Male 1.12 mm.; a, 28; b,5; c,6.2; spicules 48g long, cephalated, with distal
half saber-like. Gubernacuium double, with terminal projections; three pairs of
genital papillae.

Female 1.2-1.35 mm.; a, 27-33; b, 4.6-5; c, -6.6; V,48%; gonads 11-17 and
13-14% of body length; one egg per uterus, 80 by 28-30 g.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

627

HABITAT. — Among eelgrass, depth of 3 feet, Copano Bay, Texas, July 26, 1950.

REMARKS. — Other species in the genus include Anoplostoma blanchardi de Man,
1888 and A. elegans Kreis, 1929, described as having only six cephalic setae, and
A. campbelli Allgen, 1932 and A. viviparum (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1907, with
ten cephalic setae. A. campbelli has spicules nearly as long as tail. In A. viviparum
the spicules are not transversely divided, hence similar to A. heterurum but the
length — body diameter ratio, a, is 32-3 6, hence similar to A. copano.

Prooncholaimus aransas n. sp.

Cephalic setae short, about 1/5 head diameter in length. Stoma 40 /i deep by 20 g.

wide containing three blunt teeth, left subventral the largest.

Male 2.5 mm.; a, 6. 3; b,6.3; c,21. Spicules 84-80/4 long; gubernaculum simple,
parallel to spicules, 14/4 long. Cloacal region with three pairs of short preanal setae
and three pairs of postanal setae.

Female 2.8 mm.; a, 24; b,5.8; c,18; V,70%; gonad 22%; eggs (1-3 mature)
120 by 72/4.

HABITAT. — Depth of four feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, July 27, 1950.

This species is most closely related to P. megastoma but differs from that species
in having a relatively smaller gubernaculum.

Viscosia macramphida n. sp.

Oral opening surrounded by six inconspicuous lips bearing an internal circle
of six papillae and an external circle of at least six distinct papillae. Amphids nearly
as wide as stoma, situated at x/z of stomatal length from anterior end. Stoma
with large right subventral tooth and small digitiform right subventral and dorsal
teeth. Stoma about 1 5/4 long by 7-8/4 wide. Nerve ring at about % length of
esophagus. Excretory pore Vz body diameter posterior to nerve ring, terminal tube
about 2/t long, excretory cell Vz length of esophagus posterior to its base.

Male 1.4 mm. long; a, 39; b,5.6; c,7.9; tail filiform. Spicules 20/4 long, cephalated,
nearly straight, with forked tip.

Female 1. 5-1.6 mm. long; a, 33-35; b, .-7; c,7.7-9.7; V, 48-52%; gonads each
10-14% length of body, reflexed; eggs 52-56/4 (maximum 2) by 36-40/4.

HABITAT. — Depth of four feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, July 27, 1950.

Also on piling Rockport Harbor, July 22, 1950.

REMARKS. — This species belongs to a group of the genus Viscosia in which the
tails are filiform and cephalic setae are absent. Other species in this group are V.
linstoivi de Man, 1904, V. pellucida (Cobb, 1898), V. glabra (Bastian, 1865), V.
meridionalis Kreis, 1932 and V. pseudoglabra Kreis, 1932. (See Kreis, 1934.) The
amphids in all of these species are considerably smaller than in the present species.
In addition the peculiar spicule tips differentiate this species from all those previously
described with the exception of V. glabra from Suez as illustrated by Micoletzky
(1924). The latter form should be considered as a distinct species for which the
name V. micoletzkyi is proposed. No illustration is given of the amphids nor are they
mentioned. The egg size of V. micoletzkyi is given as 73 by 37 /4, the egg number
as one to four.

Viscosia papillata n. sp.

Sensory organs of both internal and external circles papilloid. Amphids V3 head
diameter in width, situated about Vz length of stoma from anterior end. Stoma
I8/4 by 7/4 with large right subventral tooth, small left subventral and dorsal
teeth. Nerve ring about % length of esophagus from anterior end; excretory pore
immediately behind nerve ring and excretory cell; esophageal length posterior to
base of esophagus; terminal tube distinct, 1.5/4 long.

Male 1.5 mm.; a, 31; b,5; c,ll; tail distally filiform, six anal body diameters in
length. Spicules 23-24/4 long. With four pairs of small preanal papillae and one
pair of large postanal papillae.

Female 1.68 mm.; a, 35; b,5.1; c,12; V,48%; gonads 10 and 12% respectively.
Mature eggs not present.

HABITAT. — Weeds at three feet depth, Port Bay (Copano Bay), Texas, July
26, 1950.

REMARKS. — The present species belongs in general to the same group of
Viscosia as V. macramphida and like the latter species it differs from the others in
amphidial size. V. papillata differs from V. macramphida in length of tail, spicules,
and postanal genital papillae.

Pontonema valviferum n. sp.

Male unknown. Female 3.6 mm. long; a, 48; b,8.6; c,4l; V,83%. Head very
square, ten cephalic setae 1/4.5 head diameters long. Stoma 28 /i long by 13 ^

628

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

wide. Dorsal tooth reaching nearly exactly to middle of stoma. Subventral teeth
clearly reaching anterior to middle of stoma, left subventral tooth slightly larger than
right. Anterior part of esophagus containing brownish pigment granules in transverse
rows between musculature in outer part of tissue. Excretory pore 60//, from anterior
end, gland continues posteriad on right side of body to excretory cell, approximately
1 esophageal length posterior to base of esophagus. Nerve ring very slightly posterior
to middle of esophagus. Esophago-intestinal valve standard, followed by a peculiar
differentiated portion of intestine forming a second valve-like structure; this intestinal
valve is about 1 Vl body diameters in length. Posterior part of intestine containing
formed casts. Tail approximately two body diameters long, bluntly conoid. Spinneret
valve shows to particular advantage. One may readily see that the conoid valve is
controlled by a retractor muscle permitting outflow of adhesive materials. The glands
twist around the valve and open into a central cavity distal to the valve. Gonad
extending anteriad 35% length of body to reflexure. Uterus containing six eggs
60 by 60 //, to 80 by 40 //,, shape depending on pressure, isolated eggs of the
latter dimensions. The gonad presented some interesting points, namely that oocytes
are separated by groups of smaller cells followed by an area packed with these
smaller cells after which a shell is present. These cells do not appear to be sperm,
but lacking the male this point cannot be verified. The smaller cells contain finer
cell inclusions than the oocytes, otherwise they might be considered possible nurse
cells.

HABITAT.— Saragassum from Cedar Bayou fish trap, near Rockport, Texas,
July 9, 1950.

remarks. — This species keys out to Paroncholaimus macrolaimus (Southern,
1914) in the oncholaim monograph by Kreis (1934), but differs from that species
in that both excretory pore and excretory cell are situated more posteriad in the
present material than in Southern’s. In addition Southern’s species is 8-12 mm. long.
The genus Paroncholaimus Filip jev, 1918 was correctly synonomyzed with Pontonema
by Cobb and Steiner (1934).

SUBFAMILY Eurystomininae (Filipjev, 1934)

Esophagus conoid to multibulbar. Male with two (rarely 0 or 1) cup like
sclerotized preanal supplements, without marked sexual dimorphism. Large tooth
not remarkably fine. Ocelli if present with lens and pigment closely associated. Fore
part of esophageal lumen not notably tuboid. Large subventral tooth not remarkably
fine.

63. Esophagus multibulbar. Mass, and North Carolina Coasts.

Bolbella tenuidens Cobb, 1920
Esophagus conoid but not multibulbar.

64. Spinerette absent, tail finely attenuated, Coast of North Carolina.

Paraeurystomina typicum Micoletzky, 1930

Spinerette present, tail not fine.

65. Male without distinct supplementary organs. Coast of Southern California.

Thoonchus ferox Cobb, 1920

Male with two cup like supplements. Eurystomina Filipjev, 1918

66. Ocelli absent, Coasts of North Carolina and Texas.

Eurystomina americana Chitwood, 1936

67. Ocelli present. Aransas Bay, Texas.

Eurystomina minutisculae n. sp.

Eurystomina americana Chitwood, 1936

Ocelli absent. Stoma 14-18 fx long by 7 g wide, with one transverse row of
denticles, containing a large right subventral tooth, a small left subventral and small
dorsal tooth. Excretory pore opposite mid-region of stoma, ampulla posterior to base
of stoma, excretory cell about % length of esophagus posterior to its base; esophagus
with large right subventral gland nucleus and small dorsal and left subventral gland
nuclei, these glands open into stoma through the teeth.

Male 2. 7-3.2 mm.; a, 56-57; b,5.0-6.2; c, 27-32; spicules arcuate, 44 /x long;
gubernaculum vertical, dentate, 24 /x long; tail about 1.7 anal body diameters; first
preanal supplement 1 Yi tail lengths anterior to anus, second about 1 tail length
anterior to first; supplements with massive attachment points; length of supplements
44-50//, each. Five large uninucleate glands in tandem anterior to anus; they probably
include three caudal glands and two supplement glands but the two types were
not distinguishable.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

629

Female 3.4 mm.; a, 42-51; b, 6. 0-7. 2; c, 34-35; V,62 %; gonads each 15-19% body
length; eggs maximum two per uterus, 100-120 g by 52-64 g.

HABITAT. — This species was originally described from the beach, Shackleford’s
Bank’s, N.C. The present material was from Rockport Harbor, Texas, from piling
with barnacles and from the rudder of a boat with bryozoa. Collections were made
July 2 and July 22, 1950.

Eurystomina minutisculae n. sp.

Ocelli present, approximately 60 g from head. Stoma 12-14 g deep, rather
wide, with complicated walls, large subventral tooth and two transverse bands, the
posterior bearing three very minute rows of denticles. Excretory pore at base of
head, excretory cell 1.5 esophageal lengths posterior to base of esophagus. Nerve
ring at % length of esophagus.

Male 3.4-3. 5 mm.; a, 77-85; b, 4. 5-5.0; c, 25-27; spicules arcuate, 60 g long,
proximally twisted medially; gubernaculum directed posteriad; supplementary organs
spaced one and two spicule lengths anterior to anus, each with its attachment pieces
25 g long.

Female 3.2-3. 8 mm.; a, 70-80; b, 43-4.6; c, 27-28; V, 53-55%; gonads each 10-14%
body length; eggs 120-160 g by 40-55 g, one to two per uterus.

HABITAT. — Depth of four feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950
and Chaetopterus tube, depth of three feet.

REMARKS. — This species appears to be most closely related to E. filiforme
(de Man, 1888) but differs from that species in the more posteriorly situated ocelli
and in various body proportions.

SUBFAMILY Enchelidiinae ( Micoletzky, 1924)

Esophagus conoid to multibulbar. Males without stoma or well developed
supplementary organs. Large tooth in female remarkably fine, needle-like. Ocelli if
present with lens and pigment not closely associated. Fore part of esophageal lumen
notably tuboid. Stomatal walls distinctly jointed.

FIGURE 3 — A-C — Eurystomina americana : A — head. B — tail of male. C — supple¬
mentary organ. D-G — Eurystomina minutisculae : D — head. E — ocellar region. F —
male cloacal region. G — supplementary organ. H-I — Polygastrophora obscura v.
magna : H— head. I — -tail of female.

630

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

68. Stoma cylindroid, setae absent. Jamaica. Illium exile Cobb, 1920

(May not belong here)

Stoma not cylindroid, setae present.

69. Posterior part of esophagus multibulbar. Beaufort, N.C.

Polygastrophora obscura Micoletzky, 1930 var. magna n.v.

Polygastrophora obscura Micoletzky, 1930 var. magna n. var. Male unknown.
Female 3. 5-4. 7 mm.; a, 44-70; b, 5. 1-6.2; c, 25-26; V, 58-60; gonads each 8-12% body
length egg (only one seen) 136 by 50 g. Vulvar lips protuberant; tail 4-5.6 anal
body diameters long. Stoma 22-24g by 9-10g, with two minute transverse denticulate
ridges. Excretory pore near mid-region of stoma, pulvillus 2-3 stomatal lengths
posterior to head; excretory cell % esophageal length posterior to base of esophagus.
Esophagus with six rather obscure bulbar divisions.

HABITAT. — Hymeniacodon heliophila. Sponge, Beaufort, N.C., 1949

REMARKS. — This species was originally described by Micoletzky from Sunda
Islands (Mortenson Expedition). Descriptions coincide, with the following exceptions.
In P. obscura (a) the stoma was 19.5 by 9 g, (b) the body size 2.4-3.0 mm.; and
(c) the eggs were 105 by 56 g. All of these size differences are in proportion. In
addition Micoletzky makes no mention of transverse denticles in the stoma but these
are exceedingly difficult to see.

suborder DORYLAIMINA

Stylet present, at least in adult stage; cephalic sensory organs papilloid;
caudal glands absent.

STJPERFAMILY DORYLAIMOIDEA Thorne, 1934

Stylet well developed throughout life history; esophagus usually 2 part cylindroid,
glands not free; intestine not in form of trophosome. (Fresh water or soil, rarely
marine) .

FAMILY Dorylaimidae de Man, 1876

Posterior third of esophagus enlarged, not surrounded by muscular sheath;
pre-rectum present.

71. Female tail attenuated. Marine algae near Lorient, France, and Barnstable, Mass.

Dorylaimus marinas Dujardin, 1845.

72. Female tail bluntly rounded. Below tide mark, Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

Dorylaimus teres Thorne & Swanger, 1936.

order CHROMADORIDA

Esophagus three part, bulb commonly present (rarely with pigeon wing valve),
sometimes clavate, very rarely cylindroid; amphids spiral, shepherd’s crook, circular,
vesiculate, transversely ellipitical or very rarely pore-like ( Rhabdolaimus , Syringo -
laimus) . Ovaries outstretched or reflexed.

suborder CHROMADORINA

Esophago-intestinal valve tri-radiate or vertically flattened, usually very short;
stoma if well developed, containing a large dorsal tooth, three jaws, two jaws or six
inwardly acting teeth; stoma surrounded by esophageal tissue; twelve stomatal rugae
commonly present; ovaries reflexed; serial cup-like or stirrup-like, tuboid or papilloid
supplementary organs commonly present. Mostly marine, some in fresh water.

SUPERFAMILY CHROMADOROIDEA

Amphids spiral, circular or reniform; cuticle usually punctate, not annulated,
stilt setae and glandular paired setae absent; helmet absent- (Marine and fresh water).

family Chromodoridae Filipjev, 1917

Amphids unispiral to transversely ellipsoid or kidney shaped, situated rather far
forward on head. Cuticle coarsely punctate. Labial rugae (12) weakly to moderately
developed. Cephalic sensory organs consisting of internal circle of six papillae and
double external circle usually of six papillae and four setae. Stoma with teeth at
anterior end, surrounded by esophageal tissue. Esophagus usually terminated by bulb;
esophago-intestinal valve short. Female with two reflexed ovaries. Male with cup-like
(i.e., chromadoroid ) supplements. Fresh water or marine.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

631

SUBFAMILY Chromadorinae Micoletzky, 1922

With characters of family. This is an extremely large group and sub-families
will undoubtedly be made.

External circle of 10 setae (amphids lenticular)

73 Spicules doubly arcuate. (Ocean Beach, Fla.) Rhips ornata Cobb, 1920

FIGURE 4 — A-B — Chromadora quadrilineoides : A — esophageal region. B — male
tail. C-D — Chromadorella filiformoides : C — esophageal region. D — male tail.

632

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

74 Spicules simply arcuate. (Cuttyhunk Hole, Mass.)

Nygmatonchus scriptus Cobb, 1933

External circle of 4 setae or papillae

Esophagus without distinct bulb, cylindroid (cuticle with basketwork or rods).

75 Stoma with three distinct solid teeth. (Aransas Bay, Texas)

Euchromadora striata (Eberth, 1863)

76 Stoma with a single hollow dorsal tooth (Aransas Bay, Texas)

Paraeuchromadora longicaudata n. sp.

77 Stoma without distinct tooth (Sea Grass, Key West, Fla.).

Actinonema pachydermata Cobb, 1920

Esophagus with distinct terminal bulb.

78 Amphids 1-2 spirals. (Coast of Europe and New Foundland. v. Allgen, 1935)

Chromadorina macrolaima (de Man, 1889)

Amphids transverse.

79 Stoma divided into two distinct parts. Esophageal bulb massive, pyriform; divided
in two sections by muscles. (Coasts of Holland, North Sea, New York, North
Carolina and Aransas Bay, Texas).

Spilophorella paradoxa (de Man, 1888)

Stoma not divided into two sections.

Cuticular punctation interrupted laterally.

80 Teeth absent. (Cuttyhunk Hole, Mass.) Dasylaimus nudus Cobb, 1933

81 Teeth hollow. (Coast of Northern Europe and New Foundland v. Allgen, 1935).

Neochromadora poecilisoma (de Man, 1893)

82 Dorsal tooth opposed by denticles. (Humus! Devil’s Foot Island, Woods Hole,
Mass.) .

Denticullela pellucida Cobb, 1935

Three sclerotized teeth, no denticles.

83 Esophagus with simple rounded terminal bulb. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Chromadora quadralineoides n. sp.

Esophagus with elongated, subdivided bulb.

Chromadorella Filip jev, 1918

84 Eye spots present; male with two preanal supplements.

(Sumatra and Aransas Bay, Texas).

Chromadorella macrolaimoides (Steiner, 1915)

85 Eye spots absent; male with five preanal supplements. (Cedar Bayou, Texas).

Chromadorella filiformoides n. sp.

Cuticular punctation not interrupted laterally.

85 Dorsal tooth massive, hollow, esophageal bulb simple.

(Coast of Europe and Texas). Chromadorita tentabunda (de Man, 1880).

Dorsal tooth not massive.

87 Teeth hollow, weak, bulb elongate, five supplements.

(Copano Bay, Texas). Prochromadorella micoletzkyi n. sp.

88 Teeth solid, bulb simple, two supplements. (Port Bay, Texas).

Prochromadorella bipapillata n. sp.

89 Teeth hollow, dorsal, 15-16 supplements. (Coast of Europe and New Found-
land v. Allgen, 1935).

Prochromadorella mucrodonta (Steiner, 1916) n. comb.
Euchromadora striata (Eberth, 1863)

Cuticle with five to six modified hexagons laterally in mid-region; spinerette
asymmetric ventrally; excretory cell posterior to base of esophagus. Intestine with
16-20 hexagonal cells in a circumference; esophagus with three faint subdivisions to
bulbar region. Pigment spots absent.

Male 1.3-1. 5 mm.; a, 34; b, 4.4- 5.4; c, 8.6-93; tail 5.7 anal body diameters long;
spicules similar, arcuate, faintly cephalated 48g long gubernaculum with two lateral
pieces and one medial piece.

Female 1.6-1.68 mm.; a, 21-24; b, 6-6.2; c, 7.4-8.0; V, 50-52%; Gl5 16-17%:
eggs (1-10 per uterus) approximately spherical, 40g in diameter when not under
pressure; tail 9 anal body diameters.

HABITAT. — Originally from Atlantic Coast of Europe and Mediterranean. Present
material from depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — This is one of the largest and most striking members of the family
Chromadoridae. Well worthy of zoologic study. It feeds on algae and, therefore, it
should be possible to cultivate it in the laboratory.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

633

FIGURE 5— A-C — Paraeuchromadora longicaudata : A — head. B — cuticle of mid¬
region. C — female tail. D-E — Prochromadorella micoletzkyi : D — male tail. E — head.
F — Prochromadorella bipapillata: male tail. G — Chromadorella macrolaimoides : male
tail. H-I — -Euchromadora striata ; H — head. I — spicules gubernaculum.

634

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 80

Paraeuchromadora Stekhoven & Adam, 1931

Amphids transverse heavy walled, postlabial; cuticle coarsely striated, rods in
anterior part of body, disappear posteriad, cuticle in mid-and post-regions with lateral
internal flecks. Esophagus without distinct bulb, stoma weak, with one hollow dorsal
tooth. Type — P. amphidiscata Stekhoven & Adam, 1931.

Paraeuchromadora longicaudata n. sp.

Cephalic setae four, 3 g long. Male unknown. Female 740-8 10g; a, 27-31; b,
6.4-7. 4; c, 3.7; V, 40-42%; G7, 12-16%; G0, 12-13%; egg (1) 100-110 by 18-20 g.
Tail very characteristically long and hooked.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — The other two species of this genus have a relatively much shorter
tail (c, 6-8).

Spilophorella paradoxa (de Man, 1888)

Tip of tail very long, narrow and conoid. Male 590g; c, 18.5; b, 4.5; c, 5.9;
spicules arcuate, 28 g or 1.4 anal body diameters; gubernaculum double, distally den¬
tate; tail 4.5 anal body diameters: supplements absent. Female 904g; a, 13; b, 6.1;
c, 5.6; V, 51%.

HABITAT. — Originally described from Holland Coast, later recorded from various
Atlantic Coasts of Europe and found by the writer on New York and North Carolina
Coasts. Present material collected at depths of 3 and 4 feet, Copano and Aransas Bays,
Texas.

Chromadora quadrilineoides n. sp. (syn., C. quadrilinea
Filipjev, 1918 of Chitwood & Chitwood, 1938)

Pigment spots present, near base of stoma; excretory pore opposite mid-region
of stoma, cell immediately posterior to base of esophagus.

Male 600-624g; a, 26-28; b, 5.4-6.0; c, 7.0-8.0; tail 3.8-4. 1 anal body diameters
long; spicules acruate distally forked, 25g long; gubernaculum with distal transverse
bar; five stirrup-like preanal supplements.

Female 600-740g long;, a, 19-24; b, 5.5-7.0; c, 6.0-7.3; V, 45-49%; G15 12-20%
G9, 9-17%; eggs subspheroid, with rugosities, 36 by 21 g.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay and on rudder of boat,
Rockport Harbor, Texas, July 22 and 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — This appears to be the same species as that previously described by
Chitwood & Chitwood (1938) from sea lettuce, Long Island, N. Y. It differs from
C. quadrilinea Filipjev, 1918 in having forked spicules and five preanal supplements
instead of simple spicule tips and five supplements. Since subsequent European au¬
thors have not changed the description of C. quadrilinea we must conclude our pre¬
vious identification was an error.

Chromadorella Filipjev, 1918

Cuticle coarsely striated, with fine punctations interrupted laterally causing two
to four rows of enlarged punctations. Amphids transverse, difficult to distinguish.
Stoma with three subequal sclerotized teeth; esophagus with elongate posterior bulb,
inconspicuously subdivided. Tail cylindro-conoid. Type: Chromadorella filijormis
(Bastian, 1865).

Chromadorella filiformoides n. sp.

Ocelli absent; punctations interrupted laterally between postcephalic and caudal
tip regions in two rows of very slightly enlarged punctations; excretory pore about 0.5
esophageal lengths from head; esophageal bulb with three faint divisions.

Male 1.2 mm.; a, 35; b, 8.7; c, 7.4; spicules strongly arcuate, 22 g long or 3/4
of anal body diameter; gubernaculum with small distal teeth; tail 4.6 anal body diam¬
eters long; supplements five.

Female 1.00-1.03 mm.; a, 22-23; b, 8.0-8.3; c, 6.5-7. 6; V, 50-54%; G,, 12-14%
G9, 12-14%; egg (1) 42 by 3 4g; tail 3. 7-4.6 anal body diameters long.

HARITAT.- — Sargassum from Cedar Bayou, Texas, July 9, 1950.

REMARKS. — This species agrees remarkably with C. filiformis (Bastian, 1865) as
described by de Man (1890) but the absence of ocelli appears a distinguishing feature.
Chromadorella macrolaimoides (Steiner, 1915)

Orange pigment spots present; punctations interrupted laterally forming four
rows of pronounced dots; excretory pore 1.5-2 head diameters from anterior end;
esophagus bulb massive, with two clear divisions (third faint).

Male 1.06-1.2 mm.; a, 22-30; b, 5; c, 6; tail 5.5 anal body diameters long;
spicules arcuate, slightly cephalated, 2 6g long; gubernaculum distally bar-like two
preanal supplements. Female 1.15-1.28 mm.; a, 22-25; b, 4. 8-5.0; c, 5. 8-6.4; V, 48%;
tail 5.6-7 anal body diameters long. Tip of tail with elongate point; egg (1) 42 by
2 4g, shell punctate.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

635

esophageal region.

636

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

HABITAT. — Originally described from Sumatra. Present material from rudder of
boat, Rockport Harbor, July 22, 1950 and Sargassum from Cedar Bayou, Texas, July
9, 1950.

Chromadorita tentabunda (de Man, 1890)

Cephalic setae about Vz head diameter; ocelli absent; body setae about 6- 8g long.
Male 372g long; a, 18.6; m, 5.2; c, 5.2; spicules arcuate, flanged, 20-22 g long (1.2
anal body diameters ) ; tail four anal body diameters long testis extending nearly to
excretory cell; supplementary organs absent.

Female 400-490g long; a, 12-14; b, 4.4-5.6; c, 5.0-5.4; V, 45-50%; Gl5 14-19%
G0, 17-18%; with massive vaginal development; tail 5. 0-5. 2 anal body diameters long.

HABITAT. — Found at depths of 3 and 4 feet, Copano Bay and Mud Island, July
26 and 27, 1950. Originally described from Coasts of Holland and France.

REMARKS. — Present specimens agree in all respects with the exception that they
are smaller, 600-700g in Europe with a, 18-22. It may be necessary to separate this
form later.

Prochromadorella micoletzkyi n. sp.

Cephalic setae Vz head diameter cuticular marking interrupted laterally in adanal
region of male.

Male 1.00-1.14 mm.; a, 41; b, 7. 8-9.0; c, 8.3-11; spicules arcuate, indistinctly
cephalated, heads bent medially, 30-34g long or 1.5 anal body diameters; gubernacu-
lum 16-18 g long, with paired lateral teeth; tail 3-3-4 anal body diameters long, uni¬
formly cylindro-conoid; five inconspicuous supplementary organs.

Female 900g -1.01 mm.; a, 20-40 (probably low measurements due to pressure;
b, 7.8-93; c, 6.4-6.7; V, 44-4 7%; G-,, 12-15%; G0, 12-15%; one rounded egg per
uterus, 48 by 32g.

HABITAT. — Weeds at depth of 3 feet, Copano Bay, July 26, 1950.

REMARKS. — This species is very similar to P. neapolitana but differs in the adanal
absence of lateral punctations in the male.

Prochromadorella bipapillata, n. sp.

Cephalic setae 2/5 head diameter, cuticular marking very delicate, not inter¬
rupted laterally, unusual for the genus in having well developed bulb (probably will
eventally be placed in a separate genus).

Male 1.33-1.35 mm.; a, 26-28; b, 5. 2-6. 7; c, 6. 8-7.4; tail 4-4.5 anal body diame¬
ters; spicules arcuate, 21-22g; gubernaculum double, with paired terminal teeth; sup¬
plements two.

Female 1.34 mm.; a, 28; b, 16.1; c, 6.7; V, 51%; Gl5 15% G9, 11% tail 6 anal
body diameters long.

HABITAT. — Weeds at depth of three feet, Port Bay, Texas, July 26, 1950.

REMARKS. — The bulb form of this species and the teeth are as in the genus
Chromadora rather than Prochromadorella. However, in the current system it keys
out here.

family M icrolaimidae de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3

Amphids circular to 1-2 spiral; distinctly post labial in position; cuticle finely to
coarsely punctate, labial rugae weakly developed. Cephalic sensory organs: 6 papillae
plus 10 setae or, 6 papillae and 4 setae. Stoma cylindroid, surrounded by esophageal
tissue, teeth at anterior end or in mid-stomatal region. Esophagus usually terminated
by bulbar swelling. Male with papilloid to chromadoroid supplements; gubernaculum
not specially developed. Female with reflexed or out-stretched ovaries. Low grade
polymyarian. Fresh water or marine.

SUBFAMILY Microlaiminae Micoletzky, 1922

Ovaries out-stretched. Teeth in mid-stomatal region. Preanal supplements if
present, papilloid. Cuticle faintly punctate. Esophago-intestinal valve elongate. Marine
and brackish.

Stomatal region of esophagus distinctly set off, bulbar Bolbolaimus Cobb, 1920

90 Cephalic setae papilloid, very short, stomatal bulb spheroid.

(Belmar, New Jersey Coast). Bolbolaimus pellucidus Cobb, 1920.

91 Cephalic setae 1/3 head diameter, stomatal bulb spheroid. (Beaufort, N. C,

Collector A. S. Pearse). Bolbolaimus cobbi Chitwood, 1938.

92 Cephalic setae Vz head diameter, stomatal bulb squarish. (Nobsca Beach, Woods

Hole, Mass.) Bolbolaimus punctatus Cobb, 1920.

Stomatal region of esophagus not distinctly set off.

Microlaimus de Man, 1880

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

637

93 Amphids posterior to stomatal region. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Microlaimus texianus n. sp.

Amphids opposite stomatal region.

94 Excretory pore anterior to nerve ring. (Beaufort, N. C.)

Microlaimus dimorphus Chitwood, 1937

95 Excretory pore anterior to nerve ring. (Bogue Sound, N. C.)

Microlaimus chitwoodi Gerlach, 1950
(syn. M. dentatus Chitwood, 1937 not Allgen, 1935)
Microlaimus texianus n. sp.

Stomatal region of esophagus not enlarged; amphids 12g from anterior end,
4.5 g across, broken circle; teeth very weak; excretory pore 30g from head; striae
1.2-1. 5g apart, very finely punctate; tail conoid, 3. 1-4.4 anal body diameters long.
Male unknown. Female 660-664g long; a, 23-28; b, 6.6-6. 9; c, 10; V, 50%; Gl3
19-25%; G9, 17-23%.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — This species keys out with Microlaimus cyatholaimoides de Man,
1922 according to the revision of the genus by Gerlach (1950). However, it differs
in the vulva position which is 75% in that species.

SUBFAMILY Ethmolaiminae Filipjev & Stekhoven, 1941

Ovaries reflexed. Teeth in mid-stomatal region or at anterior end of stomatal
region. Esophago-intestinal valve short. Fresh water or marine. This group is debata-
able having been placed with chromadorids and cyatholaims as well as with micro-
laims.

96 Three opposed sclerotized teeth at anterior end of stoma, tail hair-like. (Malay
Archipelago and Long Island Sound, N. Y.)

Statenia trichura Allgen, 1930

97 Single tooth at mid-region of stoma, tail not hair-like.

(Cuttyhunk Hole, Woods Hole, Mass.) Neotonchus punctatus Cobb, 1933

family Cyatholaimidae de Coninck & Stekhoven, 1933

Amphids multispiral; cephalic sensory organ, usually 6 internal papillae or setae
and external circle of 10 setae. Cuticle coarsely punctate, hypodermal glands com¬
monly conspicuous. Stoma usually cyathiform (i.e., two part, funnel-shaped); onchia,
if present, at junction of anterior and posterior parts; usually with 12 conspicous
labial rugae. Esophagus clavate to cylindroid. Male usually with duplex gubernaculum,
commonly dentate or denticulate; supplementary organs setose, tuboid, or cup-like.
Female with reflexed ovaries. Musculature high degree polymyarian. Marine ( 1 or 2
possible brackish species) .

SUBFAMILY Cyatholaiminae Micoletzky, 1922

Stoma shallow or funnel-shaped, if two part, posterior part weakly sclerotized;
jaws or mandibles absent; usually with dorsal tooth or onchium, parallel to axis.

98 Teeth, stoma, and labial structures rudimentary. (Biscayne Bay, Fla.)

Nannolaimus guttatus Cobb, 1920

99 Teeth absent, stoma cyathiform, supplements chromadoroid, i.e., cup-like.

Woods Hole, Mass.) Dispira punctata Cobb, 1933

100 Teeth absent, stoma almost spheroid, supplements absent. (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Dispirella truncata Cobb, 1933

At least one dorsal tooth.

Supplements chromadoroid.

101 Labial rugae (12) digitiform, long, projecting anteriad. (Mass., N. Y. and N. C.

Coasts). Pomponema mirahile Cobb, 1917

102 Labial rugae (12) short, but prominent. (New Jersey Coast).

Anaxonchium litorium Cobb, 1920
Supplements tuboid (4). Acanthonchus Cobb, 1920

103 Amphids 1.5 head diameters from anterior end. (Marine mud, San Pedro,

California). Acanthonchus viviparus Cobb, 1920

104 Amphids 2-2.5 head diameters from anterior end. (Rockport Harbor, Texas).

Acanthonchus cohhi, n. sp.

Supplements setose Paracanthonchus Micoletzky, 1924

638

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

FIGURE 7 — A-B — Microlaimus texianus'. A — esophageal region. B— - head. C-—
Halichoanaloimus quattuordecimpapillatus : head. D-E — Acanthonchus cobbi : D— head.
E — male tail. F — Ichthyod&smodora chandleri : head.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

639

105 Supplements 5. (Coast of Europe, also from Conn., Collector D. J. Zinn, and
N. C, Collector, A. S. Pearse) .

Paracanthonchus caecus (Bastian, 1865)

Supplements 4.

106 c, 15-18. (Coast of Denmark, also New Foundland v. Allgen, 1935).

.... Paracanthonchus macrodon (Ditlevsen, 1919)

107 c, 8.5-11. (Possibly brackish, Silver Springs, Fla.).

Paracanthonchus truncatus (Cobb, 1914)
syn. Cyatholaimus truncatus Cobb, 1914
Acanthonchus cohhi n. sp.

Sublateral wings absent; excretory pore 2-2.5 head diameters back. Male 1.3
mm.; a, 27 b, 5.8; c, 15; spicules arcuate, slightly cephalated 34 g; gubernaculum
double, 32 g, each half with trifid claw; anterior supplement, 24 g, distally forked;
second, 15 g, also forked; third and fourth supplements, 10 and 9g, respectively. Fe¬
male 1.5 mm.; a, 23; b, 6.2; c, 10.9; V, 48%; G1} 15% G9, 18%.

HABITAT. — Piling, Rockport Harbor, Texas with barnacles, at depth of 3-4 feet.
REMARKS. — This species is probably the one referred to by Cobb (1920) as a
second possible species at Woods Hole, Mass., later identified by the writer errone¬
ously as A. viviparus.

SUBFAMILY Choanolaininae Filipjev, 1934

Stoma deep two parts, 6 or 12, heavily sclerotized ridges, dorsal tooth absent;
jaws absent.

Cuticle bearing fish bone-like longitudinal markings.

108 Two circles of cephalic setae (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Pteronium ohesum, Cobb, 1933

109 One circle of cephalic setae (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Nunema nanum Cobb, 1933

Cuticle without fish bone like markings.

110 Amphids 1.5 spiral, supplements setose. (New Hebrides and N. C. Coasts).

Gammanema ferox Cobb, 1920

Amphids multispiral.

111 Supplements chromadoroid. (Coast of New Hampshire).

Troglolaimus uniformis Cobb, 1920

112 Supplements papilloid (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Halichoanolaimus quattuordecimpapillatus n. sp.
Halichoanolaimus quattuordecimpapillatus n. sp.

External circle of ten papillae; amphids 1/6 head diameter, 2-3 winds. Male
1.47 mm.; a, 31; b, 5.6; c, 6.4; spicules saber-like, 1.2 body diameters long;guber-
naculum parallel, curved, double; preanal papillae 14, medioventral; tail conoid with
filiform tip 4/5 of tail length. Female 1.9 mm.; a, 17; b, 7.0; c, 6.3; V, 45%, Gl5
15%; G2, 14%; filiform part of tail 6/7 of tail length.

HABITAT. — Chaetopterus tube, depth of 3 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas,
July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — Among the long tailed halichoanolaims this species is apparently
most closely related to H. filicauda Filipjev, 1918 and H. longicauda Ditlevsen, 1919,
but the former species is described as having seven preanal papillae, the latter as hav¬
ing none.

SUBFAMILY Selachinematinae (Cobb, 1915)

Stoma shallow, with two or three jaws bearing sclerotized complex mandibles.
Paired lateral mandibles.

113 Mandibles non-retractile, each with 4 longitudinal rows of denticles.

( Colon, Panama ) . Selachinema ferox Cobb, 1915

114 Mandibles retractible, each claw-like with 7 terminal denticles.

(Atlantic Coast, locality not stated). Cheironchus vorax Cobb, 1917

With three mandibles.

115 Mandibles with odd number of teeth. (Seaweed, Miami, Fla.)

Synonchium ohtusum Cobb, 1920
Mandibles with even number of teeth. Synonchiella Cobb, 1933

116 Cephalic setae 1 head diameter long. (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Synonchiella ferox Cobb, 1933

Cephalic setae 1/14-1/5 head diameter.

117 Amphids 1/4 head width. (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Synonchiella denticulata Cobb, 1933

640

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

118 Amphids 1/2 head width. (Coasts of Mass., and N. C.).

Synonchiella truncata Cobb, 1933
Synonchiella truncata Cobb, 1933

Cephalic setae 1/ 4-1/5 head width; amphids 1/2 head width. Male 1.6 mm.;
a, 34; b, 7.7; c, 11; 8 preanal supplements. Female 1.6 mm.; a, 26; b, 8.5 c, 10:
V, 49%; G1? 11%; G9, 14%. Habitat. — Sands, Woods Hole, Mass., North Carolina
Coast.

Synonchiella ferox Cobb, 1933

Cephalic setae 1 head diameter long. Male 3-3 mm.; a, 40; b, 9; c, 16; supple¬
ments 23. Female unknown. Habitat.- — Penzance, Woods Hole, Mass.

Synonchiella denticulata Cobb, 1933

Cephalic setae 1/5- 1/4 head diameter; amphids 1/4 head width. Male unknown.
Female 2.2 mm.; a, 31; b, 9; c, 11; V, 48%; G1} 14% G9, 12%.

HABITAT. — Sand, Woods Hole, Mass.

family Tripyloididae de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3

Amphids 1-2 spire, more or less post-stomatal; 6 cephalic papillae and 10 cephal¬
ic setae in one circle; cuticle minutely punctate; stoma surrounded by esohageal tissue,
wide, more or less conoid, subdivided into two or more cavities; esophagus cylin-
droid. Male with parallel, duplex, dentate or denticulate gubernaculum; supplements
absent. Female with reflexed ovaries. Marine.

SUBFAMILY Tripyloidinae Micoletzky, 1924

Characters of family.

119 Stoma wide, nearly capsuliform. (Black Sea and N. Y. Coast).

Bathylaimus cohhi Filipjev, 1922

Stoma rather conoid, with 3-4 subdivisions.

120 Small tooth at base of first stomatal region. (Potomac River, brackish).

Nannonchus granulatus Cobb, 1913

121 Without teeth. (Coasts of Europe and Nova Scotia).

Tripyloides marinus (Biitschli, 1874)

SUPERFAMILY DESMODOROIDEA Steiner, 1927

Helmet usually present; glandular tube setae present or absent; cuticle annulated
but not punctate. Amphids various, but not vesiculate. (Practically all marine).

SUBFAMILY Desmodorinae Micoletzky, 1924

Body not epsilonoid; glandular tube setae absent; ambullatory bristles absent.
Subfamily Desmodorinae Micoletzky, 1924
Helmet present; amphids spiral; dorsal tooth usually well developed; cuticle not

tiled.

122 Helmet with longitudinal markings. (Copano Bay, Texas).

Ichthyodesmodora chandleri n. sp.

123 Helmet internally etched. (Mass, and N. C. Coasts).

Desmodorella cephalata Cobb, 1933
Helmet not internally etched or with longitudinal markings.

Amphids circular.

124 Amphids single contour, tooth present, setae absent. (Salt River, Jamaica).

Xenonema obesum Cobb, 1920

125 Amphids double contour, teeth present. (Shackleford’s Banks, N. C.).

Acanthopharyngoides scleratum Chitwood, 1936
Amphids double contour, tooth absent.

126 Setae (4) at base of helmet. (Kingston Harbor, Jamaica).

Bolbonema brevicolle Cobb, 1920

Setae (4) papilloid, anterior part of helmet.

127 Helmet wider than long. (Costa Rica, Pacific Coast).

Micromicron cephalatum Cobb, 1920

128 Helmet narrower than long. (Costa Rica, Pacific Coast).

Antomicron pellucidum Cobb, 1920

Amphids spiral.

129 Helmet setae numerous. (Port Royal, Jamaica).

Croconema cinctum Cobb, 1920

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

641

130 Helmet setae few (1). (Soil! Virginia).

Amphispira rotundicephala Cobb, 1920

131 Helmet setae 4 plus 8, body with ten longitudinal rows of minute bristles.

(Coast of N. G). Pleterodesmodora hirsuta Chitwood, 1936

Ichthyodesmodora new genus.

An unusual form with dorsal and ventral jaws; helmet distinct with sagittal
annulation on median (at least the ventral) side. Amphids broken circle monospiral.
Probably with six setose papillae and four cephalic setae. Dorsal tooth massive. Cuticu-
lar annulation lg wide, not hirsute, without longitudinal ridges. Esophagus termi¬
nated by elongate cylindroid bulb 2/5 length of esophagus, lining of bulb thickened,
musculature broken making three subdivisions to bulb.

Ichthyodesmodora chandlen, n. sp.

Juvenile 690g long; a, 17; b, 3.8; c, 8.7.

HABITAT. — Weeds at depth of 3 feet. Copano Bay, Texas, July 26, 1950.
REMARKS. — This genus is closely related to Desmodora and Desmodorella differ¬
ing from both genera in the form of the head and the longitudinal cuticular markings
of the helmet.

SUBFAMILY Ceramonematinae (Cobb, 1933)

Helmet present; amphids spiral to shepherd’s crook; dorsal tooth absent; cuticle

tiled.

Cuticle with transverse plates.

132 Cephalic setae thick. (Shackleford’s Channel, N. C.).

Dasynemoides setosum Chitwood, 1936

Cephalic setae thin.

133 Setae 2/3 head with. (Shackleford’s Banks, N. C.).

Dasynemella phalangida Chitwood, 1936

134 Setae 1/5 head width. (Eelgrass, Woods Hole, Mass.)

Dasynemella sexalineatum (Cobb, 1920)

Cuticle with deeply overlapping plates.

135 700-1000 annules. (Vineyard Sound, Mass.)

Pristionema octalata Cobb, 1933

80-300 annules

Four cephalic setae. Pselionema Cobb, 1933

136 86 annules. (Bogue Sound, N. C). Pselionema hexalatum Chitwood, 1936

137 100 annules. (Beaufort, N. C.). Pselionema heauforti (Chitwood, 1936)

138 110 annules. (Beaufort, N. C). Pselionema rigidum Chitwood, 1936

Ten cephalic setae. Ceramonema Cobb, 1920

139 Staff of amphid much longer than crook. (Algae, Kingston Harbor, Jamaica).

Ceramonema attenuatum Cobb, 1920

140 Staff of amphid equal to crook.

Dots in tiling. (Beaufort, N. C. ). Ceramonema reticulatum Chitwood, 1936

141 No dots in tiling. (Bogue Sound, N. C).

Ceramonema sculpturatum Chitwood, 1936

SUBFAMILY Monoposthiinae Filipjev, 1934

Amphids circular; cuticle with marked longitudinal ridges; helmet sometimes
questionably separable from exceedingly coarse annules.

142 Female with two ovaries. Rhinema retrorsum Cobb, 1920

Female with one ovary.

143 Male with two spicules. Nudora lineata Cobb, 1920

Male with one spicule. Monoposthia de Man, 1889

144 Twelve longitudinal ridges. Monoposthia duodecimalata Chitwood, 1936

145 Six longitudinal ridges. Monoposthia hexalata Chitwood, 1936

SUBFAMILY Stilbonematinae Chitwood, 1936

Helmet present or absent; amphids minute, slit-like dorsal tooth, rudimentary
or absent; cuticle not longitudinally ridged or tiled.

146 Cuticular pores present. (Ocean Beach, Miami, Florida).

Leptonemella cincta Cobb, 1920

Cuticular pores absent.

147 Male with acorn-like supplements. (Kingston Harbor, Jamaica).

Laxonema majum Cobb, 1920

642

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

148 Male without acorn-like supplements. (Kingston Harbor, Jamaica).

Stilbonema brevicolle Cobb, 1920

SUBFAMILY Richstersiinae Cobb, 193 3

Helmet absent; amphids spiral; cuticle not tiled or strongly ridged but sometimes
with rows of setae.

Serpentine nematodes, striae faint.

Supplements absent.

149 Stoma weak, ovaries outstretched. (Mass, and N. C. Coasts).

Spirina parasitifera Cobb, 1928

150 Stoma weak, ovaries reflexed. (North Carolina).

Eubostrichus parasitiferus Chitwood, 1936

151 Stoma well formed, armed, ovaries reflexed. (New Hampshire).

P seudonchus rotundicephalus Cobb, 1920

Supplements present.

152 Supplements sigmoid, two rows. (Mass., N. C.) .

Poly sigma uniforme Cobb, 1920

153 Supplements straight, one row. (New Hampshire).

Mesodorus cylindricollis Cobb, 1920

154 Supplements sigmoid, one row. (Mass.). Sigmophora rufum Cobb, 1935

Not serpentine, striae pronounced.

155 With longitudinal rows of bristles or hooks.

With hooks, very obese. (N. C.) . Richtersia beauforti Chitwood, 1936

156 With bristles, moderately obese. (N.C.).

Metonyx horridus Chitwood, 1936
Without longitudinal rows of bristles or hooks. Metachromadora

157 Eight rows of 5 cephalic setae, a, 20-26. (Mass, and N. C. Coasts) .

Metachromadora cancellatus (Cobb, 1933 )

Cephalic setae otherwise.

158 Lateral alae present, a, 27-45. (N. C.) .

Metachromadora onyxoides Chitwood, 1936

Lateral alae present.

159 a, 9-24; 8 papilloid supplements. (N. C.) .

Metachromadora obesa Chitwood, 1936
160. a, 30, papilloid supplements. (Mass, and N. C.) .

Metachromadora campycoma (Cobb, 1933)
161 a, not given, ten papilloid supplements. (Mass.) .

Metachromadora alata (Cobb, 1933)

family Draconematidae Steiner, 1930

Body not epsilonoid; glandular tube setae present; ambulatory bristles absent;
helmet present.

With paired preanal rows of subventral glandular setae. Only American species
known. (Mass? ) . Draconema cephalatum Cobb, 1929

family Epsilonematidae Steiner, 1927

Body epsilonoid or tending in that direction; glandular tube setae absent; ambu¬
latory bristles present; helmet present.

Only one species seen, Bathyepsilonema sp., never described, specimen lost. (Con¬
necticut Beach, Collector, D. J. Zinn) .

SUPERFAMILY DESMOSCOLECOIDEA Stekhoven, 1935

Cuticle coarsely stiated, punctations absent; helmet present; amphids vesiculate;
four short cephalic setae; stoma not sclerotized; ovaries reflexed; tubular gland setae
present; supplementary organs absent; esophagus without clear divisions, glands often
free; ocelli commonly present. Marine except for one species.

family Desmoscolecidae Southern, 1914
Body not generally hirsute.

Concretion annules 12-22. Desmoscolex Claparede, 1863

163 17 coarse annules, ( Bogue Sound, N. C. and Aransas Bay, Texas) .

Des moscolex americanus Chitwood, 1936

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

643

164 17 annules without rock-like concretions.

Desmoscolex nudus n. sp.

165 18 coarse annules, (Beaufort, N. C.).

Desmoscolex paraminutus Chitwood, 1936
Concretion annules, 33-76. Tricoma Cobb, 1894

166 Tail of 7 annules (total annules unknown). (Jamaica, West Indies).

Tricoma major Cobb, 1912

Tail of more or less than 7 annules.

167 Total annules 29. (Beaufort, N. C). Tricoma aurita Chitwood, 1936

168 Total annules 37. (Aransas Bay, Texas). Tricoma filipjevi n. sp.

169 Total annules 66. (Beaufort, N. C.). Tricoma spinosa Chitwood, 1936

170 Total annules 70-72. (Bogue Sound, N. C).

Tricoma cylindicauda (Chitwood, 1936)

171 Total annules 61. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Tricoma spinosoides n. sp.

172 Without opaque concretion annules. (Rockport, Texas).

Eudesmoscolex luteocola n sp.
Desmoscolex americanus Chitwood, 1936
Seven specimens of this species, somewhat smaller than the previous materials,
297-385/u long. Agreeing otherwise with the type. This species of 17 annules is
characterized by large rock concretions on the large annules. At times they break oh
revealing that this material is a concretion.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — The life history of this form should make a very interesting problem.
Desmoscolex nudus n. sp.

Female 270^ long; a, 7.4; b, 5.8; c, 5.2; V, ?5 3%; Gl3 22%; G2, 19%; ocelli
4.8 by 4 g, opposite third annule. Total large annules 17; subdorsal setae on annules
1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17; subventral setae on annules 2, 6, 8 12, and 14. Vulva
probably at annule 10; anus at annule 15. Coarse annules with very fine granulation,
separated by 2-2.5 small annules, latter seem to go through large annules without
interruption.

HABITAT. — Scrapings from surface empty conch shell in aquarium, Rockport,
Texas, July 6, 1950.

Tricoma filipjevi n. sp.

Body marked by 37 opaque concretion annules. Male 355g long; a, 6.6; b, 3.6;
c, 3.7; spicules 42g long, slightly cephalated; gubernaculum with proximal arch. Tube
setae consisting of subdorsal pairs on annules 3, 7, 11, 16, 20, 25, 30, and 34 and
subventral pairs on annules 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 27, 30, 34 and 35. Ocelli
elongate orange pigment spots at level of annules 9-11; tail consisting of six annules;
anus on annule 31.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — There are four other species of the genus Tricoma with 37 annules,
T. cobbi Steiner, 1916, T. nematoides (Greeff, 1869), T. elongatus (Panceri, 1876),
and T. lissus (Steiner, 1916). In all T. nematoides and T. lissus there is a considerable
distance between the opaque annules. In T. nematoides the interannular regiop is sev¬
eral times as wide as the annule proper.

Tricoma spinosa Chitwood, 1936

Male 512 g,; a, 11.6; b, 7; c, 4.6; spicules 32g; gubernaculum I4g total annules
66; ocelli 8 by 3 g, at level of 9-10 annules; lateral seta on second annule; subdorsal
setae on annules 4, 8, 13, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 42, 47, 53 and 58; subventral setae on
annules 4, 7, 11, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 38, 42, 46, 51, and 60; total subdorsal setae
setae 12 pairs; total subventral setae 14 pairs; setal pairs on adjoining annules in one
or two cases. Tail annules 11.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — This species was originally described from Bogue Sound, N. C. on
the basis of one female. The present collection supplies the male. It is particularly
pleasing to see them together.

Tricoma spinosoides n. sp.

Total annules 61. Male 400g; a, 12; b, 6.6; c, 4.6; spicules 2 6g; gubernaculum
13 g; ocelli 3.6g across; subdorsal setae on annules 9, 12, 17, 21, 26, 30, 37, 42, 46,
and 51; subventrals on setae 4, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 22, 24, 28, 31, 34, 38, 40 45 48
and 55. Total subdorsal ten pairs, subventral seventeen pairs. Female 380g; a,9.5;
b,4.7; c, ?; ocelli 6. 8g across, opposite twelfth annule; first two annules not opaque;
subdorsal setae on annules 7, 12. 16, 19, 23, 36, 44, 47 and 53; subventral setae on

644

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

annules 6. 10, 13, 17, 20, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 42, 45, 48 and 55; total subdorsals
ten pairs subventrals 14 pairs; vulva probably about twenty-sixth annule; tail probably
12 annules.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — Very closely resembling T. spinosus but differing in annule number
and setal distribution.

Eudesmoscolex luteocola n. sp.

Juvenile 200g long; a, 7.1; b, 3.5; c, (?) 9. Ocelli absent; body of approxi¬
mately sixty-four simple annules; paired subdorsal tube setae on annules 10, 30 and
64; minute submedian spines apparently in four submedian rows but due to some
torsion in the specimen these could not be distinguished in all body regions.

FIGURE 8 — A — Eudesmoscolex luteocola. B — Desmoscolex nudus. C-E — Tricoma
spinosoides : C — Esophageal region. D — tail of female. E — tail of male. F-H — Tricoma
spinosa : F — head, median view. G — esophageal region. H — tail of male. I-K — Tricoma
filipjevi : I — head, dorsal view. J — head, lateral view. K — tail of male.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

645

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet. Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — Two other species of Eudesmoscolex have been described. E. oligoch-
aetus Steiner, 1916 and E. papillosus Schulz, 1935. Both of these species have nin^
pairs of subdorsal tube setae.

family Greeffiellidae (Filipjev, 1929)

Body generally hirsute.

173 Specimens 310-340g long. (Sponges, Biscayne Bay, Fla.).

Greeffiella dasyura Cobb, 1922

suborder MONHYSTERINA

Esophago-intestinal valve dorso-ventrally flattened, usually rather elongate; stoma
if well developed, usually cylindroid to conid, without an axial tooth; teeth usually
not prominent; stoma may or may not be surrounded by esophageal tissue; stomatal
rugae absent; ovaries out-stretched or reflexed; supplements papilloid to tuboid,
sometimes minute depressions but not cup- or stirrup-like. Marine or fresh water.

SUPERFAMILY PLECTOIDEA Chitwood, 1937

Amphids 1-2 spiral or nearly circular cavities, rarely circular, rarely pore-like;
ends of esophageal radii tuboid; ovaries reflexed; cuticular punctation faint if present.

FAMILY Plectidae Oerley, 1880

Bulbar region of esophagus muscular terminated by a distinct valved bulb;
cephalic setae four or none; stoma usually cylindrical or conoid; unarmed.

SUBFAMILY Plectinae Micoletzky. 1922

Lobiql region without specialized modifications; terminal excretory duct scllero-
fized. f Fresh water. — Genera; Plectu. r Bastian, 1865: AnaPlectus de Coninrk & Stek-
hov<=n. 1 933: Plectoides de Man. 1904; Chronogaster Cobb, 1913. syn. Walch erenia
de Man. 1921; Paraplectonema Strand, 1934, syn. Paraplectus Filipjev, 1930).

SUBFAMILY Wilconematinae n. subfam.

Labial reeion with web-like or other modifications: terminal excretory duct
cHproti^d. ( Fresh water. — Genera: Wilsonema Cobb, 1913: TylocePhalus Ctossma-.
1933; Tarrioca-bhalus de Man. 1876, svn. Mitrephnrus v. Linstow. 1877; Anthonema
Cobb. 1913; Anonchus Cobb, 1913: Bitholinema de Coninck, 1931).

SUBFAMILY Haliplectinae n. subfam.

Labial region without specialized modifications: terminal duct not sclerotued.
f Mo rine — General: HaMtolectu r Cobb. 1913: Aplectus Cobb, 1914; Polylaimium
ToKL 1Q?0. and T.inolaimus Cobb, 1933).

174 With ellipsoid median bulb. (Brackish water. East Coast, United States).

Haliplectus pellucidus Cobb, 1913

Without ellipsoid median bulb.

175 Cephalic setae apparently absent. (Beach, Belmar, New Jersey).

Polyaimmm exile Cobb. 1920

176 Cephalic setae four, 1 head diameter long. (Beach sand, Woods Hole. Mass.).

Linolaimus quadricoma Cobb, 1933

family Leptolaimidae Oerley, 1880

Bulbar region of esophagus muscular but without valved (i.e., pigeon wing)
bulb; cephalic setae four or none; stoma usally narrow, cylindrical, or apparently ab¬
sent; cuticle usually rather coarsely stiated. Mostly marine.

SUBFAMILY Leptolaiminae n. subfam.

Amphids large, circular to unispiral; stoma narrow, cylindrical or apparently
absent, unarmed.

646

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

177 Species over 2 mm. long. (Beaufort, N. C.).

Leptolaimus maximus Chitwood, 1936

178 Species under 1 mm. long. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Leptolaimus plectoides n. sp.

Cephalic setae 3 g long; amphids 2.5 head diameters from anterior end, circular
with internal process, amphidial width 0.3 body diameters; stoma minute, narrow,
surrounded by esophageal tissue ? 16 or 25 g long, exact extent difficult to determine;
striae 1.2 /x wide; esophagus plectoid with non-valved bulb; esophago-intestinal valve
elongated; intestinal cell inclusions colorless. Female 5l4g long; a, 28; b, 4.3; c, 6:9;
V, 52%; two ovaries, reflexed; eggs 42 by 1 6g, one per uterus; tail cylindro-conoid,
5 anal body diameters long.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
remarks. — The present species appears to be most closely related to L. ditlevensi
(Steiner, 1916) Chitwood, 1936, syn. Dermatolaimus ditlevensi, but differs from that
species in that the tail is longer, c being 8.7 in L. ditlevensi.

SUBFAMILY Rhabdolaiminae n. subfam.

Amphids minute, do re-like; stoma very narrow, cylindrical. (Marine or fresh
water. — Genera -.Rhabdolaimus de Man. 1880 and Syringolaimus de Man, 1888).

Only three species known from North America, Rhabdolaimus terrestris de Man,
1880 and R. minor Cobb, 1914 from fresh water, and Syringolaimus smarigdus Cobb,
1928, marine.

Syringolaimus smarigdus Cobb, 1928

With three minute outwardly acting teeth, characteristic of subfamily; stoma
40u lone; excretory oore anterior to nerve ring; tail striated. Male 850/x: a. 30; b, 5.2;
c, 5.2. Female 760-860g; a, 25; b, 5, c, 8.5 V, 50%; G1} 15%; G9, 15% eggs (one
per uterus) 5 6g by 18g.

HABITAT. — Originally described from shell of snail, Alectrion obsoleta feeding
on Ralfsia and possibly other algae at Woods Hole. Massachusetts. In this collection
it was obtained free from Sargassum, Cedar Bayou, Rockport, Texas, July 9, 190.

COMMENTS. — Cobb (1928) labelled clear areas of the mid-caudal region of
Syringolaimus smarigdus oh? or questionable phasmids. A careful study of these
areas (Fig. 9K) reveals that thev represent a break in the cuticular annulation but
no pores aooear to be present. Similar paired caudal clear areas are also present on
some members of the genus Tricoma (see fig. 8D & H). It is a curious hapoening
and mav have some significance that we do not understand at present. Phasmids are
naired lateral caudal oores connected both with glands and with nervous svsmm. Thus
far th^v have never been demonstrated in an organism with caudal glands. It seems
possiNe that caudal glands and phasmidial glands are one and the same. If that is
true, the present clear areas may reoresent real ghosts of an earlier position of orifice
of the glands. Fm* such structures for which no internal connections are demonstrable
we nropose the term phasma, phasmata. As things now stand there are adequate other
characters, be., excretory svstem. hvocdermal glands, amphids, setae, etc., for the
separation of Phasmidea and Aphasmidea.

family Camacolaimidae Stekboven & de Coninck, 193 3

Cephalic setae four: stoma minute or absent; often armed with dorsal more or
less axial, tooth; amphids primarily unispiral; posterior region of esophagus glandu¬
lar; terminal excretory duct never sclerotized. Marine or fresh water.

SUBFAMILY Camacolaiminae Micoletzky, 1924

Amphids anterior to cephalic setaae. Marine.

Tooth absent.

180 Ocelli absent. (Sea-grass of Key West, Fla.) Neurella simplex Cobb, 1920

181 Ocelli present. (Marine algae, Panama). lonema ocellatum Cobb, 1920

182 Tooth with two large knobs at base. Anguinoides stylosum Chitwood, 1936
Tooth without large knobs at base.

183 Tooth massive, with large shoulder; ocelli absent. (Beach, Devil’s Island, Woods

Hole, Mass.). Ypsilon exile Cobb, 1920

Tooth not massive, without shoulder.

1961, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

647

FIGURE 9 — A-C — Camacolaimus tardus : A — esophageal region. B — female tail.
C — male tail. D-E — Digitonchus cyiindricaudatus : D — head. E — male tail. F-H—
Alaimella cincta F — head. G — esphageal region. H — female tail. I-K — Syringolaimus
smarigdus: I — esophageal region. J — female tail. K — detail of mid-caudal region.

648

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

184 Male with supplements extending to head. (Originally from Holland, also from
brackish leaf mold, Devil’s Foot Island, Mass., Cobb, 1925).

Deontolaimus paplllatus de Man, 1880

Without supplements extending to head.

Ocelli present.

185 Tooth short, conoid, esophageal glands overlapping intestine. (Buzzard’s Bay,
Mass., and Key West, Fla.).

Onchium ocellatum Cobb, 1920

186 Tooth long, tip sharp. (Eelgrass, Biscayne Bay, Fla.)

Onchulella ocellata Cobb, 1920

187 Tooth long, tip blunt. (Eelgrass, Biscayne Bay, Fla.).

Nemella ocellata Cobb, 1920

Ocelli absent.

Cephalic seta less than 0.5 head diameter.

Camacolaimus de Man, 1889

188 Cephalic setae 1/5 head diameter. (Coast of Holland and Aransas Bay, Texas').

Camacolaimus tardus de Man, 1889

189 Cephalic setae 3/7 head diameter. (Beaufort, N. C.).

Camacolaimus prytherchl Chitwood, 1935
Cephalic setae 9/10 head diameter. Dlgltonchus Cobb, 1920

190 Axial tooth length 1.5 head diameters. (Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.).

Dlgltonchus uniformds Cobb, 1920

191 Axial tooth length 0.7 head diameter. (Cedar Bayou, Rockport, Texas).

Dlgltonchus cylindrlcaudataus n. sp.
Camacolaimus tardus de Man, 1889

Amphid minute, unispire, 1.5 g across; setae 0.15 head diameter; dorsal tooth
blunt, attached through most of length; tail with dorsallv conoid tio. Male 1.0 mm.;
a, 50; b, 5.5; c, 14; testis extending to within 12% body length of base esophasus;
snicules arcuate, ceohalated. 25g. Female 1.26-1.6 mm.: a. 32-50; b. 6. 6-7. 2; c, 16-29;
V. 53-61%: ovaries each about 20%; tail 2.5-3 anal body diameters. Eggs (one per
uterus), 55 by 30g.

HABITAT. — Originally collected on coast of Holland, later other Northern Eu-
ronean Coasts. Present collection, depth of 4 feet. Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas,
Tuly 27, 1950.

Dlgltonchus cylindrlcaudatus n. sp.

Ceohalic setae 0.9 head diameter long; amohids unispire 2.4g across; dorsal
tooth blunt, atxmhvsis short. Male 1.17 mm.; a, 73. b, 5.3; c, 11; testis extending to
within 25% bodv length of base of esophagus; spicules 23g long, arcuate, cephalated;
tail 6 anal body diameters long.

habitat. — Sargassum from Cedar Bayou fish trap; Aransas Bay, Texas, Tuly
9, 1950.

SUBFAMILY Aphanolaiminae Chitwood, 1935

Amohids oosterior to ceohalic setae. Marine or fresh water.

192 Cuticle with clear delicate longitudinal markings. (Sand bar, Biscayne Bay,
Fla., and Aransas Bav, Texas). Alaimella clncta Cobb, 1920.

1 93 Cuticle without longitudinal markin.es or, if present, very faint.

(Algae near Lighthouse, Bahia, Brazil). Alaimella truncata Cobb, 1920

Alaimella clncta Cobb, 1920

Female 1.02 mm.; a, 42; b, 4.6; c, 10; V, 33%; one ovary, posterior, refluxed
no eges. Four cephalic setae 2 head diameters long; amphids circular. 0.6 head diam¬
eter wide, with central raised fleck. Cuticle coarsely stiated. stiae 1.4-2.4g apart; with
longitudinal minute ridges, approximately 0.4g wide. Tail 5.5 anal body diameters
long, conically cvlindroid.

HABITAT. — Originally from Biscayne Bay, Fla.; present specimen from depth
of 4 feet. Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas.

STJPERFAMJLY AXONOLAIMIDEA Chitwood, 1937

Amphids unispire to multispire or shepherd’s crook, rarely circular; stoma
cylindroid, to conoid if well developed, teeth if present, at anterior end in form of
3 or 6 eversible prorhabdions; stoma three part without valve to clavate; ends of
esophageal radii tuboid; ovaries out-stretched (except a few species of comesomes);
cuticle not punctate (except in some comesomes). Marine with a few exceptions.

1951, No. 4

North American Marine Nematodes

649

and gubernaculum. L — tip of tail.

650

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

family Axonolaimidae Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3

Amphids unispiral, spiral to shepherd’s crook, rarely broken circle; cuticle not
punctate or minutely punctate, usually rather smooth; ovaries out-stretched; guber-
naculum usually with posterior apophyses; supplements papilloid or absent.

SUBFAMILY Axonolaiminae Micoletzky, 1924

Stoma conoid, rhabdions well developed; amphids unispire, circular to shepherd’s
crook. (Marine).

194 Cephalic sensory organs papilloid (amphid small unispire, midstomatal in
location). (Coast of Peru). Margonema ringens Cobb, 1920.

At least four cephalic setae, sometimes subcephalic setae also.

195 Amphids circular; stoma with six eversible odontia. (Coast of Peru).

Apodontium pacificum Cobb, 1920

Amphids spiral to shepherd’s crook.

Esophagus rather clavate, six" well developed, eversible odontia.

Odontophora Biitschli, 1874

196 Subcephalic setae mixed with cephalic in two transverse rows. (Sebastopol and
North Carolina) .

Odontophora angustilaima ( Fillip jev, 1918)

197 Subcephalic setae in four longitudinal rows of three each.

Odontophora angustilaimoides n. sp.

Esophagus more elongate; prorhabdions not clearly eversible as odontia.

198 Female with one ovary, posterior. (Woods Hole, Mass.)

Synodontium fecundum Cobb, 1920
Female with two ovaries. Axonolaimus de Man, 1889

199 Amphids with sides longitudinally parallel, four cephalic setae, subcephalic
absent. (Coasts of Northern Europe).

Axonolaimus splnosus (Biitschi, 1874)
Amphids more shepherd’s crook in form, subcephalic setae present.

200 Subcephalic setae (4) posterior to stomatal region. (Coasts of Northern Europe,
Mass., and North Carolina).

Axonolaimus elongatus Biitschli, 1874
Subsephalic setae (8) opposite stomatal region.

201 Subcephalic setae in two circles. (Beaufort, N.C.)

Axonolaimus suhsimilis Chitwood, 1936

202 Subcephalic setae in one circle. (Beaufort, N.C.)

Axonolaimus odontophoroides Chitwood, 1936
Odontophora angustilaimoides n. sp.

Cephalic and subcephalic setae forming four submerian rows of diminishing
size, most anteriad, i.e., cephalic, 1 head diameter lone: amphids short shepherd's
rrook, opposite prostome; excretory pore opposite mid-stomatal region; tail very
hluntlv conoid, 3.5 anal body diameters long; intestine of large cells. probaNv
four in a corcumference. Female 1.7-1.75 mm.: a,29-34; b, 11-12; c.16-22; V.49-51%:
G1 , 21%; G.,, 28%: eggs one per uterus. 150-l60g long by 40-42g wide.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

SUBFAMILY Campylaminae Chitwood, 1937

Amphids greatly elongated, shepherd’s crook, not situated on a sclerotized
plaque; stoma cylindroid with three anterior points or greatly reduced.

203 Stoma greatly reduced. (Marine sand, San Pedro, California).

Campylaimus inequalis Cobb 1920

204 Stoma cylindroid with three anteriorly directed points. (Pacific Coast of Costa

Rica). Pseudolella cephalata Cobb, 1920

SUBFAMILY Diplopeltinae Rauther, 1930

Amphids unispire, situated on a sclerotized plaque; stoma weakly developed,
walls not sclerotized.

205 Seagrass off Key West, Florida. Didelta maculata Cobb, 1920

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

651

SUBFAMILY Cylindrolaiminae Micol., 1922

Amphids unispire to circular, not situated on plaque; stoma narrow, cylindroid
or short, not strongly sclerotized in either case.

Stoma narrow, cylindrical; esophagus with distinct muscular bulbar regions,
glands not free. Araeolaimus de Man, 1888 (syn. Coinonema Cobb, 1920)

206 Scattered cervical setae present. (Key West and Biscayne Bay, Fla., on algae).

Araeolaimus punctatus (Cobb, 1920) syn. Coinonema punctatum Cobb, 1920
Scattered cervical setae absent.

207 Amphids unispire to circular. (Shackleford’s Channel, N.C.)

Araeolaimus cylindrolaimus Chitwood, 1936

208 Amphids 1.5 spiral to shepherd’s crook. (Rockport Harbor, Texas).

Araeolaimus texianus n. sp.

209 Stoma short, non-sclerotized; esophagus posteriorly broken down with glands in
tandem. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

P seudaraeolaimus perplexus n.g., n. sp.
Araeolaimus texianus n. sp.

Cephalic setae 0.7 head diameter; stoma 6/i deep; amphids 1.5 turns, shepherd’s
crook, 1.6 stomatal lengths from anterior end; pigment spots and execretory pore
2 4g from anterior end; lateral chords containing fine round granulations (sub¬
surface). Male 780 g long; a.32; b,6.5; c,9.7; spicules arcuate, 28g long; gubernaculum
with posterior apophyses. Female 788 g long; a, 33; b,7.3; c,ll; V,52%; G-,,14%,
eggs (one per uterus), 3 6g by 20g.

HABITAT. — Scraped from piling in Rockport Harbor, Texas, at depth of 3 to 4
feet, with barnacles, July 6, 1950.

P seudaraeolaimus n. g.

Cephalic setae four; paramphidial setae four; amphids shaped like folded
sausage; excretory pore near head; excretory cell posterior and in tandem with
esophageal glands; stoma non-sclerotized, short, esophagus with ventral apophysis
containing esophageal glands in tandem. Male with paired arcuate spicules; guber¬
naculum parallel, one preanal papilloid supplement probably resent. Female with two
out-stretched ovaries.

P seudaraeolaimus perplexus n. sp.

With fine yellowish granules in hypodermis; cephalic setae 0.7 head diameter;
amphids 1 head diameter from anterior end; intestine with few cells, probably 4-6
in a circumference. Male 1.08 mm.; a, 54; b,9; c, 1 1 ; spicules 1 4g; tail cylindroid,
4.4 anal body diameters long. Female 1.1-1. 2 mm.: a, 5 5-80; b,0.9; c, 9. 3-1 3; V,48%.;
G-,,16%; G9,16%; eggs (one per uterus) 53 by 12/z; sperm packed in uteri,
hollow type; tail 6-9 anal body diameters long.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — The genus P seudaraeolaimus resembles members of the genus
Araeolaimus in some ways and various genera of the Diplopeltinae in other ways.
On the basis of stoma, excretory pore and esophagus we would consider diplopeltin
relationships but the amphidial sclerotized plaque which is characteristic of that
subfamily appears to be totally absent. In the absence of distinct sclerotized stoma
P seudaraeolaimus resembles Araeolaimus de Man, 1893 but there is no esophageal
diverticulum in that genus.

family Comesomatidae (Stekhoven & de Coninck, 1933)

Amphids multispiral; cuticle often having minute to moderately coarse puncta-
tions; ovaries out-stretched (rarely reflexed, in one case both a reflexed and. an
out-stretched ovary reported from one female). Stoma cylindroid with three sclerotized
points at anterior end or reduced; gubernaculum with or without posterior apophysis;
supplements papilloid or absent. (Marine).

Stoma cylindroid, with three anteriorly directed points.

Cuticle with very coarse lateral punctations.

210 Spicules double- jointed. (Coast of North Carolina).

Dorylaimopsis metatypicus Chitwood, 1936

Spicules single- jointed.

211 Ovaries reflexed. (Marine algae, Key West, Florida).

Mesonchium poriferum Cobb, 1920

212 Ovaries out-stretched. (Kingston Harbor, Jamaica).

Pepsonema pellucidum Cobb, 1920
Cuticle without lateral differentiation, all punctations minute, spicules double-
jointed.

652

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

213 With four cephalic setae. (Marine mud, San Pedro, California)

Xinema perfectum Cobb, 1920

With ten cephalic setae. Laimella Cobb, 1920

214 Four short, and six long setae. (Beaufort, N.C.)

Laimella hexasetosa Chitwood, 1937

Six short and four long setae.

215 Tail filiform, c, 33. ( Biscayne Bay & Key West, Fla.).

Laimella longicauda Cobb, 1920
2l6Tail conically attenuated, c, 8.5-12. (Beaufort, N.C.).

Laimella quadrisetosa Chitwood, 1936
Stoma not cylindroid, without three anteriorly directed points.

Vestibular region (Part of mouth surrounded by esophageal tissue) over 1 head
diameter long.

217 Only four cephalic setae. (Seaweed, Miami, Fla.).

Cynura uniformis Cobb, 1920

218 Numerous subcephalic scattered setae merging with cephalic. (Bathing Beach,
Woods Hole, Mass.).

Alaimonema multicinctum Cobb, 1920
Stoma short and wide, without elongate vestibular region.

219 Spicules elongate; gubernaculum parallel. (Beaufort, N.C.).

Comesoma minimum Chitwood, 1937
Spicules short, arcuate; gubernaculum with posterior apophyses.

Sabatieria de Kouville, 1904

220 With four cephalic, no subcephalic, setae. (Coasts of Ireland, Germany and N.C.) .

Sabatieria celtica Southern. 1914

221 With four cephalic, and, four rows of subcephalic setae. (Coasts of Holland,
Germany, Norway, France, North Carolina and Texas).

Sabatieria hilamla de Man, 1922
Sabatieria hilarula de Man, 1922

Cephalic setae four, 1.3 head diameters long; subcephalic setae In four submedian
rows; excretory pore just posterior to nerve ring, excretory cell opposite anterior end
of intestine. Male 1.5 mm.; a, 29; b,7.5; c,83; tail conoid for half its length, then
filiform to slightly enlarged tip bearing caudal setae and spinerette. Spicules arcuate,
flanged, 38 g long; gubernaculum with posterior apophysis; supplements apparently
absent.

HABITAT. — Originally described from coast of Holland; In this collection from
depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

SUPERFAMILY MONHYSTER OIDF.A Stekhoven & de Coninck, 1933

Amohids circular; ends of esophageal radii not tuboid; cephalic setae 4 (?), 6, 10,
12, 16, 18 or more; stoma highly diverse. Esophago-intestinal valve (cardia) usually
spheroid to cylindrical. Ovaries out-stretched (one or two exceptions.) Marine or
fresh water.

family Monhysteridae Oerley, 18 80

Stoma not styletiform; radial muscles of esophagus diffuse, esophagus cylindrical,
bulb not present; sclerotized attachment points of esophageal muscles absent.

SUBFAMILY Monhvsterinae Micoletzky, 1922

Stoma non-sclerotized, usually conoid into esophagus. Lips three, low, cuticle
not ridged; internal circle of sensory organs papilloid; female usually with one anterior
out-stretched ovary. Fresh water and marine.

222 Cephalic setae papilloid, stoma of two small cavities in tandem. (Aransas Bay,

Texas). Diplolaimella ocellata n. sp.

Cephalic setae well developed.

223 Cephalic setae four. (Buzzard’s Bay, Mass.). Rhadinema flexile Cobb, 1920
Cephalic setae six.

Setae pseudosegmented.

224 Female with one posterior reflexed ovary. (Sand among mussels, Devil’s Island,
Woods Hole, Mass.).

Rhabdocoma americanum Cobb, 1920
Female with two out-stretched ovaries. Cytolaimium Cobb, 1920

1951, No, 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

653

225 Tail cono-cylindroid, spinerette present. (Biscayne Bay, Florida).

Cytolaimium exile Cobb, 1920

226 Tail obtuse, anus subterminal, spinerette absent. (Shackleford’s Channel, N.C.).

Cytolaimium obtusicaudatum Chitwood, 1936
Setae not pseudosegmented. (Female with one ovary).

Monhystera Bastian, 1865

227 Spicules 26/a long. (Cedar Bay^u, Texas).

Monhystera parva Bastian, 1865

228 Spicules 42/a long. (Cedar Ba/ou, Texas).

Monhystera socialis Bastian, 1865

Cephalic setae ten or more.

More than twelve cephalic setae, (female with one ovary).

Eight submedian groups of extremely long cephalic setae; spicules
not double- jointed. (Coast of N.C. & N.Y.).

Steineria Micoletzky, 1922, sp.
2^9 Eight submedian groups of cephalic setae less than 1 head diameter; spicules
double- jointed. (Marine mud, San Pedro, Calif.).

Leptogastrella pellucida Cobb, 1920

Only ten to twelve cephalic setae.

230 Setae pseudosegmented. (Coasts of New Hampshire & Mass.).

Daptonema fimbriatum Cobb, 1920

Setae not pseudosegmented.

231 Amphids very large circles with faint internal spirality. (Tide pool, New
Hampshire) .

Gonionchus villbsus Cobb, 1920
Amphids circular, not unusually large, no evidence of spirality.

Theristus Bastian, 1865

232 Somatic setae over 1 body diameter long. (Coasts of Europe, Mass. & N.C.).

Theristus setosus (Biitschli, 1874)

233 Somatic setae less than 1 body diameter long. Cephalic setae 0.6 head diameter.
(Aransas Bay, Texas).

Theristus butschlioides n. sp.

Cephalic setae 0.5 or less head diameter. .

234 Spicules distally simple. (Coast of Northern Europe and New Foundland v.
Allgen, 1935).

Theristus acer Bastian, 1865

235 Spicules distally forked. ( Copano Bay, Texas ) .

Theristus elaboratus n. sp.

Monhystera socialis Biitschli, 1874

Ocelli absent; amphids 11/a from anterior end (about 1 head diameter), 3/a in
diameter; esophagus clavate, terminated by valve, two clear cells and two pigmented
intestinal cells set off from intestine, intestinal cells with thick rough bacillary layer.
Male 1.4.5 mm.; a, 34; b,9.8; c,9.8; spicules setiform, 42/a long (1.3 anal body
diameters); gubernaculum inconspicuous; one preanal papillae; tail 4.6 anal body
diameters long, caudal third cylindroid. Female 1.02 mm.; a, 28; b,7.7 (foreshortened);
c,8.2; V,7 6%; G-,,56%; eggs, spheroid, 28-30/a, embryonated 9-10 in number,
possibly viviparous.

HABITAT. — Sargassum from Cedar Bayou, Texas, fish trap, July 9, 1950.

Monhystera parva Bastian, 1865

Six cephalic cetae Vs head diameter in length. Amphids 44 head diameter from
anterior end, 3/t in diameter. Male 516-522/a; a, 23-26; b, 5. 1-5.7; c,5.7-6.0; spicules
arcuate, 26/a long; gubernaculum with posterior apophysis, tail 5-6 anal body
diameters long. Female 520-550/a.; a, 20-24; b, 5-5.2; c, 5. 8-6.1; V,60%; ovary extending
to within 1 Yz body diameters of esophageal base; egg (1) 40 by 20/a; extra pocket
(anteriad) to uterus; tail 6.5 anal body diameters long, evenly attenuated. Esophagus
clavate; esophago-intestinal valve much as in M. socialis but paired clear cells not
present; first two intestinal cells forming a false bulb.

HABITAT. — Originally described from Falmouth, England, in Sargassum. Present
specimens from Sargassum, Cedar Bayou, Texas, fish trap, July 9, 1950.

Diplolaimella Allgen, 1929

Small cephalic setae probably present, number uncertain; cuticle smooth; amphids
circular, post-cephalic; stoma weakly sclerotized, forming two small cavities; esophagus
terminated by faint swelling, well developed esophago-intestinal valve and differentiated

654

The Texas Journal of Science

19S1, No. 4
December 30

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

655

rounded intestinal valve. Male with long setaceous spicules; supplementary organs
absent. Female with one ovary, anterior, out-stretched. Very filiform nemas with
finely attenuated tails. Type D. monhysteroides Allgen, 1929.

Diplolaimella ocellata n. sp.

Stoma 4/jl deep by 2g wide (maximum); amphids 2 head diameters from
anterior end, approximately Vs corresponding body diameter. Paired, rather colorless,
rectangular eye spots at about V3 length of esophagus; nerve ring at 3/5 length
of esophagus. Male 770 g; a, 45; b,5.9; c,7.0; spicules arcuate, 22a; gubernaculum
opposed, l6g. Female 780 g; a, 65; b,5.8; c,5; V,55%; Gt23%. One mature ovum
72/jl by 8.4g. Tail 19 anal body diameters in length.

HABITAT. — Chaetopterus tube and eelgrass at depth of 3 feet, Mud Island,
Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS. — This form differs from the type species as described by Allgen
(1929) in being considerably smaller and in having a relatively longer tail. D.
monhysteroides is 0.97-1.1 mm.; a, 5 1-64; b, 6. 1-6.7; c,8.4 in male and 6.3 in female
and the vulva is at 64%. In addition Allgen does not mention the ocelli.

Theristus elaboratus n. sp.

Cephalic setae ten, longest 8g or xh head diameter; amphids 4.8 g in diameter,
% head diameter from anterior end; scattered somatic setae about 12g long; striae l-2g
apart, marked. Male 940g long; a, 14. 7; b,4; c,5.2; tail regularly conoid to cylindrical
in posterior fourth, terminated by a pair of branched setae; spicules L-shaped, 24 g
across triangle, distally forked; gubernaculum well developed with small apophysis.
HABITAT. — Depth of three feet, weeds, Copano Bay, Texas, July 26, 1950.
REMARKS. — This species is much like T. setosus but differs in that the setae
are shorter, more sparse, and only ten, instead of 12, cephalic setae are present.
Theristus biitschlioides n. sp.

Cephalic setae twelve, longest 12,u or % head diameter; amphids very delicate in
margin, less than 1/2 head diameter from anterior end, 9 g across; scattered submedian
rows of somatic setae 18 g long; striae 2-2. 5,u apart.

Male 1.48 mm.; a, 37; b,5.7; c,9.2; testis extending to within 12% of body
length from base of esophagus; tail 5.3 anal body diameters, posterior half cylindrical,
narrow with paired caudal setae. Esophago-intestinal valve typical; intestinal sphaeroids
prominent; spicules setaceous, knobbed, 11 6g long or 3.8 anal body diameters;
gubernaculum simple, parallel.

HABITAT. — Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.
REMARKS. — This species differs from its closest relative, T. butschlii Bresslau and
Stekhoven, 1935, in having considerably longer spicules and a longer tail.

SUBFAMILY Xyalinae n. subfam.

Cephalic setae 6 plus 12; 6 or 3 lips; female with one anterior out-stretched
ovary; cuticle striated; stoma sometimes sclerotized. (Marine).

Cuticle with longitudinal markings.

236 Cuticle with simple rod-like lingitudinal ridges. (Atlantic Coast from Mass, to
N.C.).

Xyala striata Cobb, 1920

237 Cuticle with fish-bone longitudinal markings. (Biscayne Bay, Fla.).

Xenolaimus striatus Cobb, 1920

Cuticle without longitudinal markings.

238 Stoma with jointed, outwardly acting mandibles. (Atlantic Coast from Mass, to
N.C.).

Scaptrella cincta Cobb, 1917

239 Stoma with six non- jointed minute hook-like, internally acting denticles at end
of lips. (Marine mud, San Francisco Bay, Calif.).

Dactylaimus aequalis Cobb, 1920

family Sipbonolaimidae Chitwood, 1937

Stoma styletiform; radial muscles of esophagus concentered; esophagus with weak
posterior swelling; without sclerotized attachment points of esophageal muscles; female
with one anterior out-stretched ovary. Marine.

240 Tail conically elongated. (Beaufort, N.C.).

Siphonolaimus conicus Chitwood, 1936

656

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

family Linhomoeidae Filipjev, 1929

Stoma not styletiform; radial muscles of esophagus concentered, often with
sclerotized attachment points; esophagus commonly with distinct bulb. Esophago-
intestinal valve or cardia commonly very large; female with one or two out-stretched
ovaries. Usually marine.

SUBFAMILY Linhomoeinae Filipjev, 1929

Stoma very short and wide or not distinct, walls with moderate to faint sclerotiza-
tion. Cuticle practically smooth. Marine.

241 Esophageal glands more or less free, four cephalic setae, no distinct stoma;
two out-stretched ovaries. (Buzzard’s Bay, Mass.).

Cyartonema exile Cobb, 1920

Esophageal glands not free, basal part of esophagus well formed.

Stoma without distinct sclerotization.

242 Cuticle with distinct striae. (Probably does not belong here; Diatomivorous,
Pacific Coast of Costa Rica.

Zygonemella striata Cobb, 1920

Cuticle without distinct striae.

243 Amphids labial in position, terminal esophageal bulb distinct. (Possibly near
Eubostrichus, see Desmodoridae; Port Royal, Jamaica).

Catanema exile Cobb, 1920

244 Amphids post-labial, esophageal bulb not distinct. (Beach, Miami, Fla.).

Anticyathus tenuicaudatus Cobb, 1920
Amphids post-labial, esophageal bulb well developed.

Cephalic setae four, ovaries two. Terchellingia de Man, 1888

245 Amphids 14 head width; c, 6-7. (Coast of N.C.).

Terschellingia communis de Man, 1888

246 Amphids V3 head width; c, 5. Cost of N.C.).

Terschellingia pontica Filipjev, 1918

247 Amphids % head width; c, 4-5. (European Coast & Copano Bay, Texas).

Terschellingia longicaudata de Man, 1907
Cephalic sensory organs of external circle, ten papilloid or setose; female with
one anterior ovary.

Monhystrium Cobb, 1920

248 Cephalic sensory organs papilloid. (Gill chambers of Gecarcinus ruricola,
Jamaica and Gecarcinus lateralis Puerto Rico) .

Monhystrium Wilson Baylis, 1915

249 Cephalic sensory organs setose. (Gill chambers of Gecarcinus ruricola, Jamaica
and Gecarcinus lateralis, Puerto Rico). Monhystrium transitans Cobb, 1920
Stoma with distinct sclerotization.

Tail with paired subventral rows of conoid setae. ,

250 Head with six moderate, four long cephalic setae and four subcephalic setae.
(Tide pool, New Hampshire).

Zanema acanthurum Cobb, 1920

251 Head with six moderate, four long cephalic setae and six subcephalic setae.
Biscay ne Bay, Florida).

Halinema spinosum Cobb, 19-
Tail without paired subventral rows of conoid setae.

Esophagus terminated by pyriform to subspheroid bulb; cardia cylindroid.

252 Cephalic setae four; stoma with small dorsal denticle. (Algae off Bahia, Brazil).

Synonema braziliense Cobb, 1920
Cephalic setae six or more; stoma without dorsal denticle.

253 Stomatal sclerotization in form of two transverse rings; four submedian and
two median cephalic setae. (Coast of Holland & N.C.).

Desmolaimus zeelandicus de Man, 1880

254 Stomatal sclerotization not forming two transverse rings; four submedian, two
median cephalic setae and six post-amphidial setae. (Aransas Bay, Texas).

Metalinhomoeus setosus n. sp.
Esophagus clavate to cylindroid, no distinct bulb.

255 Cephalic setae four; subcephalic setae absent; stoma with small dorsal and
subventral denticles. (Rockport Harbor, Texas).

Synonemoides ochra n.g., n. sp.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

657

FIGURE 12 — A-C — Synonemoides ochraceum: A — esophageal region. B — tail of
male. C — spicules and gubernaculum. D-E — Metalinhomoeus setosus : D — esophageal
region. E — tail of female. F-G — Terschellingia longicaudata : F — esophageal region.
G- — tail of female.

658

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

256 Cephalic setae 16, subcephalic four, stoma with dorsal denticle. (Bath Tub
Springs, Jamaica).

Anticyclus exilis Cobb, 1920
Cephalic setae ten, subcephalic six, excretory pore at lips.

Crystallonema Cobb, 1920

257 Head with dark brown pigment. (Beach, Woods Hole, Mass.).

Crystallonema fuscacephalum Cobb, 1920

258 Head without dark brown pigment. (Miami, Florida).

Crystallonema simile Cobb, 1920

259 Cephalic setae ten, subcephalic none, excretory pore not observed. ( Biscay ne
Bay, Florida).

Linhomoella exilis Cobb, 1920
Terschellingia longicaudata de Man, 1907
Amphids circular, 0.5 head diameter from anterior end, four cephalic, four
post-amphidial setae; hypodermis containing fine dark green granules in transverse
rows (similar large granules in intestinal cells). Esophagus terminated by sharp
bulb and elongate narrow esophago-intestinal valve. Excretory pore posterior to
nerve ring. Male 1.8-1.27 mm.; a, 29-34; b, 10.6-11; c, 4-4.9; tail filiform for % of
length. Spicules arcuate, 40/a long; gubernaculum with paired posterior apophyses.

HABITAT. — Weeds at depth of 3 feet, Copano Bay, Texas, July 26, 1950. Origi¬
nally described from Coast of Holland.

REMARKS. — These specimens differ somewhat from the original description as
given by de Man (1907) but agree with the more recent descriptions. The pigmen¬
tation in these specimens is very striking and probably indicates a particular plant on
which the nematode feeds.

Synonemoides n. g.

Cephalic setae four; subcephalic absent; amphids circular, opposite stomatal
region; stoma short, with sclerotized walls and small dorsal and subventral teeth at
base; esophagus clavate, lining with sclerotized thickenings; esophago-intestinal valve
elongate but not cylindroid; male with median row of papilloid supplements; spicules
arcuate; gubernaculum with posterior apophysis; female with anterior out-stretched
ovary; tail elongate conoid with spinerette in both sexes.

Synonemoides ochra n. sp.

With yellowish pigment in chords; excretory pore 2 head diameters from an¬
terior; excretory cell 1 Vi body diameters posterior to base of esophagus. Male 1.48
mm.; a, 49; b, 8.2; 2, 23; spicules 30/a long preanal supplements 11. Female 1.8-2. 1
mm.; a, 40-53; b, 12-13; c, 26-30; V, 70-76%; G-,, 25% eggs (one to two mature)
80 by 3 6/a.

HABITAT. — Rockport Harbor and Copano Bay, Texas, July 22 and 26, 1950.
REMARKS. — This genus is clearly closely related to Synonema Cobb, 1920 but
that genus has a well developed bulb and a cylindroid cardia or esophago-intestinal

valve.

Metalinhomoeus setosus n. sp.

Cephalic setae four submedian and two median, 0. 7-0.7 head diameter in length,
amphids 10 across; two lateral and four submedian post-cephalic setae; excretory pore
posterior to nerve ring at % length of esophagus, intestine with large dark, red-brown
inclusions; female 1.6 mm. long; a, 30; b, 12.8; c, 9.5; V, 51% two opposed out¬
stretched ovaries; eggs (one per uterus) 78 by 42/a; tail conically attenuated.

HABITAT. — Depth of 3 feet, Chaetopterus tube and eelgrass, Mud Island, Aran¬
sas Bay, Texas, July 27, 1950.

REMARKS.- — This species is unusually thick bodied for the genus, a usually being
60-100 in other species. In addition the cephalic setae are quite long and the amphids
larger than usual.

SUBFAMILY Sphaerolaiminae Flipjev, 1929
Stoma cylindrical to globoid, heavily sclerotized.

260 Stoma greatly elongate, cylindrical (one anterior out-stretched ovary) (Coast
of Peru and North Carolina). Rhynchonema cinctum Cobb, 1920. Stoma not
greatly elongated.

Cephalic sensory organs papilloid. Tripylium Cobb, 1920

261 Adults 1. 9-2.2 mm. long. (Gills of Gecarcinus lateralis, Puerto Rico).

Tripylium carcinicolum v. calkinsi Chitwood, 1935

262 Adults 1 .0-1.6 mm. long. (Gills of Gecarcinus ruricola and Cardisoma guanhumi,

Jamaica). Tripylium carnicolum (Baylis, 1915)

Cephalic sensory organs setose.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

659

263 Female with one anterior out-stretched ovary. (Beach sand, Los Angeles, Calif.).

Omicronema litorium Cobb, 1920

Female with one posterior out-stretched ovary.

Halanonchus Cobb, 1920

264 Amphids 1/10 corresponding body diameter. (Biscayne Bay, Fla.).

Halanonchus macrurus Cobb, 1920

265 Amphids 1/5 corresponding body diameter. (Shackleford’s Channel, N. C.).

Halanonchus macramphidus Chitwood, 1936

SUMMARY

A total of 251 species have been reported from the American Coasts. Of
these 40 species or 16 per cent are common to the Atlantic Coasts of Europe
and the United States. A total of 43 species are herein reported from Rock-
port, Texas. Of these 6 were first described in Europe, 2 were first described
from North Carolina and 1 was first described from each of the follow¬
ing: Massachusetts, New York and Sumatra. One species Sabatieria hilarula
has been reported from Holland, Germany, France, North Carolina and
Texas. None of the 1 1 species reported from the American Pacific Coasts,
the 22 species reported from Florida nor the 13 species reported from Ja¬
maica were found in the Rockport, Texas collections. It appears obvious
from these data that much too little taxonomic work has been done for us
to draw any conclusions. Some nematodes are probably transported by sara-
gassum and similar materials; this may account for the finding of Syringo-
laiimis smarigdus in Massachusetts and Texas.

ADDENDUM

Following the preparation of the present article two papers by C. A.
Allgen (1947a, b) were located. In the first of these articles Allgen reports
15 species of marine nematodes from Tabago, British West Indies. Of these 7
were new species while the remainder were species previously described from
European waters. In the second paper Allgen reports 100 species of marine
nematodes from the West Coast of North America and Panama. Of these
47 species were regarded as new while the remainder were previously de¬
scribed. Unfortunately these organisms could not be included in the present
key without a complete revision of the article. Instead a list of these species
with localities is appended in Table 1.

Allgen dwells at considerable length on the geographic distribution of
the species from the West Coast. The larger part of the old species were
previously recorded from Europe. Only 17 of these species were known from
other parts of the Pacific and of these 12 species also were first described
from Europe. This is a most unusual situation as the same species of animal
is seldom recorded from both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. More often
one finds similar but very slightly different species. Allgen considers his
finds as evidence of a previous connection of the two oceans. He supports
this view with figures showing 3 5 of the species from the California coast
also occur on the Atlantic Coast of Europe but only 20 of the species occur
in the Mediterranean. This is in contrast to his finds from the West Coast
of Panama. Of the previously known species 11 were known from the
Mediterranean.

Allgen’s material is said to have been in rather poor condition and the
illustrations leave a great deal to be desired. While there are undoubtedly
some cosmopolitan species we rather expect that a more thorough study

66 0

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

would disclose minor differences between most of the Atlantic and Pacific
forms. Most critical taxonomy is necessary before we attempt to draw far
reaching general conclusions on the geographic distribution of nematodes.
Allgen is very critical of the work by Cobb and the writer on the nematodes
of the Atlantic Coast of North America. He states that these workers did
not take cognizance of European literature and consequently proposed many
synonyms. He states that American workers should attempt to fit local
species to the European descriptions. This attitude seems a bit naive. As a
beginner we had the opportunity of preparing specimens for identification

FIGURE 13 — A — Halenchus mexicanm, juvenile, x 68. B — Syringolaimus smarig-
dus, female, x 90. C — Theristus elaboratus, female, x 115. D — Monhystera parva,
female, x 125.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

6 61

by Filipjev and Cobb simultaneously. We were greatly impressed by Filipjev’s
ability to give a name offhand to most specimens and on checking we found
that the specimens agreed moderately well with the European descriptions
that he mentioned. Cobb, on the other hand, usually said the species was
new and often gave a different generic name from the one given by Filipjev.

There was a tendency in Europe to synonomize Cobb’s genera and
species. With the advantage of experience we have come to learn that Cobb
was generally correct. His work was more detailed and critical than that
of others. Because of this more effort was necessary than the majority of
workers were willing to put into identification. Today the majority of the

FIGURE 14 — A — -Par anticoma longicaudata. male, x 50. B — Anaplo stoma copano,
female, x 85. C — Pontonema valviferum, female, x 25. D — Trissonchulus reversus,
juvenile, x 50.

662

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. A
December 30

genera Cobb proposed are recognized by careful students. We have passed
through a phase of species synonomization and are in the midst of discovery
that species of nematodes are not usually of world wide distribution. This
rude awakening was initiated by physiologic and ecologic studies causing
workers to conclude they were dealing with physiologic races. More thorough
morphologic study indicates there are usually stable structural differences
which warrant specific recognition. Earlier descriptions, with the exception
of those given by Cobb, are seldom adequate. European illustrations are such
that we must either conclude the species before us is new or that the author

FIGURE 1 5 — A — Eurystomina minutisculae, x 50. B — Prooncholaimus aransas,
x 46. C — Eudesmoscolex luteocold, x 340, D — 'tricoma spinosoides, x 205.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

663

was in error. The work of de Man is the major exception to this rule. When
we obtain a species similar to one described by de Man it is relatively easy to
determine whether or not we have the same species.

CLASSIFIED LIST OF SPECIES REPORTED

By Allgen (1947a-b)
from American Waters

superfamily ENOPLOIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3

family Enoplidae Baird, 18 53

Subfamily Enoplinae Micoletzky, 1922.

Enoplolaimus pacificus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Perlas Isl., Panama.

Enoplus calif ornicus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Enoplus meridionalis (Stenier, 1921) Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coast of West Africa and North Carolina.

Enoplus micro gnathus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Subfamily Leptosomatinae Micolezky, 1922
Auticoma limalis Bastian, 1865.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Diego, Calif; Tobago, British Indies;

La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Atlantic Coast of Europe and Africa; also Mediterranean,
Campbell Islands and Patagonian Coast.

Leptosomatum bacillatum Eberth,1863.

Localities: Taboguilla, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.;

Other localities: Coast of England, Black Sea and Mediterranean.

Leptosomatum pedroense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Leptosomatum sabangense (Steiner, 1915) Micoletzky, 1923.

Localitv: Taboguilla, Panama; La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Sumatra. Venezuela, Red Sea and Mediterranean.

Ear anticoma tenuis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Taboguilla, Panama.

Thoracostoma anchorilobatum Allgen, 1947 ,

Locality: La Tolla, Calif.

Thoracostoma crassidermum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Thoracostoma jollaense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Thoracostoma microlob atum Allgen, 1947-
Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Thoracostoma panamaense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Taboguilla, Panama.

Thoracostoma steineri Micoletzky, 1922.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Mediterranean.

Subfamily Oxystomininae (Micoletzky, 1924)

Halalaimus gracilis de Man, 1888.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Other localities: Coasts of Northern Europe, Mediterranean and Red Sea.
Halalaimus longicollis Allgen, 1932.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coast of Norway.

664

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December BO

Nemanema o btusicaudatum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

T halas soalaimus tardus de Man 1893 var. tenuis Allgen, 1947.
Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Subfamily Phanodermatinae Filip jen, 1927.
Phanoderma campbelli Allgen, 1927.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Campbell Islands and Norway.
Phanoderma coecum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Taboguilla, Panama.

FIGURE 16 — A — Spilophorella paradoxa, female, x 103. B — Paraeuchromadora,
female, x 103. C — Desmoscolex americanus , male, x 170. D — Cbromadorita tenta -
bunda, female, x 170.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

665

Phanoderma cocksi Bastian, 1865.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of England, Norway, Brittany, France, Campbell Islands.
Phanoderma gracile de Man, 1878.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Mediterranean, Adriatic, Norway and Ireland
Phanoderma mediterraneum Micoletzky, 1923.

Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.; Taboguilla, Panama.

Other localities: Adriatic Sea and Mediterranean.

Phanoderma tenuicolle Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

FIGURE 17 — A — Araeolaimus texianus. female, x 170. B — Camacolaimus tardus,
female, x 74. C — Diplolaimella ocellata, male, x 85. D — Synonemoides ochraceum,
male, x 57.

666

The Texas Journal of Science

family Oncholaimidae Baylis & Daubney, 1926
Subfamily Oncholaiminae Micoletzky, 1922

1951, No. 4
December 3 >

Metoncholaimus ebertbi Filip jev, 1918.

Locality: Contadera and Taboguilla, Panama.

Other localities: Black Sea.

Oncholaimus dujardini de Man, 1878.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Arctic, Norway, Red Sea, Mediterranean, Adriatic.
Oncholaimus tobagoense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Oncholaimus trichospiculum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Oncholaimus viridis Bastian, 1865.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of England, Notway, Sweden, Denmark, Mediterranean,
Aukland and Campbell Islands.

Oncholaimellus carlbergi Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Pelagonema obtusicaudatum Filin jev, 1918.

Locality: San Diego, Calif.

Other localities: Arctic, Coasts of Norway, Sweden, North Sea, Mediterranean,
and Black Sea.

Pontonema californicum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Pontonema jollaense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Viscosia langrunensis de Maan, 1890.

Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago,
Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Northern Coast of Europe, Mediterranean Sea.

Viscosia langrunensis de Man, 1890.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.; San
Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Sweden, Denmark, Mediterranean.

Viscosia paralangrunensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Viscosia parapedroensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Viscosia pedroensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Viscosia pseudo segmentata Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Viscosia taboguillensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Taboguilla, Panama.

Subfamily Eurystomininae (Filipjev, 1934)

Bolbella pacifica Ditlevsen, 1930.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: New Zealand.

Bolbella tobagoense Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Eurystomatina californicum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Eurystomatina ornatum (Eberth, 1863).

Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Mediterranean, Atlantic Coast of Europe and West Africa.
Eurystomatina perlasi Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Perlas Isl., Panama.

Eurystomatina propinquum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Eurystomatina spissidentatum Allgen, 1947.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

667

Eurystomatina terricola de Man var. ophthalmophorum Steiner, 1921.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Port Arthur, East Asia.

Subfamily Enchelidiinae (Micoletzky, 1924)

Catalaimus max-weberi de Man, 1922.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Other localities: Coast of Holland.

Enchelidium brevicaudatum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Enchelidium macrolatmum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Enchelidium sabulicola Filipjev, 1918.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coast of Norway and Black Sea.

Enchelidium tenuicolle Eberth, 1863.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago, Br. W. Indies;
La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: All coasts of Europe, East and West Coast of Africa, Australia,
New Zealand.

SUPERFAMILY AXONOLAIM1DEA Chitwood, 1937

family Axonolaimidae Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3

Subfamily Axonolaiminae Micoletzky, 1924

Axonolaimus diegoensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Axonolaimus tenuicollis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Odontophora pacifica Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Subfamily Diploepeltinae Rauther, 1930.

Subfamily Campylaiminae Chitwood, 1937.

Diplopeltis calif ornicus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Subfamily Cylindrolaiminae Micoletzky, 1922.

Araeolaimus cobbi Steiner, 1916.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coast of Northern Europe, Suez, Campbell Isl.

Araeolaimus elegans de Man, 1888.

Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif,

Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Coast of Northern Europe, Campbell
Isl., Auckland Isl.

family Comesomatidae

Parasabatieria mortenseni Ditlevsen, 1921.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

Other localities: Auckland Isl.

Sabatieria pacifica Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

SUPERFAMILY MONHYSTEROIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 1933
Subfamily Diplopeltinae Rauther, 1930.

Monhystera tobagoensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Theristus arcospiculum Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Theristus tenuispiculum Ditlevsen, 1919. (Syn. Leptogastella pellucida Cobb, 1920
vide Allgen).

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Belgium.

Family Linhomoeidae Filipjev, 1929.

Subfamily Linhomoeinae Filipjev, 1922.

668

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 8 >

Eleutherolaimus leptosoma (de Man, 1893) Filipjev, 1922.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: North Sea, coasts of Norway and Sweden.

Eleutherolaimus obtusicaudatus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Eleutherolaimus stenosoma (de Man, 1907) Filipjev, 1922.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Holland, Norway, Sweden, Belgium.

Eulinhomoeus elongatus (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1907.

Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Arctic Ocean, North Sea, England and Campbell Isl.

Subfamily Sphaerolaiminae Filipjev, 1929

Sphaerolaimus stenosoma (de Man, 1907)

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.

superfamily CHROMADOROIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3

family Chromadoridae Filipjev, 1917

Chromadora conicaudata Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Chromadora neoheterophya Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif.

Chromadora nudicapitata Bastian, 1865.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Atlantic Coast of Europe and Mediterranean.

Chromadora pacifica Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Chromadora paramacrolaimoides Allgen, 1947.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Chromadora para mucrodonta Allgen, 1927.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Tasmania.

Chromadora perlasi Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Perlas Isl., Panama.

Chromadora parobtusa Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Chromadorella filiformis (Bastian, 1865) Filipjev, 1918.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Atlantic Coast of Europe, Mediterranean, Black Sea, West
Coast of Africa and Sumatra.

Chromadora paramucrodonta Allgen, 1927.

Locality: Perlas Isl., Bay of Panama.

Euchromadora amokurae Ditlevsen, 1921.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Southern hemisphere: Patagonia, New Zealand, Auckland
Isl., Campbell Isl. and Antarctic.

Euchromadora elegans Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Euchromadora loricata Steiner, 1916.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Coast of Sweden and Tasmania.

Euchromadora vulgaris (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1886.

Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; Tobago, Br. W. Indies; La
Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Northern Europe.

Hypodontolaimus zosterae Allgen, 1929.

Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Atlantic Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Mediterranean.
Spilophora antillensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Spilophora mortenseni Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

669

Spilophora pusilla Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Spilophorella paradoxa (de Man, 1888) Filipjev, 1918.

Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago,
Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities : All coasts of Europe, Atlantic Coast of North America.

family M icrolaimidae de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3

Microlaimus honestus de Man, 1922.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden, Holland and Belgium.
Microlaimus macrolaimus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

family Cyatholaimidac de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3

Subfamily Cyatholaiminae Micoletzky, 1922

Cyatholaimus jollaensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Cyatholaimus panamaensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Taboguilla, Panama.

Longicyatholaimus longicaudatus (de Man, 1878) Micoletzky, 1924.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, France, Mediterranean.

Paracanthonchus coecus (Bastian, 1865) Micoletzky, 1924.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: All coasts of Europe, Sumatra and East Africa.
Paracanthonchus mortenseni Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Diego, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Paracanthonchus macrodon (Ditlevsen, 1919) Micoletzky, 1924.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Belgium, New Foundland.
Paracanthonchus paramacrodon Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Paracanthonchus spectabilis Allgen, 1931.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway and Belgium.

Paracanthonchus sunesoni (Allgen, 1942) Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Other localities: Mediterranean.

Seuratiella calif ornica Allgen, 1947.

Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.

Seuratiella duplex Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Seuratiella gracilis Ditlevsen, 1919.

Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Pedro, Calif.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

Seuratiella pedroensis Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

Subfamily Choanolaiminae Filipjev, 1934.

Halichoanolaimus filicauda Filipjev, 1918.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Denmark, Black Sea and Mediterranean.

Halichoanolaimus robustus (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1888.

Locality.

Other localities: Coasts of Northern Europe and Black Sea.

Hypodontolaimus obtusicaudatus Allgen, 1947.

Locality: San Pedro, Calif.

670

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 33

superfamily DESMODOROIDEA Steiner, 1927

family Desmodoridae Micoletzky, 1924

Subfamily Desmodorinae Micoletzky, 1924

Desmodora brachycapitata Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Desmodora brachypharynx Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Contadora, Panama.

Desmodora calif ornica Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Desmodora cephalophora Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Desmodora dubia Allgen, 1947.

Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies.

Desmodora paramicrochaeta Allgen, 1947.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Subfamily Monoposthiinae Filipjev, 1934

Monoposthia costata (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1889.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Northern Coast of Europe, Black Sea and West Africa.

family Draconematidae Steiner, 1930

Draconema cephalatum Cobb, 1913.

Locality: La Jolla, Calif.

Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Northern Coast of Europe, Mediterranean,
Black Sea, Jamaica, Campbell lsl., and Antarctic.

LITERATURE CITED

Allgen, C. A. — 1929 — Siidschwedische Marine Nematoden. Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps — ooch
v itternets-bamhalles Mandl. S. B. 1(2) : 1-40.

- 1930 — Freilebende marine Nematoden von der Staten inseln (Feuerland Archipel). II.

Zool. Anz. 90 (%) : 27-38.

- iaoZ — Weitere rseitrage zur Kenntnis der marinen Nematoden Fauna der Campbell

inseln. Nyt. Mag. Naturvidensk : 97-198.

- 1934 — Freilebende marine Nematoden aus Halland’s Vadero und der nahegelegen

ivuste Scnonens (Suuschweden). folia Zool. & Mydrobiol. 6(1): 74-75, f. 13.

- 1934 — Die Arten und die bystematische Stelmng der Pnanodermatinae, einer Unter-

lamuie uer Enoplioae. Capita Zool. Deel lv, Af. 4, 36 pp.

- ia3o — UeDer einige ireilebende marine Nematoden aus den Sammlung des Hamburger

Zooiogiscnen Museum, f olia zool. & Mydrobiol. Riga 8(1): 25-33.

Allgen, C. A. — 1947a — Papers from Dr. Tn. iviortenson's racitic Expedition 1914-1916.
DXXXlV. On some ireeiiving marine nematodes from Tobago (Br. w.i.). 110 : 45-63.

- 1941b — Idem. LXAV. West American marine nematodes, ibid. 110 : bo-219.

nastian, it. C. — 1860 — Monograph on the Anguillulidae, or free nematoids, marine, land,
and fresh water. Tr. Linn. Soc. London 25:73-18o.
buelschu, O. — 1874 — Die iredebenuen isematouen, msbesondere die des Kieler ha fens. Abh.
Senck, Naturf. GeseJlsch. Frankfurt 9 : 1-56.

Chitwood, li. G.--1935 — A new nematode, Camacolaimus prytherchi, n. sp. (Camacolaimidae).
Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash 2(1): 49-50.

- 1935 — Nematodes parasitic in, and associated with, Crustacea, and descriptions of

some new species and a new variety. Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash. 2(2) : 93-96.

- 1936 — Some marine nematodes from North Carolina. Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash. 3(1) :

1-16.

- 1936 — Some marine nematodes of the superfamily Enoploidea. Trans. Amer. Micro.

Soc.55 (2) : 208-213.

- — 1937 — A new genus and ten new species of marine nematodes from North Carolina.

Froc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 4(2) : 53-59.

- — and M. B. Chitwood — 1938 — Notes on the “culture” of aquatic nematodes. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 28(10) : 455-460.

- 1950 — An introduction to nematology. Sec. I. Anatomy. Revised. 213 pp.

Clapargde, J. — 1863 — Beobachtungen iiber Anatomic und Entwichlungskeschichte wirbelloser
an der Kiiste von Normandie angestellt. 120 pp., 18 pis. Leipzig.

Cobb, N. A. — 1894 — Tricoma and other new nematode genera. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W.
8(s. 2) : 389-421.

- 1912 — Further notes on Tricoma. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2 (20) : 480-484.

— — — 1913 — New nematodes genera found inhabiting fresh water and non-brackish soils.
J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3(16) : 432-444.

1951, No. 4
December 30

North American Marine Nematodes

671

- 1914 — North American free-living fresh-water nematodes. Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc.

33 : 69-134.

- 1915 — Selachinema, a new nematode genus with remarkable mandibles. Contrib. Sci.

Nemat. 4: 113-116.

- 1917 — Notes on nemas. Ccntrib. Sci. Nemat. 5 : 117-128.

- 1920 — One hundred new names. Contrib. Sci. Nemat. 9 : 217-343.

- - 1922 — Greeffiella (Trichoderma Greeff, 1869 not Trichoderma Steph., 1835). J. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 12(13) : 229-303.

- 1928 — Nemic spermatogenesis. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 18(2) : 37-50.

- 1929 — A new species of the nemic genus Syringolaimus. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 18(9) :

249-253.

- 1929 — The ambulatory tubes and other features of the nema Draconema cephalatum.

J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19(12) : 255-260.

- 1930 — The demanian vessels in nemas of the genus Oncholaimus; with notes on four

new oncholaims. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2ft : 225-241.

- 1932 — Metoncholaimus pristiurus (zur Strassen). A nema suitable for use in labora¬
tory courses in zoology. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 22 : 344-354.

- 1933 — New nemic genera and snecies. with taxonomic notes. J. Parasitol 2ft : 81-94.

- 1935 — A key to the genera of free-living nemas. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 2(1) : 1-40.

Cobb, N. A. and G. Steiner — 1934 — An annotation on the genus Pontonema Leidy, 1855. J.
Wash. Acad. Sci. 24(1) : 56-61.

Coninck. L. de — 1930 — Over de Oekologische verspreiding van vrijlevende Nematoden in
Belgie. Bot. Jaarboek. 22 : 129-170.

- 1936 — Metaraeolaimoides oxvstoma n.g., n. sp. (Nematoda) en zijne afleiding van

Araeolaimoides de Man. 1893 door Allometrie. Biol. Jaarboek, Derde Jaarg. : 182-204.

- and J. H. Stekhoven — 1933 — The free-living marine nemas of the Belgian Coast II.

Mem. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belg. 58:1-163.

Ditleveen, H. — 1919 — Marine free-living nematodes from Danish water. Vidensk. Medd.
Dansk. Foren. 70 : 148-214.

- 1923 — Sur quelnues nematodes libres (Cotes de Bretagne et Rockall). Bull. Soc. Zool.

France 48 : 178-203.

E’rerth, C. .T. — 1863 — Untersuchungen iiber Nematoden. Leipzig. 77 pp., 9 pis.

Filipjev. I. N. — 1918 — Marine nematodes of Sevastopol. Trav. Lab. Zool. Sta. Biol. Sebastopol,
l’Acad. Sci. Russie. 2(4) : 1-350.

- — 1926 — Freilebende marine Nematoden aus der Umgebung von Sebastopol. Arch. Naturg.

91(19251 Abt. A(41: 94-180.

- 1922 — Encore snr les nematodes libres de la Mer Noire. Acta Inst. Agron. Stauropoli-

tani 1(16) : 83-184.

Gerlach. S. A. — 1950 — Die Nematoden-Gattung Mierolaimus. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 79(1-2) :
188-208.

Greeff. R. — T869 — Untersuchungen iiber einige merkwiirdige Formen des Arthropoden und
Wurm-Tvpus. Arch. Nature. 35J 1(1): 71-121.

Kreis, H. A. — 1927 — Ueber die Bedeutung der geogranhischen Verbreitung der freileb°nden
marinen und Sussenwassernematoden. Verhandl. Schweiz. Naturf. Gesellsch. Basel.
TI Teil: 196-197.

- 1929 — Freileber.den marine Nematoden von der Nordwest-Kueste Frankreichs (Trebeur-

: C'O+es dn Nordl. Manila Zool. 2i7l : 1-97.

• - — 1934 — Oncholaiminae Filipjev, 1916. Eine Monographische Studie. Capita Zool. Deel 4,

Af. 5. 270 op.

Leidy. J. -1855 — Contributions to a knowledge of the marine invertebrate fauna of the coasts
of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Proc. 3 : 135-152.

Man, .1. G. de — 1876 — Contribution a la connaissance des nematoides marins du Golfe de
Naoles. Tijdschr. Nedprl. Dierk. Vereen. 3 : 88-118.

- 1886 — Anatomische Untersuchungen iiber freilebende Nordsee-Nematoden. Leipzig, 82

on.. 13 pis.

- 1888 — Sur ouelques nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord, nouveaux ou peu connus.

Mem. Soc. Zool. France. 1 : 1-51.

- 1889 — Esneces et genres nouveaux de Nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord et de la

Manche. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2:1-10.

- - 1889 — Troisiem° note sur les nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord et de la Manche.

Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2:182-216.

- - 1890 — Quatrieme note sur les nematodes libres de la Mar du Nord et de la Manche.

Mem. Soc. Zool. France 3: 169-195.

- 1892 — Ueber eine neue in Gallen einer Meersalge lebende Art der Gattung Tvlenchiis

Bastian. Festschrift Rud. Leuckart, Leipzig, pp. 121-125.

- 1893 — Cinouieme note sur les nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord. Mgm. Soc. Zool.

France 6:81-124.

- 1907 — Sur quelques especes nouvelles ou peu connus de nematodes libres habitant les

cotes de la Z?lande. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2ft : 33-90.

— - 1922 — Neue freilebende Nematoden aus der Zuidersee. Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vereen.,

2 s.. 18: 124-134.

- - 1922 — Ueber einige marine Nematoden von der Kiiste von Walcheren, nue fur unsere

Fauna, unter welchen der sehr merkwiirdige Catalaimus maxweberi n. sp. Dierk.
Konink. Zool. Genoot. Nat. Art. Mag. Amsterdam 22 : 117-124.

Marion, A. F. — 1870 — Rgcherches zoologiques et anatomioues sur des nematoides non para¬
sites marins. Mem. Couronn| par l’lnsfitut. (Prix Bordin 1869). Paris, pp. 1-100, and
1-16, pis. 16-20. Ann. Sci. Nat. 5s.

Micoletzky, H. — 1922 — Neue frielebende Nematoden aus Suez. Sitzungsb. Akad. Wiss. Wien.
Abt. 1. 131(4-51 : 78-103. o. A1 1

- 1924 — Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis frielebender Nematoden aus Suez. Sitz. Akad.

Wiss. Wien. Abt. 1. 132(7-81:225-262.

- 1924 — Letzter Bericht iiber freilebende Nematoden aus Suez. Ibid. 133(4-6) : 137-179.

672

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 3 )

— — —1930 — Freilebende marine Nematoden von den Sunda-Inseln. I. Enoplidae. Vidensk.
Medd. Dansk. Naturh. Foren. 87 : 233-339.

Panceri, P. — 1876— Osservazioni intorno a nuori forme di vermi nematodi marini. Atti
Accad. Sc. fis. e mat. Napoli. 7. (Not verified).

Pearse, A. S., Huram. H. J. and G. W. — 1942 — Ecology of sand beaches at Beaufort, North
Carolina. Ecoh Monogr. 12 : 135-140.

Schepotieff, A. — 1907 — Zur Systematik der Nematoideen. Zool. Anz. 31 : 132-161.

- - 1908 — Trichoderma oxycaudatum Greeff, Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Sept. 26 : 385-392.

- 1908 — Die Chaetosomatiden. Zool Jahrb. 26:401-414.

- 1908 — Die Desmoscoleciden. Ztschr. Wiss. Zool. 90 : 181-204.

Schneider, G. — 1906 — Beitrag zur Kenntnis der in Uferschlamm des Finnischen Meerbusens
freilebenden Nematoden. Acta Soc. Fauna et Flora Fennica 27(7) : 1-40.

- - 1916 — Synopsis fritt lefrande Nematoderna. Ibid. 44(5) : 1-83.

- 1926 — Zweiter Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Brackwasser-Nematoden Finlands. Ibid.

56(7) : 1-47.

— - 1926 — Dritter Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Brackwasser-Nematoden Finlands. Ibid.

56(10) : 1-24.

Schneider^ W. — 1939 — Nematoden. Die Tierwelt Deutschlands. Toil 36. 260 pp.

Schulz, E. — 1935 — Nematoden aus dem Kiistengrundwasser. Schriften Naturw. Yer. Schleswig-
Holstein 20(2) : 435-467.

Stammer, H. J. — 1935 — Desmoscolex aquaedulcis n. sp., der ersten susswasser-bewohnende
Desmoscoleciden aus slowenischen Hohle (Nemat.) Zool. Anz. 15 (11-12) : 311-318.
Steiner, G. — 1916 — Freilebende Nematoden aus der Barentsee. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst.
39(5-6) : 511-676.

- 1916 — Neue und wenig bekannte Nematoden von der Westkiiste Africas. Zool. Anz.

47(11-12) : 322-350.

- 1921 — Beitrage zur Kenntnis mariner Nematoden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 44(1-2) :l-68.

- 1930-31 — Die Nematoden. 1. (Epsilonematidae). Deutschen Siidpolar-Expedition 1901-

1903 20: 169-216, 307-433.

Steiner, G. and F. Albin — 1933 — On the morphology of Deontostoma calif ornicum n. sp.,
( Leptosomatinae, Nematodes). J. Wash. Sci. 23:25-30.

Stekhoven, S. — 1935 — Nematoda errantia. Die Tierwelt der Nord-u. Ostsee. Teil. Vb., 173 pp.

- and W. Adam — 1931 — The free-living marine nemas of the Belgian Coast. Mem. Mus.

Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belg. 49 : 1-58.

Southern, R. — 1914 — Nemathelmia, Kinornyncha, and Chaetognatha, Clare Island Survey.
Proc. Irish Acad. 31 : 1-80.

Thorne, G. — 1941 — Some nematodes of the family Tylenchidae which do not possess a valvular
median esophageal bulb. Great Basin Naturalist 2(2) : 37-85.

- - 1949 — On the classification of the Tylenchida, new order. (Nematoda; Phasmidia).

Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 16(2) : 37-73.

— ; - and H. H. Swanger — 1936-'— A monograph of the nematode genera Dorylaimus Dujardin,

Aporcelaimus n.g., Dorylaimoides n.g., and Pungentus n.g. Capita Zool. 6(4) : 1-156.
Walton, A. C. — 1927 — A revisioji of the nematodes of the Leidy collections. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila. Proc. 79 : 49-163.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Dr. C. M. Pomerat

673

DR. C. M. POMERAT
A DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST

Dr. C. M. Pomerat, Past-President of the Academy, has recently been
given the A. Harris and Company award for outstanding research in the
field of pure science — The following newspaper stories (all from the Hous¬
ton Chronicle) are here given in their entirety, because of their interest
to members of the Academy, many of whom undoubtedly did not see them.

674

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

$1000 AWARD FOR DOCTOR

Houston, Oct. 14 — Dr. C. M. Pomerat will receive the A. Harris
& Co. Texas Award for outstanding work in the field of medicine at a
dinner to be held in Dallas on October 26, Arthur L. Kramer, Jr., president
of the department store, announced Saturday.

The award, which carries with it a $1000 grant, was established last
year, Kramer said, "because arts and sciences need to be encouraged by
businesses which have prospered under the democratic system. That is why
we have taken the initiative in making such an award.

"The award is not limited in any way to any particular art or science,
nor will it be given for any one work of art, but will constitute a recogni¬
tion and award for a life or works which have contributed appreciably to
the advancement of the best we know in American life.”

The first award was presented to Katherine Anne Porter and J. Frank
Dobie for their work in the field of literature. The award was made at
the annual dinner of the Texas Institute of Letters.

A committee of outstanding medical authorities in Texas chose Doctor
Pomerat this year for his work in cell growth, particularly the growing
of human brain cells in test tubes and their study through motion picture
technique.

In creating the award, Kramer said that it is the purpose of A. Harris
& Co. "to generate among Texans the same enthusiasm for creative minds
that has always been symbolic of a progressive community.

"The contribution of Texans to American civilization has been so
great that this award simply gives deserved recognition to those men and
women who thus serve their state and country.”

HUMAN BRAIN CELLS GROWN IN TEST TUBE
EXPERIMENTS
Don Hinga

Houston, Oct. 14 — -For the first time in medical history human brain
cells are being grown in test tubes in the tissue culture laboratory at the
Texas University school of medicine.

And Dr. C. M. Pomerat, professor of cytology, and internationally
known authority on the science of cells, who is doing the work, believes
that the procedure may open up a vast new avenue of approach to ills
that plague the brain, the greatest enigma in medicine.

"At least,” says the doctor, a chubby, balding man of 46 who finds
humor even in his test tubes, "it gives us a brand new handle to pry open
the door to the brain and let us try our bag of tricks seeking cures to mental
ailments.’

Doctor Pomerat’s research leads him to believe that man now stands
on the threshold of learning something new about the chemistry and behavior
of brain cells. For the first time, he has a medium for studying the brain
in action.

"If we knew more about what makes the brain tick, how it goes off the
track,” he says, "we can approach it from a new angle and seek means to
rectify abnormal actions. We believe this new, dynamic approach may lead us
to possible cures for schizophrenia, paranoia, brain tumors and other ills.”

1951, No. 4
December 30

Dr. C. M. Pomerat

675

Heretofore, most studies of the brain have been made from tissue and
cells that were dead. Doctor Pomerat and his staff take slivers of brain tissue
from tumors that have just been excised from prefrontal lobotomy opera¬
tions and rush them to his laboratory.

They are placed alive in his test tubes and nourished with various liquid
foods.

And through the perfusion chamber he has developed, and using highly
magnifying lens that bring the cells up as much as 100,000 times, a motion
picture camera and a time lapse apparatus, he projects them on a screen and
studies their actions.

The tiny fragments of brain, so small that they are almost invisible to
the naked eye, are placed on slides with a hollow, round center, in clots made
of a combination of rooster plasma and chicken embryo. These two factors
have been found to have highly nutritive value.

Then they are placed in the perfusion chamber, a glass tray with a
tube running up one side, and two tiny, threadlike tubes, one that runs from
the larger tube on one side into the center of the chamber, where the cell
to be studied is located, and the other carrying off the fluids.

Through one of these tiny tubes, they are fed a nourishing fluid com¬
posed of 50 per cent human body fluid (serum or ascitic fluid), 45 per cent
salt solution and 5 per cent chicken embryo extract.

The cells are then placed in the time-lapse camera and photographed
at an average rate of eight times a minute. When these are speeded up, they
make the movie, just as Walt Disney makes animated movies from a series
of progressive drawings.

While the cells are being nourished in the perfusion chamber, they are
fed various compounds. It may be cobra venom, alcohol, anti-epilepsy drugs,
or anything that may have effect on a brain cell.

"Thus, when the series of pictures are run off in the movie projector,”
he says, "we can tell from the living cell what the application of these com¬
pounds does to the cell. It is a dynamic approach to what may be cures in
the future.”

For instance, curare, the deadly poison South American Indians use to
tip their arrows with, is one of the world’s most potent drugs. A new anti¬
curare compound has been developed recently.

"Curare, while we can make good use of it,” the doctor explains, "pro¬
duces a violent shock on the human system. It may stop breathing. By
bathing a cell with this new anticurare compound we can see just how
much is needed to restore breathing. We are just beginning to see just how
much curare affects nerves. We can see at what doses restoration occurs and
exactly what takes place.”

Doctor Pomerat says that theoretically human cells are immortal. Some
have been kept alive for as long as 20 years. His laboratory has a vast col¬
lection of all kinds of tissues. So far tissue from the brains of 121 patients
have gone into his studies.

The marginal tissues of tumors of the brain are normal. By taking
tissue from the diseased and the normal parts0 and studying the case histories,
Doctor Pomerat believes a long stride can be taken along the road to
"intensely exciting things.”

One of these "exciting things” was the discovery that several kinds of
brain cells have a rhythmic, pulsating action. The brain is made up of around
16,000,000,000 cells and the microscope and movie film show that there is

676

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

a constant "jingle jangle action” going on. He found there is a contraction
every four or five minutes in certain species of cells.

"There are two exciting interpretations of this discovery,” Doctor Pom-
erat explains. One is that this constant, pulsating activity may force fluids
through the brain with a massaging effect. In other words, millions of tiny
pumps are working in the brain.

"The other is that this action may be the basic factor in sending off
electrical impulses or brain waves that can be picked up with an electro-
encephelograph. These waves may be coming from pulsating cells rather than
neurones.”

The movie screen gives a startling, inside-your-skull view of what is
going on. To illustrate what he is discovering, Doctor Pomerat ran off a
film showing this pulsating action under normal conditions.

Almost like a highly magnified picture of a snowflake, with its myriad
patterns, the cell came on the screen with a regular "breathing action.” Tiny
tendrils reached out from one cell to another, hooked up, and began pulling
at each other.

"Scavenger” cells moved about the screen, cleaning up "debris,” as the
doctor called it.

The pulling action of the unbelievably tiny tendrils seemed to have tre¬
mendous power. On and on, the cells continued to pulsate at a rate of eight
times to the minute.

Then, through the perfusion chamber, a solution of a compound was
introduced. You have sat in a movie and seen aerial shots of a forest fire at
night. The cells seemed to explode into mushrooms of flame. Tendrils shot
out in all directions. Yet the rhythmic action continued.

Several kinds of pulsating actions have been discovered, the earliest in
a brain tumor in England in 193 5. The scientist who discovered this action
died before he could continue research. Doctor Pomerat bought the original
film in its crude state and has it in his laboratory.

"We, however, are the fortunate first to show activity in normal brain
tissue. I think that this is the most significant discovery of my research
career. The possibilities are tremendous.”

With ordinary smear technique the cells would die. With this combi¬
nation of tissue culture, time-lapse cinephotography, cells are made to live
outside the body and through the moving picture, coupled with the micro¬
scope, the cells, magnified as high as 80,000 to 100,000 times, can be studied
clearly.

"Thus we have a clear picture of the effect on a cell of drugs of all
kinds,” he says. "We are now not limited to use of animals with similar
cellular structure. We can see into the cell without discomforture to the
patient, for his cells can be made to live in glass dishes.”

Most mental diseases are almost completely obscure. The brain is almost
an uncharted sea. For instance, medical men know that electric shock has a
beneficial effect on some mental conditions.

"The theory is,” the doctor goes on, "that this shock disarranges the
pattern of the brain and that when the brain cells regroup after the shock
there is a new pattern that does not have the disturbing shape that made the
patient a mental case.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Dr. C. M. Pomerat

677

"I say that is the theory. But we do not know positively. We do not
know what causes schizophrenia. We do not know what effect curare, cobra
venom, anti-epilepsy and other drugs have. In some cases they seem to be
beneficial but we do not know why.

“We know that we have dreams and nightmares but we do not know
why. Memory preserves impressions. Why? Hypnotism works on some per¬
sons, but why? Morphine deadens pain but we do not know precisely why.

"There is always that eternal question— WHY?

“This new technique is just another attempt to get new answers more
quickly.55

While his most exciting discoveries have been made on the brain, Doctor
Pomerat’s tissue culture laboratory is growing cells of all kinds. It’s a sort
of Ponce de Leon search for eternal life, with the “spring55 in a small glass
vial.

His laboratory has a capacity to run 7000 of what he calls “hanging
drop cultures.55 There are 800 in roller tubes in a drum that revolves slowly
to give a back-and-forth washing effect with nourishing solutions, which
feed the cells eight times an hour and are changed twice a week.

Doctor Pomerat is convinced that with this new technique scientists
will have a better chance to see what turns a normal cell into a malignant,
cancerous one.

“We hope to be able to see what induces cancer by using certain hor¬
mones and tell how the mechanism is affected by these hormones. The cells
that are seen in cancerous conditions can be studied in all phases.

“We can wash the stomach and lungs and from the liquid extract the
diseased cells and put them to work on the movie screen.

“It is not beyond the bounds of reason that we can grow the whole
lining of a lung and then make critical tests regarding the possibility that
smoke and street gases may induce cancer.

“We’ll just blow a little smoke through the perfusion chamber on to a
lung lining cell and see what happens.55

There is a theory among doctors that smoking induces cancer. Well,
now we can see.”

In precancerous lesions, cells can be fed with sex hormones and watched
to see whether they turn malignant. A live piece of stomach can be grown
long after death and better studied in treatment of ulcers and other stomach
ills.

In allergies, a smear of nasal mucosa goes into the perfusion chamber,
is fed with rag weed or other highly pollinated plants, and the reaction
watched.

Through the study of burned skin in the chamber, the laboratory may
come up with a treatment for atomic bums, vital in these days, of new
weapons and world tensions.

Doctor Pomerat has devoted his life to pure research. It is a constant
battle for funds to carry on projects that may solve ills of the human race.

For instance, in his laboratory, they use minute knives to cut up tissue
fragments under a microscope. They cost a lot of money. The doctor im¬
provised by shattering razor blades and soldering the fragments into the eyes
of needles.

“I bought needles by the gross,” he says. “After several trips to the
notions counter, the elderly saleswomen became intensely curious, They
wanted to know what I was doing with so many needles,”

678

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

With this bubbling sense of humor that is so in contrast with his pains¬
taking laboratory work, he told them:

"I have a large family and make all their clothes.”

In his consecrated life, he has never married — "have’nt had time.” After
dinner, it’s normal to find him alone in his lab far into the night.

The "Dr.” in front of his name is not medical but doctor of philosophy.
He took his bachelor of arts degree at Clark University in his native Massa¬
chusetts and master of arts and doctor of philosophy at Harvard.

He was a traveling fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation with a back¬
ground of study and lecture in Cambridge and Oxford, London, South
America, Lisbon, Milan and France.

A former president of the Texas Academy of Science, he holds mem¬
bership in 10 scientific societies. His research and lecturing also has carried
him to Hudson Bay, Canada, the West Indies, British Guiana, Venezuela and
some 20 trips to Mexico for study, lectures and his hobby of painting, which
grew out of a test tube, too.

That’s a tremendous amount of work to pack into 46 years, but he is
convinced that his brain-cell work is the greatest of his career.

"We are working in the realm of pure science,” he says in his precise,
professorial English. "It is unfortunate that we cannot say at this time what
the practical applications may be.

"But, standing on the threshold, the vista is limitless and the possibilities
infinite.”

DALLAS WILL HONOR TEXAS DOCTOR
WITH DAY, AWARD

Dallas, Oct. 2 5 — (AP) — Mayor J. B. Adoue, Jr., has designated Friday
as "Dr. Pomerat Day” in Dallas.

The honoree, Dr. Charles M. Pomerat, professor at the University of
Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, arrived here Thursday to receive the A.
Harris & Co award for outstanding research in the field of pure science.

The award — consisting of a plaque and $1000 cash- — will be presented
to the 46-year-old professor of cytology at a banquet here Friday night.

Dr. Pomerat was selected for the award for his research work in study
of human cells and growth of cancerous cells.

1951, No. 4
December 30

Book Reviews

679

BOOK REVIEWS

DE RE METAL LICA. Georgius Agricola. Translated by Herbert Clarke Hoover and Lou

Henry Hoover. 1950. Dover Publications, Inc. New York, xxxii, 640, 289 ills. $10.

Here is one of the most treasured scientific classics of all time! A book
that has been more often referred to in literature on mining and metallurgy
than any other. A book for which collectors and libraries have paid up to
$150 per copy in the out-of-print market.

First published in 1 5 56, this was the only authoritative text on the
production of metals for almost 200 years. Translated in 1912 by Herbert
Clark Hoover and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, this great work was printed
in a limited edition which was quickly bought up.

De Re Metallica was the first book on mining to be based on field re¬
search and observation — what we today would call the "scientific approach.”
It was the first to offer detailed technical drawings to demonstrate the vari¬
ous techniques used in the field, and the first to provide a realistic history
of mining from antiquity to the middle of the 16th century.

The book contains material on alluvial mining, alchemy, silver refining,
smelting, surveying, timbering, nitric acid making and hundreds of other
interesting phases of metallurgy. It describes hew mines were drained, ore
was crushed, shafts were constructed. It covers the legal aspects of mining
— -the use of boundary stones, forfeitures of titles, the specific safety re¬
quirements of tunnel-building in the 1 5 00’s.

Because of the broadscope of De Re Metallica, mining engineers, metal¬
lurgists, book collectors, artists and illustrators, historians and mediaevalists
will all find something of interest and importance in this volume.

There are three appendices by former President Hoover, three indexes,
a bibliographical and historical introduction, Agricola’s original preface, a
facsimile of the 1 5 56 title page, four facsimile pages from the original Latin
text.

A PAGEANT OF THE SEA : The Macpherson Collection of Maritime Prints and Drawings

in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. M. S. Robinson. 1950. Staples Press. 45s.

Mr. Robinson’s noble album of prints and drawings of line-of-battle
ships, frigates, Indiamen, clippers and early steamships; of sea battles, ad¬
mirals and captains, ports and anchorages and old charts, some in color,
will draw attention to what is owed to that amateur sailor — -he fell ill, late
in life, while navigating his own small craft in the Southern Ocean with
but one companion — the late A. G. H. Macpherson. He was a breezy man,
but a learned and fastidious collector. It is proper to call his collection a
pageant of the sea.

It was lucky chance that secured it for the nation. Mcpherson spent
more than he could afford in searching for and buying rarities that predated
the camera wherever they were likely to be found, until it grew apparent to
him that they would have to be dispersed. It happened that Queen Mary saw
the collection, and Macpherson was bidden to Buckingham Palace. The King
recognized its unique value, and Macpherson was encouraged to hold on
till help was found. Sir Geoffrey Callender aided in finding it, and the col¬
lection was secured in 1928, through the liberality of Sir James Caird. It vs
now at Greenwich.

680

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December SO

Each print and drawing in this book is a glimpse into some maritime
adventure, from Noah building his ark to a picture of the Captain, that
early ironclad with turret guns mounted on a hull that was expected to
carry the canvas of a three-decker; so retentive is nautical convention that
we see — while remembering that she capsized with all hands while on her
trials in the Bay of Biscay, 1870 — that this ironclad also carried a bow¬
sprit and jibboom complete with dolphin-striker. The coloured frontispiece
of the volume is a curious effort, dated 1802, to picture the disastrous battle
of La Rochelle, 1372. For this is not simply a pageant in which only those
sea fights favorable to us are shown, though, of course, the First of June,
1794, St. Vincent, Camperdown, the Nile, Copenhagen and Trafalgar — and
others — are all present. There is also a Dutch picture of the Royal Prince,
ashore on the Galloper, hauling down her flag, 1666; and again one of the
execution of Admiral Byng. Hardly a page but causes the reflection: what
conjuncture of events brought about that scene? For not every one will
recall at once why the Investigator was in a critical position on the coast of
Baring Island, 18 51; nor why the boats went into action in Fatshan Creek,
1857.

The volume, however, has for its guide Mr. M. S. Robinson, whose
copious text, in historical survey, gives relevance and understanding to the
whole. And since the National Maritime Museum, where the Macpherson
Collection is kept, is one of our great show-pieces, and this is the year of
festival when it is supposed many visitors will be here, anxious to learn
what we have to say for ourselves, let it be suggested that the gracious
palace at Greenwich, with its maritime treasures, should be indicated to
them, and access made easier than at present it is.

JOHN RAY. A BIBLIOGRAPHY. Geoffrey Keynes. 1951. Faber and Faber. London. 50s.

During the nine years that have elapsed since Canon Raven’s John
ray, naturalist, first appeared, interest in Ray’s life and works has been
greatly quickened, and collectors have paid increasing attention to his books.
Now Mr. Geoffrey Keynes comes forward with a definitive bibliography,
and in so doing pays graceful and deserved tribute not only to Canon Raven
for the stimulus of his book and for the detailed information contained in
it about Ray’s various works but also to Mr. Hugh Macdonald, who, having,
unknown to Mr. Keynes, also started on a similar bibliography, retired
in Mr. Keyne’s favor, and with characteristic generosity placed his own
notes at the other’s disposal. Mr. Keynes modestly does not record in the
present bibliography his own preliminary handlist of John ray’s works
which he had privately printed in a few copies for Canon Raven in 1944,
although it must undoubtedly have served as a useful basis for the larger
work and contributed to its greater accuracy: it should, however, have its
place in the Ray canon.

Mr. Keynes has listed Ray’s works under 23 main headings, with 108
separate editions and variants, and in his now familiar bio-bibliographical
manner has prefaced each purely bibliographical description with a fascinat¬
ing account of the growth, publication and consequent reception of each
book, so that we never forget the author himself and are impressed, as Mr.
Keynes has been, with his loyalty to friends, his modesty and his integrity.
Ray’s versatility has the advantage of attracting collectors of diverse in¬
terests, and as only a few of his books can be called really rare, represen-

1951, No. 4
December 30

Book Reviews

681

tative collections can still be assembled. Although there are no great biblio¬
graphical problems to be unravelled, Mr. Keynes has succeeded in differ¬
entiating a number of editions and variants for the first t.me, and is always
illuminating. In a short review only a few points can be recorded. Of the
CATALOGUS PLANTARUM CIRCA CANTABRIGIAM, 1660, 18 Copies with the
Cambridge imprint have been recorded, as against only four with the
London one. Of books that Ray himself lists as having used for his collec¬
tion of English proverbs, it is noteworthy that the children’s diction¬
ary, "a book well known formerly in schools” (Ray’s own phrase), appears
from the S.T.C. and wing not to have survived in a single copy, while Ray’s
own dictionariolum trillingue is represented by an average of only two
copies for each of its 12 editions.

Ray complains that the bookseller concerned in his collection of
English words was "so stingy and sordid as not to allow me copies for my
friends.” Of this same curious hotchpotch Skeat, its later editor, pointed out
its interest as a source of technical terms used in Ray’s day, while Mr.
Keynes draws attention to Ray’s role as an unregarded pioneer in the re¬
form of English spelling. Willughby’s ornithologia, in which Ray’s major
share is now acknowledged, is adjudged "one of the fairest monuments that
mark the progress of scientific history,” and the historia plantarum
"Ray’s greatest work.” Mr. Keynes, who writes of the latter, "In June,
168 5, Robinson was evidently urging on Ray the publication of Proposals
for the new work, but Ray cautiously resisted this,” does not seem aware
that such a proposal was actually published in the form of a broadside in
1685, for the Guildhall Library possessed a copy which was unfortunately
destroyed in the recent war. the wisdom of god was Ray’s most popular
work; it reached a thirteenth edition by 1762, was reprinted six more times,
and was plagiarized by Paley. The amusing story is told of the sumptuous
production by the Royal Society of the de historia piscium, and of how it
strained the resources of the society so much that several of its officers re¬
ceived their salaries in the form of 50 or more copies of a volume that had
proved unsaleable. In his preface to miscellaneous discourses Ray excuses
his haste in "huddling up and tumbling out Books” by saying: "Posthumous
Pieces generally prove inferiour to those put out by the authors in their
lives.”

Mr. Keynes has not sought to locate copies of Ray’s books outside the
libraries of the British Isles, but a glance at the uncorrected proofs of the
still unpublished third volume of wing bears out the general inference of
rarity already indicated, and also reveals the very respectable holdings of the
Bibliotheque Nationale, thus testifying to Ray’s reputation on the Conti¬
nent. But an inquiry abroad might have located copies coloured by hand
said to exist of the Paris reprint of the synopsis avium. The Bibliography
has been well printed at the Oxford Press, and, although its greenish grey
paper will not appeal to all, it is handsomely produced, and has reproduc¬
tions of the more important title-pages and variants, and three collotypes,
two of portraits of Ray — an attractive pastel by William Faithborne, and a
painting attributed to Mary Beale — and one of a page annotated by Ray of
his printed catalogus plantarum angliae.

6 82

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

A Message to Members . . .

OUR advertisers are our special
friends, for by their patronage
they open to us increased oppor¬
tunities for continued growth of
The Texas Journal of Science . . .

WE are indeed gratified and pleased
with the remarkable progress which has
been made by the Journal from its
modest beginning a few years ago to
its present place as one of the
outstanding publications of its
kind in America. Our advertisers
have played no small part in
making this progress possible . . .

As a member of the Academy we ask
that you promote the interests of
our advertisers wherever possible.

ON OUR PART, by seeking to offer fair prices; by the

excellence of the Journal and its

purpose; we are endeavoring to

serve well those advertisers we now

have — and to attract others to

our pages . . .

THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE . . .

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF MANUSCRIPTS

1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the Editor, Texas Journal of
Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor
editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the
Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with
wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type,
closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than
any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors
to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly difficult to make
necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to bibliographies.

2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not more
than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board finds
it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper. If the
paper can be improved or condensed the editor may return it for such
changes.

3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: —

Title

Name of Author
Affiliation of Author
Body of Paper
Literature Cited

The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible.

These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as
they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased
time and raises costs.

5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: —

Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex.

J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis.

- 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography.

Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps.

- 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a

bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis.

The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier
for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and
page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all.

6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the
Academy publishing budget. All illustrations should be in black and
white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper
and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬
trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should
be precise and included with the drawings and illustration.

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 31)

7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if possible,
should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography.

8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish
proofs to the editor so that two copies may be sent to the author for
proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return
this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to
be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on
which the author has been mo' e prompt. Moreover, remember that
extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has
been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be
made the expense will, of necessity fall on the author.

9. The following schedule of prices will apply to reprints, subject
to change. All orders must be sent directly to the publisher on sheets
enclosed with the galley proof. The editor assumes no responsibility
for reprints and all arrangements are strictly between the author and
the publisher. Checks must accompany reprint orders. This of course
does not apply to institutional orders, but only to those Academy mem¬
bers ordering personal copies. This keeps bookkeeping at a minimum
and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the
most desirable way to handle the matter, despite the fact that formerly
it was the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher
and to collect from the individual member.

100 Copies

On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper

Pages

1 Page

2 Pages

3 to 4

5 to 8

9 to 12

12 to 16

4.63

5.78

7.95

10.78

15.40

Each Additional 4 Pages

or part thereof 2.84

Each Additional 100 Copies

1.58

2.12

3.02

3.98

4.89

5.81

Each Additional 4 Fages or part thereof .91

10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s
affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts.

The Editorial Board

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Professional Directory

J. BRIAN EBY

Consulting Geologist

1404 Esperson Bldg.

Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex.

JOHN S. IVY

Geologist

1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas

LEONARD J. NEUMAN

Registered Professional Engineer

Geological and Geophysical Surveys
Petroleum Engineering Reports
Houston, Texas

Geophysics Office Engineering Office

943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705
Ph. FA-7086

PETTY GEOPHYSICAL

ENGINEERING COMPANY

Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys

317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas

LEO HORVITZ

Geochemical Prospecting

Horvitz Research Laboratories

Houston, Texas

Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street

COCKBURN OIL

CORPORATION

1740 Commerce Building

HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

MICHEL T. HALBOUTY

Consulting

Geologist and Petroleum Engineer

Shell Building

Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376

E. E. ROSAIRE

Prospecting for Petroleum

DALLAS, TEXAS

COASTAL OIL FINDING
COMPANY

Gravity Meter Surveys

Esperson Building

Houston 2, Texas

H. KLAUS

Geologist

KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY

Lubbock, Texas

WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR.

Consulting Geologist

2101-03 Alamo National Building

SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS

Consulting Geologists

Appraisals Reservoir Engineers

DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON

Continental Building

DALLAS, TEXAS

HERSHAL C. FERGUSON

Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist

Esperson Building

HOUSTON, TEXAS

8251^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La.

E. DARRELL WILLIAMS

Consulting Geophysicist

3114 Prescott Street

Houston 5, Texas j

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 80

Professional Directory

Continued

D’ARCY M. CASHIN

Geologist Engineer

Specialist Gulf Coast Salt Domes
Examinations, Reports, Appraisals
Estimates of Reserves

2018 Nat’l. Standard Bldg.

Houston 2, Texas

ZINGERY BLUE PRINT CO. !

(“Greater Distance - Greater Discount”)

Phone Preston 7691

435 Esperson Building

Houston 2, Texas

LOCKWOOD & ANDREWS

Consulting Engineers

Houston

SAMPLE AND CHILDERS

C. H. Sample A. F. Childers, Jr.

Consulting Geologists

901 Southern Standard Bldg.

Houston 2, Texas

DALE SHEPHERD, C. L. U.

and Associates

Estate Analysis - Pension Planning-
Insurance Programming - Business Insur.
General Agents

Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co.
1802-3-4-5 Esperson Bldg. Houston

S. RUSSELL (PAT) CASEY, JR.

Petroleum Management Company

Electric Building

Phone CH-1622

Houston, Texas

AMERICAN A

BRAHMAN M

BREEDERS
ASSOCIATION
2711 S. MAIN •

EMBLEMATIC

OF THE BEST
IN MODERN

MERICAN BEEF
BRAHMANS

HOUSTON 2, TEXAS

SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC

1007 South Shepherd Drive
Houston, Texas

Established — 1932

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

Quality

TIRES and BATTERIES

AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’

HOUSTON, TEXAS

? RAKE FOODS

WINES, LIQUEURS
AND CHAMPAGNES

From the World’s
Markets!

fjt

GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

3806 Cedar Springs Rd.

Dallas 4, Texas

11 5214 North Second St.
Abilene, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

CHANGE TO ESS 0 EXTRA

Wi«n you next change the oil in the
crankcase of your car, try Humble Esso Extra.
The extra qualities of this fine motor oil
make it first choice for people who
are particular about the care of their cars.

It is a Heavy Duty, detergent oil
with an unusually high viscosity index.

You’ll find it at the Humble sign not far
from your home or office.

HUMBLE OIL & REFINING CO

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

A MUST for Visitors

<R?

TURF GRILL

2216 Market • Galveston, Texas

The Texas Journal of Science

1951, No. 4
December 30

cAlway,3 Choose an
Affiliated National Hotel!

29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities

AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS

TEXAS

ALABAMA

Hotel Admiral Semmes . Mobile

Hotel

Thomas Jefferson .

..Birmingham

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

Hotel

Washington .

...Washington

INDIANA

Hotel

Claypool .

...Indianapolis

LOUISIANA

Jung

Hotel

Hotel .

DeSoto .

.New Orleans
New Orleans

NEBRASKA

Hotel

Paxton . .

. Omaha

NEW MEXICO

Hotel Clovis . . Clovis

SOUTH CAROLINA
Hotel Wade Hampton . Columbia

Hotel Stephen F. Austin..
Hotel Edson . .

. .Austin

. Beaumont

Hotel Brownwood ....

. Brownwood

Hotel Baker . .

Hotel Travis .

. Dallas

Hotel Cortez .

Hotel Buccaneer . .

Hotel Galvez . .

Hotel Jean LaFitte ...

Coronado Courts .

Miramar Court . .

Hotel Cavalier . .

Hotel Plaza .

Hotel Lubbock .

. El Paso

. Galveston

. Laredo

. Lubbock

Hotel Falls .

. Marlin

Hotel Cactus .

Hotel Menger

....San Angelo

..San Antonio

Angeles Courts .

...San Antonio

VIRGINIA

Hotel Mountain Lake Mountain Lake

Hotel Monticello . Norfolk

Schlumberger Well Surveying
Corporation

Electrical Well Logging
Gun Perforating

Houston, Texas

ROBERT H. RAY CO.

Gravity Meter Survey

and

Interpretation

FOREIGN - DOMESTIC

2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas

1951, No. 4
December 30

The Texas Journal of Science

TAYLOR EXPLORATION
COMPANY

SEISMIC SURVEYS
CONSULTING

2118 Welch
Houston, Texas

CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND CO-COUNCILLORS

r ( I '

President, Jofin G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston

Alexander, Nelle, Education Agency. Austin,... . . . . .Conservation Education

Anderson, D. A., College Station....... . i~, . , . . . . '. . . Forests

Baughman, J. L., Rockport. . . Marine Resources

Bone, Norfleet, Austin . . . . . . . - . . . - . State Parks

Blau, L. W„ Humble Oil Go., Houston . . . .Food Values.

Campbell, Kenneth, Sheffield Steel, Houston... . * . . Metals

Campbell, T. N., University of Texas, Austin! . - . . . Archeology

Dawson, Everett, Austin . . . A . . . u . . ...... , . . . Wildlife

Donahue, Roy, College Station . Hi...-...:...: . . . . . .Economics

Eby, J. B., 1414 Esperson Building, Houston . Industrial Opportunity

Evans, Glen L., University of Texas . . . . . . . . Paleontology

Hartman, Monroe A., Box 18-9.8, Fort Worth. . . . . . . Irrigation

Hewatt, W. G., Fort Worth . . . . . . i . .T....\.T1....v.J: . Marine Resources

Johnson, L., College Station . . . . ..A . .'....A . . . . . . . . . Education

Kading, Daniel, University of Texas, Austin.. . . Philosophy

Lamar, J. K., University of Texas, Galveston........ . . . Human Fertility

LaMotte, Chas., College Station ' h . . t..L.'. . ! . ii..L . Collegiate Talent

Leake, C. D., University of Texas, Galveston . . Human Health

Marsh, Ernest G., Austin ..... . . . . . .........:....,1:......... . . . v . .....Wildlife

Oliver, C. P., University of Texas, Austin . . . . . Human Genetics

Oppe, Greta, Ball High School, Galveston . . Junior Academy Talent

■

Paine, L. S., Economics, College Station . . . . . Social Values

Pence, F. K., University of Texas, Austin . . .... . . . Ceramics

Sutherland, R. Hogg Foundation, Austin . Mental Health

Taylor, D. B., State Department of Health, Austin . Health Education

Taylor, Wayne, Denton High School, Denton . . . . . . . . . High School Talent

Walser, Paul, Soil Service, Temple . . . . . . . Water, Soil, Crops

Weaver, Paul, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston . . . . . . . . . . Water

Wolff, S. E., Box 1898, Fort Worth . . . . Plant Breeding

Yourig, V, L., College Station....^ . . Range and Forest

J ; 0-

PURPOSE : To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers
together and , by publishing the results of their investigations I to advise individuals and the
government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities.
ORGANIZATION : The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields.. In the Senior
Academy, there are five Sections : Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and
Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas,
South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science
clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in
secondary schools.

MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of
science’? is eligible to membership.

PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in
THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly.

MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the
spring of i each year.

DUES : Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment.

Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment.

Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate
as active members.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each.

CHAPTER SIX in the Fascinating Story of, the Search for Oil

Ail A /uU The first of the geophy¬
sical methods to be used in oil prospecting
was that of surveys of variations in the earth’s
graviational field by the use of the Eotvos
torsion balance. The torsion balance was es¬
sentially a modification into a comparatively
robust field instrument of the older and more
fragile Coulomb balance which had been used
in physical laboratories since the 18th century
for investigating and demonstrating the laws
of gravitational attraction. The first torsibn
balance surveys in the United States were made
in the Spindletop, Texas salt dome field in
early December, 1922, but the first geophysi¬
cal prospect to be proved in the United States1
was on the Nash Ranch in Fort Bend County,
Texas, where oil /was discovered on the flank
of a salt dome on January 3, 1926. The use
of torsion balance for oil prospecting reached
its peak in 1928-29. From E. DeGolyer’s
book, The Development of the Art of Pros¬
pecting,” and from: a report by Dr. J. Brian
Eby.

Ail A / A With the comihemoration
this year of the 50th Anniversary of the dis¬
covery of the Spindletop field, the oil in¬
dustry has moved into/ a new era which will ,
demand more petroleum products than any
other period in the history of the world. In
order to help locate these, reserves for the j
future, General Geophysical now has more 1
crews in the field thah at any other period
in the history of the company. Working wdth
specialized seismograph equipment ... de¬
veloped in General laboratories to meetj spe-'

cific needs for various areas . . . these Gen¬
eral Geophysical crews are scattered from:
Canada to the Gulf Coast. For more than 15
years, operators have relied on General’s ex¬
perienced crewrs to determine and locate con¬
ditions favorable to finding new oil reserves.'
So w'hen you plan to explore new areas and
deeper horizons for tomorrow’s reserves, let
General help you, The percentage for suc¬
cess is in your favor.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Texas journal of science"

See other formats