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THE JOURNAL
OF
MENTAL SCIENCE,
|JnbIis{>tb bg i|ft ^nijjoritg of Ijje
ASSOCIATION OF MEDICAL OFFICERS
OF ASYLUMS AND HOSPITALS
FOR THE INSANE:
EDITED BY
JOHN CHARLES BUCKNILL, M.D.
VOLUME VI.
^ LONDON:
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN & ROBERTS.
I 860 .
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PRINTED BY WILLIAM POLLARD,
NORTH STREET.
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INDEX TO VOLUME VI.
Address of the President of the Association, Sir Charles
Hastings - - - - - 3
Ann ual Meeting of the Association at Liverpool - 1
Annual Reports of Lunatic Asylums ... 495
Annual Report, (Second,) of the General Board of Lunacy
for Scotland ..... 466
Appointments .... 100,380
Axlidge, J. T., M.B., on the State of Lunacy, and of the
Legal Provision for the Insane (Review) - - 94
Aspirations from the Inner, the Spiritual Life, by Dr. H.
M'Cormick (Review) .... 628
Bucknill, John Charles, M.D., on Thirteenth Report of the
Commissioners in Lunacy - 141
„ „ on the Jamaica Lunatic Asylum - 167
„ ,, on the Work and the Counterwork, or
the Religious Revival in Belfast - 167
„ „ on the Physiognomy of Insanity - 207
„ „ on Notes on Nursing - . 481
„ „ on Reports of Lunatic Asylums - 495
„ „ on Criminal Lunatics - - 518
„ „ on the Offices of Resident and Visiting
Physicians in Irish District Asylums 520
„ „ on Aspirations from the Inner, the
Spiritual Life - - 258
Browne, J. Esq., on Psychical Diseases of Early Life - 284
Bushnan, J. Stevenson, M.D., What is Psychology ? >39
„ „ on Potentiality and Actuality in Man 461
Causes of Mental Diseases, by Dr. E. Jarvis - - 119
Commissioners in Lunacy, Thirteenth Report of the - 141
Commissioners in Lunacy for Scotland, Second Annual Report
of the ..... 465
Conolly, J., M.D., The Physiognomy of Insanity - 207
Consciousness as a Truth Organ Considered, by the Rev. W.
G. Davies .... 101,869
Correlation of the Mental and Physical Forces, by Henry
Maudsley, M.D. - - - 60
Criminal Lunatics. A Letter to the Chairman of the Com¬
missioners in Lunacy, by W. C. Hood, M.D. (Review) - 613
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Index.
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Davey, Dr., on Insanity and Crime ...
Davies, Rev. W. G., Consciousness as a Truth-Organ con¬
sidered, or Contributions to Logical Psychology 101, 369
Delepierre, Octave, Histoire Litteraire des Fous (Review) - 389
Diagnosis of Acute Mania and Melancholia, by J. J. Atkin¬
son, M.D. ..... 283
Ewings, Inquisition in Lunacy on Miss • Appendix
Foote, R. F. F., M.D., on the Condition of the Insane, and
the Treatment of Nervous Diseases in Turkey - - 239
Gaskell, Samuel, Esq., on the Want of Better Provision for
the Labouring and Middle Classes - • 321
General Paralysis, by Dr. Harrington Tuke - 78, 198, 420
Homicidal Mania, Case of, without Disorder of the Intellect,
by C. Lockhart Robertson, M.B. ... 385
M’llwaine, Rev. W., on Ulster Revivalism - 178, 439
Lalor, Joseph, M.D., Observations on the Offices of Resident
and Visiting Physicians of District Lunatic Asylums in
Ireland ..... 520
Legal Provision for the Insane, on the, by J. T. Arlidge, M.B. 94
Logical Psychology, Contributions to, by Rev. W. G. Davies 369
Lunatic Asylums, Annual Reports of - - • 495
Maudsley, Henry, M.D., The Correlation of Mental and
Physical Force - - 60
„ „ Edgar Allan Poe - - 328
„ „ Histoire Litteraire des Fous, by
Octave Delepierre - - 398
Nightingale’s, Miss, Notes on Nursing - - 481
Officers of Association, Election of - - 16
Poe, Edgar Allan, by Henry Maudsley, M.D. (Review) - 828
Potentiality and Actuality in Man, by J. S. Bushnan, M.D. - 461
Psychical Diseases of Early Life, by J. Crichton Browne • 284
Psychology ? What is, by J. Stevenson Bushnan, M.D. - 39
Religious Revival in Belfast, by Archdeacon Stopford (Review) 167
Reports, Annual, of Lunatic Asylums ... 495
Robertson, C. Lockhart, M.B., a Descriptive Notice of the
Sussex Lunatic Asylum, Hayward’s Heath 247
„ A Case of Homicidal Mania without dis¬
order of the Intellect - - 385
„ Second Annual Report of Commissioners
in Lunacy for Scotland (Review) - 465
Statistics of Asylums - - - - 22
Tuke, Dr. Harrington, on General Paralysis 78,198, 420
Treasurer’s Report . . .14
Want of Better Provision for the Laboring and Middle Classes
when attacked or threatened with Insanity .321
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THE JOURNAL OP MENTAL SCIENCE.
Vol. VI. October, 1859.
No. 31.
OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF
THE ASSOCIATION OF MEDICAL OFFICERS
OF ASYLUMS AND HOSPITALS FOR
THE INSANE.
The Annual Meeting of this Association was held in the
Liverpool Medical Institution on Tuesday, the 26th of July,
under the Presidency of Sib Charles Hastings, d.c.l.,
Members Present.
Brushfield, T. N., Esq., M.S. County Asylum, Chester.
Bucknill, Dr., M.S. County Asylum, Devon.
Davey, Dr., Northwoods, Bristol.
Fayrer, Dr., Henley-in-Arden.
Hitchman, Dr., M.S., County Asylum, Derby.
Hastings, Sir Charles, Worcester.
Ley, Wm., Esq., M.S. County Asylum, Oxfordshire.
M'Cullough, Dr. D. M., County Asylum, Abergavenny.
Palmer, Dr., M.S. County Asylum, Lincolnshire.
Paul, Dr. J. H., Camberwell House, London.
Rogers, M. L, Esq., M.S. RainhilL
Sherlock, Dr., M.S. County Asylum, Worcester.
Sheppard, Dr. E., 10, Hanover Terrace, Regent’s Park.
Tuke, Dr. Harrington, Chiswick.
The Chairman said, that before commencing the
business of the day, he thought it right to say a few words
with regard to their meeting at Liverpool, Dublin having
been fixed upon when the Association assembled in
Edinburgh as the oity in which the annual meeting should
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be held during the present year. That arrangement was
so generally considered satisfactory, that some persons
might possibly feel disappointed at the change. In March
last, however, the President received an intimation from
Dr. Stewart, that for various cogent reasons it would be
much better that the Association should not hold its annual
meeting during the present year in Dublin. It was there¬
fore thought better to appoint the meeting to be held in
Liverpool in order to suit the convenience of members of
the Medical Association attending their meeting there.
Worcester was thought of as being one of the places voted
for in Edinburgh; but, on consultation with Dr. Sherlock, it
was thought inexpedient to make Worcester the place of
meeting.
The Association, unfortunately, had not, at present,
the attendance of their Secretary, Dr. Robertson, and
it became necessary that they should appoint a Secre¬
tary, pro tern. He therefore moved that Dr. Tuke be
requested to undertake the duty.
The motion was unanimously agreed to, and Dr. Tuke
acted as Secretary accordingly.
Dr. Tuke read the following letter from Dr. Conolly:
“ The Lawn House, Hanwell, Middlesex, W,
July 23rd, 1859.
My dear Dr. Tuke,—I believe you have undertaken the
duties of Secretary, in the absence of Dr. Lockhart Robertson,
and I have therefore to request you to express my very
sincere regret to the Members of the Association of Medical
Officers of Asylums, that my engagements do not permit me
to have the gratification of attending the meeting at Liver¬
pool, on the 26th instant.
As the retiring President, I should have rejoiced in that
opportunity of thanking the members for the honour done
to me.
It is, however, most satisfactory to me to reflect that the
office of President will now be taken by my esteemed friend
Sir Charles Hastings, whose long continued labours to
maintain the true interests of the profession at large, furnish
the strongest assurance that he will neglect nothing that is
important to that branch of it, of which the Association
consists.
All the members of the medical profession engaged in the
especial treatment and management of the insane, are at
this time placed in a situation of much difficulty and some
danger. However high their character, and however great
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their experience, they are subject to injustice and to insult
The institutions connected with lunacy afford them no
protection, and they are menaced with further Legislative
enactments of a character unfavorable to them, and, as I
apprehend, equally disadvantageous to the public.
At such a time, union among the members of our Associa¬
tion is most desirable, and the Presidency of an accomplished
and independent physician, such as we all know Sir Charles
Hastings to be, is of peculiar importance.
Pray assure the members of my sincere and grateful
respect, and of my continued interest in their proceedings,
and in their honour and welfare.
Yours, my dear Dr. Tuke,
Very faithfully,
J. CONOLLY, m.d.”
The Chairman said he was sure they must all regret the
absence of Dr. Conolly.
The minutes of the last meeting were taken as read, and
confirmed accordingly.
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
The Chairman then delivered the annual address:
Gentlemen,
It is highly gratifying to me to be called upon to
preside over this Association, for it is a position which
has been occupied in succession by those whose friend¬
ship I have for many years enjoyed, and whose labours have
been earnestly devoted to the prosecution of the highly im¬
portant department of medical science, whose advancement
it is the object of this Society to promote. Yet I cannot
disguise from myself the fact, that in succeeding my revered
friend, Dr. Conolly, I have a very difficult position to main¬
tain, for his name is great, and worthy of all honour, and his
labours have been highly instrumental in producing those
improvements, which, within our own day, have taken place
in the management of the insane. I can lay claim to no such
distinction. I must, therefore, hope for your indulgence
whilst animated by an earnest desire to do my best to assist
in the deliberations which will be directed to relieve the
sufferings, and to benefit by every available solace a very
afflicted portion of the human family, I rest securely in the
conviction that I shall reoeive from you every possible
assistance in my endeavours to make the present meeting in-
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4 Annual Meeting of the Association.
strumental in carrying forward the noble and benign objects
for which this Association was instituted.
Our first and great object is to be united as brethren, and
t6 allow no selfish interests to sever the bond of fellowship
which cements our union. In the present humour of the
public mind, as respects our science, you are all well aware
that sordid motives are too often attributed to those who de¬
vote themselves to the management of the insane ; and it has
been even stated, that, owing to the distinction which un¬
doubtedly exists between public and private Asylums, there
is not that cordial co-operation amongst us which is the
very essence of the success of such an Association.
Now, it appears to me, that as far as this Association is
concerned, we have all one object in view, which is to collect
facts, from whatever source they may arise, and so to arrange
and classify them as to arrive at safe conclusions. We all
admit the imperfections of the present curative arrange¬
ments for the insane. We all lament the shortcomings of
our art We all desire to see improvements, but we at the
same time believe that those deserve encouragement who
labour in this field ; and, therefore, as long as the need exists
as it undoubtedly does exist, for the reception of patients in
private asylums, we feel confident that those engaged in
conducting them will be assisted in their efforts by their
brethren, the Superintendents of public asylums, who will,
on all occasions, hold out a friendly hand to them, and
thus they will mutually vie with each other in alleviating
the afflictions of the insane.
There is, indeed, much for grave consideration as to the
treatment of the insane, and as to the way in which the
public law should interfere to assist in the amelioration of
their condition. There can be no doubt, that within our own
day, the physiology of the brain and nervous system has
been advanced, and these investigations have, in some degree,
illustrated those obscure pathological conditions in which the
nervous system plays a conspicuous part; but when we come
to regard those phenomena which are so continually dis¬
played in the various phases of insanity, we are compelled
to admit that hitherto we have failed to derive all the
advantages from physiological discovery which we trust
advancing knowledge may at no distant time insure to us.
But in looking back to the past, it must be admitted that
the efforts made by philanthropists and physicians have
been more successful in the amelioration of the insane, by pro¬
curing better arrangements for their safe custody, and a
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kinder and more benevolent mode of management, than they
have been fruitful in results, in diminishing the prevalence of
this sad disease, or in successfully treating its more severe
forms. There is, however, no doubt that the forcible manner
in which, in modern times, the necessity of watching the
earliest departure from soundness of mind has been instilled
into the public, is likely to lead to more successful treatment,
and has already saved many from destruction.
It is also clear that the more accurate views that prevail,
relative to the mode in which disturbance of the bodily
functions interfere with mental phenomena, is likely to lead
to more successful treatment. The brain being the instrument
by which all mental manifestations are displayed, we are led
to the anticipation, that ultimately, by aid of the microscope,
we may be able to trace changes in its minute structure,
which may lead to further advances in the pathology of this
disease. Hitherto, we must admit, that morbid anatomy has
not shed much light on the morbid manifestations of mind,
but the labourers in this department are now more numerous,
and better prepared for the investigation. The careful inves¬
tigations of the reflex function of the nervous system, also
give us hope that some of the more severe forms of insanity
may, at no distant time, be better understood.
On all these obscure points, the members of this Asso¬
ciation have a wide field for observation, and I trust
that this meeting may be fruitful in eliciting facts that
may guide our future progress. At the meeting in Edin¬
burgh, the subject of the paralysis of the insane was
discussed with great advantage, and the facts there
brought forward by several members were valuable, and
aftord matter for careful speculation. The benefit that
results from these periodical gatherings is, that obscure
points in pathology, and in treatment, may be brought
forward and submitted to the candid criticism of those whose
daily intercourse with the insane gives them an insight into
the malady, which no general practitioner, whatever may be
his endowments, can possibly attain.
The relation of crime to insanity is very intricate to un¬
ravel. Every day we are presented with instances, which shew
how difficult it is to say whether a person is a criminal or insane.
No one can doubt this, who has been in the habit of intercourse
in his medical capacity with criminals, and has been called
upon to pronounce his opinion whether a criminal shall
remain in prison to receive the punishment due to his crime*
or whether he shall be transfered to a lunatic afeylum, there
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
to receive all those ameliorations of his state, which this
country now happily affords to those suffering from insanity.
The imperfection of our knowledge on this subject is in
nothing more apparent than in the fact, that among persons
having had great experience, there is often a difference of
judgment on this point; and this leads the public to place
less reliance on medical evidence in these cases, than it
deserves. Now it appears to me, that this Association may
be the means of rendering less frequent those unhappy
exposures in courts of justice, where men of high standing,
and of enlarged experience have been, so to speak, pitted
against each other, to the scandal of the profession, and to
the detriment of all parties concerned. Surely some means
should be devised, by which medical testimony in cases of
insanity may proceed on more secure principles.
There is no question that one principal source of the diffi¬
culty of giving evidence in cases of criminal insanity is the
fact, that the judges, in their celebrated exposition of the law,
have given a legal interpretation of insanity, which does not
harmonize with the views entertained by enlightened medical
investigators, who have devoted their lives to the study of the
obscure forms of mental disease. Every effort, therefore,
should be made by this Association to induce the judges of
the land to re-consider those questions as to the responsibility
or irresponsibility of persons charged with crime, and who
have committed it under circumstances which induce ex¬
perienced medical authorities to regard them as the victims
of disordered cerebral organization. . It should no longer
continue to be said of our laws, that they lean to the side
of cruelty, and that by the strict interpretation of them, as
given by the judges of the land, it is quite possible, nay even
probable, that a lunatic may, at this period of merciful ad¬
ministration of our penal code, be legally murdered.
No one indeed, can deny that the state of the lunacy law
is anything but creditable to the boasted enlightenment of the
nineteenth century ; this fact is so self-evident that many
efforts have been made to improve it, and the question has
been frequently agitated by the public at large, and by the
House of Commons.
Indeed, it must be admitted that the present state of the
law is injurious to those who are concerned in the care and
treatment of the insane. Those who are engaged in thi«
practice should never for one moment lose sight of the con¬
sideration of the imperfection of our law. Nor, should they
forget that in seeking to cure persons afflicted with insanity)
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they are so to speak, brought face to face with the law, in a
manner perfectly contrary to that of the ordinary medical
practitioner, who usually, by the free will and desire of the
patient, treats his disease; whereas in the treatment of the
insane we deprive the patient of that liberty, which to ah
Englishman is ever so dear.
This view of the master should make us cease to wonder,
that the exercise of this branch of the profession is viewed
with jealousy by the public, who are ignorant of the need
of those restrictive and coercive measures, which a state of
insanity demands. In dealing therefore with any Bill proposed
in Parliament, we should bear this in mind, and calmly en¬
deavour to assist the Legislature.
The course which was adopted by the Association at the
special meeting, called by your late President, Dr. Conolly,
was to appoint a Committee, who have reported to a special
meeting of the Association.
In considering what occurred at that special meeting, and
more especially regarding the sentiments there expressed by
several enlightened members of this Association, it must be
admitted that much remains to be done, and that the sub¬
ject requires grave and careful management.
We must not lose sight of the fact to which I have before
alluded, that in receiving a patient into an asylum, we
usually, or frequently do so against his will, and thus deprive
him of that liberty which by Englishmen is prized so highly.
It is, therefore, of unspeakable importance that the utmost
care should be taken that no person is so brought unneces¬
sarily or unjustly. I am not disposed to think that the
present mode of attesting insanity by two legally qualified
practitioners, has worked otherwise than well. I have never,
m a long experience, known any patient not insane placed
under confinement. Yet the public are jealous on this point,
and if any further security can be given against improper
detention of patients, I should be willing to see it adopted ;
but anything in the nature of a public investigation previous
to confinement is clearly impracticable. The legislature
can never, I think, be induced thus to violate the sanctity
of private life, or be a party to doing irreparable injury to
many an afflicted member of the human family, by converting
a curable into an incurable malady, which, doubtless, the
excitement of a public investigation, might, in certain cases,
readily effect. Moreover, it may be asked, is it for the public
welfare, that undue impediment should be thrown in the
way of instituting early treatment in certain obscure cases of
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
insanity ? Is it not notorious, that even under the present
system, there are persons in almost every great community,
who are dangerous from being under no control ? Is it not
a lamentable fact, that the newspapers almost daily inform us
of tragical events occurring from persons of unsound mind
not being duly cared fort
Is it, or is it not, a benevolent act, when a fellow creature
is losing self-control from cerebral disease, to take the earliest
opportunity of placing him under circumstances favourable to
his restoration ? The answer to such a question, by all those
who study the insidious nature of insanity, and who are aware
of the importance of the adoption of early curative measures,
will be unhesitatingly given in the affirmative ; but I fear our
Legislators are not sufficiently educated in this matter to
arrive at a safe conclusion, and they have not hitherto shown
a disposition to learn of those most capable of giving them
reliable information. I fear I am justified but too decidedly in
this remark, if we examine the Lunatic Treatment Bill, as
i introduced last session by Mr. Walpole. There is no internal
evidence in that Bill, of his having sought information from
those most practica lly acquai nted jydth this It may
be fairly characterised as an ons lau ght against a body of m^p .
who have given their timd" aod tneirafi'ergTes, and in some
instances, their fortune, in order to be useful in their genera-
I tion, and to have the gratification of ministering successfully
\ to the mind diseased.
\ It appears to me, I am justified in using this strong lan¬
guage, when we reflect that one of the clauses of the Bill
disqualifies all those who are engaged in the special private
treatment of the insane, from giving legal certificates, author¬
izing the adoption of curative measures. This clause is really
so offensive, and so obviously inconsistent with common sense,
that it is not probable it can become law.
There is another clause of this Bill, which is equally mis¬
chievous and cmite as impracticable, as the one to which I
have alluded. It is that which provides for the appointment
of Medical Examiners, and for the system of secret reports to
the Commissioners to be carried on by those Examiners. To
those who have fairly and impartially considered this provision,
it appears little less than an absurdity, which can never work
advantageously, and would be fraught with much evil to many
unfortunate patients, who might be seriously injured by it;
besides which, it is a kind of star-chamber proceeding, by
which the proprietor of an asylum is, as it were, to be tried
unheard, or on an ex-parte statement of the case. If I know
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anything of the mind of my country, I cannot for a moment
consider it at all probable, that the Imperial Legislature will
ever stultify itself by such an enactment. There can be no
doubt that every member of this Association will say, it is
quite right there should be a supervision of asylums, but let it
be an enlightened supervision, not a system of secret inquiry,
to which unjust suspicion is the incitement. Let it be carried
on by men thoroughly versed in the intricacies of the ab¬
struse subject to be inquired into ; not by men who have no
special experience to guide them in the difficult questions they
will have to solve.
The Commissioners in Lunacy are the parties to whom all
matters relating to the legality of detaining an insane person
ought to be referred. If they are not sufficiently numerous,
their number should be increased ; and in any additions that
are made, special care should be taken, that those practically
acquainted with the phases of insanity are placed in office. It is
dear that among the managers of public and private asylums
can men alone be found equal to this work. Hitherto the law
has excluded the latter from the commission. Why is this? Is it
that among those who are engaged in the treatment of insane
private patients, there is a deficiency of qualification for the
task ? I reply that the most stern exclusionist would not
venture on such an assertion. Is it not notorious, that there
are at this time men engaged in this practice, to whose
humanity, intelligence, unwearied zeal, ana indomitable per¬
severance, we are indebted for valuable improvements in the
treatment of the insane ? Is it not notorious that several of
them have been singularly successful in their efforts, and have
thereby insured for themselves an imperishable renown ? .And
yet these highly qualified practitioners are by the law declared
unqualified for office, and for no other reason than that they
have devoted their lives to the study of insanity, and to the
amelioration of the condition of the insane. Such exclusion
may be explained by the supposition, that the laws proceed
from the narrow views of tne special pleader, not from the
enlightened consideration of the statesman ; or from the fact,
that suspicion so blinds the mental vision of some parties,
that they are unable to distinguish the special qualifications,
which fit a man successfully to perform most important duties.
The time would fail me, if I attempted to enter upon a
consideration of all the questions on the Lunacy Laws that
are now pressing for a settlement. It is most earnestly to be
hoped, that the Legislature may take an enlightened view,
and not be blinded by prejudice, or by partiality. The con-
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JO Annual Meeting of the Association.
dition of the insane will not be benefitted by bringing in a
Bill of Pains and Penalties against those educated, high-
minded, and philanthropic men who are engaged in the
management of private asylums. It is required that a broader
scope should be taken, if the real grievances are to be met
and remedied. One of the evils, in its effect most serious, is,
that the law actually stands in the way of the early treatment
of the insane, by not permitting an unfortunate sufferer,
who feels that his disease is coming upon him, voluntarily to
place himself in charge of those who, he knows, can snatch
him from the misery which threatens him. It is illegal for
any man to place himself under treatment. Instances are
not wanting to illustrate the truth of this, and in dealing with
this grievance, the Legislature should obviate so serious an
evil, by enabling any insane patient who feels the disease
coming upon him voluntarily to go to any asylum, public or
E rivate, by giving notice to the Commissioners that such is
is wish and intention. Lord Shaftesbury, as President of
the Public Health Department, at the meeting of the Social
Science Association in Liverpool, spoke strongly on the neces¬
sity of early treatment in insanity. He said, “ whatever they
did, if it should please Providence to afflict any of their
relatives with that disorder, let them listen to the advice which
he had always given, which he would act upon if his own wife
or his own daughter were unhappily afflicted ; that wife or
that daughter should be transmitted to some private asylum.”
And further, “ if medical men allowed cases to go on until the
evidence of insanity was so unmistakeable, that every one was
convinced, why then the parties would be utterly incurable,
without any probability of being brought to their senses again.
The only hope was in the first development of the disorder.”
There is much cause for congratulation, that the Legislature
has in our day done something towards providing early
treatment for a large class of the insane. There are large and
splendid county asylums for pauper lunatics, with means of
employment such as they have been accustomed to, with
games and sports for those able to contend in them ; and it is
highly gratifying to reflect that these asylums also provide
able ana educated practitioners to watch with solicitude their
inmates, to do all that science and humanity can effect for
their restoration; and if these functionaries are not always free
from injudicious interruption in their duty ; by the Visiting
Justices, yet on the whole these latter are most assiduous
in their visits, and earnestly desirous for the restoration of
the patients. From no one point of view is the institution of
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county asylums more fraught with promise of good, in the
future, than in the fact, that a large body of medical practi¬
tioners are employed in them, who are devoting their lives
and their energies to the solace of the poor lunatic, and it is
not too much to say that this Association of Medical Officers
of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane, with all the future
benefits which are likely to result from it, would never have
flourished, but for the Act of the Imperial Legislature which
called into existence county asylums. There is every reason
to hope that the beneficial agency of these institutions will
be still further developed, and that improvements will take
place in their administration. It is devoutly to be hoped, that
on some future day, they may be instrumental in applying a
healing balm to a class of sufferers, who, for the most part are
excluded from their benefits. For under present arrangements,
for the poor and educated there is scarcely any relief. It has
been well said, “ men who have devoted their whole lives to
science and art, who, in health are eminently irritable, feeling
deeply any slight, and in some of whom their very calling
tends to enthusiasm, are reduced to exist on the smallest
possible means, extracted from suffering friends, and to be
under every disadvantage as to cure.’’ Scotland sets an
excellent example in this respect, and this class of sufferers
are well provided for. All the chartered asylums there re¬
lieve patients of this class at a very moderate rate, apart,
entirely, from pauper inmates; and they are provided with
accommodation, diet, employment, and amusements, such as
they have been in health accustomed to.
I fear I have dilated “usque ad 'nauseam’’ on an un¬
palatable subject. The truth is, that the whole question of
Lunacy Law, and its bearing on those who are engaged in the
management of the insane, is anything but inviting ; yet in
these days especially, it cannot be passed by, and must neces¬
sarily engage the attention of this Association, and of the
public ; but there is, in my mind, a view of the question of
insanity, of the highest importance, but to which the public
pay little attention. How much more productive of benefit to
the community it would be, if our Legislators would lend their
aid in endeavouring to prevent the increasing prevalence of
insanity, rather than employ themselves in framing statutes
condemnatory of those who are engaged in the exercise of that
most anxious and humane department of the healing art,
which has for its object the solace of the suffering and afflicted
in mind, body, and estate. Let it not, however, be said of us,
that we judge harshly of others, whilst we ourselves are in the
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
same fault I would put it strongly to eveiy member of this
body, whether we, as an Association, are doing all we can to
diminish the prevalence of insanity ? I would ask you, one
and all, whether we have not a duty in this respect to per¬
form ? Whether the public may not expect that we should
take a lead in investigations which may issue in a more
correct estimate of the causes, which in the highly civilised
condition of the community in which we live, are concerned
in the production of this most cruel of maladies ? I would
suggest that it would tend to increase the influence of this
Association, and to demonstrate its utility, if we had a series
of reports from our members, which would enable us to
estimate more accurately the prevalence of the causes, which
are respectively supposed to produce unsound mind.
Look at the question of intemperance. It is stated on
authority, that seventy per cent, of the instances of insanity
are produced by the intemperate use of fermented drinks.
This may turn out to be a very loose assumption, not resting
on a philosophical basis; for it is highly probable, that in
many of these presumed instances, intemperance is a con¬
comitant, not a cause of insanity.
The tobacco question also, is one most important for Psy¬
chologists gravely to consider, for the weed is now most
extensively used by eveiy branch of the community, and
great difference of opinion exists as to its effect on the human
system, particularly on the nervous functions. Doubtless, in
many cases, its effects are most depressing to the heart’s
action, and it is often a cause of debility and dejection.
Poverty, and want of food, are pregnant sources of diseased
mental manifestation; but the relative proportion in which
these causes operate in producing alienation, has never been
systematically submitted to careful investigation.
The intimate relationship between crime and insanity is
patent to all, yet the very obscurity of the connection does
not permit, at present, a very accurate elucidation; yet careful
and enlightened inquiry may do much to clear away doubt,
and dispel darkness.
It does not appear to me that I am wandering from the
path in which I ought to walk, by submitting to this meeting
my conviction, that each of the four heads, to which I have
adverted, might be fit subjects for reports by committees of
members of this Association. The present state of our know¬
ledge, on these important points, might be thus more accu¬
rately defined, ana suggestions might be made for future
inquiry. These reports might be published in the pages of
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President’s Address.
13
our excellent and well edited journal, and thus most desirable
information might be disseminated through the community.
Further, it must be manifest that every branch of statistical
inquiry, connected both with causes and treatment, should
engage the attention of the members of this Association.
In conclusion, it is evident, that all those who are engaged
in the treatment of the insane, incur a very weighty legal
responsibility. The law is to them a severe, if not an unjust,
taskmaster; and yet it is wise in all, whilst they endeavour
to improve the law, scrupulously and to the letter to obey its
present provisions. Yet, let it never be forgotten, that the
.Medical Psychologist, in dealing with the perilous stuff that
life is made of, has to study the intricate and mysterious
connection between mind and matter, and when reason is
dethroned, and the storm of the passions hurls the victim,
like a hurricane, to desolation, it is sometimes given to him by
the efficiency of his art, to stem the rushing torrent, and to
say, peace, be still. Or, when wailing melancholy prostrates
the forlorn sufferer, it is sometimes possible to pluck from the
memory a rooted sorrow, and to restore the lost one to affec¬
tionate and grateful friends. It was said by the ancient
Roman, “ Homines ad Deos nulld re propius accedunt
quam salutem hominibus dando .” Surely, if this be true,
generally, of the exercise of our art, it is pre-eminently so of
that highest department of it, to which those devote them¬
selves, who are engaged in the cure of mental disease. There¬
fore, undismayed by the reproaches of the froward, or the
despitefulness of the proud, let all those who engage in this
high vocation, continue stedfastly in the path of duty ; they
will then have the testimony of an approving conscience, and
in reply to the taunts of the ignoble, the ignorant, and the
vulgar, may truly and confidently say, “ let the galled jade
wince, our withers are unwrung.”
Mr. Ley proposed that the best thanks of the Association
be given to Sir Charles Hastings for his excellent address.
Dr. Sheklock said he had very great pleasure in seconding
the vote of thanks proposed for the very excellent address they
had just heard read by the President, Sir Charles Hastings.
He felt sure the Association must be very much obliged to
the President for the expanded and enlightened views he
had laid before them, regarding the very urgent subjects
which were at present attracting the attention of the country
generally, as well as of the legislature. He trusted that the
several points to whieh the address referred would receive
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14 Annual Meeting of the Association.
the attention of the committee. These subjects were attract¬
ing so much of public interest at the present time, that
anything the committee could do with regard to them would
unquestionably be received with great attention. There
might not be such an opportunity found at another time.
Public opinion was just then very much excited and aroused
in connection with several of the points to which the address
referred, and that was, therefore, a very favorable time for
taking these subjects up, giving them a full consideration,
and, perhaps, having them placed in rather a more satis¬
factory position than at present. In many respects they
appeared at present very likely to retrogade ; but he thought
that if the Association exerted itself, and laid fairly and
plainly before the public its views upon these subjects, they
would in all probability, take a step forward in a proper
direction and obtain more enlightenment, instead of pro¬
ceeding backwards, as hitherto they had appeared likely to
da He had, therefore, much pleasure in seconding the vote
of thanks for the extremely able address just read, which he
thought deserving of all praise.
The motion was carried by acclamation.
TREASURER’S REPORT.
Receipts and Expenditure for the Year ending July 1, 1859.
EXPENDITURE.
jE l d.
By Annual Meeting, July, 18*8 . 18 0 0
,i Special Meeting in London, and
Printing for ditto . . 86 18 10
„ Printing & Publishing Journal, 114 II 11
„ Postage and Sundries of
Treasurer . . ,800
„ General Secretary .880
„ Secretary for Ireland . • 0 II 0
168 11 6
Balance . . 88 18 9
198 5 9
The Treasurer laid before the meeting his annual report.
He said the year preceding last year closed very welL All
arrears were paid up, and the balance left in the hands of
the Treasurer and Secretary was upwards of <£*50. It was
calculated that the number of gentlemen added to the list
last year would have increased that balance, but the fact
proved otherwise. It would appear that in times of agi¬
tation, gentlemen did not always act with unanimity,
and pay up money as readily as when they expeeted things
RECEIPTS.
£ «. d.
By Balance in the hands of Treasurer 44 17 10
„ Balance In the hands of General
Secretary . . . 9 4 10
„ Subscriptions, &c. ( paid to
Treasurer • . . 108 14 6
„ Subscriptions to General Secretary 13 13 0
m Subscriptions to Secretary for
Ireland . . ; 18 15 0
£193 5 2
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President’s Address.
15
to go on more smoothly and quietly. The agitation had
itself been attended with some slight degree of expense.
There had been circulars issued and meetings held, which
had been the cause of some little outlay. The result was
that the balance was reduced to £23 13s. 9d ; but the
amount of arrears was much more than would cover the
deficiency. The present amount of balance was not alto¬
gether unusual. The year before last was somewhat an
exceptional year for the readiness with which all the sub¬
scriptions were paid up. He thought, therefore, that in
reporting a balance of £23 13a 9d., he was reporting very
favourably of the circumstances of the institution. Through¬
out the year there had been a debt accruing to the general
secretary, in consequence of the increased amount of expense
attending the calling of meetings and other purposes, and in
consequence of the meeting being held in Edinburgh rather
than in London, which also necessarily involved some degree
of expense. That debt, which amounted to <£18 3a due to
the secretary being paid, still left the balance of £23 13s. 9d.
The society would, no doubt, order that the amount due to
the secretary should be paid forthwith. He thought there
was nothing in his report which was not favourable. The
subscriptions received by the Treasurer had been £*107 5s. 4d.;
by the General Secretary £13 13a; and by the Irish
Secretary £15 15a The expenditure by the Treasurer,
which was mainly for the printing of the journal was
£126 J8a The General Secretary's expenses including
the meetings called in London, had been £41 ; the ex¬
penses of the Irish Secretary 11a 8d. The accounts had
been audited, and the books of the Treasurer and Secretary
had been signed by the officers.
Dr. Brushfield moved that the Treasurer’s report be
adopted.
The motion was unanimously carried, and the sum of
£18 3a due to the General Secretary was ordered to be paid
The Chairman said—Gentlemen, the next portion of the
business is a vote of thanks to our late President, Dr.
Conolly. I feel that I am not departing from what is usual
upon these occasions, when I propose myself a vote of
thanks to that eminent and distinguished individual. I am
sure you all feel with me very great regret that he has not
been present upon this occasion, because no one can more
gracefully perform the duties which would have devolved
upon him than Dr. Conolly would have done. Circum¬
stances which we regret, imperatively prevent him from
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
being present on this occasion, but that fact does not at
all lessen the regret which we all feel that he is not with
us. I need not allude in any way to Dr. Conolly ; his fame
is known and read of all men. So long as he remains a
member of this Association, he will ever be considered one
of its most distinguished ornaments. His name is written
in the history of mental alienation, so far as its history is
comprised within the last quarter of a century, in indelible
characters. It is past the power of malevolence or of any
species of unfriendly comment to take from him the high name
and the reputation which will ever be hia I regard it as a
circumstance of great importance to this Association that
he should have been our President last year when we met
in Edinburgh. He there so gracefully performed his duties,
and in every way shewed to the eminent men of the northern
metropolis that we were well headed; that no one who
reflects upon what passed upon that occasion, can do
otherwise than join with me m offering to Dr. Conolly our
most earnest thanks, with the desire that his valuable life
may yet be prolonged for many years.
Dr. Bucknill— I second the vote of thanks to Dr. Conolly,
and I am sure that all the members present at this meeting
will agree with what you, sir, have said so gracefully and
so fairly of our distinguished and philanthropic late Presi¬
dent His name has been an ornament to the Association, as it
has been an ornament to the medical profession in general, and
an honour to his country. I feel that while the ranks of psy¬
chology embrace such men, the unfavourable state of public
feeling towards physicians engaged in practice among the
insane must be as transitory as it is unjust
The motion was carried by acclamation.
THE FUTURE PRESIDENT.
Dr. Da vet said—Mr. President, there has been imposed
upon me a duty of a very satisfactory and pleasing nature ;
it is that of proposing to you the name of a gentleman to
act as our President in the coming vear. When I tell you
that the gentleman to whom I allude is Dr. Bucknill,
I am perfectly sure that all present will rejoice at my
proposition. I need hardly say that Dr. Bucknill is one
Who has worked hard for the advancement of science, and
whose writings assure us that he is well deserving to hold
the position of President. His zeal in our cause is of no
ordinary kind. His earnestness for the well-doing of the
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
insane, is not a quality of every day occurrence. For these
and for many other reasons, which will occur to each one of
you, I have great pleasure indeed in proposing to you the
name of Dr. Bucknill as President for the coming year.
Dr. Paul said he had much pleasure in seconding the
nomination of Dr. Bucknill as President for the ensuing
year. It was not necessary to say much, the repute of Dr.
Bucknill was known to them alL He was quite sure that his
appointment as President would give unmixed satisfaction.
The resolution was carried by acclamation.
Dr. Bucknill : Mr. President, I beg leave to thank you
for the high honour vou have conferred upon me, and I can
only say that I will do my best to discharge its duties
worthily. Following such men as yourself and Dr. Con oily,
my task will not be light; but it shall be my most earnest
solicitude to discharge my duty to the best of my abilities.
I beg most sincerely to thank you for the honour conferred
upon me.
Dr. Tuke then proposed that the next place of meeting be
London. The place of meeting ought to have been Dublin,
but he had a letter from Mr. Lawlor, stating with extreme
regret that the Dublin body could not receive them next
year.
Dr. Paul seconded the motion.
Dr. Sherlock proposed as an amendment that Dr. Bucknill
be consulted as to whether the next meeting of the Asso¬
ciation could not conveniently be held in Exeter.
Dr. Bucknill said London would be most convenient to
him, and he had been on the point of seconding Dr. Tuke's
proposition. It was most important at the present time that
the meeting should be held in a place which gave the
greatest facilities to members to assemble. Next year, when
Bills were likely to be before the House affecting the Asso¬
ciation, the meeting ought to be held in the metropolis,
where the largest number of members could attend.
Dr. Sherlock did not press his amendment, and London
was accordingly fixed upon as the place of meeting next
year.
ELECTION OF TREASURER.
Dr. Tuke proposed that Mr. Lev be re-appointed Treasurer,
adding that there could not be found one more attentive to
the true interests of the Association.
Dr. Fatrer seconded the motion, which was carried
unanimously.
VOL. vi., no. 31. c
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
ELECTION OP EDITOR OP JOURNAL.
Dr. Tckb proposed that Dr. Bucknill be re-elected Editor
of the Journal. He felt confident that the Journal had
done a great deal for their position as psychologists; and,
when they considered the enormous disadvantage under
which Dr. Bucknill laboured in bringing out the Journal
so far from London, from public libraries, and all the
sources of information which were constantly needed in his
editorial labours, they would all see that they could
find no better qualified man. He was not only an able
physician, but also a most accomplished writer, and some of
his recent articles in the Journal really held a high rank
not only in psychological medicine, but in English literature.
Dr. Edgar Sheppard felt peculiar gratification, although
he had not the pleasure of knowing Dr. Bucknill, in second-
the motion. It would be impossible to over-estimate the
great talent displayed in the Journal ', particularly in some
recent numbers, and he would take that opportunity of
mentioning a circumstance which occurred to him during
last summer. He was travelling in Brittany, and he visited
the celebrated aaylum there, with which he had no doubt
some members of the Association were familiar, where he
found the resident physician reading Dr. Buckuill’s recent
work. The physician was not a very accomplished English
scholar, and asked him (Dr. Sheppard) for some explanation
which he endeavoured to give. Having the last published
number of the Journal with him, he left it with the physi¬
cian, telling him what a distinguished position Dr. Bucknill
occupied, and of the efforts being made by the public
asylums throughout the kingdom to advance the science.
That gentleman received the Journal with very great in¬
terest, and promised that he would read every word of it.
He could only repeat that he had great pleasure in seconding
the nomination of Dr. Bucknill, whose services he would not
only willingly admit, but felt extremely proud of.
The Chairman said he could reiterate every word which
had been said in praise of Dr. Bucknill.
The motion was unanimously carried.
Dr. Bucknill said he felt deeply moved by their kind
appreciation of his services as Editor of the Journal. It was
a position of which he was very proud, and in which he was
delighted to feel that he gave satisfaction to them alL He
must own that he had to encounter some difficulties, not only
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Annual Meeting of the Association. 19
in the mere matter of labour, but inasmuch as he had to put
things on record in the Journal which were not always
agreeable to members of the Association. But whether he
edited it with ability or not, he could promise them one
thing, that he would always edit it with honesty. And if
there were any matters affecting their specialty which ought
to be published, he would be no party to their suppression.
He knew that he had given personal offence to members by
refusing to suppress, or rather by not suppressing things
which had a very important bearing upon scientific questions
relating to the insane. Whatever came forward before the
public or before the courts of law, or which in any way came
to his knowledge as a matter which he deemed it honest and
right to publish in the Journal, should be published, whether
it affected his own interest, or that of any other person.
He could, therefore, promise them, that whatever he might
lack of that ability which they so kindly attributed to him,
in their generous feelings towards him, he should always
do his very best to discharge, with uprightness, his very
responsible duties.
ELECTION OF SECRETARY.
Dr. Bucknill proposed the re-election as Secretary of Dr.
Lockhart Robertson. He said he personally had so much to
thank Dr. Robertson for, and so much to expect from him,
that he felt it to be his own peculiar duty to thank him for
the past, and to crave his services for the future. He thought
it would be impossible for the Association to have a more
zealous, more gentlemanly, more able and urbane Secretary
than Dr. Robertson, and he had the greatest pleasure in
proposing his re-election.
Dr. Sherlock seconded the motion, which was unanimously
adopted.
ELECTION OF AUDITORS, &c.
The next business being the election of Auditors.
Mr. Lev moved that Dr. Tuke and Dr. Sherlock be ap¬
pointed Auditors.
Dr. Paul seconded this resolution, which was unanimously
carried.
THE SECRETARIES FOR IRELAND & SCOTLAND.
Mr. Lit said that the Secretaries for Ireland and Scotland
c*
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20
Annual Muting of tk$ Auodatum.
tad been usually re-elected. Dr. Stewart was one of the
earliest members of the Association, and had added more
members to their list than almost any other gentleman. It
Was, Mr. Ley believed, in 1837, when Dr. Stewart came
fbrward as one of the original founders of the Association,
in whose affairs he had always taken a most active part and
interest. He had great pleasure in proposing that Dr.
Stewart and Dr. Wingett be re-appointed Secretaries for
Ireland and Scotland. Dr. Shbppabd seconded the motion,
Which was carried.
Dr. Tukb then read the following letter of invitation to
inspect the Rainhill Asylum, which had been forwarded by
Dr. Rogers, of Rainhill.
. Rainhill, July 17 th.
Dear Sir—It is my wish to join the Association of which
you are the Secretary (Medical Officers of Asylums, &c.),
and I hope the members will pay me a visit when at
Liverpool. The distance is only nine miles, they could come
out in the morning, lunch at my house* and return to
dinner.
I am, yours faithfully,
Dr. L. Robertson. THOS. L. ROGERS.
Dr. Tuke observed that the members would be very much
obliged to Mr. Rogers, and that some of them doubtless,
would avail themselves of his kind invitation.
A vote of thanks to Dr. Rogers, having been passed
Mr. Rrushfield said that he for one should not only
visit the Asylum at Rainhill, but also, if possible, those at
Prestwich and Lancaster, for those three institutions ranked
amongst the highest in the kingdom. Should any of the
members desire to visit his own asylum, in Cheshire, he
should have great pleasure in receiving them, and do all
that he could to supply them with information and to en¬
hance the pleasure of their visit in other ways.
PROPOSED FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.
Da. Tukb then stated that Dr. Conolly had transmitted
to him a list of foreign gentlemen to be proposed as honorary
members. No one of these names would not do honour
to this or any other medical association, for the list included
some of the first physicians upon the Continent, but there
seemed to be a technical objection on the ground that one
of the rules of the Association required that the names of
proposed honorary associates should be sent round in a
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Annual Meeting of the Aftociattin.
21
circular before the annual meeting. Dr. Conolly had not
done so, but had simply announced his intention of proposing
certain associates. Dr. Tuke then read the following names,
observing that it would have to be put from the chair,
whether the Society would take Dr. Conolly's notice as
sufficient, or whether they would require the rule to be
observed strictly.
Dr. Falret, Paris.
Dr. Guislain, Ghent
Dr. Calmeil, Paris.
Dr. Foville, Fils, Paris.
Dr. Evart, Holland.
Dr. Howe, Massachusetts.
Dr. Fleming, Editor of the Zeitschrift der Psychiatric.
Dr. Morel, St Yon, Rouen.
Mr. Let said that it was honourable and pleasant for both
parties to have honorary members on the list of an Asso¬
ciation, if they could be certain that the gentlemen would
accept the appointment He thought the best plan would
be for the list to be read, the names to be circulated in the
meantime, and the appointments confirmed at the next
meeting.
Dr. Davby thought that by not attending strictly to
the rules, they would be apt to get into a lax w&y of
business, and that the interests of the Association might
suffer. He coincided with Mr. Ley in the course which that
gentleman recommended.
Dr. Paul thought that the bye-law might be suspended.
Dr. Bucknill quite agreed with the view taken by
Dr. Tuke and Mr. Ley; if the rules were broken through
on this occasion, on behalf of foreign psychologists, it
might on a future occasion be infringed on behalf of
gentlemen in this country, respecting whose claims to
the position of honorary members of the Association, the
unanimity might not be so great It would be safer and wiser
therefore to adhere strictly to the rule. Indeed, he was
inclined to go still further, and to say that it would be for
the benefit of the Association, to restrict the number of their
honorary members, and not to make that title too common.
After some further conversation, it was decided that the
subject should come regularly before the next meeting for
decision.
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22 Annual Muting of the Association.
LIST OF NEW MEMBERS.
The following list of new members was next submitted
for election.
George Birkett, Esq., M.RC.S., Northumberland House,
Stoke Newington.
Dr. H. Browne, Hayes, Middlesex.
Dr. J. Langdon Down, Idiot Asylum, Reigate.
D. Rossiter, Esq., M.R.C.S., Haydock Lodge, Ashton, near
Warrington.
Dr. Lorimer, Royal Asylum, Perth.
Dr. J. M. Lindsay, County Asylum, Wells, Somerset
James Strange Biggs, Esq., County Asylum, Surrey.
Frederick Needham, Esq., Lunatic Hospital, York.
Dr. P. M. Duncan, Colchester.
M. L. Rogers, Esq., Medical Superintendent, Rainhill.
Dr. Me Kinstry, Armagh District Hospital for the Insane.
Alfred Wood, M.D., Barwood House Asylum, near
Gloucester.
Dr. Dixon, Gloucester House Asylum.
Some conversation took place as to the practice with re¬
gard to the ballot, on which it was explained by Dr. Bucknill
that the rule hitherto observed had been, that gentlemen
desirous of becoming members submitted their names to the
secretary and the committee, who prepared a list for the
general meeting. If the names were all considered un¬
exceptionable, the whole number, to save time, were elected
at once. If, on the other hand, any doubt arose, the ballot
was adopted. On the motion of Dr. Tukb, seconded by Dr.
Sherlock, the above list of names was agreed to.
STATISTICS OF ASYLUMS.
Dr. Tukb said he had a resolution to propose, which would
commit the society rather to an expression of opinion than
anything else, but which at the same time he was most
anxious to bring forward. At the present time, with legis¬
lative enactments in prospective, it was of the greatest
possible importance that there should be union amongst the
members of the Association; and he could not disguise
from himself the fact, that there was not that union ;
and on the contrary a distinct line of demarcation be¬
tween the medical officers of public asylums and the pro¬
prietors of private asylums. There was an element of trade
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23
Annual Meeting of the Association.
in the very constitution of private asylums which made it
perfectly natural, and almost justifiable ; indeed, there was
the same line of demarcation between those engaged in the
practice of lunacy, and the ordinary physician. He thought it
very important however that this union should, if possible, be
effected between the two bodies, and the only way in which
he could see that it could be done, was by keeping in view
the fact, that they were engaged in a common profession.
He was perfectly sure that if they could only convince their
medical brethren in public asylums, that the interests of the
practitioners attached to private asylums was not allowed to
interfere with their duty as medical men, they would at once
become, not only co-members, but as they ought to be,
brethren-in-arms. It had occurred to him that the only
way in which they could do this would be by a better system
of statistical tables. He believed that one great cause of
the efficiency of the officers of public asylums, was their
system of reports, and the publicity given to the results of
their treatment of the insane. The remarks of their Presi¬
dent in his able address, bore him out in this opinion. He
believed there was a spirit of emulation excited amongst the
public asylums, which was of great value in the treatment of
patients, and he thought this might be made available also
in the treatment carried on in private asylums. There
would, no doubt, be difficulties in the way, but the resolution
which he was about to propose, would, he believed, in some
degree meet these difficulties. At present, if the question
were asked, what was the proportion of cures in private
asylums ? it must remain statistically unanswered. He must
say that he was grieved and distressed to hear from one of
our most distinguished physicians in a committee room of
the House of Commons, that the cures in private asylums
were only 50 per cent, in recent cases, and that of these
recent cases 25 relapsed. If this were true, he must confess
that the sooner the proprietors of private asylums left the
Association the better; for they were most certainly not fit
to sit down side by side with the physicians engaged in the
treatment of insanity in the public asylums. He (Dr. Tuke)
however, did not believe that it was true, ana he only
mentioned it in order to shew the great importance of
having clear and distinct returns. They had no returns by
which they could tell how many of their patients recovered,
or how many died, they were merely registered as received
and discharged, and this was unaccompanied by any reliable
statement as to recovery or otherwise. The only way by
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
which they could get at this information was by a general
system of returns. There would be another advantage also
in such a system. He need not point out the fallacy of
arguments drawn from minor statistics. A single asylum
might cure 60 or 70 per cent out of 200 or 300 cases,
another equally good might do nothing of the kind; but if
they could get the same returns for several thousand cases
by grouping together asylums of the same class in London,
and compare them with those of the same class in the
country, they would at once obtain a valuable statistical
result For instance, there were many private asylums in
which restraint still lingered. How valuable would it
be to compare the results of treatment in these, with the
results of a similar number of asylums where no restraints
were employed. In some asylums—and here was a most
important question—what Lord Shaftesbury and the Com¬
mittee ol' the House of Commons recognized as the “lay
treatment ’* largely prevailed. A system which it was con¬
sidered could be adopted as well by ladies, or gentlemen
who were not medical men, as by medical men themselves.
Now this was a question of fact—was it or was it not suc¬
cessful in its results of cure?—and he thought it was a
question which medical men would be very willing to
put to the test of statistical proof. There was another
point also, which he touched upon with some reluctance,
and that was the system of agreements between medical
men and proprietors of asylums for paying per centages, or
having arrangements by which medical men continued
to be the paid visitors of such places, without the knowledge
of the patients. That was also a question of importance,
though a question with which they, as an Association, had
perhaps nothing to do. They might, however, very easily
ascertain whether the gentlemen who did this had the same
proportion of cures as those who did not; and if they had,
it was a matter of perfect indifference how they chose _ to
pay their medical men ; if they had not, they might perhaps
he led to adopt a better system. He only mentioned
this as an instance of the value of statistical returns.
It was another question, altogether, whether statistical
returns would be available, or would bring out all
these facts; but if they would, it was important that the
society should give them its recommendation and induence.
The question of relapses too was one of vital importance.
In comparing private asylums with public ones in these
returns, one fact must be kept strongly in view. There were
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A nnual Meeting of the Association.
many cases in private practice which were oured without
going into an asylum at all, and for this reason they could
not expect to cure so many recent cases of disorder as the
public asylums. There were many cases of puerperal mania
which were cured at home ; and in the same way cases of
delirium tremens in the higher classes of society were treated
at home ; the patients recovered, and did not swell the list
therefore, of the cures of the private asylums. One objection
had been made to these returns, by a distinguished member
of the Association, who said that they would not be trust¬
worthy ; that in private asylums they were in the habit of
sending out their patients as cured, and then re-admitting
them, and sending them out again; so that one patient
might be cured half a dozen times over. It appears that an
error of this kind might arise sometimes from the nature of
the present returns; but if the returns were carefully drawn
up, so as to distinguish between chronic cases, cases of first
attack, and recent cases, this fallacy could not creep in, and
the returns would be perfectly trustworthy ; besides the
Commissioners of Lunacy would hold in their hands dupli¬
cates of such returns, which must be therefore correct. In
conclusion, Dr. Tuke moved, “ That in the opinion of this
meeting, a clear and statistical account of the nature of
cases admitted into private asylums, and the results of their
treatment during the last few years, distinguishing the
chronic cases, the recent esses, and those of the first, second,
and third attack, would be most valuable to psychological
medicine, could be easily attainable from the medical
officers in each asylum, would be trustworthy, and would
probably afford valuable data for future medical enactments/'
Mr. Let was happy to second the resolution. He thought
there could be no question about the value of statistical
information, which, though perhaps never strictly true, was
the closest information which they could get to the truth.
Dr. Fatkeb : How many years would you propose for the
average ?
Dr. Tuke : A few years only in order to get a sufficient
number, say from 100 to 300 cases from each asylum. I
would not take less than 100 casea If this resolution is
carried, Dr. Robertson and myself propose to draw out the
blank form of such a return, and refer it to Dr. Thurnam,
whose reputation stands the very highest in statistical
questions connected with our special department of medi¬
cine. We would then send it round to the members.
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
Dr. Fayrbr repeated that the number of years should be
fixed from which to take the average of cases.
Dr. Tore would rather fix the number of cases.
The Chairman suggested a period of five years, because it
was probable that during the last five years there had been
more accuracy with regard to the records of private asylums.
Dr. Sherlock thought that five years would be a very
good period, and would enable them to make valuable com¬
parisons in various matters.
Dr. Paul said, that in the large asylums it would involve
a great deal of trouble, as about 1,030 cases passed through
his hands in five years.
Dr. Tukb observed, that as there would be 10,000 cases in
the large asylums, to compare with 600 or 800 in the smaller
ones, the statistics would be useless unless they obtained a
fixed number of cases from each asylum, say 200 or 100.
They would thus get an easy per-centage comparison, and
save a vast amount of trouble in working out the results.
They must, however, have the same numbers to compare
with the same numbers. If large asylums like that of Dr.
Paul were to be compared with smaller ones, where there
were only 8 or 10 cases, it would be easy to compare them
exactly by comparing 10 years of one with one year of the
other. The objection as to the picking of the cases would
be met at once by taking the last 2 or 300 cases admitted or
discharged.
Dr. Sherlock said, that if the last series of cases was taken
there could be no objection; but to select particular cases
would be of no earthly utility.
Dr. IIitchman was obliged to Dr. Tuke for bringing the
subject forward, and he thought that such statistics would
afford valuable opportunities of comparison between private
and public asylums. He should be sorry to be separated
from such men as Dr. Conolly, Dr. Wood, and others who
had separated themselves from public institutions, and had)
taken charge of private asylums, and he should be happy to
find that these distinctions were passed away.
Dr. Davy observed, that the subject was one of very great
importance, and one about which he had thought a great
deal Indeed, for some time he had resolved that when
he had been ten years at Northwoods, he would publish a
full and accurate report, statistical and otherwise, of his
experience there. He thought it important to do so, not
only as illustrating facts with regard to the treatment of
insanity, but because it would be calculated to get rid of
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
those prejudices which prevailed throughout society in
relation to private asylums. He believed it was only neces¬
sary for the public at large to know what private asylums
were, how they were conducted, the large number of cures
effected there, and the small mortality which prevailed, to be
assured, that a grevious eyor had been fallen into, in sup¬
posing that they were not satisfactorily managed, and that
patients therein were not treated with the greatest kindness,
and in the most scientific manner. This great error on the
part of the public, was to be got rid of by a public statement
and avowal of the fapts which obtained in private asylums;
and if the proprietors of such asylums would give, as he
intended to do, decennial reports of their operations, he
thought the effect would be of such a kind as to go far to
remove the prejudices which had existed; and on this
account alone, he attached great importance to the publication
of these reports. For these, and other grounds, he begged to
support the resolution proposed by Dr. Tuke.
Dr. Me Cullouqh thought it would be very desirable for
the returns to be upon an uniform plan; at present every
Superintendent had a plan of his own, so that the tables
were not available in the mass for statistical purposes. He
proposed as an amendment, that a committee of the members
of the Association, should be appointed to consider the
entire subject of statistics, with regard to asylums, and draw
up a series of tables.
While Dr. Me Cullough was writing out his amendment,
Dr. Bucknill, at the request of the chairman, filled up the
time by proposing a resolution “that the managing committee
of the association be augmented by six members, who should
be appointed from the members who occupied themselves
different positions in the treatment of the insane; namely,
that one of the members should be the Superintendent of a
county asylum ; another, the Proprietor of a licensed house
in the metropolitan district; another, the Proprietor of a
licensed house in the provinces, another the Superintendent
of one of the Scotch asylums; another, of one of the Irish
pylums; and another, the physician to a hospital for the
insane.” He thought all their members, with one or two
exceptions, would come under one or other of these denomi¬
nations, and that, if they increased their managing com¬
mittee by adding six members, representing the different
interests of the Association, they would give greater satis¬
faction than at present to all the members in the manage¬
ment of its affairs.
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28 Annual Meeting of the Association.
Dr. Da vet seconded the resolution which he took it was
to supersede the necessity of having voting papers. It
would be remembered that at the Edinburgh meeting last
year, he took upon himself to propose certain alterations
and amendments in the rules of the Association, and at that
time a Committee was formed, whose duties were to have
been discharged between the meeting of last year, and the
E resent meeting. The subject matter of the amended rules,
owever, was accepted by those in office, and he had been
told hy Dr. Robertson, that the thing was looked upon as
an accomplished fact, and that voting papers were to be
drawn up, and distributed amongst the members, so that
each member might carry out those amended rules and
regulations which he (Dr, Davey) had the honour of suggest¬
ing. He believed, however, that at present, these balloting
papers were objected to, because the Committee had never
done the work it was appointed to do, and because the
amended rules were accepted and attempted to be carried
out in an informal manner. He took it, therefore, that this
resolution was to meet this difficulty; and, as it might be
considered somewhat as an amendment on his own propo¬
sition of last year, he had much pleasure in seconding it,
because he believed that, as Dr. Bucknill said, it would ex¬
tend the representative principle, and tend to render the
operation of the rules and regulations of the Association
more desirable and harmonious.
Dr. Tukb did not wish to oppose the resolution, but he
feared that it would be an infraction of the existing rulea
The rule with regard to the managing committee “with
power to add to their number ” only applied to the Com¬
mittee which met at twelve o’clock, in order to arrange the
business of the annual meeting.
The Chairman thought, it was quite competent for the
annual meeting to appoint a committee to attend to any
matters which might occur during the year, without any fear
of conflict with the officers of the Association.
Ultimately, after further conversation Dr. Bugknili. added
the following clause to his resolution:—“And that this
committee, with the officers of the Association, constitute
the managing committee of the Association for the ensuing
year.”
The resolution was then put and carried unanimously; and
the foUowinggentlemen were chosen to form the committee—
Dr. Hood, Dr. Sherlock, Dr. Skae, Dr. Paul, Dr. Davey,
Dr. Lalor.
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Annual Meeting of the Association. 29
Dr. Tukb feared lest the adoption of such a resolution
would form a precedent which might be worked injuriously
to the Association on future occasions.
Dr. Davby did not anticipate such an event.
Dr. Mo Cullough then re-introduced his amendment as to
the appointment of a committee to consider the subject of
the statistics of asylums, and draw up a form of tables
applicable to both public and private asylums. He thought
Dr. Tuke’s motion would only partially realise the desired
object The statistics of public asylums were by no means
in a satisfactory state, and he thought it would be much
better to have the whole subject thoroughly investigated,
and a uniform system adopted applicable to both classes of
institutions.
Dr. Tukb, after reading his resolution again, advised that
it should be put as a substantive resolution; as if it were
passed it would not interfere with Dr. Me Cullough's
proposition.
This was accordingly done, and the motion was carried
unanimously.
Dr. Me Cullough's proposition being then the only one
before the meeting,
Dr. Fayrer suggested as an amendment, that it should
apply to private asylums only.
Dr. Me Cullough explained that his object was to improve
the statistics of public asylums. He would not bind down
a Superintendent to anything beyond a certain number of
tables; but it was most important that a limited number of
tables should be upon a uniform plan, and that the whole
results of the country might be added up and compared in a
way which could not be done at present. The tables should
relate to the causes of insanity, the cases of death, and the
proportion of cures; and there should be a classification of
the different forms of insanity. If any Superintendent chose
to give other tables, of course he might do as he chose.
Dr. Davy then seconded Dr. Me Cullough’s proposition.
Dr. Tukb observed, that the 16th rule prescribed that the
tabular statements should be of a uniform plan. The
resolution, therefore, was perfectly unnecessary.
The Chairman thought that Dr. Me Cullough was per¬
fectly in order with respect to the rules. He was moving
for a committee.
Dr. Mo Cullough observed, that the rule had never been
carried out, as the statistics of public asylums were not
uniform.
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Annual Mating of the Association,
Dr. Tuke really hoped that the amendment would not be
carried. He did not know anything which did more credit
to the members of the Association, than the very admirable
way in which the reports of public asylums were at present
drawn up, the vast amount of work which the Superin¬
tendents performed, and the clear way in which the statistics
were arranged. It appeared to him that after his remarks
upon private asylums, it would be an ungracious thing to
attempt to alter in any way the reports of the public asylums.
When they got the returns from private asylums, he saw no
objection to the committee trying to get them all under one
system; but he thought the society would be doing itself
great mischief by appointing a special committee. What
standard of excellence, for instance, was to be taken ?
Dr. Me Cullough explained, that he did not propose to
take any particular person's tables, but to have a certain
number of a certain form for the adoption of the society.
Dr. Sheppard thought that it would essentially injure the
value of the returns at present issued by the Superintendents,
and in which the different modes of treatment adopted by
different physicians were pointed out, if the resolution pro¬
posed by Dr. Me Cullough were adopted. Many members
of the Association would object to make any alterations
in the style of their returns. It was all very well to make
a distinct return founded upon # these reports, but it would
be very invidious to go to any Superintendent and ask
him to alter his returns, which was what the resolution
amounted to.
Dr. Me Cullough said that his object was to make
the statistics of asylums of use to the public by collecting
their results year after year, and in order to do this, there
must be uniformity.
Dr. Sheppard said it would be the object of the committee
to make them uniform.
Dr. Me Cullough replied that they could not be put
together at present, because they were made out from
different data.
Dr. Sherlock remarked that the Lunacy Commissioners
did not take the forms made out by the Asylums, but made
out tables for themselves. He took it that the work of the
Committee would be to arrange the results of certain public
and private asylums in a form agreed to by the Association,
giving certain particulars with regard to the course of
mortality, the auration of cure and various other matters,
without referencr to the published reports at all.
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Annual Meeting of the Association. 81
Dr. Tuke then proposed, and Dr. Rogers seconded, as an
amendment “ That the present reports of public asylums are
admirably drawn up, and that it is not desirable to interfere
with them by the appointment of any Committee.
Dr. Mo Cullough explained that he did not mean in the
in the least to reflect upon the statistical tables of the
public asylums. He thought they were very good, and all
he wished, was to have them in the form in which they
could be most advantageously compared.
The Chairman put the amendment, which was adopted by
5 votes to 3; several members remaining neutral. The
resolution was then put pro forma, and lost
INSANITY AND CRIME—COMMUNICATION BY
Dr. DAVY.
Dr. Davt said he had intended to make a few remarks,
which, however, as the time pressed, he must compress
within a brief compass. He had a few facts before him, and
he merely wished to bring them before the attention of Sir
Charles and the meeting, with the view, as he conceived, of
shewing the public, who really were the friends of the
insane. He trusted that these facts would have a good
effect upon the minds of those who were desirous of legis¬
lating for the insane, and adopting measures for their
amelioration. They were facts of a very stubborn kind, and
if he mistook not, were of that nature which had never yet
entered, except very cursorily and temporarily, into the
heads of those who had given so much attention to the
lunacy laws. He took up the other day a file of old news¬
papers, and went through them with some care, in order to
pick out from their pages the number of insane persons who
nad committed Crimea He found recorded, the fact, that
within the last few years so many as 38 insane persons had
been arraigned for murder; that these 38 insane persons,
guilty of the crime of murder, had caused the death of 53
persons ; and that of the 38 insane who were tried for their
lives, 10 were executed, 17 acquitted on the ground of
insanity, the fate of 8 he could not discover, and the re¬
maining 3 committed suicide. Now, here were facts start¬
ling in their nature, and calculated to awaken the attention
of legislators to this fact—that insanity was very little
understood; and that in consequence of the ignorance
which generally prevailed with respect to it, large numbers
of insane persons were abroad in the world, wno ought to
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32 Annual Meeting of the Association.
be secluded and protected from the commission of crime.
It followed too, that in consequence of the neglect which
surrounded these poor creatures, the lives of fifty sane per¬
sons had been sacrificed. Fifty persons had lost their lives
who, had they not been subjected to such a terrible fatality,
might have been living at this hour in the exercise of the
rights and privileges of society, and honourably fulfilling
their various duties. Of the eight unknown, he thought
that some two or three were transported. Transported for
what ? Not so much because they had infringed the laws of
their country, as because they were neglected ; because,
being oppressed with a dreadful disease, they were allowed
their liberty to go about the streets and parade the country
districts; and so neglected and borne down by the pressure
of disease of the brain, they were impelled—having lost
their volition and all command of their moral feelings—to
the commission of crime. And what was the consequence ?
They were dragged before our tribunals ; they were not sub¬
jected to wholesome and necessary treatment, but they were
treated as prisoners ; and if they were not executed or trans¬
ported, they were made the companions of real criminals,
and exposed to all the hardships of a protracted life,
having lost their self-respect, and become like criminals;
disgraced not only in themselves, but in having heaped
disgrace upon their families. The meeting would agree
with him that these were very startling facts, and
that these things had occurred only because insanity was
not understood, because our Legislature did not care to
make itself acquainted with the facts of insanity, and
because they would not listen to the voice of those who
did know what insanity was. The lawyers would not
be taught by the doctors the true indications of cerebro-
mental disease To prove that these remarks were not
foreign to the present meeting, and that this of all others
was the time when they should compel public attention to
this question of insanity, it was their duty to raise their
voices against the neglect which obtained in reference to
the insane, to show that legislators must listen to what
they had to teach them, and to prove that the law itself
was at fault He would only refer to a trial which had
just taken place at Winchester, on the Western Circuit, by
which all his preceding remarks would be verified, and the
justice of the words he had spoken, fully established. Mr.
Baron Bramwell presided on the occasion, and the indict¬
ment charged Henry Benjamin Haynes with the wilful
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Annual Meeting of the Association. 33
murder of Mary Me Gowan, at Aldershott. This poor man
murdered the girl under the influence of cerebro-mental
disease. He (Dr. Davey) thought that the facts upon the
piece of paper which he held in his hand would assure the
meeting of this: Haynes had some connection with the
girl, but they were good friends, and there had been
no quarrel or dispute between them. He seized her by the
neck, went into another room, took a razor from a box in
his possession, seized her again round the neck and cut her
throat. Presently she was a corpse. He was very properly
taken into custody ; his trial had just now come off; and
they had the issue of that trial before them. He would just
draw attention to two or three facts as he found them
reported in the paper. They were staggering facts, and he
thought if Baron Bramwell was ever brought to his senses,
and made to appreciate truth as it really was, he would very
much regret having committed himself to the extent he had
done. One of the witnesses called, was a person named
Callender, who stated that the prisoner had been very
uneasy in his mind ever since he left America, as he had
seduced a young woman there who had a child by him, and
whom he deserted. He was asked what had made him kill
the deceased? “I don’t know,” he replied, “poor girl she
never did me any harm. It was not her I intended to kill;
it was Margaret Cheltenham, who caused me to be kept in
the hospital, and it was the devil did it” In cross-exami¬
nation, Callender said, “ that he had travelled from America
with the prisoner. He appeared to have something on his
mind, and was not like what he had been before he went.
He seemed at times hardly to know what he was doing.”
Another witness called was Sergeant Herman, who said “ I
have known the prisoner for tour years, and was with him
in America. After his return, I observed a great alteration
and peculiarity in him. When he took a drop of drink he
appeared rambling in his mind, and also at other times,
very often.” In cross-examination, the witness said, “ He
used to be talking about a woman in America. He seemed
sorry that he could not marry her.” He said, “ Oh, my
head!” “ He appeared quite out of spirits. One time when
he had drank he went away to York and came back very
honourably, and gave himself up.” He used to say, “ Oh,
my head I that poor girL” “ He did not appear to know
what he was doing.” It was suggested that the evidence of
the surgeon of the gaol should be taken, and Mr. Cole said,
that for the satisfaction of his Lordship he had sent for him.
VOL. VI., NO. 31. D
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Annual Muting of tk* Auodatxon.
The Judge said, “He doubted whether, after the speeches,
it would be right to put this witness into the box, but he
would consult Mr. Justice Crompton. Mr. Baron Bramwell
upon his return, said, his learned brother agreed with him,
that it was better to be regular, and, therefore, he should
deoline to have this gentleman examined."
Medical evidence (continued Dr. Davey) was refused upon
this occasion. Mr. Baron Bramwell had committed himself
to this statement
“It would be a most dangerous doctrine to say, that
because you could not show a motive, a man was to be
acquitted The question was whether this prisoner had a
sufficient degree of reason to know that the act was wrong.
If he knew what the act was, and that the act was wrong,
the prisoner was punishable for the act When a man com*
mitted murder, the influence of religion, the law, and
humanity had been overcome, but that was not to relieve
him from punishment Did the woman die by the hand of
the prisoner ? If so, he was guilty, unless he did not know
the nature of the act, or did not know that it was wrong.
Those were the only two matters for their consideration. It
was to the advantage of all to obey the law, and every
improper acquittal was detrimental to the interests of
society.”
The jury retired for upwards of two hours. They then
sent a note to the judge, to state that some of the jury had
doubts as to the state of mind of the prisoner, and there¬
fore requested some further explanation of the law as re¬
garded insanity. The judge directed the jury to be sent
tor, and on their coming into court asked them if they had
any observation to make. One of the jurors said the
prisoner seemed to have acted under an uncontrollable im-
{ raise. The judge said that did not make the offence the
ess murder. Malice was implied when there was a deliber¬
ate cruel act committed, however sudden it might be. It
was no matter how sudden the impulse—whether it was
the result of long previous deliberation, or whether it was
the impulse of an instant—it would be as much murder in
one case as in the other. No jury could properly acquit on
the ground of insanity, if they believed the accused was con¬
scious of the act he was committing, and that he knew that
act was contrary to law. If they gave a verdict contrary to
this, the result would be to increase the number of oases of
uncontrollable impulse.
In consequence of that statement, the jury returned a
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35
Annual Meeting of the Association.
verdict of guilty, and the man was condemned to death.*
Now, if their society was really to be a practical one, and to
look after the interests of the insane, he (Dr. Davey) thought
that a statement of this kind, and a verdict like this appear¬
ing in the daily prints, should not go without their notice;
but that if they had really the interests of the insane at
heart, they should keep their attention fixed upon facts of
this nature, and never allow them to pass unnoticed. He
did not himself see why they should not form a committee,
with the object of putting themselves into communication
with the legislature, and of pointing out the defects of the
present law, as it affected the insane charged with crime.
He could not himself think it possible that, if the Legislature
were really aware of the insufficiency of the law as it affected
such persons, and were satisfied of its inhumanity, and of
its untruth fulness to science, but that something would be
done to amend it At the present time no insane person
was safe from the consequences of his acta No person
under the influence of cerebro-mental disease could say how
far he should go, and when he should stop. Their President
might be attacked by this disease, their wives and their
children might all be subject to its influence, and
when this cerebro-mental disease came on, none of them
could put a limit to it He (the speaker) might do some¬
thing under the influence of this disease, should it ever
afflict him, which might render him in the eye of the law,
a criminal. But how very hard it was that persons sub¬
jected to such a dreadful disorder should not be protected
from the consequences of an act which they never choose, of
an act forced upon them, and the result of organic change
which they were not instrumental in bringing about. They
would agree with him that the matter which he had intro¬
duced to their attention was of very great moment and he
did hope that as a body they would go practically into the
question. In conclusion, therefore, he proposed “that a
committee of the Association be formed, to jput itself into
communication with the Legislature, with a view of exposing
the present defects of the law, as it affects the insane charged
with crime.”
Dr. Shbppa.rd seconded the resolution. Members would
• The sentence was not carried out, as will be seen by the following extract
from the Observer i—•• A Muedereb Respited. —A respite was forwarded on
Saturday night from the Secretary of State to stay the execution of Henry
K jatnia Iiayuet, who was convicted at the late Winchester Assir.es for the
'dot of o woman at Aldershot*.”
D*
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
doubtless recollect the saying of Sidney Smith, that “ we
should never be free from accidents on the railways until a
bishop was killed and so, as specialists, he believed they
would never be safe in their practice until some honourable
member for Marylebone, or some other Queen’s Counsel
got a knock upon the head from some insane person.
The President : In what way did you think of getting
into communication with the Legislature ?
Dr. Davey : That is one point of detail which I have not
thought of at all, but I suppose it is practicable in some way.
Dr. Sheppard : Sir Charles, you have had great experience
in deputations, will you give us a little light upon the matter?
Dr. Fayrer said, that if the public were more acquainted
with private asylums, and the manner in which patients were
treated in them, there would not be that outcry which was
raised against them. They were accused of sordid motives,
and of making use of their patients for mercenary views.
They had a great deal to put up with, and there were many
things in connection with their position with which the public
ought to be acquainted, and he did think, that if the public
knew more of the asylums and of the way in which the
patients were treated, they would not accuse the medical men
of those views. He thought the very facts which Dr. Davey
had brought forward, would be the means of shewing the
public more of their proceedings, and do them a great deal
of good.
The President then put the resolution, which was carried
unanimously, and the following gentlemen were appointed the
committee—Dr. Davey, Dr. Sheppard, Dr. Hitcnman, and
Dr. Palmer.
The President observed that the whole matter hinged on
the decision of the judges. They might give a legal inter-
{ jretation to insanity, which did not hold good in its psycho-
ogical truth. He had no doubt that in point of law Baron
Bramwell was right.
Dr. Davy : Yes, but we have nothing to do with law; we
have to do with justice, with humanity, and with reason.
The President : I think if the judges could see the
position in which they are, they would at once alter it
Dr. Tuke : It is not Baron Bramwell’s fault.
Dr. Davey remarked, that unless they agitated the question,
they would never be heard.
Dr. Rogers said he had been asked by the Secretary to
propose a vote of thanks to Sir Charles Hastings for the very
able manner in which he had filled the chair, and the useful
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
and instructive paper which he had read. The paper was
valuable, inasmuch as it directed the attention of members to
rely upon themselves rather than the Legislature, and to
endeavour to do away, by their own exertions, with a certain
amount of obloquy that was liable to fall upon members when
any cases of insanity came into courts of law. He wished the
task had devolved upon some older member of the society ;
but he thought that none would differ from him in returning
a cordial vote of thanks to Sir Charles for the manner in
which he had filled the chair.
Dr. Hitchman had very great pleasure in rising to speak
upon this point. He felt deeply grateful to Sir Charles for
taking the chair upon this occasion ; for although they were
in point of numbers, a small body, compared with that great
Association, which in connection with theirs had selected the
noble town of Liverpool, the home of merchant princes, for its
annual meeting, yet he felt that in the importance of their
relative functions they might claim co-equal fellowship with
them, and walk, as it were, pari pass'd,, as a common brother¬
hood of philanthropy and science. And if anything were
wanting to prove this, it would be found in the delightful fact,
that their distinguished President was also the founder and
the President of that great Association ; and he (Dr. Hitch-
man) did hope, that from the circumstance of their occasionally
meeting together, great good would spring up, and that many
diseases of which the public had only confused notions, would
become more clearly known, even by the medical profession,
and that many diseases which were as yet impracticable to
science, might become ameliorated. If they looked at their
own specialty, which was but one of yesterday, they must
admit that its progress had been continuous, and that if they
boldly declared their sentiments, and followed up from time to
time before the public those subjects which Dr. Davey
had so eloquently described, the evils of which he com 1 -
plained would pass away. Without quite endorsing alP
that Dr. Davey had said, as to the judges of these
realms, he (Dr. Hitchman) did think that lawyers, as a body,
were entirely deficient in knowledge in reference to the
influence of physical organism upon mental acts. He believed
that ignorance, gross and dark pervaded the mind of the
public upon these matters, and with regard to the results of
physical disorders upon mental acts. In addition to what Dr.
Davey had pointed out, he (Dr. Hitchman) might specially
illustrate one question upon which he felt strongly. He did
think it was monstrous that Life Assurance Associations
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Annual Meeting of the Association.
should refuse to pay the policy of a man, who, under a morbid
impulse, fell a victim to suicide. It was great cruelty to
orphans and widows, that they should be deprived of that
means of support which the unhappy man in his moments of
health had secured to them; that they should, as it were, be
branded with penal consequences to a greater extent than if
their natural protector had fallen a victim to misfortune or to
crime. He hoped that their meeting would be attended with
some practical results in regard to these matters; and that
when their words came through the press before the public,
they would meet with an indulgent hearing, and that the
public would believe that these words were spoken from a
large experience. He, himself, had known great woe fall
upon families from this cause, when he was sure that the
suicidal act was as completely independent of the man himself
as death would have been from inflammation of the lungs, or
any other well-known disease. He thought they had a duty
to perform to those sufferers in their respective spheres, by
endeavouring, wherever they could, to prevent suicide from
mental diseases from being fatal to the payment of the
policies ; and he hoped they would not leave this great city,
without using their influence upon all with whom they came
in contact, to realize this object. He might appeal to all who
had received enjoyment from the writings of the gentle
Cowper, who had been thrilled by the eloquence of Robert
Hall, who had admired the patriotism of Romilly, or who had
sympathised with Chatterton or Tasso, whether the shield of
their protection should not be thrown over the children of
those who had suffered from the cause which he had described.
He had great pleasure in endorsing the sentiments of Sir
Charles Hastings, and in calling upon the meeting to express
their thanks to him. The vote having been carried by
acclamation,
Sir Charles Hastings, in replying, said that he was
much obliged to the meeting, and that he should always
endeavour to advance those great truths which it was their
object to cultivate and promote. It gave him ineffable
pleasure to find himself amongst them again, and he could
assure them, that to co-operate with his medical brethren in
meetings like these, and in social intercourse, was one of the
greatest pleasures of his life. He begged most cordially to
thank them for their kindness.
This closed the business of the meeting. The annual dinner
afterwards took place at Radley’s Adelphi Hotel, the Presi¬
dent in the chair.
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What it Psychology t By J. Stevenson Bushnan, M.D.,
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh ;
late Senior Physician to the Metropolitan Free Hospital;
Resident Proprietor of Laverstock House Asylum, near
Salisbury.
Physiology is co-extensive with organic nature. Organic
nature is wholly composed of individuals, comprising the two
great kingdoms of plants and animals. A. unity of structure
pervades the whole of this wide field of nature ; and this
unity is a great principle, applicable to the determination of
truth in the investigation of this part of knowledge. Every
individual ip. organic nature is a system made up of recip¬
rocally dependent and connected parts. The objects of
investigation in physiology are phenomena, organs, and
principles. The study of phenomena stands first in order;
but while it must essentially be first cultivated and advanced,
in the ulterior stages of its progress it gains continually fresh
additions from the progress made in the knowledge of organs
and principles. That phenomena attract attention before
organs, is manifest on the slightest consideration. Thus the
phenomena of locomotion were familiar to mankind long
Wore the part taken by the muscular flesh in locomotion was
discovered. To this moment it is far more certain that
absorption takes place throughout the animal body, than what
the organs are by which that office is performed. And it
would be easy to midtiply examples of the same kind, not¬
withstanding that there are some phenomena of the human
body—such as those connected with the sense of sight, the
sense of hearing, and other senses—the organs concerned in
which must have been known, in a general manner, almost as
soon as the earliest phenomena in which they are concerned.
Principles, in their larger sense, take their place subsequently
to the study of organs ; yet, as referring to the more common
genera of phenomena, these must also have had their rise
almost coeval with the observation of phenomena Thus the
grouping of colours, sounds, smells, and tastes together, under
the name of qualities derived from sense, must have been a
very early and universal generalisation. Nevertheless, it will.
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What is Psychology /
I think, be conceded, after these examples, that the study of
phenomena is of a more elementary character in physiology,
than the study of organs and principles ; and, therefore, m
the difficult parts of any physiological subject, that more
progress is likely to be made by the study of phenomena, than
by the study of organs and principles. But before proceeding
further, it may be desirable to give some examples of phy¬
siological phenomena :—the alternation of sleep and waking;
of hunger and satiety ; thirst; the effect of drink; breathing;
the exercise of the senses, and trains of thought; the various
kinds of locomotion, walking, running, leaping, dancing.
Here a question naturally arises—if trains of thought be
physiological phenomena, does not all human knowledge fall
within the definition of physiological phenomena? If the
human race were not yet called into being, neither would
human knowledge, it is true, have any existence in the world.
And, it is doubtless true, under one point of view, that all that
man has discovered ; all that he has recorded ; all the changes
which he has made upon the earth since his first creation—
are the effects of his physiological nature. But to place all
knowledge under the head of physiology would be to defeat
the very end of methodical arrangement, to which the pro¬
gress of knowledge is so largely indebted. Nor is it difficult
to mark out at least the general character of the boundaries
within which physiology, in the largest sense in which it is
convenient to accept it, should be circumscribed. Let us take
as an example man’s susceptibility of locomotion. It is a
sufficient illustration of the physiology of locomotion to point
out, that every man without any extraordinary effort learns to
walk, run, hop, leap, climb; but there is at least a manifest
convenience in separating such more difficult acquisitions as
dancing, skating, writing, from the order of physiological
phenomena, and placing each in a department by itself, as
subject to its own rules. So also it is at least a convenience
to consider painting and music as separate departments of
study, and not merely as physiological phenomena, falling under
the senses of sight and of hearing. It may be supposed to be a
matter of the like convenience, to separate from physiology
all the phenomena which enter into what are commonly called
trains of thought; that is nearly all that comes under the
head of psychology, in its most appropriate extent of signifi¬
cation. But several objections will readily occur to such a
mutilation of physiology. In particular, it is objectionable,
because, as was already hinted, the phenomenal departments
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of physiology, though the first to take a start, are often much
augmented by the subsequent study of the organs concerned ;
Mid, more so that, since psychology, disjoined from physiology,
and limited to one mode of culture, namely, by reflexion on the
subjects of consciousness, were psychology thrown out from
physiology, the probable advantages from the study of the
organs concerned in the mental processes, and the other
modes of culture, admissible in physiological enquiry, would be
lost If it be said that psychology proper rejects all evidence,
except the evidence of consciousness, on no other ground, but
because of the uncertainty of every other source of evidence—
the answer is, that in those sciences which have made most
progress, possibility, probability, and moral certainty have
always been admitted as sufficient interim grounds for the
prosecution of such inquiries as have finally, though at first
leading to inexact conclusions, opened the way to the attain¬
ment of the most important truths ; and that psychology, by
the over-rigidness of its rules of investigation, has plainly
fallen behind sciences, in advance of which it at one time stood
in its progress.
It will not, however, be easy to persuade the votaries of
pure metaphysics to relinquish the vantage ground afforded
to their science, by its exclusive dependence on the evidence
of self-consciousness. Yet there is a ready expedient by
which this difficulty may be overcome ; namely, by leaving
the old metaphysics on its footing of dependence for progress
exclusively on the evidence of self-consciousness, under the
name of metaphysical psychology—while the psychology which
avails itself of the assistance of the discoveries of physiology,
in regard to the functions of the nervous system throughout
the animal kingdom, may receive the name of physiological
psychology.
But my present purpose is to attempt to settle in what
sense the term metaphysics is to be received ; and again,
within what limits the signification of the much-abused word
psychology is to be fixed.
The term metaphysics is universally acknowledged to be
vague in its signification. Yet it will be found that this
vagueness of signification, arises solely from the vast number
of still uncultivated subjects which it embraces. To take a
common arrangement:—metaphysics falls under two great
heads. 1st, general metaphysics or ontology; and 2ndly,
special metaphysics or pneumatology. Under the former
head rank several subjects, not only of immense extent, but
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What is Psychology t
of very great obscurity; for example—being and essence;
substance and mode; non-existence and annihilation; the
possible and impossible ; the necessary and the contingent;
the determinate and the indeterminate; duration; time;
cause ; effect. Under the latter head, or special metaphysics,
come the properties of being; identity; similitude; natural
theology; psychology.
Thus psychology, according to this view, constitutes but a
single subsection of the great chapter of metaphysical scienoe.
To take psychology in the first place, in the acceptation in
which it stands in this subsection, what does it signify 1 It
may be considered as signifying the phenomenology of the
human mind; that is the phenomena ascertained to be
existent by the evidence of observation through self-con¬
sciousness. Such phenomena are, 1st, the phenomena of
knowledge ; 2nd, the phenomena of feeling; 3rd, the pheno¬
mena of effort
It must be confessed, however, that this word psychology
has also been used by good authorities in a larger sense, so as
even to be nearly synonymous with the term metaphysics.
Thus psychology is sometimes, by such authorities, repre¬
sented as signifying in its larger sense, the philosophy of the
human mind.
As this word then can hardly be said to be as yet fixed in
its signification, a question may arise whether such a word be
more required in the larger or in the more limited sense. In
debating such a question, the past use of the word, that is,
where it has not been wholly abused, need hardly be taken
into account. It is nearly thine centuries since the word first
appeared in works of metaphysics ; yet it cannot be said in
that long period to have earned for itself a definite signifi¬
cation. If it is to be employed synonymously with meta¬
physics, or at least with philosophy of mind, it must be
regarded as having a two-fold character ; namely, psychology
proper, or the phenomenology of mind, and psychology in¬
ferential, synonymous with ontology or general metaphysics.
In what has been said hitherto, psychology has been
regarded as either synonymous with, or falling under the head
of anthropology—that is the psychical nature of man. But a
question may arise, whether in adopting a new word of such a
description, it would not be useful to comprehend within it
also the psychical nature of such animals as seem to possess
consciousness. This is probably a more important point
than the former question, as to the extension of the signification
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by Dr. J. Stevenson Buahnan.
of this word. The correlative term psychical seems already
to have become established, as applicable to every state of
consciousness, whether in man or in any other animal; and a
word which should include the phenomena of which con¬
sciousness forms a part throughout the whole conscious animal
world, would undoubtedly be of the greatest convenience.
Were such a use of the word agreed upon, then psychology,
in its largest sense, would be divisible into the psychology of
man or anthropopsychology, and the psychology of the dumb
creation, eneo-psycnology (fvtoc mutus); while the former or
anthropopsychology, would as above, be divisible into in¬
ferential psychology, and empirical psychology, these two
epithets being sufficient to indicate that anthropopsychology is
referred to.
Such, then, are the large limits within which there is a
legitimate—a defensible use of the word psychology.
But even these wide limits are too narrow to contain the
vagaries of some modem votaries of this word. Their use of
it is psychology run mad. We cannot always discover
whether it be the doctor or his patients who are the objects
of psychology; whether psychology be madness or mad
medicine; whether it be like that “ metaphysical aid ” by
which Lady Macbeth expected her husband to obtain a
crown ; or, like the character of the lady of whom the poet
speaks:
“ Call her the metaphysics of her sex.
And say she tortures wits as quartans vex physicians.”
But, let that pass. The sense in which psychology chiefly
concerns the physician is, what was called above, empirical
psychology, or tnat which treats of the phenomena of the
human min d. Insanity has nothing to do with any other
kind of psychology ; nor has it anything to do with this kind
of psychology, except that there cannot be any form of mad¬
ness which does not consist in a failure of the mind to be
subject to some one or more of the ordinary laws by which
its healthy phenomena are regulated.
This proposition may require some illustration, since it has
become so common of late years to regard psychology as
being in some manner intimately mixed up with insanity.
Mental phenomena consist of trains of states of conscious¬
ness, more or less simple, or what is the same thing, more or
less complex; more or less under the control of' reason or the
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regulative faculty. It would be easy to multiply examples of
trains of thought. The mind may be readily traced as passing
from a state of perception to a state of simple self-conscious¬
ness of a present thought; thence to a state of memory by
suggestion ; again, to a state of memory by reminiscence, or
effort of memory; then, to a state of imagination ; next to a
state of comparison ; and, by and by, to an exercise of reason,
or of the regulative faculty. Such states constitute the
faculties of knowledge or cognition. It may further be traced
into states of feeling, and into states of effort, called of late,
by some, states of conation. But, it may be asked, how do
we come to determine the character of the state in which the
mind exists at any one moment ? The answer is—exactly in
the same manner as in any other case in which natural
phenomena are observed, with this difference only that the
mind is at once the observer and the observed. This last
peculiarity is the foundation of the distinction so much in¬
sisted upon in our day among metaphysicians ; namely, the
distinction of states of mind into subjective and objective.
For, when the mind is considered as existing in a state calling
for observation, it is in a subjective state; when, on the
other hand, it is actually under self observation, it is in an
objective state. But, to return to the result of such obser¬
vation of the successive trains or states of mind, it is plain
that the process of observation consists in remarking the
several resemblances and differences between the various
states of mind which arise in succession. The consequence of
this operation is, that we throw those states of mind, other¬
wise termed states of consciousness, which closely resemble each
other into groups or genera. Thus, the state of consciousness
which constitutes the sensation of a red colour, resembles
that which constitutes the sensation of a blue colour much
more than either resembles the state of consciousness, which
constitutes the sound of a trumpet, or the sound of a flute ;
while the two latter states of consciousness resemble each
other much more than either resembles the smell of a rose,
or the taste of honey. Thus, the several states of conscious¬
ness constituting the sensations derived from each of the five
senses are readily grouped into as many genera, owing to the
close resemblance which they respectively have to each other.
In like manner the sensations as a whole, owing to the element
of local seat common to all of them, are readily distinguished
from what metaphysicians term internal perception, or the
simple self-consciousness of a present thought, feeling, or
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exertion. So, also, the consciousness of acts of reminiscence
is readily distinguished from that of acts of imagination,
owing to the peculiar characters recognised in these two
groups of phenomena; and so forth, with regard to all the
several states of consciousness entering into what is termed
a train of thought Hence, the various states of conscious¬
ness constituting trains of thought, are grouped according to
their resemblances and differences into sensations, remi¬
niscences, imaginations, desires, emotions, volitions ; and into
whatever other genera shall be sufficient to include all the in¬
dividual states of consciousness which may come under
observation.
It is further to be remarked, that states of consciousness,
such as those enumerated above are not necessarily simple—
that such states are more frequently complex; for example, a
sensation united with a remembrance; a reminiscence with
an emotion ; an imagination with a desire; an emotion with
a volition ; and so on each simple state of consciousness,
being often variously combined with other states of con¬
sciousness into a highly compounded state of consciousness.
Besides the grouping of the various states of consciousness
into genera, according to their resemblances and differences,
so as to represent the phenomenology of the human mind by
distinct names, bearing reference to the distinguishing
character of each group, such as perceptions, suggestions,
reminiscences, imaginations, and comparisons, psychology
includes the observation of the rules, according to which
particular states of consciousness, are determined to arise at
the moment, in preference to others; these are commonly
termed the principles of association, or the laws of human
thought
Thus psychology, that is empirical psychology, may be
described as having two principal ends, namely, to methodise
the phenomena of the human mind by reducing these to
groups ; and to determine the rules according to which such
phenomena arise in their ever varying order of succession. It
must be confessed, that in the former of these two great ends,
namely, the methodising the phenomena of consciousness,
psychology is infinitely more successful than in the latter, or
the determining the rules according to which the phenomena
present themselves. Nevertheless, it is a common persuasion,
that the glory of psychology lies chiefly in having accom¬
plished the latter of these two objects. A very short con¬
sideration will show how erroneous is such an idea. Psy¬
chology undoubtedly has discovered certain general rules.
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What is Psychology 1
according to which the succession of human thoughts is
determined. Moreover, it should be admitted, that this
knowledge is not without some practical value. Its real
character, however, is almost entirely speculative. It is not
of such a kind as to enable us to predict even the general
course of a train of thought by knowing its commencement,
otherwise than as a vague probability. Further, it is manifest,
that individual peculiarities, to a great degree, overrule all
these general laws of thought; while temporary physiological
conditions of the body, even within the limits of perfect health,
exercise an incalculable influence over the course of thought
which would otherwise tave been determined. What a
modification of the laws of thought does a single glass of
champagne produce! How many other slight causes of
exhilaration will give rise to a like modification! How many
temporary causes of depression, will exert as great a power in
an opposite direction! The prediction of the course of a
train of thought, under given circumstances, is hardly more
certain than a prediction of the result of a cast of the dice
from the dice box.
But it is a one-sided view to dwell on the mere succession
of thoughts in a train as determined by such circumstances as
contiguity, similarity and the like. Thoughts do not succeed
thoughts like a long chain of connected events in physical
nature. They do not follow each other under definite impulses,
like wave upon wave.
It is, indeed, quite correct to say, that one cannot recover a
thought which is missing, by a mere act of will: it can only
be brought back by the principle of suggestion, in obedience
to the established laws of our mental constitution. The
things which are in the memory do not exist for the present
in consciousness ; they are retained in the mind, but out of
sight, until recalled by a reproductive faculty, namely, either
by spontaneous suggestion, or by the effort termed reminis¬
cence. Nevertheless, we have only to consider how extensive
this power of reminiscence is over whatever exists, or even
over whatever has existed in the memory, to be convinced of
the vast indirect power which the ego exercises over its own
trains of thought.
In our common systems of the nomenclature of the mental
phenomena, this vast indirect power of the ego over the
successions of thought, is hardly pointed out with sufficient
distinctness. It is true we are told that, though we cannot
call up any thought at pleasure, yet when a thought has
come up, we can detain it, and dwell upon it as long as we
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47
please. This proposition is commonly interpreted as denoting
that the human mind is of a very passive character; and that
it is only by a train of fortunate accidents it can bring
up for use the stores of knowledge, which it may contain.
But to what is the proposition, that the mind can detain
and dwell upon a thought at pleasure tantamount ? Surely
to this: that with very trivial exceptions, the whole
contents of a man’s memory are constantly at his
disposal. For what thought is there that does not
connect itself with a multitude of other thoughts, so as to
bring each up in succession when it is detained before the
mind. Again which of that multitude does not connect itself
with a like multitude, so that by a continuance of this power
of detention, nearly the whole oontents of the memory may be
at last exhausted. If it be said that every man does not
possess such a ready power of bringing up his thoughts in
such a manner, the answer is, that in such a man’s memory
his knowledge is not properly arranged, and that the sooner
he sets about methodising it on a more skilful plan, the more
available will it be for the use where unto he designs to apply
it But after all it will be said, is not this process merely the
reminiscence of psychologists. True; but it is that faculty
viewed from a point different from that whence it is commonly
regarded. In short, when trains of thought are considered in
connection with the laws which usually determine their
succession, the mind is apt to be viewed as in a merely
subjective state, such as is the state of reverie ; but man is
seen to much greater advantage in the full activity of his
mind when the ego is objectively occupied with thoughts,
determining their rise, selecting those which he prefers,
rejecting those which displease him when they but threaten
to arise, coercing the dilatory, and compelling all to assume a
fixed order and methodical array. Such a power unquestion¬
ably belongs to the ego. It is not the result of one faculty. It
is often a combination of many different and even opposite
states of consciousness. It is the exercise of the objective
energy of the ego. Moreover, such a power is not developed
bat on great occasions ; even in the ordinary states of mental
activity there is a similar objective control of the ego. To
use but a mean similitude, the ego, in respect to the suc¬
cession of thought, sits as at the table of a money changer,
rejecting the counterfeit, receiving the real, computing its
value, allowing what it is worth in exchange, and disposing of
it in its proper drawer.
It is the regulative faculty or reason which is most con-
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What is Psychology?
cerned in keeping our trains of thought nearly square with
the perception of what is present, with the memory of the past,
and what they derive from imagination within the bounds of
truth to nature. Even in reverie this control is exercised
to no small extent In intoxication such control is not wholly
lost In dreams, on the other hand, there is often little trace
of this controlling power to he met with. The laws of
suggestion operate in dreams without any constraint; while
in or earns the controlling influence of external realities as
presented by perception is lost.
Dreams unquestionably belong to psychology. The evidence
of dreams is the same seif-consciousness on which the truth of
waking reality rests. But while dreaming belongs strictly
to psychology, it is the very type of mental derangement—
which belongs not to psychology, but to the pathology of the
nervous system. According to some psychologists, there is
during sleep an unceasing state of dreaming. If this be true,
it must be rare for a man to be otherwise than mad during
sleep. But to become sane again he has only to awake.
It must be confessed, however, that though mental de¬
rangement does not strictly belong to psychology, that subject
cannot be studied advantageously without the aid of psy¬
chology.
It was remarked above, that dreaming is a perfect type of
mental derangement. In dreaming, the laws of human
thought do not cease to operate; but the controlling influence
of reason is lost—so also is the correcting effect of an external
reality through perception. In mental derangement the con¬
trolling influence of the regulative faculty or reason is lost
to a greater or less extent; and, although an external reality
is before the eyes of the patient, that sometimes only adds to
his delusion by presenting itself under a perverted form,
owing to pathological alterations in the action of the organs
concerned in sense ; while, from the same cause, the ordinary
laws of human thought, although not lost, are so modified
that their results stand more than ever in need of that control,
necessary even in health, of which the unfortunate condition
of the patient has wholly deprived him. It was remarked
above, that the laws regulating the succession of thoughts
are much modified even within the limits of health, by slight
physiological changes on the living system. How easy then
is it to conceive that pathological changes even of no very
great extent, may still more influence and modify such laws;
Mid, if the controlling power be at the same time weakened,
though only in a slight degree, the result will readily be some
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What is Psychology f
of the strikingly marked forms of mental derangement. The
effect of such slight pathological changes on the ordinary laws
of thought commonly is, that thoughts arise in rapid suc¬
cession connected together by very slight ties of resemblance,
contiguity or parallelism ; for example, the remembrance of
any two articles lying across each other will suggest a gibbet
in the form of a cross, while out of this gibbet a thousand
grotesque images, all slightly in some manner or other con¬
nected, will arise. Examples of this kind are found to abound
in dreams; and even in our waking moments there is
frequently a threatening of the same kinds of absurdity,
which, however, is put down at once by the regulating faculty.
This may at first view appear incredible to many. But let a
man watch himself for some time, and he will, it is certain,
discover that but for the vigilance of the self-regulating
faculty, he would often not only think, but even utter things
which he would be ready to pronounce fit only to come into
the mind, or to be spoken by the lips of a madman. Such
are the effects which the laws of human thought would pro¬
duce, were these not controlled and overruled by the objective
energy of the ego.
But it is time to draw to a close. In a certain sense psychology
is a department of physiology ; and under that aspect it may
derive improvement from those methods of cultivation which
prevail in physiological science. Viewed as a department of
physiology, psychology may be made to include all the
phenomena throughout the animal kingdom, in which con¬
sciousness or the sense of existence takes a part. But more
appropriately psychology belongs to anthropology, or what
concerns man ; and when limited in the greatest degree, it
denotes the phenomenology of the human mind in its healthy
state, or that part of human science which is cultivated by the
observation of what self-consciousness suggests.
50
Dr. Maudsley on the Correlation
The Correlation of Mental cmd Physical Force ; or, Man
a Part of Nature. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. Lond.,
Medical Superintendent of the Manchester Royal Lunatic
Hospital.
1 “ Man and his Dwelling Place.” London: J. W. Parker & Sons,
West Strand.
2 “ Essay on the Unity of Science,” by Rev. B. Powell, F.R.S., &c.
3 “ Order of Nature,” by the Rev. B. Powell.
4 Grove, on “ The Correlation of the Physical Forces.”
5 On “ The Mutual Relations of the Vital and Physical Forces.”
Dr. Carpenter, Philosoph. Transac., 1850.
6 Oersted’s “ Soul in Nature.”
Philosophy arrives at strange conclusions. At one time it
informs man that the world in which he lives, and moves, and
has his being, has no real existence ; and then again placidly
assures him that he cannot be at all certain of his own
existence ; consciousness it now exalts into the infallible test of
truth, and then pronounces it to be the most deceitful liar ;
morality is eternal and immutable, and in a short time a mere
matter of expediency, or non-existent altogether. Bewildered by
the multitude of its variations, and by its mystical uncertainties,
man at last comes to the conclusion, that philosophy itself is
all a delusion, and aspires to leave its vagaries unnoticed.*
But in vain ; it will not be unnoticed ; again, and again it
raises aloud its voice and insists on being heard, reproachfully
and pitifully too. “ Wretched, mistaken man that thou art,
how long, how long will thou rest satisfied to concern thyself
with the heresy of phenomena, when there is actual existence,
essence in the universe ?” Should the reply be made, that
ages on ages have been passed in the attempt to grasp the
essence, and yet utterly without profit, while a few years
spent in the humble method of observing phenomena, have
resulted in much knowledge and much benefit to humanity,
philosophy, unabashed, still has its answer. Since science
cannot possibly be rejected, it must be accepted ; it must be
regarded as affording data on which to found the investigation
into the real, spiritual, or by whatever other name it is called,
and must be incorporated as an humble element into philo¬
sophy’s glorious system. And thus science, which owes its
own existence to the avoidance of all such speculation, is
dragged in to make a pavement for this struggling, aspiring,
* In compliance with general usage, Philosophy is used to refer to Metaphy-
rict, although, strictly, it should include all the sdencea
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ever-restless philosophy. Should science be claimed with
success, we may readily conceive from the experience of the
past, how much its own progress would be hampered, indeed,
how soon there would be a stop put altogether to progress.
What interpretation then has philosophy to offer at the
present time of the universe, and what place has science in
that interpretation ? Why the fact is, as we are informed by
the eloquent author of “ Man and His Dwelling place,” that
after all, man is really dead, and that nature only is alive.
“ Instead of dead matter the deadness is in ourselves, and
we transfer our own defect into the universe wherein we exist.
There is in the universe but one essence, that of spirit, which
is life; material things are phenomena thereof, appearing to us
dead,and inert, by reason of our own inertness. The belief in
matter is in the strictest sense a superstition. It is the
superstit ion rather; the idol or show in which we worship, in
which we believe.”
This is repeated so often and in such identical language,
chapter after chapter, although very eloquently, and with
many beautiful thoughts, that it becomes somewhat wearisome,
almost, indeed painful For there is not satisfaction to the
soul’s anxious longing in the dogmatic assertion, that “ inert¬
ness is deadness ” and in the demand “ how can inertness
belong to being ? ” followed immediately by the assertion that
“ here in ourselves is the being to which inertness belongs, we
know it too well.” We retort the question, “ how can inert¬
ness belong to being ? ” and begin to suspect that we are
tantalized with a mere juggle of words. And yet it is a
philosophy which claims to be founded on science and on
religion. Which if it be, it rests, verily, on foundations that
are inexpugnable. Science has shown that our senses may be
deceived, that the earth moves round the sun, although man
long entertained the conviction that the sun moved round the
earth ; and, it is asked, why may not the senses be deceived
when they teach man that nature is dead, and that he is
himself alive. This is the whole of the argument from science,
and it somehow suggests by way of commentary such questions
as “ why may not the sun be dark ?” “ why may not the
heavens be only a few miles off?” and so on. Surely, too, if
man be dead, animals are dead also. In fact, half nature is
dead, and no man can say where death ends, and where life
begins. The error which lies at the bottom of such an
hypothesis, as it does at the bottom of all so-called philosophy,
is that which considers man as something apart from nature,
and not as a link in the mighty chain. The tendency of
E *
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science is more and more daily to show that man is but a part
of nature, and not a small god for whom all has been created,
but of this more hereafter. Meanwhile, let us glance for a
moment at the support which this startling hypothesis is sup¬
posed to obtain from religion ; for it is in this aspect that we
seem to discover its birth and growth.
“ The writers of the New Testament declare man to be
dead. ... If, therefore, our thoughts were truly conformed
to the New Testament, how could it seem strange that this
state of man should be found a state of death ; how should its
very words, affirmed by science, excite our surprize.”
Granting to the author that signification which he desires
to attribute to the sacred writings; granting, indeed, all
that he has argued for, what have we gained thereby ? Is
there any gain in actual knowledge in being informed that
the world is spiritual, and in being confounded by the infor¬
mation that we are dead ? The whole argument is merely a
disquisition on words, and on words that have to us no in¬
telligible meaning. What is death, if nature is alive, and we
are dead ; what is spiritual, if nature is spiritual, and we
are inert ? We are merely changing the names of that which
we know nothing about, and of which we can know nothing;
of what, by the very nature of our being, is beyond our com¬
prehension. Does science really affirm that man is dead !
If so, it is no longer science, it is nothing better than meta¬
physical vanity, the dead man’s knowledge. No, there is no
knowledge in such an hypothesis; it is nothing else but a
mysticism which has its origin in the adoption of the letter
of certain passages of Scripture, and the desire to reconcile
these with our moral instincts. It is an attempt “ to amal¬
gamate by a transcendental solvent, ideas which belong
to different schools of thought”
Few will dissent from the eloquent author, when he says
that “ science is religious; all things are so; nothing is
irreligious, but by error and ignorance,” but few will be able
to congratulate him, on the result of his labours to “ mingle
science and religion.” It is in truth a difficult task this “ the
great problem of the age, to reconcile faith with knowledge,
philosophy with religion.”* And it would not be without
interest to note the changes which have been gradually produced
in the relative position of religion and science, to observe how
religion at one time claimed to be science, and all in all, and
how, as science began to appear, it railed at and persecuted it, in
time patronised it, and has at last acknowledged it. And yet
* “ Life of Sterling ”—Archdeacon Hare.
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not universally ; for, impossible as it seems, there are yet
found men to deny the plainest truths of science, influenced by
a mistaken notion about religion, and others, some even illus¬
trious in science, who torture most cruelly these truths, in
order to adapt them to their religious prejudice. A late writer
in the “ British and Foreign Quarterly,” for instance, while
admitting the existence of a direct contradiction between
geology and Scripture, throws the blame thereof upon the
geologists.
In the last work of the illustrious Hugh Miller, there is a
strenuous attempt made to revive the Biblical geology.
But, perhaps, the strangest specimen of human ingenuity
is exhibited in the attempt of a celebrated naturalist, to
reconcile geological revelations with the Scriptural account*
The organic fossils are merely resemblances of real forms.
The first of existing plants and animals were created suddenly
out of nothing, ana, therefoi'e full-grown; trees with their
concentric rings, &c. In lake manner the crust of the earth
was created with the fallacious marks of successive deposits.
And thus, the world was really created in six days. It is not,
however, of such men as Hugh Miller and Mr. Gosse that
one dares to complain. Their opinions, whether right or
wrong, are formed after mature deliberation, and with a full
knowledge of the subject. It is the noisy and obtrusive man
that is so abhorrent, who, without a particle of that modera¬
tion which a little knowledge would impart, with the self-
confidence of ignorance, throws the whole energy of passion
and prejudice into a quarrel about the interpretation of a
Scriptural word or sentence. Thereby he succeeds in placing
science in apparent antagonism to religion, in frightening
many timid people, and in placing himself in the proud
position of asserting that the uncertain dictum of his judg¬
ment is more sure than the actual immutable fact of
nature. This is the man who clogs the wheels of science,
and acts as a dead weight on true religion. Infallible ! It is
not the “ everlasting hills ” that are facts; it is not the
wondrous orbits of the planets that are certain ; but, it is his
individual interpretation of a sentence which was the human
expression of a fact, incomprehensible by the then human
judgment this only is certain. Happily, religion stands
not in need of such individual’s declamatory harangue, or it
might go hard with it. And to us, there may be some
* 44 Omphalos,” by P. H. Gosso, F.R.S., 1857.
Sco 44 Order of Nature,” by Rev. B. Powell, where some excellent observa*
tions are made on this subject.
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amusement, and need n6t be any indignation in watching the
fly on the chariot wheel raise such a dust. That which has
its sure and certain evidence in the heavens, in the earth, in
the sea, and in all that therein is, which is fundamental in
man, and in the universe, needs, forsooth, the benefit of the
self-inspired enthusiast to defend it against the progress—of
what ?—of truth; to defend it, in fact, against that in which it
has its own sure foundations. For what is science but truth;
and the knowledge we get thereby, but a knowledge of the
laws of nature, which are the ways of Providence—a world—
revelation ? The very object and aim of science, considered
for a moment, should lead us to doubt our opinion on any
subject on which we find ourselves opposed to its revelations.
“ It is, indeed, obvious that the xvork8 of Ood can never be
really opposed to the word of God, and that (as it has been
ingeniously and reverently expressed) whenever there is an
apparent discrepancy, it must necessarily arise from an erro¬
neous interpretation of the latter.”*
And yet, so far from being general at the present day is
such a conviction, that there is need of another Bacon to
teach us a method of confirming a physical truth when it has
already been inductively established. For, when certain
things are affirmed on data, which it is impossible to con¬
tradict, and when every argument against them has fallen
pointless, it too often happens that the religious danger signal
is raised, and religion is brought to the rescue. And what,
in reality, is it brought to support ? In sooth, nothing better
than man’s little pride, his vanity, his idea of his supremacy,
and special privileges, his refusal to acknowledge himself as a
part of nature. Geology was abused, and its truths denied,
because it proved that creation was a great deal more than
the mere making of man ; a plurality of worlds was denied,
and Giordano Bruno burned, because such a doctrine was
considered derogatory to man’s privileges and moral su¬
premacy ; the theory of progressive development has been
execrated, mainly, because it hurts man’s complacent dignity;
and Galileo was persecuted, and the sun was made to move,
because man had said so. Happily there is a comfort to
those who mourn; time dissipates all errors, and erroneous
opinions and prejudices must sooner or later give way,
shattered by contact with tho veracities of nature. The
course of science is, indeed, as the course of nature. Pro¬
ceeding according to fixed and unchanging laws, nature
ignores all apparent impediments, and mercilessly crushes
* Dr. Wigan, on “ The Duality of tho Mind.”
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of Mental and Physical Force.
whatever is not conformed to their operation. There is no
respect for the ingenious contrivance of man, by which he
fondly believes that] he has conquered nature; no respect for
the manifold virtues by which he vainly hopes to secure a
special dispensation ; no respect even for that life which he so
highly values. This lordly despot who looks upon the
universe as created for his enjoyment and profit, sees again
and again with what supreme indifference the course of nature
treads out, so to say, his highly prized existence, and is
forced to confess that there is no distinction made be¬
tween him and the rest of creation. And yet he learns
no humility therefrom. The lightning which blasts the
oak, spares not the man under it; the ocean in its anger
does not become calm around the vessel, because a man
cries or prays therein; and the earthquake shakes his
buildings about his head, as though ignorant that a thousand
human beings perished in the ruins. Man builds his houses
again, forgets his wailing supplication, and again struts forth
the “ lord of creation.” Oh! now great is the vanity of man,
“ this miserable atom, this small piece of the universe.” Such
is man in his relation to nature, something similar are his
opinions in reference to science. For the progress of science
is the progress of our knowledge of nature, as crushing and as
unrelenting in its course, as nature herself. Mercilessly does
it upset the prejudices and grind down the idols of ages,
careless of the groans and curses of humanity, in despair at
the destruction of its Dagons. And yet on the ruins of old,
new and obstinate prejudices spring up, sure of eternal
veracity and durability, as prejudices generally are, doomed
sooner or later to an unhappy fate. There can indeed be no
finality in opinion, as long as there is no finality in knowledge.
And man has yet much to learn, and is progressing slowly and
steadily, as the Laureate says,
“ For I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs.
And the thoughts of men are widened by the process of the
suns.”
Those, therefore, who would bring religion into the field to
oppose the revelation of science, and those who strive to no
less than dislocate the human mind, in order to make the
explanations of science and their supposed interpretations of
Scripture phraseology coincide, take an exceeding unhappy
course, ana may look out for an exceeding unhappy result.
If the Scriptures are so plain “ that a way-faring man though
a fool cannot err therein,” it is very evident that the infinite
wisdom which dictated them, never intended that they should
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speak science* For science has required ages to elaborate it;
religion was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be the
same. The Bible, therefore, does not teach science ; it speaks
all important truths, to man in a way he can best understand;
it is the Infinite speaking to the finite, and adapting himself
thereto. Man does not rest in the same position as to know¬
ledge ; and a Bible, which spoke to him in the language of his
day, would require constant renovation. Most absurd, therefore,
and, most to be deplored of all, seems to us the egregious
vanity of the man, who comes forward with his last discovery,
or with his bundle of scientific discoveries, and parades them
as destructive of the truth and authority of Scripture. He is
supposing that he has arrived at finality, and yet his successor
of a century hence would have a similar complaint to make
against a Bible which spoke in the scientific language of to-day.
Constant change is essential to the existence of man’s organism;
a general cessation in the activity which exists throughout is
death : so it is with humanity on the whole ; if knowledge does
not progress, there is spiritual death. “ To cease to change, is
to lose place in the great race, and to pass away from off the
earth with the same convictions which we found when we
entered it, is to have missed the best object for which we seem
now to exist.’'"f* And how then dares man constantly changing,
constantly acquiring, as the condition of his intellectual ex¬
istence, complain that what speaks to him of the never
changing, should not coincide in its language with the
variations of which he is the subject When man has arrived
at the Infinite, then will it be the time to complain that the
Infinite is not intelligible to him. It is very much to be
regretted that so eminent a philosopher as Auguste Comte,
should l>e one of those who have endeavoured to place science
and religion in antagonism to one another. After ridiculing
the idea that the famous verse; “ The Heavens declare the
glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handywork,” still
preserved its value, he says, “ To minds early familiarized with
true philosophical astronomy, the heavens declare no other
glory than that of Hipparchus, of Kepler, of Newton, and of
all those who have aided in establishing their laws. I have
shown that all real science is in necessary and radical opposition
to all theology,” &c.+ After which he goes on to say, that “an
Scriptura sacra est a prophctis ct apostolis ad doccndnm non philosophiam
(quam ad cxercitioncm rationis naturalis conteinplationibus disputation ibusquc
hominum rcliquit Deus) sed pietafcera et salutis eternae viam.” Hobbe’s “Le¬
viathan” c. viii.
t *• History of England.” J. A. Froude, M.A., 1856.
X “ Comte’s Philosophy of Science,” by G. H. Lewes, Bohn.
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accurate explanation of our solar system shows, in the most
sensible manner, and in various respects that, “ the elements of
this system are certainly not disposed in the most advan¬
tageous manner, a/nd that science permits us easily to
conceive a happier ai'rangement.” The old assumption
already reprobated, that “man is the measure of the universe.”
We may, by way of commentary, add the words of Lafontaine,
“ C’est dommage Garo que tu n’es point entrd
Aux conseils de celui qui preche ton curd
Tout aurait dtd mieux.
The intellectual pride of science is too apt to lead to such
dangerous paths, and M. Comte is not the only beacon to
warn us. The argument in Sir I>. Brewster’s reply to the
celebrated “ Essay on the Plurality of Worlds,” is a mar¬
vellous exhibition of the vanity of intellect. The planets are
inhabited, because, if not, we cannot assign the cause of
their existence; we cannot conceive what else they are for,
but to sustain animal and intellectual life. In fact, (for such
reasoning amounts to nothing less,) in place of God having
made man in his own image, man makes God at all times
after his own image. It is full time indeed that man should
learn to labour and to wait, content to know that he is but
a part of nature, and that the part cannot comprehend the
whole. “ Let science follow her own path unrestrained, let
her cultivate her own region—that of universal law —un¬
trammelled by speculations, either of one kind or another,
and moral reflection will be sure in the end to vindicate for
itself the truths of theology, and that upon the firm and im¬
moveable grounds, from which a true and all-influencing
theology can alone take its start.”* It is very difficult, how¬
ever, with the best intentions, to follow such a course, so
startling at times appear the revelations of science to those
prejudices which are so often interpreted as religion. The
“ Essay on the Unity of Sciences,” though of a highly philo¬
sophical type, yet affords an example of this difficulty. In it
is pointed out with admirable force, that all real science is in
a state of perpetual change, but that the change is all in one
direction; “that every branch approaches perfection and
stability, as it approaches to and realizes the grand principle
of unity." The sciences of life and organization, which by
some are supposed to involve a new class and order of ideas,
and to stand out as exceptional cases to the general unity, are
really no exceptions at all. “ All myths about imponderable
matters, and especially vital forces,” says Humboldt, “ only
* “ British and Foreign Review.” April, 1856. J. D. Morell.
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render views of nature perplexed and indistinct.” To attribute
the causes of life and organization to something essentially
mysterious and inscrutable is to paralyze research. “ Every¬
thing,” says the Rev. B. Powell, “ is mysterious ’till it is made
known, and there really exists as complete and continuous a
relation and connexion of some hind between the mani¬
festations of life, and the simplest mechanical and chemical
laws evinced in the varied actions of the body in which it
resides, as there is between the action of any machine and the
laws of motion and equilibrium, the weaving of a cloth by a
power-loom, and the principle of latent heat; and that the
connexion and dependence is but one component portion of
the vast chain of physical causation, whose essential strength
lies in its universal continuity, which extends without inter¬
ruption, through the entire world of order, and in which a real
disruption of one link would be the disruption of the whole ”
(p. 67).
But here we come upon dangerous ground. Is man to be
included in the series of nature ? “ Considered in his animal
nature,” says Rev. B. Powell, “ he is very little superior to the
brutes, and vn so far as his animal nature, functions, and
instincts are concerned, they are linked in the same chain of
continuity with the order of other material existences.”
Then, as to mind and volition, between the manifestations
of which in man and in the lower animals it is impossible
to draw the line: “In so far as they belong to the animal
part of man’s constitution, the question as to the nature of
such manifestations of intelligence may be a question of
degree, and may be philosophically treated as connected with
other questions of man’s physical development, as part of the
great scale of natural existence governed by natural laws as
yet very imperfectly known, but fairly subjects of intellectual
enquiry.”
This is not very satisfactory in an essay eloquent on the
unity of sciences, and the mighty chain of continuity which
extends throughout nature. In so far as —the continuity of
our chain is interrupted, and a new order of phenomena
introduced by an in so far as, without any power on our
part of deciding how far that may be. One feels moved to
say after Falstaff, “ I had as lief they would put ratsbane in
my mouth as offer to stop it with an in so far as." For
the difficulty is to fix the point in the manifestations of
mind and volition, at which the difference in degree may
be supposed to become one in kind, nature not having
marked it at all clearly. It seems as though at this
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point in the essay some small voice had whispered to the
learned author: Put off thy scientific shoes from off thy
feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground.
And the advice is accepted ; in a moment more there is
a bound quite out of scientific trammels, and man’s moral
and spiritual nature is referred to a wholly “ different
order of things , apart from, and transcending any material
ideas whatsoever. Hence, it cannot be affected by any con¬
siderations or conclusions belonging to the laws of matter
or nature .” We are at once carried out of the domain of
science ; the ground is, as it were, suddenly taken from under
our feet, and we are left, it must be confessed, with no clear
idea of where we are. Two impressions gradually become
distinct to our minds. The first is, that it is very unlikely
that there should be two such essentially distinct orders of
phenomena in the universe; that, in fact, it is almost
inconceivable that there should be a unity and continuity
throughout the mighty field of nature, that continuity ex¬
tending far into man’s own nature, there suddenly to be
broken off. Mr. Baden Powell himself considers, that mind
in that department of its operations which are independent of
physical laws, is yet “ governed by equally regular laws of its
own.”* We are required, therefore, to believe in two separate
and distinct systems of laws in the world, we are required to
believe in a mind, which “in so far as it is physical,” is
subject to one system, and “in so jar as it is metaphysical,”
is subject to the other,yet systems unconnected and independent.
Whether such a doctrine is accepted or not, will probably
depend on the character of the individual mind. Secondly, we
have an impression, almost amounting to conviction, that to
assert that moral phenomena are not affected by any condition
of matter, is very far from being a correct statement.*!* Without
claiming, as M. Comte does, the scientific cognizance of moral
and intellectual phenomena exclusively for the physiologists,
and placing mental philosophy on a par with astrology, many
eminent men entertain the conviction that “every mental
state has a nervous state for its immediate antecedent and
* M Unity of Science,” p. 245.
t Spinoza in bis Ethics says, “ Quso omnia satis ostendunt, unumnuemque
pro dispositione cerebri de rebus judicasse, vel potius imaginations affectiones
pro rebus accepisse. Quare non mirum est (nt hoc etiam obiter notemns) quod
inter homines tot, quot experimnr, controversial ortce sunt, ex quibus tandem
Scepticismus. Nam quamvis humana corpora in multis conveniuut in plurimis
tamcn discrepant, et idco id quod uni bonum alien malum videtur; quod uni
ordinatum, alteri confusum, quod uni gratum, alteri ingratum est.”—Quoted in
Lewes’ “ Life of Goethe.”
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proximate causeindeed, this is all but proved. But without
entering into an unnecessary discussion on this point, or upon
the order of things to which moral phenomena belong, it remains
a fact, that from considerations of matter only, one can predict,
to some extent, moral nature; and to such an extent, that we
are justified in the belief, that were our knowledge of matter
f reater, this power of prediction would be increased also.
hrenology is, doubtless, often at fault in its details, but it is
founded on a fact, which is almost as certain as any principle
of ecience, that the character and confirmation of the brain,
and the nervous susceptibility, determine in this world the
moral and intellectual nature of the individual Of course
this nature is modified by circumstances, but these modify the
brain also ; in fact, it is a law of the nervous system to
“ grow to circumstances.” But every-day experience, as well
as pathological observation, will supply hundreds of examples
of the direct manner in which moral character is influenced
by the physical state. “I firmly believe,” says Dr. Wigan, “that
I have more than once changed the moral character of a boy,
by leeches to the inside of the nose.”*
It would be gratifying to learn what signification the asser¬
tion of a distinct moral nature bears to human knowledge. If
there was anything gained by a belief therein, one would be
only too glad to accept it. Even if the supposition of a moral
sense, or intuitive moral principle could be shown to be a
necessary and satisfactory principle, there would be much
hope from it, and immediate acceptance of it. But even if
the doctrine were true, “ it would provide only for that field
of conduct which is properly called moral. For the remainder
of the practice of life, some general principle or standard must
still be sought; and if that principle be rightly chosen, it will
be found, I apprehend, to serve quite as well for the ultimate
principle of morality, as for that of prudence, policy, or taste.”*f*
If human nature could but be divided and mapped out, and
human principles of action discriminated and specialized as
certain human ideas require, what a host of difficulties would
be annihilated. But it is just the fact, that everything in
man is part of a whole, and that whole but a part of the greater
whole of nature, which prevents doctrines so pleasing to
human vanity from affording definite and satisfactory expla¬
nations of facts. “The connected series of physica l causation
is the manifestation of moral causation," as Baden Powell
himself says; and it seems impossible to believe that the
♦ “ Duality of the mind."—Dr. Wigan, p. 16.
f “ System of Logic.”—J. Stuart Mill, vol. ii., p. 529.
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moixd man stands distinct and apart from a morally governed
universe. Placing side by side the title of the essay, “ On
the Unity of Sciences,” and that of the last book of Mills’
Work on Logic, “ On the Logic of the Moral Sciences,” there
is a pleasure in believing that the tendency of the age is to
extend the unity spoken of in the former throughout the whole
of the latter.
Should it be said in reply to the assertion, that moral nature
is determined by cerebral state, that it is merely the operation
of the moral principle which is influenced, whilst its nature
remains always the same, such a reply may be extended to
mind in all its manifestations; to “ mind and volition ” in
their lower functions, in so far as they belong to the animal
part of man’s constitution. If the unity of science extends
into these, and they are fit subjects for scientific cognizance,
there seems no reason why the character, operations, and
relations of the moral principle should be exempt. But, in
reality, such a doctrine, which we find so frequently enunciated
in the case of mind and brain, is a self-deceiving sophistry. If
the manifestations of mind are only through the medium of a
certain organization, it is the manifestations only that we
have to do with in this world ; these constitute the character,
these are the individual. The mind in its own immortal
nature may be “ unchanged and immutable by anything of
earth but it is then no longer individual mind, it must be
evidently the same in every one; individual character is
annihilated beyond the body, and there is no distinction of
persons. The brain in fact is, as one cannot but think the
most philosophical of the Apostles clearly saw, essential to the
existence of the mind as individual; if we believe otherwise,
we must believe in the veriest Pantheism that ever was
dreamed. It is difficult to understand why there should be
any objections, on religious grounds, to language which speaks
of mind being dependent on brain, being in fact a function
thereof, when our religion teaches that Christ raised Lazarus,
and rose himself bodily from the grave, when St. Paul dis¬
tinctly preaches the resurrection of the body, and when Job
confidently affirms, “ in my flesh shall I see God.” Never¬
theless, man blinded by his vanity, and by the mists of
metaphysics, ashamed apparently of his body, as having so
much in common with the rest of nature, cannot bring himself
to acknowledge it, and with many an opprobrious name
brands those who teach so humiliating a doctrine. The
irreligion, if any there be, is on the side of those who will
insist on ignoring the organism, and viewing man as mind ;
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mind chained, as it were, for a time, but scarcely acknow¬
ledged to be determined in action, even by its chains.
Irreligion is not with those who, following scripture,
and learning humility, reverently refrain from assimilating
themselves to the Infinite, and humbly hope “ in the flesh to
see God.” Surely then science is justified by scripture in
viewing man as a material being, and as a part of the vast
structure of the universe, which for some wise end Infinite
Wisdom is governing in such wondrous harmony and order.
Considering the history of the universe, as it is disclosed to
us, and the nature of man as it is forced upon us, and reflecting
on the aspect which science gives us of nature, it seems im¬
possible to believe that man is the end of creation. And yet
such is his exceeding great vanity, that a doubt on the subject
rarely presents itself; and it yet remains for him to learn that
he is but a link, and that not the last link in the mighty
scheme of the universe. He is a part of nature, and like
everything in material existence, produced from “ particles of
matter by the same forces, and in obedience to the same
laws.” The laws of man’s reason are laws of nature, and the
laws of nature are laws of reason, as Oersted has taught,* and
herein is the harmony which is described by some as existing
between man and nature. - !* Such a consideration also will
incline us to expect that the multitude of speculations which
the human mind has through successive ages been engaged in,
have not been altogether vanity. They are, for the most part,
operations of reason, often in giant minds, and must, therefore,
have in them something of the truth in nature. They express,
as it were, in a different language the facts which positive
science now expounds in its own language; and a liberal
tr ansla tion, when the time has come for it, will probably show
that there is in very truth “ nothing new under the sun.”
This, however, is a subject for separate consideration, and may
be advantageously discussed on a future occasion.
For the present our duty evidently is, in recognising man
as a part of nature, to glance at the forces in the universe, and
their relation to one another; and on this subject recent
science has made most important revelations. In his im¬
portant work on the “ Correlation of Physical Forces,” a book
which will probably be one of the most notable in the history
of science, Grove has pointed out how questionable it is, not
only whether “cause and effect are convertible terms with
antecedence and sequence,” but “ whether in fact, cause does
* 41 The Soul in Nature.”—Oersted.
f Morell’s 44 Elements of Psychology.”
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precede effect, whether force does precede the change in
matter, of which it is said to be the cause.” “ The common
error consists in the abstraction of cause, and in supposing in
each case a general secondary cause, a something which is not
the first cause, but which, if we examine it carefully, must
have all the attributes of a first cause, and an existence inde¬
pendent of, and dominant over, matter.”
Electricity and magnetism furnish examples. Electricity
was supposed to be the cause of magnetism, but magnetism
may cause electricity ; ergo, electricity causes electricity, a
redact io ad absurdum. And so with other cases, fr<ftn con¬
sideration of which the author has been led to the conclusion,
that “ abstract secondary causation does not exist” Cause and
effect therefore, are relative terms ; there is a correlation of
the forces in nature, one is convertible into another, but no
one is the essential cause of the other. One form of force
disappears as another is evolved, and from a single source we
may have all the great natural forces of which we have any
knowledge (with the exception of gravitation) evolved.*
“ The same electrical current from a voltaic battery is
capable in its circuit of evolving heat and light, of creating
magnets, of producing mechanical force, of violently affecting
the nervous and muscular organization, and of inducing by
decomposition or combination the most powerful chemical
changes, simply according to the nature of the different
material objects which the experimenter interposes in the
circuit, so as to subject them to the current of power.”-]-
Ail these forces are to be considered as forms of one and
the same force, varying only in its outward manifestations.
There is but one condition wanting to convert this doctrine
into an unimpeachable scientific truth; it is proof of a qucmti-
tative equivalence of the various forms of force. “Heat
should be capable of being converted into electricity, electricity
into chemical action, chemical into mechanical force, and
mechanical force back again into the very same quantity of
heat which was expended at the commencement of the series.”]:
This demonstration will, doubtless, be acquired in time, and
meanwhile there is evidence enough to justify us in accepting
* Gravitation also will, doubtless, in time be shown to. be no exception.
Farad aj observes, “ that there should be a power of gravitation existing by
itself, having no relation to the other natural powers, and no respect to the law
of conservation of force, is as little likely as that there should be a principle of
levity as W ell as of gravity.”— On the Conservation of Forces.
| Edinburgh Renew, July, 1858.
j "Sys tem of Logie.”—J. S. Mill, vol. i.» p. 477.
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the doctrine of the Correlation of Physical Forces, and in
awaiting with confidence the full proof.
But when we once admit the principle of correlation, we
find a considerable amount of evidence disclosing itself in
favour of a further extension of it. Man, as has been already
rejieatedly said, is but a part of nature, and subject to the
laws which govern matter throughout the universe. To the
development of his organism, heat is as essential as it is to
the budding of a flower, light as necessary as it is to the
proper growth of a plant, and the chemical force is as active
in man's body as it is in any other product of nature. What
relation then does the force which has constructed the organism,
the germ force of Paget, bear to the other physical forces ?
Does it rank in the correlated circle ? There are many minds
in which analogy, without any aid from special observation
and experiment, would produce the conviction that it does.
The evidence of observation is not, however, wanting in favour
of such a belief. Liebig had indicated the relation, but it is
Dr. Carpenter who has proclaimed it distinctly, and mainly
contributed to establish it. Liebig had shown how very
closely chemical processes are engaged in all the great pro¬
cesses of animal life, and that it was highly probable that
muscular contraction proceeded from the expenditure or
metamorphosis of the cell-force, which -ceased to exist as a
vital force in giving rise to mechanical agency; while the
experiments of Matteuci and Du Bois Raymond have demon¬
strated the intimate relations which exist between electricity
and nervous and muscular action. Dr. Carpenter has given
the interpretation of these facts, in placing “ vital force ” in
the circle of correlation with the physical forces ; he traces
further a correlation among the several forces (assimilative,
secretive, &c.,) to whose agency vital phenomena are attribu¬
table. The term “ germ-force,” therefore, used by Paget, can
only be understood as a “ comprehensive expression of all the
individual forces which are at work, and so far from residing
within the germ, it is of external origin.”* And, verily, as
Grove has observed, “ it is certainly far less difficult so to
conceive the supply of force yielded to organized beings in
their gradual process of growth, than to suppose a store of
dormant or latent force pent up in a microscopic monad.”
If such then be the position of the so-called “ vital force ”
in its relation to the physical forces, it is no wonder that the
* Philosophical Transactions, 18j 0. Dr. Carpenter “on the Mutual Relations
of the Vital and Physical Forces.”
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organism throughout life should be so much influenced by the
powers without; it is no wonder that it should grow to cir¬
cumstances in the way it does ; for the forces that are affecting
it are in reality the force that is in it under different modes.
To any change without there will be an answer within ; to
any disturbance without a respondent irregularity within,
which may manifest itself in a modification or a disease of the
organism, in the blighting of a flower, or in the purging of a
man.
But there is another doctrine regarding the so-called “ vital
force,” which was entertained by some of the old philosophers,
and which has again been put forth at the present day—of
much interest and importance, when viewed in relation to the
correlation of vital and physical force. It is that which
regards the soul as operating unconsciously in the construction
of the organism. “ The soul and the body,” says Morell,*
“ are perfectly coincident; the soul is prior to consciousness ;
it exists unconsciously from the formation of the first cell-
germ.” Dr. Laycock also looks upon “ the human mind as
none other than the unconscious working principle of intelli¬
gence individualized, and become conscious of its workings in
the cerebrum.”
What at once strikes us in this doctrine as somewhat
extraordinary and improbable is, that in the construction of
organisms which form such an important part of nature, a
force should be in operation which has no relation in its
nature to any other of the known forces at work in the uni¬
verse, and which is, nevertheless, notably influenced by them.
It looks like filching away from science the most interesting
field of its labours, by referring to a different order of things,
phenomena of which science feels itself capable of taking
cognizance. Those who describe organic growth and develop¬
ment as the results of “ vital force,” operating according to
certain laws, can feel no scruple in admitting its probable
correlation with the other natural forces, by which its agency
is so much modified ; but when we substitute for vital force
the unconscious intelligent soul, a difficulty will arise in the
minds of many, in admitting that correlation, which the
analogy of nature renders probable. But are the two
doctrines really incompatible ? To suppose that they are not
is startling, for it is to suppose that mind is one of the corre¬
lated forces of nature. And vet there are many weighty
arguments in favour of regarding the constructive force as
unconscious soul. The marked intelligence which it exhibits
• “ Elements of Psychology.”
VOL. VI. NO. 31. P
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in all its operations in the building up of the organism,
indicating a completer knowledge than is ever acquired by the
conscious soul, and which, indeed, it is the constant aim of
the latter to attain to ; the reason with which it adapts its
structure to the varying circumstances in which they are
placed, apparently yielding to the powers of nature, but in
reality subjugating them, so to speak, to the advancement of
its end, compel admiration, and at least the acknowledgment,
that there is nothing extravagant in the supposition of itB
nature being identical with that of conscious soul. In point
of fact, its mode of action is precisely that which Bacon asserts
to be the characteristic of the enlightened scientific mind—“ it
conquers nature by obeying her.” If we contemplate its
history, as written in the infinite multitude of organic struc¬
tures, and their appropriate distribution, or in the infinite
variety of structural changes by which both plants and animals
are adapted to new external circumstances—in the intelligent
action too of the new machinery, as exhibited in acquired
instincts and habit6—it will be impossible to deny that this
unconscious soul is eminently tyorid-conscious. Every organ¬
ism is, in fact, an intelligent response to external forces.
Unconscious, indeed, this intelligent power, which with such
wonderful uniformity elaborates material, and with such
unerring precision applies the different varieties to their
different purposes, so that even the scar on the child’s finger
is not forgotten, but appropriately nourished, grows as the
body grows, and which in the unfailing constancy of its
action, often brings recollection to the forgetful, conscious
souL Doubtless, the unhappy sufferer who sees the syphilitic
spots sprouting out over his body years after the original sin,
would wish that it were not quite so sensitively alive to
outward agencies, and at times a little more oblivious of
them ; but in vain. Conscious soul may forget; unconscious
soul does not. It is true that all its operations are performed
S uietly, without other notification than the result; but if some
isturbing agent interfere with its peaceful action, it is admi¬
rable to observe how speedily a consciousness thereof is
exhibited, and what intelligence is manifested in the means
adopted to remove the impediment. It is thus that the oyBter
produces its pearls, that the lobster throws off its claw, and
that man recovers from gangrene. Disease itself is the
evidence of the world-consciousness of this force, and the “vie
pi'eservatrix natwrce ,” the manifestation of its intelligence.
Which is the more certain index of the state of the extemal-
conscious or unconscious soul? Let plague, fever, cholera)
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and a host of other diseases answer. We may justly then
echo Spenser’s creed, that
“ Soul is form, and doth the body make
or say with Virgil,
“ Totamque infusa per artus
Mens agitat molem.”
The intelligent adaptation of structure to circumstances, by
the so-called vital force, has already been mentioned, and
needs no illustration here; but we may reflect for a moment
with advantage on the perfect correspondence that exists at
all times between physical structure and the “ indwelling self-
conscious reason.” Thus consider for a moment the eye of
such admirable mechanism, that each fresh contemplation of
it calls forth fresh exclamations of wonder. The light is
adapted to the eye, and the eye is so formed as to produce by
concentration of its rays an image on the retina* which the
mind can receive. Is not reason exhibited most notably in
the construction of the eye, and is the force (mind) which
owes chiefly to this very structure its power of detecting the
reason in nature—in fact, mainly its own existence—is it
essentially different from, and superior to, the power which
has constructed the admirable organ ? Or, again, considering
the adaptation of light to the eye, as well as of the eye to
mind, is it probable that there is a correlation between the
force, whatever it be, which is light, and the force which has
been engaged in the formation of the eye, and no correlation
between the latter and the force which appears as mind?
The more one reflects upon the subject, the less easy does it
become to avoid the conviction, that the self-conscious ope¬
rates unconsciously in the construction of the organism, that
vital force is soul.*
To what point then have we arrived ? We have seen that
men in olden times, and at the present day, uninfluenced by
any theory of the correlation of forces, have taught on evidence
* “Similar views respecting the essential homogenity of mind and natnre
were entertained by Liebnitz in his Monadology; and afterwards illustrated in
a aeries of letters published amongst his Opuscula. Modern science and philo¬
sophy, instead of refuting these speculations of, perhaps, the greatest of modern
thinkers, has only availed more and more to prove their fundamental con¬
sistency, with the"principles both of thought and existence. Whatever research,
either on the physical or mental side, has proceeded far enough to open the
question at all, it lias almost uniformly shown a manifest tendency either to
recur to the point where Liebnitz left it 200 years ago; or to restate the theory
in a more perfect form. Among modern writers we may mention Alex. Yon
Humboldt, Waitz, Cams, Oersted, Erdmann, Karl Schmidt, &c., as having^
given clear illustrations of the unity of idea which reigns through the world ot
mind and nature,”—Note in Morelrs u Elements of Psychology ” p. 46 .
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that has not been refuted, the identity of soul, and of the
force which is engaged in the construction and maintenance
of the organism. We have seen, moreover, that others
unbiassed by any theory with regard to the soul, which they
leave out of consideration as beyond their domain, have
taught, and on evidence which establishes conviction, that
there is a correlation between the organic force and the
physical forces. The conclusion then is inevitable ; there is a
correlation between mind and physical force, between all the
forces of nature. Verily, verily then is man indeed but a
part of nature.
But confining attention for a moment simply to the forces
in man, irrespective of any theory of correlation of forces, and
leaving out of consideration the physical forces, we find that
we are unable, reflect and observe as we may, to distinguish
their effects. It is, in fact, impossible to discriminate between
the vital and automatic acts, and the proper functions of mind.
There is no certain boundary line, not even an uncertain
boundary line, “ no absolute gap between the unconscious and
self-conscious portions of the universe.” Are we then to
suppose that there are in man two forces essentially distinct
in nature, belonging to different orders of things, yet merging
so gradually the one into the other, that the most acute
philosopher is unable to say at all times which is which.
Nature everywhere proclaims a gradual progression, and
science has at length understood the proclamation, and has
discovered that a “ law. of progression ” does pervade the
universe. And yet we cannot bring our minds to accept the
law purely and simply ; we must actually go out of the way
to invent difficulties. Instead of accepting nature, we devise
theories, and endeavour to make nature appear anomalous.
Where there is a gradual progression, with no gap, no inter¬
ception, we must imagine forces unrelated and essentially
distinct in operation. We assume the right to make a mon¬
strous gap between the forces, and then are actually astonished,
and unable to explain that there is no gap in their operations.
It is almost needless to enquire how this happens. It has its
fundamental origin in that propensity already reprobated on
the part of man, to ignore himself as a material being, and to
speculate loosely ana dilate rapturously on his mental being.
He finds much inward gratification in speculating on a force
which he begins by assuming to be independent of all other
forces in nature, and resolves to examine it exclusively on its
own merits. The scientific man does not attempt to ignore
heat in his consideration of motion, or magnetism in las
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examination of electricity, and yet the man who boasts of
being the “ philosopher ” par excellence , does in his meta¬
physics exclude everything but the one which he professes to
be studying. Hence it is not at all astonishing, that of all
vanities, metaphysics is the vanity of vanities, and that the
study thereof (V art de a' tgarer avec methode —the art of
methodically “ muddling ” oneself,) is a vexation of spirit It
appears as though in the study of mind the right course
would be to observe the relation of phenomena, as it is in the
study of the external world. In the latter, it has been agreed
to dismiss as vain the question of essences, and to confine the
attention to phenomena; but in the field of mind, the hypo¬
thesis of essence still excludes the proper course of investiga¬
tion, and effectually prevents progress. Yet withal there is
some difficulty in understanding why we should cling so
tenaciously to the erroneous method ; for the physical
forces, we cannot but see, operate in the most intelligent
manner in the universe, and exhibit a higher reason than
any to which man has ever attained ; and surely there is no
extravagance in supposing that the great cause which has
determined the laws according to which they act so har¬
moniously throughout nature, may have determined a similar
intelligential operation on the part of a correlated force in
man. Our highest efforts in science are directed to detecting
the reason that is in the universe, and thereby ourselves
acquiring knowledge. Man, indeed, only progresses in know¬
ledge in so far as he progresses in physical science ; it is in
this mainly that the progress of civilization has consisted.
The intellect in the days of Aristotle and of Plato was pro¬
bably not inferior in itself to the intellect of modem times,
and its cultivation was as great in Greece as it has been in
civilized England. But the method was erroneous in the
days of Plato. The inductive investigation of nature^of the
spirit of which Bacon was the expression, and the progress of
positive science, have supplied to modem mind a better
nourishment, and have conferred upon it a greater power.
Knowing the physical laws, man can employ the physical
forces for his purposes; these are brought into subjection,
and the proposition of Bacon, that “ man conquers nature by
obeying her,” is realized. There is, as it were, a double
correlation between the laws and reason of nature, and the
mind’s knowledge (science), and again, between the latter and
the world of art. It is the world acting on man, and man
reacting on the world. Buckle, in his learned work on the
“ History of Civilization,” has argued very eloquently, that
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science only is progressive, and that morality is not; and it
is so far true, that no change has taken place of late in the
principles of morality; but it seems impossible to deny that
there has been an extension of the application of those prin¬
ciples—an increase in practical morality ; and this, not as the
result of any supposed exacerbation of moral principle, but as
the simple and inevitable result of the progress of science.
The abstract moral truth, that man “ should do unto others
as he would have others do unto him,” though for ages
preached and for ages recognized as true, could not avail to
induce the rich man to improve his poor neighbour’s pig-stye
habitation. And the poor man being left, morality notwith¬
standing, to live like a pig, acted in some measure also like a
pig. But modern science has taught that a filthy habitation,
and a foul atmosphere, and unwholesome food, are directly
destructive to human life; and cholera and fever have done
what religion and morality had attempted aud failed to do ;
and now, as the result, is appearing the dawn of a social
science.
Thus, then, the advance of civilization, consisting in a
progress of the intellect, is owing to the progress of man’s
acquaintance with the laws of nature. It is the mind respon-
- ding to newly-discovered laws of reason, by virtue of the
correlation of forces ; Antaeus-like, it gains new life by contact
with mother earth. Yet, partly by reason of the exagge¬
rated idea which we entertain of our individual selves, and
partly from our familiarity with the physical forces, we refuse
to recognize such a doctrine, deeming it to involve a fearful
degradation of our spiritual nature. Because, forsooth, man
can bottle electricity, he fancies that it is not very wonderful;
he underrates the nature of this force, and overrates mind, at
least comparatively, as though Providence had not sent one
forth to do its work in the world, just as much as the other—
as though God were not omnipotent. But the fundamental
error which appears to lie at the bottom of man’s opinion on
this subject, as, indeed, on a good many others, is his inability
to rise out of himself; he cannot emancipate himself from the
tendency which is so general at the commencement of specu¬
lation, to regard all things with reference to himself personally.
On the whole, this is, perhaps, not to be wondered at,
seeing how he is materially affected, for pleasure or for pain,
and is a considerable part of the whole. Yet the progress of
science tends to show that what we have to learn, is to observe
objects not as related to us, but to one another, and not only
so, but to place ourselves on equal terms amongst the objects
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whose relations we are to observe—to become, as far as
possible, indifferent spectators of these relations, forgetting,
as far as may be done, that we are interested and affected
parties. Man is certainly too personal, and much needs to be
brought back now and then to his cradle in the dust; he
would do well to observe how nature everywhere proclaims
his individual littleness, to listen to the “ tongues m trees,”
to attend to the “ sermons in stones,” and to read the “ books
in the running brooks.” Thus to give an illustration of what,
perhaps, yet remains to be learned from the “ tongues in
trees,” regarding the subordinate part which the individual
plays in the mighty scheme of the universe, let us instance
the phenomena of nutrition and reproduction. In the lowest
plants and animals, generation is but nutrition directed to a
particular purpose. A cell, to all appearance, breaks off
indifferently somewhere from the parent, settles down and
grows into a new organism ; or, ascending a little higher in
the scale of organization, there is a budding (gemmation) from
some part of the parent, the bud increasing and remaining
for some time attached, perhaps, permanently so, or at other
times breaking away and becoming a new organism. Amongst
physiologists, some will not consent to call this a new indi¬
vidual, while others do—a fact which is not without interest.
The germ which is to become an oak, becomes so by a
succession of buds developing year after year, each as its
immediate work is done, remaining to constitute a part of the
individual; each bud is, so to say, a brick added to the house.
In such a consideration, taken in connection with what human
history teaches, is there not a useful lesson for man to learn
with respect to his individual littleness in this world ? His
reproduction is but nutrition, under less patent, more complex,
and more exalted conditions, than in the plant; and what
are the successive generations of a family, but so many buds,
which, if not blighted, are to culminate, at some period, in the
family oak ? There were many Mirabeaus, doubtless, who
lived and died un-noted before the world-noted Mirabeau
appeared, who performed such an important part in revolutio¬
nizing the world. In him the Mirabeau family tree attained
its full growth, and the full performance of its function, and
then, having done its duty, decayed. As individuals, we have
far too exalted notions of ourselves; thousands appear to exist
only as bricks to build the house, or as buds to build the tree;
we are steps in the evolution of a mighty scheme, for, as
individuals, we are, many of us, no better than “stuffed
clothes-suits.” So also may it be with regard to nations, for
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it is important to bear in mind, “that centuries form but
short periods in the history of the human race.” And,
although “ it may be dangerous,” as Oersted observes, “ to
wound the self love of the human race by the supposition that
it must one day make room for a more perfect order of beings,”*
so also may it be with the whole creation which “ groaneth
and travaileth,” to some wise and glorious end. Perhaps
when man has brought himself clearly to recognize these
things, he may not find it so hard a matter to place himself in
the circle of correlation.
Turning back, then, as physical enquirers to the contem¬
plation of man, and adopting the physical maxim, de non
apparentibu8 et non existentibus eaaern est ratio, it seems
impossible to resist the conviction, that mind must be corre¬
lated with the other forces of nature. What means else the
never-ceasing dependence of mind on brain? When we
reflect on the gradual development of brain throughout the
animal kingdom, and on the uniform correspondence that
there is between increase thereof and increase of mind, when
we observe how invariably in man himself a deficient brain is
associated with deficient mental power—how notably con¬
comitant are their variations—when we find that injury or
disease of the former, is injury or disease of the latter, and
that the development of mental force is attended with a change
or “ waste,” as it is called in the material substratum, we
cannot but acknowledge that mind exists only to ue as evolved
through the material substratum of the brain. As forcibly
expressing this, we may venture to quote, although it is
dangerous to tread on such ground, the very eloquent words
of Lawrence."f
“ Examine the mind, the grand prerogative of man. Where
is the mind of the foetus ? Where that of the child just bom?
Do we not see it actually built up before our eyes by the
action of the five external senses, and the gradually developed
internal faculties ? Do we not trace it advancing by a slow
progress through infancy and childhood, to the perfect ex¬
pansion of its faculties in the adult, annihilated for a time by
a blow on the head, or the shedding of a little blood in
apoplexy, decaying as the body decays in old age, and finally
reduced to an amount hardly perceptible, when the body
worn out by mere exercise of the organs, reaches by the
simple operation of natural decay, that state of decrepitude
most aptly termed second childhood ?
• “ Soul in Nature,” p. 53.
f“ Lectures on Man.”
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of Mental and Physical Foice.
** Where shall we find proof of the mind’s independence of
the bodily structure ? of that mind, which like the corporeal
frame is infantile in the child, manly in the adult, sick and
debilitated in disease, frenzied or melancholy in the madman,
enfeebled in the decline of life, doting in decrepitude, and
annihilated by death.”
This looks very much like the expression of a pure mate¬
rialism, and therein can be in nowise acknowledged here.
It speaks of annihilation by death; there is no annihilation
in nature—force cannot be annihilated. It is not, therefore,
identical with the doctrine of correlation of physical and
mental force—very far from it; the latter is, indeed, identical
in all but name, with the doctrine of independent mind. For
when we speak of mind independently of brain, we have no
idea of it, except as of a something —essence , perhaps, un¬
meaning word—which we suppose to exist beneath the
manifestations of which we take cognizance, and which
constitute individual character. There is no knowledge in
such a supposition. Should we not, abjuring all speculation
about the nature of mind which never can be knowledge to
us, gain something by regarding it as a force of nature ?
Nothing, truly, if we look upon it as a force, special, inde¬
pendent, and unrelated in nature; but the idea of force
should be entertained, because it expresses a relation with
other forces, and thus, admitting a correlation, we hope to
have gained something, and may expect to gain more. More¬
over we lose nothing. We have all that is required in mind,
and are enabled to recognize man as, what all observation
points him out to be, a part of nature. But it may be
denied that such a view supplies all that is required in mind.
What about consciousness ? Here then we have the “ cogito
ergo sum ” of Descartes starting up and staring us in the
face, as it appears destined to do, as long as the hinges of
gravitation keep the world in its orbit. It is this which
boasts of annihilating the materialist, by pointing out to
him that he loses “ the unity of the whole man in the
multiplicity of the material organs,” although the materialist
replies with some cogency, that the unity of mind is pre¬
served by his adversary, only by “ grasping it as a verbal
abstraction One generally finds that one doctrine hits
very decidedly the weak point in another; and it may
happen, that by bringing together the rival criticisms, and.
reconciling them through the medium of a third hypothesis,
some advance is made in knowledge. We have no intention
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Dr. Maudsley on the Correlation
of entering the weary labyrinth of a metaphysical disquisi¬
tion on consciousness; it seems a question never to he
settled. Buckle, only a short time since, asserted, that
the metayhysical dogma - of the supremacy of human con¬
sciousness involves two assumptions; one, though possibly
true, which has never been proved, the other unquestionably
false. These are, that there is an independent faculty,
called consciousness, and that its dictates are infallible. But
the ablest thinkers, says he, now regard consciousness as
merely a state or condition of mind; and the argument,
therefore, falls to the ground. Even if it is a faculty, we
have the testimony of all history to prove its extreme
fallibility. Of course this is not to be admitted without
energetic protest, and in the discussion thereupon, such a
cloud of dust is raised, that none but those provided with
metaphysical spectacles of high power are able to discern
anything. For the metaphysical spectacle is wonderful in
the power which it possesses, of enabling a man to see
things in words. Refraining then from the futile attempt
to soar upwards without wings, it will be sufficient to con¬
sider consciousness on the basis of physiology—to look upon
a state of consciousness as a state of brain. If we are not to
do this, what position are we to assign consciousness in a
physiological psychology ? There is considerable difficulty,
indeed, actual impossibility, of understanding how these,
who acknowledge that mind can manifest itself only through
brain, dispose of consciousness, which they appear to think
it incumbent on them, somehow to exempt from the supposed
degradation of a material necessity. It is, of course, impos¬
sible to doubt that consciousness is the ultimate ground of
certainty for the individual; if he is conscious of pain, he
must feel pain. But is there not a material change in the
organism which is the condition of the excitation of the
feeling, and must not consciousness so aroused necessarily
certify to it ? The effect must infallibly testify to its con¬
ditions. Consciousness is infallible, therefore, as to the
internal fact, but it is quite a different thing to say that it
is infallible as to the external phenomena, that it demon¬
strates the truth of them. It is the expression of a trans¬
mutation of force, and the testimony, therefore, of its own
existence; but it is not necessarily an expression of the
nature of the affecting force.
Again, there can be no doubt that consciousness irresis¬
tibly suggests the ego, but this does not appear to be incom¬
patible with its material origin. Inasmucn as it is through
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of Mental and Physical Force.
an affection of my organism that it is aroused, it is difficult
to understand how it could suggest anything else ; the unity
of my consciousness is the unity of my organism; my ego is
the ego of my body. Amidst the multiplicity of material
organs and operations there is ever a unity maintained; all
the parts increase and develop after a definite plan, and
work together for a common object; a certain type is pre¬
served. We may speak of it as a type, or we may speak
of it as a thought of the creative mind, but that the
organism is the realization of such a type or idea, can admit
of no doubt. Changing as it is constantly through life, it
never loses its type; it receives experience, and makes it a
part of itself; responds to correlated force, and registers its
reply. For all impressions leave in man's organization
certain traces, more or less clear of their existence, which,
by virtue of the laws of nutrition, are propagated, and thus
modify the existing condition, always consistently, however,
with the maintenance of an original type. We may justly,
therefore, consider the body of a man, aged 30, to be the
body of 20, plus the incorporation of 10 years’ experience.
There will, then, be in mental phenomena a modification,
but not radical change of force, through the substratum of
a modified, but not radically changed organism; the typical
unity of the latter having been maintained, that of the
former is also preserved. Endow this force with the non-
essential quality of consciousness (for be it observed the
mind may be actively employed without consciousness),
and what is it then conscious of ? It is conscious of mani¬
fold changes produced by external circumstances, which,
by the laws of nutrition, have become part of the organism,
but it is conscious also of the preservation of an original
type, just as the on-looking physiologist is. And the
consciousness of this, what is it but the consciousness
of personal identity? It is the corporeal, and, therefore,
mental identity, maintained in the midst of an infinite
multitude of changes. Refined by intellectual exercise,
scarred by passion, or blunted and dulled by sensuality, the
organism preserves unchanged its type; its unity is unity
derived from the same source as the unity of creation.
In the assertion that the unity is in consciousness, there is
not only an assumption which is not necessary, but which
is not equal to the explanation of all the phenomena of
mind ; the unity being in the organism, the mind as mani¬
fested through it, necessarily contains in itself that unity.
Some look upon this type, idea, or creative thought, as the
soul. But such a view eitner annihilates soul by proclaiming
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indirectly materialism, or it annihilates it by absorbing it
into the Deity, and proclaims Pantheism. The steam-engine
is the realization of the thought of Watt, but one would
hardly deem it satisfactory to call the thought of that
philosopher the soul of the steam engine. And when we
remember that all men are formed after a certain type,
which is, moreover, common to all vertebrated animals, it is
not easy to conceive any idea of type which may conform to
the idea which we entertain of soul.
But the weightiest reason which operates in preventing
man from recognizing the importance of the body, is the
difficulty he experiences in conceiving its immortality. Job
must surely have foreseen this when he prefaced his decla¬
ration upon that subject with the words—“ Oh, that my
words were now written ! Oh, that they were printed in a
book. That they were graven with an iron pen, and with
lead in the rock for ever !” And what words were these so
important to be remembered ? “ For I know that my
Redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at the latter day
upon the earth ; and though after my skin worms destroy
this body, yet in my flesh shsill I see God.” St. Paul also
seems to have foreseen the objections that might be made to
the resurrection of the body, and to have recognized the
necessity of such resurrection. “ Thou fool! that which
thou sowest is not quickened except it die. All flesh is not
the same flesh. There are celestial bodies, and bodies
terrestrial. It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incor¬
ruption ; it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power. It
is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. We
shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed.” Well then
might we add, “ 0 death where is thy sting ? 0 grave
where is thy victory ?” It is very certain that he who
believes in a resurrection of the body, and it is impossible to
believe that the Christian can doubt it, cannot, on the
ground of a supposed materialism, object to any doctrine
which maintains the essentiality of the body to individual
existence. And there is no reason why he should wish to
do so. Is not the construction of so delicate, yet so perfect
and wonderful an organism, with such, to us, miraculous
powers of transforming force, and developing the highest
force in nature, as clear and convincing evidence of a
Creator’s skill, as any opinion which the ingenuity of man
may form about mind ? The potentiality which is inherent
in the particular cerebral organization, is an expression of
the power which mind exercises on the material supplied to
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of Mental and Physical Force . 77
it Perhaps it is not so flattering a view to man's self-
complacency, as that which attributes so special a character
to mind, but it will be of some use, if it suggest to us the
desirability of ceasing to limit the power of God by our
conceptions and fancies.' The universe, in all its depart¬
ments, demonstrates the truth of Leibnitz’s axiom, that
“ the present is pregnant with the future.” And “ the very
analogy of a mundane birth suggests a still higher birth,
viz., the entrance of the pre-existent and immortal ideal , as
trained and developed by human life into new relations; its
connexion with a superior organization; and its advance¬
ment to a higher and purer individuality. In this view
death is but a crisis in our being, the dissolution of the
earthly tabernacle ; not that we may be unclothed, but
clothed upon, which is from above.”*
The doctrine of the correlation of mental and physical
force is, at any rate, not amenable to the objection that is
brought with some force against the opinion commonly
entertained of the soul, viz., “ how can that which came
into being yesterday be immortal ? ” If it be said that the
force of the objection lies in the imperfection of man, that
his idea of soul, so far as he has any, is the representation
to him of something existent from God, which he cannot
completely comprehend, we may grant that it is so—the
fact of actual existence incomprehensible by us, remains the
same—and it becomes a question of the best mode of repre¬
sentation of it. Surely the doctrine of correlation as a
representation thereof, is, at least, at the present time, most
in accordance with man’s knowledge, and most in accordance
with the analogy of nature.
If there be any weight in the considerations which have
been adduced, it is obvious that the supposed necessity of
“ a different order of things,” in order to explain the moral
nature, has no real existence. Unfortunate, indeed, would
it be if such a necessity existed, for all observation showeth
that moral character is as closely dependent on the character
and condition of physical structure, as any other phenomenon
physical or mental in man.
In conclusion, it may be well to cast a glance at the
universe in its gradual evolution, from the formation of the
first geological stratum, to the appearance and the last
development of man—to note the thousands of years’ exis¬
tence of the earth before the creation of organic beings, the
tho usa nds of years more of existence, during which there
* Morell’s “ Elements of Psychology,” p. 83.
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78 Correlation of Mental and Physical Force.
was nothing but barren vegetation, and animals of low
organization; the succession of eras up to man's appearance,
and the thousands of years which man has required to
arrive at his present condition. Is not such a history the
disclosure of a succession of gigantic effects—effect following
effect—at the proper time and season ? the evidence of one
mighty cause in operation ? And does it not in truth appear
monstrous to introduce into the series a new cause, not a
new effect, related to, and gradually evolved, as it were,
from previous effects, but a new cause unrelated and without
cause. Harmonious development suddenly put a stop to,
for the introduction of a miracle from the clouds! For
how is it possible that this new introduction should act on
things to which it has no relation ; in fact, for this is the
actual question, how should it be related to that to which it
has no relation whatever. It might have been predicted
that no possible conception could ever be formed of the
action of mind on matter, if the “ pre-established harmony ”
of Leibnitz and other such theories had not remained
gigantic evidence to prove it. What does the history of the
created universe tend to, if not to show that mind has been
the gradual resultant of ages on ages of previous operations ?
All forces are then but modes of manifestation of one
force—the Will of God—manifest in highest form, and with
least obscuration in the temple of man’s body. “ Remark,
as illustrative of several things, and more to the purpose
here, that man does in strict speech always remain the
clearest symbol of the Divinity to man. Friend Novalis,
the devoutest heart I knew, and of purest depth, has not
scrupled to call man, what the Divine Man is called in
Scripture, a ‘ Revelation in the Flesh.’ * There is but one
temple in the world,’ says he, ‘ and that is the body of man.
Bending before men is a reverence done to this revelation in
the flesh. We touch heaven when we lay our hand on a
human body.' In which notable words, a reader that
meditates them, may find such meaning and scientific
accuracy as will surprise him.”*
* Carlyle’s Miscellanies , vol. iii. “ Goethe’s Works.”
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79
On General Paralysis by Dr. Harrington Tuke.
It i9 with reluctance that I attempt any definition of the
disease that we have agreed to call the “ general paralysis of
the insanedefinitions are always difficult, ana moreover
they very frequently involve a petitio principii , that renders
them practically useless. I have ventured, however, to
group together some symptoms that may be taken as
signalizing this dread disease, premising that some of my
postulates may be questioned, and that I only pretend to
offer my views upon the subject, as those of an individual
observer, who, holding strong opinions, is willing to submit
them to the objections or criticisms of his professional
brethren. My object i9 to draw truly, but in strong relief,
the various shapes assumed by the malady, and to sketch
vividly its diverse symptoms, even if wrong, in some of my
conclusions, or apparently too dogmatical in my propositions.
I am satisfied if I can at all assist in fixing the attention
of the medical profession outside the pale of my own
special department to a form of disease that is so familiar
to U3, and that they, in the interests of suffering humanity,
will do well to study.
Paralytic insanity, the paralysie genSrale of Calraeil, the
progressive paralysis of Requin and Rodriguez, the chronic
meningitis of Bayle, the “general paralysis” of our own
reports and case-books, is an organic disease of the brain or
its membranes, usually evidenced by symptoms of congestion,
followed by a change of character and disposition, unsound¬
ness of mind, and with peculiar delusions, and synchronously
by the more or less rapid approach of an entire muscular
paralysis; it is a disorder almost confined to middle life,
attacks the male rather than the female sex, and if not
checked at its outset, is fatal within three or four years of
the first appearance of its symptoms.
I can easily foresee the many objections that the alienist
physician, accustomed ..to see this frightful disorder in all
its phases, will at once take to this definition, but I do not
intend to convey the impression that I have in this em¬
bodied all the various symptoms of general paralysis, I have
only fixed upon the type of the disease, as I have myself
seen it, and I propose to consider seriatim the various
symptoms I have here enumerated, giving to each its proper
value ; the absence of one or other of them in a particular
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80 General Paralysis by Dr. Harrington Tuke.
case, will by no means invalidate the general correctness
of my definition, just as in consumption, hoemoptysis may
be considered as a grave and almost essential symptom,
although there are many cases in which pthisis proceeds to
its fatal termination, without the appearance of this signi¬
ficant evidence of thenature of the malady ; and, as in fever,
the high pulse and fevered tongue, and heat of skin, indi¬
cate serious febrile disturbance of the system'; it is not
because any one of these symptoms is important, but because
of their significance taken together, that we are enabled
confidently to pronounce upon the nature of the disease.
The progress of general paralysis may be divided into
three stages; in the first stage the patient rarely comes
under the supervision of the alienist physician, and I have
already dwelt upon the danger that he runs of his disorder
being misunderstood, from the ignorance of his medical
attendant, and the natural unwillingness of his friends to
acknowledge the existence of mental derangement. The
second stage is that which is to be found in the wards
of every asylum, distinct and indubitable evidence is present
of mental disorder, and such a case cannot be mistaken.
In the third stage the patient becomes helpless and de¬
mented, all power of voluntary movement is lost, even that
of reflex movement is impaired. I have already described
these last symptoms, and they are not practically of impor¬
tance, as the history of the case will always lead to its
correct diagnosis.
I do not know that it is very essential to insist upon
the division of general paralysis into various stages, it will
be seen that they indicate only progressive intellectual and
physical weakening, they usually melt into each other by
almost imperceptible gradations; and, although sometimes
they are very clearly marked, it is often impossible to make
any difference between them, that which I have called
the third stage, sometimes appearing as the first, or alter¬
nating with the second. The important stage is that of
incubation, in which the early symptoms appear, and in
which the only opportunity of successful treatment appears
to exist The physician engaged in the treatment of
this disease among the middle and upper classes of society,
has afforded to him a better opportunity of hearing a more
correct and distinct account oi the early rise and progress
of the disorder in each case than falls to the lot of his pro¬
fessional brethren in the public asylums; but even in the
imperfect annals of the lower class, there is abundant evi-
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dence of a stage of incubation, which might be susceptible
of great and permanent relief, and it is not too much to hope
that the precursory symptoms of this disease once under¬
stood by the profession at large, its fatal progress may be
arrested ; that the medical attendants of our charities like
Bethlem and St. Luke’s may not so often have the pain
of sending away applicants for admission as being in the
second stage of the disease, and, in their opinion, beyond the
hope of. cure ; and, that it may not always be the painful
task of the special physician, to be forced to give an opinion
which he knows to be the true one, but at the same time
feels must fall with a fright ful shock upon the ears of relatives,
who, altogether unprepared for the announcement of such a
malady, consult him in the confident anticipation that his
experience will suggest a remedy for what they consider a
merely temporary excitement, their medical attendant has
shared in their hopes, and often leaves the consulting room in¬
credulous, even angry. Esquirol has exactly hit this point,
which must be in the experience of us all; the case,he
gives is short, and the lesson it conveys is admirable: “ M.,
had become irritable, and easily excited at the slightest
opposition, he had refused all medicine, asserting that he
was never so well or so happy. Dr. — a physician, equally
talented as esteemed, brought him to Paris, and to me. ‘ I
commit to your treatment, (said he) a most interesting
patient, who is suffering only from transient excitement,
your care, and separation from scenes that appear to augment
his disorder, will speedily restore him to health/ I con¬
verse with this patient, (continues Esquirol) he tells me of
his projects for the future, of his present happiness, the
acquaintances he and his family will gain by their visit to
Paris, &c. After half an hour I am asked my opinion; it
is, that the patient will not recover, that he is incurable,
and that he has not one. year to live. At the expiration
of seven months, this gentleman sank under a malady,
which, at its commencement, appeared so insignificant in its
character even to so distinguished and practised a physician
as Dr. K—.”
In going through the wards of an asylum for the insane,
the student will find many cases, which he will soon learn
to recognize as those of general paralysis; in these dementia
has usually commenced, and the disease may be said to have
arrived at its culmination. I propose, before considering
the terms of the definition I have suggested, to describe
shortly one of many such cases, exactly as I myself saw it
vol. vi , no. 31. a
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in the wards at Hanwell; it was one of those afterwards
mentioned by Dr. Conolly in his Croonian Lectures, as an
illustration of this disease, combined with occasional symp¬
toms of depression. W. R., aged 87, a man of powerful
frame, nervo-sanguineous temperament, head well shaped,
good education; had been employed as a foreman of a
fishing company in the North of Ireland. He ^had had
great anxieties m the prosecution of this enterprise, had had
alternate fits of excitement and depression ; when I saw him
he walked with the characteristic gait of general paralysis;
his speech was affected: there were tremulous movements
of the tongue when protruded. He told me that he had
made his fortune ; that Ireland would be the mistress of the
world; that he was about to marry the Queen, though his
own wife was most lovely; that he could sing better than
Jenny Lind; that he was the greatest actor of the day; that
he had twenty thousand men under his command, and
expressed various other delusions of the same nature.
Within a few months he had epileptic fits, or rather fits of
an epileptic character, his disorder made rapid progress, and
he died within two years, paralyzed and demented, but
persisting to the last that he was never so well or so strong.
Here then is the type of this disorder, intellectual de¬
rangement, paralysisi, epileptoid fits, and shortly after
inevitable death, a death too of the most distressing kind;
true that it is unaccompanied by pain, and the sufferer is
unconscious of its approach ; but it is not the less terrible
to watch the gradual but rapid progress, from excitement to
dementia, from that to utter insensibility, and then to
dying hours in which the sufferer is unmindful of the
presence of his dearest friends, unconscious of their tears,
unable to understand the consolation of religion, unsoothed
by hopes of another and brighter existence, and passes
unthinkingly away, his last words being, perhaps, an ex¬
pression of nis conviction that he is the happiest of men.
In considering the symptoms I have indicated, many
important questions arise, and these I will discuss as fully
as I can, consistently with the essentially practical character
of this essay.
The most important question in the consideration of any
case in which mental derangement is a prominent charac¬
teristic, is whether the symptoms do, or do not, indicate the
existence of organic brain disease. We may have functional
disturbance, easily curable, or even temporary disorder, as
in delirium tremens, which may be considered to some
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extent ad organic, although certainly not hopeless; hut if
we are called on to treat persistent insanity, and with it
there is undoubted evidence of cerebral lesion, we have
a very serious form of malady to contend against, and
one that will require all the resources of the art and science
of medicine. I believe that the form of derangement, which
we call general paralysis, is always connected with organic
change in the brain structure, that it is not, as so many
other nervous affections are, to be reached by moral treat¬
ment, or its dangers obviated by anything but direct
remedial agents; and it is partly for this reason, that I
think the early symptoms of the disorder should be more
generally recognized and studied, and the improbability
insisted upon of any treatment in the later stages being
likely to do more than postpone a fatal result In this disease
as in pthisis, the initiatory symptoms may be met, and their
progress arrested, but the disease once fully established,
medicine is unavailing, except to smooth the path to death;
and although it may certainly happen in both maladies that
the issue may be less unfortunate, such an event from our
present experience, is to be hoped for, rather than expected.
To the trained physician, however, the formidable nature of
the malady is only a fresh incentive to his efforts to subdue
it; and as in all its stages, medicine and care may do so
much to mitigate the severity of the symptoms, and avert
their omens, it is not too much to hope that general para¬
lysis may cease to be the opprobium upon our medical
treatment that it is at present, partly, as I believe, from the
almost universal ignorance of the general profession, as to
its symptoms, which allows the moment to pass by, in
Which remedies may best counteract the disease, and often
leads them to treat it erroneously as an affection of the spine
or heart.
Very high authorities have declared, I think most unad¬
visedly, that general paralysis is incurable ;but they have given
no reason why, and we can only surmise that it is because they
find organic disease of so serious a nature has been estab¬
lished in the brain, as to induce them to believe all treatment
hopeless. Now organic disease of brain in its early stage should
not be less curable than organic disease of the lungs; and if
in the latter case, we have the valuable aid of the stethoscope,
to guide us to oorrect opinion ; I think the signs afforded by
thO peculiar paralysis of the insane, conjoined with the
special mental symptoms, are hardly less positively diag¬
nostic to the alienist physician, and a correct diagnosis once
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arrived at, neither disease should be considered as absolutely
hopeless.
Admitting, as every physician must do, the possibility of
relieving and even curing organic brain disease, there is
another symptom of great importance, whether regarded as
a cause or effect of the malady, which reduces in many cases
the chances of recovery. I allude to the peculiar “ fits ”
that usher in or follow the early symptoms with either the
paralysis or the mental alienation. It is a maxim as old as
the school of Hippocrates, that “ delirium with convulsion ”
is incurable ; and, Esquirol has followed this dictum in his
own well known aphorism : L* epilepsie compliqute d’aliena¬
tion men tale ne gutrit jamais.
It will be seen how much resemblance there is in the
fits that accompany general paralysis to those that mark
epilepsy, and I should be much inclined to apply the same
rule to this former disease, and state as my opinion that if
the universal organic change in the brain tissue which causes
the disease I have defined, be complicated with the severe
local cerebral lesion that the epileptoid fits undoubtedly in¬
dicate, such a combination is incurable. It may be easily
understood how it is that these cerebral lesions may bie
either the cause or the effect of the organic change; an
epileptic fit of a centric character, may act upon and damage
the brain tissue in such a way as to cause the peculiar mor¬
bid changes, whose results we recognize in the symptoms of
general paralysis, in the same way as blows upon the head
can frequently be traced to be the agents producing
this form of disease ; and, on the other hand, the general
organic softening, or other alteration of structure, may, and
frequently does, lead to fresh mischief, abd to the production
of epileptoid fits, always followed by an exacerbation of the
original malady, and always indicative of a speedily fatal
termination.
The consideration of the nature of these cerebral lesions
belongs to another part of my subject, but I may shortly
sum up the proofs of extensive organic mischief, irrespective
of pathological appearances, which strike me as the most
conclusive, in demonstrating this disease, to be quite distinct
from all other forms of mental derangement, and of a much
more serious character.
In the first place, setting aside the doctrine of the inva¬
riable hopelessness of general paralysis, it is certain that the
disease is usually fatal within a short period, and this does
not arise from paralysis alone, because paralysis supervenes
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upon other forms of mental disease, and runs its course, much
in the same way as it would do in an otherwise healthy brain ;
it may pass off, or the patient may live paralyzed for years,
while either such issue is most rare in the special disease we
are considering. In recent mental aberration, recovery of
reason under proper treatment is the rule, in general para¬
lysis it is the exception, by some, its very possibility is denied,
although the mental symptoms alone even of the second
stage, are so little significant of serious, far less hopeless
disorder. Loss of one or more of the special senses is rare in
ordinary lunacy, but is not uncommon in general paralysis,
and lastly, the almost invariably concomitant convulsions,
with long continued loss of consciousness, indicate structural,
and taken together, idiopathic morbid change. It is true
we may not always be able to demonstrate this by the
scalpel or the microscope, nor has chemistry helped us to a
solution of the mystery, yet we cannot but feel, that with
such symptoms, it is hardly possible that a peculiar organic
disease is not present, although it may escape our im¬
perfect means of investigation.
I do not believe that general paralysis ever runs through
its course without producing or exhibiting the phenomena
of these epileptoid fits; they may often evade observation
if not particularly enquired into, and their nature may be
mistaken, but their pathognomonic value when properly
understood, is very great, and their presence in the case in
their special form is decisive as to the nature of the attack.
I was asked last year to see a patient in the city who had
become maniacal, it was supposed from dissipation ; he had
cut to pieces the lining of cabs he travelled in, he had
attacked strangers in the theatre, &c.; he told me that he
was perfectly well, able to walk ten miles an hour, had
never had a fit of any kind; this his friends confirmed,
but at last remembered that about two months previously,
he had fallen from the high stool in his counting house
in a “faint," was insensible for half-an-hour, and since
then, his demeanour had become so “ strange." This history,
in my opinion, justified my previous suspicion that the
case was one of general paralysis in its early stage.
The form of these fits may vary materially, they may be
very severe, and, in the latter stage of the malady generally
are so. At this period, convulsive movements occur, par¬
ticularly of the upper extremities, which may continue for
hours ; I have been obliged to pad the arm of a patient thus
attacked, with soft pillows, to prevent his unconsciously
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inflicting injury upon himself; during this time, the patient
will remain perfectly insensible, and may continue so for
days, but it rarely happens that death ensues as the imme¬
diate effect of the seizure, although it always seriously
aggravates the former symptoms.
Although at the very outset of the malady, a very severe
fit may occur, they are generally very much slighter, and bear
a great resemblance to the petit mat of the French writers
on Epilepsy.
One such “ fit" I find thus recorded in my case book, as
having happened in the course of an attack of general paralv-
sis : “ While sitting in the garden, Mr. —, became suddenly
insensible; he did not fall; there were severe convulsive
twitchings of the facial muscles, followed by rigor; the
whole seizure lasting about three minutes, and leaving no
immediate traces of its visitation. In the same patient,
a second, and more severe fit occurred about three months
afterwards, and within the year an attack of a still more
marked character supervened with convulsions lasting for
two hours, and perfect insensibility continuing for ten more.
There can be no doubt that all these three seizures were of
the same epileptoid character.”
I have this day, August 26th, received from a surgeon
in the country, who is perfectly unaware of the particular
interest his patient's case is to me at this moment, a graphic
account of the condition of a patient, in whom I hardly
fail to recognize the symptoms of general paralysis. His de¬
scription of a “ fit " he himself has just witnessed, is
singularly in unison with the general account I have given.
“A peculiar expression came over his face, then the
muscles of both sides of it worked convulsively, and
he became evidently quite unconscious ; this lasted two or
three seconds, he then stared about him a little, then became
quite sensible, and talked, &c., as before."
Slight attacks of this nature frequently occur, and entirely
escape the notice of the patient’s friends, or if they are
noticed, their bearing upon the case is disregarded, even by
the medical attendant; I was able to diagnose special
organic mischief in the brain of a gentleman, who died some
years afterwards the subject of general paralysis, from the
fact that I remarked distinct seizures of this kind of
insensibility, while playing whist with him; the attacks were
so transient, as not to have caused the slightest alarm to
himself, or his family.
In one case in which I was consulted, the sudden falls of
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a patient in an early stage of paralytic insanity, were attri¬
buted to weakness of the knee joints, to which he had been
subject; his apparent recovery of reason a short time after¬
wards supported for a time this view of the case, but the
more gloomy prognosis as to the nature of these falls, turned
out to be correct one.
It is not unreasonable to imagine that these “ fits ” may
frequently make their appearance without becoming known
to the patient's family, especially if they happen at night,
and the patient sleeps alone, or is absent from home at the
time of their occurrence ; a sudden change for the worse in a
case that presents obscure brain symptoms, should always
lead the medical attendant to enquire into the possibility of
the existence of what Dr. Marshall Hall has called “ hidden
seizures." The following case narrated by him, illustrates
this point, and to the psychological physician affords an
example of “ general paralysis," evidently unrecognized as
a special form of insanity, although watched by an acute
observer of disease.
“I was called," says Dr. Marshall Hall, “to a patient
affected with the mildest form of mania. There was merely
an erroneous idea about his affairs, and a degree of suspicion.
The symptoms subsided, and he appeared recovering. A
return of symptoms took place, and now there was for
several weeks, violent mania. The patient again recovered,
but we were again doomed to be disappointed ; he became
affected with a sort of amentia, and we suspected effusion.
This idea was rendered untenable by a third speedy amend¬
ment The patient again became worse; and now I made
the most minute enquiries for some sign of paroxysmal
seizure. I found that in walking in the drawing-room, he
had experienced a * shudder.' At length a fourth relapse
took place, in the form of a distinct convulsive seizure,
followed by a transient paralysis of the lips and of the arm,
and still greater amentia than before. This seizure was
followed by another, and this by another. The case had
plainly been one of hidden seizure. And thus a flood of
light was thrown upon one of the most obscure of obscure
diseases.’’
It is to be regretted that Dr. Marshall Hall has given no
further account of this patient, but the symptoms clearly
point to paralytic insanity, or else to insanity following
epilepsy, or insanity in which epilepsy had supervened. The
question may be asked as to the difference between the
“ fits" in epileptic and paralytic insanity, and it may be
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one of great importance as bearing upon the treatment,
and, as I shall presently mention, upon the probable
duration of the patient’s life. I do not think that,
practically, there is much danger of their being mis¬
taken for each other; still, the resemblance between them
in the early stages of general paralysis is great, as their
epileptoid character is then very marked. The points
of difference, as far as the fit itself is concerned, are,
first, the absence of the aura, so characteristic of epilepsy.
The tongue, too, is seldom wounded in paralytic insanity,
and the tendency to sleep after an epileptic fit, is very
different from the entire stupor that often follows the fit in
general paralysis ; the spinal system again is more generally
affected in the former, than in the latter form of disease.
The convulsions in epilepsy are more universal; in paralysis,
the arm or leg is affected as a general rule, only on one
side, although this is not constant; but the principal pathog¬
nomonic difference appears to be the relation that is found
to exist between the mental symptoms and the “ fits ”;
slight epileptic seizures occur for years without materially
damaging the intellectual faculties, but in a patient affected
with “ fits ” in combination with paralysis, each seizure,
however slight, is generally followed by an exacerbation of
the mental derangement, which, from the first, is out of
proportion to the amount of disorganization indicated by the
“ fits ” alone.
Epileptic fits usually attack childhood or early life;
general paralysis is a disease of middle age; epilepsy is
common to both sexes; general paralysis more frequently
attacks men than women. The nervo-sanguineous tempera¬
ment, and well-shaped head of the paralytic, contrast
strongly with the frequently mal-formed cranium, and
scrofulous diathesis of the epileptic ; and the peculiar cry of
epilepsy that so mournfully preludes the convulsion, has no
parallel in the seizure of general paralysis. Interesting as
this question is, its consideration belongs rather to the
diagnosis of epilepsy, than to the subject of this essay. And,
however much the “ fits ” of the two diseases may resemble
each other, on other points their difference is unmistakeable.
There is one characteristic feature in these fits, that, per¬
haps, belongs rather to the mental than the physical division
of the symptoms of paralytic insanity, but that I may
mention here. In epilepsy, the existence of these paroxysms
of convulsion is recognized by the patient, and their invasion
is anticipated and dreaded ; 1 have never seen a paralytic
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patient who seemed conscious of them, or who feared their
recurrence. It would appear that the intra cranial mischief,
that these “fits” indicate, is so great as to render the patient
happily unconscious of its approach, and heedless of the
result its fatal march forebodes.
However easy may be the diagnosis between the epileptic
and paralytic seizure, when occurring in a case with whose
history the physician is acquainted, it is by no means easy
to determine what the nature and probable result of a seizure
may be, supposing that it is the first-noticed symptom of the
malady, as, indeed, it would appear very frequently to be.
Congestion of the brain with convulsion may occur in the
course of an attack of delirium tremens, and closely simulate
general paralysis; slight apopletic seizure, with resulting
paralysis affecting the tongue, may render the diagnosis
doubtful, and the prognosis, therefore, more hopeful. Im¬
portant, therefore, as the study of the nature of these
seizures may be, a fit is only one link in the chain of
evidence, as to the nature of the disease, and must not be
taken at more than its true value. A second or third attack
must be watched before a confident opinion can be given as
to their exact nature.
There is a common error that appears to me to still cling
to the consideration of these paroxysmal seizures, and to
cloud their diagnostic importance. It is too often believed
and asserted that convulsions specially indicate disease
affecting directly the medulla oblongata, or the spinal
chord. It is true that they often do, and we see examples
of such maladies in the convulsions of teething, and in the
various forms of eccentric epilepsy ; but the phenomena I
have attempted to describe, are very different from these
attacks, and are still more separated from the purely spinal
symptoms which accompany death from hanging, or follow
accidental injury to the chord. I must recur to this subject
when entering upon the pathology of paralytic insanity.
The diagnosis of one of these fits from apoplexy, I mean
absolute effusion of blood upon the brain, I need only
allude to, the symptoms of an apopletic seizure being too
marked to be easily mistaken for anything else. I may
mention, as practical hints, that in the insensibility of general
paralysis, there is not usually stertorous breathing, nor that
peculiar puffing of the cheeks in expiration which marks
palsy of the buccinator muscles, so frequent in apoplexy ;
moreover, the paralyzed limbs are rigid as a rule in general
paralysis, and often in violent action ; the reverse of this
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rule obtaining in oases of blood bung suddenly poured out
upon or into the brain tissue^
Blood poisoning, especially that from disease of the
kidney, will produce fits very similar to those I have de¬
scribed. Of course the diagnosis will be easy, even if the
appearance of the patient and his previous history is not
sufficient; chemical tests will at once demonstrate the true
nature of the disorder, and in these cases an examination
for the presence of albumen in the urine, should always
be made.
Irregular dilatation of the pupils of the eyes is a symptom
upon which M. Baillarger lays great stress: he states that a
very large proportion of the patients attacked with general
paralysis, who have come under his observation, have had
the pupil of one of their eyes distinctly larger than the
other. M. Baillarger, in his paper on the subject, which is
published in the Annales M&Uoo-Psychologique, gives the
exact number of cases in which he has found this morbid
appearance, more, I think, than two thirds of the whole,
but I regret I am not able to refer to the article itself.
Guislain, who notices M. Baillarger s remarks, will not admit
this dilatation of the pupil to be a pathognomonic symptom
of general paralysis; and in this view Dr. Bucknill
concurs. I have not paid a sufficiently particular attention
to this change in the eyes, to be able to give a very positive
opinion, but I confess that 1 think M. Baillarger’s statistical
statement deserves more attention than it has received.
There can be no question that a dilated pupil in one eye only
is not uncommon in other forms of cerebral disease, but we
cannot doubt the accuracy of so acute an observer as M.
Baillarger, and I have myself remarked the existence of this
n tom in several cases of paralytic insanity, and if it can
own to be a frequent concomitant of this affection, it
becomes a link in the chain of evidence that should not be
neglected. I remember in the case of a patient in a very
early stage of the malady, Dr. Sutherland pointed out this
symptom to a well-known surgeon, whom he and I met in
consultation, as a corroboration of our views as to the
specific nature of the disease^ and its probable termination.
Our diagnosis was not very favourably received, and, indeed,
the case was not an easy one to decide ; we had no doubt
that this symptom, taken in conjunction with others, was
the very one that M. Baillarger describes; but as the gen¬
tleman, whose case we were considering, had been thrown
from his carriage a few days previously, fracturing the bone
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General Paralyeia by Dr. Harrington Tuke.
of his shoulder, and perhaps injuring his head, we were
constrained to admit that the dilated pupil and other
symptoms might be the result of the direct violence. The
progress of the disease in this case has since proved the
correctness of our original diagnosis.
Whatever may be the nature of the cerebral lesion indi¬
cated by this irregular dilatation of the pupils, there can be
no question that when present in general paralysis, it is a
symptom of the gravest import, and in those cases in which
I have observed it, the disease has always been more than
usually severe and rarnd in its progress. 1 am, of course,
aware that the pupil of one eye may be dilated from mere
inequality of the circulation in the brain ; and I know at
this moment a patient in whom this symptom may be
noticed after the exhibition of morphia, again disappearing
as the sedative effect of the medicine ceases. In the early
stage of paralytic insanity, as a general rule, the pupils of
both eyes are dilated, the intelligible result of the congestion
about the brain. In the later stages they are almost inva¬
riably dilated, but occasionally contracted, seldom irregular.
Their dilatation at the close of the disease, would appear to
depend upon the diminution of reflex nervous power, which
is then so characteristic of general paralysis. I do not know
whether M. Baillarger offers any explanation of this dila¬
tation of the pupil of one eye only in the outset of the
malady, but in those cases in which I have seen it, the
symptom did not appear so much to depend upon either pupil
becoming separately enlarged, as upon one of them abso¬
lutely contracting, probably from very slight irritation
affecting the third nerve. If this be so, it becomes most
important as a delicate and important indication of intra¬
cranial disorganization, directly affecting the base of the
brain. This view is strengthened by the fact, that convulsive
action of the muscles of the eye is common in paralytic
insanity, and one may be permanently distorted, strabismus
occurring from an exaggerated degree of the same irritation
at the origin of the nerve.
A very curious, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon in the
progress of these cases of paralysis has been pointed out by
Dr. Bucknill. “ In many patients,” he says, “ m spite of the
immobility of all the other muscles, there may be noticed a
peculiar grinding of the teeth, those of the lower jaw are
rubbed against the upper molars, with such force as to produce
a noise audible across the room,” a sound which Dr. Bucknill
aptly compares to that of the corn-crake; examination of the
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teeth will sometimes show that their crowns are absolutely
worn away by the constant attrition. It would be easy to
make a plausible theory to account for this peculiar symptom,
but it is practically more useful to simply record it, in the
hope that a number of such facts may tend to throw some
light on the pathology of this terrible disease. In two cases
I have noticed an intermission of the pulse in the early stage
of paralytic insanity, as if the innervation of the heart were
affected ; the twentieth or twenty-first beat intermitting; in
one of these two cases, the malady has declared itself in all its
intensity, in the other it is still only threatening to approach.
Headache is mentioned by Guislain as an early symptom of
paralytic insanity. I have never heard such a complaint at
any time from a patient suffering under this malady ; indeed,
the absence of any recognition of pain or uneasiness is
remarkable. It is important, however, to remember, that a
sensation of pain in the head may herald these attacks, as well
as those of apoplexy and epilepsy.
The most important of all the physical symptoms that
mark paralytic insanity, is the peculiar failure of muscular
power that attends its progress, and that has given to it a
name, which, as I believe, has been the fruitfui source of so
many erroneous ideas as to the seat and nature of the malady.
Before entering upon the consideration of the special form of
paralysis that is seen in this disease, it will be well to make a
few observations upon that “ general paralysis,” which is not
accompanied by mental derangement, at least until the last
hours of life, and which therefore is not under the exclusive
treatment of physicians conversant with mental aftections.
The systematic writers and lecturers upon the practice of
medicine, naturally pay great attention to forms of disease so
terrible and fatal as those of which paralysis is a symptom. I
need not enter upon the classification, the symptoms, the causes,
the morbid anatomy of apoplexy, which are familiar to every
ardent student of our art. General paralysis, in their mean¬
ing of the term, which is, in fact, the proper one, is thus
described: “ If the disease is of greater extent than is implied
in either of the terms hemiplegia or paraplegia, in that oase
it receives the name of general paralysis. It may be either
sudden or gradual, if the latter it begins in the toes or fingers,
and thence extends over the whole body.” Again, “ general
palsy may be viewed as a more extended form of paraplegia.”
Dr. Copland concludes his account of general paralysis, by the
distinct declaration, “sensation and intellectual power are
unaffected in general palsy, as well as in paraplegia, and
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continue so till the malady terminates ” in fatal congestion of
the brain or lungs.
A surgeon, attached to one of our large hospitals, told me
that he had had recently under his care, a patient in whom
gradually the entire muscular power was lost. An analogous
case is given by Dr. Watson, and a third by Dr. Abercrombie.
All three cases were examples of intra-cramal disease.
It is impossible, therefore, to doubt that general paralysis
may exist, at least till within a short period before dissolution,
without any symptom of mental derangement. Lead or other
poisoning may induce entire and fatal paralysis, and yet leave
the intellect perfect. I will carry the supposition still further,
and imagine a case, in which all the symptoms are such as I
have already described, and the progress of the paralysis
precisely that which I am now about to detail; I am more¬
over willing to accept the explanation given by M. Pinel, as
to my ignorance of these cases, which is, “ that for obvious
reasons they are not found in asylums,” and that I have not
seen them, because they do not belong to my department of
medicine. . I might, indeed, answer this, by observing that I
and other alienist physicians are not so unacquainted with
paraplegia and other forms of paralysis ; but the point is not
worth disputing. M. Pinel tells us that a general paralysis
frequently exists without delusion ; which we do not recognize,
because it does not come under our observation, but this will
not alter the fact, that general paralysis exists with delusion, is
to be seen every day, is the most fatal form of insanity, and in
its early, and perhaps solely curable stage, is still absolutely
unknown to the great mass of the medical profession, it
would be absurd to lay down any axiom upon this subject,
but I feel that I am pursuing, however imperfectly, the right
path, in attempting to prove that there is a peculiar and
easily recognized form of paralysis, which is only one of the
symptoms of an organic brain disease, which is accompanied
by derangement of the intellectual or moral faculties, rendering
the patient unable to manage himself or his affairs, and from
its very commencement irresponsible for his actions, and
incapable of reasoning or acting correctly in many important
relations of life.
I propose next to consider the progress of the paralysis, and
its mode of invasion in particular muscles ; the first symptom
of the disease usually appearing in those that move the tongue.
(To be Continued.)
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Dr. J. T. Arlidge on
On the State of Lunacy and the Legal Provisions for the
Inacme. By J. T. Arlidoe, m.b., Lond., &c., &c., 8vo.
p.p. 213. London : Churchill
Dr. Arlidge’s well known experience and ability in matters
relating to the care and treatment of the insane, would at any
time claim attention to any work emanating from his pen.
At the present important juncture of lunacy affairs, the work
before us is particularly acceptable, embodying as it does the
results of careful observation and earnest thought “ It is not,”
the author informs us, “ to be reckoned a medical treatise, but
as one addressed to all who are interested either in the legis¬
lation for lunatics or in their well being and treatment” It
is in fact a work on a most important branch of social
science.
In his first preliminary chapter on the number of the insane,
the author as been the first to prominently notice the number
found in prisons, and to show that in the 10 convict prisons, of
which an annual return to Parliament is made, 216 insane
patients found their way into those establishments during
1857, of whom 150 at least were detained in them very nearly
or quite the whole year. It is painful to learn that the
Dartmoor Prison Infirmary forms, to all intent and purpose,
an asylum for insane criminals, although devoid of every
fitting arrangement and organization for their treatment, it
gives an increased importance to this unwelcome truth of the
presence of large numbers of mentally disordered persons in
prisons, to find that, as companions in misfortune with these
afflicted individuals, there is a very considerable proportion of
epileptic prisoners, in more or fewer of whom mental distur¬
bance is an occasional feature. For example, at Dartmoor
there were on the 1st of January, 1857, in the infirmary, 88
epileptics; during the year 22 were admitted, and 13 dis¬
charged ; and on the 1st January, 1858, 47 remained.
The completion of the criminal asylum must be ardently
desired by every well-wisher for the insane; for the imprison¬
ment in gaols of so many mentally afflicted patients, is a
Circumstance not creditable to the civilization and philanthropy
of the country.
The defects in the statistics of lunacy available in this
country are well pointed out, and some suggestions to improve
them indicated. Dr. Arlidge has attempted an approximative
estimate of the number of the insane in England, and Wales
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the Stale of Lunacy , Ac.
on the 1st January, 1859, and has fixed it at 41,000. This
estimate is much higher than that usually accorded, and some
might suppose it exaggerated. This, however, is not the case,
as the 11th annual report of the Poor-Law Board, published
since the appearance of the treatise before us, clearly demon¬
strates ; for this report shows, as the result of a much more
minute investigation into the number of pauper lunatics than
the board had ever previously attempted, that on the
1st of January, 1869, there were 28,410 chargeable paupers
within the unions and parishes falling under the jurisdiction
of the Poor-Law Commissioners. Dr. Arlidge’s estimate is
32,000 ; an excess, certainly, but explicable, inasmuch as he
has rightly calculated on the entire population of England and
Wales, which is one million and a half greater than that of
which the Poor-Law Board takes cognizance, for it is distri¬
buted in parishes not as yet administered by that board.
In examining the question of the increase of insanity in the
country, the very proper distinction is drawn between positive
increase and the result of accumulation of insane persons. On
the question of the positive increase of insanity, or of the
comparative number of insane persons added yearly to the
community, the author expresses the very consoling opinion,
that their multiplication is not in a higher ratio than the
increase of population can explain. The increased per centage
relative to the population he explains primarily, by the fact of
the accumulation of insane lives; and in a secondary manner,
by the greater care taken of late years to bring mentally
unsound persons under treatment, and by the attention
bestowed upon them in asylums, being calculated to prolong
life.
The data collected in the two preceding chapters is made
use of by the author to examine into the extent of the accom¬
modation at present provided for lunatics, and of that which
may be demanded in future. We cannot pursue him through
the statistics advanced, but may remark, that after pointing
out an error in the estimate arrived at by the Commissioners
in Lunacy in their 12th report, he concludes that only one
half of the whole number of paupers mentally afflicted and
requiring supervision, control, or treatment, are as yet provided
for with asylum accommodation.
With this startling fact before him, and after a brief disser¬
tation, showing what universal experience attests, that insanity
is a curable disorder, only if brought under treatment in
time, he advances to the next section of his work, to inquire
into the causes productive of the sad accumulation of the
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Dr. J. T. Arlidge on
incurable insane, which has for years past progressed at a
rate which calls for the serious consideration, not only of
medical men, but also of statesmen. It is, indeed, a great
social question at the present day, What shall we do with our
lunatics ?
The 5th chapter of the treatise under notice is headed “ on
the causes diminishing the curability of insanity, and involving
the multiplication of chronic lunaticsa subject certainly of
very wide extent, even when, as in the instance before us, its
purely medical aspect is omitted. For convenience it is
divided under two heads, according as those causes are found
in operation ; 1st, external to asylums, or 2nd, within them.
Under the former head are considered the evil results of the
detention of insane persons, after the outbreak of their
malady, in their own homes, and in the case of the less
wealthy classes, the author justly stigmatises the operation of
the existing law, requiring the applicants for admission into
the county asylums to sue for it in formd 'pauperis, to the
pain and humiliation of their friends. He shows, moreover,
this objectionable legal provision is actually inefficacious. in
protecting the rate-payers.
It is the basis of a scheme, as shown, at variance with the
character of the provision made for the insane in every other
country; for it avails to shut the door of the institutions best
calculated to succour and cure those many afflicted persons
raised in position and education, much above true paupers,
and at the same time deficient in such pecuniary means as
can secure them suitable and effective treatment.
The author would extend the sphere of usefulness of our
county asylums, by throwing them open to those above the
grade of paupers, of too limited means to be kept and treated
satisfactorily in well ordered private asylums. “ If (he writes,
p. 35) our public asylums were not branded with the appell¬
ation ‘ pauperif access to them were facilitated and the
pauperizing clause repealed, many unfortunate insane of the
middle class in question would be transmitted to them for
treatment; the public asylum would not be regarded with the
same misgivings, and as an evil to be avoided, but it would
progressively acquire the character of an hospital, and ought
ultimately to be regarded as a place of cure, equivalent in
character to a general hospital, and as entailing no disgrace or
discredit on its occupants.” The means of carrying out this
most desirable object are briefly discussed, and the anomalies
and defects pointed out in the present legal enactments pro¬
viding for the utilizing of property found to be in the possession
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the State of Lunacy , Jc.
of lunatics in pauper asylums. However, neither the one nor
the other of these topes can be entered on in the limited space
at our disposal We must hurry on to notice, or strictly
speaking, to glance at the many most important questions
raised in the work under notice.
The detention of lunatics in workhouses forms the subject
of the next section, and is very completely handled. It
reviews on the one hand the grounds upon which the ex¬
pediency of detaining pauper insane in those establishments
u urged, and demonstrates their complete fallacy; whilst, on
the other hand, it exhibits the deplorable condition of those
confined in those places, the supplementary report of the
Lunacy Commissioners, reviewed in our last number, being
specially appealed to in support of the statements put forward.
If any of our readers are sceptical respecting the validity of
the arguments which have from time to time been advanced in
the pages of this Journal, in opposition to the prevalent idea
of the t great economy of workhouses for the custody of the
insane poor, we are confident that their doubts would be
dissipated by the perusal of the pages in which those argu¬
ments are set forth at large, and confirmed by additional
facts and considerations.
Having, demolished the apologies for work-house detention
of lunatics raised on economics considerations, Dr. Arlidge
reverses the line of argument, and observes that the plea of _
economy, even if tenable, (p. 51) “ loses all its weight
when the well-being of the insane is balanced against
it For if there be any value in the universally accepted
opinions of enlightened men, of all countries in Europe, of the
requirements of the insane, of the desirability for them of a
cheerful site, of ample space for out-door exercise, occupation,
and amusement, of in-door arrangements to while away the
monotony of their confinement and cheer the mind, of good
air, food and regimen, of careful watching and kind nursing,
of active and constant medical supervision and control, or to
sum up all in two words, of efficient medical and moral treat¬
ment, then, assuredly, the wards of a workhouse do not
furnish a fitting abode for them.”
The author has carefully examined the question of the
legality of detaining lunatics in workhouses, and holds it as
established, that this proceeding is allowed, although the law
affords to such inmates no protection against false imprison¬
ment, and makes no adequate provision to ascertain the
treatment they are subjected to. The fallacy also of the fine¬
drawn distinction between “ harmless ” mad “ dangerous ”
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lunatics^ is well exposed, as is also the ambiguity of the law
relative to the discovery and transmission to asylums of
alleged lunatics.
At p. 73, is a summary of important suggestions for the
amendment of the law, which serve as the text for several of
the subsequent chapters and sections of the treatise, wherein
they are discussed %n extenso, with reference to the means for
carrying them out, and to the ends to be aimed at.
There is a large class of pauper lunatics which has received
little consideration either from the Legislature or from the
public; viz., that of pauper lunatics not m asylums, but living
with relatives or with strangers, partially or wholly sup¬
ported out of the poor’s rate. There is, no doubt, good
reason for the belief, that much neglect and ill-treatment
is suffered by these poor creatures, and that some plan is
imperative for their proper supervision. The proposition is
made, that they might be largely collected in cottages within
the neighbourhood of asylums, and when this is not practi¬
cable, that they should be visited by a specially appointed
medical officer. This double proposition is subsequently
enlarged upon in the section (p. 145) on the “ Distribution of
the chronic insane in cottage houses,” and in chap. ix. (p. 169)
on district medical officers, to which we would direct the
careful attention of the reader.
The mischievous policy of workhouse officials appears in the
fact so often remarked upon, of the transmission of hopeless,
broken-down, and moribund paupers to county asylums, an
act dictated by the circumstance, that such cases give them
the most trouble. “ The question of the recency of the attack
is treated as of far less moment; for if the poor sufferer have
what are called harmless delusions, or if he be only so much
melancholic, that suicide is not constantly apprehended, then,
under these and similar conditions, the economical theory of
the establishment commonly preponderates over every other
consideration, as of the desirability of treatment in the pre¬
sumedly expensive asylum, and the patient is retained ” in the
workhouse.
This subject and the state of the law with reference to the
removal of the insane, are well illustrated in the pages of the
work under notice.
The remaining portion of the treatise is replete with
suggestions for improving the condition of the insane, and for
bringing them under effectual supervision by competent and
efficient authorities. These suggestions, and the collateral
considerations on which they repose, are so numerous, whilst
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the State of Lunacy, Ac.
the style is so condensed, that it becomes impracticable to
discuss them in detail, or even to extract them for the perusal
of our readers, within the compass of this review. Those,
therefore, who would acquaint themselves with the author's
important propositions, need refer to his own statement and
illustrations of them; for our part, we must content ourselves
with an enumeration of the subjects of the several chapters
and sections yet unnoticed.
Hitherto we have been engaged in noticing very cursorily
the conditions detrimental to the recovery of lunatics to be
found in operation, external to asylums. The author’s sixth
chapter is devoted to the consideration of the “ causes dimi¬
nishing the curability of insanity, and involving the multi¬
plication of chronic lunatics,” to be found within asylums;
and among such causes he notes magisterial interference,
excessive size of asylums, and insufficient medical supervision.
The evils of overgrown asylums are abundantly demonstrated
and severely condemned, and then the questions are agitated
what limit should be fixed to the size of asylums, and what
should be the strength of the medical staff. In dealing with
these important topics, the author brings to bear the opinions
of the most distinguished writers on insanity of this countoy,
of America, and the continent, who all coincide in condemning
the erection of asylums beyond such a magnitude as can be
efficiently supervised, and directed by one chief physician,
properly assisted.
The future provision for the insane is the subject of the
next chapter, and is one which needs no words from us to
prove its vast importance to every individual who can reflect
upon the present state of the insane, and feel interested in
their future lot
We observe that Dr. Arlidge is an advocate for the foun¬
dation of distinct institutions for acute and chronic cases of
insanity. He would construct hospitals for the former of
limited dimensions, and provide accommodation for the latter
on a much more economical scale; and in connection with
this proposition, he examines the merits of building separate
sections to an asylum, according to the plan so largely followed
in France and Germany. The arguments pro and con on
these oft-disputed points are advanced in a clear, practical
manner, and ably examined.
The chapter on the future provision for the insane likewise
comprehends the consideration of providing for many chronic
lunatics in cottage homes, and that of the provision for epi¬
leptics and idiots apart from lunatics.
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Appointment*.
The registration of lunatics is a subject on which the author
has entered into much detail; and it is one, the importance
of which will challenge the attention of the reader to the
scheme proposed. This scheme, by the way, involves the
appointment of special medical officers, whose duties, as pro¬
posed district officials, are largely reviewed in the following
chapter.
The duties of the Lunacy Commission constitute the subject
of chapter x.; and the proposition is, to divide to a certain
extent, the Commission into a deliberative permanent oen-
tral council, and a board of inspectors. To carry out his
views, and to secure an efficient supervision of the welfare of
the insane generally, whether in asylums, workhouses, or
private houses, the author points out the absolute need of an
increased staff
In conclusion, we very heartily recommend the work to our
readers. The amount and accuracy of the information con¬
tained in its pages, would alone make its publication important
during the present unsettled state of lunacy law ; and, although,
on some points the suggestions of the author for the im¬
provement of the law are open to question, they will always
be found worthy of attentive consideration, as emanating from
an earnest, thoughtful, and highly instructed mind. The
work, we observe, is dedicated by permission, to the Bight
Honorable the Earl of Shaftesbury.
APPOINTMENTa
Dr. Eaton, late of the Stafford Asylum, to be Resident
Physician of the District Asylum, Ballinasloa
Ms. Arthur R. Harrison, m. b. g s., k., and L. s. a., to be
Assistant Medical Officer to the Essex Asylum. (Not Mr:
Richardson as reported in the last No.)
Note .—Ihe following report of a most important Inquisition in Lunacy is a
reprint from the Exeter Gazette. From the great length of the proceedings
is necessarily considered.
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THE JOURNAL OF MENTAL SCIENCE.
No. 32. January, 1860.
Vol. VI.
Consciousness as a Truth-organ considered , or, Contributions
to Logical Psychology; by the Rev. W. Gr. Davies, Chaplain
of County Asylum, Abergavenny.
Introduction.
Nature of these contributions. What characterizes these
contributions is that they are mainly of a logical nature.
Placing ourselves on logic as a stand-point, we have en¬
deavoured to take a comprehensive view of the domain
around ; and have not rested satisfied with merely examining
mental processesintheirresults, butfrom logic have penetrated
wherever we could into the psychology of logic. The con¬
sequence has been that the logic and the psychology have
not always harmonized. We have had occasion indeed in
several cases to reject the ordinary doctrines of logical
science, and modify them in such a manner as our psycho¬
logical researches seemed to us to direct; and we cannot
conceive, though the contrary opinion is held by high
authorities, that the laws of thought can be fully determined
otherwise than by following the method we have here
observed, that is, tracing every mental process to its source
by a searching and exhaustive analysis. How far we have
succeeded in carrying out this undertaking it is not for us to
decide. All we dare hope is that we have done enough to
justify our plan of inquiry; and that w# have contributed in
however trifling a degree towards the advancement of that
noblest of sciences—the science of mind, and especially that
noblest portion of it which affords an answer to the long
asked question :—What is Truth ?
Necessity for such a Science. Philosophers have rarely
VOL. VI. NO. 32.
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discussed high and difficult problems “without eventually
being forced back upon the fundamental question so clearly
stated by Locke:—What is the human mind capable of
knowing, and what not ? We may as mystics arrogantly
assume that the higher faculties have no limit to their
capacity, and stand in need of no external aids—that in
their lofty flights they leave psychological and logical laws
in the clouds far beneath: we may form .an exaggerated
estimate of the deductive method with Descartes and the
German philosophers, and assume that human reason is not
dependent for its data on observation and experiment; and
when such courses have brought us into a dreamy region of
contradiction and unnaturalness, draw back dismayed, and
flee into the contrary extreme of cloistral gloom and credulity,
and preach the theory of human incompetency; or sceptically
secure ourselves in the confined and dreary stronghold of
pure sensationalism, and deny to the human mind half its
powers, and those its best. But it is evident we must look
for something better than this extremely digressive procedure,
for in proportion as we deviate from the straight road of
progress, in that proportion we are not advancing, though
we may be undergoing the preparation necessary for it. And
alas! there are too many, with whom the wish is the father
of the thought, who are ready to urge from having to witness
so much diversity—such bold advances followed by such
humiliating retreats—that the true and the false, the good
and the evil, are after all very much matters of taste—that
there is indeed no absolute truth, no fixed standard of
morality.
Now we have been led to believe from a long-continued
examination of the matter, that these constant surgings from
over confident to over fearful and credulous, or to over
contracted and sceptical tendencies, are only possible so long
as a true system oi logical psychology is yet undiscovered or
unrecognized, and that whatever contributes to this end,
contributes also to the settlement of all those great questions,
now so diversely viewed, entirely because the capacities of
the human mind on which their settlement depends are not
yet fully and clearly determined, and because those helps are
not provided, without which, experience clearly'testifies that
we may in vain endeavour to find egress from darkness and
confusion, to light, beauty, and order.
Some men regard a knowledge of logical science as of mere
secondary importance, because, as they think, it can only
describe mental processes which take place spontaneously
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
without requiring to be known ; and maintain that constant
practice in reasoning is far preferable for strengthening the
mind, to the most careful study of the theory of reasoning.
Now there is just about the same amount of truth in this
opinion as there would be in that of a savage who pleaded
against cultivating the ground, because it produced spon¬
taneously all the sustenance that he required of it If on
every subject men think aright spontaneously-^without the
external aid of rules or models—why all the perplexity and
error which we have indicated in the preceding paragraphs ?
If they think erroneously on many subjects, and those the
most important, why defend such a procedure ? The truth is,
as we shall have to shew more fully in another place, men
reason correctly in a spontaneous manner in the elementary
sciences, such as the mathematical only, and in the ordinary
affairs of life. When they approach higher and more com¬
plicated questions, they require all the help they can obtain
from a reflective knowledge of the mind's powers and laws.
The objection therefore, to the utility of this science, founded
on the analogy, say, between the possibility of attaining excel¬
lence in dancing without the least acquaintance with the
anatomy of the limbs, and the possibility of becoming a fine rea-
soner without being put to the disagreeableness of undergoing
a course of Aldrich, presupposes that the two cases are pre¬
cisely analogous: but are they analogous throughout—that is
the question ? The eagle and the lark may soar in company
as far as the clouds, but there the eagle leaves the lark, and
has to proceed on his sunward course all alone in his glory.
Reasoning is analogous to dancing, in the point mentioned,
as far as it develops itself spontaneously, but beyond this
point the analogy ceases. Granted that Terpsichore has no
occasion for being versed in bones, muscles and ligaments, is
it equally true that those who are disputing about the method
of acquiring the higher truths—according to Mr. Morell,
Positivists, Individualists, and Traditionalists—have no need
of a further instalment towards the solution of Locke's great
question, but will spontaneously crawl along into the light
somehow, never doubt f*
The physiological method. Since the introduction of
phrenology, great stress has been laid by physiologists on the
opinion that no method of investigating mental phenomena
• A* to the objection that minds differ so widely, and that consequently no
two minds view the same thing in the same light—if it be true, then there is an
end of all science, that of the mind included, and we may at once endorse the
lines of our Poet Laureate ;—
I*
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is calculated to be successful but theirs. We believe the
truth to be that no method is likely to succeed which does
not acknowledge the physiological to be a necessary and im¬
portant half. Indeed physiology appears to us to throw
great light upon the science of mind; and such a science in
its integrity it will be impossible to obtain without the co¬
operation of those who devote themselves to the study of the
nervous system. But we must be careful to distinguish
between what nervous physiology does for us, and what it
does not. Its office, it is superfluous to state, is to assign to
every mental function its organ, to describe each organ, and
the laws which affect it; and how mental and cerebral states
act upon each other &c.; but it cannot afford us a science of
the functions. The function of the stomach, for example,
stands in a very different category from that of any cerebral
function. The stomach is not endowed with consciousness :
the mind while conscious of other objects is self-conscious—
is the observer, or is competent at least by a reflex process,
to bo the observer, of its own operations. This is the fact
on which mental philosophers lay such emphasis when they
declare that mental phenomena are not to be sought in the
same manner as physical phenomena. In the one case the
mind examines itself, which is a reflective process: in the
other case it examines something else, and this last is its
procedure when following the physiological method.
As to the method of observation on the actions of man¬
kind for the ascertainment of mental functions, it is highly
useful as far as it goes, but is not by itself sufficiently search¬
ing for the purpose of constructing a science of functions.
Actions declare that such and such thoughts are in the
mind of the actor. What thoughts? The thoughts that
Mach less this dreamer, deaf and blind,
Named man, may hope some truth to find
That bears relation to the mind.
For every worm beneath the moon
Draws different threads, and late and soon
Spins, toiling out his own cocoon.
No one will deny that minds differ widely from each other, but then they
resemble each other widely too, and that—which is the all important point—in the
most necessaiy and fundamental attributes. The more necessary and funda¬
mental an attribute of mind, (indeed of anything: it is a law of nature) the more
extensively it is possessed, and the more permanent it is; but the less necessaty
and fundamental an attribute of mind the more uncertain is its possession, and
the more changeable its nature. To contend that because minds differ there
can be no mental science is on a par with maintaining that because no two
blades of variegated grass can be found to resemble each other perfectly, they
have not the least resemblance. This objection then we cannot bnt deem
frivolous and unreasonable.
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
are in your own mind. Of what character are they ? Con¬
sult the actions; they are as unintelligible as a book to ah
infant unless you possess the clue to them in yourself. Well
you do possess it Of what character then are the thoughts ?
Of such and such a character. But be more minute, give
an exhaustive analysis—disclose the science of them: you
cannot; you find that external observation cannot aid you,
and that if you would know the innermost structure of thought
you must examine long and searchingly the only specimen
of which you possess a direct knowledge, and that is your
own consciousness, for other men’s thoughts you know
indirectly only. In short you know nothing of another
man’s consciousness, except what you know of it, through
the medium of your own.
But here it becomes necessary to concede that by the
method of observation exclusively, it is possible to discover
that a man has certain mental phenomena in excess of your
own, or in a less degree than your own, or forming com¬
binations different from those which yours usually do, and
facts of that character. And such a method is indispensable
when your object is, by the comparison of various
minds, to ascertain how far they agree with, and differ from
each other; and how men are most likely to act in certain
circumstances; and the man proficient in such knowledge
is said to be well versed in human nature ; but it is evident
that the basis of mental science must be laid by a purely
psychological method, to which the method of observation
bears about the same relation as history does to the philo¬
sophy of history, or sociology.*
The psychological method. In the endeavour to obtain a
scientific analysis of consciousness—to acquire a knowledge
of those points which are common to all minds—external
observation would distract rather than help. The psycholo¬
gist’s aim must be to discover the necessary and universal
♦By external observation we come to know the uniformities of human
conduct: by reflection on our own consciousness, and by the study of psy¬
chology proper we become able to account for those uniformities, or become
possessed of a knowledge of those laws from which we could deduce how men
m certain circumstances would be most likely to act, and indeed how men in
every circumstance ought to act. External observation can gather from past
uniformities only what uniformities are likely to occur in future ; but psychology
can deduce from the laws of the mind how the coming generation can improve
on the observances of the past one—can in short anticipate the approaching
destiny of our race. The mere observer is apt to maintain that nothing u, or
4 to come , but that which has been : the psychologist cannot avoid inferring
hat the past and present experience of mankind, in relation to future experience,
s but the boy who is to be the father of the man.
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truths of the mental world, or the particular instances in
which such truths pass from theory into reality. Well—
universal truths—you exclaim—these demand for their
establishment the very widest induction, consequently if you
limit your observation to your own thoughts you cannot
possibly procure the results for which you are seeking.
Now whether such truths can be established by a reflective
examination of a single mind, or whether they involve a
minute inspection of all history, and a wide observation of
living characters, this is the question: its answer forms the
cardinal principle of inductive logic. Gan we then from
reflection on our own mental phenomena—with the aid, of
course, of the light afforded by the researches of philosophers
in the same field *f*—get possession of those universal truths
which constitute a science of the mind’s operations ? As an
attempt to answer this all-important question, a question
relating to scientific truth to whatever subject pertaining, we
offer the following contributions, which will thus be seen to
be an analysis of the intellectual faculties with a view of
determining the true method of scientific inquiry.
We may now state another potent reason in favour of
cultivating the psychological branch of mental science which
is this:—The physiologist cannot assign an organ to a
function, unless he knows sufficiently for the purpose what
the function is. To possess this adequate acquaintance with
the operations of the mind involves, as we think the sequel
will prove, a much closer intimacy with the composition of
consciousness than it is possible to acquire by mere outward
observation. It is quite possible, for instance, for the em¬
pirical observer to consider a compound mental process as
simple, and consequently to be incapable of establishing a
correct system of organology.
The study of mental functions therefore by a reflective
examination of them, this is the task we are endeavouring
to accomplish. And we feel convinced that a thorough
separation of the two cognate departments—the physiological
and the psychological, is absolutely demanded in the culti¬
vation of a science in which all we can hope to see accom¬
plished by a mind short of superexcellent, is that it should
succeed in shedding some degree of light on one only of those
t We here gratefully acknowledge oar obligations to the labours of others in
the field of psychology, more especially to the writings of the late Sir Wm.
Hamilton, and those of Mr. J. S. Mill, writings of a very opposite character
it is true, bat on that account more edifying; but oar deepest obligations
are due, we must maintain, to our own consciousness.
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107
departments. In the course of these investigations, then,
we shall carefully abstain from trespassing on a department
in which all our knowledge is superficial, and necessarily
taken on trust. But while thus confining ourselves to our
own field of inquiry, we beg leave to intimate, in deference
to the valuable labours of our fellow-workers in the other
field, that we have carefully sought from their discoveries as
much light as we could obtain from them in the way of
suggestion, and of checking our conclusions in our strictly
psychological search.
Vagueness of psychological descriptions. There are many
who regard the teachings of mental philosophers as ex¬
tremely vague. Intellectual processes, as usually described,
seem to the mind long trained in the school of physical
philosophy to be almost unknowable. There can be no doubt
that there are some men whose mental constitution is of so
concrete a character, who by their peculiar habits of inves¬
tigation find considerable difficulty in realizing as facts those
which the internal world of mind exhibits to persons of a
more reflective and abstract turn. And we are inclined to
concede to the concrete philosophers that psychological
doctrines have been exhibited to them in the most general
terms—in a manner very dissimilar to what they have been
accustomed in their respective sciences—and thus have come
to them, even where there was little diversity of view among
such doctrines to obstruct the acceptance of them, in a very
airy and spectral shape. And we feel convinced that had
mental philosophers been able to divide their general views
into more particular and comprehensive parts, many points
of disagreement would have been cleared up in the process,
and many be found to accept their teaching who po\y will
not comprehend it, or doubt its truth. Now whatever
system of mental science the future has in store for n?, we
believe it must be one which will enumerate and describe each
distinct faculty contained under the general tcrm.s hitherto
rested in by psychologists. For instance, besides a general
description of perception we must have analyzed for us
minutely and fully the various perceptive faculties which
such a term denotes. The same with all parts of the mind
intellectual and emotional, an effort must be made to descend
from the generals so much in vogue, to the particulars con¬
tained in them.
Since we have lamented the necessity which com¬
pelled mental philosophers to rest in the cloudy region
of general description, we must expect to be asked what we
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have done to redeem our observations from liability to be
similarly regarded, especially since we have emphatically
declined assigning to every function its organ, which would
be giving it a local habitation, as well as a name, and would
render it, some may think, a more appreciable fact to minds
of a concrete conformation. But it is not at all likely that
this result would follow surely and extensively, for it happens
that between thought and its organic condition there is
nothing in common which would help you to understand the
one through the medium of the other. The mind can know
itself only by contemplating itself in action. It may ponder
over the structure of the brain and nerves, but it discovers
in them nothing approaching to the nature of consciousness:
it beholds merely its organic accompaniment, which is no
more like mind than pain is like the point of the needle
which inflicts it We then study consciousness, as it only
admits of being studied, in itself; and are, we believe, en¬
abled to give it a distinct and specific character by exhibiting
it in the forms in which it expresses itself in articulate
language. Intellectual processes, when their spiritual essence
is embodied in the forms in which they find their legitimate
expression, will be found to be far more distinctive facts
than they have hitherto seemed to those whose minds
demand a material symbol to enable them to arise from the
engrossing world of sense to a clear apprehension of the
abstract, the ideal, and the remote.
Pabt I. Section i.
What is consciousness t Consciousness comprehends every
cognitive act, it being that in which all intellectual operations
resemble each other. It is the summum genus by which all
cognitive acts are denoted.
Among such acts there are three which may be called
originating acts, because all knowledge takes its commence¬
ment from one or the other of them. They are Perception,
Conception, and Reason. Other operations, such as Memory,
Association, Abstraction, Imagination, and Belief, presuppose
these, and originate no ideas.
Reflection is the name of no separate Faculty, but merely
expresses the act by which the originating powers become
cognizant of mental phenomena. In their direct operation
these faculties are the origin of all knowledge of objects*: in
their reflex operation they are the origin of all knowledge of
the mind’s direct or transitive agencies.
* Whatever the mind is conscious o£
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
This being an inquiry into the structure of the mind from
the logical point of view is concerned chiefly ■with the orig¬
inating faculties. The remaining mental operations will be
considered only so far as the main object of this inquiry
renders such a step absolutely necessary. We shall proceed
then in the first place to enumerate:—
The conditions essential to the originating acts in common
with other acts of consciousness.
I. A subject or ego. In a cognitive operation we are not
merely conscious of an object, but that the subject or ego is
conscious of the object. We are constantly realizing our own
individuality in every manifestation of consciousness, and
without this constant possession of our subjectivity, our
thoughts—if it were possible in such a case to have any—
would be as much isolated from each other, as if each of
them belonged to a separate person. We shall have to
discuss this point again at greater length.
II. Time. Consciousness when once awakened must
have some degree of permanence. Thought is so incon¬
ceivably rapid that it can only be realized in connexion
with the track that it leaves behind it This permanence
of consciousness after its first flash into existence is memory.
A cognitive act, therefore, without memory to retain it
would, from its velocity, be scarcely perceptible—a most
rapid succession of most minute disconnected points, instead
of an abiding breadth of surface.
But consciousness has no past; its time is a perpetual
now. The past is thought of by means of a rapid and un¬
broken flow of ever present consciousness. The future has
no existence, but in imagination, which out of past ex¬
perience invents a time to come.
III. Attention. An act of thought, although it may
exist in a rudimentary or passive state is not consummated
until the cognitive power is concentrated on as much of an
object as the mind can well embrace at one time. To what
extent this power is possessed will have to be determined
when we come to treat of the proposition. This concen¬
tration of the mental power upon an object by an act of the
will, or perhaps some strong impulse, is attention.
We may observe by way of elucidating this point, that it
is said that we sometimes have a sensation without
being aware of it, as when a clock strikes in a room
in which we are sitting, without our observing that it
has struck. Now a sensation, in the sense in which we
understand the word, must be either painful or pleasant, but
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for us to have such a feeling without being conscious of it
is what we cannot comprehend. But then our conscious¬
ness asserts that sound is not a sensation*—a pleasing or
painful feeling—but an unemotional phenomenon. All
we can understand therefore in the instance of the clock
striking without our being aware of it is this;—The
usual effect is caused by the vibrating medium upon the
organ of hearing, but it fails to awaken consciousness, be¬
cause that has its force so much concentrated in a different
quarter, that it leaves the organ of hearing in a state ana¬
logous to sleep.
But there is another explanation. The mind is capable
of various degrees of exertion: it may regard an object
carefully and minutely, or it may scarcely notice it at alL
In the first instance the mind concentrates the cognitive
power on each point of the object in turn: in the second
instance, though conscious of the existence of the object, it
does not attend to any part of it in particular. There is
then a marked distinction between consciousness when ex¬
erted, and when not exerted—between the attentive and
the inattentive mood of mind. We dwell upon this obvious
fact in order to prepare the way for stating that these two
states of mind co-exist. While we can only well attend to one
{ >art or one quality of an object at a time, we are neverthe-
ess inattentively conscious of its remaining parts or quali¬
ties. Or take what we may call the field of thought—although
we can only attend to a limited portion of it at once, does
it not seem that we are not wholly unconscious of the
contiguous points ; and that when we attend to them in their
turn, it is because we were previously dimly cognizant of
them ? Every thought has other thoughts linked to it: when
we bend the attention therefore to a particular idea, we may
have at the same time a faint consciosuness of those with
which it is associated ; and the ease and rapidity* with which
we pass from one thought to another is perhaps sufficiently
* We are here anticipating a distinction which we shall be compelled to dis-
Cass rather fully as we proceed. We assert that sound is not a sensation, but
we are well aware how ambiguous and misleading the term sensation is, and
that some persons will insist that the reports of the senses are sensations. But
they will insist also that pain and pleasure are sensations, that the disgust at¬
tending some tastes and scents, and the pleasure attending others are sensations,
so that in fact they make the term sensation perform a variety of offices. Some¬
times it has to stand for perception, sometimes for a phenomenon that has qo
emotion or feeling in Its nature, sometimes for a phenomenon which is ex¬
clusively of that character. The reader will not surprized then if we declare
that we have almost as great a horror of the word sensation as Reid had of the
word idea.
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ .111
accounted for by Baying, that we naturally pass from that
portion of the field of thought to which the attention at
any one moment is limited, to some other portion of it of
which we were previously dimly cognizant* It is in sight
that this fact is so clearly manifest, in which we only
attend to what is in the axis of eye, but see more or less
imperfectly the whole field of vision.
Although various faculties of the mind act simultaneously
they do not usually attend to their respective objects at the
same moment. We may be so engrossed with one deep
thought, that we may be scarcely alive to the world around
us. While the eye is attracted by fine colours and forms,
the ear perhaps may be all but deaf to sounds. While the
hand may be delighted with the smoothness of the mole's
Bkin, the eye perhaps may be gazing vacantly into space.
Thus it may be when we hear the clock striking, while that
event fails to attract attention from something else in which
the mind is lost, we may hear it, but only passively or in an
undiscriminating manner. We hope we have now elucidated
our meaning when we asserted, that an act of consciousness
although it may exist in a rudimentary or passive state is
not consummated till it becomes an act of attention.
IV. An asserting force. Intuitive consciousness when ap¬
prehending an object asserts, proclaims, or avers, its existence
as possessed of such and such attributes, and that in such a
manner that it cannot avoid doing so. Reason however
raises questions as to the real nature of the non ego, namely
as to whether it is in reality what it must invariably appear
to be. Thus the rainbow appears to be external to us, and
can only be realized in a positive sense as it thus appears.
But it is inferred nevertheless to be a phenomenon of a
subjective character. Here the intuitive assurance and the
inference do not harmonize, and cannot be brought to do so.
Intuitive consciousness or perception must continue to aver,
after the inference is obtained, as it did before that event,
that the rainbow is a distant object much greater in circum¬
ference than that of the retina multiplied, who shall say how
many times ? Reason on the other hand must as confidently
pronounce that the rainbow, as we know it has, independently
of us, no existence.
But in this want of harmony between intuition and reason,
* Thoughts certainly crowd upon the mind at times faster than we can find
the power to attend to them. The practiced speaker while his attention is en¬
gaged with the thought he is on the point of ottering, has nevertheless before
his mind the thoughts which are immediately to follow
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112
or the impossibility of either abating the asserting force of
the other, we see nothing to deplore* but much to admire.
Suppose for instance—while we take it for granted that we
could not be made aware of the existence of extended objects
at a distance but by means of some such mechanism as the
eye—that before we had acquired any scientific knowledge
of vision we felt confident that a visible object was external,
but that after we had done so our assurance vanished, and
intuition from that moment regarded what we saw as having
no further connexion with the external world? Or that
reason yielded to the asserting force of our intuitive assur¬
ance, and might as well be non-existent ? Can you conceive
a state of things to which the poet's words would apply with
greater force and truth :—“ Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis
folly to be wise "? To be possessed of an organ which secures
for us a fellowship with the world without, through the
medium of a world within, which cannot be positively
realized as internal, appears to us indeed to be a contrivance
admirable in the extreme, and exhibiting the wisdom of the
Creator as much as any thing within this cosmical sphere.
V. Form. Every cognitive act has a special form in
which it expresses itself in speech. Form is that attribute
of expressed thought which remains when the matter of a
proposition is wholly abstracted, and symbols substituted for
it. As we shall have to devote the whole of the second part
of this inquiry to the examination of the forms of Perception
and Conception, and a great portion of the third part to an
examination of the forms of Reason, we shall here conclude
our remarks on this head, and proceed to notice a very
important condition peculiar to Perception, and that which
renders it most strikingly distinct from every other kind of
consciousness.
We must beg leave to call this condition— biunity, that
being the term which most forcibly expresses the attribute
which has now to engage your attention.
Biunity a differential attribute of 'perception. A percep¬
tion is composed of two distinct elements, namely con¬
sciousness and an object—C+O. Abstract the object and
the perception is destroyed as effectually as if you had ab¬
stracted the consciousness. The 0 element is indispensable
to the biune fact C+O,
We use the term object in the most extensive sense, as
equivalent to whatever we can be conscious of. We are
conscious of two main classes of objects, namely, subjective—
that which belongs to self; and objective, that which does
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
not belong to self. Subjective or self objects comprise
sensibilities or emotions, and muscular actions.* Objective
or not-self objects are divisible into objective, and quasi-
objective, or that which is *f* external and that which seems
to be external.
But we derive another large and highly important class
of objects from the reflex activity of the mind. And it
seems, which is a fact demanding great attention, that before
the mind has by a reflective procedure scrutinized its own
processes, it knows nothing whatever of those processes
more than is obtrusively patent in their results. Sir William
Hamilton insists that there are “ acts and affections of mind
which, manifesting their existence in their effects, are them¬
selves out of consciousness or apperception. The fact of
such latent mental modifications is now established beyond
all rational doubt, and on the supposition of their reality,
we are able to solve various psychological phenomena other¬
wise inexplicable.”^ And, though philosophers for ages
have assiduously sought to discover what it is that really
takes place in spontaneous thought, the secret is yet but
partly stolen from the mind.
It is in the presence of the object in the perception, and
its absence from every other act of consciousness, that we
behold the wide difference which there is between it and
them; and that on which the universal assurance is grounded
that what we perceive is different from what we remember
or imagine.
The distinction between perception and memory, for
example, if the above be a true description, is easily ex¬
plained. Memory is the persistence of the C element after
* We fail to discover in our own consciousness, that muscular action is made
known to ns as a sensation or emotion. We are cognizant of it as an unemo¬
tional object, sm generic which cannot be expressed in simpler terms than
muscular action or exertion, because not resolvable into anything else.
The fact that bodily exertion is delightful when muscular energy is in a state
of high pressure, but painful when the same energy has become very weak,
does not constitute it an object of the sensitive kind, more than the zest
and eagerness with which the intellectual faculties work when fresh, and the
difficulty and reluctance with which they work when jaded, places them in the
category of the mental emotions or sentiments.
t Of course the sensationalists will object to this division, and maintain that
for us nothing u external, but only appears to be. We shall endeavour to
shew by and bye, that what appears to intuitive consciousness to be external,
but is pronounced by reason to be internal, must', be called guast-objective 5
but that what appears to intuitive consciousness to be external, and is pro¬
nounced by reason to be in reality what it is apparently, must be called—-it we
are to distinguish in language what is clearly distinct in fact—objective or
external.
% Sir W. Hamilton, Edition of Reid’s Works, p. 551.
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the 0 element has disappeared. Every recollected object is
simplv C: in no instance have we been able by any amount
of effort to make a recollection or an imagination seem a
perception or C + 0.*
Yet it is much easier to call up vivid thoughts of some
objects than others. Visible objects it has been said possess
this aptitude in a high degree. But to us by far the easiest
objects to realize in thought are spoken words. Correspon¬
ding to the actual utterance of words, there is simply an
ideal utterance of them. It is only the merest novice in
reading who has to whisper his words when he does not
desire to read audibly: almost every educated person peruses
a page by a mental articulation of the words. And thus it is
that all men, deaf mutes excepted, carry on a train of
thought—they mentally speak their thoughts. Now even
these objects, though more easily thought of than any others,
are far from being in their mental what they are in their
actual character. Who will say that a word spoken in
thought is a faint attempt at speaking it in reality ? this we
are positive of—there is no audible sound, and no vibration
of tne articulating organs to cause such sound. The fact is
the audible word is a biune fact: the other is not.
The objects most readily and vividly thought of are the
unemotional—the objective, quasi- objective, and muscular
actions (e. g. the muscular actions of the articulating organs.)
The objects least apt to be realized in thought are the emo¬
tional. The reason for this seems to be that when the
object of the perception is not a feeling, there is a larger
endowment of the cognitive power, and that power has
fuller scope for discriminating activity; but when the
object is a feeling, there is a smaller amount of cognitive
power, and the feeling is so engrossing that consciousness is
in a mere passive condition, and does not re-act upon the
feeling, and analyze it; and the stronger the feeling, the
more unlikely is the mind to do this. But we are again
anticipating a principle which can only be clearly discussed
in its proper place.
The two elements in sensible perception are quite distinct It
is important to observe that in sensible or external perception
the cognitive element is not a part of the object, nor that a part
of the cognitive element. The cognition is not C+0, and the
object especially is not a mere modification of C, or a com¬
bination of C with 0. The cognitive element knows itself,
* See Lewes' Biographical History, Library Edition, p. 449, and Bain on the
Senses and the Intellect , p. 337.
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
as well as the object, and consequently is fully competent to
declare which is which; it therefore confidently asserts that
the fact of knowing the object does not constitute it either
in whole or in part, t. e. the object is not a modification of
consciousness, nor is it a combination of consciousness and
something else; but a really distinct, second, element,
essential to the very existence of the perception. This is,
beyond doubt, what consciousness most emphatically avers.
Compare an act of outward perception with an act of memory
or imagination, and in the difference which you detect between
them, how can you possibly avoid being made aware of the
fact here insisted upon ? Consciousness declares then that
there is a real, and not an apparent distinction between the
C and the 0 elements in the perception.*
Observations. The object in the perception is known
immediately in itself as a present object, and is the only
object which exists as present to us.
Being known immediately the object is known as it is ;
but if you say it is not known as it is, but as it is not, then
the only object for us is that which you know as something
that the firs~t is not: which is therefore for us no object at
ah
Every obj ect must in the first place be known immediately.
If we know an object mediately, it must be through the
resemblance which it bears to something which is already
known. Tlius according to the “ideal” or, as Sir Wm.
Hamilton lias named it, the Representationist theory of
external perception, the mind possesses an immediate know¬
ledge of the “ idea ” only, but can have no knowledge
whatever of the external object except in so far as the
“ idea ” is a copy of it, a fact which we have no possible
means of ascertaining, as the sceptical philosophers have
most triumphantly proved. But fortunately we do not
know an external object through the medium of any thing
representing it: we know it immediately in itself as a
present object, and as of a nature perfectly separate from the
consciousness which apprehends its existence.
Relation of the object to the cognitive element of the per¬
ception. It is to be noticed that the cognitive element
reveals the existence of the object; for us therefore the
object presupposes the cognition—Being presupposes know¬
ing. Consciousness is therefore the cause of the existence
of objects ad nos. Or to state the fact still more definitely
* In some internal perceptions, we shall have to shew farther on, that the
object and cognition are confused.
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—An object exists for us, as present, in the biune fact C +•
0 only, and then exclusively through the intervention of
the C element, or in any sense, only so far as it is known or
thought of. Thus if we contemplate the world as existing
independently of us, we are all the while regarding our own
thoughts, which of course cannot exist out of the mind which
conceives them. Being for us is either invariably linked to
knowing, or is knowing simply. In the perception it is
being+knowing : in memory, imagination, &c., it is simply
knowing. Now the question naturally suggested by this
doctrine is:—whether consciousness is competent to declare
the independent reality of external objects. 1st, Is the
object really n on-egotistical in the perception; 2ndly, Can it
exist out of the perception, or as 0 minus C ?
But we think that if the question be put at all it ought
to be more broadly stated. Instead of demanding whether
external phenomena have a real and independent existence,
it should be enquired whether any thing which conscious¬
ness reveals to us has any reality. We know that subjective
phenomena have been pronounced far above the reach of
scepticism; and that consequently the question as we put
it will be deemed preposterously wide ; whether it is so or
not, perhaps, the following criticism will decide. But we
strongly suspect that this is the only complete way of stating
it; and thus expressed it carries with it its own negative ;
and the reason why this fact has escaped detection must be
because the question has not been proposed in its full
proportions.
All Being, including subjective Being, yea, and even that
of consciousness itself, only exists for us in so far as con¬
sciousness, when asserting its existence, asserts truly. Push
your inquiries to the very furthest point to which they can
go, and you come to an asserting power, as the basis of all
existence ad nos —yea, as the basis of its own existence
Now if this asserting power is mendacious, a dark forbid¬
ding nihilism is the fearful result; if as is usually taught
objectively mendacious, but not subjectively, a scarcely less
forbidding idealism. But if this ultimate principle is
veracious objectively as well as subjectively, the result is
what the common sense of mankind, has, with certain
admirable exceptions, led us to expect Is consciousness
veracious ? We hope to be able to demonstrate in the proper
place (after we have explored the province of Reason) that
it is; but this is the dilemma: either it is objectively veracious,
or we are altogether “ the dupes of a perfidious Creator.”
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Consciousness as a Truth-Organ.
Nihilism, or Realism—choose between them : you have
no other choice. For convict the asserting principle of
objective falsehood, then its character for subjective truth¬
fulness is also lost Absolute scepticism triumphs, and
proclaims,
“ A life of nothings nothing worth."
But we must guard also in another way against the
abuses of this doctrine, and that is by proceeding to discuss
the counter doctrine, which forms the natural antidote to
its extravagant over-statements.
Relation of the cognitive dement in the perception to the
object In the perception C+O, if 0 cannot be known to
exist without C: on the other hand, C cannot exist without
0, there could be no consciousness of a given object without
that object to awaken it. But as two things cannot pre¬
suppose each other in the same sense, for the same thing
cannot be the antecedent of another thing, and also its con¬
sequent, we must understand that being presupposes know¬
ing in the order of knowledge, but that knowing presupposes
being in the order of existence. From the first order springs
idealism, from the second realism; which two doctrines are
thus perceived to be quite compatible; halves in fact of the
same grand system in which the idealistic half proclaims,
that the realistic half must be accepted as its counterpoise.
Bat this difficult subject demands all the light which our
subsequent investigations may throw upon it, so we shall
proceed to shew, that although the object only exists for us
when known, that it must exist, if we are not aware of the
contrary, when unknown.
We annex the above limitation because there are two
classes of objects which differ widely in respect to what we
are now inquiring about Some objects as thoughts, emotions,
muscular actions of a certain character, &c., only exist, while
we are conscious of them. We know by the most conclusive
evidence that these do not exist, but when they are perceived.
There are other objects, however, which we feel assured have
an existence, to which the fact of being known is not in the
least essential. Reason cannot avoid concluding from what
we perceive of external objects, that they have an existence
perfectly out of relation to the contingency of being perceived
by us. For example, first, being and (being-{-knowing) are
distinct facts ; for of the first, knowing is no necessary part,
of the second it is for eliminate knowing, and you destroy
the synthesis (being+knowing), the only being which there is
for us, but not the only being. Secondly, if being for us pre-
YOL. VI. no. 32. K
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supposes knowing, knowing presupposes being, if the object
cannot be known to exist without consciousness; on the
other hand consciousness cannot exist* without the object:
the object, consequently, except when we know the contrary
must exist independently of us, seeing it must be prior in
time to the consciousness which it awakens. In the bowels
of yonder mountain may be hidden an immense store of iron
and coal. If such be the case, it is not lying there unknown.
And what about the gems which the “dark unfathomed
caves of ocean bear/' and the rose that blushes unseen, “ and
wastes its sweetness in the desert airf' Are they mere
fictions of the poet ? There is nothing in the nature of the
external object that would lead us to infer that it cannot
exist out of the perception, or apart from us, for it is strictly
an external object in the perception. Consciousness exists
apart from the object which aroused it—why cannot the
object exist apart from the consciousness which it aroused f
Remember, that which exists as a matter of fact, may not
exist as a matter of necessity. Of course nothing exists
without being open to the eyes of Him with whom we have
to do—the Omniscient, but we must conclude that being
almighty, He has the power to withdraw his mind from a
given object, and that then that object would still exist,
though absolutely unknown. The question to be decided is
not whether any object does exist in an unknown condition,
but whether it is “possible for it so to exist ? Reason con¬
cludes that it is possible, and that the world existed ages
before man first trod on its surface and realized to himself
its varied and wondrous existence. We infer then that wo
know a real object in the perception—that we know it as it
is, or not at all—that we thus know an external object—that
this external object must exist apart from perception, and
that it then only differs from itself in the perception as O
minus C differs from 0 plus C.
Having now stated, as far as we are acquainted with them,
the general conditions of cognitive acts, and also a special
* This is the declaration of consciousness. If yon ask whether this deliverance
ie trustworthy, then yon raise the farther question is consciousness veracious*
It consciousness veracious, for every argument which we have advanced is
worthless, except the integrity of consciousness is unassailable? We cannot avoid
concluding, but this is not the place for stating onr reasons, that consciousness
must be pronounced thoroughly trustworthy, when the conditions of veracky
are strictly fulfilled. But it is only when these are mat rigidly complied with,
that we can insist upon the thorough integrity of our intellectual nature. The
replies which every tyro or loose thinker draws out from his consciousness,
cannot, of course, be deemed infallible. Those replies only which are in strict
accordance with the laws of consciousness as a truth organ can be pr on ounced
beyond the reach of question.
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Consciousness as a Truth- Organ.
condition of perception, the next step is to examine that
faculty in detail. But here two courses present themselves;
the one is to analyze perception according to the several
classes of objects of which it takes note; the other according
to the several varieties of its forms. Now the same form is
common to more than one kind of perception, and conse¬
quently doos not exhibit certain varieties of that faculty.
If we would ascertain, therefore, what these are, we
must analyze perception in relation to its objects. This
then will be our endeavour in the next section. After that
is done we shall have to examine it again relative to its
forms in conjunction with conception, which faculty, unlike
perception, nas all its varieties exhibited by its forms
alone. The same is true of reason.
(To be continued.)
The Causes of Mental Disease , by Dr. £. Jarvis, Massachusets.
The valuable report on the history and condition of the
McLean Asylum for the Insane for the year 1858, derives a
peculiar importance from the few pages which the Superin¬
tendent devotes to the causes of insanity, so far as they were
developed and affected by the peculiar circumstances of the
year, and were connected witn the recent financial crisis
and the religious excitements of that period. Dr. Tyler
discourses wisely upon these matters, and gives admonitions
which, were they heeded, would save many from mental
disturbance and more from mental death.
To all things created and grown there are fixed laws and
conditions of being and action. To every living organism,
whether animal or vegetable, as equally to dead machinery
and structures, there is assigned a definite purpose or func¬
tion, which it is appointed to fulfil or discharge. If it be
properly constructed, its parts or elements suitably arranged
and harmonized, and all endowed with their due strength,
each performs its own work, or bears its own burden. But
neither their structure, nor their organization, nor their
strength, will permit them to be applied to any other pur¬
pose, or to perform any other work, or to bear any other or
greater burden, than those which are appointed for them,
K*
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Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
without suffering or injury. No machine is strong enough
to'escape this law; no vehicle or utensil is rude or coarse
enough to exempt from these conditions. The carriage
intended for passengers is impaired, if it be used for freight;
the merchandise wagon is injured, if it be loaded with coals.
All kinds of vehicles, the lightest pleasure-gig as well as the
heaviest dray or stone-cart, are weakened and loosened in
their joints, and perhaps broken, if they are made to cany
weights, even of their proper kinds, greater than they are
intended to bear. The cotton-carding machine does its ap¬
propriate work well and without injury. But if wool, or flax,
or harder substances, be put into it, it is soon out of order,
and perhaps broken. This law as to the appropriate use of
all material things, machinery, vehicles, vessels, and utensils,
is universally recognised and respected, and no discreet
workman or cautious manager ever presumes to disregard it.
The same law is immovably imposed upon everything en¬
dowed with life ; upon all animal organs, all that perform the
living operations,—the stomach, the muscles, the brain, the
nervous system, and even the moral and mental powers, the
passions and the affections. Each having its distinct functions
to perform and purposes to fulfil, its structure, organization,
and endowments are adapted to them. It is supplied with
means and strength sufficient for these, and no other. There¬
fore, in the use of the machinery of life, as well as of that
created by human hands, all violations of its conditions of
being, all transgressions of the limit of power or the restricted
sphere of action, are necessarily followed by injury and dis¬
order. From the beginning until now, in every clime and
among every people, this has been shown, by the large pro¬
portion of functional disorders, organic diseases, and even
general physical derangements, which come upon humanity
from the misapplication of the power of some of the organs,
or from the excessive expenditure of their strength by over-
exertion.
Dyspepsia, with its many phases, is produced in great part
by the misuses and abuses of the stomach and digestive
system, by errors in the selection of food or mistakes in the
quantity that is consumed, or by the neglect of other essential
conditions of nutrition. Some of the diseases of the locomo¬
tive apparatus arise from violations of the conditions of their
being, and of the law appointed for their action. If the
muscles are applied to purposes not assigned to them, or ex¬
ercised beyond their strength, they inevitably suffer, and may
be weakened or disordered. The brain is subject to similar
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Causes of Mental Disease. 121
conditions of life and laws of action. It is endowed with
certain limited powers, which can be applied only to distinct
and definite purposes, and it cannot go beyond its appointed
bounds without danger, nor bear burdens exceeding its
strength without suffering, nor labor beyond its accustomed
energy without weariness.
The mind, while on earth, is necessarily connected with
the animal body, by means of the brain; for that is the
essential and only agent of all its operations. So long as
the immaterial spirit is inseparably associated with the
material substauce, all its powers of action and endurance
are in exact correspondence with those of the physical
organ; its strength to labor, its energy, and its range of
application, are those which the brain admits, and no more.
It is affected by the infirmities and the liabilities of that part
of our frame. Considering, then, this intimate connection
of the mind with the brain, in its strength and weakness, in
its health and sickness, it is reasonable to assume and to
speak of cerebral health and cerebral disease as indications
of corresponding conditions of the mind.
The brain has several functions to perform. It is not
only the organ of the mind and the instrument of the
mental operations; it is also the organ of feeling and emo¬
tion, of passion, anxiety, and suffering. It superintends the
operations of the body. It supplies the several parts with
the stimulus of life and action. It seems to be a storehouse
of nervous energy, a part of which is used to fulfil and
sustain mental and emotional purposes, and a part is dis¬
tributed to the several organs of the material frame, and
enables them to perform their respective functions.
There is sufficient nervous energy in this storehouse to
sustain all the other organs in the performance of their
several duties, and the mind in doing its own work, and
also to quicken all the moral affections, the healthy emo¬
tions and passions, the natural appetites and propensities.
There is enough for the life and action of all. Each can
draw its due proportion from the brain; but none can safely
have more, for the supply is limited. If any one takes more
than its due share, the others have less than theirs, and
consequently they have less life and less active force; they
perform their functions feebly, and perhaps some may be
suspended. This is a common occurrence, and probably fa¬
miliar to all. When one eats food that is hard of digestion,
or takes a fuller meal than the stomach can master at once
with its usual force, it makes a demand upon the brain for
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/
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Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
more than its own share of nervous energy to sustain it in
its extraordinary work, and consequently less than the due
proportion can be given to the other organs or functions.
They then act languidly; muscular labor is difficult, the
brain refuses to think, or thinks feebly, the whole system
craves rest, and perhaps sleep, while the stomach is getting
through its excessive and difficult task. On the other hand,
the action of the mind may be very powerful, and absorb
the nervous energies to such a degree as to interfere with
the physical operations. From this cause, deep grief, violent
anger, intense anxiety, and other powerful emotions and
passions, interrupt the digestive process. Violent muscular
exertions also diminish the freedom and fulness of the other
functions. While one is running a race, or swinging a
sledge-hammer, or working at a fire-engine, he can neither
think, nor reason, nor talk upon grave subjects; and the
stomach also slackens in its ordinary work, because the
muscles demand and use so large a proportion of the nervous
energy that enough is not left to sustain the other organs in
their usual labor.
Nature has endowed all of the organs with their several
powers, and given each its connection with the brain, for
the purpose of action. It was not intended that any should
pass its life in idleness, but that each should have its oppor¬
tunity of exercise, both for its own strengthening and for
the health of the others. When they are used in obedience
to the law of their being, applied to their appropriate pur¬
poses, and exerted within their appointed limits, each does
its own work easily and successfully, without interfering
with the others, and all the voluntary functions are under
the control of the will. All the actions of life necessarily
imply expenditure of force, and that must be in proportion
to its intensity or its duration. Of course, in every case,
some weakness or depression of strength follows the exercise
of every organ or power. In a healthy person, sufficient
means are provided to sustain all appropriate actions, and to
restore the force that has been expended. If we work
moderately and appropriately with the limbs, they after a
while become weary with action, and crave an opportunity
to recruit their force. If rest be allowed them, they soon
regain their power, and are then as strong as before, and
ready for the renewal of labor. But if we work with more
than our usual energy, if, for instance, the muscles are com¬
pelled to act long or violently, in lifting or straining, beyond
their accustomed strength, they are exhausted, beoome
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Causes of Mental Disease. 123
weakened, and require a much longer period of rest to re*
store them.
If these great and unfitting exertions are long continued
or frequently repeated, the exhaustion is carried so far, that
no amount of rest completely restores the strength. The
muscular force is then permanently reduced, and the limbs
are unable to do their previously accustomed work.
The same results of over-action, weariness, exhaustion,
and permanent weakness or disease, are manifested in the
digestive organa The stomach and the other parts of the
nutritive apparatus are ordained to convert enough food into
chyle to replenish the blood, and to supply it with the means
of repairing the waste of the textures. When this organ is
in good health, when the food is of a proper kind, and taken
in due quantities and at suitable seasons, and all the other
circumstances and conditions are properly attended to, the
work of digestion goes on easily and satisfactorily, and the
wants of the blood are supplied. But if the food be not of
a suitable kind, if it be of improper material, if it be badly
prepared, if the bread be heavy, if the meat be burned, if
the mixture be insoluble in the gastric juice,—if, in any way,
the food after eating, be digested with difficulty,—the
stomach labors, sometimes in pain, often in weariness, and
is consequently fatigued, and perhaps all its strength is
exhausted when its work is done. But unless there has
been too great an expenditure of strength, it is regained by
rest, and then the organ is ready, as before, to do its work.
But when this labor is violent and excessive, the vigor is not
all restored by rest, and the average or constant digestive pow¬
er is reduced; and if this exhaustive process is perseveringly
repeated, the stomach is weakened more and more, until it
performs its work only with difficulty and in pain, and
sometimes fails entirely.
Indigestion may be produced by manifold causes. Im¬
proper food, of any kind, bad cookery, eating rapidly, at
unseasonable hours, or in excessive quantities, imperfect
mastication, exhaustion of the nervous energies before
eating, or occupation of these energies by great physical or
mental labour immediately afterward, want of exercise, too
intense study, care or anxiety,—any one of these causes will
diminish the gastric force, and, if long continued, will waste
the powers of the stomach, and establish disease.
It is not usual for any single cause to act alone and produce
indigestion. More commonly two or more causes co-operate
to efoct the result. It is rare that a man is wise and faith-
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124 Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
ful in all the duties of self-management but one, and in that
alone indiscreet and careless. The student may combine
excess of mental action with want of physical exercise and
hasty eating. The man of business may allow too little time
for his meals. He may carry to his table the burden of his
commercial transactions upon his mind. He may be careless
as to the food he takes. Regarding the convenience of his
counting-house rather than the necessities of nutrition, he
may be irregular in the hours of eating. He may add to
these errors night-suppers of food that disturbs, but does not
strengthen him. In the affectionate wife and mother, who
is watching over her sick husband or child, the oppressive
anxiety, the disregard of her own physical wants, carelessness
or even forgetfulness of the hours of eating, absorbing thought
at table, want of exercise, Iresh air and sleep, all may be
brought to bear at the same time. Out of any one, or any
number, or all of these, and other coexisting errors, dyspepsia
may grow.
It is therefore frequently difficult to refer a disordered or
impaired stomach to any single cause, or to determine how
much influence each of the several co-operating causes had
in producing the disease or disturbance ; nor would it be
philosophical to assume any one of these as the source whence
any present gastric difficulty sprang. Yet it would be safe
to say, that each of these coexisting facts or violations of the
law of self-management had its due weight in producing the
disorder.
The universal law of philosophy, that like causes produce
like effects, applies with unvarying force to the management
of life, and tne production of health and strength. It is not
intended by this to say, that any single cause, or combination
of causes, will produce like consequences in all circum¬
stances ; for these, differing among themselves, and having
various kinds and degrees of influence, of course modify,
sometimes by increasing and sometimes by diminishing, the
effects which the causes tend to produce. Yet it is certain
that like causes produce like effects in like constitutions,
states of health, and circumstances.
All the animal organs, and all the mental and moral
powers that belong to humanity, come under this law. In
all the living operations, cause and effect are inseparably
connected. There can be no action of life, without its
retribution of good or of evil With every part of our
frames, and every faculty and endowment, obedience to the
conditions of being is necessarily followed by invigoration.
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Causes of Mental Disease. J 25
growth, or comfort, and disobedience by disturbance, pain,
or weakness; and these consequences are in strict proportion
to the faithfulness to, or the violation of, the law. There
need be no mystery in the conditions of health and enjoy¬
ment, nor in the events of sickness and suffering. None of
these arise or happen without adequate causes. A large
proportion of these causes may be ascertained in the present
state of science, and many of them are within the control of
man, and may be prevented.
Mental derangement and weakness, of every grade and
every variety, are produced by errors in the use of the cerebral
forces. Much learning is not necessarily a cause of madness;
for the strong and disciplined acquire it without suffering.
They carry it gracefully, use it skilfully, and gather strength
from it, while others fall in the endeavour to acquire it.
Nor is a little learning, usually, a dangerous thing; yet
there are some to whom even this would be a burden not
safely to be borne, for they cannot assume it without sinking,
or carry it without staggering.
In the anterior history of some of the patients who are
admitted into the asylums for the insane, excessive study,
study of metaphysics, phrenology, fourierism, animal
magnetism, Spiritualism, and the Scriptures, or great mental
excitement from intense attention to business, care and
anxiety,—all the varieties of undue mental application or
inappropriate use of the cerebral forces,—are given as the
causes of their disorder. In the Reports of eighteen American
hospitals for the insane, which state the causes of the dis¬
order of their patients as far as they were supposed to be
known, one hundred and seventy-four kinds of events,
habits, or circumstances connected with the misuses of the
mind in the manifold varieties of mental action, application,
and excitement, with the stimulating and the depressing
emotions, hope, fear, grief, disappointment, and trouble, and
with the malignant passions, are given as the causes of their
malady. Among twelve thousand eight hundred and thirty-
eight patients, the causes of whose insanity are stated, 22.7
per cent were connected with grief, disappointment, and
other depressing emotions^ 8.2 with excitements, anxieties,
and depressions from religion, 6.9 with property, poverty,
and business, and their attendant anxieties, excitements,
and losses, and 5.5 per cent from excess of mental action.
These disturbances of mind are not due so much to the
amount of the burdens which are assumed, for it is manifest
that the large majority of those who gain both the greater
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126
Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
and smaller degrees of learning, and sustain responsibilities
of every kind, are sound in mind, and free from every mental
obliquity. But they are due rather to the disproportion
between the load imposed and the strength to bear it,
between the natural and original vigor of mind, or the power
developed and established by habitual labor, and the purpose
which they attempt to accomplish.
There is every grade of difference in men's powers of
mental labor and endurance, from him whose understanding
comprehends only the simplest ideas and propositions, to the
philosopher to whom the most abstruse propositions and
their complications are but as child’s play,—from the servant
or under-worker, who performs only the plainest processes,
without thought, under the direction of another mmd, up to
the statesman who manages the affairs of a nation, almost
those of the world, with undisturbed energy, or the financier
who passes through commercial revulsions and sustains his
part with unruffled calmness.
All of these, both the extremes and those between, are
sound in mind; but they have widely different powers of
acquirement, of reason, of accomplishment, and of endurance,
ana it is plain that they must nave equally various powers
of sustaining themselves under any definite burden which
may be thrown upon them. The same amount of study,
responsibility, or care, which would be an nnfelt trifle on
one, would be a load on the mind of a second, would weary
a third, exhaust a fourth, and break down a fifth. It is the
want of correlation between the load and the strength of the
bearer, between the acting force and the purpose to be
effected, that is dangerous, and sometimes destructive.
As in commerce, the extreme desire to make great and
sudden gains by bold but injudicious means, or the
attempt to carry on extensive plans of business, out of pro¬
portion to the capital invested or at command, frequently
causes embarrassment, and ends in shipwreck of fortune*;
so, in education and learning, the undue thirst for
knowledge, or the prosecution of study with energy and
earnestness disproportioned to the power of the brain and
the mental capital, defeats its own purpose, and often ends
in a wreck of the understanding, or a confused or weakened
mind, instead of available acquirement and mental
discipline.
There is a common notion that the mind—the spiritual
essence—has no law of limitation, no necessary relation to
the corporeal structure, and a merely accidental, yet un-
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Causes of Mental Disease. 127
willing connection with the brain; but that, on the contrary,
it is endowed with infinite expansibility, so that there is no
end to its power for labor, or its capacity of acquiring
knowledge. The prevalent plans of education have this
boundless object in view. Limitless development and
acquirement are held out as possible, and no question is
raised as to the amount of work which the brain can do, or
as to the variety of subjects to which its powers may be
applied.
Whosoever believes that food may be taken merely to
gratify appetite, without regard to its nutritive wants or
digestive powers, and that the sensual desire may be follow¬
ed as a guide in respect to diet,—or that his stomach has an
indefinite capacity, so that he may eat at any and all times,
whenever his appetite may invite him to do so, and whatever
it may crave,—is in great danger of being led into error in
the selection of his food, and in the quantity he may con¬
sume ; and if his self-indulgence corresponds to his faith,
he will not escape digestive derangement. It is equally
certain, that the common belief that the mind will bear
indefinite labor shuts men’s eyes to the impassable limit of
cerebral force, and makes them forget that the mind can
work only in connection with the brain. Nevertheless, in
the education of early years, in the studies of maturer age, in
business, in politics, in the pursuits of public and private life,
that involve the necessity of thought, calculation, and care,
there is a frequent and even a general pressure upon the
mental powers to the full extent of their endurance. From
these causes, and from the frequent readiness of persons to
endeavour to acquire a degree of knowledge which is great
for them, to undertake responsibilities which are large for
their mental strength, and to labor with their minds as
vigorously as possible, and of course sometimes excessively,
it necessarily follows that some must overwork their brains
and exhaust their cerebral forces, and that some must
become mentally disordered.
Childhood commences its literary and educational life
with the notion held out to it, that the mind will bear as
much, and can accomplish as much, as it can be induced to
attempt, and no thought is given to the brain, nor caution
in regard to the use of its powers. Through the school years
the same idea prevails ; the same boon of unbounded ac¬
quirement is offered to boys and girls, and they are en-
nrmmaed and nrtfed to make their utmost efforts to go on in
tbepath or join in the of learning. The opinion that
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128
Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
they may run in the pursuit of knowledge without danger,
is almost universal; and although only a few actually enter
the heat of the contest, and strive to be among the foremost
on the course, yet nearly all believe the doctrine, and few,
perhaps none, are prevented from effort by any fear of
injury to their cerebral health. The moderate but respect¬
able scholar looks with envy or congratulation, rather than
pity, upon those who are overworking their brains in severe
but successful study; and these are held up by teachers and
parents, by school superintendents and the friends of edu¬
cation and human progress, as examples for the less active
to follow.
In this dangerous race of learning, to which all are invit¬
ed and from which none are warned away, a comparatively
small proportion of the children and youth of the schools,
as we have said, enter and continue. The vis inertia of
mind, the want of ambition to excel or of zeal for know-
edge, the absence of motive for such vigorous and persevering
mental exertion, the activity of other desires, not the fear
of danger nor the wish to preserve the cerebral health, not
due cautiousness but supposed idleness, not wisdom but im¬
puted folly, prevents others from making the efforts of study
that would be injurious to their brains. Eut the ambitious
and the faithful, those who resolve to fulfil the hope of fond
parents, and those who are susceptible of influence from
teachers and associates, enter this course, and assume bur¬
dens which many of them cannot safely bear; and the plans
of education, proposed by many zealous instructors, and
adopted by many who are of authority in these matters,
correspond, in a greater or less degree, with this willingness
of parents and children to carry them out
In a High School now in our view, the teacher proposed
to some of his pupils to study the Greek, Latin, French,
and German languages, mathematics, grammar, rhetoric, and
physiology, all at the same time. The plan was accepted by
scholars, approved by parents, and considered as an indica¬
tion of lofty aim and praiseworthy energy on the part of an
accomplished instructor. The pupils have in school seven
or eight lessons a day. They are unwilling that the lessons
should be short or imperfectly acquired. The brightest and
most vigorous minds lead the way, and the others dislike to
lag behind. They study earnestly at school in the day, and
their evenings at home are given to the same work of acqui¬
sition. They are successful in their endeavors to learn
much, and are rewarded by the approbation of their own
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Causes of Mental Disease.
129
consciences, and by being recognized as an honor to the
school, a joy to their friends, and the hope of the coming age.
But it is plain that this high mental action is already made
at the cost of physical force ; for more than a usual pallor
rests upon the faces, and a languor seems to pervade the
physical frames, of these youths whose minds appear to
be so vigorous. These are the fixed habits, indeed, of only
such as are considered the best schools, such as include a
larger proportion of the most ambitious scholars, who acom-
plish much in youth, and promise to do much more in
mature life. But in most schools, there are some who study
thus injuriously, and lay the foundation of mental habits
which, in the business and competitions of the world, will
tend very strongly to break them down.
It must be admitted that there are not many who are
made insane, or who even suffer any manifest impairment of
mental health, during the ordinary period of pupilage in
childhood and youth, by excessive study; but as all are
taught and imbued with the faith, that the mind, being
spirit and not matter, is bound by no law of finite beings,—
that the highest and worthiest aims are to be accomplished
by the greatest study,—that those who learn the most are
certain to enjoy the warmest approbation of the wise and
good, and the best success in life,—and as they are confi¬
dently told that they have taken the surest step toward the
most desirable stations, and no voice of warning is lifted up
to point out their danger,—it is natural and inevitable that
many go away from school ready to apply their minds with
the utmost intensity, and to work their brains with un¬
sparing energy and inflexible perseverance, whenever an
object sufficiently inviting or a motive strong enough shall
present itself to them. These youths go forth to the world,
and engage in its interests and affairs, with the same liability
to overwork their cerebral powers as they would incur to
overtax the powers of their stomach, if they had been
taught that the more they ate the more strength would be
given them, and the more ability to effect the objects of their
being. They then enter upon and labor for their several
pursuits with devotion and vigor, proportioned to the mo¬
tives which their sense of duty, taste, ambition, or prospect
0 /advantage may present to them, and their brains, like the
digestive organs of the free liver, are in great danger of
hemg weakened or disordered by over exertion. The conse¬
quences are alike i» both cases > because the causes are simi
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130 Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
lar; strength is wasted, and the regularity of action is
disturbed.
The strength of all the animal organs is partly original
and inherent; but, to a still greater degree it is a matter of
cultivation and development The strength of the new-born
infant is barely enougn to enable it to breathe, to cry, and
to move its limbs. By slow and gradual training, in progress
of time, it grows to be sufficient to perform the labors of
manhood. In all the successive stages of growth and ma¬
turity, the child, the youth, and the man, can bear a burden
precisely in proportion to the power that is developed, and
no more. Tne child can roll about, the boy can play, the
J routh can do light work, and the man can perform hard
abor without faltering, provided each has passed through
the preceding and proper stages of training. In all these
various stages and conditions, the physical frame can bear a
definite amount of exertion, and all attempts to go beyond
this not only fail of effecting their purposes, but exhaust the
animal forces. Thus, the child cannot do a man's work, the
student or the clerk or the tailor cannot perform the labors
of the farmer, nor can the inactive lady do the heavy
drudgery of the robust servant girl; and yet, probably, by
judicious and persevering training, by commencing with a
degree of exertion suited to their present strength, and in¬
creasing it from time to time as their power increases, most
persons belonging to the weaker classes might develop an
amount of force sufficient to enable them to perform the
heavier labors of the stronger and more active. By this
means, the student and the clerk may become farmers, and
even stone layers. But this is not the change of a moment. It
is the result of slow growth, a gradual progress from weak¬
ness to power, produced by careful cultivation and cautious
application of the forces as they are created. In this pro¬
gress, each stage grows out of its predecessor ; each is larger
than that which went before it, and opens the way for a still
larger one to follow after.
There is not only this general law of gradual development,
by which the usual progress is made from the weakness of
infancy to the strength of manhood, but there are special
developments produced by special training, by the applica¬
tion of the muscular system to particular purposes, whereby
peculiarities of muscular force are established. Thus, the
sailor has strong mins and comparatively weak legs; the
rope-dancer and the pedestrian have strong legs and com¬
paratively weak arms. Each of these can do his own usual
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Causes of Mental Disease.
131
'work without fatigue or exhaustion; but the/ cannot inter¬
change ; the sailor cannot walk with the pedestrian, nor can
the walker or the dancer perform the labors of the seaman
or the stone-cutter without suffering. The farm-laborer,
who works in every variety of posture, uses all his limbs
and muscles, in every kind of action, and is therefore en¬
dowed with strength in all parts of his locomotive appar
ratus.
The stomach is subject to similar law of growth and habit
The food of the child and that of the man are very different,
and neither would be sustained and made comfortable by that
which is suitable for the other. Adults also differ in this re¬
spect, according to their different training. One enjoys and
is sustained by one kind of diet, and another digests and is
strengthened by another kind. The seaman’s fare would op¬
press the delicate scholar, whose diet in turn would be but a
meagre support to the sailor. The digestive organs can be
trained to new habits, and even to bear that which, in the
beginning, is painful. The consumer of tobacco at first is
nauseated by its use, while the old and practised chewer and
smoker seems to suffer from the want of it All the powers
of life come under this law. They cannot be exerted and
applied, with their best success and greatest safety, except in
ways in which they have been previously trained; ana all
attempts to use them otherwise are followed by results less
perfect, by increased fatigue, and sometimes by organic or
functional derangement
This law of gradual growth and development is manifested
in the brain and the mind. The child learns his alphabet and
reads his picture book ; the man reads of the affairs of the
world; the philosopher studies the mysteries of nature; and
all comprehend their several subjects with the same ease,
because each has that measure of cerebral power which ena¬
bles him to work safely and successfully in his own way.
The ordinary plans of education begin with the lowest and
simplest elements, which demand only the slightest exertion
of the perceptive faculties and the memory, and the least
cerebral force, and proceed gradually from one step to another
requiring more and more action of the brain, and developing
more and more of its power, so that, if judiciously arranged
and pursued until maturity, they create sufficient mental
anenrv to transact the usual business and discharge the com¬
mon responsibilities of life.
There is no employment which does not require some
thought, some degree of self-direction, and, of course, som«*
ty Google
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132
Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
action of the brain. Most kinds of business which men man¬
age on their own responsibility, and by which they obtain
their support, necessitate some thought for their administra¬
tion and execution. Every responsibility which any one
assumes, every undertaking to accomplish any object, whether
by his own exertions or by the instrumentality of others, is,
to its extent, a burden upon the brain, the energies and
power of which must be given to the work, as surely as the
energy and power of the muscles must be given to any physical
labor. Therefore, the management of any business or con¬
cerns, whether large or small, of general or of private nature,
the administration of any affairs, whether simple or com¬
plicated, the discharge of the duties of public office, the re¬
sponsibilities of high and important station, the control and
the direction of other men’s actions for the execution of any
purpose, the superintendence of the common labors of a farm,
a manufacturing establishment, or even of a workshop,—all
these necessarily demand and make use of the cerebral forces.
If one, with sufficient original mental capacity, and appro¬
priate education and training for the purpose, should assume
any of these responsibilities, and give to it only the ordinary
attention, at no time expending more mental force than has
grown out of the power previously developed, he will dis¬
charge his duties easily and successfully, and go on the even
tenor of his way through life, without mental disturbance or
exhaustion. But if the original or developed force be insuffi¬
cient to meet the demands for mental action, difficulties must
be encountered, and disturbance of mind will probably follow.
Consequently, some men sink under their loads of care and
anxiety, some are confused with the multiplicity and pressure
of their responsibilities, and soon become deranged.
Men sometimes leave their accustomed occupations, which
required comparatively little mental exertion, or to which
capacity, education, and long habit had adapted them, and
engage in others which require much more thought and
study. Although most persons may do this safely, yet the
change is not without danger; when farmers leave their
lands and become traders, when country traders on a small
scale become city merchants on a large scale, when regular
merchants become speculators, when any one goes out of an
old and tried sphere of business and enters a new and un¬
tried one, which involves greater responsibility, he increases
the pressure upon his brain ; and unless he has a well-disci¬
plined mind, and is accustomed to severe labors, he incurs
some risk of over-working and impairing hiscerebral structure.
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Causes of Mental Disease.
This is especially the case with those who suddenly change
their life from one of quiet ease and irresponsibleness to one
of great excitement, labor, and duty. Some, unused to
mental toil, float carelessly along the smooth stream of time,
until, by a sudden turn of fortune or circumstance, they are
placed in laborious positions or elevated to important offices,
where the weight and care of business, and tne necessity of
producing results beyond their former experience and en-
deavors, press too heavily upon their powers of endurance.
Sooner or later, they are found inadequate to the charge
they have assumed, and unable to sustain themselves in
their new relation without suffering. They expend more
cerebral force than the brain can spare without wearing
upon its strength, they overdraw upon their vital capital;
some break down in health, and some sink in death.
Charles Fox, for many years aimed at the Premiership of
Great Britain. He was an active man in Parliament, but
was not accustomed to assume great responsibilities, or to
bear heavy burdens on his brain long and continuously. He
had not exact and laborious habits of mind, and when he
attained the object of his ambition, and was placed in the
highest office, he found that it required a degree of mental
discipline and a continuity of intense mental labor to which
he had not been used, and which he could not sustain. In
a short time he sank beneath the load, which overtasked his
cerebral forces and overstrained his powers.
A much greater and more dangerous change of habit oc¬
curs, when one goes out of the track which he has trodden
for years, perhaps for life, and enters another which requires,
not only a much greater degree, but an entirely different
kind of cerebral action. When farmers, or mechanics, or
laborers, who have been accustomed to work with their
hands, and to exert their mental powers only sufficiently to
direct their physical processes, suddenly and without proper
training undertake to become scholars ; when they endeavor
to dive into the mysteries of metaphysics, fathom the depths
of philosophy, or solve intricate problems of mathematics;
when they give their minds intensely to these or to other
kinds of study, whether of literature, science, morals, or
theology, or when they enter the field of politics, or tread
the mazy paths of law,—when in any way they set the brain,
which had been previously inactive, into vigorous action, or
impose upon it new and large burdens out of proportion to
its power,—there is danger of exhausting its forces, and of
having the mind bewildered, aud even disordered.
VOL. VI. NO. 32 . L
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Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
New subjects of interest are occasionally presented to the
world, and old subjects sometimes attract extraordinary at¬
tention from individuals or the community. Religious doc¬
trines, moral questions, political movements, measures of
reform, scientific matters at certain seasons, assume an un¬
usual importance to the world, and to some they are of
absorbing moment. This last class take hold of them with
earnestness, and pursue them even with vehement zeaL
They give their minds and their hearts to them, and en¬
deavour with intense application, to understand them. The
more enthusiastic converts, desirous that their new doc¬
trines should be believed by all, labor for their diffusion.
They become propagandists, and embrace every opportunity
to impress their views and their feelings upon others ; they
talk, they lecture, they preach and they write, as long as
their strength lasts. There is a degree of contagious influ¬
ence connected with some of these matters, which encourages
their diffusion, and enlists many to engage in them, and even
some to become devotees in their behalf. But while this
community of interest increases the zeal of the votaries and
their willingness even to sacrifice themselves for the matter
they have at heart, it does not increase their power of cere¬
bral action, or of enduring the weight which they take upon
their minds. Absorbed in their purpose, they are carried
away by the sympathy of associates, and seem to think, that,
as there is no apparent limit to the value of the subjects
that engross them, there is also no measure to their power
to study and to teach them.
Any of the vital actions may be made so intensely power¬
ful as to concentrate, within a short period, the energy that
should have been expended through a long time, and to
produce at once the mischief that is usually the slower
growth, through months or years of continued over-exertion.
One great excess in eating, a single surfeit, especially if the
food be indigestible, as well as excessive, may oppress and
disturb the stomach, and at once create and leave behind
functional disorder, perhaps organic disease, that may be
long protracted and difficult to be removed. A violent
exertion of the muscles, one great effort, may in a few
minutes do the evil work of months of hard labor ; as when
a porter takes upon his shoulders and attempts to cany
double or treble his usual burden, or when one works with
great violence on an engine at a fire, or in an amateur boat-
race, or in a struggle for life. In these cases, a strain or
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Causes of Mental Disease.
weakness of the muscles and impairment of the locomotive
apparatus are sometimes produced, which are not easily re¬
moved and may remain permanently. So the brain, by
intense excitement, or concentrated labor, becomes un¬
balanced, and its actions disturbed. In a state of over¬
whelming anxiety, in very deep study, in some overpowering
effort of public speaking, in the almost agonizing excitement
of some religious meeting, in the endeavor to fathom the
infinite, to search into the mysteries of unseen worlds, to
hold communion with spirits, in the absorbing interest of
some kind or some stage of business, in a financial crisis or
commercial panic, in a scene of gambling, in any great
struggle, where much depends upon the turn of a moment,—
in these conditions, and such as these, the mind is violently
agitated, there is great exaltation of the feelings and power¬
ful cerebral action, the brain is given up to the absorbing
interest of the present subject, and, for the moment, its
attention cannot be diverted nor its energies directed at
will, for the maddening power of the ruling idea or emotion
controls all its forces. This violently energetic action of the
brain is never without danger. In some, the organ may be
left merely in a state of fatigue, from which a period of rest
will recover it; in others it may be exhausted and indisposed
to labor, for a considerable time ; and in others of a more
delicate or weaker organization, or less mental discipline,
this great agitation may leave the head disordered, and the
mind deranged.
The instances of insanity from this class of causes are
manifold. They come from many a field whence other
issues are expected. The religious revivals, in which the
feelings of men and women are vehemently agitated, and
the exciting eloquence of some earnest and powerful
preachers, have had their victims of disordered mind. In
other and less hopeful circumstances, the brain loses its
balance. In scenes of disaster, as shipwrecks, fires, rail¬
road crashes, steamboat-explosions, where distress and des¬
truction are spread abroad, in dangers and threatened evils,
when men are crushed down with overwhelming appre¬
hension, many lose their self-control, and become bewildered.
Their reason is, for the time, overthrown; and although
most regain their self-possession when the trouble and the
peril are over, yet in others the confusion remains, and in
some, mental derangement is established. Among those who
think that they can avail themselves of animal magnetism
L 9
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Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
to search into things not revealed, who believe themselves
endowed with power to perceive what human eyes cannot
see, who profess to be mediums between the spirits of the
departed and the minds of the living, or who endeavor to
hold communication with dead men's souls, especially among
those who associate together for any of these purposes, and
increase each other’s excitability by mutual sympathy and
encouragement, there is necessarily much unnatural and un¬
healthy excitement, the brains of many are agitated beyond
their power of healthy endurance, and of these some become
insane.
In like manner, the brain is overworked in the zealous
pursuit of public objects. Some give themselves up to the
interests and labor of a political campaign. They rush to
the contest with all their heart and their intellect; they
think of little beside, and care for nothing else: they come
to believe and act as if the great interests of the world hung
upon the issue of the struggle then going on ; their nights
and their days are devoted to effecting this great object,
their brains are overwrought, their minds know no rest, they
are agitated beyond due measure, and their mental health
is in danger of suffering from these destructive influences.
In national revolutions, the same absorbing excitement lays
hold upon people, and grapples them with more power than
in political struggles; for here is more to be gained and
more to be lost Here are agonizing fears and exhilarating
hopes, and the brain is oppressed with the doubt of the
issue and the endeavor to make it successful. Many are
disturbed by this state, some sink under it. In some severe
commercial crisis, when great prosperity is followed by
great adversity, in the transition from supposed and appa¬
rent wealth to real bankruptcy, when men struggle to save
themselves from sinking, and all their cerebral forces are
bent upon their own safety, in doubts, fears, and despair,
the mind may wander, the brain lose its balance and become
disordered. In public manias, when the world runs mad
after great phantoms, as in the South Sea Bubble and Law’s
magnificent scheme, in lottery-dealing, in land speculations,
in these and such as these, tne brain is unnaturally excited
and agitated. For the time, men lose their ordinary prin¬
ciples of reasoning, they believe too much where their
feelings prompt, and too little where their feelings oppose,
and their mental balance is suspended, in some permanently
lost.
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Causes of Mental Disease.
Any structure or vehicle, however rude or strong, will be
broken down by a weight, if thrown upon it with precipitate
violence, which it would have borne and carried, if care¬
fully placed upon it. Any sudden interruption of action
always gives a shock to, and often injures, a body in
motion, and the injury is in proportion to the velocity of
the arrested movement. Thus, when a stone falls among
the rapidly moving wheels of a fixed machine, or when a
railway train runs swiftly upon an obstacle, the wheels and
the engine, the frame and tne cars, are injured, and may be
destroyed, by the violence of the shock. Likewise, when
any one running at his utmost speed strikes against a wall,
he is sure to receive a severe blow upon the part which
meets the obstacle, a shock to his whole frame, and perhaps
serious injury. In the same manner, in any sudden in¬
terruption to the mental actions or the emotions in a high
state of excitement, as when ardent hopes or earnest and
fond expectations are instantaneously cut off, or when one
is disappointed in love, in ambition, or in the confident
anticipation of fortune or success, there is depression and dis¬
turbance. Likewise, when any unexpected burden is thrown
at once upon the brain, as when terrible danger, whether
real or imagined, suddenly presents itself and causes fright,
or when distressing tidings are communicated, as of the
death of friends who were supposed to be in good health, or
of some other great calamity which had not been anticipated,
the violent sorrow sometimes leaves the mental actions in a
state of protracted or permanent disorder. In these cases,
the mental disturbance comes not from the weight of the
distress, but from the suddenness of the impression. Its
swift impulse gives it power more than its due. Whereas if
the brain had been prepared by anticipation for the painful
event, if the mourners had watched over their friend through
days and weeks of sickness, and the catastrophe had been
foreseen and expected, if death had visibly approached,
through the gradual increase of disease and danger, they
would have been ready to meet the affliction, if not with
less sorrow, at least with greater power to bear it, and the
mind would not have been overthrown.
From errors in the use of both the physical and the in¬
tellectual powers there proceed all grades of disorder, from
the slightest languor or irregularity to positive and severe
exhaustion and disease. All the organs and their functions
are subject to these gradations of disturbance, and none
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Dr. Edward Jarvis on the
more than the digestive and the nervous systems. The
Protsean forms of dyspepsia, almost infinitely varied, and
their numberless degrees of intensity, are equalled by the
manifold phases and degrees of mental unsoundness and
perversity.
Between the well-balanced and healthy mind and recog¬
nized insanity, their is a broad middle ground which neither
occupies exclusively, but in every part of which the elements
of both, in various proportions and complications, may be
found. Here is every grade of mental obliquity and defect,
resulting from perversion, or excessive labor, or neglect.
Between the mind of average power and dementia, there are
those who have every measure of weakness,—the dull, the
.simple, and the imbecile. Between intellectual soundness
and mania, there are all the varieties and degrees of vagary,
perversity, and disproportioued and inharmonious qualities
and powers. In some, one faculty or element is too active or
too sluggish, and in others a different one is exulxjrant, or
comparatively or positively dormant. Some are unbalanced,
some are easily excited or disturbed, others are passionate ;
some, without ordinary motive or reason, adopt new opinions,
or engage in new projects ; others are odd, eccentric, whim¬
sical, or capricious. In the formation of their principles, and
in the conduct of their lives, some are governed by their im¬
pulses or by their first impressions rather than by reflection
or reason. Some are volatile in their habits, fickle in their
affections, untrustworthy in their judgment, wild in forming
theif schemes, or unstable in the execution of their plans.
Others are victims of indecision of character, and come to
their conclusions with various degrees of hesitancy and
difficulty, if they reach them at all. Some lack firmness of
purpose, and are irresolute in action. Others, on the contrary,
are wilful aud obstinate, and adhere to opinions and purposes
once adopted, whatever new reasons or circumstances may be
E resented for a different course. In some, self-esteem is so
irge and powerful as to make them disregard the usual
common sense of mankind, and to prevent their harmonizing
with their fellows and profiting by the wisdom of the world.
Through all these and many others there runs a vein of un¬
soundness, of greater or less extent, due to the measure of the
misappropriation of their cerebral forces, the mistakes in the
use of their mental and moral powers, and their indulgence
in, and cultivation of, unhealthy and perverse habits of mind
or of action.
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Causes of Mental Disease.
As in the administration of financial affairs every wrong
appropriation of funds or credit, every wrong purchase or sale,
is attended with loss, and every excess of expenditure, how¬
ever small, over the income, however large, is charged to the
pecuniary capital; so in the management of life and its powers,
every waste through misappropriation of vital force, however
slight, every over-draft and excess of expenditure, is charged
to vital capital
In both business and life the consequences of repeated
errors, of the waste or loss of money and of living power, are
cumulative. The effect of each, be it ever so small, is added
to that of the preceding, and the loss, injury, or impairment
gathers weight with each successive transgression. This accu¬
mulation of weakness, or disorder, is often very slow and
imperceptible in its progress, and it may be long before the
evil is recognized. A man may indulge his appetite with
food of such kinds, or in such quantities, as require but a
little more than his usual and average digestive power to
convert it into chyle. He may repeat this through months,
perhaps through years, before the over-draft upon his gastric
force produces a sensible weakness or pain, and even then the
cause of the digestive trouble, the waste of power, and the
accumulated disorder are overlooked ; for it is not easy to
understand or believe, that an article of diet or gastronomic
indulgence, which had been so long not only harmless, but,
on the contrary, comfortable, should at length become in¬
jurious. A man may labor daily somewhat beyond his average
muscular strength, and yet make so small au inroad upon his
constitutional vigor, and so small an excess in the expenditure
of force, that it may be years before he becomes conscious of
the depreciation of power ; but the effect of persevering waste
ultimately manifests itself, and if not then arrested by change
of habit and more moderate exertion, the waste goes on, and
the weakness increases, until decrepitude is prematurely
established. The same law holds in regard to the brain. It
is seen in the growing effect of repeated waste and per¬
version of the cerebral forces, in the increasing consequences
of continued neglect or misuse of the moral and intellectual
powers. The evil result of each individual error may be
extremely small and imperceptible ; yet each, however minute,
is charged to, and deducted from, the mental capital, and all
of the same kind that come after are added to those that have
gone before, until their accumulated weight becomes manifest
m some weakness, or fixed peculiarity or perversity, or even
grave disease of the mind.
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140 The Causes of Mental Disease.
Any error or mistake in self-management once committed,
opens the way for another of the same character to follow,
more easily; and the consequent loss of power lessens the
means of resistance. The temptation and the facility of com¬
mission increase, while the protective and recuperative force
diminishes with the repetition. Whoever allows in himself
any excessive expenditure or misappropriation of mental force,
or any indulgence in passion, caprice, oddity, impulse, or per¬
versity, and takes but a single step from the path of discipline,
propriety, or reason, finds the second step easier than the
first, the third easier than the second, ana each succeeding
one less difficult than that which went before. Whatever of
wrong or loss is established by the first, is treasured up and
increased by the second and the third, and this, if not re¬
sisted, may go on, slowly but surely, until it becomes strong
enough to influence, perhaps to control, the mental actions of
the emotions. Whatever any one may sow within himself,
whether it be good or whether it be evil, will grow almost
insensibly, by repeated indulgence and persevering cultivation,
and sooner or later become, in greater or less degree, an
element of his character. Ever-watchful Nature, although
generous in her provisions for and bountiful in her gifts to
her children, is yet inflexibly just and rigorous in her dealings
with them. She requires of every one the complete fulfilment
of the conditions of life. She gives to each his due and sure
reward for every instance of faithfulness, and exacts from
each the penalty corresponding to every disobedience, in the
use of all the organs, and all the powers, whether of body or
of mind, that are bestowed upon man. There is no forgive¬
ness in these matters. All the consequences of neglect and
violations of the law are gathered, in every instance, and
charged to the vital capital; and their sum, in every succeed¬
ing period, may be found, according to its extent, in mental
or physical disorder, in reduction of strength, in the vitiated
constitution.
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Thirteenth Report of Lunacy Conmissionera. 141
Thirteenth Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy to the
Lord Chancellor. Ordered by the House of Commons to
be printed: 12 August, 1859.
At such a period as the present, when lunacy and lunatic
affairs claim so large an amount of attention and interest on
the part of the general public, a report from the Lunacy
Commissioners wul, in all probability, attract more attention
than at ordinary times, notwithstanding its appearance in the
category of blue books, a division of English literature rather
remarkable for its ponderous dimensions and its costliness,
than for its attractiveness or its value.
The present volume however, departs from the prevailing
features of others of its class, for it is neither bulky nor de¬
ficient in value, yet it is, withal, a larger book than is com¬
monly issued from the office of the Lunacy Commissioners.
While the Lunacy Commissioners contrive by this channel to
get a hearing for their statements and opinions from the
competent State authorities; the public at large reap the
benefit of a report on the condition and prospects of the in¬
sane population of the kingdom. Happily for this country
the final appeal in all public affaire is to public opinion, and
although the documents now before us, like others of their class,
are formally, or by a sort of legal fiction, addressed especially to
the Lord Chancellor, yet is it really an account rendered to the
public of the performances of a government office by which its
sphere of operation may be measured, its utility tested and its
opinions and practices judged. Hence in the pages before us,
we find the Lunacy Commissioners endeavour to meet the
prevalent inquiry respecting the extent and character of the
present legal provision for the insane, whilst they at the same
time enter into explanations concerning their plans of action,
and the principles whereby they have been guided in making
their official recommendations whether to private individuals
or to public bodies.
Thus, for example, at the outset of their report the Com¬
missioners introduce to notice some of the excellent principles
which have guided them in their recommendations. At p. 2
they write, “ All our recommendations have had as their ob-
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Thirteenth Report of the
ject the improvement of the treatment, comfort, and general
condition of the Insane. Some of these, minute and appa¬
rently trivial in detail, are in effect important, as tending to
awaken intelligence, to prevent depression, or to promote
activity and self-respect. In the aggregate they constitute
essential parts of the treatment of the disease, such as have
been adopted or recognized by experienced medical men ; and
if some of them seem scarcely applicable to persons of mature
age, it will be remembered that the instances of actual idiocy
and imbecility in lunatic establishments are very numerous,
and that even in cases of mania and otherwise, the mind of the
insane patient has become enfeebled or distorted, is disposed
to accept occupation or amusement of a very inferior character,
and is altogether disabled from dealing with subjects which
require any severe or sustained exertion of the intellect.
“Suggestions for the improvement of diet, and the allowance
of other comforts to the patients, however these may exceed
what such patients have been accustomed to, when at home
and in good mental health, are also important if considered as
part of a well-established system of treating their peculiar
disease.”
So again, when they urge the provision of additional accom¬
modation in public asylums, they at the same time point out
some of the evils of delay, p. 2, “ It is (they write) too fre¬
quently not until the existing asylum is overcrowded, and
patients have repeatedly been refused admission, that active
steps are taken to make the necessary enlargement. Mean¬
while the patient who by early treatment might, perhaps, in a
short time have been restored to mental health, is kept in the
workhouse or farmed out with strangers, where his malady
gradually assumes a chronic and incurable character ; and
even when sent to a licensed house, he is generally placed at
a distance from his friends or relations, and his maintenance
becomes a heavy charge upon his parish. It is this want of
public accommodation which renders almost necessary the ex¬
istence of licensed houses for paupers, and they are thus
permitted to supersede the public asylum, which the law has
directed to be provided for pauper lunatics.”
Lastly, to give reason for their recommendation to erect de¬
tached buildings in lieu of additions to the main structure,
they observe “ That additions must generally partake of the
character of the original building, and thus often entail the
necessity of erecting new wards of too expansive a construction.
Such wards are, as we think, quite unnecessary for many of
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Commissioners in Lunacy.
the chronic and idiotic cases which accumulate in all large
asylums, and are not required for those patients who can be
regularly employed in active occupations. Above all, we have
invariably found that patients removed from the long galleries
of an asylum, to the more home-like apartments of a detached
building, have not only presented a more cheerful and com¬
fortable appearance, but have themselves expressed their
satisfaction at the change.”
A large portion of the Report is occupied with a notice of
the accommodation for the insane poor, at present in existence,
or in progress, and with remarks on the management pursued
in the several English County Asylums. In performing this
portion of their task the Commissioners in Lunacy have put
themselves in the position of judges and proceeded ex-cathedrd
to pronounce judgment upon the several places and persons
passed under review. Each Superintendent and each Com¬
mittee of Visitors of an asylum may now learn what position
he or it occupies in the estimate of the Lunacy Board, and
may likewise gather what that is of other similar institutions,
and of their managers. Some few are weighed in the official
balances and found wanting ; yet, on the whole, our English
official estimate of our English asylums is gratifying. The
terms of commendation awarded are decidedly mild; being
limited to the several variations and combinations of the
adjectives, ‘creditable,’ ‘judicious,’ and ‘careful.’ Happily
this diffusion of mild compliment has the advantage of leaving
no superintendent unrewarded ; and if one medical officer is
disappointed of the eulogy which his own opinions of his own
merits may suggest as deserved, yet he has the satisfaction of
observing that his confreres elsewhere are not more elaborately
commended. Indeed, it is well the Commissioners have not
attempted a more marked discrimination, and that they have
been enabled to distribute their commendations so widely, that
no superintendent can consider 'his merits wholly unappreci¬
ated or those of another unduly extolled.
The character of the review in question, of the nature and
extent of public asylum accommodation now existing, forbids
an analysis in these pages. Indeed, the attempt to make one
is moreover unnecessary, since the Report is, or should be in
the possession of our readers. Still a few comments on two
or three of the English asylums are called for by reason of
special circumstances detailed in the Report.
The Middlesex County Asylums have for some years figured
largely in official reports. As it is the era for great ships and
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Thirteenth Report of the
big guns, so it is that for gigantic lunatic 'asylums, foremost
among the promoters of which are the Visiting Justices of
Middlesex. These gentlemen, in spite of the opposition of
the Lunacy Commissioners, and in antagonism to the decided
opinions of all medical men conversant with the insane and
their wants, have triumphed over all opposition, and at length
succeeded in carrying out their pet object, the construction of
two lunatic colonies, most cunningly organised for impeding
the treatment of the curable insane and for multiplying cnronic
lunatics. This success has brought another in its train ; for
since the grandeur of the establishments and the magisterial
arrangements have provided the principal elements for making
acute cases chronic, and as a consequence nearly every one of
their 3000 occupants in all probability, incurable, the econom¬
ical result follows that medical men are little required. Such
officers indeed are ornamental, and, to a certain extent, useful
as capitals to the column of officials, but in their medical ca¬
pacity, how insignificant is their purpose amidst a healthy
population of chronic lunatics, wherein no occasion offers for
their professional skill in treating and curing insanity, and
where their administrative capacity is so little required on
account of the diligent supervision and management of the
Visitors in hebdomadal boards assembled, or engaged in daily
perambulations of the wards.
But, alas! the Visiting Justices are not allowed to repose
on their laurels. Their opponents, though vanquished, like
the obstinate Englishmen at Waterloo and elsewhere, do
not know when they are beaten, but return to the attack and
harass the victors. The Lunacy Commissioners again appear
on the field, and with well worn weapons renew the fight
where there is yet hope some advantage may be gained. They
will not succumb to the magisterial dictum that doctors are
next to useless in an asylum, if only there is a good matron,
a good steward, and above all an officious Committee; or that
one medical man to a thousand patients represents the proper
proportion between the medical element ana the asylum popu¬
lation. No, the Commissioners are obstinate in their convic¬
tions that medical treatment ought to be afforded to the
lunatics sent for treatment to the County Asylum. They re¬
mark in their notes on Colney Hatch Asylum, that “ the
medical staff at this large Asylum at present consists only of
two Medical Superintendents, each of whom has an assistant,
who acts as Dispenser. These gentlemen have the entire
medical and moral control and care of 1,285 patients. It is
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manifest that anything like individual treatment must be
limited to a very small proportion of the cases, and we fear
that with the mass of the patients the superintendents must
necessarily depend mainly upon the good conduct and trust¬
worthiness of the attendants. Moreover, the chance of cure
must, as we apprehend, be greatly reduced ; such chance being
still further diminished by the fact, that during the last six
months there has been no Medical Assistant on the male side.
The Hanwell Asylum might be substituted for Colney
Hatch in the above quotation, for there, as in the latter insti¬
tution there are only two medical superintendents with one
assistant, and an apothecary who has no other duly than to
dispense the medicines and help in book-keeping.
Further, as might be predicated, de naturd rervm, these
extraordinary establishments develop peculiar results. The
rule of the Committees and the trifling importance of the
Superintendents, as so called, have originated a “ peculiarity"
say the Commissioners, “ desirable to notice . . . which
does not exist in any other asylum, and which, in our
opinion, (in the mildest of terms) is not convenient.
We understand that the Visitors have directed their clerk not
to allow the medical officers to peruse reports made by the
Commissioners, and thus these gentlemen are prevented from
becoming acquainted with the tenor of our observations, many
of which have immediate reference to their special depart¬
ment, and are in fact, written for their particular considera¬
tion." So we likewise in our lamentable ignorance should
have supposed, taking not only precedent, and the usage of
other similar institutions, but also the clear intent as well as
the language of the act in establishing relations which shall
subsist between the medical superintendents of asylums, their
committees and the patients; in defining generally the duties
of the first-named official, and in ordering the books kept as
public documents in such institutions, to be public to any
rate-payer who contributes to their support.
A policy which withholds from the inspection of the medical
superintendents the written opinions of the Lunacy Commis¬
sioners respecting the asylum visited, is indicative of a sensi¬
tiveness on the part of the Visitors to criticism, and a desire
that their medical employes should not possess an opportunity
to record any propositions or opinions they may be bold
enough to obtrude before the Committee, by an appeal to the
written suggestions or unfavourable reflections expressed by
the Commissioners. Moreover, such a policy is not only dis¬
tinguished by a peculiar littleness of mind, but also by a
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remarkable short-sightedness. The Commissioners have a
right by law to a copy of every entry they make in the
visitors’ book of an asylum, and can therefore at will, supply
them with a copy, if otherwise they do not choose to contend
for the privilege of the superintendents to read it in that
particular book.
Of the few Borough Asylums—of which, by the way, we
hope to see more, instead of ever-growing county refuges,—
several are old foundations, with old buildings in bad position,
and are still discreditable to the country. Far surpassing
all others is the oft-mentioned one at Haverfordwest, in
Wales. It resists all attempts at amelioration. One im¬
practicable superintendent being after repeated efforts dis¬
placed, is replaced by another with whom the Commissioners
cannot further prevail. Yet what can be expected of this
officer considering his position and remuneration, and what
can be anticipated from the labors of the other members of
the staff of the establishment, paid the following sums in dis¬
charge of their services. But before quoting the paragraph,
we would ask, is there no authority which can reach this in¬
stitution, and which can either insist on reforms, or close its
portals, and save some poor lunatics from a lifelong of neglect
and wretchedness ?
“ As respects the management and establishment, we have
to report as follows :
“ The Medical Officer, not resident, receives i?30 a year,
and finds medicines.
“ The Master, whose wife resides in the town, who has the
entire charge of the male Patients, has a salary of <£*20, with
rations the same as the patients.
“ The Matron receives £°10 a year and rations.”
“ A servant girl, who is employed in washing, cleaning, or
assisting in the care of the female patients, is allowed £3 18s.
per annum as wages; and the cook, who also occasionally
assists in the Asylum, is paid 10s. per annum.
“ A washerwoman helps on a Monday, for which she receives
sixpence and her food.
Such is the staff of officers and servants.
“ There are no arrangements for religious services or any
prayers. No clergyman, or other minister of religion ever
visits the asylum.
“The Master and Matron go to Church alternately on
Sundays, and sometimes take a patient with them.
“With few and rare exceptions, the Patients never quit the
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asylum for exercise. They have no means of amusement, and
the men generally have no occupation.
“ In conclusion, we have to state that there are no rules or
regulations for the management of the asylum or the guidance
of the officers and servants.”
The condition of ‘ licensed houses’ has progressively im¬
proved, with some few exceptions, among which are Plympton
House, Devon, and Portland House, Whitchurch, Hereford¬
shire. The latter of these two houses is especially faulty and
discreditable, and owing to the circumstance of the Visiting
Justices having put themselves in opposition to the Commis¬
sioners in Lunacy, no hope of a sufficient improvement in its
condition can be yet hoped for.
The following, and as we are happy to say, singular features
in the construction and organization of this receptacle for
private patients, are mentioned in the report, with the special
intent “ that some other means may be devised to obtain the
necessary improvements,” the suggestions of the Commissioners
having proved completely nugatory. “ Many of the rooms
have no windows, and are entirely dark. Some are lined
with sheet-iron. The windows are guarded with heavy iron-
bars, and these with the iron gates and railings, give the place
a most gaol-like appearance. Some of the sitting-rooms are
without furniture, except fixed forms, and boards against the
walls for tables. In these the floors are flagged, and the
windows placed high up near the ceiling. There are out¬
buildings, where patients are placed without attendants, and
where no means for warming exist. The airing-court walls
are high, and obstruct the view of the surrounding countiy.”
Mechanical restraint is frequent, heavy fire-guards defend the
fire-places, the privies were offensive, books and papers are
very scarce, and so far as the Commissioners “ can learn, there
is only one female attendant, at a salary of £9 a year, and
one male attendant, who is assisted by a criminal patient, now
recovered, who is confined under warrant of the Secretary of
State.”
The repeated recommendations of the Commissioners re¬
sulted in the appointment of an additional male attendant,
and of a domestic servant to assist the nurse ; in the laying
down of cocoa-nut fibre matting in the sitting-rooms ; in the
introduction of glasses, and knives and forks, and in the
multiplication of washing basins and jugs. Still the principal
defects in the fittings and management of the house remained
unimproved. The proprietor, evidently a believer in the
merits of the dog-kennel Asylums of fifty and a hundred
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years since, was not prepared to admit the desirability of
adopting the all but universal method of dealing with the
insane, and he found staunch supporters in the magisterial
visitors of his house. Their report after inquiry was very
favorable to the place “ The visitors state their opinion that
the Asylum is in a cheerful and healthy situation, and that a
comparison of the result of treatment therein, with that adopted
in other asylums, is highly favourable to Portland House.
That the supply of books and papers is sufficient and proper.
That the number of attendants is sufficient. That the fire¬
guards are ‘ absolutely necessary,’ and that the iron gratings
and window bars are ‘ absolutely necessary; ’ and, in addition,
they recommend that all the rooms not already provided with
bars be supplied with them.
“ The Visitors see no objection to the fixed seats and tables.
Nor do they think the licence is for too large a number of
patients. They find the bedding good and clean, and the
privies ‘ without fault.’ ”
Consequently, when the Commissioners again found them¬
selves in Portland House, they were greeted by the sight of
additional bars, “ added, as directed by the visitors,” and had
to witness the inefficacy of official recommendations, when not
backed by official power to enforce them. In this contest*
therefore, of Commissioners in Lunacy versus the Visiting
Justices of the licensed house in question, the former have
for the nonce been worsted, and have only open to them an
appeal to the Lord Chancellor, who by a legal myth is sup¬
posed to be a better judge than the members of tne Lunacy
Commission of what are the requirements of insane people.
The above is one of not a few instances of the prejudicial
results of the divided rule exercised by Visitors and Commis¬
sioners in the case of provincial asylums. For, curiously
enough, there is one law for the metropolis and its vicinity,
and another for the rest of the country ; an anomaly counte¬
nanced by no sufficient reasons either of utility or of expedi¬
ency. But this matter cannot be discussed here at the present
time.
To proceed with our analysis of the contents of the Report.
At p. 58 the Commissioners enter on record the proceedings
they are accustomed to adopt on granting a new licence, or
rather on an application being made to them for one. The
string of questions proposed to a would-be Licensee is doubt¬
less familiar to many of our readers and contains none to
which an objection can be taken. These queries being satis¬
factorily answered, the premises to be licensed are inspected
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Commissioners in Lunacy.
by one or more Commissioners, and if approved, the licence is
accorded, “subject, if necessary,.to such stipulations as the
case may require.”
The following paragraphs set forth some of the principles
whereby the Board is guided :—
“On granting licences for new houses, or promoting changes
in houses already existing, we endeavour to secure for the
inmates free intercourse within doors, and a ready access to
the open air. These advantages being often curtailed when
patients of both sexes are placed in dwellings of an ordinary
size, standing in limited grounds or gardens, we have generally
required that the proprietor of such houses should admit only
one sex.
“The result of the progressive change thus effected by
means of the foregoing requisitions and stipulations, will be
made evident by stating that out of the forty Metropolitan
houses, only seventeen are now licensed for the admission of
hoth sexes; and in order that the most competent parties only
should be allowed to act as Superintendents of the Insane, we
have had it under serious consideration whether it might not
be expedient* as a general rule, to grant new licences only to
medical men.
“We have reason to believe that the greater caution which
has been exercised by ourselves and the magistrates, has led
to a diminution in the number of private asylums in England
and Wales, which in the course of ten years have been reduced
from 146 to 114.”
The proposition “to grant new licenses only to medical
men” will be approved of by most persons who have the
well-being of the insane at heart. When a non-medical per¬
son opens a house for the reception of the insane, it is unmis-
takeably a mere commercial transaction, whereby he looks,
as a boarding-house keeper, to obtain a livelihood, and an
amount of profit on his time and capital His inmates are
boarders not patients; they must be treated with a certain
degree of consideration, sufficient at least to satisfy their
friends and their official visitors, but their curative treatment
can scarcely be put forward by an unprofessional man as the
primary object of their residence in his house. The longer
they live with him the better for his income, from which the
attendance and charges of a medical man are an unwelcome
set off, and therefore dispensed with as far as practicable.
On the other hand, it must be admitted that even in the
case of medical men, the question of profit must weigh as
much as in the case of other human beings who undertake a
VOL. VI. NO. 32. M
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Thirteenth Report of the
charge or a duty on the well recognized principle that ‘ the la¬
bourer is worthy of his hire’.; ana it appears to us that whilst
human nature is what it is, the matter of profit cannot entirely
be eliminated either in instances of individual exertion or of
associations of individuals, even when banded together for
philanthropic purposes. A well-paying inmate is as acceptable
in a public institution as in a private one, and no human
being interested in its financial prosperity can be indifferent to
the advantages accruing from his residence. The members of
a religious fraternity can most religiously abrogate to them¬
selves the riches of the world, and as individuals vow pro¬
foundly perpetual poverty, yet are they delighted to welcome
a novice who has not only the call to a religious life, but also
the recommendation of wealth to gladden the hearts of all
well-wishers of the establishment
Yet, granting that there is such an all-pervading love of
profit, that medical practitioners can no more be supposed
devoid of it than other folk, there is good common sense in
the principle which would restrict the licence to receive insane
persons to those, who by medical education and by special
experience, have qualified themselves to treat such patients—
and who, if they are honest men, will make it their duty so
to do. It would be thought a very absurd proceeding to hand
over the intricate affairs of a Chancery suitor to a blacksmith,
or to an association of philanthropic blacksmiths, to relieve
him from his difficulties, because of the suspicion that his
attorney and counsel had an interest, by reason of the profit
they made, in prolonging the hearing and adjudication of his
case. Yet it is an every-day matter to consign lunatics, with
a view to their recovery, to the charge of persons whose only
qualification is that they have accommodation for an inmate
in their homes, which can be most profitably occupied by a
quasi ‘ nervous' invalid.
In the Lunacy Act submitted to Parliament last session, it
will be remembered that one clause in it required a return to
be made by proprietors of licenced houses and others receiving
insane persons, of the sums paid for the maintenance of their
inmates. The result of various inquiries, instituted from time
to time by the Commissioners, afford indeed some apology for
this requirement, on account of the abuses revealed, and of
the remarkable indifference of relatives and others to the con¬
dition and treatment of those they have had placed in seclusion.
Yet the proposition will appear objectionable to many advo¬
cates of personal liberty, who will oppose the institution of
another court of equity in the members of the Lunacy Board;
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Commissioners in Lunacy.
and will be most unwilling to permit the meddling of Govern¬
ment officials in private arrangements. Such persons will
find it difficult to recognise in the Lunacy Board an infallible
authority which shall decide,—without a legal appeal against
its decisions, what accommodation and what kind of treat¬
ment shall be considered commensurate with the payments
made ; and they will utterly repudiate as inquisitorial the pro¬
posal that the Commissioners shall in any effective manner
institute an inquiry into the resources of the friends, in order
to make an equitable assessment of the sum which they ought
to devote to the care and maintenance of their afflicted
relatives.
Leaving, however, these knotty points to lawyers and poli¬
tical economists, we would make a passing remark upon
a subordinate clause of the 64th section of the 8th and 9th
Victoria, chap. 100, whereby the Lunacy Board assumed the
competency “ to inquire as to the payments made by or on
account of patients.” This clause authorises the Visiting
Commissioners to “make such other inquiries as to such
Visiting Commissioners shall seem expedient—a most
elastic authority assuredly, limited only by the sense of
propriety or expediency felt by the individual visitors.
The practice of paying commission, or a per centage to the
procurers of private patients, is very justly reprobated; so
should be also the low-class proceeding, adopted by a few
feasting medical men, at entertainments professedly held for
the patients, but really intended to advertise the host and his
house, and to win the good will of the guests through the
medium of their stomachs.
The Commissioners have come to the conclusion to dis¬
countenance the sale of licensed houses ; and they have,
particularly of late, directed much attention to the condition,
duties, and payments of attendants on the insane. The follow¬
ing quotation is well worth a place in these pages, as contain¬
ing some excellent remarks on the duties of attendants.
“ Having made ourselves acquainted with the rates of re¬
muneration usually paid to them, we have very frequently
suggested a considerable increase of wages, and that such
wages should be on a gradually ascending scale, as the best
mode of obtaining the services of competent persons, and of
ensuring the continuance of such as were already secured.
“ For to the frequent change of attendants, the recurrence
of bad habits, and a retrogression in the general condition of
the patient, may often be attributed. The effect of ignorance
in some, and of inactivity in others, cannot be duly estimated,
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unless by observing the gradual deterioration of the patients
under their care. As to the greater number of these servants,
their efforts appear to consist mainly in keeping the insane
person out of harm or mischief, and in remedying any acci¬
dent or neglect of dress. But it is the duty of a good attendant
also to lead his patient by advice and example into habits of
occupying and amusing himself; to encourage him when
timid; to soothe him when irritable; to supply his wants,
however imperfectly expressed ; to prevent all bad habits;
and finally, to bring him back gradually to the recollection of
a former rational state, and stimulate his intellect when dor¬
mant, until it recovers its original tone and power. To effect
all this, there should be intelligent, judicious, industrious, and
active attendants ; and to obtain persons of this quality, good
wages must be offered. At present, the general rate of wages
given to them falls considerably below that which is required
by ordinary servants in gentlemen’s families.”
“ The subject appeared to us to be so important that we
thought it advisable to issue the circular (Appendix D.) an¬
nexed to this report, in which the qualifications of this class of
attendants in licensed houses are enumerated. It is, we think,
especially necessary (in reference to one point) that their time
should not be occupied and their minds distracted, as is far too
often the case, by menial labour, which should at all times be
performed by the servants hired for such purpose. In all the
larger establishments a head attendant (as stated in our
circular) is necessary ; and night attendants are indispensable,
in order to diminish the bad habits of the patients, to prevent
their recurrence, and to guard against accidents. In infir¬
maries and wards occupied by elderly male patients of the
imbecile and harmless classes, the services of female nurses
have been found to be of the greatest use. Their previous
mode of life has generally prepared them for this species, of
occupation; and their habits and manner adapt them to solace
the sick and infirm, who are frequently controlled or per¬
suaded by them more readily than by the more abrupt
authority of male attendants.”
We would in addition willingly make some extracts from the
extended remarks made by the Commissioners on night
attendance and night-nurses, but the space already taken up
by this notice warns us to forbear.
Seclusion is, we are happy to find, much less resorted to -
than it was a few years ago, when certainly the extent and
degree in which it was practised at some places, justified the
animadversion of most French physicians, and of others who
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advocated mechanical coercion, as a more merciful and
rational expedient in refractory cases.
The “kind of separation of individual patients from all
other persons which constitutes seclusion within the meaning
of the Act,” is held by the Commissioners to be “ any amount
of compulsory isolation in the day-time, whereby a patient is
confined in a room and separated from all associates.” Such
separation is to “be considered as seclusion, and recorded
accordingly.”
The Earl's Wood Idiot Institution, near Reigate, as ever
since its opening called forth the animadversions of the
Lunacy Commissioners, and this is the first report wherein
they are able to state it to be in a very creditable state,
the result of satisfactory changes in its management. The
purpose of this much-needed establishment must challenge
for it the good wishes and the aid of all, and it is therefore
with great pleasure that we are able to direct attention to
the report that it is now fulfilling satisfactorily its philan¬
thropic objects.
The military asylum, it would appear, has become well
nigh strangled in the meshes of red-tape; the high-military
authorities being evidently indifferent to the condition of in¬
sane soldiers, and most desirous to wash their hands of the
annoyance of them, as the semi-barbarian act, very recently
committed by them at Rochester, of turning the poor insane
soldiers from the hospital into the streets to fare as best they
might, abundantly proves.
The Commissioners, not without cause, object to “being
suddenly subpoenaed upon trials, and detained for severed
days” to the great prejudice of their functions as public ser¬
vants, in order to give oral evidence of the mental condition
of individuals, concerning whom they have made entries in
the “ Patients’ Books,” at their official visits. In consequence
they submit “whether in certain cases, after due notice, entries
in ‘ Patients Books’ of Licensed Houses and Hospitals, and
special reports might not be receivable as containing the
opinions and conclusions of the Commissioners signing the
same, without the necessity, as at present, of their personal
attendance.”
They further urgently press upon the Chancellor’s “ atten¬
tion, with a view to early legislation, the great hardship and
injustice entailed upon a large number of the insane ana their
families by the present dilatory and expensive provisions of
the law for the administration of the property and income of
insane persons of very limited means, more especially those
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whose mental malady is of a temporary, and pfobably curable
character.”
“The 120th section of the Lunacy Regulation Act, which
was specially designed to meet the cases referred to, has proved
practically inoperative, by reason of the large and ruinous
expense attending the necessary proceedings. We are inform¬
ed by the Registrar in Lunacy that in no case can the requisite
authority to represent the lunatic be obtained at a less cost
that £75. The provision is therefore illusory, and inapplicable
as respects that large class, peculiarly objects of compassion,
whose families are, as a first result of the disorder which has
afflicted themselves, overwhelmed with misery, and frequently
reduced to pauperism.”
It will indeed be a just cause of congratulation if an
amendment of the law affecting the property of lunatics, and
the responsibility of debtors to their estates can be soon
enacted.
The condition of lunatics in Jersey, in which island the
Commissioners have (owing to the peculiar relations in which
it is allowed to stand with this country, as a self-governing
state) no direct jurisdiction, is most lamentable, but through
the diligence of the Board, a local committee has been ap¬
pointed to make regulations and provisional arrangements for
the insane of the Island until an asylum is built for their
reception.
The returns of the pauper insane whether placed in asylums
or workhouses, or boarded with relatives and others, have
been amended, a very necessary proceeding considering the
discrepancies existing heretofore between the statistics of the
Lunacy Commissioners and those of the Poor Law Board, as
remarked in our notice of the Twelfth Report.
There are other topics touched on in the Report before us,
but we must hasten to a conclusion of this notice of its con¬
tents, referring our readers’ attention particularly to the record
of the state of patients living singly in the charge of private
persons, from which we learn how wretched it frequently is,
and how neglected they often are by those of their own kin,
whose sympathies and watchfulness over their welfare might
be expected on the score of natural affection.
A welcome and much needed addition to the many
benevolent institutions of this country has become developed
in Whitehall place under the auspices of the Lunacy Com¬
missioners, in the form of a ‘Relief Fund for Pauper Patients
discharged from Licensed Houses,’ on the principle of the
Queen Adelaide Fund existing at Hanwell and Colney Hatch.
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Commissioners in Lunacy.
The origin of this fund is thus detailed:—“ It happened op¬
portunely that the chairman of this commission, having been
consulted by the trustees under the will of a benevolent lady
as to the choice of desirable objects for assistance in f the dis¬
tribution of her charity, was able to obtain a gift of i?300 as a
nucleus of such a subscription. Upon this being communicated
to our board, the further sum of i?100 was added by the
subscriptions of the commissioners present, and of the
secretary.”
We wish every success to this benevolent fund and that it
may receive such donations as to give it a permanent charac¬
ter and increased usefulness.
The thirteenth Report contains other besides the usual
matters tabulated, and shews in an Appendix (E) the number
of patients in each Union, and how disposed of. Moreover,
the particulars heretofore tabulated in two separate Appen¬
dices (viz. Appendix A and Appendix D) are now brought
together into a single one, so that the whole history, so to
speak, of each Asylum, may be read off at once, without
turning from one page to another. This is an improvement
for which the compilers employed in the office of the Board
deserve the thanks of all those who are interested in the
statistics of Insanity. In Appendix (F) the provisions of the
law relative to single patients are abstracted from the several
acts, and set forth in order, the Commissioners having deter¬
mined to enforce those provisions much more vigorously and
widely than hitherto ; a determination not arrived at any too
soon for the welfare of the very indifferently protected subjects
of insanity concerned, though one we apprehend difficult to
carry out in the present state of the law, and with the existing
number of Commissioners. According to the Summary of
Appendix (E) the Pauper Lunatics in England and Wales,
reported as chargeable to parishes, number 20,858. The
summary, as usually given by the Lunacy Commissioners of
Lunatics found in Asylums, Hospitals, and Licensed Houses,
exhibits a total of 22,013, among whom 17,420 are paupers.
This goes to prove that there are 12,438 pauper lunatics and
idiots not provided with Asylum accommodation, and most of
whom are to be found in Workhouses. We subjoin the
Summary” of the distribution of Private and Pauper Lunatics
found in Asylums, Lunatic Hospitals, and Licensed Houses.
In conclusion, we have to thank the Commissioners for the
very interesting and valuable report of which a sketch has
l>een attempted in the preceding pages.
J. T. A.
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The Jamaica Lunatic Asylum.
157
The Jamaica Lunatic Asylum.
Medical men and the non-professional members of the
community interested in the welfare of the insane of this
country, have, after many years' labor in the cause, succeeded
in bringing about a comparatively satisfactory condition of
the public and private asylums, and they may be forgiven
the exhibition of a certain spirit of repose and self-gratu-
lation. The mass of abuses has been hurled aside and the
reformers of British lunatic asylums have only minor pecca¬
dilloes to seize upon, and the only prospect of more exciting
work for them is to be found in an exploration of the con¬
dition of patients not in asylums. A Lunacy Commission
armed with considerable and very elastic powers is likewise
in full operation, which, although too small for all the
functions rightly devolving upon it, can at least so supervise
public asylums and licensed houses that irregularities of
any magnitude can have but a short-lived existence.
English doctors and other folk, moreover, travel abroad
on the continent of Europe, and report on their return, the
rapid improvements they witness in the provision made for
the insane, in the treatment they are subjected to, and in
the state of public opinion respecting them and their malady.
Hence the notes of rejoicing over the happy change every¬
where brought about in the condition of the insane ;—over
the happy era ushered *in by the labours of Pinel and per¬
fected by those of Charlesworth, Conolly and others whose
names appear in every history of the development of the
modern system of treating lunatics.
However, setting aside half-civilized lands as Turkey and
Egypt, and taking into consideration only those states or
colonies admitted within the pale of civilization, it may be
asked, have we evidence that the lauded improvements in
the treatment of mental disorder have been realized in all
of them ? How are the insane treated in our own colonies
and dependencies ? What are the lunacy laws in force in
those dependencies and who are their administrators ? We
fear indeed that there are few medical and non-medical phi¬
lanthropists who can give an answer at all full and satisfac¬
tory to these questions. To one or two individuals something
may be known of the asylums in this or in that colony, but
of the state of the insane in the colonies generally, next to
nothing is understood in the parent country.
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The Jamaica Lunatic Asylum.
Canada is known to have two asylums of good reputation,
at Quebec and Toronto; in Malta an excellent new asylum
has been recently built, which we had the satisfaction of
visiting, but when we have enumerated these and the Indian
asylums noted by Dr. Wise, we have arrived at the end of
the list of colonial asylums of which we have even a very
moderate share of information. Of the asylums in Hindostan
indeed little can be said in their favor. On the other hand,
what information does transpire respecting the insane, and the
institutions for them in other dependencies of Great Britain,
is certainly of a character which reflects discredit both upon
Colonial Legislatures and the Home Government. Gibraltar
is truly a small dependency, yet it undoubtedly has its pro¬
portion of lunatics, who, if we have not been misinformed
have no other lodging than the prison cells of the Tower.
If we come nearer home and look to dependencies which
ought to form an integral part of the United Kingdom, as¬
similated in constitution and laws to the parent state as
much as the Isle of Wight, viz—the Channel Islands, we
discover from official records, the miserable condition of
their insane population and the absence of asylum provision,
although the dignitaries of these little self-governing states
have had the necessity of making such provision pressed
upon them /or the last ten years, and have besides, actually
had the proposition to supply it under their distinguished
consideration for a similar period. Something may perhaps
be shortly effected as the Lunacy Commissioners inform us
in their last (13th) Report that they have succeeded in
getting a local commission of inquiry appointed in Jersey.
Then again, if we look to one immediate dependency of the
Colonial Office, viz—Ceylon, what do we find except an illus¬
tration of the gross neglect which may thrive under the
fostering care of red-tape and the “circumlocution office.”
Dr. Davy will tell the history of the what-was-to-be Ceylon
Asylum, which has never got beyond its rudimentary exis¬
tence in official papers and plans. Australia again, is grow¬
ing into a mighty empire, but the only account one can get
at, respecting its insane colonists is, that they are farmed out
to private individuals, and that public asylums for their
proper care and treatment are yet unprovided. We have
been led to pen these remarks from having before us several
papers and books referring to the state of the insane in one of
the oldest Colonies of Great Britain, viz., Jamaica. Accept¬
ing the statements in these papers with ever so large an
allowance for individual enthusiasm and local party feeling,
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and taking chiefly those borne out by official reports, there
yet remains ample evidence of a state of things disgraceful
to the authorities of the Island, and reflecting disgrace upon
the parent country, however helpless the latter may be in ob¬
viating it when called upon to deal with a colony proud of
the privilege of self-government. Already public attention
has been drawn to the state of the Jamaica Asylum by several
writers in the Times , and it will be a great satisfaction to
ourselves if, by any remarks in these pages, we can extend
the public interest in the matter, and in any degree contri¬
bute to bring about a reform of the gross abuses and cruelties
of which we read with so much pain and regret.
The building occupied by lunatics, or as it claims to be
called the Lunatic Asylum of Jamaica, constitutes a section
of the Kingston General Hospital, and is under the same
management When it is stated that this so-called asylum
has been built half-a-century, the presumption will be &
priori that it is at best a very indifferent place for the treat¬
ment of the insane according to modern notions on the
subject In its design it has certainly the merit of sim¬
plicity, and needs no diagram to illustrate it; a few words
will explain its structural peculiarities to the least archi¬
tecturally disposed mind. Suppose a small space of ground,
150 feet square, surrounded by a high wall, and divided into
two by a lower fence, and suppose a one-story block of
building placed in each half, parallel the one to the other,
120 feet in length, 16 in widtn, divided into twelve rooms
or cells, and having a piazza about eight feet wide extend¬
ing its whole length ; if the reader can realize the resultant
sort of building, he will have a clear apprehension of the
general plan of the Jamaica Asylum. A slight extension in
the form of a few rooms in a detached wing or outbuilding
on one side of the two rows of cells, is also, we believe,
reckoned a portion of the asylum, though we are not clear,
from the accounts we have, whether this third section, is as
a rule, appropriated to patients. If we look into the interior
of this interesting institution, the same Spartan simplicity
prevails. Bare whitewashed walls, a stone floor, a sufficiently
strong door, with an open barred window by its side,
thoughtfully furnished with a shutter; such are the few
structural details to notice. An innovation, in the shape of
iron-bedsteads, has, we believe, been allowed to supersede,
in some cells, the good old-fashioned sort of sloping stout
wooden shelf, which afforded a pleasing incline to the weary-
limbs reposing upon it. If any reader has a difficulty in
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picturing to his mind the sort of bedstead referred to, he
may see, or at least might have seen a little while since, the
model of it in our military guard-houses. Having described
the bedstead, the account of the fittings is about complete,
except that it omits from the list the tub supplied for a
urinal, and one or more mats, or perhaps a quilt or two.
The roof of the buildings is covered by those little flat pieces
of wood seen on chalets in Switzerland and elsewhere, known
as ‘ shingle,' one unfortunate property of which is its pro¬
clivity to decay, an evil from which tae roof in question is
not exempt; moreover, it is affirmed, that besides the bad
state of repair of the roof of the asylum, the courts or yards
are ill-paved, ill-drained, often redolent with exhalations
from the cess-pools, of which several are in the precincts of
the institution, and overlooked by neighbouring houses.
Having thus far sketched the building, let us now look to
its inmates. These belong to the different classes of Jamaica
society, for the island possesses no private asylum, and,
therefore, all that can be done for a patient of the wealthier
and better-nurtured classes, is to give him a cell to himself,
with what few extra fittings in it are thought necessary.
So far well, the best thing is done for the afflicted individual
which the place admits of. But what of the other inmates,
how many are they : and does this appropriation of a room
to one individual curtail their comforts ? Here will arise a
little difficulty to persuade the reader the accommodation is
satisfactory, however satisfied he may be with the general
details of the structure. Allowing that there are six
patients in the establishment (a number within the average)
occupying six of the twenty-four cells ) that one other room
is occupied by an attendant) there then remain only seven¬
teen rooms for the rest of the inmates, the total of whom
varies between 90 and 100. Consequently, 100 lunatics
had.to be disposed of in these seventeen rooms, and supposing
them equally distributed, six would have to be shut in each;
but according to the management followed, there are in
some cells more, in others, less than that number of in¬
mates. The majority of the cells are of equal dimensions,
measuring 13£ feet by 9 feet, but a few, it appears, are
rather larger.
The Government engineer who gave in a report on the
building, states that some two or three rooms, occupied by
three patients, had a cubic capacity of 1,492 feet, giving 497
cubic feet of air to each inmate. In what is described as a
middle row, the cells contain only 1,215 cubic feet, or 405
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feet each for three patients. On the female side, he refers
to rooms containing respectively twelve and four patients,
so as to afford only 214 cubic feet in the one case, and 287
cubic feet in the other ; the cubic capacity of the two classes
of rooms being respectively 2,570 feet and 1,147 feet.
Passing on to matters relating to the government and
internal management, we may note that the Governor of the
Island is the Patron of the Institution, and can exercise
great power. Under him there was a commission composed
of seven members, but this body was abolished in 1858, and
a director appointed, subject to a sort of visiting committee,
which presides over the General Hospital adjoining, as well
as the lunatic wards. The medical care of the lunatics
devolves on the House Surgeon of the General Hospital who
resides in the town, at some distance from the institution,
and is not indifferent to private practice. Respecting the
attendants, our information is conflicting, owing it seems to
one party calling every sort of employ^ on the premises by
that name, whilst the other esteems those only as attendants
who are constantly concerned in tending the inmates. The
real state of things appears however to be, that there is a
so-called male and female superintendent, non-resident
officers, having very slender pay, who live in the town some
distance off, and retire to tneir homes about six o'clock in
the evening ; some four day laborers, engaged on the pre¬
mises during the usual hours of labor; a couple of old
watchmen, who are supposed to afford security to the com¬
pound establishment of General Hospital and Asylum, and
to attend to the wants of the sick in the former; and lastly,
a woman lodged on the female side, and receiving a small
pittance, who is dignified with the name of an attendant,
and specially charged with the care of the female lunatics at
night The watchmen can enter either division of the
asylum, and visit those patients, or groups of patients, whom
they may conceive to require their kind services.
Some of the female lunatic patients are employed in the
laundry, common both to the hospital and asylum, and there
mingle with other women, and with male servants of the
establishment Many of the male lunatics are also employed
and some few of them away from the asylum ; but except
manual labor, no other of the several details of asylum
management, comprehended under the term of moral treat¬
ment appear to be put into operation either for the male or
female inmates.
Such is, in outline, the Jamaica Lunatic Asylum ; but
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brief as that outline is, and deficient as it is in details
respecting the management and treatment pursued, no very
lively powers of imagination or of reflection, are needed for
the deduction that it is a totally unfit habitation for lunatics.
Leaving out of the question the positive statements made by
some inhabitants of the island, as though they could be
gainsayed—(which, by the way, they do not seem to be to a
material extent), that the grossest irregularities and many
cruelties have occurred among the insane occupants of those
horrid cells, there is ample reason for denouncing the in¬
stitution in its position, its structure, and management, as a
receptacle for tne insane. It is contended that it is an un¬
healthy situation : but if local doctors disagree on this point,
there can be no denying the great disadvantages entailed on
it as an appanage of a general hospital, situated in a densely
populated town, abutting upon streets, and overlooked by
adjacent dwellings. Nor will there be many persons found
at the present day who would sanction the enclosure of such
an institution within high walls, who would tolerate a
building which rendered classification impossible, or who
would approve of the short distance and the imperfect
division between the section devoted to males and that to
females; a degree of division so slight as to offer no sufficient
obstacle to the communication of the two sexes, and no
impediment to the transmission of sound from one side to
the other, whether by way of uproar or lamentation.
Who again would be the apologist for the wretched rooms,
their stone floors, and unglazed windows ; and what can be
said of the crowding of half-a-dozen,—nay, a dozen, as is ad¬
mitted, of human beings, disordered in mind and it may be
in body also, in one such wretched cell, some 14 feet by 10
feet square, and this too in a tropical climate; what can be
said, we repeat, except that such a proceeding is a barbarity
to be parallelled only in Algiers in its worst times. It is
painful to the human mind to contemplate the condition of
the poor sufferers during the ten or eleven hours they are
thus shut up together, virtually without any supervision, or
any security from the moral depravity or mad fury of some
of their fellow prisoners. Whether the particular statements
made relative to accidents, injuries, quarrels, fights, and
various crimes are proved to the satisfaction of those in the
island, who will see nothing wrong in the establishment, or
whether they are not, every person of common sense will
say that nothing is more probable than that irregularities
and crimes of all sorts should transpire in the company of
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several lunatics, imprisoned in such miserable dens that
space to sleep and air to breathe is not to be had by all of
them.
It would be positively a reflection upon the good sense of
our readers, to enter into details respecting the medical and
moral management of this execrable receptacle for the in¬
sane, with the intent of showing wherein they are defective
and laden with abuses and wrongs. We shall, therefore,
willingly avoid them, and proceed to some notes on proposed
reforms, and on the doings of the authorities in Jamaica
and England, in reference to asylum provision. Those who
are conversant with Dr. Conolly’s Treatise on the Con¬
struction and Management of Asylums, will remember that
it contains a plan of a proposed Lunatic Asylum for Jamaica,
designed by Mr. Hams, who has acted as architect to the
Hanwell Asylum, and to one or two others in this country.
But they will be surprised to learn that this plan, although
adopted by the Colonial Legislature, has never yet been
completed. Dr. Conolly’s book bears the date 1847 in its
title page; for thirteen years, therefore, has the erection of
the asylum been delayed, and the much-to-be-pitied lunatics
of the island have been let drag on for those many years a
wretched existence, in one of the vilest buildings bearing
the title of an asylum.
It should, however, be noticed, in justice to many of the
medical men attached to the General Hospital, that the
total unfitness of the asylum for its purpose, and the miser¬
able condition, and often barbarous treatment of the in¬
mates, have been reported on for a long series of years. In
truth, the local authorities appear to have been convinced
of the same facts, for we find a vote of ^20,000 granted by
the legislature for the erection of a proper asylum, so long
ago as 1843, and that in 1847 the building designed by Mr.
Harris was actually commenced. Between that period and
the year 1851, <£*20,659 were expended on the structure,
besides convict labor, valued at <£*10,000; that is, above
i?30,000. This was certainly a handsome sum contributed
to ameliorate the condition of the insane, and indicative of
an earnestness, on the part of some at least, to effect that
object It will, therefore, appear well nigh inexplicable,
that this large sum has for all practical purposes been thrown
away; all that was accomplished by it was the erection of
the carcases of three of the six wards or sections designed
by the architect, or less than one-half of the entire edifice.
By the plan, accommodation was proposed for 250 patients.
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but the portion carried out being only one-half of it, minus
the official residence and general offices, all that was attained
for £30,000 was bare living space for J 25 inmates, at the
rate of £250 per head.
But this remarkable story of an attempt to build an
asylum does not end here. Having proceeded thus far, the
managers began to discover that the structure they had
taken in hand was not exactly what was wanted for the
lunatics in that tropical climate; and being both alarmed
at the cost already incurred, and annoyed by the objections
of assembly men and tax-payers, to the yearly repeated
demand for votes for an edifice which it seemed was never
to be completed, and threatened a perpetual drain upon the
finances,—the sagacious resolution was taken to stop the
works, and leave the incomplete structure to moulder into
ruins, as another monumental example of foolish builders,
who do not first sit down and count the cost of their plan.
We cannot stay to inquire the reason of these extrordinary
proceedings and of the expenditure of so princely a sum of
money upon so inadequate a result. They speak ill of the
results of committing to small colonies their own govern¬
ment, * and indicate strongly the atmosphere of corruption
and jobbery which must prevail in the Island of Jamaica.
And what can be urged in extenuation of the folly and
apathy which has let the new asylum so far as completed,
remain unoccupied for 10 years, except for the period of a
month or six weeks, on two occasions, when cholera devas¬
tated the town and carried off five-sixths of those attacked
by it in the purlieus of the general hospital Even the un¬
finished wards of the new building, notwithstanding any
discovered defects in their ventilation, or in the adaptation
of their arrangements to the climate, would have afforded a
very far superior residence for the unfortunate lunatics than
the prison house in which they are confined. But this
provisional occupation of the new asylum, pending the com¬
pletion of the whole structure, has been from some inexplicable
reason, neglected, and the small additional sum of money
which some years since would have sufficed to render its oc¬
cupation practicable, would be far from sufficient now that
much ma&riel once collected and purchased towards com¬
pleting and fitting the building has been recklessly dispersed
and sold, and that the once partially cleared and drained
site has relapsed, as neglected land will soon do in a moist,
tropical climate, into a swampy plot overgrown with under¬
wood.
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The Jamaica Lunatic Asylum. lfiS
The wretchedness and entire unfitness of the present so
called asylum, the extravagance and jobbery which have
distinguished the attempt to erect a proper asylum, and the
singular folly that has presided over all the proceedings
relative to the desertion of the already erected portions^
have not, as would be naturally expected on the supposition
that humanity and common sense had some admirers in
Jamaica, failed to raise protests from many inhabitants of
the island. Agitation of the whole matter in the pages of
the press, by pamphlets, and by discussions in the House of
Assembly has proceeded for several years, but hitherto with¬
out effect. In the Houses of Legislature motions have been
fruitlessly made for a committee or a commission to inquire
into the whole matter of the state and condition of the
asylum and the lunatics of the island, for they have been
opposed by members of the administration several of whom
are likewise members of the governing body of the general
hospital and asylum. Contradictory statements have been
put forward in the House of Assembly; at one time, it has
oddly enough been represented that the Assembly had not
the power to appoint a Committee of Inquiry, but that the
proposition must come from the Governor, who, on his part,
has declared it was not for him to take the initiative ; at
another it has been stated that the whole matter has been
referred to the Colonial Board of the parent country, whioh
would command an investigation and direct the Governor in
the course to be pursued; and lastly, when it was proposed
that a Commissioner should be sent for from England, the
free and independent spirits in the island were indignant at
the iuterference of the old country, whilst those of the more
servile class raised the question whether the costs were to
fall on the tax-payers of England, or to come from their own
pockets, in which latter case, the only wish was that no in¬
quiry should be proceeded with.
Such is, on a brief review, the perplexing and unpromis¬
ing state of the question respecting the care and treatment
of the insane in Jamaica, and, as may well be imagined,
$uch it bids fair to remain under the auspices of n free con¬
stitution in a colony, a very small proportion of whose
population is at all fitted for self-government. It is a party
question, and the party in power, headed by the Governor is
opposed to an investigation, and manifests a staunch conser¬
vatism in behalf of the old lunatic wards, and, when a bettefr
•provision for their unhappy inmates is demanded, finds a*
VOL. VI. no. 32. N
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excellent argument against it in the straitened resources of
the island.
Under these circumstances it is difficult to suggest a
remedy. It would be well could the Colonial Government
interfere, and bring the machinery of the English Lunatic
Commission to bear upon the whole matter, and through its
agency conduct a thorough investigation into the state of
lunatics, and of the receptacles for them, not only in
Jamaica, but in all the West India colonies ; for undoubtedly,
such an extended inquiry is much needed. There are only
three small asylums to serve for the insane population of
the whole of our West India possessions, and there is no
organization for ascertaining the condition of that population,
or for bringing it under the cognizance and care of any
responsible board or commission. For the credit of humanity
we should fear the results of a strict search into the state of
lunatics in the colonies referred to where the insane and
their institutions have been little thought of or wholly
neglected, from our knowledge of what similar inves¬
tigations have revealed in this country, in which the social
condition of the whole population has in comparison been
so well attended to, and the social state of the people of a
much higher order.
The chief impediment to the direct action of the Home
Government in lunacy matters, both in Jamaica and the
other colonies adjacent, is their possession of self-govern¬
ment, whereby they can constitutionally object to any in¬
terference in their internal affairs; and under the circum¬
stances, the right of resistance to schemes concocted in the
Colonial Office, for the management of such matters as the
public provision for their lunatics, must be held sacred.
Yet witnal, the English Government has very considerable
indirect power, and can so propound measures of domestic
policy, by medium of the Governor as the Queen's repre¬
sentative, that only a very refractory colonial legislature
would attempt to resist them, particularly when designed
for the prosperity and happiness of the inhabitants. More¬
over, the royal prerogative was asserted and acceded to only
a few years since, (in 1843), when Dr. Milroy acted as her
Majesty's Inspector for the West Indies, and was invested
with considerable powers to inquire into the prevalence of
cholera and to prescribe sanitary measures; and it would
only be a parallel proceeding to appoint Lunacy Inspectors
lor these same colonies, with a view of removing those
blemishes in their moral condition and reputation, which
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we have had occasion to notice in one at least of their most
important members. It is evidently useless to leave the
reform of the abuses denounced in the Jamaica Asylum, in
the hands of the island authorities. For thirteen years the
lunatics have been allowed to languish in an institution,
declared totally unfit for their occupation some years ante¬
cedently ; and the only guarantee that they will not be let
remain there for as many years more, is to be looked for
from the Home Government. Lastly, what is done, must
be done energetically and speedily. Deference to the position
of the Governor of the colony, or to the circumstance of his
being a partisan in the matter agitated, must not be suffered
to stand in the way of a complete investigation, which to be
just and satisfactory, must be conducted chiefly by persons
perfectly unprejudiced, unmixed in island politics, and
acquainted with the nature of insanity and the wants of the
insane; and such individuals, it is no unfair reflection on
the colonists to say, are not to be found in the island.
Where can English philanthropists find a better field for
their activity than in promoting measures for the relief, and
urging them upon the Government, in behalf of the neglected
and maltreated lunatics in our West India Colonies.
J. T. A.
The Work and the Counterwork; or the Religious Revival in
Belfast. With an explanation of the Physical Phenomena.
By Epwlrd A Stopford, Archdeacon of Meath. Sixth
Edition. Dublin : Hodges, Smith, &>Co. 1859.
(Every day convinces us more clearly of the intimate con¬
nexion between Psychology and Religion. The fact now
seems to have become recognised even by those who have
ever been most unwilling to admit it The history of the
various outbursts of enthusiasm or fanaticism by which
mankind have been harassed, have had but small effect in
producing this admission, upon a large class of minds, who
nave viewed them as special visitations of the Almighty, for
tfie punishment of the guilty and the purification of the
daithful.
During 4bedast quarter of a century, however, the Science
N*
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168 The Work and the Counterwork ;
of Mind has been so greatly studied in reference t a mot*
bid phenomena, not only by alienist physicians, but by the
clergy and the laity, that k is becoming pretty generally a
recognised fact, that a healthy religion is not to be engrafted
upon a nature which is not in a state of physical and moral
integrity. A statement of this kind is liable to some per¬
version, ft is necessary, therefore, to be more explicit What
it is intended to assert is this : The connexion between our
physical, moral, and spiritual natures is so intimate, that the
least disturbance in the one may affect (and commonly does
affect)the others. The balance is unhinged; the beautiful equi¬
poise which constitutes perfect symmetry of character
is destroyed. The factors of this symmetrical condition
being unhealthy, their compound result is of necessity unt
healthy likewise. Hence one of the great difficulties of
religions progress—hence the great trials (of their own
creation) of religious teachers, who have not learned the
threefold nature of the work which they hare to do, and the
machinery which they have to handle—hence the mischief
which they beget, sustain, and perpetuate. They must learn
la 'teeognise the influences of mind and body, ere they can
see clearly, and appreciate duly, the influences of tbe Holy
Spirit The Clergy, as a body, have not done this. Indeed
oer observation is to the effect that there is no other class of
metr in this country who have been so well educated, and yet*
at the same time, have acquired so little of that perception
of the real wants of others, so limited a power of adapting
themselves to the people among whom their lot is cast. The
consequence is that, having the best intentions, and the most
solemn view of the responsibilities of their calling, they fail in
the highest duties'; and they attribute their want of success
either to the stupidity of the pdopTe, or their Wn want of
earnestness; whereas, in point of fact, their want of success
is due to neither the one or the other. It is to be said, in
excuse for these failures, that though the general education
ef the clergy is good, it is not the education required for
their peculiar mission. It fits them, indeed, to go out into
the world to learn : but it does not fit them to go out into
the world to teach. Nine out of ten of our young clergy* on
leaving their Universities, become for twelve months diligent
students of Divinity. During that time they mould them¬
selves into the form of the particular theological school td
which, either by individual choice, or by heredit&iy recep¬
tion, they have already attached themselves. Gifted* at toe
‘expiration of this period, with the Apostolic mantle, they go
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or the Religious Revival in Belfatt.
forth to evangelize the limited or extensive sphere (as the
ease may be) of their parochial settlement. But what have
they learned of the science of the mind ? What do they
know of the intimate connexion between mind and body ?
What knowledge have they of physiology ? What of physi*
egnomy ? What of the various idiosyncsracies of individual
men and peoples? And, net knowing these things, how com¬
paratively fruitless and powerless an their hands must be the
system which they unwittingly aoqnire a tendency to
pervert, though it has its origin direct from God.
These remarks are by no means foreign to our specialty, and
may well serve to introduce the very important subject of
which the pamphlet at the head of this article treats. For that
subject with its miserable details, is one qf the self-evident
results of that deficiency of education, that laok of sym¬
pathy, that want of adaptive power, on the part of the
clergy, which we are endeavouring to point out, and which
will, we hope, eventually be removed. It is not every man
who has the discernment of Archdeacon Stopford; it is not
every man who has his oourage. We recommend both to the
notice of our brethren. It would appear, that startled by
the conflicting testimony which he received from various
quartern as to the workings of the “ Religious Revival in
Belfast," our author determined upon visiting the scene of
the extraordinary -operations which he has discussed so
forcibly in the present monograph. And he has arrived
at the conclusion, that though it is impossible for a work of
this mixed and momentous character to be set in operation,
without producing eome beneficial results, it is yet certain
that a vast amount of ignorance and misapprehension is
current, as to the real progress of religion in the North of
Ireland. This conviction commends itself to us at once, by
the circumstance that the Archdeacon's antecedents are of a
nature to entitle his opinion to the highest respect and con¬
sideration. For not only was he familiar with similar phe¬
nomena to those now obtaining at Belfast, during the great
Irvingite movement, which is fresh in the recollection of
many ; hut he appears to have recognised the importance of
some acquaintance with psychology, and other collateral
influences, in carrying on that spiritual work which is the
specialty of his profession.
At the very first the Archdeacon appears to have learned
the important fact, that the boasted “ conversions" of the
Revival movement have been among a class of persons—
chiefly women—of a peculiar but well-known physical and
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mental temperament He knew all the morbid manifesta¬
tions of a condition so terrible as, once seen, ever to leave
its impression upon an observant and educated individual
“ On reading the earliest accounts of the bodily affections,
I found nothing but what I had previously been familiar
with in cases of illness of which, in the course of profes¬
sional duty or at the call of personal friendship, I had had-
fhe management, under medical direction. The same obser¬
vation applies to the accounts which I have since read.
“ By personal observation I have satisfied myself of the
similarity of the cases now occurring at Belfast with those
which 1 had formerly attended. The movements of the
hands, arms, head, &c., in these cases—the expression of the
countenance—the' sound of the voice, cries, screams, moans,
coughs, &c., have each a peculiar character, unlike to any¬
thing else. Once duly noticed, these can never be mistaken.
To ascertain whether these indescribable, yet unmistakeable
signs of the disease which I suspected, did really exist, was
one purpose of my visit. I was accompanied by a friend
who had never heard the sound, but who is capable of ob¬
serving and dealing with these things.My
first acquaintance with the pecular character of that cry
was singular. Nearly thirty years ago, in Mr. Irving's chapel
in London, I heard Miss - speak in an unknown
tongue. That produced on me one of the most permanent
impressions I have received in life. I never for a moment
believed in it as inspired ; yet I felt it as a sound such as I
never had heard before. Long years passed away, and that
sound still dwelt upon my memory as something unearthly
and unaccountable. Many years after, in the first serious
case of this kind that I had to attend, a physician told me
at the very outset to mark the peculiar character of the cry.
That moment it flashed upon my memory; it was, with
some slight modification, but in its character essentially the
same, the unmistakeable cry of Irving’s prophetess—a sound
that while I live I never again can mistake or misinterpret.
“ That cry I have now recognised in its most unmistake¬
able form in Belfast I have also recognised every other
symptom and phenomenon as what I have formerly witnessed,
and I have seen or heard of none beside. All the * cases’ I
saw in Belfast were clearly and unmistakeably hysterical;
and, as far as it is possible to judge from description, so was
every case which has been described to me.” p.p. 19-20.
There is something truly appalling in the fact that religion
is liable to such terrible perversion in the hands of some of
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her well-meaning but ignorant ministers. The use which
they make, under the impression that they are divinely in¬
fluenced, of the power which they have acquired over a par¬
ticular class of minds, is hardly to be credited by those
who have had no previous experiences of a similar character.
We ourselves have seen this sort of thing too frequently be¬
fore, to be startled at anything but the wholesale character
of the present movement, and the delight with which the
doers of these deeds appear to contemplate their de¬
structive operations. So little do these men know of
human nature; so largely are they impressed with their own
importance, and with a conviction that through their mediate
instrumentality the Spirit is working for good upon the
unhappy creatures brought within the sphere of their
influence, that, in proportion to the prevalance of the morbid
phenomena, is their own belief in the excellence of their
work, and in the triumphant character of their proceedings.
Our author alludes to the fact that the fanaticism of these
Bevival preachers chiefly shows itself in the use which they
make of Fear, in producing the most dreadful agony of mind
in weak and timorous temperaments. “ Hell, hell, is the
one cry/’ he says ; “ physical and metaphysical fire ” is the
favourite motto. The wretched victims who “ sit under"
these men, have become so impressed with the necessity of
an individual experience of the bodily symptoms which they
observe in others, of their own class, that they “ pray to be
struck," a term synonomous, as they believe, with conversion.
The consequence is that what should be places of prayer and
praise offer scenes of depraved excitement, presided over by
men who claim to be the ambassadors of God. Preparations
are made for the treatment of “ cases,” by the office-bearers
of the churches, and a prurient curiosity is excited in the
uninitiated, while they witness the treatment to which
the stricken are subjected. The following is a specimen :
“ The preacher, before giving out his text, requested that if
any cases occurred the congregation would be quiet, and leave
it to the office-bearers of the Church, who had made full
preparation for their reception. While the preacher was
urging, with the peculiar pointing of the hand before described,
* Your case is as bad as hell can make it,’ a poor girl cried
and fell. In reproving the excitement which followed, the
preacher said, ' God is doing His work in that individual.’
When the sermon closed, I obtained admission to the room to
which this girl bad been carried, pursuant to the arrange¬
ments announced by the preacher. The room was small, and
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very narrow, and stifling—no air, no water, was there. A
more pitiable sight I never saw. This girl was about fifteen
years of age, or perhaps a year or two older; her frame was
weak and thin, her small hands stained and ground with hard
work, her skin delicate and transparent, her hair and eye¬
lashes long and dark, her neck marked with scrofula, with a
highly intellectual face seldom seen in her class of life, except
in weakly girls, and now made painfully interesting by the
unearthly expression of cataleptic hysteria; every movement
of the head and hands, every expression of the countenance,
every moan, was markedly hysterical. She had previously
been struggling and screaming ; she was now quiet, her lips
sometimes moving, but inauaibly ; she had spoken of the
devil catching souls to throw them into hell, crying ‘ Away 1
thou shan’t have minejust the last impression made upon
her failing mind.” pp., 55-6.
It appears, moreover, that this was the third attack from
which this young woman had suffered, each succeeding one
being more severe than its predecessor. The process of
restoration consists in these poor girls reclining in the arms of
v coarse young men,” who relate, with glee, to the bystanders,
the difficulties of restraining the physical struggles produced
by the inward workings of the 'Spirit, and recount the details
of their previous experiences. The effect of this upon weak
and ignorant females is not to be- questioned. The very
selfishness of the malady invites them. They force them¬
selves by a continuous mental introversion into the very con¬
dition which they witness in others, and these distempered
and unholy workings are dignified with a religious name.
They listen to the observations which are made about them¬
selves ; their morbid sensibility is heightened ; their power to
control their emotions is diminished ; the only outlet for these
pent-up feelings lies in hysteric screams, and muscular con¬
tortions. It should be here observed, that the morbid results
produced by this fanatical preaching, bears an as yet unde¬
termined ratio to the existence of certain temperaments:
these temperaments, of course, being of the hysteric and
excito-motory class. These symptoms are unquestionably
largely co-existent with the Revival movement, though not
Co-extensive with it.
How far the two co-extend is very difficult to ascertain.
A clergyman in Belfast, who takes a more favourable view
than I do of the physical phenomena, gave me his opinion
that these cases are more numerous than the cases of con-
xersion without such phenomena ; at the same time, he
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expressed his decided conviction that cases of true conversion
without any bodily affection, are far more numerous than
real cases of conversion accompanied by the bodily affections.”
pp. 15-16.
This indeed may well be. But the inquiry for us to in¬
stitute is this: Would these morbid phenomena obtain at all
in connexion with religion if the clergy knew their duty, and
if their victims were correctly educated, and under proper
parental surveillance? And further : does the history of
religious revivals justify us in believing that God ever deals
with his creatures through a depraving, rather than through
a lofty, instrumentality ? We believe firmly that he does not.
No well-sustained and healthy religious feeling can be built
upon Fear. Love is the divine essence upon which to found
all that is ennobling and beautiful For the Love changes
not: it is ever serene and equable ; it leaves room for no
depressions; it generates that cheerfulness which is “ an
habit of the mind” (as. Addison expresses it), and gifts us
with “a perpetual sunshine.” “True religion (it has been
beautifully said) is never spasmodic : it is calm as the existence
of God. I know of nothing more shocking than such attempts
to substitute rockets ana blue-lights for heaven’s eternal
sunshine."*
And it seems to us, that Archdeacon Stopford, by his in¬
teresting narrative, clearly establishes the propositions with
which he sets out; which are— -first, that the usual bodily and
mental affections in this movement are only the ordinary
phenomena of a well-known form of disease, which, though it
seldom prevails, to its present extent, is yet quite capable in
its nature of such, extension ; secondly, that in its very nature
it is antagonistic, and not favourable, to true religion ;
thirdly, that the present results of this disease and its natural
consequences are injurious to woman’s nature, and subversive
of the Word of God as the sole foundation of our faith ;
fourthly, that this affection is only accidentally, and not
properly, connected with true conversion ; and that religious
revivals can be, and ought to be, wholly disconnected from it.
The fact of the extensive prevalence of hysteria, and of its
frequent coexistence with religious excitement, and religious
insanity, are too well known to render it necessary for us to
dwell upon them. It may suffice to remark that hysteric
temperaments have been most prodigiously and unnaturally
cultivated by the religious Revival in the North of Ireland:,
and that about one case in twenty occurs in the male sex, the
* Bayard Taylor.
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sufferer always being weak and feminine in his appearance
and habits.* Moreover, it should be added (and this is a
sufficient reason why God should not through such a channel
transmit the blessings of His grace), that there is no disease
known to us the moral character of which is so abominably sel¬
fish and unsynvpathising as that of hysteria. It is a malady
of a purely centric character. “ I submit it for consideration
(says our author) whether this be a proper preparation of our
moral constitution for the reception of the Gospel of Christ.”
It has not the least affinity to that healthful self-communion
which is inculcated by our holy religion, and which our
intuitive perceptions tell us to be sometimes, and in proper
measure, necessary. For the latter has a standard by winch
to guage itself, and finds its most legitimate improvement in
the outlet of active duties, and the various forms of objective
charity towards others. The former is only concerned with
itself; the intensity of the entire being is concentrated upon
its own miserable individuality. Herein lies its peril and its
poison.
And if the character of this disease is so selfish, and so
inimical thereby to the proper cultivation of religious virtue,
it is obvious how injurious must be its effects, upon young
and docile, and susceptible natures. It unfits for duty. It
brings neither immediate nor prospective peace. It has no
necessary connexion with what is termed “ conversion,” with
godly sorrow for sin, and a lofty determination to amend the
waywardness of the natural man. There is a circumstance,
too, in connexion with this vitiated condition, which we deem
it right to allude to incidentally, in the hope that it may come
to the knowledge (if it has not already done so) of those
members of the clerical profession, who have been so instru¬
mental in the production and sustentation of this pseudo-
religious movement, which threatens us here in London. And
that is, that the victims upon whom they operate are ordi¬
narily girls of strong sexual passions, and who frequently have
given those passions indulgencies through a most depraved
and unnatural medium. Are these the temperaments which
should be given over to the unholy handling of the office¬
bearers of church or chapel ? Are these they who should be
* “ When men are attacked by genuine hysterical fits (globus hyster, 8ic.)
which certainly docs occur, they are, Jot the most part, effeminate men.”—
Fevchtersleben.
“ It is difficult to ascertain the proportion of male cases in Belfast, &c. ; some
have stated it to me as one in ten ; others as one in twenty ; I have heard no
higher estimate of male cases. The authority for one in twenty appeared to
me to be the best I met with.” p. 27.
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suffered to be restimulated into life by “ coarse young men,”
under the plea that they have the power of “ repelling satan?”
No. And we exclaim indignantly with Mr. Stopford :
“Ladies of Belfast—wives and mothers—is it nothing to
vou that your sex is dishonoured by its utmost weakness
being produced and exposed as a spectacle in public assemblies
and in presence of the male sex ? Ladies, wives, and mothers,
I know what hysteria is, and I tell you I was ashamed as a
man to witness, as I have done, the exposure of your sex.
Have you no right or power to demand that this shall cease ?
Is not your silence its encouragement ? Men and brethren,
have you no voices to be raised in arresting it ? Should not
the man who deliberately produces hysteria in woman (as
many do now seek to produce it) be denounced as an outrage
upon one sex and a disgrace on the other ? Has righteous
indignation lost its power ? Must we all be content to write
upon our graves, ‘ Ubi saeva indignatio ulterius cor lacerare
acquit V ” pp. 50-51.
But there is a worse feature behind, which it is indeed our
specialty to notice. Not only has this “ Religious Revival ”
been the means of leading many into the dreadful mazes of
hysteria and catalepsy, but it has driven not a few into a state
of absolute insanity. Hear the Archdeacon’s own words:
“ Among the fruits of hysteria as a means of religious re¬
vival, I must notice the insanity which it has already produced.
In a very brief space of time, and in a very limited circle at
enquiry I saw or heard of more than twenty cases. I fear a
little more enquiry would have extended it largely. Some of
these cases were of a shocking character.” p. 6(1.
After detailing two or three cases the question is asked,
“ Are these the fruits of of the right preaching of the Gospel
of Him who said, ‘ Come unto me all ye who are weary and
heavy laden and I will give you rest f ” There can be but
one answer to such a question. They are the combined
results of the most unpardonable ignorance on the part of
preachers ; the most grievous weakness on the part of
listeners, generated, in a measure, by the artificial state of
society—by the overstraining and deficient nourishment
of the body, and the imperfect culture of the mind. All the
invigorating and healthy influences of life these unhappy
young women are taught to ignore, in order that they may
the more thoroughly sustain that morbid condition which has
become the curse of many once comparatively hapjiy homes.
It is to be deplored that there is no legitimate tribunal to
which the authors and instigators of this wide spread mischief
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can be made amenable. We can but do our duty in pointing
out, with Mr. Stopford, that which he has laboured so earnestly
to subdue. And we do ask the people of this country, as of
the sister isle, to stand up and resist this profanation of all
the sacrednees of nature and revelation* carried on under the
specious name of “ Religious Revival.”
The proper means of prevention lie in placing the mind and
body within the sphere of various coapting. influences, which
weproceed to notice.
Firstly : The bodily system should not be overtaxed; and
it should be sustained by nutritious diet of a variable character.
The importance of this in young girls cannot be overestimated.
All the animal functions should act rhythmically and harmo¬
niously, Fresh air and fresh water should be an object of
primary solicitude. This constitutes a healthy foundation on
which to build a healthy religion, which Grace will not fail to
appreciate. “ God is a good-worker (says the proverb), but
He loves to be helped.” We cannot give better help tha n the
above, and God will be sure to bless it.
Secondly: The cultivation of the intellect should be re¬
garded as a religious duty of as much importance as that of
going to church or chapeL* Habitual cheerfulness should be
also inculcated as a religious duty of equal significance. All
the pictures placed before young and impressible minds should
be cheerful. Above all, said the good Mrs. Fry, who had
bitterly experienced what an uncheerful religion was,—above
all, “give young children cheerful views of religion. First
teach them the love and mercy of God in Jesus Christ”
Again: let no encouragement be given to an emotional
reugion, beyond that healthy emotion which prompts to
active duty, and discourages selfish feeling. Active duty is
the only legitimate culmination of religious thought That
is practical Christianity.
Thirdly: Avoid talking religion. Be good. There is no
better theology than a virtuous life. Avoid all kinds of
religious excitement, especially popular preachers, than whom
(as a general rule) no men are so self-satisfied, and therefore,
* There is abundance of truth and wisdom in the following remark, by one
of the ablest men of our times 7 —“I much fear that by attempting to form the
mind and feelings on an exclusively religious type, and discarding those
secular standards (as for want of a better name they may be called) which
heretofore co-existed with and supplemented the Christian ethics, receiving
some of its spirit, and infusing into it some of theirs, there will result, and is
even now resulting, a low, abject, servile typo of character, which, submit
itself as it may to what it deems the Supreme will, is incapable of rising to or
sympathizing in the conception of Supreme Goodness.”— On Liberty , by J. S.
Mill, p. 92. London, 1859.
17*
‘or the Religious Revival & Belfast.
so ufifit for the observation and contemplation of young girls.
They cure popular, because Of the undue (that is morbid)
development of some feature of character.
Fourthly: It behoves all educated adult persons to place
before the clergy the serious evils which arise from giving
an undue importance to oral excitement (we do not call it
“ teaching”) from the pulpit and platform. Preaching is but
a very subordinate means of energizing people into practical
virtue; and it is a monstrous evil when used for the purpose
of producing hysteria, or any kind of excito-motory disturb¬
ance. It behoves also all parents and guardians to discourage in
the young an intensifying and emotional religion, by finding
a fitting outlet for inward monitions, in the active practical
duties of life. Any other religion than one based upon this
principle, is (what Isaac Taylor calls) “ a flimsy and fictitious
pietism.”
In conclusion, strongly commending the pamphlet of Arch¬
deacon Stopford to the perusal of our readers, we will allude
to the great and obvious importance, of securing for the in¬
mates of our asylums that healthy sort of religious teaching
which is based upon a varied educational training, upon much
general observation of mankind, upon an acute perception of
idiosyncracies of character, upon the culture of a large and
abundant sympathy, on the part of those who are elected to
the office of chaplains. We have reason to know that in many
instances, either by interest, or by that fallacious system of
testimonials, without any reference whatever to that individual
tact and adaptive power, which might at once point out to a
committee of educated gentlemen the fitness of a clerical
candidate, many of our asylums have become burdened
with the heavy drag of pastoral incompetency, bound up
with the unassailable companionship of spiritual earnest¬
ness. The blame does not lie with the chaplains, who
probably have been educated by the “ despotism of custom,”
in a narrow and traditional mould. But a grievous responsi¬
bility attaches to the elective body which can choose a man,
so educated rather than one of tact and observation, who
happens to be “afflicted with the malady of thought,”
and thereby betrays symptoms which might hereafter de-
velope themselves into obstructiveness to the mandates
of a “ Visiting Committee.”
We happen ourselves to be one of the Governors of a large
General Hospital in London, which some time ago elected
a chaplain by an overwhelming majority, in consequence
of the superior character of his testimonials. We declined
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Ulster Revivalism,
to give him our support because we saw that these testi¬
monials were of a school and of a type which (as far
as we have observed) do not commonly furnish practical,
sympathising, and adaptive ministers. In fact, the tes¬
timonials were too good. The great ambition, and at
the same time the great difficulty, which now besets the
governors is to displace this gentleman, who evidences the
fallacy of that testimonial system which we have alluded to
and condemned.
We cannot but sincerely hope and believe, that as the im¬
portance of a mixed education for the Clergy beoomes more
recognized, and they are grounded in many of those collateral
sciences which sensibly affect the usefulness of theological teach¬
ing, and minister to the consistency of religious life, we shall
see less and less of those fearful forms of insanity, which are
based upon the miserable perversions of that great scheme
which was meant only for our consolation. Religion will then
be a sustained and continuous progress, reoognized by all; and
not a spasmodic “ Revival ” of the most depraved and fic¬
titious character.
E.S.
Ulster Revivalism ,; a Retrospect, by the Rev. W. M.‘I Lwains,
A.M., Incumbent of St. George's, Belfast.
The excitement attendant on the “ Ulster Revival" was at
its height, in the town of Belfast^ during the month of July
in'the year 1859: it is in itself, a significant fact that a per¬
son taking up his pen to discuss the subject in the month of
December, of the same year, is permitted to treat of it his¬
torically. The excitement is over; it has utterly collapsed:
no amount of human effort, (and such has not been spared)
has availed to perpetuate it. At the time above referred to,
no day in the week, it might be said with truth no hour in the
day, passed without some occurrence so strange as to attract
the observation of the most listless and inattentive. In certain
localities of the town at almost every hour, but specially in
the afternoon and evening, or during the breakfast and dinner
hour of the working classes, groups were to be seen standing
or kneeling at the oomers of the streets joining vjmthe.-devo-
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tiona or listening to the exhortations of preachers of all
ages, and of all classes and denominations, from the boy, and
even the girl of twelve or 14 years of age, to the gray-headed
minister, layman, class-leader or deacon. From morning until
midnight jaunting cars were to be seen, conveying to their
homes young females, generally supported in the arms of a
Mend, or of a young man, an improvised “church office
bearer,” insensible or frantic, uttering screams and cries, and
with dishevelled hair, and the wildest or most deathlike aspect,
from the church or meeting house or prayer meeting where
they had been “ struck.” At all hours of the day the streets
ana neighbourhoods where the “ converts” or “ corwicts” (the
latter was and is the favourite designation of the class) resided
were traversed by the “ agents” of the revival, most usually
with a Bible in their hands, or beneath their arms; and in
these localities every second or third house was the scene of a
daily, or weekly, or bi-weekly prayer-meeting : at almost all
of which, persons were “ struck;” and the resort became a
favourite one in proportion to the number of oases so pro¬
duced. The Revival then had (indeed still has) its literature,
periodical and stated. Under the former head may be classed
some local journals, in the colums of which, as regularly as
the “ leader” or “special correspondence” appears in the Times,
was the daily column headed “Religious Revival in Bel¬
fast.” These “ daily readings ” served as most effectual fuel
to the revival excitement, and indeed might, of themselves,
have gone far, with any well-judging and reflecting person,
to reveal the true character of the human element at work in
that remarkable movement. Suffice it to say that such
journalism was characterized by the most unprincipled ex¬
aggeration and indeed unscrupulous mis-statement imaginable.
These, of course, were in a great measure concealed and un¬
known to readers at a distance, but to those on the spot, who
were cognizant of the real facts of the case, the spirit of lying
which prevailed (for it amounted to nothing short of this),
became disgusting in the extreme. Nor was this the only
sample of laxity in morals which the revival organs presented.
“ Anger, wrath, malice,” vituperation, misrepresentation and
“all uncharitableness” were the weapons of their warfare,
wielded with all the energy imaginable in the case, against
any who differed from Revivalism. Some of the instruments,
too, employed in the production of this species of literature
were curiously characteristic ; for example—detailed histories
of the movement have appeared from the pens of individuals
whose habits notoriously oscillated between drunkenness and
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sobriety. “Penny-a-liners” and sub-editors of professedly
religious and respectable papers, executed their daily and
weekly tasks in the same spirit, mid with the same results, as
regards veracity.
Enough, however, of the state of things in this town during
the summer and commencing autumn months: I return to
the observation that all this has, to a great extent, if not en¬
tirely ceased. The working classes have returned to their
ordinary habits. Religious worship and other religious obser¬
vances have reverted nearly to their ordinary seasons and
places. The ebb and flow of worshippers, through the streets
and thoroughfares on the Lord’s day are just as before the
revival excitement began, while a silent, but a steady and po¬
tent current of public opinion has set in, the evident bearing
of which is to the effect that the sooner the mad-excitement
of Revivalism is sent into oblivion, the better for society, for
morality and for true religion. It may, therefore, be presumed
that we have arrived at the time when “ the Ulster Revival ”
may be considered retrospectively, nor will such a retrospect,
I am persuaded, be either uninteresting or unprofitable.
It is apparent that the matter before us, has, like most
others, its several points of view. There are, for instance, the
theologico-religious aspect (an all important one), the psychical,
the physical, and the social. Each and all of these are in¬
teresting, while other aspects of the same remarkable move¬
ment may suggest themselves to other minds. I would, as
briefly as possible, review it in some of those above indicated.
The first of them, although most in consonance with the
studies, the experience, and the calling of the writer, must be
very briefly dismissed, as not exactly suitable to the pages
of the serial in which these observations make their appear¬
ance. I may, however, be permitted, even here, to observe,
that from a very early stage in the history of this singular
movement, I for one was led, viewing it as a Christian
teacher, to take a very jealous and cautious, if not a decidedly
unfavourable view of its character and probable Tesults.
Holding the Sacred Scriptures, the written Word of God, to
be my only guide and standard in the case, I very soon per¬
ceived elements at work in Revivalism, concerning which it
required no extraordinary amount of common sagacity, to say
nothing of spiritual enlightenment, to foresee that they were
most likely to land their followers in conclusions and practical
results very far indeed from Bible-Christianity, and “the
faith once delivered to the saints.” I perceived new modes of
conversion set on foot and endorsed, if not in entire opposition
181
a Retrospect, by the Itev. W. M'llwaine.
to the same process, as revealed in Scripture, at least entirely
beside it. The species of faith which was commended, and
in many cases insisted on, was not either “ the substance of
things hoped for,” or “ the evidence of things not seen,” but a
gross and carnal substitution for that spiritual reality, leading
its poor dupes to make their conversion, and their very
salvation, to depend on beholding visions, and receiving reve¬
lations of the unseen, often so vain, contradictory, absurd, and
even blasphemous, that a mind imbued with Scriptural truth
in its due proportions, could not contemplate these its per¬
versions without alarm and disgust. Neither could I omit to
notice, that these alleged conversions were, I may truly say
almost without exception, confined to a single class, and that
the very lowest in education and intelligence. This, too,
appeared to me directly at variance with the New Testament
model. In its earliest day, as in our own day, the Gospel was
preached to the poor, but its saving effects are at no time, as¬
suredly, confined to the poorest. I therefore, on these and other
accounts which need not be mentioned, felt warranted in
waiting to see whither this strange movement would tend ;
nor hid I long to wait Others joined in it, for the purpose
as they said, of “ directing the movement,” although they did
not, and could not, approve of all its adjuncts. I did not feel
at liberty so to do : as well, it occurred to me, might any one
think of directing a rolling, muddy torrent, by plunging into
its midst. I preferred to remain on the bank, nor do I regret
having done so.
Not to dwell unduly on this phase of the movement, it may
here be briefly stated, that nearly all the error existing in the
minds of some well-meaning, and I would hope, Christian
persons, who were led astray by this human imitation of what
is from above, may be traced to one or two main sources.
First and chief, the revealed facts of Scripture, and one of
these especially, appear to me not to have been duly appre¬
ciated by the parties referred to. The main fact to which I
here allude, is the transaction recorded in the Acts of the
Apostles—the descent of the Spirit of God, on the day of
Pentecost. Numbers of well-meaning, but ill-judging persons,
are even now praying for, and expecting another descent of
that Divine Being—another Pentecost: hence we have such
crude notions and expressions as “ a Pentecost in Pensylvania,”
—“ at New York, at Belfast,” &c. It will be seen, if attention
be properly directed to the Divine record, and to these virtual
abrogations of its literal and correct meaning, that neither
the personality nor the Divine nature of the Spirit, who
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then indeed descended, and who has since abode in the
Church, is duly regarded. A second confusion of ideas is
largely perceptible in the expectation of a renewal of mira¬
culous gifts and occurrences in the church of the present day.
The very nature of a miracle—what it is—when, how, and
for what purpose wrought;—the fact of the entire cessation
of miracles;—the inutility of their restoration, as far as man
can judge ;—their real value in connexion with a Divine
Revelation ;—and the absurdity of either desiring or expecting
their reappearance in our day—these and many other kindred
topics, in connexion with miraculous agency, seem to have
been either most grievously misunderstood, or lost sight of by
many, even Christian teachers, during the late fearful excite¬
ment connected with the “ Ulster Revival.” Hence the errors
into which so many, even good people, have fallen.
Before dismissing these references to the religious and
theological department of my subject, I claim permission to
re-state, what I have felt constrained on other occasions
strongly to declare, viz.:—That it is the duty of all
Christian persons interested in such discussions, to draw as
broad and clear a line as possible between what is now most
lamentably and palpably proved to be the work of man, and
that which we have every reason to look upon as the work of
God. That a really great and blessed revival of true religion
has been in progress throughout not only these lands, but
several parts of the continent of Europe, as well as of the
New World, and that for some two or three years back, if not
longer, it would be as dangerous as ungrateful for any
Christian man to gainsay or to deny. Let this work of God,
into whose details I mean not now to enter, be thankfully
acknowledged. We may truly and reverently call it a Revival;
but let it not be for a moment confounded with man’s vain
and evil imitation of it, which I have elsewhere ventured to
designate, in contra-distinction from the genuine work, under
the term of Revivalism. It is to the latter, I need hardly
add, my reprobatory observations apply.
Viewed in the light reflected by psychological science, the
“ Ulster Revival ” appears in an aspect at once instructive
and melancholy. During the height of its dog-day excitement
(in the summer months) a whole population presented the ap¬
pearance of running after, and, in a sense, worshipping an
idol, on whose temples and altars might be truly inscribed “to
the unknown God.” Any person conversant with the
habits of thought and peculianties of action incident to a
semi-Celtic race would feel little surprise at this. ** The Re-
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vival ” became to these a something of which they knew little,
but yet felt bound to pursue and absolutely worship. Some
unknown and undiscovered properties of good were connected
with “taking the Revival.” It went by various names. It
was in some places “the sickness,” in others “the troubles,”
but known to all as the mysterious “ it” which set a whole
population in motion; how or to what end few could say, only
that there prevailed an indistinct notion of its being beneficial,
and to multitudes a matter absolutely necessary to salvation.
It was to be seen here, and found there, and exhibited else¬
where. Parties endowed with a supernatural power brought
it with them, carried it from county to county and from parish
to parish. On one occasion IT was brought, as a clerical friend in¬
formed me, from a parish neighbouring to his own in a boat, and
across a lough, or sea-inlet, but brought back again, as no one
in the locality to which its visit was paid was good enough to
take it. The common questions were “have you taken it?”
or “ has so and so taken it ? ” And the replies “ not yet, but
please God, we hope we shall soon have it.” To persons
whose minds were prepared for such an exhibition of popular
delusion, these sights and sounds though painful, would not
prove either wholly unexpected or unaccountable. There was
nothing whatever new in all this: it had occurred, again and
again, in nearly all periods of the world, its civilization and
its religion, and its history was on record in authentic forms,
from the earliest periods to those of the middle ages; the
Crusades, the Reformation, and- later, even until our own day.
So far, then, as the multitude was concerned, all this was of
easy account; but when persons of superior understanding,
although themselves, as already noticed, apart from the influ¬
ence at work, whatever it might be, not only looked on all
this if not approvingly and hopefully, yet with somewhat
kindred feelings, expressing their opinion that a divine and
heaven-sent influence was, in some mysterious manner at
work, and that good would ultimately result from all this mass
of bewilderment and corrupt moral commotion, the scenes
E nted in consequence became painful in the extreme. The
tz faire principle was applied to an incredible extent,
even by those who could not Dut perceive the evil palpably
emergent from the stream of popular excitement flowing by
them. A change for the better, as it was alleged, became
suddenly apparent in popular morality. Vice was sensibly
diminished ; drunkenness and profligacy were vastly on the
decrease, and forthwith the conclusion was arrived at that all
was right. It never occurred to those who so ruled that the
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test of time ought of necessity to be applied : that there was
such a phenomenon to be expected as one form of excitement
temporarily expelling another, while the substratum of cha¬
racter, in the case either of the individual or the community
might remain essentially unchanged. A judge here, and a
bench of magistrates there, a synod in this place, a presbytery
or a general assembly in another, a dignitary of the establish¬
ment or a roving Incumbent elsewhere pronounced the whole
movement marvellous, and moreover of divine origin—there¬
fore it was so. All this was extremely trying to the sober-
minded observer and thoughtful Christian. Nor was it alone
in secret that such trials were found: if any one dared to
doubt or deny that a new era in Christianity had dawned—
that the Revival (in the popular sense of the term) was divine
or directly from above, he was instantly denounced as an un¬
believer, in the very worst sense of the term, as having com¬
mitted the unpardonable sin and therefore beyond the pale of
salvation, while with singular inconsistency his denouncers
offered up public prayers for his conversion. Nor must the
reader suppose that all this is imaginative hyperbole: on more
than one occasion it has been my own lot to nave been made
the subject of public announcements, in crowded religious
congregations, and my “conversion as a heathen” publicly
prayed for, in company with a brother minister of the Estab¬
lishment from a southern diocese; and certain editors of public
journals, who were pronounced infidels by the parties who
offered up their united supplications for their conversion and
my own. The reader will pardon this personal allusion, but
the matter is really too illustrative of the subject in hand to
be omitted.
To do justice in this rapid sketch to the psychical phase of
such a movement as that before us, some details, in the way
of filling in, ought to be added ; the limi ts however, of a
paper like the present prevent this. A specimen or two can
merely be offered. As in all such epidemic mental phenomena,
love for the marvellous, and credulousness to an almost un¬
limited amount prevailed in the localities where “the Revival”
was most fully developed, and not the least so in this town
(Belfast), which soon rose into a sort of centre for the whole.
Let the following be considered in the sense of “ex pede
Herculem.” During the earlier part of the excitement a
Scottish gentleman, well known as an ardent religionist, and
a marvellously extensive publisher of religious tracts in his
native land, visited the scene of the Ulster Revival This
gentleman (Mr. Peter Drummond, of Stirling), on his return
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to Scotland, not only put into extra circulation a journal
avowedly as an organ of revivalism, but travelled to many
places giving vivd voce accounts of wbat he had seen and
heard in Ulster. Speaking at a large public meeting in the
city of Glasgow, of “ the striking down in terms of approval
and thankfulness, Mr. Drummond thus proceeds, as reported
in the Glasgow Herald :—
“ Some of the convicted see in their visions a black horse,
others see a black man ; others see Jesus Christ on the one
side and the Devil on the other, and they cry ' Oh Jesus
Christ save me from the Devil.’ I do not say that all these
people are converted, but I say that such a state is hopefuL
We have no right to find fault with the way in which the
Lord may be pleased to work. It is very foolish and daring
for any, good people or others, to quarrel with such things as
these.”-
It is perfectly needless to say to what lengths these visions
and revelations proceeded, when thus not only believed in by
the mad multitude, but fostered and approved by persons of
reputed intelligence. It would be difficult to parallel the state
of the locality whence I now write during the height of the
revival-mania (for such it actually became) in the whole
history of similar popular delusions. Every day the town and
country teemed with the most marvellous accounts of the super¬
natural Music was heard in the air, angels were seen hover¬
ing over congregations, and attending the converts as they
sang on their way home, after midnight, through the roads
and streets. A butterfly hovers over the congregation in a
Presbyterian meeting-house, and it is believed to be the em¬
bodiment of the Holy Spirit. Large crowds are drawn
together, nightly, to witness a man who had come to preach
to them “ with a blue hand.” He does appear, and his hand
is blue (whether from the process of dyeing or not it makes no
matter), he raises this marvellous member, and girls fall,
scream, are carried out, sung and prayed over, ana so pro¬
nounced converts.
To fill a volume with such disgusting details were but too
easy a task.* To do so might be perhaps instructive, how-
* Some idea of the lengths to which imposture and superstition
atbuned, may be formed from the following few particulars. In
one of the local prints (the Belfast News-Letter ), which may be
considered (as already stated) an accredited organ of Revivalism,
under the date of August 18 , the following occurs:
“ It is worthy of remark, that whilst, apparently, the movement
is by no means decreasing in intensity or power, some new features
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ever painful; but now, in the retrospect, to enquire how many
are developing, which must prove interesting, and which are in a
great measure inexplicable. We refer to what are usually termed
‘ visions ’ and ‘trances.’ The cases of physical prostration are not
of so frequent occurrence now as at first; hut some few of those
who have professed conversion, have relapsed into a dormant or
insensible state, in which they in many instances remain for days
together without tasting food or nourishment of any kind. The
symptoms vary in the different cases; but in the majority they have
a striking similarity. To convey an idea of these cases, can be best
done by referring to one of them. The subject was a poor factory
girl about twenty years of age, who resided with her parents, and
who some weeks before had been brought under conviction, resulting
in a complete change of life and conduct. Subsequently, she had
been again stricken, and bad since been confined to bed in a state
of apparent unconsciousness, with but brief intervals when she could
see and converse with her friends. On entering her apartment she
was found lying quite still, her eyes firmly closed, and a peculiarly
pleasing and happy expression beaming on her countenance. Beside
her lay two books—a Bible and a copy of Wesley’s Hymns. She
began groping for the Bible, and, as soon as she found it, she
hurriedly searched for a particular passage, her eyes all the time
quite closed. At length she placed her finger upon the 10th verse
of the second chapter of 2nd Kings—‘ And he said, Thou hast asked
a hard thing: nevertheless, if thou see me when I am taken from
thee it shall be so unto thee; but if not, it shall not be so.’ Again,
after a short space, she lifted the hymn-book, and, in like manner,
having pointed out a hymn, she allowed the book to be taken out
of her hand by a friend, who read the hymn. This she did several
times, the passages of Scripture or hymns, as the case might be,
being always very appropriate; and what is still more remarkable,
if she happened to lift the book with the top of the page downwards,
she instantly turned it and held it correctly, though her eyes were
closed. A little time after her face became clouded, as though she
were beholding some pitiful or touching spectacle ; then she raised
her hands, and pointed to the palm of each, to indicate the prints of
the nails in the hands of Christ. She also placed her hand upon
her side, and then indicated, as clearly as signs could, the crown of
thorns, with the drops of blood trickling down the face from the
wounds. The look of horror, and almost anguish on her face, was
well calculated to lead to the impression that she was actually
witnessing the Crucifixion, and that she felt it was all for her. In
a moment after, she brightened up, a smile of inexpressible beauty
lightened her countenance, she stretched out her arms, as if to
embrace a friend, and then pressed them to her bosom. Betimes
her fingers would move as if along the strings of a harp, but all the
time not a sound escaped her lips. In her moments of consciousness,
she relates strange accounts of visions she had seen—of Christ, of
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professing Christian pastors raised their voices in denunciation
of these delusions, or rather how many by passivity and a
angels, and even of other converts who were then in precisely the
same state, though that was unknown to her. Before relapsing
into the ( trance,' she told how long she would be ‘ away,’ and at
what hour she would return, and always awoke punctually at the
moment. On one occasion, some persons, to prove that there could
be no deception, laid on the bed a number of books similarly bound,
and amongst them a Bible, and narrowly watched the girl’s eyes.
She lifted some of the books, but instantly dropped them, until she
found the Bible. Many remarkable things could be told about such
cases; but the foregoing is sufficient to show the nature of them.”
And again, in the same organ, under date September 5:—
“ Events and circumstances of a most extraordinary character
are occurring every day in this town and in those adjacent to it, as
well as throughout the province. Amongst these are cases of a sort
of trance which have become very frequent. There is much about
these which is to a great extent unaccountable, yet, worthy of
attention. Saturday evening last, a young woman named Anne
Devlin, residing in Hunter’s Row, off Pinkerton’s Row, fell off in
this state at eleven o’clock, as she had previously stated she would
do. There was no clock or other time-piece in the house by which
she could be in anywise guided; and yet, at the hour which she
had named, she fell over into a state of unconsciousness to all around,
although not of inertion. She was to all appearance quite lighted
up with a glow of joy and radiant smiles which baffle description.
Her Bible and hymn-book lay on her bed, and with her eyes per¬
fectly closed, she turned over the leaves of these books with a
rapidity which could not be approached by any one in a conscious
state, and in them pointed out the most appropriate passages and
hymns. As for instance she signed with her hand the crowning of
the Saviour with a crown of thorns, and quick as thought she
turned over the leaves of the Bible, and marked with her finger the
passage—‘They platted a crown of thorns and put it about his head,’
Ac. This and many other portions of Scripture she turned to just
as she required to refer to them, although she could see nothing.
She also invariably selected a hymn to suit the portion of Scripture.
Before falling into this state, she stated she would recover at eleven
o’clock on Sunday night. At that hour last night her poor, miser¬
able residence was filled with all classes. At that hour she began
to give signs of returning to her usual state, and at about half-past
eleven she was quite restored to consciousness and the use of her
speech. Before recovering, she pointed out Zech. vi. 2—8 inclusive.
The reader will readily see the appropriateness of the passage by
referring to “ the Book.” She also pointed out the hymn by Charles
Wesley, beginning:—
‘ Glory to God, whose sovereign grace has animated senseless stones.’
The force of these verses, and their applicability to the present
revival, will at once be seen by any who will refer to the hymn.
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species of blameworthy connivance, permitted the evil to pro¬
ceed to maturity unchecked, would be perhaps equally in¬
structive, and certainly not less painful Doubtless to have
exposed the evil, if detected (and who might fail to detect
what was perfectly patent ?) would have cost something. The
penalty would have been persecution and libel in its most
debasing and demoralizing form, namely, the being made the
These portions of the Word of God and of the hymn-hook she
turned to while wholly destitute of the power or use of sight. On
recovering, her first act was to pray that God might make her use¬
ful in bringing others to the Saviour, and might preserve herself
from ever becoming * a castaway.’ This girl is in great poverty ,
and is an object of Christian charity.
Thus encouraged superstition attained its height and ended in
the most blasphemous attempts at delusion. In Belfast and its
neighbourhood were to be seen wretched females, on whose breasts
and arms appeared stigmata, marked in blue and other colors, al¬
leged to have been placed there miraculously, and exhibiting crowns
of thorns, texts of scriptures, and the name of the Redeemer, Ac.,
&c. In some cases these unhappy persons exhibited themselves for
money, and crowds went not only to see but to believe! The
clumsiness as well as the wickedness of such exhibitions were ap¬
parent, and yet they got admirers and approvers, and when need
was, apologists. In more than one case the sacred name was spelled
“ Jeasus ,” yet it was asserted to have been so inscribed by the hand
of God Himself.
Even while I write, this state of things has not entirely ceased.
In the same revivalist organ the Belfast News Letter , under date
November 24, the following marvel is related, and attested by the
signatures of two Presbyterian ministers—
The date is Drum, Co. Monaghan. “ At our ordinary prayer
meeting on yesterday evening we had upwards of 1000 people
present. Well may we say * what hath God wrought! * It was
true the report you heard. At one of our meetings for prayer, at
which there were a number of convictions, a dark cloud formed in
the ceiling, and, in course of a few minutes a number of forms
bursted out. One in particular was of human appearance, which
passed and repassed across all the lights, and descended to the pew
in which a young woman was rejoicing. The appearance lasted
three minutes or more, produced no terror but joy, especially among
all the converts. Perhaps 300 saw it and could testify to the re¬
ality. I cannot tell what it was ; the substance is in heaven, and
will not be visible until the time when every eye shall see Him.
We live however in strange times. Individuals see, or think they
see something, through which a sense of peace is imparted: &c.,
Ac., &c.”
Such are the teachings of the spiritual guides of the deluded and
self-deluding people. Need it be wondered at that revivalism is
producing results which cause intelligent Christians to blush ?
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subject of public prayers, in order that the parties so prayed
for might be converted. But the question remains, ought
not sum evils to have been exposed ? Some certainly did so,
from among the Ministers of the Establishment, while the
general body of the clergy of that church, with thankfulness
it must be added, stood aloof from “the madness of the
people,” in silent, and it may be believed, prayerful surprise
and disgust: but it must also be added that some, even of the
body referred to, were found to “join the revival” as it was
called, and in so doing, unconsciously it must be hoped, aid
the miserable design of those who turned it into selfish and
sectarian capital, of the very worst description.*
It is time, however, that we come to the physical aspect,
and thus to what, after all, has proved the leading feature
of the Ulster Revival. One observation here demands
especial attention, which is this: whatever was said or
thought at the time, it cannot now be denied that the
physical features in the case, were not merely an accompa¬
niment or an accident, as some would have them to be, but
a main, important, and, in truth, inseparable part of this
singular movement. In so saying, I would be understood
as characterizing that spasmodic, human imitation of what
is Divine, and therefore blessed, which was imported into
this town and neighbourhood, visibly and tangibly, by the
leaders of Revivalism. The fact, which cannot be denied,
that the entire of these physical seizures, which afterwards
assumed the form of an epidemic, and raged in Belfast for
some two or three months, were actually and visibly com¬
menced by the instrumentality of some “ converts ” from
the neighbourhood of Ballymena, goes far to illustrate this
portion of my subject. These manifestations appeared
to a large extent, and accompanied by unparalleled excite¬
ment, during the spring of the year, in the locality just
referred to. It was found that a sort of mesmerie influence
(for such it has actually proved), attended the presence and
addresses of some three or four peasants, who had for
several preceding months been exercising the office of
preachers in and about Ballymena. Some of these persons
* Among other useful pamphlets and tracts, on the subject of the Ulster
Revival, published during the time of its extreme excitement by ministers or
members of the Established Church, the following may be specified: Sermon , by
the Rev. G. Salmon, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin; The Work and
the Counter Work , by E. A. Stopford, Archdn. of Meath ; Sermon 9 by Rev. E.
Hincks, D.D., Rector of Killyebagh, Diocese of Down ; Words of Caution and
Counsel, by Rev. T. Mac Neece, D.D., Rector of Arboe, Diocese of Armagh,
Abp. King's Lecturer, T.C.D. A most valuable reply to the letters of two medi¬
cal practitioners in the town of Coleraine, and in refutation of certain most
erroneous views of theirs has more recently appeared from the pen of Stephen
Gwynn, jr., A.B., Coleraine.
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visited Belfast, at the invitation of certain Presbyterian
ministers, in the month of June. Immediately, the same
results followed here. Young women began to be
“ struck/' and I shall give the description of the manner in
which they, as well as others, were affected, in the words
of one of the leaders of Revivalism, the Rev. S. J. Moore,
Presbyterian Minister of Ballymena His words are:
“ The physical features. When the conviction as to its mental
process reaches its crisis, the person, through weakness, is unable
to sit or stand, and either kneels or lies down. A great number of
converts in this town (Ballymena) and neighbourhood, and now, I
believe in all directions in the north, where the Revival prevails,
are “ smitten down ” as suddenly, and they fall as nerveless and
paralyzed, and powerless, as if killed by a gun shot. They fall
with a deep groan, some with a wild cry of horror, the greater
number with the intensely earnest plea, “ Lord Jesus, have mercy
on my soul 1 ” The whole frame trembles like an aspen leaf, an
intolerable weight is felt upon the chest, a choking sensation is
experienced, and relief from this found only in the loud earnest
prayer for deliverance,” &o.
The intelligent reader will at once perceive in the above
extract, the singular mixture of the physical with the
psychical, or, as its author would prefer to call it with the
spiritual. This is as striking as it is suggestive, and
really affords a special clue tQ unravel the entire apparent
mystery of Ulster Revivalism. It may well and easily be
imagined what effect recitals, in still more minute detail,
such as the above would have, when given to over-crowded
assemblies, mostly of females, in over-heated atmospheres,
during the hottest days of the late unusually close summer.
Wherever the process was put into operation, it marvel¬
lously succeeded. Thus the revival was imported into
Belfast, and with those physical accompaniments it spread,
until the whole population was affected—the stronger
nerved, better fed, and less nervously susceptible with a
species of “reign of terror" feeling—the poor, weakly,
susceptible, and over wrought, as well as least instructed,
with that mysterious visitation, in all its forms and degrees
from simple hysteria to catalepsy, and mentally, from
amazement and bewilderment, to theomania and insanity,
in its other and most intense forms.
It may seem unsuitable that one, not professionally quali¬
fied, such as the writer, should enter into details respecting
the physical features of this singular epidemic affection, and
yielding to such a feeling, I shall make my observations
under this head as briefly as possible. At the same time,
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it is bat just to remark that, while every resident physician
of note and competence with whom I have conversed on
the subject entirely agrees on the diagnosis (so to speak),
which from an early stage of its prevalence, I was led to
take of the matter in question, but few of that profession
had seen many cases, some not a single one of the per¬
sons affected. This is a highly significant fact, and will at
once go far to characterize the movement, and to account
for the comparative silence of many of the able and highly
respectable medical practitioners of Belfast in this regard.
From the first it was accounted something like blasphemy
and impiety, that medical aid should be sought for any of
the “ cases.” It was believed to be a strictly Divine and
supernatural malady, to be treated by the ministers of religion
and church officers only. When a young woman dropped
“ as if by a gun shot,” and “ screeched ” (that is the word),
instantly these church officers, generally young men, rushed
to the spot, in the assembly, carried her out, convulsed and
a uivering in every feature and limb, and conveyed her to
be still more heated session room, vestry, or school room,
where the process of praying and singing over her was com¬
menced and carried on “ until she had got peace.” When
this state was not attained to in the crowded rooms just
mentioned, the sufferer was carried home, generally through
the streets, screaming or swooning, on a public conveyance,
and in her own often close and stifling dwelling, thronged
by the whole neighbourhood, the same process was con¬
tinued until the desired result, as above indicated, followed.
The convert was then employed as an agent of the revival;
indeed, as a matter of course, she (or he, as the case might
be), set forth on the avowed errand of bringing as many
others as possible, to the same condition, ana by the same
means. It is needless to pause here, in order to point out
the resemblances between all this, supposing it to be human
and imitative of what is really spiritual, and the reality
counterfeited; neither will it be needful to dwell on the con¬
sequences, but too certain to result from such an imitation;
ana, assuredly, results the most lamentable have followed.
The natural and providentially appointed means for meeting
the case were set aside; not a drop of water or a particle of
fresh air was allowed to the “ converts.” The physician of
the body was rudely and ignorantly thrust from his legitimate
position, while ill-informed and enthusiastic, not to say blind
spiritual guides, assumed his place, as well as abused their
own; and we are, even already, in a fair position to judge
what have been the consequences.
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Ulster Revivalism;
Under the circumstances just noticed, I may be permitted
to give expression to my convictions as to the physical
malady or maladies, which have been but lately prevalent
here, in an epidemic form. At an early stage of its devel¬
opment, I felt myself obliged publicly, to state my opinion,
that an epidemic disease, whose seat was in the nervous
system, had appeared, and was progressing in this locality.
To this opinion I felt justified in adhering all through; and
there are, I may add, few whose authority is worth quoting,
cognizant of the facts of the case, who will now deny its
correctness.
Even from what has been above stated, respecting the move¬
ment, the assertion will hardly be contravened that the phy¬
sical affections under consideration must be regarded as an
essential part of it. Let this be distinctly borne in mind. If
so, it will materially aid in the necessary discrimination
between the silent, real, and spiritual movement, more than
once referred to in these remarks, which many of devout
minds and sober judgment, thankfully recognize as in pro¬
gress, not only in these lands, but elsewhere, and that
dangerous imitation of the same, if not of human origin
certainly promoted and extended by human, and most
questionable means.
That bodily affections of an unusual type were prevalent
in Ulster during the months of June, July, and August, in
almost every instance, accompanying what was called the
revival movement, and connected with the same more or
less directly and immediately, none could or can deny.
Under sermons, at prayer meetings, and in their own houses,
people of both sexes and of all ages fell, as though shot by
a gun. Then followed the accustomed cries and subsequent
weakness or faintness, sometimes loss oi one or more senses;
and, by degrees, restoration of bodily ease and mental
possession. In almost every case the entire process was
marked by the religious character. The words uttered, the
sights alleged to have been seen in vision, and the peace
which followed, were of a perfectly stereotyped character.
The persons affected were, notoriously, in the proportion of
nineteen to twenty, of the same sex; females, of the same
age, from ten and twelve, to twenty or twenty-five, of
similar habits, most generally from the manufacturing class,
and almost universally of the very lowest order of mental
culture. Here, then, were certainly conditions of this
mental or spiritual epidemic, engrafted on the physical one,
which invited investigation, and admitted of generalization.
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a Retrospect, by the Rev. W. M'llwaine.
I may be permitted to state, that while in certain country
and outlying districts, and among a rural population, gene¬
rally well taught in the letter of scripture, the movement
assumed a mixed, and in some instances, a quiet, and as far
as religious impressions went, a really hopeful character,
when it reached this town, the capital, as it may be styled,
of manufacture in Ireland, and inhabited by a strangely
mixed population, the movement assumed a very different,
and I regret to add, a much more objectionable form.
As to the character, however, oi the physical element,
I must confess that almost from the first, no doubts rested
on my own mind. Hysteria was largely developed. This
will be (or at least was) pronounced an irreverent, perhaps
a profane assertion ; but let it be denied if possible. One
had but to consult any standard medical work on the sub¬
ject, at once to perceive the close resemblance, amounting
indeed to identity, between the then prevalent affections, and
those generally and properlv named, hysterical. I am quite
aware that some few gentlemen of the medical profession
have denied this position, and in a large measure, staked
their professional character on this denial; nevertheless, I
am thoroughly satisfied that, had the numerous cases of the
persons “ struck ” during the revival movement, been sub¬
mitted to competent medical treatment, instead of being
handed over to ministers and “ church officers/' the all but
universal opinion pronounced would have been in accord¬
ance with what I here venture to assert. In illustration of
it, I would just quote from the work of a physician of emi¬
nence, one extract. I allude to the “ Treatise on the
Nervous Diseases of Women ” by Thomas Laycock, M.D.,
(London, 1840.) My readers will not require to be re¬
minded that in this extract we have almost a counterpart of
what has taken place in Belfast, at the time referred to.
Under the general head of hysterical affections Dr.
Laycock thus writes—p. 179.
“The propensity to imitate has been considered as a simple
faculty of the mind, but it is in reality a very complex operation,
accordingly as circumstances vary. In most instances there must
be first a susceptibility of excitement developed, and this may he
either local or general. All local, spasmodical or rythmical move¬
ments are also more readily excited in proportion to their frequency;
or in other words the susceptibility is increased by repetition. * *
“ Hence females and children are more liable than men, indeed
are alone liable to epidemic and endemic convulsions. The mind,
however, may be so excited by oratory, or by religious exercises,
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Ulster Revivalism ;
that a temporary susceptibility is developed. The orator who
weepe or laments with the purpose of infecting his hearers, first pre¬
pares them by appealing to their feelings or passions. By a stranger
who came in unprepared to be moved to tears the orator would be
considered rather an object for ridicule than imitation. The infec¬
tious mirth of the social is very analagous; let on individual
suddenly join a laughing party—he will be disposed to be rather
morose than gay, and will perhaps surlily remark, that they are
amused at little cost of wit.
“It is in the convulsions of popular assemblies thus excited, that
we have an illustration of the effects of fearful attention, and the
type of those extraordinary epidemic and endemic choreas and odd
muscular movements which have, from time to time, caused so much
wonder. The most remarkable of these epidemics is that which
occurred in 1374, and followed the “ black death.” It found men's
minds excited by the dreadful scenes they had witnessed, and by
the ardent religious exercises they performed, with the hope of es¬
caping the desolating plague. In Aix la Chapelle, at that time the
focus of German superstition, the people formed circles hand in
hand, and appearing to have lost all control over their senses, con¬
tinued dancing for hours together in wild delirium, regardless of
the by-standers, until at length they fell to the ground in a state of
sheer exhaustion. They then complained of extreme oppression,
and groaned as if in the agonies of death until they were swathed,
or clothes tightly bound about their waists, on which they recovered.
They were swathed to relieve the tympanitis from which they
suffered. When the disease was completely developed, the attack
oommenced with epileptic convulsions. According to Mezeray, as
quoted by Sauvages, in Holland it was called St. John’s dance, mid
the people crowned with flowers, and naked, went dancing and
singing through the streets and churches.” * * * •
“Many similar instances might be mentioned. In Lanarkshire,
in 1742, convulsions resembling the preceding, that is, accompanied
by a religious mania, spread epidemically; and the same occurred
more recently in Tenessee and Kentucky. Sometimes little or no
religious feeling was complicated with the epidemic; as in Zetland,
in 1744; in Angus-shire, under the name of the leaping ague; and
in Wales, in 1796, as described by Dr. Haygarth. Wherever, in
feet, a number of females or children assemble together, and two
or three become affected by convulsions, it is exceedingly likely
many others will be affected also, and hence the numerous histories
in which they are described as attacking the female and juvenile in¬
mates of factories, schools, congregations, hospitals and families.”
Another testimony of even more practical value may be
adduced. During the height of the then prevailing excite¬
ment Belfast was visited by a gentleman, eminent for
sagacity and intelligence, and although not of the medical
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a Retrospect, by the Rev. W. MTlwaine.
profession, one who had, owing to peculiar circumstances,
made hysterical complaints his special study, and who was
known as a writer and lecturer on the subject. I allude to
the Ven. E. A. Stopford, Archdn. of Meath. The result of his
personal investigations, accurately and painfully conducted,
is given in a pamphlet, entitled. The Work and the Counter¬
work, published shortly afterwards. This pamphlet ought to be
in the hands of any person anxious to form an accurate
opinion on the late movement in Ulster. A movement of a
similar kind is already commencing in England; and,
although it may not, in that country, where the Saxon
element prevails, be productive of effects similar to those by
which it was marked in its course among our Celtic popu¬
lation, I cannot forbear a most solemn warning to all con¬
cerned, and especially to my brethren, the clergy, should it
come amongst themselves and their flocks unprepared for
its visitation.
While on the subject of warning, I cannot avoid giving
utterance to another, respecting a perfect deluge of small
publications at present making their appearance From the
English, and especially the London press. I have already
glanced at some of these, and laid them down with feelings of
the deepest regret. They are generally from the pens of well-
meaning and doubtless religious, but in almost every case
most enthusiastic persons,—including Ministers of various
denominations, military officers, and even lady-tourists. The
oonlewr de rose which glows on the pages of these brochures
may be, and no doubt is, highly attractive to those parties, at
a distance, for whose benefit and information these little
publications have been sent forth; while to one conversant
with the Irish character, bom and living among its population,
the impressions produced by the conviction that these English,
and even Scottish visitors, have been totally misguided in
their impressions, and have erred in their conclusions and ex¬
pectations, approaches to regretful certainty.
To return, however, to Archdeacon Stopford : that gentle¬
man’s deliberate conclusion respecting “all the cases’’ seen
by him in Belfast was, that they were “ clearly and unmis-
t&keably hysterical.” As before observed, the value of this
conclusion can only be appreciated by a perusal of his tract,
and I again venture to urge this on all concerned. In explain¬
ing some of the phenomena witnessed by him, this writer goes
on to observe—(p. 23)
“The prevalence of hysteria in connection with religious
revival, is by no means so unaccountable as it may at first
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Ulster Revivalism;
sight appear. It is of the nature of the disease (1) To attach
to any idea connected with itself; (2) To be propagated by
sympathy; (3) To imitate any form of hysteric action seen or
heard of.”
With such corroborative testimony, I may well be permitted
to reiterate the assertion that nearly all the phenomena, some
of them of a most painful kind, exhibited here during the
revival excitement, were due to the existence and prevalence
of this terrible complaint One objection, frequently urged to
this statement, is that males were so affected ; and the
answer is found in the well-known fact, given on the authority
already quoted (Dr. Laycock) and others, that this is far from
an unknown occurrence. I can myself entertain no doubt,
from personal observation during the late excitement, that
not only were hysterical affections noticeable in males, but
other species of connected malady, such as chorea, and
epileptic, and even cataleptic hysteria; all, of course, in a
modified form.
It is perfectly painful, in a retrospect like the present^ to
recall not only the actions, but the expressions of many, even
teachers of religion, on this and kindred subjects, during the
presence among us of the revival fervour. For example, in
the month of July last, when this delusion was at its height,
and numberless unhappy young females were falling victims
to these hysterical paroxysms, one clergyman of the Estab¬
lished Church addressed his congregation, from the pulpit, in
this town, as reported in the public journals in these words—
“ The physical manifestations were complained of. Were
they to determine how the Holy Ghost should work ? The
physical effects would pass away, and the bodily strength
would be renewed, and the sinner, in most instances, converted.
The Christian man, he believed, would pause before he
attempted to put down what was producing such blessed
results. It was said to be hysteria. Then he would say
hysteria for us all, when it produced such results. Any thing
to arouse the soul. He would thank God if any member of
his congregation should be so affected, rather than that any
of them should remain in deep torpor of soul and go into
everlasting destruction. He believed the work was entirely
of God.”
Such statements, pronounced during the reign of as, I
believe, a fearful popular delusion, and in the presence of a
terrible physical malady, over a congregation including, no
doubt, many young and otherwise nervously excitable females
and others, require no comments. The most charitable sup-
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197
position is, that the person who uttered it was in entire, and
I will add, happy ignorance, of the fearful malady referred to.
These retrospective remarks must, however, be brought to
a close. What, then, shall be said of the results of the move¬
ment, viewed socially? Some will readily reply, as the
popular expositors and pamphleteers already cited, and not a
few on the spot, that these have been excellent, surpassing
almost credibility, as evidenced by the most mighty social
reformation ever witnessed in any land. Of all this I must
acknowledge that I entertain grave doubts. Certain it is that
the most conflicting accounts are abroad on this very subject,
and that exaggeration to an almost incredible amount has
prevailed on the side of revivalism. My individual experience,
living as I do in its very centre, is, that while vice has been
checked to a certain extent, and for which all who love
Christian morality feel deeply th^pkful, this very alleged
extent has been most thoroughly exaggerated, and that there
is, moreover, an extreme danger of a very grievous reaction
setting in.
Just to give an example or two, the revival journals boast
of drrn&iTigr-habits being all but exterminated, and of public-
houses innumerable being closed. I have ascertained that no
single public-house, in this entire town, has been, from these
alleged causes, closed during the past twelvemonths. The
same organs published, some few months ago, a most marvel¬
lous account of the reformation spreading among women of
profligate character. As a proof, it was stated that nine of
such unhappy persons were “ struck” and converted during
the course of one day, and had left their wretched occupation.
I made enquiry immediately afterwards, and found that from
some of the prevalent causes it was a fact that several of these
poor creatures, I believe nine, had taken temporary refuge in
the union workhouse ; but I also ascertained, that in a very
few days, they, every one of them, returned to their abandoned
habits. So I might go on to multiply instances, affording to
my own mind at least, ample ground for caution before such
glowing anticipations of coming and general reformation are
arrived at and rested on.
One more immediate result from the progress of “ revi¬
valism” in this province, must, in justice to the subject, be
specified. Insanity , generally in one of its worst forms,
Theomania, and not unfrequently in others, perhaps equally
to be dreaded, such as acute mania, has been developed to a
fearful extent. Speaking guardedly, I may assert that, from
unquestionable sources, I have come to the knowledge of at
VOL. VI. no. 32. p
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Dr. Harrington Tuke on
least fifty such cases within the last six months in tins imme¬
diate neighbourhood. In three of our asylums, not to mention
the numerous cases which could not, and cannot be admitted,
owing to the overcrowded condition of the asylums, no fewer
than thirty-three patients (five male and twenty-eight female)
have been received, during the space of time above mentioned,
whose derangement is clearly referable to this cause.
I am aware that apologists have been found for revivalism,
even under this head of indictment; but few sober-minded
and unprejudiced professors of Christianity will join them.
The religion of Scripture and of Reason, revealed for the
blessing and salvation of our race, and applied by the Spirit
of Truth, never issued in insanity, however it may have
rendered sane the mentally afflicted.
Such is a personal retrospect of the movement* strange but
by no means unparalleled. Fast eras and other lands, have
furnished others quite as singular and almost identical in their
features and results. Time is abundantly testing that which
has but just rolled over Ulster; nor have I the least doubt
but that the verdict of all who can judge with unbiassed
minds and Christian discernment, will, before long, be given
in favour of the views which, as an attentive observer, I have
here ventured to submit to public consideration.
On General Paralysis. By Dr. Harrington Turk.
(Continued from page 93.)
In attempting to describe the rise and progress of the
paralysis, that forms one of the most remarkable symptoms
of * paralytic insanity,’ I propose to notice first the affection
of the muscles of the tongue, which is generally that which
most strongly arrests the attention of the physician, who sees
a patient in the second or fully-developed stage of the malady.
In the last stage, the power of articulation is entirely gone; in
both of these the paralysis is so marked, and the evidence of
mental disease so clear, that the nature of the case can hardly
be mistaken. It is in the very onset of the malady, that the
peculiar lisp or failure of utterance, indicating disorder of
the nervous centres, at or near the orifice of the nerves supply.
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mg the tongue muscles, is of paramount importance in the
diagnosis, because if this symptom be superadded to eccen¬
tricity of conduct, or distinct delusion, there can remain but
little doubt as to the existence of this special and almost
invariably fatal form of disease. Hie alienist physician
accustomed to watch the progress of general paralysis, and to
recognize its slightest indication, cannot mistake the faulty
pronunciation in question, for that of any other form of
malady ; but inasmuch as there are several affections of the
speech that might mislead an unskilled practitioner, it may be
useful to describe some of these derangements of the apparatus
of articulation, and specify their points of difference. In the
first place, an affection of the speech, very much resembling
the embarassed articulation of incipient paralytic insanity,
may be the result of temporary local congestion at the base
of the brain, or may be produced by sudden fright, or by the
action of poisons, particularly aconite ; the indistinct utterance
attending intoxication, is a familiar instance of poisoning of
this kina : and all these are easily distinguished by the sudden¬
ness of their occurrence, and by their history, from the stutter
of general paralysis. The articulation of the habitual stam¬
merer is sometimes not unlike that which is the result of
serious organic mischief; and still more striking in its re¬
semblance, is the hesitation of speech, that may be observed
in some cases of poisoning by lead. The ordinary signs of
saturnine poisoning, the blue gum-line, the dropping of the
wrist, &c., will mark this latter malady—the history of the case
will prevent any mistake in the former. I may mention here,
that I believe it to be an exceptional occurrence to find a
person of unsound mind who stammers; such a case at least
must be very uncommon, a fact which I can only account for
on the supposition that the greater disease prevents any
manifestation of the minor nervous derangement.
There is another very remarkable speech affection which is
not uncommon, and is important to recognize as being evidence
of a serious brain disease, although altogether distinct from
the disorder we are considering. This sympton may be either
apparent in the utterance of one word for another, without the
consciousness of the patient, or in the changing of one word
for another from a defect of memory, or from both of these
causes combined. Dr. Watson gives a remarkable instance of
the first form in his “ Lectures,” the case was one of effusion
on the brain, which ended at last fatally, the patient wishing
to say “ pamphlet'’ called it “camphor,” and wishing to say
“ not quite right” he abbreviated it into “ n’ i’ quite.” His
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Dr. Harrington Tuke on
intellect appeared undisturbed. In these cases the same word
is sometimes always applied to the same thing, so that those
in attendance on the patient learn to understand him; Dr.
Abercrombie gives as an instance the case of a gentleman
who, when he wanted “coals,’* said “paper,” conversely ask¬
ing for paper, when he required it under the name of “ coals.”
In the case of a lady, whose state of mind became the subject
of a legal enquiry, in the course of which I was consulted,
tbis symptom was strangely marked: she had had an apoplectic
seizure some months before, but there were at that time no
symptoms of paralysis of the limbs remaining; she spoke
volubly, frequently, however, putting one word for another,
as ‘ sister* for ‘ brother,’ ‘ workhouse 7 for * asylum,’ sometimes
appearing conscious, and sometimes not, of the mistakes she
was making. Another most marvellous speech affection is
manifested in those cases, in which the patient, after disease
that has attacked the brain, speaks in spite of himself another
language. This is not so purely mental as may be imagined.
In a case that came under my own observation, after a long
continued cataleptic seizure, the patient entirely lost the power
of utterance; the first articulate sounds he made for some
months, were an imitation of the key bugle, and for a long
time he expressed his wants by a rude imitation of its notes,
he afterwards spoke a Dutch patois, which no one could under¬
stand, and it was twelve months before he could express him¬
self in English.
Serious as are all these forms of speech affection, and im¬
portant as they must be considered in their bearing upon
disease, they are entirely distinct from the stammer of incipi¬
ent general paralysis, which slight as it is, is yet of an import
as grave as that of any one of them. The ear of the physician
accustomed to the treatment of the insane, detects instantly
this fatal lisp ; it is to him an almost unerring index, not only
of the malady itself, but of the stage which it has reached ;
and whether he does, or does not, believe that the disease of
the brain it indicates is incurable, he must know that it is
serious, and by no means likely to yield quickly to treatment.
Easy as this symptom is to recognize in practice, it is by no
means easy to describe it in words. Guislain, who speaks of
the “ characteristic hesitation” of general paralysis, and of
the trembling of the tongue in the formation of words and
sentences, does not attempt to do more, resting satisfied with
having pointed out its value in diagnosis. Calmeil lays special
stress upon the embarrassment of the articulation in these
cases, and thus describes it: “ The words are no longer dis-
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tinctly articulated, the patient is forced to make an effort to
speak, the words do not follow readily; there is a kind of
begaiement much resembling that which is observable in
drunken men."
Superior in graphic portraiture to this description of
CalmeiTs, is the account of the affection of the speech in
general paralysis, which Dr. Conolly has given in the Croonian
Lecture already referred to. Dr. Conolly has, moreover,
described a more initial stage of the malady, one still more
difficult to describe in words. There is in these patients, he
says, “ not a stammer, no letter or syllable is repeated, but
there is a slight delay, a lingering or error, a quivering in the
formation of the successive words or syllables, apparently
from a want of prompt nervous or motive influence in the
lips and the tongue." Dr. Bucknill, speaks of this speech-
affeetion as being of “more value in the diagnosis of
the early stage of paralysis than all the others," and he
very happily likens the “tremulous motion of the lips” so
frequent in these cases, to that seen in persons “about to
burst into passionate weeping." It is impossible for those
who have once seen the symptoms, not to be struck with the
exact fidelity of this description.
It is not difficult to understand why it is that the articulation
should so soon be affected in this disorder. The number and
variety of muscles that move the tongue, and the necessity for
their exact co-ordination to produce the complex movements
concerned in the human utterance, render it obvious that a
paralysis affecting the general nervous system, would be likely
to appear first in muscles so delicate in their action, and so
much under the immediate influence of the nerves. The pro¬
gress of these cases demonstrates that this is probably the
correct view; the patient, although the practised ear detects
the fatal begaiement , can at first protrude his tongue with
ease, and does so sometimes to the last; but in the great
majority of cases, the tongue-muscles in a later stage become
distinctly paralyzed, the patient can only thrust it from his
mouth by a succession of efforts, and withdraws it in the same
manner; some patients will even attempt to drag it from
their mouths witn their fingers, conscious of their inability to
effect its protrusion by natural/ efforts. In this particular form
of paralysis, the tongue is not turned more to one side than
the other, unless from some accidental mal-position, or absence
of teeth, and this will assist in the diagnosis of general from
ordinary paralysis, already, however, sufficiently separated by
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Dr. Harrington Tuke on
the suddenness or slowness of their respective approaches.
Dr. Bucknill has attempted to classify the letters in the
pronounciation of which there seems to be the greatest
difficulty, words, he says, “ composed of numerous consonants
are shuffled over in a very marked manner.” I have not
succeeded in verifying this, no two patients seem to me alike
in this respect, nor does the same patient always fail upon the
same sounds. The fact has not escaped Dr. Bucknill, that the
speech of these patients will sometimes become temporarily
much more distinct, and that in the early stage of the disorder,
by an effort of volition, they can articulate any given word
correctly. A clergyman under my care, whose speech is
almost unintelligible, will yet read the church service
seldom failing in any word, aud although not able to read
fast, he can read distinctly. I have sometimes fancied that
the liquids, especially the L’s, are more difficult to pronounce,
but it is almost impossible to demonstrate this, or to find two
physicians whose experience will coincide. There is another
symptom, which although not strictly connected with any
abnormal change in the mechanism of speech, is still common
in general paralysis. At the end of a sentence the patient
will repeat the last word over and over again, without any
regard to its value in the emphasis, sometimes a whole sentence
is thus repeated. In some patients there is great loquacity at
the commencement of the illness; others are less talkative ;
both finally become totally speechless.
As the earlier approaches of the physical symptoms of
general paralysis clearly indicate the base of the brain as
being one of the seats of morbid deposit, or structural change,
it might be expected that the nerves supplying the organs of
special sense, together with the fifth pair, and the facial nerves
would soon give evidence of diseased action. Accordingly,
a failure of power in the auditory nerve is common, and
amaurosis, even going to total blindness, not very rare; I
have myself seen it occur in two cases. The effect of the
diminution of nerve force, and loss of tone in the nerves
supplying the muscles of the face, is evinced by the trembling
of the lips, mentioned already, and by a very characteristic
symptom, that has not, I think, been sufficiently remarked.
The pathognomonic value of the drawing up of the angle of
the mouth, and of the flaccid buccinator widely blown out in the
coma of eflusion, is well understood ; equally valuable to the
alienist physician, is the peculiar expression of the face which
marks the incipient stage of general paralysis. It is not on
entire loss of motion, the muscles still act, although in a later
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General Paralysis.
stage they do become really paralyzed, and the patient lies
with the face covered as it were with a mask of immovable
muscular tissue; but even in a very early stage, there is a
marked look of indifference, frequently accompanied with
drooping of the upper, and infiltration of the lower eyelids.
There is a heavy and sensuous expression about the mouth,
the lips becoming full and relaxed ; the eyes are prominent;
the features rounded from deposition of adipose tissue; the
whole character of the face changes, the emotions are no
longer expressed in it, or at least not so vividly, and its
rigidity is in startling contrast with the general vivacity of
speech, and restless movement of the patients.
The absence of all anxiety in the countenance, producing
the same appearance of youth, which is frequently so striking
in the face of the dead, is often manifest in these cases of
general paralysis. I was much struck by the remark of a
witness in an important lunacy inquiry into the state of miud
of a gentleman whom I believed to be a subject of this
disease, but whom the witness considered perfectly well, and
had indeed met for the purpose of attesting his signature to a
will: “ I had not seen my friend,” he said, “ since we were
boys at Eton, and I was much surprised at his still youthful
appearance, he seemed quite unchanged.” This boyish look
in men past even the middle period of life is very striking,
and is not, I think, observable in any other form of brain
disease. The tone of the muscles of the face being impaired,
they no longer vary with the emotions of the swift-divining
mind : the partially paralyzed muscles no longer show the
lines indicative of care, of sorrow, of ambition, or remorse, but
reassume the look they wore in boyhood, before the physiog¬
nomy was stamped with the traces of other passions than
hope and love. It is quite possible that the peculiar mental
contentment which is so characteristic of some forms of
paralytic insanity may have some share in producing this
peculiar facies ; but the rigid look, the fearfully youthful face,
may be found conjoined with the sighs of a melancholic, the
suspicious reveries of the monomaniac, or the mutterings of the
perfectly demented lunatic, as frequently as in the earliest
stage of that general paralysis, in which none of these symp¬
toms appear till towards the close of life.
I have spoken of the deranged action of the muscles of the
tongue, of the impairment in the power of the special senses,
of the want of tone, ending at last in perfect paralysis of the
facial muscles, and I have stated the universal opinion that all
these depend upon centric disorders affecting the nervous
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functions. It may then be asked, to what extent is the power
of sensation in the nerves impaired. The evidence on this
point is not so clear. It is abundantly certain that in the later
stages, sensation is blunted to a very great extent, if not en¬
tirely lost I have seen patients bear without sign of suffering
what would be to others absolute torture; but in the earlier
stage it is difficult to get any reliable data for our decision.
The symptom mentioned by Dr. Bucknill, the grinding of the
teeth by some of these patients, is evidence that in them at
least sensation is gone, as there can be no more forcible example
of delicate sensory power than is afforded by the dental di¬
vision of the superior max illary nerves, and if any sensation
remained it is hardly possible that so painful a process could
be continued ; and that the grinding movement is not simply
spasmodic, is proved by the fact of its being discontinued
during sleep.
The origin ot the motor portion of the fifth nerve is so en¬
tirely distinct from that which supplies the sensory nerves of
the teeth are derived, that it is easy to understand the possibility
of the function of one being impaired or destroyed, while that
of the other is only weakened or even unaffected; but the
presence of active grinding movements of the jaw, produced
by muscles supplied from the same nerve would be almost in¬
explicable did we not know that the internal pterygoid nerve,
which is mainly concerned in the production of the grinding
movement of the jaw, receives a large branch from the optic
ganglion, and therefore the muscle it supplies becomes inde¬
pendent to some extent, of any injury or disease affecting only
the fifth nerve.
At an early period after the accession of physical symptoms
in paralytic insanity, a peculiar carriage of the head forms a
very prominent feature. It is no longer unconsciously balanced
upon the shoulders as in health; the patient seems to support
it by a voluntary effort, and there is thus a rigidity of the
neck induced which is very characteristic of the disease.
It has been a much discussed question whether the progres¬
sive paralysis that usually marks this disorder, appears first in
the lower or in the upper extremities ; from my own observa¬
tion, and from an examination of the arguments adduced on
both sides, I have no doubt whatever that the upper extremi¬
ties are really first attacked, although the want of power in
the lower limbs, would naturally be the first to attract atten¬
tion. In the onset of the malady as Foville has pointed out
there is rather a want of precision of the muscular movements
than absolute paralysis, and in such cases as I am describing
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in which the disease is gradual in its advances, the progress
from this impairment of muscular power to its entire loss can
be traced. In the early stage there is a want of equilibrium;
in walking the legs are set apart, the balance of the column
is attempted to be preserved by widening its base, the gait is
staggering, the patient walks as if about to run, jerking one
leg forward; at a later period he stumbles, the limbs can
no longer support the trunk, which lies finally an inert mass.
The course of the disorder in the upper extremities is not so
demonstrable, but it will be found at an early stage, that the
power of delicate manipulation is lost, the hand-writing is
greatly changed, the patient lifts his arm slowly and with diffi¬
culty to his head, the grasp is weakened, and at last the upper
extremities become motionless. A curious illustration of
the truth of Foville’s remark as to want of precision in
the muscles being rather the fault than want of power, at
least in the early stage of general paralysis, was afforded by a
patient of mine, who, though he walkea very badly, and with
the jerk so characteristic of the malady, yet could dance to
music very well, and often did so, although soon obliged to
desist from fatigue.
In thus going through the physical symptoms of paralytic
insanity, it must be remembered that I am only describing
the type of the disease, when occurring, as it frequently does,
in a young subject, and running its course without complica¬
tion. In the great majority of cases the supervention of ‘ fits/
the disturbance of the circulation in attacks of maniacal fury,
either as their cause or their effect, produce changes in the
sequence of the symptoms and in the symptoms themselves,
it is not uncommon to have true paralysis of one side arising
from the presence of a clot of blood poured out upon the
brain, which will again become absorbed, leaving the patient
perhaps a little worse than before, but still not the less a
sufferer from paralytic insanity. The possibilty of compli¬
cations of this nature is obvious, and the frequency of their
occurrence is demonstrable, and will merit consideration, when
I enter upon the pathology of the malady.
One of the most distressing symptoms in this fearful malady,
is almost invariable in its later stage, and is sometimes present
from its very commencement. I allude to the paralysis of the
sphincters which is a source of so much trouble and annoy¬
ance to those around the patient, although fortunately little
noticed by himself. This once set in is believed to be an
evidence of serious disorganization of the brain, and renders
the prospect of recovery almost if not entirely hopeless.
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Mediaeval Therapeutics of Insanity.
The Cure of a Madde Manvne; from the Secretes of the
Reverend Maister Alexis, of Piemont, translated by John
Kynoston, 1580.
“ A notable secrete to heall a madde manne, be it that the
madnesse came unto hyme by a whirlyng or giddenesse of
the hedde or braine, or otherwise.
“Firste of all, make hym fower glisters, in fower mornynges,
one after another. Let the first glister be simple, that is to
saie, made with water wherein ye have boiled or sodden
wheate, branne, common oile, and salt. Let the seconde be
of water sodden with mallowes, mercurie, pellitozie of the
wall, and violet leaves, with oile and salt. Let the third be
of water boiled with oile, salt sodden with wine and honie.
And let the fourth glister be of the like decoction that the
third was, addyng to it endive, buglosse, and the tops of the
branches of walnott. After that this decoction is strained, ye
wall putte to it an once of cassia fistula, and halfe a quarter
of an once of metridate. Now hauyng given hym these
fower glisters, fower sundrie mornynges, you shall give hym
this medicine. Polipodium of an oke well stamped a hand-
full or twaine, and wryng out the juice of it, and putte in a
glasse the quantitie of twoo fingers hie, putting to it twoo
onces of honie roset, and a quarter of an once of electuarie
roset, and as muche of diafenicon. All these thynges beyng
incorporated together, give them unto the pacient to drinke
at night when he goeth to bedde, twoo or three howers after
the sonne is set, and give it hym lukewarm; if in case he will
not take it, binde hym and hold hym perforce, make hym
ope his mouthe, put some sticke betwene his teeth, and then
poure the medicine into his throte as men doe unto horses.
And when he hath taken all, if it be in winter, you shall
make hym sit so upon his bedde halfe an hower, well covered
rounde about, to the intent he take no cold after it: if it be
in sommer, ye maie let him goe aboute the house where he
will, but see that he goe not out. When the medicine hath
doen his operation, take this ointment followyng : that is to
saie, a pounde and a halfe of the juice of walnott, whereunto
you shall adde as muche butter: boile this together a good
while, until all the juice bee almoste consumed, then put to it
oile of camomill, oile roset, oile of Sainet Ihons worte, of eche
of them an once. Incorporate well all these thynges on the
fire, and make thereof an ointemente, wherewith you shall
annointe the paciente, from the necke unto the feete, armes,
and legges and all: but the ointemente must be hotte, and he
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Mediceval Therapeutics of Insanity.
must be so well annointed and rubbed, that the ointemente
maie penetrate and perce through. Continue doyng this the
space of a monethe, annointyng hym every evenyng and
momyng, or at the leaste once a daie. The third or fowerth
daie, after yon have begon to annointe hym, bume hym with
a hot yron upon the seame, or ioynyng together of the heade,
and at the firste, laie upon the marke a linnen clothe with
barrowes grease, leauyng it to the space of eight or ten daiee :
and after wrappe a greate cyche pease in ivie leaves, and put
uppon the saied ivie leaues, a piece of the sole of a shoe made
fine and thinne, bindyng it under his throte with some bande,
or beneath his heade, so that it maie bide on, and chaunge it
alwaies at night, and in the momyng. If in case he passe
fower monethes, and receive not healthe, or returne to his
witte, you must begin againe to give hym the said glisters he
had before, and the same medicines, annointyng hym as
before : and without doubte (by the grace of God) he shall be
whole. He must eate at the beginnyng chickens, mutton,
and roste veale: after you maie give hym roste and sodde,
with potage of amilum, beetea, and mallowes, and also news
laied egges, puttyng spices into his meate causyng him some*
lyme to eate (either in his potage or otherwise) betaine, sage,
maiora and mint, not sufferyng hym in anywise to take gait,
sharpe or eger thinges, poulsecorne, garlike, onions, nor suche
like: ye maie give hym white wine with water; let hym also
carry ever about hym some good odours, and heare melodie or
musicke: speake often tymes soberly and wisely unto him,
admonishing hym to bee wise and sage, rebuke hym of his
follie when he dooeth or speaketh any fonde thynges : And
in suche case the authoritie of some faire woman availeth
muche, to tell hym all these thinges: for good admonitions
are of greatt vertue and strength, for to eetablishe and settle
a braine, troubled or disquieted with any sickneese or passion.”
The Physiognomy of Insanity . By John Conollt, M.D.
D.C.L., Consulting Physician to the Hanwell Asylum.
('Medical Times and Gazette, 1858-590
Dr. Conolly has recently concluded a series of thirteen
papers on the Physiognomy of Insanity, in the Medical
Tvmes and Gazette, illustrated by some very beautiful photo-
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Dr. Conolly on the
graphs from the portfolio of our accomplished associate Dr.
Diamond, of Twickenham. We shall in this place make a
few selections from the observations bearing on the general
question of mental disease, and its exciting causes, with which
Dr. Conolly has interspersed his special remarks on the in¬
dividual portraits before him. The several papers are written
with that grace and felicity of expression which so characterize
all Dr. Conolly’s literary contributions.
Influence of Mental Emotion on the Physiognomy.
“The same face!” “Bring me back the same face!”
Simple expressions these would seem to be, quoted by Lavater,
uttered by some simple and sensitive German parent, as his
only request, when taking leave of his son, who, in the morn¬
ing of life, is quitting a quiet home of affection for all that
awaits him in the wide world. But the simple words dwell
with us, and we perceive that there is deep meaning in them.
Passions, good or bad ; and trials and struggles ; and pain and
sorrow ; and Time—will all write their peculiar characters on
that youthful candid face; characters which death alone, with
its effacing fingers, will take away; nay, which will still for a
brief period survive, and dignify or mar the immovable face
of death itself.
“ This strange writing on the human face soon begins ; and it
goes on as long as intellectual and moral life lasts. The
transient griefs of childhood, and even the crueller sorrows of
school days, although schoolmasters have not yet learned that
boys, as well as maniacs and horses, may be managed without
brutality, leave no indelible traces; for the attention is at
that early period easily attracted to new objects ; and the
imagination makes perpetual excursions in advance of present
events. So, the angles of the mouth remain still level; no
perpendicular wrinkles yet mark the phrenological region of
individuality ; and in the corners of the eyes there are yet no
furrows formed by tears. The first facial impressions are
those of after-study, or of premature care or premature toil,
and these are as various as their causes, solemnizing the
countenance of the student of truth in science or moms, or
carving betimes some lines, faint but discernible, indicating
the over-worked in body and mind. For twenty years more,
or even thirty, the face is the face of the mature man; the
impress of important thoughts there, but the beauty of youth
not gone. The painter or the sculptor may yet copy the
complexion or the form and features of the face, and its full
expression, so as to perpetuate the man as he was before Time
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began to delve his parallels in the brow. The colour of early
youth may have faded, but a healthy freshness long remains ;
and, where the thoughts are unselfish, and the heart still pure,
the joyous smile of those whose minds are yet unclouded by
the shadows of coming events still irradiates the features.
Manhood has succeeded, but with noble discourse of reason,
and energies prompting to action: and now in the human
face divine are imprinted combinations of beauty and strength,
and godlike apprenension ; or, on the other hand, the slowly
drawn lines of creeping and engrossing selfishness and cunning
and cold avarice, may begin to be detected even amid features
of general beauty. Thus some men, although early withdrawn
from transient life, and withering and dying ere middle age,
live long enough to survive all youth’s freshness of look, as
well as all freshness of heart; and expire, merely lamenting
that death closes some prospect of gold, or of mortal possessions
and privileges : their pinched features more and more closely
drawn together, as if to exclude the approach of more generous
movements: and such features, so impressed, make death
hideous ; which naturally it is not Mean and evil thoughts
alone make it so. Canova, after a life of devotion to the
Beautiful, (and who so often embodied it in sculpture, which is
allied to all that is sublime in poetry,) was visited in the
mortal hour with visions unearthly, and perhaps divine. Ho
exclaimed, more than once,—“ Anima divina e pura !”—and
his features, after death, seemed to be such as we hope to
meet in the “solemn troops and sweet societies” of heaven.
Others of noble stamp, also, are seen prematurely, as we
creatures of a day deem it, to die out uselessly; but yet seem
to end their few years of promise with better retrospections,
and with anticipations greater still; their fading earthly hopes
catching some orient tinge beyond death’s night. But, in
some shape or other, when manhood has been attained, time
has begun to set its indelible stamp on us all. In all who
survive the period of life, when, not consciousness, but the
ftlmanaft , tells us that fifty years are passed and gone, every
face, of man or woman, becomes more and more a book in
which the life and thoughts are written in hieroglyphics, to be
deciphered by those who have acquired skill in such reading.
Almost at a glance we discern the signs and quaint shapes of
habitual thoughts and occupations, of station and rank, of
command or obedience, of conscious wealth, and all the
varieties of broken-down respectability; of intellectual great¬
ness and calmness, or of vain assumption, or of brazen pre¬
tension ; and indeed of all the differential gradations of social
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Dr, Conolly on the
and mental life, down to the worn face of ignominious toil,
and to the unmistakeable abjectness of nature or position,
from which the eyes, even of the good and kind, turn painfully
away.
“In the meantime old age keeps steadily advancing, although
usually considered so distant that its voice startles those who
find it close at hand, and who are unwarned by failing facul¬
ties, or even by the ever-accumulating wrinkles which have
curiously usurped all the face that was once so smooth and
unruffled. Year after year the sculpture of age goes on.
Friends who meet after forty years separation do not recog¬
nise one another. Every subsequent twelvemonth has left its
trace in some feature or another. The mouth, once a double
arc, expressive of what Medical prose cannot convey, has
perhaps become a stereotyped sorrow, with lines drawn down
laterally from its corners. There are griefs written in the
eyes which have never been expressed in words. Thousands
of intersecting lines are scribbled over the cheeks, as if a
thousand elves had been employed to vaiy tbem. The fairest
and broadest and loftiest forehead presents ugly lines, the
shabby work of daily troubles, and of those especially which
fall on defenceless senility. Yet the eyes, though grief-worn,
long retain something of their immortal light, still remaining
lustrous and noble, when a great and good soul shines
through them to the latest breath ; but nevertheless tw inkling
cunningly and ominously, in those whose mortal sight has
been ever bent on the rich base pavement of the world.
“Such are the usual footsteps and impressions of the ordinary
feelings, actuating the minds of the majority of persons in
their progress through the allotted years of man on this
preparatory globe. But when a mind becomes not merely
excited or disturbed, not merely anxious or sorrowful, or even
exclusively devoted to an engrossing passion, but actually
deranged in its operations, these traces of long workmanship
are generally all at once and curiously modified. The wander¬
ing attention, the fragmental memory, and the wild imagina¬
tion, suspend or throw into confusion all the ordinary pursuits
and offices of life of the individual; and no leas usurp the
control of the facial muscles, in various and remarkable
degrees. Hie same circumstances modify nearly all the
voluntary muscular actions of the body, influencing the move-»
ments of the arms and legs, and producing oddities in the
mode of doing common things, as well as in the adjustment
of dress; so that a man’s whole exterior becomes indicative of
his interior commotion, or of hi£ disordered mind. Such in-
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dicatioD8 are usually obvious, and, to an observer of the
infinitely diversified figures met in the streets of London,
S uite familiar. Oddities of appearance and of costume are
iere occasionally beheld, which are scarcely to be found in
the orderly and well-regulated wards of modern asylums for
those avowedly mad ; and which, as yet, neither the novelist
nor the painter have attempted to describe.”
Suicidal Melancholy.
“ A tendency to melancholy, or what is called the melan¬
cholic temperament—defined as meditative, serious, and often
sad—is frequently associated with great mental qualities, and
characterized by elevated views, allied, also, with fervent pas¬
sions and strong attachments ; intertwined with poetry, with
meditations, perhaps visions; of large reforms in human
policy and in religion, and with whatever is aspiring or sub¬
lime. By young persons of a studious and ambitious disposi¬
tion this kind of temperament is sometimes, therefore, courted
or affected, as a mark of superior ability. But the melancholy
thus invited may prove a lingering and dangerous guest; and,
both in youths and maidens, should be expelled, if possible,
by active efforts. Without such resolution, ample food will
be found, as years advance, to nourish the affectation into
malady. The emulative melancholy of the scholar, the fan¬
tastical melancholy of the musician, the melancholy of the
E jlitic courtier, the nice melancholy of the lady—even the
vers melancholy, of all these compounded—are not fictions
of the great dramatist, but realities which offer their com¬
panionship at the age when the passions and the intellect
begin to be active. Each offers its peculiar fascinations.
Poetry of the noblest kind has invested melancholy with still
more imposing grandeur; sometimes allying its sage and
holy image with staid and stately wisdom, and looks commerc¬
ing with the skies ; and sometimes portraying, in powerful
and seductive language, the merit of flying from mankind to
some grove in the vast wilderness, or to the desert as a dwel¬
ling-place. But all these fancies and moods of the mind, if
too often indulged in, tend one way—to a false estimate of
realities, to inaction, to misery, and to madness.
“ For assuredly it may be said, without any kind of qualifi¬
cation, that there is no affliction so dreadful as a real morbid
melancholy. The loss of wealth or rank, the severest inva¬
sions of bodily pain, and all shapes of human trial, would
seem, to those often observant of melancholic patients, as dust
in the balance against the weight of that woe which compre-
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Dr. Conolly on the
hends all woes, and is cheered by no hope, human or divine.
Even very slight approaches to such a state, or the briefest
experience of it, in those accustomed to notice the movements
of their own minds, have something inexpressibly frightful in
them. Transient misgivings, unaccountably mingled with
vague terrors upspringing from the depths of the inexhaust¬
ible well of memory, shake the steadiest soul so strongly as to
make it comprehensible how prolonged torture of the kind
may overpower the natural love of life.
“ The portrait accompanying the first paper of this series
referred to the particular form of melancholia in which the
mind is disposed to dwell on the mysteries of religion ; and
faculties inadequate to the task of comprehending such high
themes are vainly exerted to make plain what are matters not
of mere reason, but of faith. In such a conflict, there is gene¬
rally much risk that the over-tasked brain will suffer perma¬
nent injury ; although in other varieties of melancholy, where
the symptoms are equally severe, and even the tendency to
suicide for a time incessant, the proportion of eventual reco¬
veries is remarkable.
“ The course of events in such cases is generally this : Some
bodily function becomes accidentally impaired; that of the
stomach, or intestines, or liver,—or in women, of the uterus,
or in either sex of the brain itself. Occasional depression of
mind ensues, and gradually increases. The patient becomes
inactive, abstracted, and silent, and all cheerful expression is
banished from the countenance. Still very frequently these
symptoms are scarcely deemed to imply anything within a
doctor’s province ; until at length, on some dreadful morning,
the patient first shows a determined tendency to self-destruc-
tian. After this the case is submitted to proper treatment;
the disordered bodily function is carefully attended to, and
measures are adopted of a nature to restore the lost energy of
the brain. The attention of the patient is quietly attracted
to new objects; first, by change of place and local circum¬
stances, and afterward by travelling, although this is only
beneficial at a later period. Some improvement gradually
appears, which time confirms. The power of conversing is
restored, and customary occupations and amusements are
returned to. The face re-assumes occasionally its old expres¬
sion, and gradually the gloomy look departs. It is at length
felt that the constant watching, once indispensable to the
patient’s safety may be relaxed, and then that it may be
cautiously left off; very gradually, however, and very cau¬
tiously. Then the patient returns home, or takes a journey
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Physiognomy of Insanity.
under the care of friends with benefit; and for a time the
case is lost sight of. When it it is almost forgotten, and some¬
times, after many months, or even a year or two, the patient
writes a letter reporting complete and continued restoration
to mental comfort, and, if met in society, retains scarcely a
trace of the attack in the manner, or conversation, or face.
“ These attacks, however, as well as other forms of mental
malady are, it must ever be remembered, the frequent pre¬
cursors of organic disease,—most frequently of the lungs,
sometimes of the heart; in which case the symptoms continue
obstinate, and not reason alone, but life is in peril
“ The portrait accompanying the present paper represents a
different variety of melancholia, but one of equal suffering to
the patients, who are haunted, not by spiritual doubts, but by
bodily fear, and chiefly of some terrible danger impending over
themselves or their families; danger menaced by unknown
enemies, above, about, or underneath.
“ It is evidently not the portrait of an educated or refined
person, but a woman of the poorer ranks of life,—from which
ranks our large crowded county asylums are filled. How
people in such ranks contrived to live, and the kind of life
they led before being sheltered there, is intimately known to
few who attempt to write about them. They are usually
even laborious, because want is ever in view. It is not the
fear of difficulties and embarrassments which makes them rise
early, and causes them to lie down exhausted with fatigue;
it is the fear, nay the certainty, of starvation, if they are idle.
So the best among them toil on until they rest in the grave;
when, and not till when, their weary task is done. And the
worst of them, too impatient of this lot, or tempted beyond
their strength, deviate from the walks of industry into the
ride-paths of idleness and gin, of dissipation and sensuality,
become instructed in thieving and other short ways to imme¬
diate gain, and die in their own manner. It is easy to
moralize on these things, and virtuously to condemn; but
God alone can judge such matters justly. If a man would
try to do so, he must realise to himself an almost unfurnished
home, and hungry children, and rent to pay, and scanty and
coarse food day after day, and wretched clothing, giving poor
protection against the “ heat o' the sun ” and “ the tedious
winter rages.” He must fancy the state of his mind under
the privation of all indulgences and all amusements, and in
the utter absence of all comfortable recreation for mind or
body. Who is there, more happily placed, who can estimate
or even imagine the physiological results of all this combina-
vol. vi. no. 32. Q
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Dr. Conolly on the
tion of misery and privation ? Imperfect digestion and nutri¬
tion ; the impoverishment of the blood; the consequent
deterioration of all the bodily tissues ; the lowered character
of the grey and white substances of the brain, involving the
limitation of the supply of nervous force to all parte of the
frame, to those subserving physical offices, and to those of
which the integrity is essential to the exercise of the mental
and moral faculties ;—all these are consequences which may
not unreasonably be supposed to ensue to a greater or less
extent. But the same causes continue to act in countless
families, generation after generation, are transmitted and re¬
transmitted, and their effects accumulated and multiplied;
so modifying the general development of the human being
that we read even in the face of the bare-footed boy, in the
streets of London, his woeful inheritance, and in the features
and figure of the grown-up man or woman, in their speech
and movement, their wretched physical history. Perhaps we
may read something more printed there; the connexion of
some, at least, of their faults, or vices, or crimes with the
associated impoverishment, if it may be so called, of their
higher faculties. We remark the ungainliness of the bodily
shape and motion, and the pallor or the unhealthy suffusion
of the face, and the ruggedness of the voice and language.
With these marks of a degraded type we feel that there can
hardly fail to be a corresponding mental limitation. With a
total want of instruction there is, in fact, so unobservant a
mind that they receive no knowledge from natural objects,
and their natural theology is less advanced than that of the
poor Indian who sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind.
It is unnecessary to go further, now, into these sad particulars.
But there is something unreasonable in expecting many excel¬
lences to flourish and Christian virtues to nnd existence in a
soil so unprepared. Medical men, and those thoughtful per¬
sons, now happily not a few, who are devoting themselves to
the advancement of social science, or the real science of living
the life befitting so highly endowed a creature as man, do not
ignore these painful fcjfts, nor look unheedingly upon them.
To physicians who reflect on the cases coming under their
care in the wards of our lunatic asylums for the poor, such
facts are daily presented as material for serious thought.”
Lowness of Spirits.
“ Inequality of spirits, passing fancies, caprices, and even
temporary moodines§ of mind, usually present themselves in
forms rather amusing than afflicting. But our old and vene-
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Physiognomy oj Insanity.
rated preceptor of physip in Edinburgh well reminded us, in
his admirable Conspectus, of the relationship between these
and graver affections of the mind. * Omnis prseter solitum
hilaritas ad insaniam vergit; et msestus et meticulosus animus
ad melancholiam appropinquat.’ So that a careful attention
to preserve an equal mind can scarcely be too strongly en¬
forced. In the extremes of these variable conditions consists
a large portion of the unspeakable affliction which justified
the observation of our great English moralist, that ‘ of the
uncertainties of our present state, the most dreadful and
alarming is the uncertain continuance of reason.’ Those
who merely pay a cursory visit to an asylum may scarcely
think . so strong an expression justifiable ; for many of the
patients are tranquil, many occupied, and not a few seem so
cheerful as to confirm the popular notion that there may be a
happiness in being mad. But there are few among the insane,
especially of the more educated classes, who have not an in¬
ward and painful sense of their position, and few or none who
always forget that, for them, all the sweet uses of this world
are lost. The aspect of those afflicted with melancholia, their
countenances, their unregarded dress, their sorrowful attitude,
and the deep dejection conveyed by their terrible words, suffi¬
ciently declare the dreadful truth that their anguish is more
than they can bear.
“ Of all the trials apparently incidental to human life, the
proneness to dejection of mind as age advances may, I think,
be reckoned amongst the greatest. Few even of those who
escape this penalty of senility owe their immunity so much to
the strength as to the growing weakness of their minds. In
earlier years, great intellects may be struck down for a time,
and recover; the religious melancholic recovers hope ; ima¬
ginary fears, built on scruples of a conscience diseased, may
be demolished ; spectres of ruin may be exorcised. Many
such cases, depending on bodily ailment, are superable by
medical treatment. After sixty years of age, we see too often
the bmin of vigorous men, to whom, morbid fancies have been
before unknown, becoming incapable of rallying under sor¬
row ; losing energy, and falling into total inaction. The
external form may remain; the grave and wise look, the
sensible and intelligent face, the grand head ; but the patient
gazes upon you as upon a picture, and speaks not a word.
Some who for many long years were active in business, and
easily pleased with the common relaxations of social life, lose
at once all their activity and all their vivacity ; become unfit
for business and incapable of pleasure ; are no longer useful,
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Dr. Conolly on the
but can derive no enjoyment from leisure. .Each morning,
thenceforth, dawns upon them without a plan for the day ; no
pleasant sense of profitable labour to be done ; no prospective
participation of social meetings or family happiness. In these
cases the energy of the biain is dead ; and such patients are
not in general much afflicted by their own position. Those
who suffer the most are generally such as are more highly
cultivated, whose aspirations have been higher, perhaps whose
occupations have been nobler or more useful, but who have a
morbid and regretful sense of all the hopes and joys which age
steals away ; want the power of bearing up against the ills of
eld ; and wholly forget that age is as natural a part of life as
youth, and that it is as natural to die as to be bora.
“ This kind of creeping sorrow is the more painful, because
the victim himself suspects it must be sinfuL It is also felt
to be degrading to him, because it is against his reason ; and
yet he cannot dissipate it by reasoning. It is afflicting, be¬
cause it is still recognised by the declining mind as inconsis¬
tent with the duty of the creature to the Creator, and implies
an ungrateful forgetfulness of the thousand blessings scattered
over the early path of life, and of some, now that the winter
is approaching, which still, like autumnal flowers, adorn the
declining time.
“ Thus, the ablest minds of antiquity, and the ratiocinations
of some of the most pious men of modern times, have been
applied to prove that age is not an evil, and applied in vain.
The natural tendency of the mind in age is still to melancholy,
as the tree bows to the earth before its fall. In the strongest
men, its accompaniments are labour and sorrow. If the man
of thirty could foresee how many of his friends would be re¬
moved from the world before he reached his grand climacteric,
his heart would sink within him. The illusions which make
up the promises of early life, and impel him to fill the circle
marked for him by heaven, would vanish at once. The aspira¬
tions which spur him to useful industry would die. In a world
of such quick successions, all such things would seem futile
and foolish. He would see before him only growing infirmities
and solitude ; and would have but a distressing foreknowledge
that every additional year would bring additional weight upon
his limbs and upon his heart; and would associate every
street of familiar towns, and every lovely scene from towns
remote, with mournful mutations, and recollections full of
never to be removed sorrow.
“ It is not satisfactory to conclude that such reflections must
predominate in the closing years of life. Medicirfe may be
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Physiognomy of Insanity.
powerless, and philosophy. The tone recently adopted by the
chaplains of some asylums prevents much hope of success
from being based on their exertions. Their ministry might
be healing and valuable; but these well meaning persons
must be differently educated, and their knowledge of man
and nature much enlarged before they can be safely introduced
into private establishments for the insane of the educated
classes, an arrangement towards which there are recent mani¬
festations of a leaning well calculated to excite apprehension.
The task of a chaplain ministering to those unsound in mind
is always delicate and difficult. Conventional modes of
approaching the important subjects they wish to introduce
are wholly out of place, and proud denunciations both foolish
and abominable. In no undertaking do times and seasons
more require attention. One ill-chosen text, one ill-selected
illustration, one rash word may turn aside a scornful maniac,
or extinguish the last spark of hope in a melancholic patient.
Paternal kindness, the avoidance of pomp, and the preservation
of a kind of family and affectionate character in all the
services, seem generally to be the most efficacious in calming
and winning the troubled hearts of those who are not insensible
to religious truth, and yet not in their perfect mind.
“ Lastly, men whose lives have been passed usefully, and
benevolently, and without more than the sum of frailty inse¬
parable from an imperfect being, should not be without con¬
solation, nor even, whilst life lasts, sink into inaction. The
past may be unsatisfactory, and th etnemoria bene actoe vibe,
muUorumque benefactomim recordaiio, of small efficacy;
but every man, old as well as young, if not insane, may yet
pursue truth, and do good. If he could also govern himself
in all things, his life, the longest life, would be too happy,
and ‘earth paved like heaven.’ There are also, it is our
trust, new forms of life beyond this life; and many high
consolatory truths which a reasonable man should not forget,
although it would be presumption to dwell upon them in
this place.”
Senile Dementia.
“ The repose of the features in Senile Dementia is usually
complete. Ambition is dead, angry emotions have passed
away ; mean and turbulent thoughts, if any there were, have
become extinguished, the life of the passions is over. Man
has become a peaceful animal; rarely, when the state is once
established, disturbed by any shadows of the past years.
This perfect calm is, however, sometimes preceded by great
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Dr. Gonolly on the
agitation, and fancies of some work to be done, or some
engagements to be fulfilled ; leading to attempts to wander
away from home, and to resist the most affectionate control
of grieved relatives. But peace suceeeds, greater than the
peace of childhood; and then, sometimes, the Spectacle of
extreme age loses its painful character, and becomes eminently
picturesque. Few of my medical readers, however busily
engaged in crowded cities, have not treasured up in some
corner of their minds, among the recollections of childish days,
some picture of a venerable aged man or woman seated at a
cottage door, seeming to view with calm face and untroubled
heart the sweet meadow and the declining sun ; or looking
with satisfaction on the juvenile activity of their active and
joyous grandchildren, although with a vague consciousness
and a dreamy expression. Sorrow could not touch these
remembered old people further ; but all of sensation that was
left seemed to be pleasurable.
“ It is, however, a strange thing to look on a face once most
familiar to us, and now, when nearly ninety years have
gathered over it, still to see the same features, and even the
same smile, and yet to be forced to the conviction that you
are not recognised. The placid features, the benevolent
regard, the long grey hair, are but a venerable picture. The
activity of former years is a dream. No word, no sign, not
the most pointed allusion to things past, and once most
familiar, rouses any responsive movement in the 6enile brain.
Life still remains; respiration, and digestion, and blood-cir¬
culation, and alternate waking and sleep ; but memory, and
emotion, and speculation, and foresight, and with them,
happily, anxiety and sorrow, and pain and grief, have passed
away.
“ Even this is better than the strange mixture of the mourn¬
ful and the ludicrous, in cases, in which, amidst the wreck of
all nobler things, the memory of life’s poor vanities alone
survives: and the old lady who can scarcely rise from her
chair, insists on being dressed and rouged, and seated at the
card-table, where her pleased, but utterly foolish expression
of face, reflects the thoughts of gains or losses, which once
constituted the only serious events of her daily life. Even a
man’s mind may show these infirmities, where an ignoble
and frivolous life has left him insensible that he is mortal
In one remarkable case of this kind, in a well-known fashion¬
able man of his day, considerable mental acuteness was, all
the life long, so assiduously devoted to things below the
dignity of a mau, that when age came, it brought with it on
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Physiognomy of Insanity.
each return of evening, a return of the fancy of a room full
of the grand and gay, of wits long silenced and beauties long
hidden in the grave; and the poor worn face of age was
lighted up with an inane gaiety that shocked the beholder.
Thinking of these things, one feels the beautv as well as the
simplicity of Lavater’s farewell words to a youth taking leave
of bum :—“ Young man, bring me back the same face a face
undeformed by vanity, or falsehood, or guilty thoughts.”
Religious Melancholy.
“The engraving presented to the reader in this number is
from a photographic portrait of a young woman labouring
under religious melancholy. In this form of melancholy
there is no mere worldly despondency, nor thought of com¬
mon calamities or vulgar ruin; but a deeper horror: a fixed
belief, against which all arguments are powerless, and all
consolation vain ; a belief of having displeased the Qreat
Creator, and of being hopelessly shut out from mercy and
from heaven. This portrait, therefore, does not reflect the
figure of patients so often recognised in asylums, sitting on
benches by the lonely walls, the hands clasped on the
bosom, the leaden eye bent on the ground, and the unvary¬
ing gloom excluding variety of reflection. It represents an
affliction more defined. We discern the outward marks of a
mind which, seemingly, after long wandering in the mazes
of religious doubt, and struggling with spiritual niceties too
perplexing for human solution, is now overshadowed by
despair. The high and wide forehead, generally indicative
of intelligence and imagination; the slightly bent head,
leaning disconsolately on the hand; the absence from that
collapsed cheek of every trace of gaiety ; the mouth inex-
{ >ressive of any varied emotion ; the deep orbits and the
ong characteristic eyebrows ; all seem painfully to indicate
the present mood and general temperament of the patient.
The black hair is heedlessly pressed back ; the dress, though
neat, has a conventual plainness ; the sacred emblem worn
round the neck is not worn for ornament. The lips are well-
formed, and compressed; the angle of the jaw is rather
large ; the ear seems well-shaped ; force of character appears
to be thus indicated, as well as a capacity of energetic ex¬
pression ; whilst the womanly figure, the somewhat ample
chest and pelvis (less expressed in the engraving than in the
photograph) belong to a general constitution, out of which
in health and vigour, may have grown up some self-accusing
thought* in an innocent and devout, but passionate heart.
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Dr. Conolly on the
Fpr this perverting malady makes even the natural instincts
appear sinful; and the sufferer forgets that God implanted
them. But the conflict in the case before us is chiefly in-
tellectuaL The meditations of that large brain are not em¬
ployed on wordly cares, nor even on affections chilled, nor
temporal hopes broken. They are engaged in religious
scruples, far too perplexing for its power to overcome. In
the meantime all the ordinary affections, from which conso¬
lation might be derived, are shut out Soon, perhaps, the
scruples themselves will appear crimes. To escape future
punishment, bodily mortifications must be endured; severe
fasts, or some self-inflicted pain. Under these, the bodily
strength, usually impaired in the commencement of the
attack, becomes further impaired. The digestion becomes
feeble, and even the sparest meals occasion suffering. Ema¬
ciation takes place ; often proceeding to an extreme degree.
The uterine functions (for the subjects of this form of
malady are usually women), are suppressed. Paroxysms of
excitement may occur, with sudden activity in the prosecu¬
tion of schemes of vaguest import ; but with these futile
efforts misgivings become mingled. The thought of suicide,
often suggested, becomes fixed; and such varied and inge¬
nious efforts are made to carry it into effect as to demand
incessant vigilance. Tet, even in this state there may be
days in which the mind is tranquillised, and needle-work is
resumed, or the music of happier days is played once more.
But these gleams are transient The mind loses its energy;
debility invades every function; pulmonary or mesenteric
disease supervenes; the limbs become anasarous; and the
wretched patient is only relieved by death.
“ The subjects of this kind of affliction are often highly
intellectual, and this seems to endow them with greater
latitude of terrible delusions, and with an eloquence in
describing them that cannot always be listened to without
emotion ; seconded as it is by an expression of countenance
full'of real horror, and significant of the state of utter
spiritual abandonment and degradation into which the
patient asserts herself to be plunged, without hope of relief
on’earth or pardon in heaven.
“ The medical treatment of religious melancholy is often of
more import than that which enthusiastic and very well-
meaning persons are too much inclined to resort to. Be-
monstrances, and the perusal of sermons, and of the tracts
scattered over too many drawing-room tables, and showered
with mischievous, although well-intentioned, activity among
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Physiognomy of Insanity.
tiie poor,—nay, even the exclusive reading of the Bible and
Prayer-book,—must often be refrained from or forbidden.
There are states of mind in which the medical man must
have courage to exclude these as poisons. The mind must
be diverted to more common and more varied subjects, and
the bodily health must have the most careful consideration.
“ These observations apply to all religious sects. The sub¬
ject of this photograph had left the Protestant faith, and
become what is commonly called a Koman Catholic. Her
education had not been such as to enable her to reason well
on either side, and she became merely wavering and unsettled
in her belief. Attention to ordinary matters was neglected;
she sat in the attitude shown in the engraving for a long
time together; she was negligent of her dress, and occa¬
sionally destructive of it. Often she cried out that she was
a brute, and had no soul to be saved. Now and then she
had a desire to see some minister of religion, either Catholic
or Protestant; and soon afterwards would refuse to see either,
declaring that neither could be useful to her. All this seems
to be expressed in the photograph. The medal she wears
was given to her by a gentleman connected with the Catholic
establishment
“It is unnecessary to say that her case was managed in the
asylum with the most prudent caution. She was encouraged
to more bodily exertion; and her mental perplexities, not
being aggravated by reasonings unadapted to her, gradually
died away. She soon began to occupy herself, and became
useful in the laundry of the establishment. She was
strengthened by quinine. The inactivity of the digestive
canal, so common, or so constant in cases of melancholia, was
counteracted by combining the decoctum aloes com
with a tonic; and shower-baths, of half a minute
tion, contributed to restore general bodily energy. Such
attacks never yield at once. They come on gradually, and
depart slowly. After a residence of ten months in the
asylum, this patient became well. It is gratifying to know
that she remains well, having now left the institution seven
months since.
“ The change presented by the countenance after recovery
from severe mental disturbance is generally remarkable, and
sometimes even surprising. In case of acute mania it is
singularly marked; and in the particular form of religious
melancholy the cheerful smile that supplants the dismal and
anxious look of the patient is almost magical. In the case
now referred to, whatever there was of meditative or intel-
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Dr. Conolly on the
lectual cast ia the face during the period of melancholy, was
almost wholly lost when the attack went off. The ample
forehead, of course, remained, and the deep orbits ; but the
eyes, when open, were small and inexpressive, and the mouth
seemed to have become common-place. Her whole appear¬
ance was, indeed, so simply that of an uneducated Irish girl,
that the very neat gown, cloak, and bonnet, in which she
was dressed by the kindness of those about her, seemed,
incongruous and peculiar. A second photograph, taken at
that time, possesses, therefore, little interest. In some other
instances the metamorphoses effected by malady and recovery
may be usefully, and even instructively represented.”
In a subsequent paper (11th) Dr. Conolly reverts to this
subject of religious melancholy, and observes :—
“ No familiarity with cases of religious melancholia ren¬
ders the observer indifferent to the intense expression of
mental suffering by which they are characterised. An
affliction is portrayed in the face and attitude so profound,
and so incapable of relief or consolation, as to communicate
an unavoidable sadness even to those who know that the
affliction is not the result of real calamity, but of a mere
morbid condition of the nervous system, which, terrible as it
appears, and terrible as it really is to the patient, is gene¬
rally only temporary. The feelings of a good chaplain to an
asylum aTe greatly tried by cases of this kind; his most
anxious efforts appearing to be long unavailing. For
although the melancholic patients (generally women) can
attend to and even appreciate his spiritual encouragements,
they consider them as inapplicable to their own particular
case. A patient admits that for others there may be hope;
but for her, she asserts, and most truly believes there is
none. Others may be forgiven; but her faults are unpar¬
donable. She accuses hersolf of unworthiness and impurity,
although ever vaguely; and her ideas are but obscurely
associated in the mind of the pathologist with possible
physical instincts presenting to the morbid and defenceless
mind suggestions that seem Crimea * * *
“ Looking largely at the subject of melancholia, and even
at cases of religious melancholy, it would be uncandid to
conceal that there are many examples of this form of depres¬
sion for which the clergy, whether tranquil as Him who
taught on the sea shore standing on a ship, or impassioned
and far less divinely composed, are in no way accountable.
Conditions of the brain and nerves of which we possess no
accurate knowledge, sometimes inherited, sometimes follow-
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ing too much excitement, mental or bodily, sometimes appa¬
rently associated with morbid conditions of the stomach and
liver, and in very many cases with uterine disorder, modify
all impressions made on the senses and affections in such a
way as to render them all sources of pain, or at least of
discomfort. Patients who present this peculiarity have cer¬
tainly for the most part the external signs of the melan¬
cholic temperament; a dusky and partially flushed complexion,
tinged now and then with yellow; the head well formed
anteriorly; the forehead broad, but usually deficient in
height; the vertex often high, and the occipital region broad
and bulging; the expression of the face gloomy, and
strongly contrasted with the occasional smiles evoked from
time to time by cheerful friends, as if without the will of
the despairing patients themselves. Over-exertion of mind
brings on this melancholy state in men of gfqai. mental
power, and leads often to a wish for death, and to mediations
for effecting it. By perfect mental rest they recover. The
same over-tasking of the brain, although more by domestic,
responsibilities than intellectual exertions, leads, in women
of highly conscientious feelings, to the same depression. In
all these cases the tendency to self-destruction is commonly
observable.”
Insanity Supervening on Habits of Intemperance.
“ The portraits accompanying this paper are illustrative of
some of the modifications of features and expression in
women who have fallen into habits of intemperance, on
which derangement of the mental powers has ensued to a
greater or less extent. The two portraits represent different
patients, of different character and of different history. The
poor creature on the right having been nurtured in low life,
almost brought up in early acquired habits of drinking, left
to do their sure and uninterrupted work on body and mind,
until both have acquired the impress of a misfortune un¬
avoidable, and slowly ripened into vice, and bringing the
whole creature into a sort of chronic and indelible appear¬
ance of sottishness. In the left-hand portrait is represented
another patient, of a respectable station in life, but also
ruined by drink ; but by drink so gradually indulged in,
however, that her altered state bewilders her, and nils her,
„ fallen as she is, with distressful remorse.
“ Although we perceive’even in this portrait the somewhat
bloated or swollen condition of the fleshy parts of the face
which tipsy habits produce, much expression remains—but
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Dr. Conolly on the
it is of wretchedness and despair. The raised hands, pressed
together, indicate the intensity of her prominent emotions;
the eyes, somewhat uplifted, but gazing on nothing; the
deep corrugation of the overhanging integuments of the
lower forehead, portray the painful questioning of a woman
not forgetful of her former life, nor unconscious of the
comfortless change that has come over her; and the expres¬
sion is heightened by those undefinable modifications of the
muscular structure of the cheeks which add so much to all
facial expression of intense character. In the upraised
under lip, also, and in the tensely-elevated chin, there is so
much meaning of the same kind, that we might almost
fancy the poor patient breaking out, in this suffering mood,
into expressive words, as was indeed the poor woman’s
custom often, relative to her earlier life now gone, and
happier thoughts long dispersed, and to remembrances of
having once been esteemed and even admired in the modest
circle in which she moved, until taught to like gin by
“ wicked neighbours” older than herself Her history was
indeed lamentable. She had been well educated, and re¬
sided, when a young woman, with her mother, who possessed
a little independent property. Being then good looking, she
was much noticed; nor did it appear that she lost her station
by any immorality of early life. But she was not watched
enough to guard her from pernicious acquaintances, who
enjoyed, it would seem, the perverse satisfaction of teaching
her the poor pleasures arising from the taste of spirituous
liquors, until she adopted Mrs. Gamp’s plan of putting gin
into the teapot Somenow, as always happens in such cases,
the little property possessed by her mother gradually dimi¬
nished, and at length disappeared altogether. Dram-drink¬
ing became the only remaining comfort of the impoverished
house ; and thus things went on until one article of furniture
after another, and also the clothes of her mother and her¬
self, passed into the hands of the pawnbrokers. The poor
mother found shelter in the workhouse, and the still more
unhappy daughter, torn by remorse, and maddened more
and more by intemperance now grown habitual, became
maniacal, and was received into the lunatic asylum. Much
of this, perhaps all of it, is written in that despairing,
questioning face. Memory of the past and purer time has
not been destroyed by her malady, nor conscience obliterated.
She feels herself transformed, and that for her no earthly
joy remains or will return. Her irritable hands have traced
marks of agony on her forehead; her neglected curls hang
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Physiognomy oj Insanity.
raggedly over her ears; she has torn them away until she is
nearly bald. Even her large and well-developed brain seems
to impress the beholder with thoughts aggravative of the
miserable desolation that now alone'prevails in the depths of
her consciousness and memory. There is no healthful action
and no comfort in any corner of that restless brain. Where
once there was quick perception, imagination, benevolence,
understanding, there is now but a tumultuous succession of
ineffaceable records, read by the light of madness only, with
no ray of better light from the retrospection, and as yet no
higher hope. Suicide, the last resource of such wretched¬
ness, has been often attempted by her. When all this
affliction falls upon an erring numan being, the comforts and
even the blessings accorded to our poorer lunatics show all
the value of the noble institutions where the most rejected
of the world meet with pity and find rest The malady may
be too deeply fixed to be curable : but all physical excess is
at an end—no neglect and no cruelty add to the morbid
wretchedness; kind words are heard, and religious thoughts
are gradually introduced into the mind of the sufferers ; and
the curtain of death falls gently even upon them.
“ A different history from the preceding is plainly enough
written in the right-hand portrait, which exhibits traits
scarcely auite unknown to persons accustomed to the obser¬
vation of the faces of populous towns. Here the bloated
face, the pendulous masses of cheek, the large lips uncon¬
trolled by any voluntary expression, and to which refine¬
ment and delicacy seem never to have belonged ; the heavily
gazing eyes, not speculative, scarcely conscious: the dis¬
ordered, uncombed, capriciously cut hair, cut with ancient
scissors or chopped with impatient knife ; the indolent posi¬
tion of the body, and the heavy resting of the coarse,
unemployed, outstretched fingers, together with the neglected
dress and reckless abandon of the patient, all concur to
declare the woman of low and degraded life, into whose
mind, even before madness supervened, no thoughts except
gross thoughts were wont to enter; and whose bold eye and
prominent mouth were never, even from early infancy,
employed to express any of the higher or softer sensibilities
of a woman's souL But yet she is, even in this degraded
state, more truly an object of pity than of condemnation.
It is easy to condemn ;—it is harder to be just. Where this
now outcast human being was born, and how brought up, it
were vain to inquire. She probably never had a home ; and
it appears, in fact, that her earliest reminiscences were only
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of gaining a kind of livelihood by selling miscellaneous
articles in the streets; articles begged, or articles lent, or
articles stolen, no doubt. As she grew up, gross appetites
grew up also; the love of beer, among the rest, developed
itself strongly ; and she was well known to her familiars as
what even they denominated a low-lived person. Bat beer
was sometimes hard to procure; it could not always be
auccessfully begged for; it could not be easily stolen ; and it
could not be bought without money. So the want of this
stimulant joy of low life caused her to cultivate her faculties
as a singer, and these were exerted in low public-houses,
where tne remuneration was generally beer, or halfpence
convertible into beer. Her audiences were not fastidious;
her songs were not always unobjectionable ; and she further
became liable to infirmities of temper, and acquired habits
of inconvenient violence; became signalised for artful frauds
and cunning concealments; and in all respects negligent in
her;habits. At last she was pronounced to be insane, and
found refuge, the only refuge in tMs> world,: from worldly
misery, in an asylum ; but she could scarcely appreciate even
the comforts of an asylum. The beds and the clothing
might be good, and the food; but the limitation of beer con¬
stituted a permanent grievance.
“ Such a picture, the presentment of such a life, cannot be
summarily dismissed from the mind. Even the consolations
of our best-conducted asylums for the poor can scarcely be
diffused over the breast of so doomed a wretch as this;
doomed, as the affairs of the world go, even from her birth,
for cradle she had none, to destitution and to degradation ;
to whose childish ears no pious words were ever addressed,
and on whose youth no hope of honest means of support had
ever beamed! Thinking of these things, questions arise,
only to bo answered in some unknown time. But such lives
and even such faces ought not to pass by us unheeded, like
the idle wind, or the clouds of summer. This poor creature
knew no instruction. Her ear, possibly attuned to melody,
enabled her to pick up the current minstrelsy of the streets,
the tunes of organs, and the words of ribald songsters.
Moral control there was none ; moral examples there were
none cither. Religious instruction there was none: she had
probably never been in a church in her life. So, when life
was departing, no aspirations could well arise, nor could the
most pious words be expected to prevail. If a feeling re¬
mained, or a desire, it was but for the speedier oblivion of
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Physiognomy of Insanity. 227
more beer. Such results are shocking, and to ears polite
scarcely suited ; but such results are true.
“Great moral revolutions may take place, it would seem, in
the short space of a single century. Intemperance in wine
was esteemed, in the days of our grandfathers, as a mere
failing incidental to gentlemen. The prime minister drank
hard, and his friends and dependents followed his example,
literary men drank hard, and composed works in the purest
English ; county squires drank hard, and were esteemed the
more for what was then considered indicative only of an
open and generous disposition. A very sober gentleman
was even somewhat suspiciously regarded as one who was
afraid to be thrown off his guard. But now everything, as
far as the higher and the middle classes are concerned, is
happily changed. The nobleman never commits excess;
the squire goes to bed sober; the literary man 16 temperate ;
and the tradesman no longer drinks and dozes away his
afternoon in the sanded parlour of the public-house.
Drunkenness has become the exclusive opprobrium of the
poor, the ignorant, and the miserable.
“ Among the exertions of the last half-century, none have
been more zealous than those made to promote general
temperance. Eloquent speeches, pathetic sermons, flags and
processions, the aid of festival and song, have been equally
directed to showing the ruin and madness attendant on
drunken habits, and the beauty and serenity of water¬
drinking. The virtue of temperance has been carried to a
kind of ostentatious excess. But partial social reforms are
seldom permanent So desired an improvement, like many
others, is incompatible with the neglect of other portions of
social science. Sobriety, or the judicious use of stimulants,
is a virtue inconsistent with the want of various comforts,
and even of various stimuli, which the wealthy and the
well-to-do so constantly enjoy as scarcely to appreciate them.
We blame the labouring man for passing his Saturday even¬
ing at the village alehouse; forgetting his privations during
the week, and the comfortless character of his home. We
turn away, with a false consciousness of superiority, from a
shivering half-clothed, half-fed, half-tipsy creature, who has
been standing at a vegetable stall for fourteen hours, and is
wandering home at midnight to a garret in the narrowest of
streets. Or, far away from towns, in what are called mining
districts, we hear, at rich men’s tables, from the great pro¬
prietor himself, or perhaps from the good chaplain, of the
melancholy state of mSptFdegradation of the miners, whose
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Dr. Conolly on the
wretched rows of houses we discerned on the slope of the
hills, in the evening, on our journey; cottages with windows
on one side only, so that the eyes of the miners’ families
should not look over the fair domain of the rich man, the
few and small windows and the door being confronted by
privies and dung-heaps, and pig-sties, on the shaded and
damp side of the house towards the barren hill-side. In all
these cases, it seems to be forgotten that the creature, man,
is transformed from what he might be, or should be, or
naturally is; that he is made an unhealthy creature, and
that neither his body nor his mind can escape degradation.
All the wholesome stimuli of life are withdrawn in these,
and in countless other cases, from large classes of the people;
and, by a strange ignorance of human nature, every calm
and delightful virtue is expected to flourish in their homes,
and in their general morals. They are left and live un¬
acquainted with the comfort of cleanliness, of good food, and
of a decent bed. They awake only to toil, and they sleep
the sleep of the exhausted. Of the intellectual stimuli
which contribute so largely to the enjoyment of those above
them, they are destitute from youth to age. Social enjoy¬
ments, cheering conversation, various reading, friendly cor¬
respondence, diversified news; all that belongs to the finer
arts ; all that charms the eye or the ear; and all that gives
grace and elegance to domestic life, is shut out from them.
Their ever-during poverty leaves them almost unacquainted
with the pleasure of being able to confer benefit on one
another. All the cheerful and cheering sympathies of society
and families are unknown to them. To all higher and
nobler aspirations they are, and must be, utter strangers,
though tracts may be showered among them, and special
denunciations addressed to them, for not being better. To
ask human beings so situated to refrain from the immediate
gratifications of beer and gin is merely to insult them, or to
incur their just and bitter ridicule.
" But the love of money and the carelessness at what ex¬
pense of virtue and happiness it is obtained, exposes both
men and women to excessive toil, which is even, it is said,
systematically [stimulated by strong liquors, while yet the
inevitable consequences are condemned with little mercy.
The poor, drunken, lost woman whom we shun in the shabby
streets of London, or whom we take better care of in the
wards of the county asylum, may once have been industrious,
virtuous, and pleasing in appearance. Her poor parents,
who with difficulty provided their children with food and
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clothes, launched them all into the rough sea of the world as
soon as, by any kind of work, they could procure scanty food
and scanty clothes for themselves. Some floated away and
disappeared in various regions of poverty ; but this daughter
was considered more fortunate. She became a dressmaker;
her clothes were neat in appearance, but her meals were
neither frequent nor abundant, and she had little acquaint*
ance with fresh air. From morning until evening, and often
until midnight, her toil was pursued in a close and confined
atmosphere. She and her companions became worn and
weary and drowsy. This weakness was incompatible with
the interest of their employers. Fresh air and better food
might have done them good ; but for these there was no
time; they were too expensive. Cheaper stimulants were
accorded to them ; strong coffee, sometimes with a dash of
the cheapest ardent spirits, and, if there was more pressing
need to nave some work finished, to array some unconscious
beauty for a near-approaching drawing-room, and, at all
risks, the weight of slumber must be drawn from off those
drooping eyelids, novels were read to them, poisonous novels,
rousing their midnight attention by appealing to their sen¬
sual passions. From such training what could ensue but
intemperance and vice ? Walking feebly homeward,
hungry, and faint, and assailed with offers of food and
wine and money, what could poor girls so placed do but
yield to temptation ?
“These pictures might easily be multiplied. But less
graphic, although far more numerous examples might be
quoted, from the crowds of cities, of men and of women of
decent habits and position, whose constant care can scarcely
ensure to them sufficient good food and proper dress for the
varied seasons, and a poor dismantled room up many stairs,
in Pentonville, it may be, or in Lambeth, or in the outskirts
of the great agglomeration of cities called London, a class of
people to whom varied food, and even the portions of pleasant
meats which Jeremy Taylor reminds rich Christians that
they should send to their neighbours on Sundays, are nearly
or quite unknown, and who, weary and faint, learn to in¬
spirit their dish of tea, and aluminous bread, with some
accompanying drops of gin, from whence they derive some
instant solace, some relief from exhaustion, some oblivion
from care. It is Saturday night. To-morrow there is no
work : only sleep, or sloth, or drink and devilry. Let Mon¬
day come ! And Monday comes; and more starvation ; and
more exhausting work; and more drink; and more despair ;
VOL. VI. NO. 32 . R
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Dr. Conolly on the
and divers horrid forms of death,—or all these are ex¬
changed for the mockeries of madness.
“ Such histories, read in the streets, or more thoughtfully
contemplated in the mansions of insanity, seem to justify the
often-repeated observation, that insanity is chiefly occasioned
by drunkenness; but the observation is not strictly true, nor
even true numerically, except in relation to physical causes.
And of cases such as illustrate this paper, it seems scarcely
just to assign the ultimate madness merely to intemperance;
The intemperance itself is a malady, incidental to unhappy
combinations of social circumstances, and to be remedied by
modifications and reforms of social life. The virtues which
so many benevolent persons look forward to with hope, will
not grow in a soil choked with weeds of rankest and foulest
growth ; their flowers and fruit cannot become entwined
about the residences of privation, ignorance, and want The
praiseworthy efforts to enlarge the pleasures of the working
classes, and which are really effecting so much good, eannot
be extended to classes yet left lower in the social scale;
although each body in those hopeless classes contains a soul.
“But hope appears. The diffusion of useful knowledge was
a great work, of which the efficacy becomes still greater and
more widely felt as attention becomes more extensively
given to collateral branches of social science ; to which so
many able minds are now simultaneously directed, including
that highly-important branch, the public health. With such
reflections even the physiognomy of the insane is connected;
and perhaps more, the physiognomy of the half-distracted in
the crowds of cities. It would be wrong to accusjtom our¬
selves to note the outward disfigurements effected by inward
degradation as mere pictures for the amusement of those
more happily situated, suggestive of no reflections on the
avoidable or Remediable causes of such departures ffom
moral and physical beauty. Rather should the depraved
physiognomy be regarded as a warning language, and a fear¬
ful handwriting, hung up for our learning, and reproaching
communities for long injustice, and long forgetfulness of so
iriuch that disfigures and defiles the temple of God."
Ulustfations of the Old Methods of treatment.
We conclude these extracts with the following graphic
description of an asylum of the olden time.
“ A very expressive photograph is before me, taken frotn a
print by Kaidback, which has been known, but not very
generally, for some years ; representing the interior of a Con-
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Physiognomy of Insanity . 231
tinental asylum, and containing fifteen portraits, illustrative
of as many varieties of disordered mind. Although these
portraits are evidently taken from life, the grouping of the
figures is as plainly imaginary, and such as could scarcely
ever have existed; yet highly exemplifying the skill of the
artist.
“ Towards the left of the picture, the figure of a man stands
ing up between two strongly contrasted female figures seems
first to attract notice. A lottery ticket, pinned on the side of
the man’s shabby hat, together with the fierce and dogged
expression of his face, seems indicative of expectations ais-*
appointed. The female figure to which his race is turned,
without, however, regarding her, has the character of a
virago strongly stamped upon her face and head, as well as in
her menacing attitude. The keenly directed eyes, the snarl¬
ing mouth, the flat head with the prominence of the vertical
portion of it, and the bulk of the occipital region, reveal the
preponderance of the animal qualities. Her terrible looks
are directed to the other female figure, whose arms are thrown
round the unregardful man, behind whom she stands, in a
manner expressive of feminine tenderness and attachment:
and whose lace is handsome, the anterior and lateral portions
of the head, and that above the forehead, well formed, and the
vertex and occiput not in excess. The full womanly and
maternal character is portrayed in this figure; and her face
expresses at once attachment to the infatuated man, and grief
for his faults. A little more to the left of the picture is an
elderly woman, occupied in knitting, and in the calm state
which has probably been preceded by mania; looking with a
kind of wonder on the impassioned woman and the insensate
man. Under this group, and to the front of the picture, we
see a figure representing either a soldier or a peasant used to
arms, whose manly face evinces thoughts brooding over some
past reverse; his broad forehead, his straight eyebrows, his
resolute mouth, his strong frame, and the sword (which may
be of wood) slung carelessly over his shoulder, seem to show
that here is a valiant soldier lost to the State or to his native
village ; his careless attire evinces that the alacrity of hope
has left him, and that in his moody thoughts the present is
lost in the past. Just before him is a happier instance of
abstraction ; a man intent on the pages of a book, and whose
attitude admirably expresses a state of perfect self-satisfac¬
tion. The elevated eyebrows, the uplifted chin and under lip,
the extended finger and thumb of the raised hand, clearly
indicate the crazy philosopher, who has met in the old and
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Dr. Conolly on the
well-worn volume before him thoughts elevated and mystical,
and almost as novel as his own.
“ In the centre of the picture, behind the other figures, are
two male figures, eloquently representing religious excitement
and depression. The happier fanatic stands upright, holds a
crucifix before his breast, and points to himself with an air
that announces his own asserted divinity. His broad large
head shows the amplitude of what phrenologists would call
marvellousness, ideality, veneration, and hope; and what all
persons familiar with portraits recognise as the characteristic
form of head in men of a speculative and fanciful tempera¬
ment, not very much under the control of comparison and
judgment. The lively eyes, the straight line of the mouth,
even the outstanding and wild hair of the head, are very
faithfully depicted ; and all belong to this temperament.
Behind this figure is the contrasted one of a man of higher
intellectual endowments, but of the temperament called
melancholic, in which all hope of future pardon is faint
The face is expressive of thought and of refinement, but the
angles of the mouth are drawn downwards, the drooping head
leans on hands clasped in sorrowful meditation, ana his dark
hair hangs in heavy masses over his ears and cheeks. In
front of these figures we have an imbecile patient, happy in
imaginary royalty, wearing a crown, and holding a stick for a
sceptre. The large unmeaning eye, the protruded under-lip,
the retreating chin, and the feeble and common cast of the
face, are such as are generally found in this class of happy
self-satisfied lunatics. Two female figures are devoted to the
portraiture of melancholia; one, a devotee, near the enthu¬
siastic man; her head bowed, her hands clasped, her collapsed
face showing that hope has left the heart; the other in front
of the picture, her face hidden, and in her hand a letter,
which has brought tidings of overwhelming sorrow. Two
other figures are devoted to showing examples of chronic
mental disorder, and one, in front of them, less true, perhaps,
to nature than the rest, seems intended to show an example of
the loss of reason supervening on the death of an infant.
Altogether, although there is singular merit in this print* its
artificial grouping deprives it of the touching interest often
arising from the representation of a single figure descriptive of
mental disorder. It is to be observed mat all the patients are
left, as they used to be left, to their own fancies and to their
particular sorrows. The artist has added one figure in the
background which belongs to the past history of asylums, but
as faithfully drawn as the rest. A well-fed, indolent, pipe-
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Physiognomy of Insanity.
smoking, night-capped, surly keeper directs his sidelong
watchful looks on the group of afflicted beings at his mercy.
The heavy keys, held behind him in his careless hands, tell
us of the cells they close so often on these unfortunate
patients ; and the whip, hanging out of his pocket, shows the
universal remedy he wields for the errors and griefs of the
mind; one of Ins victims has rudely drawn the likeness of
this functionary on the wall, in the active exercise of his
vocation.
“ Such numerous and gratifying changes have taken place
in asylums for the insane within the last few years, that in¬
stead of contemplating a picture of this kind with unmitigated
pain, the comforting thought ever arises that in our modern
or our reformed institutions the gloomiest patients are con¬
soled, and the most distracted have their thoughts drawn
away from dreams and fihantasies to pleasant occupations; that
night-capped keepers are no more ; that not only have whips
disappeared, but the strait waistcoats ; and that while all aids
are given to recovery, all alleviations are imparted to the in¬
curable. These changes, scarcely yet appreciated by the
public at large, have not been effected easily ; and the shadow
of dreadful evils has but very recently passed away; evils
greater far than those revealed in the picture which we have
been contemplating.”
C. L. R.
The Diagnosis of Acute Mania and Melancholia. By
J. G. Atkinson, M.D., Booh Nest , Wakefield.
My object in this paper, is to endeavour to draw a strict
line of demarcation between those forms of insanity which
may be comprehended under the terms of mania and melan¬
cholia, and the delirium, which we witness in the various
inflammatory affections of the brain fever, or delirium-tremens.
If we were aware of the absolute pathological changes which
exist in insanity, the correctness of a theory would be easily
proved or disproved. In the absence, however, of evidence of
this nature, which may be regarded as of a positive kind, I am
compelled to draw my inferences from symptoms of disease
during life, which may be regarded as evidence of a circum¬
stantial nature. It is now some years since Dr. Wigan
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Dr. Atkinson on the
published a work on the duality of the mind, or, in other
words, that as the brain consists of two sides or hemispheres,
so these may have a distinct individuality of their own, just
as occurs in the various senses, the eye, the ear, &c.
From the observations I have made upon a number of cases
of acute mania and melancholia, I am of opinion, that two
minds or thinking powers, as it were, appear to exist in the
same individual,—one healthy, the other diseased ; one only
being in operation at one time ; the individual’s thoughts and
actions being in direct sequence to whichever of the two, at
the moment, is in play. These peculiarities may be witnessed
in acute mania, as well as in melancholia. The incoherence
or irrationality observable in fever, or in delirium-tremens,
appears to arise in consequence of disease attacking both
hemispheres of the brain equally, and in contra-distinction,
may be regarded as instances of true delirium.
In many affections of the brain, we find a disposition to
attack only one hemisphere, as is observed in apoplexy and
paralysis, and I believe after experience will sanction the
views I take as to the acute forms of mania and melancholia*
when the disease is fully established, being in the majority of
cases, considered as disease occurring in one hemisphere alone.
Now, if we for a moment examine into the physiology of
the brain, so far as is known, we read* that for all but its
highest intellectual acts, one of the cerebral hemispheres is
sufficient; for numerous cases are recorded, in which no
mental defect was observed, although one cerebral hemisphere
was so disorganised, or atrophied, that it could not be sup¬
posed capable of discharging its functiona
Again: “ It would appear, that when one hemisphere is
disordered, the same object may produce two sensations and
suggest simultaneously different ideas; or, at the same time,
two trains of thought may be carried on, by the one mind,
acting and being acted upon differently in the two hemis¬
pheres.” It is not the object of this paper to enquire into the
nature of the changes which occur in the structure of the
brain, constituting mania and melancholia, nor yet to offer
any explanation as to the manner in which the healthy and
diseased hemisphere alternately exert a controlling influence
over the actions and thoughts of the individual; but to infer,
by analogy, that there exists a strong probability that one
hemisphere alone is capable of discharging the ordinary
functions of reason, memory, &c.; and further to shew, that
the symptoms of the disease just named, may be satisfactorily
* Kirk and Paget’# Physiology,
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explained, by assuming the above hypothesis, and that this
condition actually exists.
I must, however, admit, that I have both some hesitation
and diffidence in advancing a theory of this nature, a& tlje
authors of the greatest repute and respectability of the present
day, will not, I fear, bear me out in my suppositions. I have,
however, selected one or two passages, which appear to me to
have some approximation to these views, although in other in¬
stances, I find passages of a directly opposite tendency. One
author, speaking on the subject of mama observes,* “there is
not so much destruction or defect of mind, as some derange¬
ment of its proper harmony.” Again, “ in the slighter In¬
stances of mania, the patient will break off his subject, in the
midst of a narrative, or of conversation, and will pass abruptly
to some other, with which the previous one has no sort of
connection, and then again to another.” Another writer
observes,^ “to alternations of delirium and reason, of com¬
posure and agitation, succeed acts the most strange and ex¬
travagant but then again, we have in the same chapter,
this apparent contrariety, “that the whole mind generally
suffers in consequence, and that confusion then becomes
universal throughout the countless changes of the brain." We
have, however, in another chapter, on the Diagnosis of M^nia,
the following passage, “The observations and the remarks
are sometimes found to have a certain kind of cleverness and
shrewd appreciation of all that is taking place.” I now pro¬
ceed to detail a few extracts, from two accounts written at my
request, from patients who recovered under my care ; one a
case of acute mania, the other a case of acute melancholia. I
have selected them, not because they are the most striking
that occurred to me, but because the patients were willing to
write, in their own words, the history of their own case.
Amongst the poor and uneducated, a greater difficulty is
generally found to get a complete history from the patieuts
themselves. Their carelessness on recovery, their inability
distinctly to describe symptoms and other causes of this nature,
always, more or less, prevents their medical attendant pro¬
curing a faithful and trustworthy account.
The first case to which I call attention, is one of acute
melancholia. The lady, the subject of it, belonged to a family
hereditarily predisposed to insanity. Before being placed
here, she had been under medical treatment at home for a
few weeks, and during that time, I understood, had occasion-
* Noble, Ptychologicol Medicine.
1 Bucknill and Take, Psychological Medicine.
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Dr. Atkinson on the
ally exhibited some slight degree of violence. During the first
two months that she was under our care, she was extremely
taciturn, but when capable of being drawn into conversation,
she exhibited no peculiarity ; she almost refused food, and had
sleepless nights. On her recovery, she wrote me the history
of her case, so far as she could remember, from which I ex¬
tract the following:—“ On arriving at Rook Nest, I remem¬
bered the place again, having been once with mamma to a
sale. After sitting two or three minutes in the drawing-room,
some female, tall and rather stout, entered, whilst Mrs. Atkin¬
son went out, &c. After much persuasion, Mrs. A. led me
into the dining-room; a little boy and a young man came in
soon after and seated themselves. She finally says, all the
events of that first evening are fresh in my memory; I can
even recollect what was for dinner, but it would occupy too
much time to write all. besides being unnecessary.” Now the
whole of the foregoing is perfectly correct, and we were unable
then to detect any special delusion, or illusion of any of the
senses; but we find from another portion of her written
history, that other trains of thought were in existence at this
period. She goes on to say, “ As I sat by the fire the same
evening, I thought I saw a skeleton in the garden, and at
night, after retiring to rest, I thought I heard carriages arrive
at the door, and a man’s voice loudly exclaim. Drown her in a
butt of her grandpapa’s ale.” “I thought Mr. -, the
station-master had arrived, and a lady from-at whose
school I was once a boarder; also my mamma, and all my
sisters and brothers, &c. The meaning of all this seemed to
be witnesses arriving to give their evidence against me, and
she ultimately states, that all this time, she thought she was
Palmer, and going to be hung; and she draws this remark¬
able conclusion, from her peculiar state of mind, in the follow¬
ing words :—‘ It appears to me, as if I had had at the same
time two existences ; and I now look upon my past delusions
as if they had occurred in a dream, although still quite fresh
in my memory !’ ”
The next case I purpose relating is, one of acute mania ;
the lady, the subject of it, was not hereditarily disposed to
insanity, but for many years had passed through severe adver¬
sity and trouble, and had for a lengthened period, prior to
admission, devoted her exclusive time and attention to religious
subjects. In conversation, on first entrance, she could well
recollect past and present events, and would converse with a
moderate degree of freedom on any ordinary topic. She could
not sleep, very often noisy, and continually trying to make
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Diagnosis of Acute Mania.
her escape, &c. From her written history I extract the fol¬
lowing, “ I remember going out the night of the storm, and
continuing my walk until I was stopt by the gate of the toll-
bar. I remember some one on horseback, walking beside me,
until I passed a wood ; and I remember remaining at the bar
until the sky looked calm, though cloudy. Whilst I stood
there, I went to ask shelter at the bar. I remember mamma
waiting for me—putting me to bed and bringing me hot
flannels and cocoa and making me comfortable. I went out
again and was stopt by some men, who brought me home, and
Mr. -Surgeon, came to see me, and again on the Sunday
morning. When he came in the evening, I had tried to get
out of the window, and one of the men came and held me all
the evening. Mr.-gave me some medicine, and brought
a woman with him, who remained with me all night; I
fastened the door by the banister; She broke them down and
came into the room. When Mr. - came again, I hid
myself and would not see him, and I think many people came
into the room, and I kept myself hid from them as well as I
could. I remember coming here and sitting on the same side
of the coach with Dr.-, &c., &c.” All these statements
are related with perfect accuracy, but in the same account she
proceeds to give the history of very different matters which
appeared to her to be going on at the same time, for in her
own words we have—“ this state of excitement I suppose pro¬
duced disease, and I thought I saw Mr.-(her clergyman)
taken and destroyed in a great fire, but the Lord took him
and hid him, and I must pursue him, to be absolved, and to
restore him his anointing, or we should both be lost eternally.
I thought they had clothed and suffocated me with abominable
garments (she was continually, night and day, tearing her
clothing from her person, and completely stripping herself),
and were seeking to kill me, having obtained the help of the
evil one, whose fiery darts were to be quenched by faith, and
all that was done about me I thought was the work of the
devil, who came in the appearance of the people about me,
that I might be deceived and destroyed by him. I thought it
was to effect a great work in the ransom of souls, that all this
trial was appointed, but that by reason of my drowsiness, I
hindered much, and many went up before me. I thought the
priest was to go up and shine as a star, and the Lord would
set him on high, because he knew his name; and I thought I
was to be a star also, though I was dead in the body, except
my hands and head, which they could not touch, being
anointed, and that my heart was taken away by God lest it
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Er. Atkinson on ths
should be touched by satan. I had a dreadful vision of you
(myself) in the night, whioh first made me think you were an
evil spirit, and I was afraid of you when you came to me, and
I thought it was so arranged that you could see into my
thoughts and knew all that was passing there. I threw all
the bed clothes from me, imagining they were grave clothes,
which would prevent me rising, and that they did prevent me
rising beyond the sky. When I ceased to take you for an
evil spirit, I took what you gave me, &c.” (She obstinately
refused food for many days, which was given by compulsory
measures). To contrast with the cases just recorded, it would
be necessary to picture the ordinary symptoms observable in
cases of fever, delirium-tremens, &c., in order to show what I
mean in contrardistinction, as examples of true delirium, or in
other words, disease affecting both hemispheres of the brain;
these, however, being so well known, it would be superfluous
occupying any space on this head, suffice it for me simply to
call attention to the fact, that, for instance, a patient suffering
from delirium-tremens may, for many days consecutively, re¬
main perfectly ignorant as to the room in which he is placed;
the parties with whom he converses ; mistake his nearest
relative, &c., &c.: in short, his mind is completely mystified,
without any interval of reason, until, perhaps, a prolonged
sleep restores it to rationality and health ; this diagnosis of
delirium-tremens will not meet the descriptions given by the
latest and best psychological writers; it argues that the
whole and not part of the brain is affected, as in mania,
whereas I find some of the authors above alluded to (Bucknill
and Tuke) rely in their diagnosis more upon the character of
the hallucinations, the pulse, skin, muscular system, &c.; my
observations of this disease place it in the same category, so
far as regards a state of complete delirium, as that of fever or
inflammation of the brain. Nor yet am I unmindful of the
objection that these observations do not coincide with the
opinions of the Fathers of Psychological Medicine* Dr.
Copland tells us that Pinel defines mania as a “ general deli¬
rium, with agitation irascibility and propensity to furor. 1 '
Bush, also, as a “ violent general delirium.” Esquirol the
same. I candidly admit these are authorities difficult to over¬
throw. From the foregoing observations we deduce the fol¬
lowing axioms,—1st, That one hemisphere of the brain may be
completely destroyed, or partially diseased, without interfering
with its opposite, just as one eye may be destroyed, or partially
diseased, producing optical illusions, without necessarily inter-
* Copland’s Diet Art. Iiuanity.
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Diagnosis of Acute Mania.
feting with the other. 2nd, That acute mania and melancholia
are diseases arising from some abnormal action affecting only
one hemisphere of the brain; the other, usually remaining
in a healthy condition; the effect of this, producing in the
patient so circumstanced a rational and an insane mind, having
alternate influence upon all his thoughts, words, and deeds,
and that this last peculiarity is the essential fact in the diag¬
nosis of these diseases.
On ike Condition of the Insane, and on the Treatment of
Nervous Diseases in Turkey. By R. F. F. Foote, M.D.,
Member of the Imperial Medical Society of Constantinople ;
lately Second Class Staff Surgeon, Her Majesty’s Service,
attached to His Highness Omar Pasha; formerly Physician
Superintendent to the Norfolk County Asylum, England.
Contnmed from April, 1858.
No. n.
The English Hospital at Constantinople, is a good one, and
situate near the Tower of Galata, overlooking the ancient
Chalcedon, the modern Kadekoui, the ancient Byantrum,
the modern Stamboul, with its elegant minarets, and well
P roportioned mosques; in the distance is the snow-clad
flympus, and within a few hundred yards, the Golden Horn,
crowded with ships from all parts of the Globe. What a
magnificent site, as far as view is concerned, would this offer
for a hospital for the insane. But the ground is too valuable
to afford any opportunity to enclose proper courts for exer¬
cise, and gardens for occupation.
Although we have spoken of the general arrangements
being very good in this hospital, yet we are surprised to find
that there is no adaptation of its internal economy for the in¬
sane, or for the treatment of persons who may suffer from
temporary mental derangement, and whose early attention
produces so much benefit. The necessity of such arrangements
we think indisputable, as not unfrequently cases of mania
occur here among the English community, requiring imme¬
diate attention, and if these case* are neglected, chronic in¬
sanity, or a fatal termination may result, A case came under
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Dr. Foote, on the Condition
our observation, two years since, which will serve to illustrate
the necessity of some arrangements being made. An En¬
glishman in the employ of a gentleman in Pera, as groom,
suffered from a fall from a horse, and received severe con¬
cussion of the brain; immediately after the accident, when
seen, he was in a state of insensibility, with a feeble pulse and
contracted pupils, he was ordered to be carefully watched,
and that, did any change take place, the attendants should
immediately inform us. At twelve o’clock at night, six hours
after the accident, he was again visited, and reaction had
commenced slightly; cold applications were ordered. An
officer present, asked if the patient had been bled ; he was
answered in the negative, upon this he said: Is it intended
to bleed him ? The reply was: No. He said: Why not,
as in this country, it is the practice with all the surgeons and
physicians to bleed in the case of a man receiving any in¬
jury in the head ? The answer was : That as it did not seem
necessary, the patient would not be thus treated The next
morning he was seen early, and was more conscious, and at
one p.m., he was removea to Pera, where, through the kind¬
ness of his nurse, he received proper care and attention, and
rapidly recovered. But why has not this man been bled,
said his master ; I have heard that medical men of late, treat
apoplexy different to what they used to do, but when a person
suffers from an injury to the head, I have always heard it ex¬
pressed, that bleeding is absolutely necessary; we could only
inform the gentleman, that, formerly, such was the idea in
England, but, latterly, the medical profession have discovered
that blood-letting very rarely relieves mental affections or
nervous disorders, but more often is the great exciting cause,
and that men could only point to such authorities as Liston,
Cooper, Guthrie, &c., who would not consider it necessary to
order a man to be bled because he had received a concussion
of the brain, any more than they would consider it necessary
to bleed a patient because he had suffered from epilepsy.
In a few days, the patient recovered, and, notwithstanding
strict injunctions were laid down that proper rest should be
observed, yet, within three weeks he was allowed to go again
on horseback, and had fallen off thrice, he was also at liberty
to take wine, brandy, or ale, at libitum ; shortly after, hot
weather having suddenly commenced, he suffered from consti¬
pation of the bowels, congestion of the liver and brain, which
was accompanied with excitement, it was considered necessary
to send him to the English Hospital. There were no arrange¬
ments to receive people, although alienated and Englishmen.
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of the Insane in Turkey.
241
A few days afterwards, the patient made a determined at¬
tempt at self-destruction, by cutting his throat, and, of course,
no farther delay took place, he remained for some weeks at
the hospital, and, subsequently, left for England a lunatic.
There can be but little doubt, that, had the early symptoms
been treated by removing him to the hospital, the nearly
fatal result would have been prevented'; had a little discretion
and forethought been used, and a little additional expense
been incurred, ample provision could have been made for
cases of insanity whose temporary detention here is absolutely
necessary, until such arrangements can be made for their re¬
moval to England, but the practice of placing them in the
gaol as common felons, or sending them to Yiedy Koly, to be
left to the tender mercies of the persons there, scarcely ap¬
pears in accordance with English views. Three cases have
occurred during the past twelve months, viz., two females, and
one male ; the Consul refused to admit the women into the
hospital, but the male was admitted.
During twelve months a vast number of vessels under
English protection arrived here, upon which a tax is laid for
the support of the Hospital; during the year ending December,
1857, no less than 13,529 men in 1351 ships under English
protection entered the port of Constantinople; among these
men, ardent spirits when indulged in, produce much excitement
and mental derangement, we are not however surprised to
find the objection which the medical officer has to receiving
these cases into the hospital, in the absence of any architectu¬
ral arrangement for their proper care and attention.
In addition there is always a large portion of residents,
consisting of English, Ionians and Maltese under British
protection, amounting to upwards of 4000 people. But we
must not expect to find protection in public arrangements;
deficiencies will, and we suppose must exist, and with the Turks
shrug our shoulders, and say “Kysmet’’ it is fate.
The general want of nervous energy among the natives is
apparent to every one who visits Turkey. “ Put off until to
morrow that which you can do to day; never do that which
you promise; or punctuality the thief of time; procrastination
the soul of buisness; ” these ideas are indelibly written upon
all the movements of the Turks, Greeks, and Armenians.
In some parts of Pera, the atmosphere always retains a
purity, an elasticity, and an exhilirating force, not to be met
with elsewhere than on the shores of the Bosphorus; to a great
extent its beneficial effect on nervous disease may be described
to the noble view in the distance, with its many reminis-
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Dr. Foote, on the Condition
cencies. In passing towards Tophane to take a caique we
hare this beautiful view behind us, and soon become en¬
tangled in the purlieus of Galata, where all Hygienic rules
appear to be entirely disregarded, and where the atmosphere
produces a depressing effect from its impurity. Indeed, in
certain localities I have noticed that fever with considerable
mental excitement appears to be always present, and although
the older residents are more or less affected by it, yet the
new-comers very soon suffer ; we are not, therefore, surprised
to find that the plague made such sad havoc formerly in cer¬
tain parts of Constantinople. The effect of the mechanical
power of steam imported from England has, however, done
much to remove many of the inhabitants to the shores of the
Bosphorus, and thus to distribute the population over a large
&rea.
On the 22nd May, 1858, having taken a caique at Tophane
we passed Seraglio Point, Kani Kapii, Yeni Kapii, Somatiak,
and soon arrived at the small pier near the village of Yiedy
Koly, and landed at Beylik Kassab, or the government
butcher’s depot, a collection of wooden buildings, placed close
to, and in some parts overhanging the sea, where animals are
slaughtered for the supply of the Commissariat of the Porte.
Numerous wolf-like dogs received us with open mouths and
fierce salutes, but offered us no personal violence. We passed
through the little village consisting of a few badly built houses
inhabited by Greeks, and noticed as we passed through the
huge ancient Turkish cemetery, the ever existing want of me¬
chanical arrangements, which may be said to be found not
only in many relations of social life, but in the forms of the
tombs erected to the dead.
On visiting the asylum we were received with much courtesy
by the governor in a room adjoining the Hospital, an institu-
tution at some distance from the building before described,
and which is specially devoted to the reception of sick patients
of the Greek religion, and from all we can learn is well con¬
ducted. It is under the medical care of Dr. Omloff who has
also the medical care of the lunatics.
The governor very politely, in the true Eastern style, offered
us pipes and coffee, without which, in this country, no business
can be commenced, and subsequently informed us that he
knew of no other means of repressing violence but by restraint,
that they had at present veTy bad resources for supplying the
necessaries, but that poor insane people came there and were
allowed to eat their bread as quietly as possible, that when a
man was violent by night they had no other appliance at com-
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of the Intone in Turkey. 249
mand but to place him under restraint and to fix him by
chains to his bed ; recently however they had had some straight
jackets, but at times even chains were not sufficient to aUay
the violence. He stated that there were no printed rulesi no
accounts were kept of the condition mental or otherwise or the
patients, there were no night watches, no single rooms for se¬
clusion ; they found low diet was the best treatment, and that
they allowed the patients to walk out in the garden when they
wished, and although some were wanting in proper clothing,
yet they had only recently ordered new dresses.
Not being a qualified medical man, he seemed much sur¬
prised when we informed him that in the best conducted
asylums in England, mechanical restraint was seldom or ever
used, and that as regards the “ recoveries in asylums,” which
have been established during considerable periods, say twenty
years, a proportion of much less than 40 per cent, of the ad¬
mission is under the ordinary circumstances a low proportion.
From our enquiries it appears that no properly organised
homes exist for persons of the middle classes, not- any private
asylum for their reception, but we have been informal that
some of them are sent to Princapo, an island in the sea of
Marmora, where they are placed in care of the monks, who by
means of chains, ill-ventilated cells and bad food, soon knock
the devil out of the people one way or the other, as they either
become very calm and quiet (demented), or die from their ex¬
citement (acute mania).
On going into number one we were much pleased to find
that all the large chains had been removed, but the odour of
the apartments was rather unpleasant, owing to the proximity
Of the water closets, but as there was a free current of air
passing rapidly through, the effect was not very disagreeable.
1. The first patient who attracted our attention, J. B., Was an
Italian by birth, a man of thirty years of age, of thin form,
nervous temperament with an anxious countenance. The pulse
was feeble, 90, head cool, tongue deem, his limbs, which he
uncovered, exhibited marks of recent bruises ; he stated that
he was very badly served, worse than a beast, that his food
was very scanty and inferior in quality. He talked incohe-
herently of having been employed during the war by H»
Majesty the Sultan, and that he had been sent to the asylum
because some of His Majesty’s household had been jealous
ef him.”
2. A. of Crite, educated at Pera as a medical student, spoke
Italian fluently, was standing on the cold stones without shoes
or stockings, Ins dress being simply a shirt and a pair of
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Dr. Foote on the Condition
cotton drawers ; the circulation appeared feeble, countenance
pale, haggard, skin cool, he was very excited. He wished that
we would apply to his consulate to remove him as he had been
sent there without proper cause ; he threatened that the at¬
tendant should be tied to two horses and torn to pieces for his
cruelty to him, he said he had nothing but a morsel of bread
to eat, that we should call upon his friends at Pera to send
him some clothes as he had none.
He warned the attendant, and said that he should tremble
when he passed him. The attendant considered that no at¬
tention should be paid to his conversation, and walked o£F
quietly laughing, leaving us to pursue our enquiries.
3. A. Talked Greek and Italian fluently, and, in addition, a
little English; said he would tell us all the truth, but was
afraid of the keeper, who threatened to kill him ' x he had been
brought to the asylum on account of some mistake he had
made in going and knocking at a Turkish house, where there
was a harem, that the women were frightened, and the police
brought him to this place.
4. D. Was covered by a sheet, stated that he had been brought
from Bayakderdh, where he was employed as a gardener, and
that he had arrived there for what reason he knew not; he
was seated in a restraint chair, with a strap around his body,
and both feet encircled with leather; he was constantly cross¬
ing himself after the Greek religion; that his companion, who
had forced him to come thither, had also accompanied us
there.
6. S. B. Dressed as a Greek priest, with a cloeely fitting
cossack stretching to his ankles ; a high hat, rounded at the
summit; said he had been brought from Balakly, he appeared
morose, and had come thither for peace and quietness.
6. G. became very excited, said he did not know his name,
how do you call yourself, one has one name, I have another,
does not know why he is put where he ia He was very
much annoyed that Yassili had been brought to the asylum ;
his countenance appeared haggard, pulse feeble, head cool;
he was sitting up in bed.
7. N. had on his head a turban, fancied himself a Mussul¬
man ; on his breast various decorations; would not talk;
thought the whole building belonged to him.
8. N. D., a man of 50 years of age, appeared very feeble;
he had effusion- into the cellular tissue of the face, gums
were spongy and ulcerated, countenance very anxious, the
body was covered with spots of petechia;; pulse feeble ; he
presented all the appearance of a patient suffering from
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of the Insane in Turkey'. 245
scurvy; he complained loudly that he had no medical
attendant, and very little food.
9. G. A man of small stature; anxious countenance ;
tolerably well-developed head; stated that he had great
belief in the Russians) he hoped they would soon take
possession of Constantinople, as he had been engaged by the
Emperor of Russia to put all the Mahomedans m prison,
and that 60,000 Russian troops were to land at Princapo, in
May next, and that the Sultan was to be sent to Scutari in
a ciaque, and that several hundred Russian gun-boats, os
merchant steamers, had passed lately into the Black Sea.
The other cases presented no peculiarities, there appeared
to be less restriction than previously noticed; indeed, one
of the female patients was walking through the male wards,
unattended by any male or female person. The males could
readily pass into the garden, no means being taken to pre¬
vent them.
The male attendant stated that the Doctor visited the
wards twice a-day; the patients say that such took place
once a week; whilst the Governor informed us that he went
only when required.
There appeared no means for occupation or amusement
furnished, but the lunatics stated that some were so much
beaten that they were prevented working; the Governor
said that eveiy effort was used to employ them, and that
every facility for taking exercise in the open air during any
time of the day.
Their food, which we saw, consisted of three meals daily.
The servant stated that meat was given them once in two
weeks, about four ounces of cooked boiled beet, owing to the
very high price prevailing of late. The food consisted of
bread, with rice and water, forming a soup, whilst others
Were supplied with green French beans cooked with oil; in
the morning, they have for breakfast bread and cheese, with¬
out coffee. At noon, the same; and no wine, tea, or sugar,
appears to be allowed them. It appears that those who
have friends, who can give money to the attendants, are
treated better; tobacco is supplied to them.
We entered the female apartment, being accompanied by
the nurse, who is the only one employed ; we found No. J,
the Refractory Ward, in a wretched state.
SophiaR. was fixed to a bedstead, with an iron collar around
her neck, and her arms fixed ; she took no notice of us, but
it was stated she had been thus treated on account of her
violence in breaking the windows; she appeared perfectly
quiet and orderly.
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246 The Condition oj the Ineane in Turkey.
Maria K. became very excited, and demanded why I dared
to write in her presence, what I had to write about She
wished all Governments to be called to judge me; she
appeared feeble and weakly. She said Goa is the first, I
am the second; there is a land and a sea, a sun and a moon ;
I warn you do not forget God. Do you keep Thursdays and
Fridays, do you fast on those days ? I am the cashier of the
Emperor of Russia; every day I am married to a husband,
and every morning I cut off his head. The nurse stated
that when the patients are sick the doctor visits them.
There are no knives, or forks, table cloths, or chairs ; the
patients take their food with their fingers ; a habit not pecu¬
liar in Turkey. The court-yard, in which a few were walking,
was small, surrounded by a pailing. The clothing was
slovenly, the bedding scanty but dean ; the nurse stated that
five or six females had died since January, and some dis¬
charged who had recovered. All the food is carried from the
hospital to the asylum, a distance of several hundred feet;
there is no covered way or means of retaining heat in winter,
so that their food is always cold.
me
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THE JOURNAL OF MENTAL SCIENCE.
Vol. VI. April, 1860. No. 33.
A Descriptive Notice of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum , Hay¬
ward’s Heath (opened 25th July, 1859,); by C. Lockhart
Robertson, M.B., Cantab., Honorary Secretary to the
Association of Medical Officers of Asylums aud Hospi¬
tals for the Insame; Medical Superintendent of the
Asylum.
In laying before the members of this Association a descrip¬
tive notice of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, it is my grateful
task to record the obligations I am under to several of its
most distinguished members for the aid and counsel they so
liberally lent to me while engaged in the task of fitting and
furnishing this asylum, and bringing it into working order ;
an undertaking, I venture to add, more difficult than one, who
has not personally tried it, would suppose.
A medical superintendent appointed to a new county asylum
about to open has three distinct objects brought at once before
him He is taken over a large building full of workmen, and
half-finished work, and he is called upon to make suggestions
for the adapting of the plans to his own ideas of the working of
an asylum. Next he has to complete, in detail, the arrange¬
ments for the fitting and furnishing of the wards and offices ;
and, thirdly, he has to organize the staff of officers and ser¬
vants of the asylum, and visit, in the several private asylums
in which they may happen to be lodged, the patients be¬
longing to the county, with a view to their removal
Were asylum architects familiar with the daily life of an
asylum, the first requirements on the attention of the new
superintendent would be, only the adaption to his own per-
VOL. VI. NO. 33. T
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248 A Descriptive Notice oj
sonal views and plans of a scheme designed and fitted for its
purpose. Such was eminently the case at the Cambridge
County Asylum, built from the plans of an experienced
superintendent and amateur architect, Mr. HilL So also in
the case of the Sussex Asylum, the architect, Mr. Kendall,
had, by the experience gained by him in building the Essex
Asylum, acquired a knowledge of the requirements of an
asylum, and lessened this preliminary difficulty.
The most satisfactory arrangement was that adopted by
the magistrates for the County of Lincoln, who called in the
advice of the medical superintendent, to aid in the selection
of the plans and architect previous to their commencing the
building. It is much to be regretted that this plan was not
? generally adopted in the erection of the several county asv-
ums. It is one which places the responsibility on on indi¬
vidual, and thus secures a more careful and intelligent study of
the whole design and watchful superintendence of its erection
than can result from the formal examination and approval of
the Lunacy Commissioners; an approval which, for example,
in the case of the Sussex Asylum, omitted the introduction
of any systematic supply of artificial heat in the plans
sanctioned.
The second question which comes before the medical super¬
intendent is the fitting and furnishing of the house. The
liberality which opens to our mutual inspection the different
county asylums, and the entire absence of personal rivalry
which pervades this one department of the medical profession,
renders this task comparatively easy. Thus, in the case of
the Sussex Asylum, I simply took the clerk of the works
with me for a couple of days to Brentwood, and, with rule and
measure, booked the size and kind of fittings in every
store, office, and ward in the asylum; and, on our return
home, we had only next day to go over our own offices and
wards and draw up the specification for the work.
Again, as relates to the furnishing, (including clothing) the
tradesmen who had furnished the Lincoln Asylum, Bethlehem,
and the Essex were invited to tender samples of the articles,
and thus again by the experience of my professional brethren
my task of selection was materially aided. Still the endless
requirements for the fitting and furnishing of a large estab¬
lishment are quite alarming to one not previously conversant
with such wants. The burthen of the requirements of our
civilization falls heavy when individual wants have to be mul¬
tiplied by four hundred.
The third task to which I have referred, as devolving on the
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
superintendent of a new asylum, is the organizing of the staff
of the officers and servants (including the rules and regula¬
tions) of the establishment, previous to the removal of the
patients to their new home. The arrangement of the duties
of the staff requires that he should first view, in detail, his
own duties and responsibilities ; unless he himself realizes the
extent, and strives to discharge the obligations of the vocation
he has entered on, all the arrangements and plans of builders,
upholsterers, and other artificers employed on the fabric will
avail but little towards the great object of the foundation, the
care and relief of human suffering in its most abject and
distressing form. These duties and these responsibilities have
been so ably stated by one whose pre-eminent success in the
study and treatment of mental disease needs not my praise,
that I make no apology in this place for quoting his opinions
in full. “The medical superintendent,” says Dr. Conolly,
“ himself should deserve the fullest confidence of the govern¬
ing body, and should possess it. His authority cannot be
impaired without detriment to the asylum, through every part
of which his influence must be continually in operation. The
task undertaken by him is one of considerable physical and
mental labour. A daily visit to several hundred insane per¬
sons, each requiring to be accosted so as to do some good, and
to do no harm, is itself singularly exhaust ing to any officer whose
heart is really in his duty ; and the multiplicity of claims on
his attention throughout the day affords his mind scarcely
any intervals of repose. Unavoidable excitements occur, and
sometimes he is engaged in scenes of violent agitation sud¬
denly arising, and where his interference is indispensable.
Whatever therefore is needlessly done to harass or depress the
mind of an officer engaged in such a duty disqualifies him to
some extent for his important undertaking ; for vigilantly
superintending the whole working of the asylum, and for con¬
soling, enlivening, animating, and by undisturbed kindness
and calmness ever guiding, supporting, and controlling more
or less directly the minds of all the rest of the establishment.
It is to him that the whole house must at all times look for
the principles by which every thing done in it is to be regu¬
lated. His supposed or his known wishes should be present
to the mind of every officer and every attendant in every
variety of accident, and his character of mind and heart ever
in their view. Indifference on his part must lead to negli¬
gence on the part of those who execute his commands;
severity exhibited by him must lead to brutality on the part
of the attendants. His steady discouragement of negligence,
T a
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A Descriptive Notice of
his known abhorrence of cruelty, and his real and deep sym¬
pathy with his patients, may be reflected from every humane
heart in the asylum. His duty comprehends the wide and
careful survey of every thing that can favourably or un¬
favourably affect the health of mind or body. He has to
regulate the habits, the character, the very life of his patients.
The whole house, every great and every trifling arrangement,
the disposition of every officer and servant should be in per¬
petual conformity to his views, so that one uniform idea may
animate all to whom his orders are intrusted, and the result
be one uniform plan. Nothing should be done without his
sanction. The manners and language of all who are employed
in the asylum should but reflect his, for every thing done and
every thing said in an asylum is remedial or hurtful; and not
an order should be given, or a word spoken, except in accord¬
ance with the spirit of the director of the whole establishment.
By such a system alone can it even be proved to what extent
the cure or the improvement of the insane is practicable.
“ Resolved therefore to make his asylum a place where every
thing is regulated with one humane view, and where humanity,
if anywhere on earth shall reign supreme, the resident medical
director must be prepared to make a sacrifice of some of the
ordinary comforts and conventionalities of life. His duties
are peculiar and apart from common occupations. His society
even must chiefly consist of his patients; his ambition must
solely rest in doing good to them ; his happiness on promoting
theirs. None but those who live among the insane can fully
know the pleasures which arise from imparting trifling satis¬
factions to impaired minds; none else can appreciate the re¬
ward of seeing reason returning to a mind loDg deprived of
it; none else can fully know the value of diffusing comfort
and all the blessings of orderly life among those who would
either perish without care, or each of whom would, if out of
the asylum, be tormented or a tormentor. Constant inter¬
course and constant kindness can alone obtain their entire
confidence, and this confidence is the very key-stone of all
successful management
“ Thus living and thus occupied, the director will learn to
love his people with all their infirmities, which are their
afflictions. The asylum is his world, the patients are his
friends, humble but not without even delicate consideration
for others; wayward but not malignant, except when cruelty
exasperates them ; capricious but not ungrateful; distrustful
but to be won by candour and truth; disturbed and piteously
afflicted, but not dead to some of best and purest affections.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum .
He will almost regard his patients as his children ; their cares
and their joys will become his ; and humanly speaking his
whole heart will be given to them.”
The duties thus entrusted to the medical superintendent
involve
1. The general superintendence and control over every
department of the asylum, and every officer and servant in
the same.
2. The hiring and discharge at his discretion, of all the
attendants and servants of the asylum.
3. The regulation of all that concerns the moral and medical
treatment of the patients, including the dietary, appertains to
his office.
4. It is further his duty to observe the progress in science
of all that relates to the treatment of the insane, and officially
to direct the attention of the visitors, from time to time, to
such improvements in the conduct of the house, as his in¬
creased knowledge and experience may suggest
In arranging the relative duties of the officers of the asylum
it is necessary as a basis for any sound government, that their
several duties should be performed under the undisputed
control and direction of the medical superintendent; that
while holding their office from the visitors, the power of sus¬
pending them from the discharge of their duties, should rest
in his hands. It is also necessary that in their several
duties they shall be required to take counsel with him, from
time to time on the routine and details of the work.
The officers of the Sussex Asylum are
1. The Medical Superintendent
2. The Chaplain.
3. The Assistant Medical Officer.
4. The Steward.
5. The Housekeeper
6. The Head Attendant, (male department.)
7. The Head Attendant, (female department.)
Their duties may be thus briefly stated.
Chaplain. The chaplain is non-resident. His duties
beyond the Sunday and holiday services, are to read morning
prayer daily in the chapel, and evening prayer also, if so required
by the visitors ; to visit the wards once a week on each side of
the house ; to visit and counsel such sick, as his attention
may be directed to by the superintendent, and generally to
exercise a spiritual charge over each member of the household.
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Further the care of the library, and the conduct and organ¬
ization of the Bchool, is under the chaplain’s personal charge.
A non-resident chaplain is in every way more desirable
than a resident, if simply for this one reason, that it is found
by experience that a higher class man can be found to devote
himself to the duty when not required to sever his relations
with the world outside, by residing in an asylum. Still the
chaplain should be specially appointed to the asylum. In some
counties the duty is let out to the rector of the parish,
or to a neighbouring cathedral dignitary. I think this is
unwise economy ; the spiritual charge of an asylum, and of all
connected with it, should be the first obligation of its chaplain.
Any chance duty, as that of a union or lectureship may very
properly be added to this, leaving the requirements of the
asylum as the primary charge and claim on the chaplain’s
time.
I think that medical superintendents are apt to under rate
the value of the chaplains ministrations in the house.
To many of the patients his presence among them is most
soothing. None of the necessary discipline falling to his
share, he can often enter into little grievances and wants
which they might shrink from confiding to the medical
authorities.
His instruction in the school I hold to be of the utmost
value. I am about to discharge a patient whose elementary
education has been much improved by the lessons which,
during her convalesence, she received in the school, and
cases are not unfrequent where the patient leaves the asy¬
lum with more knowledge than he brought or ever had
before.
Again with the household his ministrations are of para¬
mount importance. The mere outward recognition of a
higher motive to action than the mere wages, which the
offering of the daily prayer in the asylum chapel implies, is
alone no small step towards raising the moral tone of the
whole work undertaken in the asylum, and so bringing
before each one employed in the same a sense of his vocation,
and of his personal responsibility for the manner in which
the duties of his calling are discharged.
I need hardly enlarge on so obvious a truth.
Assistant Medical Officer. The first resident officer to be
selected is the medical superintendents’ professional assistant
This officer, his frequent substitute in the performance of his
duties, and one with whom he must often take counsel in the
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
daily government of the asylum, should be of his own selection,
and the rules of the asylum should confer on the medical
superintendent the right of nominating to the visitors his
professional assistant.
The duties of the assistant medical officer entirely concern
the charge of the patients (as distinguished from the manage¬
ment of the household) with whom he should cultivate the
most intimate relationship and acquaintance by constant and
repeated visits to the wards, beyond the daily professional
inspection. The charge of the dispensary, and of the case books
also devolve on the assistant medical officer ; the arrangement
of the amusements of the patients, of the weekly ball, of the
cricket in summer, of the walks in the country, of visits to
relations and friends, form part of the assistant medical
officer’s immediate charge.
I am of opinion that his duties might most wisely be shared
with a resident clinical clerk; many students would gladly
embrace such an opportunity of becoming familiar with the
diagnosis and treatment of mental disease. From candidates
for appointments in the India Medical Service, attendance for
three months on the practice of an asylum is required, and
yet our county asylums are closed against the student. Surely
this is not right.
Steward and Clerk. The duties of steward and clerk, are
usually conjoined, whether with advantage to the asylum, I
rather doubt. In an asylum of 400 patients or more, I am
sure that the time necessarily spent on (book-keeping and re¬
turns, would be more profitably devoted to the stores, and
economical supply of the provisions, while the salary of a
resident clerk would not exceed i?30, with board and lodging.
The steward of an asylum should have no control or concern
with the management or direction of the patients, attendants,
servants, or indeed with any of the every day work of the
asylum, saving the tailors’ and shoemakers’ shop, whose work
it is his duty to supply elsewhere, should it fail in the asylum.
A steward who devotes his energies to the daily supply and
issue of the provisions, clothing, fuel, &c., of a large establish¬
ment, and to the accounts and returns involved in these
issues, has his time fully occupied. When, in addition, to the
duties required by the Commissioners in Lunacy from the
clerk of the asylum are imposed on him, the argument is con¬
clusive that he can have no time to devote to other duties,
and should not be held responsible for any control or direction
of the household, attendants, or artizans.
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The duties of the steward and clerk of the Sussex Asylum
are:—
1. The charge of all the stores, books, and documents be¬
longing to the establishment.
2. 'Hie personal superintendence of the delivery and issue
of all stores, provisions, and clothing.
3. The keeping of the several accounts and other forms of
the asylum, in conformity with the requirements of the Act
of Parliament.
Housekeeper. In most asylums the duties of housekeeper
and head female attendant are conjoined in the stately person
of the matron, to whom, in one of the Middlesex asylums, the
ridiculously extravagant salary of i?200 a year, besides her
rooms and rations are allowed. I have yet to make the
acquaintance of the woman whose work I consider worth this
salary.
What is required in an asylum is a discreet, sensible woman,
to take the same control of the domestic arrangements of
the household as the housekeeper does in any other large
establishment, public or private. Any one pretending to the
manners or requirements of a lady is entirely out of place.
The duties of the housekeeper in the Sussex Asylum are:—
1. The charge and superintendence of the kitchen, laundry,
officers’ and servants’ rooms, and the control over the domestic
servants of the asylum.
2. The charge of the cutting out of the work supplied to
the female wards.
3. A general supervision of the cleanliness of the wards,
bedding, and such like, on both sides of the house.
She nas thus in the care of the kitchen, laundry, and work¬
room ample occupation.
She has no responsibility as regards the patients, nor con¬
trol over their attendants.
The Head-Attendants. Sufficient importance is not, I think,
given to these two officers in our county asylums. Indeed
their appointment is only of recent date, and the result of re¬
commendations from the Commissioners in Lunacy. In one
of the over-grown metropolitan asylums (in which asylums
illustrations of the arrangements that ought not to exist in
an asylum can mostly be found) these recommendations have
notyet been attended to.
The head-attendant’s office appears to me of the utmost
importance ; I would rather bear with second-rate inefficiency
from any other officer of the asylum. The steward might, by
negligence, allow the quality of the clothing, or of the provi-
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
sions, to deteriorate; or the housekeeper might neglect the
kitchen or the laundry, and, after all, no very serious results
to the patients follow. But in the case of the head-attendants,
their shortcomings involve the ultimate object of the whole
asylum in the curative treatment of mental disease. If they
neglect their duty, the patients themselves, in their persons,
in their comfort, in all that relates to their well being, must
suffer.
The position in the asylum of these two officers should not
be inferior to that of the steward or housekeeper, nor should
their salaries be much less. It is difficult to break through
formed prejudices, and committees may be slow to recognize
the importance of the trust committed to the head attendants.
Still the medical superintendent in the exercise of his discre¬
tionary powers can do much to sustain their position and
authority in the house.
The duties of the head attendants in the Sussex Asylum
include the entire direction (under the medical officers) of the
wards, and attendants, and of the patients, and of all that
relates to the patients. In this are involved the instruction
and superintendence of the attendants in their duty, the en¬
forcing of the hours and discipline of the house, the visiting
of the wards and supervision at meal time of the distribution
of the diet, the examination of the quantity and quality sup¬
plied, the reception of patients on admission, the regulation
of the attendants’ leave, the issue of repairs and clothing, and
other ward necessaries to be procured from the asylum stores.
The occupation and employment of the patients, perhaps
the most important curative agent, is mainly under their
supervision.
Artizans and Attendants. The permanent artizans of an
asylum are the engineer, the smith, the carpenter, the bricklayer,
the painter and glazier, the tailor, the shoemaker, the baker, the
brewer. I think it best that these several artizans should be
simply employed as tradesmen, at weekly wages out of the
house. All attempts to get the double work of attendant
and artizan result in a second-rate artizan and third-rate
attendant I tried it in one instance with an artizan-attendant,
who brought from a private pauper asylum the highest re¬
commendations, and he nearly brought about, the first day
I employed him, by his neglect of duty, the only approach
to an accident I have had since the opening of the asylum.
In the same way I think if the laundry-maids are up to
their work, and do it, that any attempt to make ward attend¬
ants of them will fail. This also I learnt by experience here,
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A Descriptive Notice of
A first-class laundry-maid will not undertake ward duty, an
inferior laundry-maid is like all inferior servants, not worth
house-room. Skilled labour, at fair wages, is, in the long
run, a saving over unskilled labour, however cheaply (supposed)
paid, and nowhere does this truth hold with more force than
in an asylum.
The wages in all our county asylums are too low. In the
Government prisons the value of skilled labour is better
understood.
At first I had the idea that by low wages, I should ensure a
consequent reduction of the weekly rate. I owe it to my
friend Dr. Campbell, that I avoided this serious mistake, and
early in our proceedings submitted to the visitors a scale of
wages, high as compared with one or two of the neighbouring
asylums. I know that the patients have gained by the step,
and I also believe that the ultimate economy resulting from
the uniform arrangements of a well ordered house, will leave
the county no loser.
In the Government prisons, under the inspection of Sir
Joshua Jebb, the following rate of wages is paid to the
warders.
Assistant Warders <£*52 a year, rising <£*1 a year to .£*62
Warders £>55 „ <£1 5s. „ ^67 10s.
Principal Warder £(&5 „ . £*1 10s. „ <£*80
In addition, a daily ration of lib meat, lib potatoes, and
lib bread is allowed to each warder; they do not sleep in the
prison. Of course such wages command the market
In the Sussex Asylum the wages of the male attendants*
begin at <£*28, and rise £?1 a year, to <£*30, those of the female
attendants run from <£*15 to <£*20. With my present experi¬
ence, I would decidedly place these wages higher, rather than
lower, were I advising a change. The artizans average from
30s. to 21s. a week. It is my intention, from time to time,
to advise that an increase on this scale should be granted, as
the reward of long or skilful service.
“ If I may rely on my own observations," says Dr.
Conolly, “ no object connected with the management of the
insane has received less adequate attention than the selection
of proper attendants, their proper treatment, their just
government, and their instruction in the various, and pecu¬
liar, and exhausting duties, which necessarily devolve upon
them. The important and delicate task of regulating the
conduct of persons of unsound mind, of controlling excite-
* See List of the Establishment at the end of this paper.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
ment, restraining waywardness, or removing mental depres¬
sion, is, unavoidably, confided to persons of limited educa¬
tion ; but these are too frequently chosen with little regard
to their disposition, temper or intelligence. They are per¬
mitted to commence their duties with as little preparation
as if their office was merely that of a servant, and are
governed either with severity or injustice, or without the
consideration and indulgence requisite to support their
patience, and to encourage them to. be considerate and in¬
dulgent to those on whom they attend, and who are Bolely
in their power.
Of all the physician’s remedial agents, they are the most
continually in action ; all that cannot be done by his per¬
sonal exertion depends upon them. The character of par¬
ticular patients, and of all the patients of a ward, takes its
colour from the character of the attendants placed in it.
On their being proper or improper instruments, well or ill-
trained, well or ill-disciplined, well or ill-cared for, it de¬
pends whether many of his patients shall he cured or not
cured; whether some shall live or die; whether frightful
accidents, an increased mortality, incalculable uneasiness and
suffering, and occasional suicides, shall take place or not”
In opening a new asylum it is desirable to procure the
services of attendants accustomed to the insane. I have not
found those trained in private asylums at all equal to those
attendants whom I have engaged with recommendations
from Hanwell, Worcester, and Brentwood.
When an asylum is once established I agree in the opinion
expressed by Dr. Bucknill before the Parliamentary Com¬
mission of last year, that it is better to train attendants out
of the material of the county. I have already six promising
attendants who have learnt all their duties in the Sussex
Asylum. For male attendants I think farm servants on the
whole the best material I have been disappointed in the
military pensioners I have tried. They are all eye-servants,
and require more looking after than the patients. For
female attendants young house-maids under twenty are by
far the best. Of this I have no doubt whatever.
As in private life, so also does it hold in a public asylum,
that the tone and character of the servants depend more
upon their master and the example set to them than upon
any thing else. The sense of this responsibility adds to the
anxiety of the medical superintendent’s charge
While on this subject I would add one extract from Miss
Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing , referring to the necessity of
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A Descriptive Notice of
training nurses for their work. ** The every day manage¬
ment of a large ward, is not this matter of sufficient import¬
ance and difficulty to require learning by experience and
careful enquiry, just as much as any other art ? They do
not come by inspiration to the lady disappointed in love,
nor to the poor workhouse drudge hard up for a livelihood.
And terrible is the injury which has followed to the sick
from such wild notions. In this respect (and why is it so?)
in Roman Catholic countries both writers and workers are
in theory, at least, far before us. They would never think
of such a beginning for a good working Superior or Sister
of Charity. And many a superior has refused to admit a
postulant who appeared to have no better vocation or reasons
for offering herself than these. It is true we make no vows.
But is a vow necessary to convince us that the true spirit
for learning any art, most especially an act of charity aright,
is not a disgust to every thing, or something else ? Do we
really place the love of our kind (and of nursing as one
branch of it) so low as this ? What would the Mbre
Ang6lique of Port Royal,—what would our own Mrs. Fry
have said to this.”
Diet. The diet of our asylums vary. The new asylums
are more liberally dieted than the old. The largest amount of
animal food is given in the Essex Asylum. These dietaries
all contain a daily allowance of beer, which in practice I have
always found to be very poor stuff indeed. I have followed
the practice of other asylums in issuing a daily half pint (at
least) of weak beer, worth 'about 7d. a gallon, but except for
the irritation which its withdrawal would cause to the patients,
I think water would be a preferable drink. In the prisons
water only is issued, and ail the patients gain flesh on it.
No one could wish to see more robust looking men than are
to be found at Millbank. Besides I entirely doubt if this
weak beer have the slightest nutritive value in the diet scale.
I think it would be wiser to issue water to the healthy patients,
and to give Reid’s London Stout to those whose health would
be benefitted by an alcholic stimulant. Wine I consider su¬
perfluous in an asylum A little good Scotch whiskey or gin
answers every purpose of a strong stimulant-sedative, at a
third of the cost
For the attendants good home-brewed beer should be pro¬
vided. Indeed, too much care cannot be put on the com¬
forts (including diet) of the attendants of an asylum.
The following is the diet scale now in use m the Sussex
Asylum :—
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DIET SCALE.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum. 269
1 Supper at 6*0 p.m.
1 Females
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Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
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ToUl
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A Descriptive Notice of
In this diet scale, cocoa and bread are given at breakfast
in order to reduce the cost. It is a much cheaper, as well
as more nutritive article than tea, and saves the expense of
butter. If the dairy were in full operation, and it could be
made entirely with milk, I should consider cocoa so pre¬
pared, the best article for breakfast to be found. A propor¬
tion of bread is made every day with the unsifted wheat,
the home-made bran bread, and which many of the patients
prefer. It is much more wholesome. Sweet cake, made
with lard, sugar and carraway seed, is a fraction cheaper
than bread and butter, and I find is better liked by the
patients.
For the Sunday dinner, I gave in the first instance,
treacle with the suet pudding, but have since substituted
a quarter of a pound of pork or bacon. I made Sunday the
jour maigre, in order to lessen the household work, and also
because no work being done by the patients that day, they
require, I think, less nourishment. On three days of the
week, I have the fresh meat, generally mutton, cooked as
Scotch broth. This, as will be seen by a reference to its
composition, is a very different article from English hospital
soup, made out of the liquor of the meat of the day before.
The rice, barley, and vegetables, with the fresh meat, make a
most savoury and nutritive mess, and it is quite a mistake
to think that such diet predisposes to diarrhoea. Vegetable
acids do not produce diarrhoea. Such opinions are the re¬
flex of the views, which treated, or rather aggravated,
dyspepsia, on a mutton chop, dry bread, and a glass of
sherry. It was the Leamington plan of practice, but a very
ignorant one, in my opinion. My mutton broth is so appre¬
ciated, that the officers of the house generally pay it the
compliment of taking a bason of it for luncheon. On the
two full meat dinners, I have the allowance of bread cooked
in the shape of Norfolk dumplings, i.e., merely dough
steamed instead of baked. They are light and digestible,
and make a pleasant variety. The meat is roasted one day
and baked tne other. We have thus very little dripping.
All the nourishment of our meat is consumed in the broth,
and we have to buy lard for the seed cake, having only
enough dripping to make the vegetable pie once a week, on
Thursdays. There is just enough meat added to give flavour
and gravy to these pies.
If expense were not an object to be attended to in framing
such a diet scale, I should have increased the weekly
allowance of meat (uncooked) to 56 ounces, instead of the
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum. 261
34 ounces allowed, and I suppose most superintendents would
express a similar opinion.
The extra diet for the sick is unlimited. In practice
I hardly allow anything but beef tea thickened with sago
and a few puddings. I entirely discountenance the daily
dram drinking, which prevails to a large extent in one of
the Middlesex asyluma The idea of quieting patients by
such indulgences is a fallacy. The more they get the more
they ask for, and I think the whole system bad. I should
very much like to stop all the tobacco, and which I now
issue contrary to my better judgment.
The attendants’ and servants” diet, as will be seen by the
scale, is very liberal. It is well cooked and served, and they
live well, as persons with hard work and long hours must
do. Their home-brewed beer is the best I have tasted in
any asylum. I have allowed an extra pint of coffee for
breakfast The coffee, tea, and cocoa are bought direct
through a London broker, and are so good that I purchase
my supply from the stores and use them at my own table.
The coffee and cocoa are bought in the green bean and
roasted in the asylum.
The contract prices owing to our distance from a large
town run high. We have all along been paying 7d. a lb.
for meat
The Site. The asylum is situated on the southern border
of Hayward’s Heath, about a mile and a quarter from the
Hayward’s Heath Station on the Brighton line, which station
is 12 miles from Brighton, and 38 miles from London Bridge.
The estate comprises 120 acres of well wooded, undulating
ground, sloping rapidly to the south, and commanding a view
of the entire range of the South Downs * Since the erection
•The following poetical remarks on the beauty of our site occur in one of the
published Lectures by the late Frederic Robertson of Brighton, a thinker,
whose premature death must be deplored by all who wearied with the strife
and narrow thoughts of our popular theology, look with hope to the broader
teaching of tho Church of the future.
“ Nay, even round this Brighton of ours, treeless and prosaic, as people call
it, there are materials enough for Poetry, for the heart that is not petrified in
conventional maxims about beauty.
“ Enough in its free downs, which are ever changing their distance and their
shape, as the lights and cloud-shadows sail over them, and over the graceful forms
of whose endless variety of slopes the eye wanders, unanested by abruptness,
with an entrancing feeling of fulness, and a restful satisfaction to the pure
sense of form. And enough upon our own sea-shore and in our rare sun-sets.
“ A man might have watched with delight, bevond all words, last night, the
long deep purple lines of cloud, edged with intolerable radiance, passing into
orange, yellow, pale green, and leaden blue, and reflected below in warm,
purple shadows, and cold green lights, upon the sea, and then the dying of it
all away. And then he might have remembered those lines oi Shakespere; and
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A Descriptive Notice oj
of the asylum, Hayward’s Heath has been enclosed under the
Enclosure Act, and sold in building lots, so that we shall
have a town of villas about our gates, the resort of the
Brighton citizens during the hot summer months. At present,
things look very like an American settlement, and have a
most unfinished aspect.
Hayward’s Heath is about the centre of the county of
Sussex, and railroads converge here from every part of the
county; the London and Brighton, the East Grinstead Branch,
the Eastbourne, the Hailsham and the Uckfield Branches,
and the Lewes and Hastings lines from the east, and from the
west the Mid- Sussex and the Worthing and Chichester (south
coast) lines render Hayward’s Heath a central station, singu¬
larly suited for the site of an asylum requiring ready rail¬
way access to every part of the county.
It is not an easy matter to purchase freehold land for a
county lunatic asylum, as the recent experience of the neigh¬
bouring county of Dorset shews, and I think the Visitors are to
be congratulated on their success, in procuring at a reasonable
sum, so large an estate (120 acres) in this central site, and
within such easy access of the railway. This facility of access
leads to more frequent visits of the poor to their relatives and
friends, visits of incalculable value as curative moral agents in
the treatment of insanity.
A site within two or three miles of Brighton or Worthing
would have been more desirable, had such been possible.
Either of these towns would have given us the command of
often quoted as they are, the poet would have interpretated the sun-set, and
the son-set what the poet meant by the exclamation which follows the disappear¬
ance of a similar aerial vision :
M We are such stuff
As dream9 are made of ; and our narrow life
Is rounded with a sleep.”
M No one has taught us this so earnestly as Wordsworth, for it was part of his
great message to this century, to remind us that the sphere of the poet i9 not
only in the extraordinary, but in the common and ordinary.
44 The common things of earth and sky
And hill and valley, he has viewed
And impulses of deeper birth
Have come to him in solitude.
From common things, that round us lie,
Some random truths he can impart;
The harvest of a quiet eye,
That sleeps and broods on its own heart.”
44 But of coarse, if you lead a sensual life, ora mercenary or artificial life, yon
will not read these truths in nature. The faculty of discerning them is not
learnt either in the gin-palace, or the ball-room. A pure heart, and a simple
manly life alone can reveal to you all that which seer and poet can.”
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
the markets for our daily supplies, and would also have fur¬
nished from their companies, water and gas at a more reasonable
rate than they can be provided for in a single establishment.
The vicinity also of a town would, beyond this economical
view of the question, have had the farther advantage of af¬
fording change and amusement to the patients, and relaxation
to the officers and attendants when relieved from duty. It is,
I think, Sidney Smith, who says in one of his letters, that it
is no joke to be three miles distant from the nearest lemon ;
now, we are twelve miles from the Brighton shops, and the
railway fare is 3s 6d. Hence the communication between
the asylum-staff and Brighton is only occasional
A large number of the English county asylums have the
disadvantage of an isolated site; the Essex is the only asylum
I can recall, which is less than three or four miles from the
county town, and in this instance it is near that poor little
place Brentwood, instead of Colchester or Ipswich. Four
miles, and the worst road in England, lie between the county
asylum and the city of Oxfoid; the Cambridge Asylum is
good four miles from that seat of learning, and so also the
asylum at Michelover from Derby, Bracebridge from Lin¬
coln, &c., &c. In Sussex we have the advantage of being
within a mile and a quarter of a central railway station, and
within an hour’s ride of-the great metropolis, which is after all,
the centre of everything in England.
The works at the asylum were commenced in June, 18.57,
and, together with the engineering works, completed in
March, 1859. The patients were admitted for the first time,
on the 25th July, 1859 ; it was intended that they should
have been removed from Bethnal Green in March, but un¬
expected difficulty in the sinking of the artesian well arose,
and so delayed their admission.
The architect of the asylum is H. E. Kendall, junr., Esq.,
of Brunswick Square, who built the Essex Asylum at Brent¬
wood. The contractors were Messrs. Ayres .and Co., of
Dover, who, unfortunately, obtained the engineering contract
also ; not, in my opinion, a desirable arrangement
General Plan. The general design of the building will be
seen by a reference to the ground plan. The form of the
main building for the accommodation of the patients is a
single longitudinal line, in length about 800 feet, facing
almost due south. At each end of this line are built, to the
north, the workshops and laundry, and to the south a small
detached wing, (one story) which can accommodate twelve
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patients. The centre front of the main building is occupied
by the recreation hall on the ground floor, and by the medical
superintendent’s rooms above ; while the the north" portion of
the centre building is devoted to the kitchen, offices, committee
room, officers’ rooms, &c., &c. In the open court in the centre
building are placed, underground, two boilers for supplying
the house and kitchen with steam and hot water, and a small
engine attached to the original welL In describing the posi¬
tion of the laundry I shall have occasion to notice the ad¬
vantages as regards the working expenses which would have
resulted had it been placed near the central building, in¬
stead of at the western extremity. Mr. Kendall informs me
that in the new plans which he has submitted to the visitors
of the Dorset asylum he has introduced this alteration, and
brought the laundries and workshops in close connection
with the main central building.
The style of architecture is Lombardic. Its outline is
most picturesque, and seen from the Downs, or any of the
surrounding county; it is, in an architectural point of view,
most effective. The varied coloured brick-work, in which
it is finished, gives it a most bright and cheerful appearance.
I never saw a building look less like an asylum, or have
less appearance of confinement or restraint about it, and
yet bo efficient are the internal arrangements for the safety
of the patients, that I have not had one instance of escape
since the opening of the asylum.
The asylum will accommodate 450 patients—an equal
number of both sexes. It has, besides, accommodation for
the medical superintendent, the chaplain, assistant medical
officer, the Bteward, housekeeper, the asylum attendants and
servants. The offices are most complete, and well arranged,
and adapted for an asylum of 800 patients. Should the
asylum, therefore, require enlargement, the only outlay to be
incurred will be the patients’ sleeping and living rooms;
and the asylum is so designed by Mr. Kendall as to be
capable of such further extension without spoiling (as has
been the case at Colney Hatch) the simplicity of the original
design.
A reference to the ground plan will shew that the form
of the main building, for the accommodation of the patients,
is a single longitudinal line, in length about 800 feet, facing
almost due south, and commanding an uninterrupted view of
the entire range of the South Downs from the windows of
the wards and from the airing terraces.
The centre building between the wings is occupied by the
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recreation hall, the asylum kitchen and offices, the stores and
private apartments of the steward, housekeeper, &c. On the
first floor the committee rooms and entrance hall occupy
the north front, looking towards the lodge and chapel; the
medical superintendent’s rooms the centre south front. The
workshops and laundry project at the end of each wing to
the north, while a small detached ward, the refractory, runs
south on each side.
Internal Arrangements. The central building between
the wings as shewn in the ground plan, is, on the ground
floor, devoted to the offices and stores, including the
kitchen. Under the entrance hall, (30, 31, 32, 33) are the
cook’s room, the hardware, the earthenware, and grocery
stores. The space between 31 and 32 forms a large coal
cellar for this part of the building. On each side of these
offices are the sitting-rooms of the steward and housekeeper,
(29, 30) with side doors opening on the main north approach.
On the farther side of these doors is a detached building
forming, on the male side, the steward’s offices and store
(25, 26, 27), the latter a large lofty room with open-timbered
roof, with an outer door opening on the male working court
for the delivery of stores. A similar building on the female
side is devoted to the housekeeper’s store, the head attendant’s
sitting room, and the reception room (22, 23, 24). On the
other side of this corridor is the kitchen, scullery, pantry,
servants’ hall, bread room, with fixed beer engine, officers’
pantry, and vegetable room, thus forming the second part of
the centre ground floor. It has a corridor on the south side
also looking on to the small open-paved court, in which are
situated, under-ground, the steam boilers and a well for
the supply of the centre building.
The kitchen is large, well lighted and ventilated, the roof
open-timbered, with a lantern. The kitchen and all these
centre offices and corridors are paved with black and red tiles
in fancy patterns. The fittings were by the kind permis¬
sion of Dr. Campbell copied from those at the Essex Asylum.
The cooking is done chiefly by steam, for which purpose six
large steamers are provide. There is also a large kitchener,
forming a hot plate and oven roaster, and a separate baking
oven in the scullery. The kitchen slide for the distribution
of the provisions opens by a window on the south corridor,
which is the centre of tee two corridors of communication
leading to the male and female wings. Under the north
centre corridor and the bread and vegetable rooms (18,19, 20)
u*
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is a large under-ground meat larder, also with a door for the
access of meat, which opens into the male working court.
The south front of the centre building is occupied on the
ground floor by the assistant medical officer’s rooms, the dis¬
pensary (10, 11, 12), the recreation hall, 60ft. by 25ft (9),
and the Medical Superintendent’s kitchen, &c. (15, 15, 15).
The other two stories of the south centre front form the
public rooms and bed-rooms of the Medical Superintendent,
and include also the Chaplain’s rooms. The two water towers
flank this south centre building with a large room above each,
fitted, on the one side for the the female house servants, and
on the other as an observatory or smoking room for the
Medical Superintendent. The view from these two towers,
lighted on all four sides, is very extensive, ranging from
Newhaven up to the Surrey Hills.
Under the recreation hall (9) is a large dairy and beer cel¬
lar, both under-ground. The beer is conveyed in metal pipes
from the brewhouse (39) across the male working court and
under the corridors to this cellar, where it delivers itself by
its own gravity.
These offices are well designed, central and together,
and are fitted for the use of an asylum for 800 patients.
Great credit is, I conceive, due to Mr. Kendall for the design
of this central building. I have nowhere seen anything more
compact or better fitted for its purpose.
On the upper floor of the centre building, on its northern
side, is the main entrance, ascended by a flight stairs, with
the entrance hall, porter’s lodge, committee rooms, visiting
room, Medical Superintendent’s office, and head attendant’s
(male) room. The entrance hall is very handsome. A private
door leads from it to the Medical Superintendent’s rooms.
The only objection which I make to this central building is that
the Medical Superintendent’s rooms are thus placed in it. It
is central certainly, and has easy access to all the wards. But
it is also noisy, and the windows of the principal rooms, look¬
ing south, overlook the male and female terraces, not at all
times a desirable prospect for ladies or young children. No
bell rings in the hall or kitchen, which does not resound
through the private apartments, and this, to a literary
man, though a small matter, is yet a daily grievance.
The recreation hall is directly under the library and dining¬
room. I must add that this small misery of noise is gilded
by handsome spacious rooms, with their stone balcony and
glorious prospect, and by the liberal manner in which the
visitors have consulted my comfort in the fittings and furnish-
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
mg. I think the south centre building would have been more
economically employed, looking to its extent, if fitted as wards
and dormitories for the convalescent and orderly female
patients. The inevitable extension of the female population
of every asylum may possibly lead in future years to this
application of the Superintendent’s rooms, and to the erection
on the grounds of a house of more modest dimensions and
with more quiet.
Male and Female Wings. To the east and west of the
central south front, just described, lie, with the same south
aspect, the male and female wings, as shewn in the ground
plan. These wings are three stories high. The ground and
second floor are built alike, and contain the galleries and day
rooms, as well as dormitories and single bed rooms. The
third story is entirely devoted to sleeping accommodation.
Each of the two wards on the ground and second floor
(four in all) have been arranged for the day accommodation
of fifty patients. The infirmaries, (16 and 17,) (originally
on the suggestion of the Commissioners built as day rooms
for the working patients—a plan I did not find to work)
hold twelve beds each, and the small one-storied building,
running south at right angles from the male and female
wings (built as infirmaries) form the fifth (refractory) ward,
holding thirteen patients. Each wing therefore, including the
third dormitory story, has accommodation for 225 patients.
The original design was for 200 of each sex.
A reference to the ground plan will shew the arrangement
of the wards. They are each exactly alike. They consist of
of a day-room (2), of a gallery (1), and of a dining-room
(3). The entire length of these three rooms, which form the
ward, is 113 feet. The dining-rooms of the adjacent wards
communicate with a glass door. The galleries are 11 feet
wide and 11 high. The roof is ceiled. The single rooms are
9 feet by 7 feet. The day rooms open into the passages
at each end, from which there is a direct communication on
to the terrace. At the end of each gallery is the bath¬
room and lavatory (7), with a double water-closet and urinal
adjoining. The engineering fittings of the b.aths, lavatories,
and water-closet are not satisfactory. Two of the single
rooms (4, 4), leading out of each dining-room, are appro¬
priated respectively for the scullery and ward store. The
attendant’s room (6) enters off the gallery (1), and is between
two dormitories (5), each of which it commands by a side
window. The recess under the stairs in the passage outside
is on each side fitted as a slop and broom room. Each
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■ward has three open fire-places, one in the gallery, one in
the day room, ana one in the dining-room. There are also
open fire-places in the dormitories and attendants’ rooms.
The windows are all cast-iron, of the Bethlehem Hospital
pattern, opening in the lattice shape. The only objection I
see to this window is that cast-iron never fits. For the
purpose of ventilation this window answers better than any
asylum window I have seen.
The galleries and day rooms are furnished in stained deal,
from patterns designed by the architect; they are simple and
elegant, and harmonize well with the style of architecture.
The beds are of birch, French polished, with canvas bottoms,
and all have horse-hair mattrasseB ; they were supplied by
Mr. Gregory, of Finsbury Square, upholsterer to Bethlehem
Hospital The bedding and patients’ clothing were supplied
by Messrs. Roope, of Sloane Street. The dinner and break¬
fast utensils are all white earthenware, with the arms of the
county on each article ; they were supplied by Mr. Sharpley,
of Yauxhall Bridge Road, likewise one of the Bethlehem
Hospital tradesmen. The wards throughout the house are
laid with matting; each bed is provided with a piece of
bed-side carpet. On the female side of the house, wash-hand
stands with ordinary earthenware basins and jugs are used in
all the dormitories.
At the back of each wing, as shewn in the ground plan, is
a corridor of communication running the whole length of the
building; it is glazed with rough plate glass on the entire
roof, and paved with black and red tiles in fancy patterns.
At each end of both wings is a wide, well lighted, stone stair¬
case, with a door passing into the corridor of communication.
The third story in each wing has a passage in the centre
with sleeping rooms on each side.
The proportion of single rooms are 124 to 326 in dormi-
rories ; two of the dormitories over the infirmaries and work¬
shops (17, 35, 36) in the detached two storey building, hold
eacn 20 beds ; the others are much smaller.
At the farther end of each wing, projecting southward, as
shown in the plan, is a small, detached, one storey b uildin g,
very ornamental externally to the front, and designed by the
architect as the infirmary of each department; it consists of
a day room, gallery, small dormitory, attendants’ room, and
several single rooms. I have appropriated it to the refractory
ward ; it has ready access to the smaller airing court shown
in the plan, and the building being detached, all noise at
night is cut off from the main building, The removal of a
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
dozen noisy dangerous patients from the wards, into a sepa¬
rate building, promotes peace and quiet throughout the house,
whether the term refractory be applied to the ward or not;
noisy would be a better term, as it is more discord than
rebellion that reigns in these regions.
At the farther end of each corridor of communication, is a
detached two storey building (16, 17), communicating on the
ground floor, with the laundry corridor, and with the work¬
shop corridor on the male side. On the second storey are the
two large dormitories with an attendant’s room between. The
rooms marked on the ground plan 16,17, were intended as day
rooms for the artizan and laundry patients, and are each fur¬
nished with an attendant’s room, (6) bath room and lavatory,
(7) and water closet. I have given up the idea of employing
them for the working patients ; I do not think it desirable to
employ either the artizans or laundry-maids as ward attend¬
ants. A better class of artizans is obtained by engaging them as
out-door attendants, and confining them strictly to their work¬
shops, while if the laundry maids do their duty in the laundry,
they have work enough to do from six to six, without undertak¬
ing the charge of patients. I have, therefore, arranged that the
day residence and care of all the patients should on each side
of the house, belong to the four wards, with their gallery, day
room, and dining room, as shown in the ground plan (1, 2, 3).
When the house is full, this will give fifty patients to each
ward. In the two convalescent and quiet wards two attend¬
ants will suffice ; in the epileptic and admission wards, which
are those on the ground floor, three will be necessary.
This working day room (16, 17) is appropriated to the in¬
firmary on each side ; it is 30 feet by 33 feet, it has a southern
aspect and ample light,* having seven large windows on two
• M It is the unqualified result of all my experience with the sick (says Misa
Nightingale) that, second only to their need of fresh air, is their need of li^ht;
that, after a close room, what hurts them most, is a dark room, and that it is
not only light, but direct sunlight they want. I had rather have the power of
carrying my patient about after the sun according to the aspect of the rooms,
if circomstancea permit, than let him linger in a room when the sun is off.
People think the effect is upon the spirits only, this is by no means the case.
Without going into any scientific position, we must admit that light has quit©
as real and tangible effects upon the human body. * * * The tick
should be able, without raising themselves , or turning in bed, to see out of window
from their beds , to see sky and sunlight at least, t f you can show them nothing
else, I assert to be , if not of the very first importance for recovery, at least some¬
thing very near it, And you should, there fore, look to the position of the beds of
your sick , one of the very first things. If they can see out of two windows instead
of one so much the better . Again, the morning sun and the mid-day sun , the hours
when they are quite certain not to be up, are of more importance to them, if choice
must be made, than the afternoon aim. 9 *— Florence Nightingale. Notes on
Nursing .
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sides of the room; on the third side is the fire-place, fitted
with a kitchen oven range (to keep the necessary beef tea, &c.
hot,) the fourth side opens into the bath room, scullery,
water closet, and attendant’s room. The beds, twelve in
number, are ranged against the wall as in any other hospital
ward, between the windows, thus affording light on each side
of the bed. The table is in the centre of the room ; two
couches are against the fire. Three of the beds are iron, with
German spring mattrass, (as used at Guy’s Hospital) and
which, I think, with the aid of a water pillow, is a cleaner
and better contrivance for bed-ridden patients than the water
beds. The walls are hung with illuminated texts for the
Christian Seasons, a series of which, on glazed canvas, can be
had at the National Society’s depot for 12s.
I am very much pleased with the success which has at¬
tended this alteration of the Infirmary.
Internal Decorations. The internal fittings are of the
most simple and inexpensive. The wood-work is all deal,
stained and varnished. When this process is carefully done
it looks very well. I was particularly struck with the
finished manner in which the deal is stained and varnished
at the Idiot Asylum at Red Hill I suspect, however, that
it will not stand much wear, and that for the use of an asy¬
lum, oil paint will, in the long run, prove a more efficient
means of protecting the wood. It certainly looks more com¬
fortable, and has a cleaner appearance than the staining.
The walls throughout are brick, lime-washed of a yellow tint.
I think these brick walls better than plaster for the wards
of an asylum, and notwithstanding the progress in decora¬
tion recently made in some asylums by even hanging paper
on the walls of the wards, I still give the preference to the
white-washed brick wall; painting the lower part in oil colour
to prevent the patients’ clothing being soiled with the lime.
A neutral tint mixed with the lime relieves the deadness of
the white, and is, with a southern aspect, less trying to the
eyes. I am pleased to have the support of Miss Nighingale
in my objections against papering the walls of an asylum.
In her Notes on Nursing (a pamphlet which should be
studied by every man and woman who in any way is con¬
cerned with the care of the sick), she says, “ As for walls,
the ivorst is papered walls ; the next worst is plaster. But
the plaster can be redeemed by frequent lime washing ; the
paper requires frequent renewing. A glazed paper gets
rid of a good deal of the danger. But the ordinary bed¬
room paper is all that it ought not to be. I am sure
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
that a 'person who has accustomed her senses to atmospheres,
proper and improper, for the sick a/nd for children, could
tell blind-fold the difference of the air in old painted and
in old papered rooms, ceteris paribus. The latter will always
be musty, even with all the windows open. The best wall
now extant is oil paint. From this you can wash the
animal exuvice. These are what make a room musty. The
best wall for a sick room or ward that could be made is
pure white non-absolvent cement, or glass, or glazed tiles,
if they are made sightly enough. Air can be soiled just
like water. If you blow into water you will soil it with
the animal matter from your breath. So it is with air.
Air is always soiled in a room where walls and carpets are
saturated with animal exhalations."
The walls of the official rooms, entrance hall, and corridors
are all papered. Oil paint would have been better and
more durable.
Ventilation and Warming. The Commissioners in Lu¬
nacy in their Suggestions and Instructions, have a short
paragraph, s. 26, which comprises the principle of all efficient
ventilation. “ The ventilation (they state) should generally
be provided for by means of flues taken from the various
rooms and corridors, into horizontal channek, communicating
with a perpendicular shaft, in which a fire box should be
placed for the purpose of extracting the foul air.”
This seems simple enough to read and understand, and yet
in practice how often do we find the most carefully contrived
systems of ventilation fail. The system of ventilation at the
Sussex Asylum k an illustration of the truth of this observa-
vation. According to Mr. Kendall, “ all the wards, galleries,
day and dining rooms, and the dormitories, are warmed by
open fires, and they are ventilated by opening doors and
windows, the foul air being drawn off both from the galleries
and all the rooms by means of vertical flues in the walk,
communicating with a large foul air chamber, constructed
horizontally in the roof, and connected with ventilating towers
over the staircases, so as effectually to carry off the vitiated
air. This, (Mr. Kendall adds) with opening windows, is as
perfect a system aa can well be adopted, though simple and
non-costly.”
During the nine months the asylum has been open, I have,
in every alternation of temperature, carefully tested thk system
of ventilation. I have not found it as perfect in practice as
the above description of the design would lead me to expect.
In hot weather, from the absence of any extracting power, an
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atmospheric balance is early in the day established, and the
flues of the hollow walls cease to act at all; while, in certain
states of the wind, the foul air is forced before the descending
current back again into the wards and dormitories.
Divested of architectural description, this system of venti¬
lation resolves itself simply into openings into the hollow
walls placed near the ceiling in the day rooms, dormitories,
and single rooms, by which the foul air may, if it will, pass up
through the hollow walls into the roof below the slates, and
so pass into the atmosphere. The ventilating towers are
merely architectural ornaments, and the large horizontal foul
air chamber is not air-tight in its construction, and hence
serves no pupose.
This system can hardly be termed one of artificial venti¬
lation, which term, as generally understood, supposes an
artificial aid to the removal of the foul air, and a similar
arrangement for the supply of pure fresh heated air to take its
place. If the horizontal air-shaft were air-tight, and an extract¬
ing power existed at the farther end of it, the vertical flues in
each ward for the exit of the foul air, might be found suffi¬
cient and the open doors and windows trusted to for a'supply of
fresh air. Such a system, however, would be at best a make¬
shift. In my opinion, no system of ventilation can be con¬
sidered perfect which does not embrace in its design the
means of supplying pure warm air to replace the vitiated
air removed by the ventilating flues. If such a supply of
pure warm air be not provided, it is self-evident that in
winter the better the ventilating flues act, the more will cold
draughts through doors and windows rush in to replace the
air removed; while in summer, so soon as an equilibrium of
temperature, inside and outside the building, is established,
all exchange of air, i.e., all ventilation will cease.
We are thus even inferentially led to the conclusion that,
some artificial means of wanning an asylum is a neces¬
sary element to the success of all attempts at systematic
ventilation. I do not think the Instructions and Suggestions
of the Commissioners in Lunacy sufficiently enforce this re¬
quirement ; although they incidentally speak in S. 25, of some
simple system of hot water pipes in connection with the open
fire stoves, or fires being desirable for the warming of luge
rooms and corridors. The Sussex Asylum is warmed entirely
uxd solely with open fires. Were I building a similar
asylum, I should warm it throughout with hot water
pipes on Price's principle, which works so admirably at
the Lincoln County Asylum.
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I should, while retaining open fire-places in the day rooms,
thus lessen the expense, and dirt of open fires and coals
in the wards, and I should for the sick and debilitated
especially ensure an equal temperature during the night and
day. With the system of open fires only, the temperature at
night, in frost, falls near the freezing point; a tempera¬
ture which must exert a most injurious influence on the
enfeebled circulation and restless habits by night of the
insane.
It is much to be regreted that the Commissioners in
Lunacy should have allowed, in the plans of this asylum,
so fatal an omission as the absence of all means of artificial
heat whatsoever. It is no easy matter to introduce an
efficient system of artificial warming in a building erected
and finished ; nothing move simple or inexpensive than,
to do so in the course of its erection.
It is not within my present limits* to enter further into
the general question of ventilation and warming of public
buildings, and I have therefore to conclude this part of my
descriptive notdoe of the Sussex Asylum with the statement
that the system of ventilation and wanning, if the primitive
contrivance of open fires can be called a system, is neither
efficient nor economical
Water and Gas supply. I know of no asylum so well sup¬
plied with a constant flow of good water. I copy the follow¬
ing account of the water supply from Mr. Kendall’s final report
to the Visitors. “ The asylum and all its offices are supplied
with hot and cold water in the usual manner, viz., from large
cast iron cisterns or tanks, constructed in the towers right and
left of the centre building, each holding 10,000 gallons. From
these tanks the distribution of cold water is effected through¬
out by means of wrought iron pipes. The tanks are supplied
from an artesian well, sunk in a field at the bottom of the
asylum grounds, about 2,400 feet distant from the building.
The well is eight feet in diameter, and 70 feet deep, with a
twelve inch boring below, to the depth of 127 feet. The
water is of excellent quality, and so abundant that left to
itself it would overflow the top of the well at the rate of
60,000 gallons per day. It is forced up to the asylum, the
• If any of my readers desire to see what I consider an efficient system of
ventilation and wanning, I would advise a visit to the new convict prison
in coarse of erection under the superintendence of Sir Joshua Jebh, on
Woking Common. It is built for 400 inmates, and it is effectively heated and
ventilated with two boilers. As a perfect model of simple economical con¬
struction it is worthy of inspection by any one concerned with the erection of
any public asylum or similar building.
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height being about 150 feet, by steam power. The cast iron
hot water cisterns, fed from the boiler rooms, are placed in
the roofs over the wards, and supply at all times hot water
to the baths, lavatories, and sculleries throughout.”
Every part of the asylum is lighted with gas made on the
grounds. There is only one service, so that the gas must
either be left on all night or none burnt. At the Lincoln
Asylum there are two services to the wards, one of which is
constructed with the lights intended to burn only until bed
time, and the other with the night lights in the galleries and
dormitories. In fitting the gas service, the pipes have all
been chiselled into the brick, a stupid arrangement, which
obliges the wall to be cut to pieces when any leakage is sus¬
pected.
Drainage. The drainage is most extensive and complete,
and leaves nothing to be desired further. The site is admirably
adapted for perfect drainage, the falls being great every way,
and full advantage has been taken of these capabilities. The
surface water is kept distinct from the sewage, and the latter
is collected in a series of tanks, placed at intervals throughout
the vegetable garden, for the purpose of manure. The sewage
water when it has passed the garden, is available for field
irrigation.
The Workshops and Laundry. These, as will be seen by
the ground plan, (35—40, and 44, 44), run at a right angle
with the two wing8 due north, forming one boundary of the
working court, the corridor of communication being a second,
and the steward’s store and offices the third. Both the work¬
shops and the laundry are of most ample dimensions, indeed,
I have not seen better arranged workshops in any asylum.
A reference to the ground plan will shew the distribution
of the workshops. The tailors’ shop (35) opens from the
corridor of communication, and is connected by a glass door
with the shoemakers’ shop, (36) ; the matmakers’ shop (37) is
next in order, followed by the carpenters’ (38); the brewhouse
(which has been well fitted by Messrs. Langworthy and Reed,
of Brighton,) joins the carpenter’s shop (39), and the range
is completed with the bakehouse, (40) which is provided with
an excellent bread'room, flour store and coal room. All these
workshops open on the male working court, and thus have
ready access, both to the steward’s department and to the
centre building, either across this court or by the corridor of
communication ; they are all supplied with hot and cold water,
and are lighted with gas. They are, I think, most complete,
and leave nothing to be desired. The smith’s shop and forge
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
are attached to the gas house (42). The laundry department
occupies, on the female side, a similar position to the work¬
shops, (44, 44, 44). The sorting room, laundry, and wash¬
house are all of ample dimensions; there is a distinct building
for the foul linen, which is an absolute necessity in every
asylum ; a special drying closet is attached to the foul linen
wash-house ; there are two other large drying closets in the
laundry; an underground boiler supplies ail the hot water and
steam required for the washouse. It is to be regretted that
the complete steam washing 'apparatus of Messrs. Manlove
and Alliott, of Nottingham, which they have so successfully
fitted at the Lincoln Asylum, was not introduced into the
original design. The cost necessary to add it, would be
•£700, a sum which the Visitors are not at present disposed
to disburse for the purpose, although the apparatus was
strongly recommended by the Commissioners in Lunacy at
at their recent inspection. It is also in successful operation
at Colney Hatch. It includes a washing and wringing
apparatus, worked with steam power, and is the most com¬
plete thing of the kind I ever saw. The labour entailed by
hard washing, for so large an establishment, is drudgery, not
curative employment, and, I think, so far as the cure and
treatment of the patients is concerned, that the work in the
wash-house does more harm than good. The entire length
of the laundries is 145 feet.
The distance of the laundry from the centre of the building,
where the hot water boilers and engine are, is an objection to
the design, inasmuch as it entails the cost of a second boiler,
to serve the drying closets and wash-tubs with hot water,
steam the coppers, &c. The loss to the county, in this one
particular, is not less than fifty pounds a year, including fuel
and stokers’ wages. At the Wilts Asylum, designed by Mr.
Wyatt, two steam boilers serve alike the laundry and kitchen
purposes. Another objection to the laundry being placed at
one end of the building, is that only a small portion of the
rain water from the roof can be diverted to its use. At the
Wilts Asylum the tank in the wash-house receives half the
rain water falling on the roofs, and holds 5,760 gallons. The
waste steam-pipes also discharge into this tank, and Dr.
Thurnam states, that the supply of soft water has been found
quite sufficient for the purposes of washing. Hard water
which has passed through a long range cf iron pipes is very
apt to stain linen brown, and linen washed with hard water
never has the pure white colour that soft water imparts to it.
Airing Courts. The principal airing court for the patients
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A Descriptive Notice of
is a large terrace extending the entire length of the front of
each wing, as shown in the ground plan. The land falling
rapidly to the south, the wall is sunk in a hollow, and the
view is uninterrupted by any break, and extends along the
entire range of the South Downs. There is also on each
side a smaller airing court with a south aspect, behind the
refactory ward, and a third large airing courts termed on the
ground plan the working court. No county asylum has any¬
thing approaching to this extent of airing court. The view
from the south teraace reminds me of that from the Worcester
Asylum grounds.
The Chapel. The chapel is detached and stands to the
right of the principal entrance from Hayward’s Heath, the
porter’s lodge being on the left. It is shewn on the ground
plan. It is a good piece of English Byzantine, and the
design and execution are very creditable to the architect At
the Worcester Asylum the chapel is similarly detached, and is
the only asylum chapel which has the slightest pretension to
be compared with the Sussex asylum chapel. The situation at
the Worcester Asylum is better chosen being to the south of
the front airing terraces. At the Sussex Asylum the chapel
rather blocks the view of the asylum from the Heath. It is
the best imitation of a Venetian church which I have seen in
England, but then I have not seen Mr. Sidney Herbert’s new
church at Wilton. It has a handsome campanile, with a belfry
and clock room, standing on the north side of the chancel. The
interior as well as the exterior, is executed in varied coloured
brick-work, in the Lombardic style. The gas fittings are very
handsome, from Messrs. Hart and Son, Cockspur Street The
clock was supplied by Messrs. Moore, of Clerkenwell. The
chapel is fitted with open benches to accomodate 300.
The present servioes in the Chapel are :
Sunday. 10 am., Morning Prayer.
12 noon, Litany, Communion Service and Lecture.
8 p.m., Evening Prayer, with Sermon.
Daily. 8.30 am., Morning Prayer (on Wednesday and
Friday, the Litany only is read.)
Tuesday, 7 p.m. A special service for the household only.
Holy Communion is administered on the Festivals, and
on the third Sunday of each month.
Burial 0 round. A piece of ground, of one and a half acre,
has been set apart a & a burial ground. It lies to the east of
the stable-yard and gas-house, and it is sheltered on one side
by a plantation. It commands a most beautiful prospect.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
Farm. The farm consists of about one hundred acres,
independent of the ground occupied by the buildings. It all
lies to the south of the asylum. It is a clay soil, and has for
years been farmed by an old Sussex farmer, who let things
grow as they liked. Everything implied under the idea of
modern farming has yet to be done. Twelve acres were
drained last spring, and cultivated as a vegetable garden,
and already with the labour ot the patients, a fair supply of
vegetables has been obtained for the house.
The farm house is an old Elizabethan farm house, and has
been put in thorough repair for the occupation of the bailiff
and under-gardener. The erection of the farm buildings has
been deferred till spring. In the mean time we have made
a beginning with a lot of pigs and half a dozen cows.
The perfect arrangement of the distribution of the sewage
over the vegetable garden and farm, must ultimately make
the farm a considerable item of profit in our accounts.
There is abundance of wood on the ground, and a beau¬
tiful dell of a mile in extent which will form a shaded walk
for the patients.
The Establishment. I subjoin a copy of the list of the
establishment, with the wages paid, contained in my report of
last Christmas to the Visitors.
Officers.
t Medical Superintendent
... £450
0
0
per annum
• Chaplain
.. 200
0
0
w
1 Assistant Surgeon
100
0
0
M
Clerk and Steward
90
0
0
>1
Housekeeper
50
0
0
91
Head Attendant, Male
40
0
0
99
Ditto Female 30 0
Attendants and Servants, (Male.)
0
99
8 Attendants, each
28
0
0
99
4 ditto „
24
0
0
91
1 House Porter
24
0
0 and Livery
1 Store Porter
24
0
0
per Annum
1 Engineer
* 1 Carpenter
• 1 Bricklayer
1
)0
0 per week
1
10
0
91
1
5
0
11
* 1 Painter and Glazier
.. 1
5
0
19
* 1 Baker
1
5
0
94
* Brewer, Tailor, Shoemaker, and Smith, each 1
1
0
V
* 1 Stoker .. ..
, ,
15
0
11
1 1 Bailiff and Gardener
1
8
0
»9
, Assistant ditto
• •
16
0
>1
t Furnished house, light, fire, vegetables, and washing.
% Board, lodging, and washing.
• Non-Resident,
t Lodged only at Farm House.
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|| Cow Boy and Farm Servant
• •
12s
0 per week.
|| Carter
* •
15s
0
Attendants and Servants, (Female.)
2 Attendants
£20
0
0 per annum
6 ditto
18
0
0 „
6 Attendants
15
0
0
1 Laundry Maid ..
21
0
0 „
2 Ditto
15
0
0 „
1 Cook
24
0
o
1 Kitchen and Dairy Maid
16
0
0
l Scullery Maid
8
0
0
2 Housemaids
12
0
0 „
Cost of the Asylum. I annex a copy of the abstract of the
capital account, as presented by the Visitors with their report
at the January Sessions.
Buildings, Land , frc. £ s. d.
Purchase of land, timber, conveyancing, compensation to tenant
for draining, and tenant’s out-going valuation . . 7263 5 11
Buildings as per contract, additions to the building, including
further accommodation, airing courts, Ac., recommended by
Commissioners in Lunacy .... 42404 15 6
Gas and Engineering works for house . . . 3849 17 4
Water supply, sinking wells, engine house, engines and pumps 2118 14 6
Leveling, draining, enclosing, laying out and stocking kitchen
garden, and supplying the same with water, and also cultivat¬
ing and improving the farm . . . 823 16 4
Earthwork on the estate generally, forming approaches to the
asylum, roads, yards, slopes and terraces,levelling and drain¬
ing the grounds ..... 2273 6 2
Architect’s commission and salary, and expenses of the Clerk
of the Works ..... 2756 1 2
Total for Building, Land, Ac.
£61,309 16 11
Establishment Charges.
Fittings ....
Furniture, linen and bedding
Clothing and drapery
Coals and coke
Salaries, wages, and maintenance
Medicines and surgical instruments
Printing, advertizing, stationery, books & forms
Bates, tithes, carriage of goods, and other inci¬
dental expenses
Insurance of building
Farming implements and stock
£ s. d.
2695 18 0
8625 1 3
1938 3 11
449 12 2
1158 17 8
86 19 8
351 18 6
458 7 10
101 17 6
479 19 5
Clerk to the Committee, and Solicitor’s charges for professional
business, disbursements, Ac., for the years 1854, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Costs of the Solicitors to Mortgagees for preparing their se¬
curities .....
Premiums to Architects, surveys, Ac., previous to building
16342 15 11
751 7 2
300 10 6
227 17 6
Total £78,932 8 0
The total cost per head (450 patients) is thus £177, while the average cost of
the new asylums exceeds £200 per head.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum. 279
I would conclude this descriptive notice of the Sussex
Asylum with a general examination of how far it fulfils the
official requirements laid down in the Suggestions and Instruc¬
tions, issued in 1856, by the Commissioners in Lunacy for the
building of asylums. These instructions have reference to
I. Site.
II. Construction and arrangement of buildings.
1. Site. 1. The site meets every requirement of the Com¬
missioners in Lunacy. It is perfectly healthy, and the rapid
fall of the land to the south offers every facility for a com¬
plete system of drainage. The elevation is one the highest in
the county. It is not near any nuisance. It is not over¬
looked nor intersected by foot-paths, but stands in a ring
fence of its own.
2. The proportion of land, exclusive of what the building
occupies, is exactly the requirement, one acre to four patients.
3. The site of the building is elevated, undulating in its
surface, and has a fall to the south.
4. The building is placed on the northern boundary of the
land, has ready access from the north, and the whole of the
southern portion of the land is available for the undisturbed
use of the patients.
5. The asylum is exactly in the centre of the county, and
railroads from all sides meet at the Hayward’s Heath station.
There is a constant supply from an artesian well of pure
soft water. The minimum daily quantity is 60,000 gallons.
As regards site, therefore, the asylum meets every require¬
ment of the Commissioners’ circular.
The Scotch’f’ Commissioners in Lunacy have added to their
suggestions in reference to sites, a very important one which
the English Commissioners entirely overlooked, and which
the site at Hayward’s Heath is very deficient in, viz: That
the asylum should he within such distance of a town as to
command the introduction of <jas, water , die., and one of
sufficient size to afford the means of amusement and
recreation for the medical staff, the attendants, and such of
the patients as might derive benefit from a change in the
asylum routine.
H. Construction and arrangement of buildings.
I. The general form, as will be seen on looking at the
t Journal of Mental Science , July, 1859. Annual Report of Commissioners
in Lunacy for Scotland. ( Review 0
VOL. VI. NO. 33.
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A Descriptive Notice of
ground plan, commands an uninterrupted view of the sur¬
rounding country, and free access of sun and air, while all the
day rooms have a southern aspect.
2. The general entrance and offices are all on the north
side of the building.
The building is certainly as cheerful and attractive as due
considerations of economy permit; it is the brightest and
most cheerful asylum I have seen.
4. The accommodation for the male and female patients is
distinct on either side of the centre ; the patients can be sepa¬
rated into five classes (exclusive of the infirmary), and the
numbers in each class will require the services of two or three
attendants.
5. The building consists of three stories, but the upper
storey is devoted to sleeping accommodation only.
6. Associated dormitories, not in connection with the gal¬
leries, and other expensive curative arrangements have been
provided over the infirmaries, (16,17).
7. The chapel, and all the offices in the centre building, are
sufficient to meet the prospective wants of the asylum, should
the numbers be doubled.
8. The chapel is detached ; simple, yet ecclesiastical, inwall
its arrangements.
9. The recreation hall is conveniently situate with reference
to the kitchen, should it be found wise to use it as a general
dining h n.11
10. The officers of the establishment and domestic servants
have been fairly provided with accommodation; only the
servants’ hall is small and badly lighted.
11. The proportion of single rooms is then about the third
part, as advised by the Commissioners.
12. In the upper storey, wide corridors have been avoided,
and a passage of moderate width adopted.
13. The stairs are of stone, built up without wells.
14. A staircase at both ends of each wing, as shown in the
ground plan, enables visits to be made from one ward to
another, without passing through the same wards on return.
15. The floors of the corridors, day and sleeping rooms are
boarded ; but the boards are not tongued, nor are they well
laid, or of seasoned material This is much to be regretted,
and has already spoilt the ceilings, as after each washing of
the floors part of the water stains through. There is no dis¬
connection of the floor and joists at the internal doorways as
advised by the Commissioners, nor, indeed, any protection
from fire applied, nor any approach to a fire-proof construction.
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
Oak floors, as recommended for the day-rooms and corridors,
and which might be cleaned by dry rubbing, would have been
a great addition. The walls of the galleries and rooms are
not plastered, but simply brick, white-washed, an arrangement
which for hospital purposes I much prefer.
16. No associated bed-room contains less than three beds.
17. The height of each storey is the eleven feet recom¬
mended by the Commissioners. At Lincoln the wards are
12 feet 6 inches—a better height.
18. The associated dormitories and single rooms exceed the
prescribed cubic measurement.
19. The day rooms are of the required size, afford ready
communication with the grounds, and those appropriated
to the aged and infirm are on the lower storey, as recom¬
mended.
20. The attendants’ rooms are in each ward, placed between
two dormitories, with a window looking into each.
21. The windows of the day rooms and corridors are large
and cheerful. The architect has been very successful in his
supply of light and air. They all open freely and with safety
to the patient. The wall below each window is recessed for a
seat The windows in the dormitories and single rooms are
large, and not more than four feet from the ground. Shutters
are provided for the single sleeping rooms, but they are of
inferior construction and workmanship.
22. All the doors open outwards, and are so hung that
when open they will fold back close to the wall.
23. Each ward is provided with a scullery, a lavatory, a
bath, water closets, and a store room, but they are not satis¬
factorily fitted. The style of architecture adopted would not
admit of the Commissioners’ most wise suggestion, that all
water closets, lavatories, See., should be placed in projections.
24. The infirmaries do not hold the proportion suggested of
one tenth of the population resident. I believe half that
accommodation to be sufficient for the wants of an asylum.
25. The day rooms and galleries are warmed by open fire
places, as suggested by the Commissioners, and fire places also
are built in all the associated dormitories.
The Commissioners, in their circular, suggest farther pro¬
vision for warming the corridors, &c. I have already ex¬
pressed my regret that all artificial means of heating has been
omitted. I strongly entertain the opinion that all public
buildings, such as asylums, hospitals, and gaols should be
heated throughout by artificial means, and this is both on
the ground of health, and also of economy in fuel and labour.
v*
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A Descriptive Notice of
26. I have already stated that I consider Mr. Kendall’s
system of ventilation defective and imperfect The Com¬
missioners here recommend that ventilation should be pro¬
vided for by means of flues taken from the various rooms
and corridors into horizontal channels communicating with a
perpendicular shaft, in which a fire-box should be placed for
purpose of extracting the foul air. This is an excellent state¬
ment of what asylum ventilation should consist.
27. 28. These sections refer in detail to the construction of
this system of ventilation, and to the care necessary in pro¬
tecting flues and shafts of lathe and plaster from fire.
29. The drainage is excellent; glazed tubular pipes, with
sufficient fall The surface water is kept distinct from the
sewage. The latter is collected in tanks, available both for
agricultural and garden use.
30. Two airing courts on each side are enclosed, the number
suggested by the commissioners. They are most successful
No asylum in England has such splendid airing terraces. The
walls are entirely sunk in a ha-ha, as advised. The planting
and cultivation has yet to be done.
31. Although the rain water is collected in tanks, and
introduced into the wash-house, according to the suggestion
of the commissioners, the tanks are too small, and the supply
quite insufficient.
Lead pipes and reservoirs have been avoided. Iron pipes
and slate and cast iron tanks have been used.
Lightning-conductors are provided for the chapel and
centre building.
33. A suitable stable has been erected for the visitors and
medical superintendent The farm buildings are to be begun
in spring. The old farm house of the property is in good
condition, and occupied by the bailiff and under-gardener and
their families.
The suggestions of the Commissioners, therefore, with the
exceptions I have above indicated, have been carefully con¬
formed with by the architect, and I may fairly here endorse
the following statement by Mr. Kendall, in his final report to
the Visitors. “ The asylum (he says) is designed strictly in
accordance with the rules of the Commissioners in Lunacy.
It is three stonbs in height, and is built with the external
walls hollow, so as to render the edifice free from damp. It
is sample in its form, substantial and economical in its con¬
struction. Its convenience is well studied, so as to embrace
every thing conducive to the comfort of every inmate, sane,
or insane, and sufficient character is given to it its exterior by
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To UhistroUe D r Zcrkhart Robertsons paper __ Journal cT Jtfental Science-, April 1S60
■ QflZCC
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the Sussex Lunatic Asylum.
picturesque treatment and outline, and varied coloured brick¬
work to render it cheerful and effective, such character having
a beneficial effect upon the patients in a curative point of
view. The style of the building generally is Lombard ic or
Byzantine chosen for its appropriate, effective and inexpen¬
sive character, little ornament being used beyond that con¬
ducive to utility."
INDEX TO GROUND PLAN.
Patumts’ Rooks.
1. Galleries (11 feet wide)
2. Dining rooms.
8. Dsj rooms.
4. Single bed rooms.
5. Dormitories.
6. Attendants’rooms.
7. Bath and lavatories.
8. W. C.
16, 17. Infirmaries.
9. Recreation h&lL
10,11. Assistant medical officer
bed and sitting rooms.
12. Dispensary.
The Medical Superintendent's rooms
are above the recreation hall,
(9). His kitchen, &c., are 15,
15,15, in the ground plan.
Omens.
13. Servants' hall.
14. Meat pantry,
18. Bread room.
19. Vegetable store.
20. Officer’s pantry.
21. Scnllery.
25. Kitchen.
Stobbs.
27. Steward’s store.
26, 26. Steward’s offices.
22. Housekeeper’s store.
24. Receiving room.
31. Hardware store.
32. Earthenware store.
S3. Grocery store.
28. Steward’s sitting room.
29. Housekeeper’s sitting room.
23. Head attendant’s sitting room
(female)
Wobkshops.
35. Tailors’ shop.
36. Shoemakers’ shop.
37. Matmakers’ shop.
38. Carpenters’ and painters’ shop.
39. Brewhonse.
40. Bakehouse.
44, 44,44. The laundry, wash-honse,
drying closets, die., Ac.
42. The gas works.
41. The stables (Committee and
Medical Superintendent)
Dead house \t the back of the
stables
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J. Crichton Browne, on the
Psychical Diseases 0 / Early Life , by J. Crichton Browne,
Student of Medicine, and Honorary Secretary, Royal
Medical Society, Edinburgh.
Read before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh; upon Friday,
December 2nd, 1859.
In all ages of the world, from the earliest dawning of
society down to our own enlightened day—theologians,
philosophers, and legislators, those called upon to govern and
to guide mankind, have agreed as to the importance to be
attached to the physical, mental, and moral training of in¬
fancy and childhood. States and societies, and the Church
too, have admitted the truth of their theories, and have
practically applied them to the affairs of life, to the preven¬
tion of crime, and to the advancement of the human race in
many social and moral respects. For it is well known to
these that it is during infancy and childhood that the being,
with a mind plastic and educable, may be taught that dis¬
cipline and self-control, the application of those principles
of responsibility, of justice, and of truth, which are after¬
wards to fit him to' fight the battle of life, and to become a
useful member of society.
The physician, too, whose mission it is, at all stages of
life, to deal with morbid action, to cope with disease, and to
effect its cure, is, or ought to be, well acquainted with the
paramount importance of early training, of physical train¬
ing, in securing a strong and healthy constitution, in over¬
coming tendencies to bodily disease; of mental training, in
securing a strong, a healthy, and a powerful mind, and in
dispelling predispositions to mental disease; of physical,
mental, and moral training, combined in ensuring perfect
health.—“ mens sana in corpore sano.”
When we consider that the child is the father of the man,
and that the man is but the germ cell developed and ma¬
tured; that they are one and the same being, we shall
easily see how necessary it is for the enlightened physician
to take an enlarged and expansive view of existence. When
we know that existence, from the moment of conception,
consists of a series of inseparable gradations, each one of
which includes all its predecessors ; when we know that the
embryo possesses, contains within itself, the rudiments of
all those properties and qualities which characterize the per¬
fect being, we shall easily see how necessary it is for the
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Psychical Diseases of Early Life.
physician to take every stage of existence into consideration,
and to weigh well every influence to which the being is
liable, from the instant of union of the spermatozoid with
the ovum.
When we know that the spermatozoid and the ovum con¬
vey to the progeny, in a manner as yet eluding all research,
the physical and psychical qualities, not merely of the
parents, but of the parents' parents for generations back, we
shall easily see how necessary it is for us to consider and
weigh well the characteristics and pursuits of past genera¬
tions, and the influences brought to bear upon them. And
here we should recollect that the spermatozoid and the
ovum, not only, respectively, bear the impress of the form, '
gait and manners, internal qualities and construction of the
respective parents, but that these microscopic bodies also
transmit and communicate to the offspring the acquired ten¬
dencies and liabilities to particular forms of disease which the
parents possess; we should recollect that they transmit not
only general adaptations to healthy or diseased actions, not
only comprehensive tendencies in certain directions, but
minute and particular peculiarities and eccentricities, men¬
tal and bodily, which characterise the parents. These ten¬
dencies and liabilities, those predispositions may remain
latent and concealed, but, when placed in circumstances
favourable for their maturation, they may develope and be¬
come actual disease. It cannot be doubted that these may
become developed, and ripened, and unfolded, as well in the
womb and in the cradle, as in the strength of manhood and
the second childishness of age; as well in the foetus, the
suckling, and the child, as in the stripling, the adult, and
the aged.
One of the essential characteristics of a living being, is its
capability of undergoing “ certain derangements from which
it may recover, constituting disease whilst the simplest
and the most complex forms of organization are equally
liable to disease. The nervous system then, even in its most
rudimentary state, is liable to organic lesion, or functional
derangement; in other words, to disease ; and it is now my
endeavour to direct attention to a certain class of ner¬
vous diseases, namely, mental disorders, as manifested in
infancy and childhood—in utero, post partum, and up to
puberty. Enough has already been said to point out the
vast moment of the study of such diseases. For, if the
mental training of children in general be of such import-
* Bennett's Oatlines of Physiology, p. 11.
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J. Crichton Browne, on the
ance, how important also is the training of those predisposed
to mental disease, or actually suffering from it; how im¬
portant, not only to the sufferers themselves, not only to
those immediately interested in them, and solicitous re¬
garding them, but to the community at large. Such an
investigation must be one of importance and surpass¬
ing interest; yet, notwithstanding this, it has not yet
been made. The mental aberrations of infancy and child¬
hood, excepting idiocy and imbecility, may be said to be yet
uninvestigated—undescribed. The field is untrodden ! the
land unexplored ! Here and there, indeed, in the literature
of psychology, a stray case of infantile insanity is to be found
recorded, but these have never been collected nor arranged.
The existence of insanity in early life has even been disputed.
Some distinguished authorities have doubted its occurrence
previous to puberty. Burrows says, “ As a general maxim
insanity cannot occur before the approach of puberty ; ” *
and Spurzheim remarks “ It may be asked whether children
suffer mania and insanity. ”-f- Almost all writers upon the
subject of psychology are agreed as to the extreme rarity of
mental diseases before that period of life, and I am not
aware that any one has even suggested its occurrence in
utero. Unfortunately, however, I shall be enabled to demon¬
strate to you that insanity does occur in utero, in infancy,
and childhood, and that it is by no means so uncommon as
supposed. Infantile insanity is still, however, comparatively
rare, and it is so, firstly, because infancy is not exposed to
many of those predisposing and existing causes which
operate at other periods of life, and which go on increasing
until maturity is passed ; secondly, because fewer faculties
of mind being then developed, fewer are liable to be assailed
by disease ; and, thirdly, because the delicacy of the infant
brain is such that it is unable to undergo severe morbid
action without perilling life. Diseases of the nervous centre
in infancy and childhood are generally acute in their nature,
rapid in their progress, and more frequently appear as hydro¬
cephalus and convulsions than as insanity. But with the
above we should also remember the extreme susceptibility
of the infant and childish mind ; its high impressionability,
and the readiness with which it admits of being bent aside
from that perfect rectitude constituting health. Great and
almost insurmountable difficulties exist in the way of arriving
at a true knowledge of the mental condition of infants, ana
* Barrows, on Insanity, p. 244.
f Spurzheim on Insanity, p. 106.
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thus departures from the standard of mental health may
exist in them, unknown and unobserved. Among certain
classes of young children, also, little or no attention is, as
yet, paid to the workings and operations of the immortal
mind; and in them those incoherent speeches, or odd re¬
marks, which are attributed to childish unmeaning babbling
and folly, may sometimes be in reality the result of delu¬
sions, illusions, and hallucinations. In other children those
eccentricities and peculiarities of conduct, feeling and tem¬
per, those unnatural aversions and desires, which are traced
by parents and guardians to wilful perversity, may be but
the exposition of morbid changes going on in the brain.
With those considerations before us, and seeing, that, accord¬
ing to the account of Jonathan Edwards,* an entire moral
revolution and conversion may take place at the early age
of four years, we have reason to believe that infants and
children suffer more frequently from psycopathies than has
hitherto been believed.
We shall now proceed to consider these psycopathies, and,
in order to facilitate our progress, we shall speak of them
in a fixed and definite order. We shall begin by speaking
of those influences productive of psychical diseases which
are brought to bear upon the being at conception. We shall
secondly consider those operating during utero-gestation, and
allude to the morbid psychical conditions which may exist
in utero. We shall thirdly treat of the influences accom¬
panying parturition, and their probable consequences. We
shall fourthly direct our attention to the psychical diseases
which affect the child from birth to the end of the first den¬
tition ; and fifthly, and, lastly, to those which affect it from
dentition to puberty.
Firstly. As to the influences which are brought to bear
upon the embryo at conception ; they are many and various,
and many and various are their results. In the same family
how frequently do we remark the differences in constitution
and character existing between its various members, the
difference in external configuration and internal disposition,
in liabilities to healthy or diseased action. Now many of
these differences and discrepancies, we believe to be attri¬
butable to the condition, mental and bodily, of the parents
at the moment of conception, and to the influences which
are then brought to bear upon the being conceived. Beings
produced, apparently under the same circumstances, from the
same material, must necessarily be precisely similar; and yet
* Jonathan Edwards’ Narrative of Conversions.
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we never do see two creatures the products of the same
parents exactly alike, and this, because they are never pro¬
duced under the same circumstances. Ignoring other con¬
siderations, the mere time which elapses between two periods
of conception must greatly alter the conditions of the
parents, and must increase or diminish their vitality and
vigour, so that at no two periods of conception are parents
in a similar condition, ana at no two distinct periods of time
are two beings conceived accurately resembling one another.
How often do we observe two families spring from equally
healthy ancestors, reared and placed in apparently identical
circumstances, yet differing from each other most widely,
with regard to the mental and corporeal health enjoyed by
each. How often do we observe the same causes operating
upon similar individuals produce marvellously different re¬
sults. How often, in the same domestic circle, do we find
one child, who is, and has been from birth, strong, robust,
and healthy, and another who, from his first breath, has
been weak and puny and fragile; and yet those children, so
dissimilar, are the offspring of the same parents. We would
be inclined to trace these differences to the influences brought
to bear upon the embryo at conception.
The question next naturally arises, what are these in¬
fluences which affect the human race in so important a
manner ?
We have said that thev are many and various; we might
have said innumerable, for we hold that all the antecedents
of the parents and their progenitors do then, and during
utero gestation, assist in stamping certain characters upon
the embryo, and in imparting certain impulses and tenden¬
cies to it. Treating of the influences bearing upon the
embryo, with reference to time, we may speak of the past
conditions of the parents and their ancestors; and of the
actual condition of the parents at the time of conception.
Among the former class hereditary predisposition stands
pre-eminent Esquirol remarked, that of all diseases, in¬
sanity is the most hereditary, and all other psychologists
have confirmed his observations, and have even exceeded
him in their estimates of the number of cases of insanity
in which there exists hereditary taint Hereditary taint is
the most frequent predisposing cause of insanity, and may
be traced in more than one half of the cases which occur.
Esquirol has also remarked, that persons born before their
parents became insane are less liable to suffer from psycopa-
thies than those bom after the invasion of the disease.
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Next to hereditary taint the respective ages of the parents
exercise an important influence upon the progeny. The
children of parents who have married young, before the
attainment of maturity, and the full development of their
organisations, are often idiotic and imbecile, besides being
physically weak ; whereas, the children of the same parents,
born at a more advanced period of life, may preserve sound
mental and bodily health. According to Burton, the off¬
spring of those who procreate when far advanced in life
are liable to melancholia—this liability probably arising
from the enfeebled condition of the parents. We believe
that in all cases the respective ages of the parents affect
their children, morally and mentally. The offspring con¬
ceived and born in the early life of the parents, being dis¬
tinguished by a predominance of the passions and animal
nature ; those produced in the prime of life, by a superiority
of the intellectual faculties; and those brought forth to¬
wards the close of the productive period, by a higher
development of the affections and emotions.
We may next consider the respective positions which the
parents hold to each other. It is now beyond all doubt,
that the union of blood relations, of those nearly allied, is
productive of a debilitated, delicate, and unhealthy race;
and this is even more strikingly exemplified in mental than
in any other disease. In Howe's work, on the Causes of
Idiocy, the following appalling tale is to be found, “ In
seventeen families, the heads of which, being blood relatives
intermarried, there were bom ninety-five children, of whom
forty-four were idiotic, twelve were scrofulous and puny,
one was deaf, and one a dwarf.” * We have ourselves seen
seven imbeciles in one family, the heads of which were
cousins, and examples of the law just stated must be known
to all. The position which tne parents hold to each
other, with regard to constitution and diathesis, also in¬
fluences the mental character of the offspring; for how
intimate, yet inscrutable, is the connexion between mind
and body; how wonderful are their reciprocal actions; how
often are they associated in healthy or morbid processes.
Our last division of the influences, connected with the
past history of the parents, exerted at conception, treats of
the previous habits and modes of life of the progenitors.
Those who, having been born with a good constitution, have
lived in accordance with, and in obedience to, natural
laws, may expect to produce children free from infirmity;
but those who have violated natural laws, may expect that
* Howe, on the Causes of Idiocy, p. 35.
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punishment, proportional to the offence, will inevitably be
visited upon them and their descendants. Those who have
perpetrated self-abuse, who have given themselves up to
licentiousness, lust, and passion, to the vice of intemperance,
to the pleasures of the table, or to any nervous excitement
in excess, must suffer themselves from their want of self
control, and must entail upon their progeny numerous and
grievous ills—none more numerous and grievous than psy¬
chical disorders. The intemperate parent will transmit to
his children a heritage of disease, and will inflict upon them
ills innumerable. Of 359 idiots in the State of Massachu¬
setts 99 were the children of confirmed and habitual drunk¬
ards, and many others, doubtless, owed their idiocy to the
over indulgence of their parents.* But not only are the
offspring of the intemperate liable to idiocy, but to all other
forms of mental disease. They have transmitted to them
constitutions that readily succumb to sources of diseased
action, and that are but little able to resist those influences
by which mental disorders are produced. They are born
with a strong, sometimes irresistible, tendency to that very
vice, from the effects of which they so grievously suffer.
The author of a paper upon Intemperance and Insanity,
says, “ The genealogical tree of some families presents suc¬
cessive generations of drunkards. We have traced the ten¬
dency back for a hundred and fifty years. We have re¬
peatedly treated three generations”-}- This hereditary ten¬
dency may be easily developed.
We have found cases recorded, of children addicted to
stimulants, indeed drunkards, at and before the age of
twelve ; and we have ourselves observed a keen relish and
liking for alcohol, in its various forms, at a much earlier
age. The children of drunkards are often marked by
vicious and depraved tastes, by sensual and criminal habits.
“ Of 234 boys resident in the Glasgow House of Refuge,
whose lineage, as well as their history, was known, and who,
although mere children, had already run a course of drink¬
ing and debauchery—seventy-two had drunken fathers,
sixty-nine drunken mothers, and of twelve both parents
were drunkards." $ Excessive menial exertion on the part
of the father is often productive of mental weakness in
the child. Thus the children of the great and the eminent
are frequently below mediocrity, and a race of distinguished
men is quite exceptional A liability to mental disease is
* Report of Commissioners, Massachusetts,
t Intemperance and Insanity, by W. A. P. Browne, P. U. % Ibid.
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oftimes the legacy left by a genius to his family. Excessive
mental idleness and inactivity on the part of the father may
be reproduced in his son in a morbid form ; and excessive
use of any faculty, or series of faculties, to the exclusion of
others, in the father, may exert a baneful influence upon his
progeny. In short, any departure, during the past lives of
the parents, from the strict and immutable code of natural
laws, may at conception, and during utero gestation, hurt-
fully affect their offspring.
So is it with the condition of the parents at the moment
of conception. The state of the parents at this time appa¬
rently exercises a gigantic influence over the whole existence
of the being conceived, no matter whether that state be
permanent or transitory and accidental. What we have just
stated is strikingly illustrated by the following case. “ A
gentleman had one idiotic child, and several other children
mentally healthy, and there existed no hereditary taint in
the family. The child’s idiocy was accounted for in the
following way. On the day and the evening of his marriage
the father had indulged in an improper amount of stimu¬
lants. That very night conception is supposed to have
taken place, the child being born nine months thereafter.
Thus to this one act of intemperance of the father, who
was not a habitual drunkard, was to be attributed the
disease and degradation of the child.”* We have three cases
of congenital idiots of a low type, who were the children of
a drunkard, whose habit was to retire to bed every night in
a state of complete intoxication, and who was known to have
had intercourse with his wife whilst drunk ; but who having
become abstinent had healthy children born to him. So
that even a brief suspension of intelligence appears to be
propagable. A similar case may be found in a late
number of the Psychological Journal ;-f- and, indeed, such
cases might be multiplied without limit.
From what has been said it must be palpable to all
that mighty influences are brought to bear upon the
embryo at conception, and that a bias is then imparted to
the being. Conception, we hold to be an act involving far
greater consequences than have hitherto been attributed to
it; and we believe it to exert influences more vast and
serious than have hitherto been thought of.
An example of the influence of one single conception
upon the nature of the mother, and upon the result of
* From Notes of Prof. Laycock’s Psychological Lectures,
f Psychological Journal, Vof. XL, p. 109.
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J. Crichton Browne, on the
future conceptions, may serve to illustrate our views. A B.
in early womanhood bore a child to a deaf mute. She after¬
wards entered into another alliance, and eight of this poor
woman’s children, by that marriage, are deaf mutes. Of
these, two are dead ; of the six living, one is insane. Con¬
nexion with the deaf mute, after her marriage, was rendered
impossible, by his removal to a distant part of the country,
and, indeed, the parentage of the children remains un¬
questioned. In no branch of the father’s or mother’s family
had deaf-mutism ever appeared.
We now proceed to consider the physical and moral in¬
fluences bearing upon the foetus, during utero-gestation, as
far as they refer to morbid physical conditions. First, as to
the physical
Whilst the foetus lies in its mother’s womb united to her,
and in fact a part of her organization, it is but reasonable to
suppose that the connexion between them being thus intimate,
the influences affecting the one will affect the other, and the
conditions of the one will be associated with corresponding
conditions in the other. And so it is ; for the healthy or
diseased state of the mother is usually shared by the foetus
in utero. Thus a syphilitic woman transmits syphilis to her
unborn child. Fever, measles, small pox, erythema, &c., are
thus communicated; and Menard states, “ That in the
majority of cases of death by convulsions previous to delivery,
the child has been found dead, the contractions of the fea¬
tures and extremities denoting that it had participated in
the affection of the mother." A vitiated state of the ma¬
ternal blood may cause various morbid symptoms in the
foetus, and may even psychically affect it. Anoemia in the
mother produces in the child a weakness and depression,
closely allied to melancholia, whilst plethora has quite a
contrary effect. To a blow on the abdomen, or a fall, may
often be traced idiocy, imbecility, and other mental derange¬
ments. We believe tight lacing to be another prolific cause
of such diseases. It is a well ascertained fact that illegiti¬
mate children are not only more frequently still born than
legitimate, but that they are also more frequently of un¬
sound mind. This we believe, due so far to moral causes to
be spoken of shortly, but likewise to the efforts used to con¬
ceal pregnancy, by the mothers of such children. Attempts
to obtain abortion constitute another of the physical causes
of insanity acting in utero. Of 400 cases of idiocy examined
in one of the northern States of America, at least seven
were caused by Such attempts. The actual number was
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probably much greater, for the most strenuous efforts to
conceal such a crime will naturally be made by the mother
committing it.
As to the moral influences exerted by the mother
upon the foetus in utero, great difference of opinion has
existed; some altogether denying their existence, and
others carrying them to an undue extent The reality and
importance of such influences cannot, we think, be doubted,
but the extent to which some have carried them requires
limitation. The longings and desires of the pregnant
mother do, we think, influence the foetus. Agitation and
mental excitement during pregnancy seem greatly to in¬
fluence the foetus psychically. The life-long timidity and
susceptibility of James VI. were traceable to the murder of
Rizzio, in the presence of his pregnant mother. The philo¬
sopher Hobbes ascribed his acute nervous susceptibility to
the fear of a foreign invasion, entertained by his mother
during his utero gestation. The imbecility of a child, men¬
tioned by Bird,* was caused by the melancholia of its
mother whilst pregnant. The facts related of the siege of
Landau afford a striking example of the effects of maternal
emotion. With regard to this siege it is stated, that “ of
ninety-two children born in the district within a few months
afterwards sixteen died at the instant of birth ; thirty-three
languished for from eight to ten months, and then died ;
eight became idiotic, and died before the age of five years ;
and two came into the world with numerous fractures of
bones of the limbs, caused by the convulsive starts in the
mother, excited by the cannonading and explosions ”-f*
We have before mentioned that illegitimate children are
more liable to suffer from insanity than children born in
wedlock, and this we so far attributed to physical causes.
Moral causes, however, frequently occasion this. The an¬
xiety and distress, or remorse, which are felt by the mothers
of such children, must certainly influence them when in
utero. Natural children are frequently possessed of great
genius and ability, and this, perhaps, because they are the
products of an ardent passion, and because their pregnant
mothers are called upon for mental exertion and ingenuity.
Most frequently do mothers attribute the idiocy and imbe¬
cility of their children to frights received during pregnancy.
Many such cases we have seen, and many are to be found
recorded in the First Report of the Commissioners in Lu-
* Bouchnt, translated by Bird, p. 5, note,
t Combe on the Management of Infancy, p. 76.
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nacy for Scotland. During the French Revolution, and the
Irish Rebellion, it was observed, that those women who
were subjected to anxiety and alarm afterwards produced
children liable to spasms, convulsions, and madness.
Mr. W. B. Seville says, “ I knew an instance of a female
who was subject to shocks of terror, inflicted by her hus¬
band when intoxicated, which used generally to occur once a
month, consequent on his receipt of a pension. She was
afterwards delivered of a well formed though delicate child,
who up to the age of eighteen continued subject to panic terrors
at intervals of a month/’* Boerhaave states that a tendency
to epilepsy may be “ born with one from the imagination of
the mother, when she was pregnant, bein<* shocked by the
sight of a person in an epileptic fit.” *J* The following case,
given by Howe, is an interesting instance of the maternal
influence. “ H. C. F’s. mother was extremely intemperate
for years before his birth. In him muscular vigour is im¬
paired, by a singular affection of his nervous system, which
gives him the air, gait, and appearance of a drunken man.
He seems to have inherited from his mother a strong
resemblance to her acquired habit of body. He trips and
staggers in his walk, and frequently falters in his other
motions.”}: The Romans appear to have appreciated the
power of maternal emotions over the unborn foetus, for
they placed their finest works of art before their pregnant
women, that they might contemplate them, believing that
thus a beautiful race would be created. Hufeland expresses
his belief that the Madonna-like expression of the women
in catholic countries, is due to the length of time passed in
adoration before pictures of the Virgin by their pregnant
women. ||
The physical and moral influences exerted in utero may,
even in utero, produce certain effects, causing, arrest of
development, imperfect development, and abnormal develop¬
ment Acephali and anencephali are rendered such by
physical means, development being obstructed by the pre¬
sence of two or more foetus, by a deformed pelves,
by hypertrophied placenta, or by similar causes. Other
deformities and malformations, of every description, may be
produced in like manner. Moral causes may influence
development. Whitehead narrates the case of a lady,
• Neville, on Insanity, p. 44.
t Boerhaave Aphor, 1095.
X Howe on the Causes of Idiocy, p. 19.
|| Hufeland paper, published in Stuttgart Collection.
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who, during five pregnancies experienced dread lest her
offspring should suffer from blindness. He thus pro¬
ceeds. “ Of five children born at the full term of utero
gestation, each as remarkable for plumpness and vigour as
the mother is for a well developed frame and robust health;
the first, third, and fifth of her children had defective de¬
velopment of the left eye, amounting in one to deformity,
and the second and fourth had complete loss of vision of the
same side.”* Hair lip has been produced in a child by the
mere sight of that deformity by its mother during preg¬
nancy.
It seems that certain forms of imperfect development are
associated with certain morbid psychical conditions. In
idiocy, with which arrest of development is often concomi¬
tant, a certain symmetry of deformity seems to exist. Stra¬
bismus is frequently observed in both eyes. The alee nasi
may be abnormally developed. Hair lip may be present.
The palate is arched and lofty. The teeth are symmetrically
irregular. On both hands a finger may be wanting—a sixth
finger developed; or the fingers may be webbed. The feet
may be similarly affected. Many idiots suffer from mono¬
orchidism.
Nervous disease may exist in utero. I have been informed
by a distinguished practitioner in this city, that he has
attended a case of convulsions in utero, and of other such
cases we have heard. Paralysis is known sometimes to be
congenital.
Psychical disease may exist in utero. That amentia, in
its various forms, exists in the foetus, is, of course, undis¬
puted ; but we hold that the foetus is subject to other men¬
tal disorders. Infants have been born maniacal, and during
the utero-gestation of these infants, great pain has been ex¬
perienced by the mother, and attributed to the restlessness of
the foetus in the womb. We have collected three cases of con¬
nate mania, one very interesting case given by Crichton we
shall hereafter allude to. Another case may be found in the
Appendix to the Scotch Lunacy Commissioners' Report We
think that such cases are not so uncommon as supposed.
Hitherto no attention has been paid to the subject, and at all
times the diagnosis of such cases must be extremely difficult.
The mode and the manner of parturition influence the
psychical existence of the child being born. The dangers
attending delivery are known to be very much greater
among civilized than among barbarous nations, and infant
* Whitehead on Hereditary Disease*, p. 16 .
VOL. VI. NO. 33 . X
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mortality holds a proportional position. In Europe, during
infancy, cerebral diseases are the most frequent causes of
death, and these cerebral diseases are often induced by the
pressure exerted upon the child’s head during parturition.
Among black nations where the foetal heads are smaller than
among nations that have been for ages civilized, parturition
is looked upon as a process attended with little or no danger
to mother or child, and cerebral diseases are comparatively
rare. Tedious labour, instrumental or abnormal delivery of
any kind may induce psychical changes in the child of
a serious nature, and may alter its mental character for life.
May the mental condition of the mother, at the time of
parturition, or immediately preceding it, influence the after
mental life of the child ? In the autobiography of a drunk¬
ard, the author states that just before his birth, the midwife
having left the room for a moment, his mother rose and
swallowed a large quantity of brandy. She was ordinarily
of the most strictly temperate habits. To this single act, he
seems inclined to attribute his moral abandonment
As a mental state of a moment's duration may, during
pregnancy, influence the foetal nervous system, we are entitled
to hold that the condition of the mother during parturition
may similarly act.
From the regions of speculation and doubt, which we have
hitherto traversed, we now emerge, though our course will still
be shrouded by the mists of obscurity and uncertainty. Yet
in a land so uncultivated, so unexplored as that, through
which we must now grope our way, we cannot expect to ad¬
vance by rapid strides, or with steady and unerring step.
From birth to the end of the first dentition, many psychical
diseases occur, which we shall now describe. Idiocy, which
has been so often and so fully treated of, that we need but
mention it, with all its modifications, with cretinism and
cagotism, is strictly a congenital disease, and is said by M.
Esquirol to commence with life. It consists in an abortion
of mind, or an abolition of the mental faculties, associated
with a defective organisation, and is manifested in various
degrees. The lowest class of idiots may be regarded as alto¬
gether beneath the animal world. They possess not taste,
smell, hearing, sight or touch. They are unable to nourish
themselves, though food be placed within their reach, and in
some cases the food requires to be placed within the pharynx.
They perform every function imperfectly. From these de¬
graded entities, these human logs, up to comparative intelli¬
gence, there exist idiots in every stage of transition. These
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have been differently arranged by different authors, but with
them we have not time to deal. Idiots have always an
imperfect organism, and have generally brains which have
been arrested in development. They may often be recognised
at the moment of birth, by their deformed heads, or their want
of sensation, or their inability to suck, or other such symp¬
toms. They are often strumous, rachitic or paralytic. In
these days of idiot schools, and idiot training, we think the
imperfect organization of the idiot ought to be borne in mind
in every attempt at education. The education of such beings
ought to contain more of the physical, than of the mental
element, and ought to be directed to giving them means of
employment and happiness, which they do not possess.
Much has been done towards the elevation of the idiot, and
many means have been discovered, by which, pleasure may
be added to his brief existence, and by which he may be
rendered less burdensome to those about him ; but much re¬
mains to be done. Cretinism and cagotism are endemic
forms of idiocy, accompanied by certain peculiarities. There
seems reason for adopting the view of some German writers,
who hold that they consist in a subordinate form of idiocy,
complicated with an advanced stage of rachitis or scrofula.
It is declared that in countries where cretinism exists,
midwives, at the moment of birth, are able to pronounce
whether or not the child will prove a cretin, and this at least
is certain, that some of the symptoms of cretinism manifest
themselves in earliest infancy. They are sometimes born
with incipient goitre, which afterwards becomes developed.
Much interesting discussion has taken place as to the
nature and causes of cretinism and cagotism, but upon so
extensive a subject, we cannot enter. In certain cases of
idiocy, a sort of assimilation to certain members of the brute
creation, is to be observed. The following case given by
Pinel will illustrate our statement. “ A young female idiot,
in the form of her head, her tastes, her mode of living, seemed
to approach the instincts of a sheep. She exhibited an es¬
pecial repugnance to meat, and ate with avidity, vegetable
substances, such as peas, apples, salad and bread. She only
drank water. Her demonstrations of feeling were confined
to these two words, “ b<$ ma tante," for she could not utter
any other words, and appeared silent solely from wanting
ideas. She was accustomed to exercise alternate movements
of flexion and extension of the head in supporting it, (like a
sheep), on the breast of her nurse. Her back, loins and
shoulders were covered with long flexible hairs, from one to
x*
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two inches in length, and which resembled wool in texture.
In making efforts to get out of the bath, she would repeat in
an acute tone, b6, bd, bd. She would not sit, but lay on the
ground, le corps roul6, et etendu sur la terre k la maniere de
brebis.”* Idiots may often be met with, who go upon all
fours, eat grass and filth, and in their actions, gestures, and
mode of life, resemble lower animals. Brute children, those
beings who have herded with wolves, and other wild creatures
are idiotic, simply because they have been removed from
every civilizing and elevating influence.-f-
But amentia is not the only form of mental aberration that
exists from birth to the end of the first dentition. Mania, or
derangement of the mind as a whole, has been observed. As
we shall again speak of mania, we shall here only strive
to support our assertion. Crichton says—“ A woman about
forty years old, of a full and plethoric habit of body, who
constantly laughed and did the strangest things, but who,
independently of these circumstances, enjoyed the very best
of health, was, on the 20th January, 1763, brought to bed,
without any assistance, of a male child, who was raving mad.
When he was brought to our workhouse, which was on the
24th, he possessed so much strength in his legs and arms,
that four women could at times, with difficulty restrain him.
These paroxysms either ended in an uncontrollable fit of
laughter, for which no evident reason could be observed, or
else he tore in anger, everything near him, clothes, linen, bed
furniture, and even thread, when he could get hold of it
We durst not allow him to be alone, otherwise he would get
on the benches and tables, and even attempt to climb up the
walls. Afterwards however, when he began to have teeth
he died/’J Paroxysms of fury and passion strongly resem¬
bling mania, are sometimes seen in mere infants.
Delusions and hallucinations sometimes exist at this
period of life. Hallucinations of the organ of vision form a
common symptom in cerebral diseases of infancy, and they
have been observed to result from the use of certain
poisonous agents. They are manifested by the conduct of
the child. It may smile, attempt to grasp imaginary objects
in front of it, stretch out its hands and cling to the side of
its cradle to reach them the better ; or it may wear an ex¬
pression of dread and alarm, shrink as if trying to hide
* Pinel. Traits Medico-philosophiquesur l’alienation mentals, p. 182. Buck-
nill and Take’s Manual of Psychology, p. 97.
t Chambers’ JoarnaL July, 1858.
t Qrcding, quoted by Crichton, toL ii., p. 355.
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itself, and shriek as if terror-stricken. Now if these effects
may result from poisoning, by strammonium, or like
drugs, we may fairly conclude that they may also result from
poisoning by bile, urea, or from any cause productive of
insanity. The fact being established that this morbid con¬
dition does exist in infancy, there is every probability for
supposing that it may result from various causes, as it does
during adult life.
M. Thore, a French psychologist, has met with hallucina¬
tions of sight and hearing in children, even when in perfect
health. He says, they appear to form part, or to be a con¬
tinuation of a previous dream.* Ecstatic phenomena are
often manifested by children, even at the early age of which
we speak. They will remain for a longer or shorter time
with their eyes fixed upon one spot. They are wrapt in
contemplation, from which even vivid impressions will fail
to arouse them. Very shortly after birth in some children
a state allied to melancholia may be observed, and, indeed,
they are sometimes born in this state. They are languid;
they moan, they are sleepless.*}* If they chance to fall asleep
their rest is disturbed and broken, and even whilst sleeping
they continue to whine. They start up suddenly, as if
alarmed. They pass dark coloured fmces, and are often more
or less convulsed. Such infants often die convulsed.
Precocity, which may begin to shew itself in infancy, we
look upon as a morbid psychical condition, generally termi¬
nating in the worst results It is due to an abnormal
enlargement of the whole, or some part, of the brain, and
this enlargement is due either to premature and excessive
use, or to disease. Precocity may generally be looked upon
as expressive of disease, and thus, those manifesting it almost
invariably die young. Mpst strongly should this truth be
impressed upon the minds of those parents and guardians
who view it merely as an indication of talent, and who, by
every means in their power, seek to encourage and foster it.
Scrofulous and rickety infants are often precocious, and in
them the untimeous development is accompanied by a visible
enlargement of the head. “ Rickety children/' says M. Mon¬
falcon, “have minds active and penetrating, their wit is
astonishing, they are susceptible of lively passions, and have
perspicacity which does not belong to their age. The brains
enlarge in the same manner as the cranium." But this pre¬
cocity cannot last long. It is soon exhausted, and passes
* Psychological Journal, Vol. II., p. 616.
f Burn’s Midwifery, p. 737..
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into actual insanity, or mental weakness and eccentricity.
The precocious child is often of stunted form, of sickly aspect,
and of unsound health. His physical inferiority contrasts
strangely with his mental power. His body seems to
suffer from deficient nutrition, in consequence of the large
demand for nourishment always made by the brain. Those
who have in after life attained eminence and distinction,
have often, during childhood, been remarkable only for
muscular activity and mental stupidity. Exceptions are, of
course, to be found, such as Pope, Congreve, Chatterton,
Byron, Keats, Dante, &c., but we must remark, that all
these whilst they lived were diseased or unhealthy.
The following interesting case of precocity is given by
Brigham. “Master W- M-, the fourth child of
his parents, was born in Philadelphia, on June 4th, 1820.
At birth his head was of ordinary size, but very soon after
an attack of dropsy of the brain, it began to grow inordi¬
nately. After he began to walk its size was so great that he
attracted much attention, and he was apt to fall, especially
forwards, from readily losing his equilibrium. In 1828 he
fell against a door, and bruised his forehead; in an hour
afterwards he vomited, became very sick, and died next
morning. When fourteen months old the child spoke well,
and at eighteen months was able to sing a variety of musical
airs. His intellectual faculties, generally, were very re¬
spectable, and his powers of observation rather remarkable;
but his memory, both of language and sentiments, were
such as to excite surprise in those who took pains to con¬
verse with him. Of a grave and quiet temperament, he
preferred the society of his seniors,- and took little interest
in the common pastimes of childhood. Only sedate children
were agreeable to him. His sentiments and affections were
of a lofty character. For two years before his death little
M. became affected by religious impressions.” * Dr. Crotch,
the famous professor of harmony, was a musician from his
infancy, and when three years old he could play the
organ. We have many other instances of such prodigies,
but these we think it unnecessary to narrate. During the
period of which we now speak, we must remark the peculiar
susceptibility of the infant frame. The muscles are soft
and pale, and contract rapidly. The cuticle is thin. The
nerves are large and widely distributed. The nervous cen¬
tres are very large in proportion to the size of the body.
The general circulation is rapid. From these circumstances
* Brigham, on Mental Culture, p. 29.
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it arises that the infant is extremely susceptible and impres¬
sionable, and that very slight stimuli, when applied to it, pro¬
duce very powerful results. The maternal influence is still
maintained through lactation, or another series of influences
is brought to bear upon the being, through the milk of a
81range nurse. The quality of the milk is of great import¬
ance, as it powerfully affects the recipient. Its quality may
be altered by disease, by therapeutic agents, by lood, or by
emotion; and from being the most nutritious and harmless
of all substances it may become a deadly poison, Tourtoal
relates an instance of the power of maternal emotion upon
the quality of the milk. “ A carpenter having quarrelled
with a soldier who was billeted on him, the latter fell upon
him with his drawn sword. The carpenter's wife first
trembled with fear and horror, then suddenly throwing her¬
self between the combatants, she wrested the sword out of
the soldier’s hand, broke it, and flung it away. The mother,
while thus violently excited, took up her child from the
cradle and gave it the breast The infant was in perfect
health, and had never had a moment’s illness. After some
minutes it became restless, and left off sucking; it panted,
and fell dead in its mother’s lap.”*
The first dentition is a critical period in infantile life, and
is accompanied, especially in weak children, by a sort of
systemic disturbance or irritation. During this state of the
system predispositions tend to evolve themselves, and great
affectability exists.
From the end of the first dentition, up to puberty, we
may state, as a general principle, that there is a liability to
every psychical disease from which the adult may suffer,
together with certain disordered conditions peculiar to that
stage of life.
We have already spoken of amentia, or congenital absence
of the mental faculties. We will now turn to dementia, or
obliteration of mind. Acute dementia may be regarded as a
temporary extinction of the mental faculties ; chronic de¬
mentia as a more complete obliteration. Dementia must
be carefully distinguished from idiocy; in the latter case,
mind is congenitally absent, and has never existed ; whilst
in the former, mind, having existed, is veiled and diseased.
Dementia may be recognised in its earlier stages by slight
incoherence, and by a want of connexion of ideas: when
fully developed by obliteration or enfeeblement of intellect,
by diminished sensibility, and by derangement of the bodily
* Boachat, translated by Bird, p. 33, note:
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functions generally. Seguin* has denied the existence of
dementia in youth. In doing so he is in error. Acute de¬
mentia, or fatuity, is frequently met with in this country
between the ages of ten and sixteen, during the period of
growth. It differs from senile and other species of dementia, in
that it seems to depend either on the imperfect nutrition of
the nervous system, or on the influence of the processes by
which its building up is carried on ; and, secondly, that it is
curable generally by generous diet, and other means that
supply materials for construction. A physician in the West
of Scotland has kindly forwarded to us the following case of
juvenile dementia. “ J. T., set. 10, was from birth a nervous
and easily excited boy ; previous to his attaining his fifth
year hejshewed sufficient intellect to compass the alphabet, a
short prayer, and a blessing. There was noticed during this
period an increasing nervousness and greater susceptibility of
excitement. At five years of age he had an attack of gastric
fever, succeeded by a continuous crop of boils over the whole
body. During, and after his recovery from this illness, a
change in his mental constitution was observed, as evidenced,
by increasing nervousness and excitability—failing memory
And speech, incapacity in controlling himself, with a con¬
siderable degree of fear in his actions. This condition con¬
tinued, more or less, for two years. For a time he was hardly
able to move out of the house, apparently from an instinctive
fear or dread of something. He frequently threw articles
into the fire, or out of the window ; he ran out of the house
in a state of nudity, and was quite indifferent when corrected.
He never had fits of any kind. His general habits are now
considerably improved, nut though attempts have been made
to re-teach him his alphabet, &c., there has yet been no
appearance of returning intellect.” We shall extract a por¬
tion of a case of dementia in youth, as given by Burrowa
“ Master-, a stout, healthy boy, till he was twelve years
old had evinced all the capacity and activity usual to his years.
At this period some change was observed in his disposition
and habits. He became negligent and irascible, fonder of
amusements below his age, and, if opposed, fell into silly pas¬
sions. What he desired he cared not how he obtained. At
length slight symptoms, like chorea, came on. When aged
fourteen he was brought to London for my advice. He
appeared then to be a stout lad, with a healthy complexion.
The conformation of his head was good. The expression of
his countenance denoted a degree of vacuity. He hesitated
* Seguin, Traitement Morale, &c., dea Idiots, p. 88.
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in his speech a little, and then uttered his words suddenly.
He desired almost everything he saw, and attempted to gain
it with force and violence, and, if restrained, broke into furious
passions. He had lost all knowledge of the classics, and only
amused himself occasionally with childish books and pictures.
A year afterwards his tutor wrote to me that he was gradually
becoming worse, his senses were more impaired, his move¬
ments were more restricted ; in short, he was quite in a state
of fatuity.”*
Monomania, or delusional insanity, we believe to be more
common during infancy and childhood than at any other
period of life. It consists in an exaltation, or undue predomi¬
nance, of some one faculty, is characterized by “ some par¬
ticular illusion or erroneous conviction, impressed upon the
understanding,” and implies an unhealthy state of the mind
as a whole. Delusions and hallucinations are its exponents.
We generally find that the delusions of the monomaniac bear
distinct reference to his ordinary mode of thought and life,
and are but diseased distortions, or exaggerations of his ordi¬
nary ideas. Thus, in childhood, they are frequently induced
by castle building, and we would here take an opportunity of
denouncing that most pleasant but pernicious practice. Im¬
pressions, created by the ever fertile imagination of a child,
it may be whilst “ glow’ring at the fuffing low,” are soon be¬
lieved in as realities, and become a part of the child’s psychical
existence. They become, in fact, actual delusions. Sucly
delusions are formed with facility, but eradicated with diffi¬
culty, and much mental derangement in mature life, we
believe, is attributable to these reveries indulged in during
childhood. It should not be forgotten that the “ disposition
is builded up by the fashionings of first impressions.” In¬
fantile and childish minds ought to be engaged with active,
natural, and simple pursuits carried out into objectivity, and
ought to be allowed little opportunity to “ Give to airy no¬
things a local habitation and a name.” A most curious
example of all that we have just stated is offered by Hartley
Coleridge. The delusions of his boyhood are thus narrated
by his brother. “ At a very early period of his childhood, of
which he himself had a distinct, though visionary, remem¬
brance, he imagined himself to foresee a time, when in a field
that lay close to the house in which he lived, a small cataract
would burst forth, to which he gave the name of Jugforce.
The banks of the stream thus created, soon became populous,
a region, a realm, and, as the vision spread in ever widening
* Borrows, on Insanity, p. 490.
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circles, it soon overflowed, as it were, the narrow spot, in which
it was originally generated, and Jugforce, disguised under the
less familiar name of Equxria, became an island continent,
with its attendant isles. Taken as a whole, the Equxrian world
presented a complete analogue to the world of fact, so far as
it was known to Hartley, complete in all its parts, furnishing
a theatre and scene of action, with dramatis personae and suit¬
able machinery, in which, day after day, for the space of long
years he went on evolving the complicated drama of existence.
When at length he was obliged to account for his knowledge
of, and connexion with this distant land, he had a story bor¬
rowed from the Arabian Nights, of a great bird, by which he
was carried to and fro. Once I asked how it was that his
absence on these occasions was not observed, but he was
angry and mortified. His usual mode of introducing the
subject was, ‘ Derwent, I have had letters or papers from
Equxria.’ Nothing could exceed the seriousness of his man¬
ner, and, doubtless, of his feelings. He was, I am sure,
utterly unconscious of invention. A certain infirmity of will,
the specific evil of his life, had already shewn itself. His
sensibility was intense, and he had not wherewithal to con¬
trol it. He could not open a letter without trembling. He
shrank from mental pain, he was beyond measure impatient
of restraint. He was liable to paroxysms of rage.”*
A marked instance of juvenile hallucinations is to be found
in the life of Jerome Cardon. “ Between his fourth and
seventh year, the excitement of his nervous system caused a
condition, perhaps, not altogether rare in children—phantoms
haunted him. During the last hour or two of morning rest,
lying awake, the boy commonly saw figures that were colour¬
less, and seemed to be built out of rings of mail, rising out of
the right corner of the bed. The figures followed each other
in long procession, were of many kinds, houses, castles, ani¬
mals, knights on horseback, plants, trees, musical instruments,
&c., and wild shapes that represented nothing he had ever
seen before. The figures rising out of the right hand corner, and
describing an arch, descended into the left hand corner, and
were lost. Jerome had pleasure in this spectacle.”’!*
Mrs. Jameson speaks as follows, “The shaping spirit of
imagination began when I was eight or nine years old to
haunt my inner life. I can truly say that from ten years old
to fourteen or fifteen 1 lived a double existence ; one, outward,
linking me with the external sensible world; the other, in-
* Extracts from Memoirs—Ed. Rer., July, 1851.
tLife of Giralomo Cardano, of Milan, Physician, by Henry Morely, rol. L, p. 85.
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ward, creating a world to and for itself, conscious to itself
only. I carried on for whole years a series of actions, scenes,
and adventures, one springing out of another. This habit
grew so upon me, that there were moments wheu I was not
more awake to outward things than when in sleep.”*
In the eighteenth Annual Report of the Crichton Royal
Institution, Dumfries, the case of a gentleman is recounted,
who, when a child, being compelled to sleep in a garret alone,
upon one occasion saw a scroll, of the name and nature of which
he was then ignorant, although he has since ascertained it, to
resemble those used in remote antiquity. It was covered
with written characters, which he could not read, and which
he did not know to be significant of thought or speech. It
was broad, with ribbons attached, and was suspended without
visible agency. He was alarmed, and screamed so loudly as
to alarm a relative. On her arrival, actuated by shame, he
declared that there was nothing the matter. This impression
may be coloured by experience, for the narrator has since seen
myriads of visions, and has been insane, and it is only certain
that at an early age he saw that which did not exist, and what
he could not know to exist”•(* Crichton gives the following
case of infantile hallucination, as narrated by the sufferer
herself. “ In the fourth year of my life I took a folio Bible
and rolled it with my hands and feet to a bank where I had
been sitting, and placed my feet on it. I had scarcely taken
my place above a minute, when I heard a voice at my ear
say, ‘ Put the book where you found it’ The voice repeated
the mandate that I should do it, and, at the same tune, I
thought somebody took hold of my face. I instantly obeyed,
with fear and trembling.” {
Those ambitious thoughts which even in childhood occupied
the mind of Oliver Cromwell, appear to have assumed the
form of hallucination. “He laid himself down one day,
when suddenly the curtains of his bed were slowly withdrawn
by a gigantic figure, which bore the aspect of a woman, and
which, gazing at him silently for a while, told him that he
should before his death be the greatest man in England.” ||
We have ourselves seen two children in the same family,
independently of each other, at the ages of four and six,
cherish the same delusions. The delusions consisted m the
personification and localization of mental images. They
* Mrs. Jameson's Common-place Book, p. 131.
t Eighteenth Annual Report Crichton Institution, Dumfries, p. 28.
\ Crichton, on Insanity, vol. IL, p. 47.
|| Oliver Cromwell and the Protectorate, by Daniel Wilson, p. 29.
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believed themselves possessed of riches and property, and
talked of companions who had no existence. It is worthy of
observation, that in the family to which these children belong,
two uncles were affected during youth, by what amounted to
a delusion, in so far as they conceived, that the relations of
places, with which they were constantly familiar, underwent
a change. We have collected very numerous cases of infantile
delusions, but we have already given a sufficient number, by
which to illustrate and establish our statements.
Theomania is another form of delusional insanity by which
youth may be attacked. The person attacked by it believes
himself to be a deity, an archangel, a prophet, to be inspired,
to be under divine protection, guided by divine impulses, or
to be actuated by the divine spirit Theomania may assume
various forms, according to the current opinions of the age,
and the previous religious views of the person affected by it
About the beginning of the thirteenth century, a most strange
and marvellous epidemic of this kind prevailed among the
children of the Continent, and led many of them to destruc¬
tion. It is thus spoken of by Michaud. “ About this period
such a circumstance was beheld, as had never occurred even in
times so abounding in prodigies and extraordinary events.
Fifty thousand children in France and Germany braving pater¬
nal authority, gathered together and pervaded both cities and
countries, singing these words, ‘Lord Jesus, restore to us
your holy cross.’ When they were asked whither they were
going, or what they intended to do, they replied, ‘we are
going to Jerusalem to deliver the sepulchre of our Lord.’ A
great portion of this juvenile militia crossed the Alps to em¬
bark at the Italian ports, whilst those who came from the
provinces of France directed their course to Marseilles. On
the faith of a miraculous revelation they had been made to
believe that this year (1213) the drought would be so great
that the sun would dissipate all the waters of the sea, and
thus an easy road for pilgrims would be opened across the
bed of the Mediterranean. On the coasts of Syria many of
these young crusaders lost themselves in forests, and wander¬
ing about at hazard perished with heat, hunger, thirst, and
fatigue. Others returned to their homes ashamed of their
imprudence, saying they did not really know why they had
gone. Amongst those who had embarked, some were ship¬
wrecked, or given up to the Saracens, against whom they had
set out to figLt.”*
We have translated the following case of theomania from
* Michaud's History of the Crusades, Vol. U., p. 202
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CalmeiL “ I knew at Tyres a man, called G., who had a
little boy of five years old, who prophesied. He fell repeatedly
in my presence into mental excitement, accompanied with
great agitation of the head and body. After that he spoke,
predicting evils to Babylon, and blessings to the Church. He
exhorted most earnestly to repentance.”*
Joan of Arc was the victim of a transport of theomania.
“ When hardly past the period of infancy she was often ob¬
served thoughtful and abstracted in the midst of the dances
and gaieties into which, of a Sunday, she was led by her com¬
panions. If she chanced, like the other girls, to gather
flowers, as she roamed the forest* in place of decking her own
person, her sole idea was to carry them to the village, to adorn
the image of the Virgin, or some other holy personage. From
the age of thirteen she experienced frequent hallucinations
of seeing and hearing. She thought herself visited by the
archangel Michael, by the angel Gabriel, by St. Catherine,
and St. Margaret.” "f
Demonomania, a morbid state in which the patient believes
himself to be demoniacally possessed, and acts as if demo¬
niacally possessed, has been often noticed in early life. It is
not now so frequently seen as it was of yore, but it is still to
be met with. Calmed thus speaks of a paroxysm of demono¬
mania, which had an epidemic character. “ The majority of
the children, whatever their age, were attacked with halluci¬
nations, and pre-occupied by ideas which are observed in
demonomania It is certain that it was chiefly during sleep
that these little visionaries felt themselves carried into the
air by women, metamorphosed into cats ; some were, perhaps,
in a sort of ecstatic transport, when their brain became tne
seat of the illusions which poisoned their existence.”! Cal¬
med also states, that during the winter of 1566, there was an
epidemic of demonomania among the foundlings of the hospital
of Amsterdam. The foundlings were attacked with convul¬
sions and delirium. An austere and gloomy faith, dealing
rather with the horrors and punishments attending the lost,
than with the rewards awaiting the blest, may induce this
frightful disease, as the following case wed exemplifies. “ A
young girl, about 9 or 10 years old, had parents who were of a
rigorous and devout sect, who had filled the chdd’s head with
a number of strange and horrid notions, about the devil, hell,
* De la. Folie consider^ sons le point de Vue Pathologique, Philosophique,
See., par S. F. Calmeil, t. II., p. 273.
f American Journal of Insanity, Vol. III., p. 136, translated from Calmeil.
X De la Folio, &c., &c, Calmeil, 1.1., p. 433.
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and eternal damnation. One evening the devil appeared to
her, and threatened to devour her. She gave a loud shriek,
and fled to the neighbouring apartment, where her parents
were, and fell down, apparently dead. On recovering herself,
she stated what had happened, adding that she was sure to
be damned.”* * * §
The mind of childhood, that which we are accustomed to
look upon as emblematic of all that is simple, and pure, and
innocent, may be assailed by the most loathsome of psychical
disorders, viz., satyriasis, or nymphomania; the monomania
affecting the sexual instinct. Sexual precocity has been fre¬
quently observed at an early age. This “ digesting anticipa¬
tion ” is illustrated by a case published in the Journal des
S$avans, where it occurred in a boy aged three years and by
another in the Philosophical Transactions, where the boy was
only two years and eleven months. J Well authenticated
cases of pregnancy itself, occurring at the age of nine years,
are on record. Buchan states that the first symptoms of
nymphomania have been observed in a girl three years old,
who was in the habit of throwing herself into the most inde¬
cent attitudes, and indulging in the most licentious move¬
ments^ M. Louyer Villermay has likewise seen this condition
in girls of three or four years old. || Satyriasis has been
observed in boys of three and four years.^[ Gall relates a
case of satyriasis in a boy only three years old* * We have
seen symptions of nymphomania in a girl aged twelve.
Erotomania is a modified form of the disease which we
have just considered, or a morbid form of sentimentality
generally attacking those of a romantic and passionate dis¬
position. It has been observed in early life. Seguin gives
the case of a boy aged twelve who cherished the belief that
he had in his possession, a young princess, who had been his
paramour.* * *
That insane and irresistible impulse prompting to murder
and destruction, which has been designated homicidal mono¬
mania is a malady from the incursions of which childhood is
not exempt. The powerful sometimes unconquerable im-
* Crichton, on Insanity, Vol. II., p. 15.
f Journal des Scavans, 1688.
% Philosophical Transactions, 1745.
§ Buchan, quoted by Voison, Des causes morales et physique de Maladies
Mentales, p. 249.
H M. Souyer Villermay, p. 251.
1 Ibid, p. 264.
• * Gall’s Works, Tome III., p. 260.
* * * Seguin, Traitment moral, Hygiene et Education de Idiots, p. 93.
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pulse felt by those suffering from this disease, originates in
various circumstances, and various reasons may be given for a
homicidal act by the monomaniac committing it. He may
believe that he is conferring a real benefit, upon the person
he kills ; or that by destroying life he is obeying the behest of
Heaven. He may perpetrate a homicidal act as the minister
of retributive justice, or as the avenger of his own imagined
wrongs. Or he may do it from a pure love of destruction and
cruelty, or from the force of imitation. Frequently a mere
blind motiveless impulse to destroy is felt, against which the
monomaniac himself earnestly strives. Examples of this
disease, as occurring in early life, are by no means uncommon.
“ In 1854 a boy shot bis stepmother in France. He con¬
fessed the act, but said it was the result of a mysterious
irresistible impulse. He admitted an aversion to his step¬
mother. There was no disorder of the intellect apparent.
There was an hereditary pre-disposition to insanity on both
sides.”* “ A girl aged five years, conceived a violent dislike
to her stepmother, who treated her kindly, and to her little
brother, both of whom she endeavoured to kilL”*f* The
American Journal of Insanity, registers a case, the result of
imitation. “A child about seven years old strangled his
brother. His parents caught him in the act. They asked
him the cause, he replied weeping, that he was only imitating
the devil, whom he had seen strangling Punch.”J A similar
case happened in a county in the south of Scotland. A
little boy having seen a butcher kill a pig, was caught pre¬
paring to imitate the process upon his younger sister. The
love of destroying aud inflicting torture and pain, entertained
by some minds, is well shewn in a case given in a late volume
of the Psychological Journal “T. P., fourteen years of age,
was a clever boy. His mind was peculiarly constituted, evinc¬
ing a pre-disposition to cruelty. He had been frequently
known to hang up mice and other animals, for the purpose of
enjoying the pain, which they appeared to suffer, whilst in the
agonies of death. He would often call boys to witness these
sports exclaiming, “ Here’s a lark ; he’s just having his last
lack.” He had often been known to catch flies and throw
them into the fire, and he had also been observed, whilst
passing along the streets, to pull the ears of the children, and
when they cried out, he would burst into a paroxysm of
fiendish delight” §
* Ann ales Medico-Psychologiaue, April, 1856.
f Esquirol, Mai. Ment, vol. IL, p. 115.
$ American Journal of Insanity, Vol. L, p. 119.
$ Psychological Journal, VoL IX., p. 986.
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Like propensities, we have seen manifested, by the eldest
son of a gentleman occupying an elevated position in society ;
one who from his very cradle had mingled with the gentle
and the refined. At his own earnest request, this boy was
permitted to act as butcher to all the farmers on his father’s
estate. His favourite amusement was putting fowls and
rabbits to the most cruel and agonising deaths, and he gloried
in gratuitously shooting the roes whilst with young. When
repairs were going on at his father’s house, he sawed through
the scaffolding in such a manner, that when the workmen
mounted it, they might be precipitated to the ground. Such
is destructive or homicidal insanity.
An instinctive impulse prompting to theft, or kleptomania,
is frequently felt by the young, and we say without hesitation
that many of those young criminals, who are yearly brought
before our Courts of Justice, and tried and punished for theft
and like crimes, are the victims of this disease. The inveteracy
and pertinacity of these children in crime, their utter reck¬
lessness of consequences, their intractability under reforma¬
tory measures and tuition, and their own confessions and
statements might, ere this, have convinced those in power,
that it is not by the lash or by solitary confinement, that
these poor wanderers are to be brought back to the paths of
honesty and virtue. Wholesome diet, cleanliness, and cod
liver oil would affect them much more beneficially than stripes
ad libitum, confinement ad infinitum, and magisterial advice at
discretion. More correct views, however, on this subject are
now being disseminated, and the papers which during the few
past years have been read before the Association for the
Promotion of Social Science, demonstrate that the cause of
these poor children is being adopted by those who can
help them. Our cases of kleptomania in early life are
only too numerous. We can select but one or two
for perusal. We extract our first case from The Times.
“ Worship Street. A diminutive urchin, stated to be twelve
years of age, was charged by his father with repeated acts of
robbery. The prosecutor who appeared to be much affected,
stated that young as the prisoner was, he had for years past
exhibited the most vicious propensities, and that though every
means likely to work a reformation in him had been adopted ;
kindness and severity had both the same effect, and he
remained perfectly incorrigible. His habits of pilfering were
so active and inveterate that witness was compelled when he
retired to rest, to dispose of his clothes about the bed in
which he lay to prevent their being stolen. The prisoner
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heard this detail of his delinquencies with perfect apathy and
indifference, and two previous convictions for robbery being
established against him, he was fully committed to Newgate
for trial.”*
Our next case of kleptomania occurred in a girl between
nine and ten years of age, whose parents were in most
affluent circumstances, and who had not the slightest induce¬
ment to the crimes which she committed. This girl has
repeatedly stolen silver and copper of various amounts, the
property of her parents or of visitors in the house, and cast it
away in the shrubbery, or concealed it so that it could not be
discovered. She has stolen money and other articles from
servants, concealing them likewise. Has stolen articles and
concealed them in servants’ boxes. Has stolen biscuits and
bread from a shop, and also a pair of red stockings belonging
to her sister, which were afterwards found in the water closet
She has stolen articles of jewellery, and concealed them.
When a theft has been committed, and while it was regarded
as criminal, a whole night has been consumed in entreaties,
prayers, caresses, in order to induce confession of the act and
surrender of articles abstracted, in vain. Punishment was,
likewise, without effect. She has volunteered confession and
penitence, with an assurance of total inability to resist the incli¬
nation, and a declaration that she is “ different ” when she
steals. This child also lies, scratches the backs of looking-
glasses, and disorders furniture. It is worthy of observation,
that this girl generally steals bright or brilliantly coloured
objects, and that she never makes any use of what she steals.
The physician who saw her believed her condition to be con¬
nected with the premature approach of puberty. In Mr. Hill’s
able work On Crime, a boy is described as thus speaking, “ I
am thirteen years of age. I was eighteen months in Perth
prison for stealing, and in Edinburgh gaol three different times
for the like offence. I have two sisters and two brothers. One
brother was transported; the other has been in Edinburgh
prison several times. I have one sister in the General prison,
where I was.”^ 193 families sent each two members to jail
per annum, twenty-eight sent three, twenty-eight sent four,
eight sent five, four sent six, one sent seven.} Thus klepto¬
mania extends through families, and is, as it were, a family
complaint.
Pyromania, or a tendency to destroy by fire, is especially
* Timet, Jan. 1., 1848, quoted in “ Juvenile Depravity,” by T. Beggs, p. 88.
f Hill, on Crime, p. 38.
t Hill’s >111. Report on Prisons, p. 26, 31, 36, 61.
VOL. VI. NO. 33 . T
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manifested by the young, and this diseased propensity may be
exhibited by the most gentle and docile children. It betokens
an unhealty and excited state of mind, and is most common
during periods of public panic and alarm. Various motives
lead to fire-raising. The desire to see a great conflagration,
superstition, hatred, revenge, or nostalgia (home sickness) may
induce pyromania. It may also be impulsive or imitative.
It may appear as an epidemic, as a hereditary complaint, or
as an obstinate and incorrigible disease again and again
recurring.
The uonstitutumd gives the following case. “ At the late
assizes of Eure and Loire a child, of fourteen years of age,
was aocused of having been guilty of arson six times in low
than six weeks. On nis trial, his assurance and intelligence
astonished the court, the jury, and the public. He placed
himself in the attitudes of an experienced advocate. He
replied to the questions asked by the judge. He cross-examined
the witnesses, and replied to the counsel for the prosecution
with incredible presence of mind. His motives for this mul¬
tiplicity of crime were inexplicable, unless he was actuated by
a pure love of mischief, ana still he was the first to raise the
cry of ‘ fire,’ and render assistance to his victims. But such
was his rage for this species of crime, that he has been known
to place lighted touch paper under the petticoats of peasant
women, who were reposing during the mid-day from the
labours of the field. Tne jury found him guilty, but added
that he acted without discernment In consequence of this
verdict he was sentenced to only twelve years imprisonment"*
Many similar cases we have collected, but it is surely unne¬
cessary to multiply examples. Of eight cases given by Marc,
as occuring before the period of puberty, one was aged eight
one aged ten, two aged twelve, two aged thirteen, one «ged
fourteen, and one aged fifteen/}*
Dipsomania, that disease implying complete loss of self
control with regard to the use of alchoholic beverages, has
been observed in children. We possess the notes of a caset
in which its first symptoms appeared at the age of four years.
Pantophobia is another form of mental disease, common in
infancy and childhood. It is usually associated with, perhaps
dependent upon, cardiac disease. It consists in an exalted or
diseased state of the instinct of self-preservation, is often
accompanied by delusions, and may occasion such intense
misery, that suicide is resorted to as a means of relief. Night
* CoMti t atiooel, Jane, 1841.
t Mvc, VoL IL, p. 858, at aeq.
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terrors, so common among young children, are a transient
species of pantophobia. Dr. West thus describes an attack.
“ The child will be found sitting up in its bed, crying out, as
if in an agony of fear, * Oh, dear! oh, dear! lake it away
father, mother/ while terror is depicted in its countenance,
and it does not recognize its parents, who, alarmed by the
shriek, have rushed into the room. By degrees consciousness
returns. The child now clings to its mother, or nurse, some¬
times wants to be taken up and carried about the room, and
by degrees it grows quiet, and again falls asleep. As the
terror abates, the child, in some instances, grows quiet at once,
but frequently it bursts into a fit of passionate weeping, and
sobs itself to rest. The terrors, which are always more nr
less distinctly associated with some object which occasions
alarm, as a cat, or dog, which is fancied to be on the bed, may
again return, and with precisely the same symptoms as
before/’*
We are acquainted with a boy, who, during infancy, was
subject to night terrors, and who, at the age of twelve, and
for many succeeding years, was frequently attacked by panto¬
phobia. The attacks were always introduced by palpitation,
and characterized by the most intense, yet unaccountable,
dread, by temporary loss of identity, and by trembling over
the whole body. The following case shews the effects which
fear may produce. *• Some young girls went one day a little
out of town to see a person, who had been executed, and was
hung in chains. One of them threw several stones at the
gibbet, and, at last, struck it with such violence as to make it
move, at which the girl was so much terrified, that she
imagined the dead person was alive, came down from the
gibbet, and ran after her. She hastened home, and not being
aide to conquer the idea, she fell into strong convulsions, ana
died.”*}' Many cases of infantile insanity owe their origin to
fear. Most culpable are those who compel timid, nervous
children to sleep alone in the dark, and who amuse them by
narrating horrific tales.
Moral insanity, whioh has lately attracted much attention,
and been much and warmly discussed, is of frequent occur¬
rence in early Ufa The intellectual faculties or the person
affected by it, remain entire and unimpaired. He is perfectly
capable of peroeiving, and knowing, and judging. He cherishes
no delusion. He cannot, in the ordinary and legal acceptation
of the term, be pronounced insane, And yet he is, to all
* Welt, 00 the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, p. 189.
| Plater, Obe,, I4b. 1., p. 86.
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J. Crichton Browne, on the
intente and purposes, of unsound mind, and as much re¬
quiring guidance, restraint, and treatment, as the furious
maniac. He suffers from entire perversion of the moral prin¬
ciple, from the want of every good and honest sentiment.
He is actuated by impulse, or by the most selfish, depraved,
and cruel motives ; he presents, in short, a perfect picture of
a desperado and a ruffian. The existence of moral insanity,
like the existence of every thing else, has been called in
question, and, at the present day, there are not lacking those
who will remorselessly commit the moral monomaniac to the
scaffold, or the penitentiary, little thinking that, in so doing,
they punish disease, and not crime. We are forced to
acknowledge moral insanity as an actual disease, by the most
cursory glance at the previous history of some of those by
whom it is manifested. Many of them, from being refined,
and virtuous, and upright, and prudent, have become coarse,
and licentious, and dishonest, and reckless. We believe that
many of our jails and penitentaries are peopled by such.
Pricnard, who first described moral insanity, gives a case in
which it occurred in a girl aged seven. “ This little girl was
only seven years old. She was reported by her parents to
have been a quick, lively child, of ready apprehension, mild
disposition, affectionately fond of the members of her family,
and capable of quite as much application to her school duties
as children generally are. She had been sent home from
school, in consequence of a great change which had taken
place in her conduct. She had become abrupt, vulgar, and
perfectly unmanageable; neglecting her school duties, and
using the most abusive language when chidden for her misde¬
meanours. I found her in this state, with the addition of having
become extremely passionate, in consequence of corrections to
which she had been subject, and, in oraer to escape which, she
was prone to invent falsehoods. She was also changed in her
appetites, preferring raw vegetables to her ordinaiy food.
Her parents had no control over her, indeed, she appeared
to despise them ; she was cruel to her younger sisters, taking
every opportunity to pinch or otherwise hurt them. She
could not apply herself to anything, but had a complete
knowledge of persons and things, and a complete recollection
of all that had occurred. Her general health was much dis¬
ordered.”* For some time this little patient continued to
become worse, but at length she entirely recovered. The
foregoing may be taken, so far, as a typical case of moral in¬
sanity in early life. A highly instructive case of moral insanity
* Prichard, on Insanity, p. 55.
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may be found in Mayo's Pathology of the Human Mind.* * * §
The patient was a boy of fair talents and considerable intel¬
ligence, but of the most singularly vicious, unruly, wayward,
and depraved character. Under all means had recourse to,
for his reformation he had been alike intractable. He was
selfish, violent, delighted in mischief, had drawn a knife upon
one of his tutors, exposed his person, and given way to every
degrading vice. This case also resulted in recovery. Instruc¬
tive cases of moral insanity are given by Haslam,'f* Morel^
and various other authors. Lack of time and space, however,
prevent us from drawing more largely from the large supply
of material we have accumulated. J. J. Rousseau, who was
lazy and deceitful, given to lying and pilfering, and thoroughly
disreputable even when a boy, was a moral monomaniac.§
Melancholia as manifested in childhood we shall next con¬
sider. This disease appears incompatible with early life, but
it is so only in appearance, for the buoyancy and gladness of
childhood may give place to despondency and despair, and
faith and confidence be superseded by doubt ana misery.
Two forms of melancholia we believe to be observable in
childhood, firstly, pure, abstract, indefinite depression; and
secondly, despondency, having reference to religious matters
or a future state. Other forms of lypemania, including hypo¬
chondriasis, are much less frequently seen before puberty, as
their existence implies subjectivity of thought. Melancholia
may be sudden or insidious in its attack; it may be a primary
disorder, or it may be the sequel of some other form of insanity.
Those suffering from it are gloomy, and taciturn, and indiffer¬
ent They shun their former pursuits and amusements ; they
are ever occupied in deploring their own hard fate, ana
in meditating self-destruction. They spend their nights and
days in lamenting their miseries and woea They are given
up to “black despair.” They are acutely susceptible.
Harshness and cruelty persuade them that they are outcasts
and aliens, whilst sympathy strengthens their belief in their
own wretched doom. Simple melancholia, a mere exagger¬
ation of that feeling of depression to which we are fOl at
times liable, may, in youth, as in mature life, exist without
at all involving the intellectual faculties.
Religious melancholia* which is almost always associated
* Mayo’s Pathology of the Homan Mind, p. 178.
f Haslam’s Observations.—p. 1S8.
t Etudes Clinique*. Triute Theoriqne et Pratique des Maladies Men tales, par
M. Morel. Tome L p. 332.
§ Westminster Review, Oct. 1859.
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with delusions and disorder of the intellect, is begun by
doubts and difficulties and recriminations, by
“ Night-riding incubi
Troubling the fantasy.
All dire delusions
Causing confusions.
Figments heretical,
Scruples fantastical,
Doubts diabolical/’
and results in a settled belief that the sufferer is eternally
damned ; that he is the chief of sinners ; that he has done
that which will entail everlasting misery upon him. “ Falret
mentions a case of a fine, spirited boy, of eleven years of age,
who was so deeply affected by the unmerited severity of his
teacher, that he resisted him in every thing, became sad and
sleepless ; resolved to starve himself to death, and then made
several attempts to drown himself.”* In another recorded
case of melancholia, the patient had “spectred illusions, when
seven years old, of a peculiar character. He saw visions of
human forms, the bodies of which were well shaped, but the
faces were like those of spectres and distorted in every possible
way. As he had experienced those spectral illusions from
early infancy, they attracted little of his attention, except
when a sudden sensation of fear was excited by some pe¬
culiarly horrible grimace; and it was only with increasing
religious terrors that he began to think them spirits of the
devil. ”f
Whilst speaking of melancholia, we must devote a few
words to the consideration of suicide in early life. Even in
infancy and childhood, when cares and sorrows are compara¬
tively unknown, and when sensations and feelings, pleasurable
or painful, are transient and evanescent, we frequently meet
witn deliberate acts of self-destruction. In Berlin, between
the years of 1812 and 1821 , no less than thirty-one children,
of twelve years of age and under, committed suicide, either
because they were tired of existence, or had suffered some
trifling chastisement,J and from the following sentence, it
would appear that the number of juvenile suicides in Berlin
is gradually and steadily on the increase :—
“ La statisque nous demontre, dit le docteur Lisle, que
le nombre des suicides est sept fois plus considerable aujour-
d’hui qu’ il y a trente ans chez les enfants &gds de moins de
* Combe on Mental Derangement.—p. 178.
t Psychological Journal, VoL I., p. 232.
t Stated by Schegel on the authority of Caspar.
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seize ans et douze fois plus chez les jeunes gens. Le savant
Caspar fait remarquer que depuis un demi'-siecle le nombre des
suicide de jeunes gens, a augments en Prusse d’une maniere
deplorable. De 1788 k 1797 on ne comptait a Berlin qu’un
suicide d’enfant; de 1798 a 1807 la statistique, en signale 3,
et de 1812 a 1821 le chiflre monte a 31 .—Traits des Maladies
Mentales, par A. Morel. —p. 102., 1860.
M. Durand Fardel states that amongst 25 760 suicides
committed in France in a period of nine years, 192 were
under sixteen years of age.* According to another series of
of statistics of 33 038, 238 were under sixteen years of age."f*
We have ourselves personally and carefully examined the
records of twenty-one cases of suicide under the age of fifteen.
Of those cases, thirteen were of the male sex, eight of the
female. With regard to the respective ages, one was aged
five at the time of his suicide, one eight, one nine, one ten,
four eleven, four twelve, three thirteen, two fourteen, two
fifteen, and two below fifteen, the precise age not being men¬
tioned. Of these cases, two were caused by dread of punish¬
ment, four by those evil and revengeful feelings which invari¬
ably follow chastisement, four by scolding and altercation, one
by the force of imitation, one by the desire to be talked about,
one by grief for the death of a sister, one by the effects of a
dream, one by disappointed ambition, one by want of a situa¬
tion, one by misconduct of a brother. Of four cases, the cause
is not recorded. In seven cases hanging was the mode of
death selected, in other seven drowning was preferred, in
two precipitation was bad resort to, in two poison was taken,
in two shooting was adopted, in one starvation. Some
twenty-six ably arranged cases of suicide in youth, are given
by M. Durand Fardel, J and some isolated cases are recounted
by Dr. Forbes Winslow.§ Melancholia of a religious cast, with
manifestations of morbid appetites, and a tendency to suicide,
is not unfrequently observed in girls about the age of puberty,
Melancholia is generally dependent upon anaemia, or an im¬
poverished condition of the blood, or an imperfect supply of
nutrition, and is hence to be treated by generous diet, stimu¬
lants, attention to hygiene and iron. A mere desire and
longing for self-destruction may exist altogether apart from
melancholia, and iB then called suicidal monomania. A case ||
* Psychological Journal, VoL IX, p. 296.
t Psychological Journal, VoL IV, p. 418.
J Psychological Journal, VoL IX, j>. 296.
orbes WidsIow, M.D. Anatomy of Suicide.
| Psychological Medicine, by Drs. Bucknill and Tukc. p. 539.
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J. Crichton Browne, on the
of this description is recorded by BuckniU and Tuke. The
patient was a boy aged twelve years.
That fearful and fatal disease, the general paralysis of the
insane, or the monomania of ambition, and of hope, with a
peculiar form of paralysis super-added, has been seen and re¬
marked even before the age of puberty. M. Rodrigues says
he has seen it occur in three cases before the age of fifteen ;
in one of these cases, the sufferer was only three years of age*
Mania, a more general disorder than those which we have
lately considered, in all its various forms, may occur during in¬
fancy and childhood. In mania the mental faculties, as a
whole, are deranged, and the mind is in a state of confusion
and excitement. The ideas are incoherent and disconnected.
The language is loose, voluble, and wild. The mental affection
consists m a supremacy exercised by the lower over the higher
faculties of mind, and is often accompanied by bodily disease.
During its continuance, the incoherence of language is due to
the electric rapidity with which the mind acts, to the impossi¬
bility of giving utterance to all “ the fast coming fancies/’ and
not to any loss of the knowledge of the meaning of words and
phrases. Delusions are much more frequent in this form of
insanity, than positive hallucinations. We have previously
alluded to mania, as manifested congenitally, and in early in¬
fancy. Haslam relates a most interesting case of congenital
mania, in which, the mother having been frightened during
pregnancy, startings, sleeplessness, and unnatural liveliness,
were observed, immediately after birth, in the child. Other
symptoms of mania continued to develope themselves with
developing powers, until it was found necessary to confine the
child.*)* Haslam likewise mentions another case of mania,
supervening upon small-pox, at the age of three and a half
years. We have the notes of a case submitted to our observa¬
tion, in which a male child exhibited mania whilst at the
breast. It was the offspring of robust parents, of sanguine
temperament Nothing occurred during utero gestation to
attract attention. Incessant restlessness first attracted atten¬
tion. It occasionally became excited and cried for hours, rolled
to and fro in its mother’s arms, bent back as if tetanic, grasped
with its hands, and when applied to the breast bit and lace¬
rated the nipple. It subsequently died of marasmus. A well
marked case of mania in a girl six years old was admitted into
Bethlem Hospital, in 1842; she had been subject to occasional
attacks of mania, from the age of eighteen months. When
* Winn, on General Paralysis, p. 3.
f Iiaslam’s Observations, p. 16$.
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admitted into the asylum, her conduct was violent, excited,
and mischievous. She tore her clothes, struck those around
her, and destroyed everything within her reach.* The
case terminated in recovery. We will now give an account of
a case of intermittent mania, with great development of the
lower faculties, which We personally examined. 0. C, set.
13, until two years’ ago, was a clever, good natured girl.
At that time, she rose one morning at two o’clock, came down
from the garret in which she slept, trembled, was labouring
under palpatition, appeared panic stricken, lept into bed with
her parents, and from that period, has been changed in all
mom respects. Her parents imagine that the whole was the
effect of a dream. For a week or weeks she remains seated on
the same spot, and perfectly silent. For a similar period, she
is bold, loquacious and restless. When at school, she learned
to read, and was acute. She cannot now execute a message
correctly. She may have some religious impressions, but is so
incoherent as to mingle prayers and blasphemies, and songs
together. She would destroy or injure her sisters, and upon
this account is not allowed to sleep with them; she is profane,
untruthful, erotic, has exposed her person, and is suspected of
prostitution. Catamenia not established. She is cunning and
mischievous, unmanageable by her mother, and is only kept in
subjection by threats, and by severe punishment, applied by
her father; she eats voraciously, and strikes when unprovoked.
There are four other children all healthy. She is of dark com¬
plexion, short, squat but well formed, and of not unpleasing
aspect. Her manner is indifferent, or bold.
A case of choreamania is to be found in a late volume of the
Psychological Journal The patient was a boy ten years of age,
who having lifted an adder, supposing it to be a stick, was so
much alarmed, though perfectly uninjured, that mania accom¬
panied by involuntary and grotesque attitudes, and gesticula¬
tions, was induced.*!* Another case of choreamania, complicated
with epilepsy, is given in an early number of the American
Journal of InsanityWe have observed the progress of an
attack of hysterical mania, in a boy of nervous temperament,
aged nine. The disease was supposed to be caused by prolonged
excitement and exhaustion. It occurred in paroxysms of violence
and incoherence, preceded at first, by a temporary loss of con¬
sciousness. During the pavoxysm, he attempted to injure
himself, and those about him, he sung snatches of songs, and
* Psychological Journal, VoL I, p. S17.
t Psychological Journal, Vol IX., p. 133.
X American Journal of Insanity, YoL III, p. 197.
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he invariably addressed those with whom he was constantly
familiar by names other than their own. In this case an
abundant supply of nourishment, a change of scene, and the
use of iron and valerian produced an undoubted cure. We
possess records of many other cases of mania in early life,
but we have already quoted a sufficient number.
We have now hurriedly and imperfectly accomplished the
task which we proposed to ourselves, upon commencing this
essay. We have traced out and considered the various influ¬
ences psychically affecting the human race during early life,
and we have also considered those psychical disorders which
may exist at that period. Lack of tune has prevented us from
dealing with our subject, as copiously and analytically as we
could have wished, but from what we have said it must be
obvious, that those influences which are productive of psy¬
chical disease are co-extensive with existence; that almost
every form of mental disease which may attack the adult,
may also attack the infant and the child; and that the subject
which we have been investigating, is one of vast and ever
increasing importance
We would now repeat the opinion which we have before, m
other words, expressed, that, fur the remote Causes of a great
many cases of insanity, we must look to those eccentricities
and peculiarities, those trivial deviations from mental health,
which, occurring during infancy and childhood, either remain
unrecognized, or, being recognized, are treated rather as volun¬
tary mental conditions, to be reprehended, or encouraged, as
the case may be, than as manifestations of morbid action, and
as pre-monitions. We believe that early training, mental
culture, and physical education act, not merely in modelling
disposition, and laying the foundation of character, but in
rearing up barriers opposed to the incursion of disease, and
in furnishing weapons with which to resist its advance. We
believe that states and communities will become great, and
good, and healthy, and civilized, in proportion as they atte&cl
to early training.
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On the early treatment of Insanity.
321
On the Wcmt of Better Provision for the Labouring and
Middle dosses when attached or threatened with Insanity.
By S. Gaskell, Esq., Commissioner in Lunacy.
Before entering on the special subject, H may be well to
state briefly the existing arrangements made for the poorest
portion of the community throughout England and Wales.
For the pauper attacked by insanity, asylums are required
by law to be opened in every district, and on behalf of tide
class little further is needed, except a more satisfactory recog¬
nition of the intention of the legislature, and the abolition of
certain restrictions attributable to an incomplete abandonment
of obsolete views and practices. But for those not included
in the list of paupers there is a lamentable want of proper
means of care and treatment in this portion of the United
Kingdom. Benevolent individuals have indeed from time to
time endeavoured to supply the deficiency ; nevertheless, the
few charitable institutions scattered over the country are quite
inadequate, the amount of hospital accommodation for mental
affections bang far below the demands made for succour and
relief, presenting, as it does, a striking contrast to the abun¬
dant provisions made for bodily ailments in every district.
The question naturally arises—how are the unfortunate
individuals who belong to the labouring and middle classes
accommodated and treated ? It is too notorious that many
are detained at home, causing sad disasters, confirmation of
the malady, and reduction of the family to pauperism by the
expense incurred; others, again, are sent to private asylums,
where the cost of maintenance being necessarily great, a like
pauperising result ensues; and in numerous instances admis¬
sion is obtained into the county asylum, which, being strictly
instituted for the reception of paupers, involves an evasion
or infraction of the law.
Among cases such as the foregoing may be found many who
have contributed to the rates for the erection of a county asy¬
lum, and yet when affliction reaches their own homes, they
look in vain for succour and relief such as they have aided in
obtaining for the poorest class.
In order, therefore, to supply a great want, to diminish the
number of the insane by affording available means of cure,
to prevent sad disasters, to keep the independent labourer off
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On the Early Treatment of Iruanity,
the pauper list, to ward off permanent expense to parishes,
and to check evasion of the law, it appears incumbent on the
State to supply the needed accommodation.
It is satisfactory to think that only a moderate sum might
be required for the purpose, for there is good reason to believe
that if the land ana buildings were supplied by the public, all
other expenses would be met by the payments made for the
patients under treatment, and thus the institution would
become self-supporting.
If, therefore, by district rates alone, or by a combination of
this means of raising funds with grants from the State,
institutions could be established for the labouring and middle
classes, a great boon would be directly extended to them in
particular, and indirectly also the general community would
benefit therefrom.
Many additional arguments might be adduced in support
of the proposition now made, and much more might be said
both on the general principle and also on the details; be¬
lieving, however, that reasons sufficient to obtain consideration
for the subject have been stated, I leave the question of pro¬
vision as regards this class of life, and proceed to draw atten¬
tion to the kind of accommodation needed for different forms
of insanity.
In this respect also there appears to be a manifest want.
It is well known that diseases of the mind, as well as dis¬
eases of the body, assume an infinite variety of forms, vary¬
ing both in kind and intensity. Indeed, few disorders to
which the human frame is subject present aspects so dissimilar
as mental affections, and hence the necessity of accommoda¬
tion and treatment suitable to the severity or mildness of the
attack.
In asylums, however, as at present constituted, the law
recognises no distinction as regains the kind of cases needing
care and protection, the same certificates, orders, returns,
restrictive regulations, and penalties being applicable to all
patients, whether affected merely by the slightest aberration,
or suffering from total loss of mental power and self-control.
How marked a difference is here observable in respect to
bodily complaints, for which we have hospitals both general
and special, dispensaries for milder cases, as well as convales¬
cent and sea-side houses. And why, it may with good reason
be asked, have we not asylums adapted to the slightest as
well as the most severe form of disease?
While drawing attention to this matter, I will not attempt
to delineate the exact provision suited to the multiform aspects
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by Samuel Gaskell, Esq.
in which insanity presents itself, but shall simply treat on the
kind of care needed for mild, transient, incipient, and con¬
valescent cases.
No one engaged in the practice of medicine can fail to have
observed this great want, and instances innumerable must
have been noticed of injurious detention at home; of confine¬
ment in the houses of strangers, where neglect and severity
is the rule; and, lastly, of well-meant though injudicious
discharge from asylums.
Under the present system, it may be remarked, not only
are the sufferings of the patient aggravated and prolonged,
but, moreover, the law is disregarded It is notorious that
many persons affected by the milder forms of insanity are
placed m unrecognised houses, opened avowedly for the re¬
ception of nervous invalids. It becomes therefore a question,
whether a continuance of this manifest breach of the law
should be permitted, or whether enactments should be framed
to meet the defect.
In many instances coming under this class the disease is so
slight and undeveloped as to present few features recognisable
as positive indications of insanity, the symptoms being rather
of a negative character; in others, again, although, the dis¬
ordered action may be more manifest, yet the signs are of
so slight a nature as to be scarcely sufficient to warrant a
certificate as required by law.
All such cases clearly require remedial treatment of some
kind or other, but it cannot be a matter of surprise that both
on the part of the patient and the relatives there should be a
repugnance to resort to asylums as at present constituted.
An aversion is naturally felt against denouncing a member of
a family as mad, to be consigned to a lunatic asylum, and sub¬
jected to the lunacy laws.
To obtain the object now advocated it seems desirable to
extend legal sanction to a class of houses into which patients
should be allowed to place themselves voluntarily, or be
admitted on less complicated and stringent documents; and
further, that in them a limited control only should be ex¬
ercised over the inmates, extending possibly to certain rules
of the house, a required presence at the family table, return
home at an early hour, and strict prevention of absence during
the night time.
Such places offering an agreeable change of scene, quiet and
retirement, as well as the benefit of good advice, would afford
a means of treatment much to be desired for incipient and
transient cases. For those also convalescent from the more
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On the early treatment oj Insanity
severe forms of the malady they would prove of great benefit
as probationary houses, intermediate between the asylum and
home. There is good reason to believe that detention under
observation for a limited period, in houses so constituted,
would have the effect of preventing, in a great measure, the
grave accidents which sometimes occur after the abrupt
removal of a patient from the care and supervision under
which he has been placed. A short residence in them would
bring into operation and confirm the power of self-control,
and thus, by promoting complete recovery, diminish the risk
of relapse to which patients are now often subject from a
too sudden return to their ordinary mode of life.
Nearly five thousand patients are discharged annually from
asylums in England and Wales.
A large proportion of private cases returned as recovered
have first been removed under some kind of trial either with
relatives or in lodgings, and ultimately they have been struck
off the list as cured. For a majority of such patients, and for
nearly all those sent out relieved, the modified control of a
probationary house would prove of inestimable benefit
Abodes such as are here contemplated, marked by an entire
absence of offensive objects, sounds, or restrictive contrivances
would invite early treatment, prevent the malady from running
on to an incurable extent, and be the means of counteracting
disasters to which the community are, unfortunately, too
subject under the present system.
A few instances of this nature I now propose to enumerate,
as illustrative of the want of a more comprehensive provision
for the insane.
We have no available means of ascertaining the exact
number of cases neglected, or of the amount of misery en¬
dured, owing to the want of timely care and protection.
Through the medium of the daily press we, however, obtain
an occasional glimpse sufficient to justify the assumptions
already made.
In a single number of the Times, of May 15, 1857, we
read the account of a woman killing her two. children and
accusing her husband of the deed. She had recently been
discharged from an asylum, and was proved to be insane. In
(mother column of the same paper we find, that a labouring
man suffering under religious delusions destroyed the attend-*
ant placed by his friends to take care of him.
In the month of January, 1858, a young man who « for
five or six years had not been of sound mind,” and had lately
become worse, put an end to his father’s life by great vhdeno&
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by Samuel Gaskell, Esq.
In the following month the wife of a cabinet maker who
‘‘for four months had been suffering from aberration of
intellect*” committed suicide by cutting her throat.
In the following May a journeyman printer, who, according
to the evidence of his medical attendant, had “ for some time
been suffering from unsound mind,” suddenly and without
provocation took the life of a fellow-workman in presence of
his companions, and then mutilated the body.
In August following a farmer in good circumstances, who
had been insane nine years, and had twice attempted suicide,
fatally assaulted the man who was engaged to attend him .
In the next month a lady who had for “ some time been
labouring under mental depression,” left her home, and after
two days and nights, was found in an almost lifeless state on
a hill side.
In the following November a seaman who had been several
times in an asylum, and had twice attempted suicide, was
placed on trial for killing his grandmother, which he did “ in
a paroxysm of mania, in the belief that he was destroying
a man who was attempting his capture.”
In the same month, a commercial traveller, proved to have
been “ for some time a raving madman,” nearly severed the
head of a sick friend with whom he was on good terms.
In the next month a wool-sorter, who “ for some years back
had shown a gloomy tendency of mind,” which had increased,
killed his wife by ripping open her abdomen with a razor, and
immediately committed suicide by cutting his own throat
In the same month, a working silversmith, “ under medical
treatment for a nervous complaint was suddenly seized with
a violent frenzy,” and furiously attacted his wife with a poker,
and then committed suicide by nearly severing his head from
his body with a razor.
H. B., an agricultural labourer, first exhibited symptoms of
insanity in the early part of 1856. In the month of June,
in the same year he became violent and uncontrollable, was
tied to his bed with ropes, handcuffed by the constable, and
taken to the Macclesfield Workhouse as a lunatic. After re¬
maining in the workhouse a month he made his escape and
returned home. He continued to be manifestly insane, the
money earned by him was entrusted to his wife; and in a
journal kept by the patient frequent allusion is made to the
temptations of the devil. On the 20th of April, 1858, he
went to a relation at Stockport, who, noticing turn to be
“ much worse,” procured an order for his admission into the
Stockport Workhouse; on the same day the patient returned
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326 On the Early Treatment of Insanity,
home and dashed his wife’s brains out with a cleaver, saying,
“ I’ve killed the deviL”
Early in May, 1858, A L., a married “weak-minded”
woman, living in Nottingham, who for a considerable time
“had suffered much from depression of spirits,” killed her
infant, to whom she was much attached, and then attempted
suicide. At the trial, the jury “without any hesitation,”
acquitted her on the ground of insanity, and she is now a
patient in Fisherton Asylum.
O. R, who, “in the year 1857, was of unsound mind when
he attempted suicide,” cut his wife’s throat in September,
1858, was acquitted at the Hants Assizes, on account of in¬
sanity, and is now a patient in Bethlem Hospital.
Towards the end of October, 1858, W. G., who had only
recently been discharged from the Suffolk County Asylum,
assaulted and killed his aunt and sister, and subsequently
became a patient in the Hoxton Asylum.
The foregoing are merely a few instances of undoubted
insanity which have been accidently noticed in the newspapers
—how many more have been recorded and have passed un¬
noticed it is not easy to say—many such must have appeared;
and a multitude of like cases have undoubtedly occurred, the
particulars of which have never been published, nor ever told,
beyond the family threshold.
By thus viewing passing events, the conclusion is forced
upon us that an appalling amount of untold misery is endured,
and damage inflicted from day to day, owing to the want of
due care. Neglect of the insane is obviously followed by a
train of the severest calamities. Unprotected, the sufferer
becomes a wreck ; others fall victims; he himself is branded as
a criminal, and remains in confinement for life. Whereas,
were preventive means afforded, the course of diseased action
would be checked, and many awful catastrophes prevented.
The perpetrator of such acts as I refer to is usually regarded
with severity; could he state his case, it might possibly be
one of complaint, that neglect by guardians, more or less
responsible for the public health, had allowed him to fall into
a state of mind rendering him no lon g er responsible for his
actions, and had failed to prevent a catastrophe which might
have been foreseen and avoided.
How many of the seven hundred so called criminal lunatics
now confined during Her Majesty’s pleasure belong to the
class here indicated ?
Let us now return from the consideration of calamities
resulting from a diseased action, which totally subverts all
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by Samuel Gaskell, Esq.
natural affection, and briefly survey a somewhat similar class
of occurrences arising from a loss of the strongest instinct
implanted in us, namely, that of self-preservation. I refrain
from detailing cases given in the daily papers, and simply state
the fact, that there are upwards of one thousand instances of
suicide each year, to which should also be added the unsuc¬
cessful attempts, which are doubtless large in number.
Judging from the statements made by those who have
recovered from their wounds, we are justified in saying that
many suffering from this form of temporary insanity might
be rescued were timely care provided for those labouring under
an uncontrollable impulse, and a great reduction of the in¬
stances of self-destruction be effected throughout the country,
if the accommodation now advocated were afforded.
The short space of time allotted to the reading of each
paper limits me to a brief and imperfect sketch of two large
and important subjects which deserve fuller consideration;
the mere outline of these I now present, in the hope it may
prove sufficient to show the want of a more comprehensive
provision for the insane.
Without being over sanguine as to the amount of benefit
likely to arise by the provision of suitable refuges, if only the
smallest fraction, say one per cent, could be saved, we should
have sufficient reason for the establishment of institutions
such as are now recommended.
Note. —The author of this paper will feel obliged, if the
Members of the Association would communicate to the Editor
or to himself, any instances of mischief from delay of care to
insane persons, during the year 1858, and subsequently.
VOL. vi. no. 33. z
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Edgar Allan Poe,
Edgar Allan Poe, by Henry Maudsley, M.D., London,
Medical Superintendent of the Manchester Royal Lunatic
HospitaL
44 Given ft force acted upon by certain other forces, and the result is as good
ae mathematically sure. Men, like trees, grow according to their nature and
their circumstances .... Freewill is only force, and all force is deter¬
mined, first automatically, that is by its own law or nature, and again by the
action of other forces.”— Infanti Perduti, Edinburgh Essays.
44 All force in action is what we call free, hut all force must he determined
to action which is what we call necessity—A man does not stand distinct from
nature hut in it: the force which his will represents comes not entirely from without,
nor is it generated solely within ; it is the result of the action of a certain or¬
ganisation upon outer forces, a development of force into a higher manifestation
aooording to fundamental laws of the universe.”
It seems as though a man were necessitated for all eternity
to say what has been over and oyer again said, if so be that
he will not keep his mouth shut There may be some con-
solation, however, in this sameness of wisdom, if we remem¬
ber that the thing spoken must be wisdom in order to last;
for a lie cannot bear repetition so often, but must by the
very nature of it, sooner or later come across those ever¬
lasting laws by which it is surely crushed out and dies. The
grievous part of the matter is, that the truth so commonly
remains but an uttered word, and cannot be made available
in the way of practical wisdom: lamentably men will act
lies and talk wisdom. There are certain general principles
which no one cavils at, which rather every one applauds,
so long as they remain general and on the shelf; but if any
one take them down and apply them to the concrete indi¬
vidual, he is sure to cause dissatisfaction, and to meet with
opposition. Never, perhaps, do we find more frequent and
marked illustrations of this than in the determination
of the important problem as to what is rightly to be expected
from a man in the universe. It may admit, indeed, of
question, whether the world's judgment of a man is not
mostly very erroneous; perhaps in tne majority of cases not
really relevant to him. The thing judged is not the feeble
being such as he actually was, struggling with weakness
in the midst of the irresistible, gasping painfully after de¬
velopment in untoward circumstances—such as he alone of
mortals could feel how untoward—but a creation on the
part of the censorious and complacent world ; such an one
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by Dr. Maudsley.
a9 it assumes according to its standard of judgment to have
been then and there struggling. There is a wonderful con¬
structive faculty, as well as a destructive faculty in criticism,
whereby it happens that a man is often built up in order to
be knocked down. The enlightened critic can for the most
part see through all the intricacies of human nature as
clearly as he can see an elephant in the sunshine, and sends
forth his sentence as with the boom of a last judgment.
Happily it is after all certain that mighty critics are merely
mortals, manifesting in a notable way, now and then,
their human littleness; especially when human nature is
the subject upon which they exercise their art. Happily
again, it is further possible that an unmitigated scoundrel
never did actually exist in this world.
This is a proposition which is little likely to meet with
acceptance from those complacent, stereotyped individuals,
who, dwelling in snug cottage or in stuccoed villa, mightily
observant of all respectabilities and conventionalities, gloat
over the errors and evils of mankind, fatten on moral
putrefaction, as the vulture on the carcass. Oh I the
delightful contemplation that the stuccoed man is ! Worldly
prosperous, with a wife who looks upon him as a hero,
considers the stucco to be no mere appearance but actual
stone; and happy in children who are the most won¬
derful children in the world; capable, moreover, of a de¬
cided opinion upon all things under heaven; and surely
convinced that an Englishman is the beau ideal of the
universe, and that he is the beau ideal of an Englishman—
what an admirable being! We may be thankful for the
Stuccoed man. Marvellous truly is it to observe the stoicism
of his self-complacency, and the quiet satisfaction which, in
an unconscious way, he exhibits, when some considerable mis¬
fortune has befallen his friend or acquaintance. He is
profuse in commiseration, no doubt, but commiseration is so
often nothing but a pleasant chuckle ; and the expressions
of compassion are manifestly bubbles on the quiet stream
of self-satisfaction, which, flowing on, turns the mill of
criticism, in which his unfortunate friend is ground down,
bis folly laid bare, the man reduced to his ultimate elements
and these shewn to be rotten. And so onward flows the
stream turning many mills in its course, until at length it
reaches the ocean of eternity, where, happily, all muddy
peculiarities disappear. Useful and necessary being in the
world is this stuccoed man ; but certainly not the highest
possibility of a man; and, therefore, under grievous mistake
-3
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330 Edgar AUan Poe,
in supposing himself the legitimate standard of comparison
for all manlcind.
It is with the man as it is with the house. A cottage
ornde is a pleasant sight enough, but a long line of such
eligible residences becomes wearisome to the eve, which
desires variety of some kind; and one is apt to think that
the frequent repetition of the stuccoed villa might be advan¬
tageously relieved by an occasional change, even if it were
with a pigstye. So also the stuccoed man becomes, in time,
exceedingly monotonous; and perhaps it would be well were
he to have his portrait painted, and then quietly to make
his exit. In what attitude, in what dress, he should de¬
scend to posterity is a question not at once to be settled ;
but, as being most significant, he might be represented in
the act of winding up his watch, with his night-cap on.
And in bidding him good-nigbt, there is at any rate to be
noted in him this merit—that he has succeeded in feeding
himself where brighter men have failed.
To discerning individuals it may sometimes happen to
discover in out-of-the-way places, in streets scarcely heard
of without a shudder, perhaps in hack-attics, or in other
such abode not indicating worldly prosperity, men of much
originality of character and of wonderful endowments, such
as, for the time being, it refreshes one to behold. By the
necessity of living they now and then drag in the shafts, but
soon kick over the traces, and in fitful gleams of bright
originality manifest what they really are, and might, were
there favourable possibility, always be—no stucco, unadorned
brick and mortar may be, or real first-class stone. Alas !
originality is a capital thing to starve upon. So these men
are compelled unwillingly to yoke themselves in the conven¬
tional harness, and to drudge therein, until, broken down bv
the heavy and unsuitable work, they flare out, often with
the aid of brandy and water, into speedy extinction. Have
we reason to thank Heaven for such men ? Yes, though it
be with bitter, sorrowful compassion. For has not one of
them now and then spoken a word which has remained to
us as an inestimable possession, a *rity*a «c act by aid of which
the world has been nelped forwards towards the unknown
goal to which it is advancing. As to their morality it is
better perhaps than to cry out, to recognise this possibility,
that the standard by which they can be judged may not yet
have been discovered, tabulated, and made available for
learned professors of moral philosophy to descant upon.
The original man may have a morality of his own, which is
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by Dr. Maudsley.
just as much a necessary expression of his originality, and
a part of his nature, as any great truth which he may utter,
or any great deed which he may perform, and which may
turn out to be, palpably to the world in the fullness of
time, natural and inevitable. Indeed, if we were to reflect
upon the matter, it might be difficult to conceive how, if a
man have an intellect of his own, he should not have a
practical morality of his own. Suspended judgment is, at
any rate, more judicious and more charitable than hasty
decision and immediate action thereupon. Now that we
have ceased to stone our prophets to death, it might be well
to cease also attempting to crush them under a pelting
storm of moral maxims There is not much use in so doing
any way; for, though we may -contrive to make the mud
stick to them for a period, yet time surely washes it away,
and the man in the end stands, serene and grand, in the
Hall of Heroes; and then we look foolish—little dogs baying
at the moon; Lilliputians shooting our arrows into this big
Gulliver, making comedy for posterity to laugh at
It is a conviction not easily resisted at times, that the
world must be wrong somehow ; that it cannot be altogether
right; or we should not surely have so many lunatics, so many
too, which is more strange, who have just missed genius
and fallen into madness. Why should men of notable merit
be driven so often to shriek out wildly against the injustice
of the world, ending, if they have not hard hearts, or be not
much given to tobacco or other sedative, at the bottom of
the fishpond or in the madhouse ? Many more there are too
who, although they have not so ended, yet have once or
oftener shuddered, chilled, as it were, by the cold shadow of
madness passing over them. There can be no doubt that the
way of the world does press hard upon the young and honest
soul, before the conscience has been seared with conventional
iron; before the man has been pressed and stamped into the
uniform currency of respectability. Happily has it fallen
out for him personally if ne has not flared:up in momentary
brightness ; if the all-grasping fingers of respectability have
clawed hold of him, ana rescued him from madness or
destruction. Aye, that, instead of belching forth the truth
as it appears to him, and, if so be, dying of starvation,
better for him he should take to himself a wife, become
a hero to such discerning female, and come to the belief
that conventionalities are “ eternal veracities ?” Yes, let
it be wisely done, since the economy of the world requires
it; let the man be fashioned into an artificial machine
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Edgar AUan Poe,
since it must be. Is not this verily the age of machinery*
an age in which the soul of man has entered into wood¬
work and ironwork, animating them j in which cotton has
become conscience ? What a magnificent metempsychosis ?
May charity extend even to the brandy and water of
genius ? Why not ? Blank, utter hopelessness in the world
may palliate in part what it cannot excuse; and, on the whole
it is probable, that there is more blank hopelessness in the
world than is generally supposed. It needs not that we dive
into the dark arches to discover it, if we only use our eyes
aright. The shuddering ragged figure, crouching there by
the muddy river’s brink, is sometimes happy compared with
the wearied hopeless soul, digusted with the emptiness of
all things on earth, and faithless as to anything after earth.
Why should life be prolonged ? It has hitherto been but a
scene of intense but unsatisfied longings; a scene of dull
heavy wretchedness, a gloom relieved only by a rare flicker
of murky brightness. It may admit of question whether it
be not with certain constitutions more endurable to suffer
the sharp pang of acute physical disease, than to bear that
constant dull aching pain which accompanies certain chronic
affections: and so with mental suffering. It is an old story,
as old as life. “ All things are full of labour; the eye is not
satisfied with seeing, nor the ear filled with hearing. The
thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that
which is done, is that which shall be done; and *there is
no new thing under the sun. Behold all is vanity and
vexation of spirit There is nothing better for a man
than that he should eat and drink, and that he should
make his soul enjoy good in his labour.” “ Let us eat and
drink, for to morrow we die.” Let us drink then—drink
away the weariness ; for is not a drunken man for the time
being happy ? Yes, he laughs in his momentary strength at
the voice of melancholy, laughs, triumphantly, and revels
in an ideal world, where he can have his own way with this
•calm inexorable destiny of real life. He experiences the
delightful sensation of power, and feels something of a
realization of those inward aspirations—
* “ We have heard of an Englishman,” says Goethe, “ who hanged himsel^
(to be no more troubled with putting on and off his clothes. I knew an hones*
gardener, the overseer of some extensive pleasure grounds, who once spleneti-
•cally exclaimed, ‘ Shall I see these clouds for ever passing from east to west.’
It is told of one of our most distinguished men that he viewed with dissatisfac¬
tion the spring again growing green, and wished that, by way of change,
it would for once be-red. These are specially the symptoms of fife wearinoeq,
which not seldom issue in suicide.”
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While the fond soul,
Rapt in gay visions of unreal bliss,
Still paints the illusive form.
What though fierce repentance rears her snaky crest, she
cannot steal away the pleasure that has been. Is it asked,
Who buys a minute’s mirth to wail a week.
Or sells eternity to gain a toy ?
The reply is, that a minute’s mirth may be worth the wail of
a week: being so much mirth secured which sobriety could
not have given; that being equal only to granting a little less
intense wail for a life-time. “ Crown me with roses, let us
drink wine, and break up the tiresome old vault of heaven
into new forms.”
Furthermore, may it not be that by the aid of brandy man
may get a quicker insight into things which can only be
seen into with much difficulty and much labour without.
True he thereby sacrifices time to power, but so pleasing is
it to get a glimpse of that “ Divine idea which lies hid at
the bottom of all appearance” that many may be found who
would gladly give up half their life for such an object.
It may be a mere fancy, but it certainly seems that in some
of the best writings of our best authors, one may detect
alcohol. Be this as it may, however, and whatever genius
may do, it is clear that in the world’s movement onwards,
alcohol plays an important part
We shall best realize the importance of this agent, if we
remember that the effect of an action, however caused, per¬
sists for all time, it blends itself with the universe, and has
an influence in all that is to come whether for good or eviL
Now, though we see much more of spirit-drinking than
is desirable, yet there is much that we do not see; and
perhaps, the gravest circumstance in the case is the great
quantity consumed in secret; in the closet by respectability
when it imagines that no eye sees it It was the remark of
a successful physician of long experience, when it was ob¬
served regarding the habits of a person of great attainments
that although he did not appear to be given to drinking,
“ he might have been a gin drinker”: which, by interpre¬
tation is that, as the result of a long experience, it nad
chanced to that physician to discover that many closets
contain gin bottles.
I It really is amazing when we reflect upon it—and the
observation is by no means new—how little a man does know
of his nearest friend or acquaintance^ of his fellow-man in
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Edgar Allan Poe ,
any situation ; he sees but the appearance of him. Could he
unroof his neighbour and look into the inner principles of
him, what revelations might there be. It may happen to
him to discover, in unguarded moments, that the insignificant
little mortal, whom a puff of the breath would almost anni¬
hilate, had high resolves and wondrous self-conceit; that the
small curate had his eye fixed, with a sort of vacant flicker¬
ing stare, on a bishopric; or, on the other hand, he might
find that the eloquent and earnest popular preacher was in
secret addicted to alcohol or to opium. Well, if we receive
the benefit of the man’s self-indulgence in his writings, or in
his sermons, have we much need to complain, or much cause
to blame ? We act very strangely in this matter generally ;
so long as the man keeps his vice pretty secret, we accept him
at what he professes to be, and raise no clamour. Every
now and then, however, some one appears who, disdaining
all hypocrisy, perhaps incapable of it, drinks down his con¬
solation in the face of all the world, and exhibits himself as
he really is ; and then what a hubbub ! Heaven help him,
it is bad enough; but it is of no use howling at him; it is
better to be charitably silent, remembering that an immense
quantity of alcohol and of opium disappears, of which we
cannot say where it goes ; and remembering also that he is
often most unmerciful to the sinner who is in secret guilty
of the vice which he condemns.
What then, as the result of these reflections, is there left
for a man of sensitive temperament, and of little self-
control, to do in the apparent universal wrongness of things ?
Go mad : well he often does, and so ends. Commit suicide:
that also has been done by, amongst others, poor Chatterton.
Or, take to opium eating, and afterwards come forth, like
Coleridge, to censure De Quincey. Or, finally, if it must
be false comfort, he may find consolation in drinking brandy.
Many have done so, amongst whom, not the least notable, is
Edgar Allan Poe, to a consideration of whose character and
writings the foregoing observations are intended to be prefa¬
tory. They will have answered their purpose, if they have
in any way served to indicate the difficulties under which
men of certain endowments are by their nature placed in
the struggle to live, and at the same time to develop accord¬
ing to their inward impulse.
But before proceeding farther it may be well to note
this unhappy difficulty in the way of a man struggling
through life—that he never discovers the laws by which he
should be governed until it is nearly time for him to take
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leave of existence; only sad experience teaches him how
foolish he has been, and only when the opportunity is gone
is he able to see that it has been going. How many a noble
existence has been wrecked by a false step in early youth;
and yet how could the unhappy youth know the painful and
abiding consequences of his error ? the vessel is alive to the
danger only when it has crashed upon the breakers.
“ Ah, heavens ! that it should be possible that a child not
seventeen years old, by a momentary blindness, by listening
to a false whisper from his own bewildered heart, by one
erring step, by a motion this way or that, to change the
current of his destiny, to poison the fountain of his peace,
and in the twinkling of an eye to lay the foundation of a
life-long repentance .”—De Quincey.
This is a serious consideration, and should at any rate,
make us charitable towards any one who has turned in
youth from virtue's paths, and whose way thence has been
onwards to the black waters. It is so difficult, nay, it
is impossible quite to retrieve an error. The act has gone
forth from the individual, but has not vanished into space;
it meets him, as it were, at every corner, confronts him, it
might seem almost miraculously, wherever he turns ; com¬
pels him to change the circumstances of his position, to
change himself; he cannot possibly be what he was before.
Having yielded to temptation, he has weakened himself, and
has added one to the number of the enemies who will meet him
in the gate—one, too, who knows his infirmity, and is exactly
qualified to cope with him in his weak part; a portion of his
force has, in fact, turned traitor, ana gone over to the
enemy with information. No wonder, then, that so many,
having once gone wrong, flounder for ever afterwards. Even
when they strive to avoid falling deeper, and labour to re¬
cover themselves, it is often labour ignorant and vain; they
do not recognise their change of position, do not feel that
they have done wrong, and must accept the consequences,
but hope foolishly, and endeavour vainly to go on as before,
and the line of battle is broken from the want of concentra¬
tion of force after so heavy a loss. It is truly a painful thing
to watch a man fighting bravely, and yet quite hopelessly,
from ignorance of generalship, like a brave army done to
death by the folly of its leaders. But men are so unwilling
to retreat; even after grievous error, when circumstances
are more threatening, and when they are much weaker, for¬
getful that it is better to gain small victories, and to be
strengthened thereby, than to suffer one great defeat and to
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Edgar AUan Poe ,
be ruined, that it is better to take retribution to one's arms
as a friend, than to make of it a constant and inveterate
enemy. There are some, however, and they are the heroes
of life, who are so strong that they cannot well be seriously
beaten ; they go in to win, not rashly and madly, for they
are strong in reason, but wisely and firmly; they do not run
their heads full tilt against circumstances, and fall down
crushed and bleeding in consequence, but seize hold of cir¬
cumstances, bind them together, and make of them a support.
Perhaps this is the surest sign of calm real strength, the
best test of a great man—this power of retrieving error, of
dragging success out of misfortune, of asserting free will over
necessity ; what else, indeed, if we consider it, is a well lived
life ? It is, in truth, of all spectacles the most pleasant, to be¬
hold a man after mishap, gather up the reins with firm grasp,
and firm resolve to recover the lost ground, to see him start
steadily and cautiously, with that determination to succeed,
which surely, sooner or later, effects its own accomplishment.
There he stands, calm in the storm, clear in the gloom, solid
amidst the changeable—
“ Like some tall rock that rears its awful form,
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm,
While round its breast the lowering clouds are spread,
Eternal sunshine glitters on its head."
There can be no doubt who is the truly great man,
convulsion, as Carlyle says, not being strength. Still it
behoves us to credit a good sum to nature in the case of
these strong men. For to every one has not been given the
power to gather strength from weakness, and to pluck out
from the withered leaves of folly and misery, the green
laurel leaf of victory; in fact, a Shakspeare or a Goethe is
rather a rare phenomenon in this universe of ours.
It is always possible in passing judgment upon a man to
look at him from two distinct points of view, and thus to arrive
at two different opinions as to his individual responsibility.
The net product may be taken, compared with some fixed
standard, and pronounced deficient or otherwise accordingly;
or the factors concerned in the sum may be regarded, and
the opinion given on their relation to the product. The way
of the world, for the most part, is to take a man as he
appears in his actions, to measure these by a certain conven¬
tional standard, and then to go no further in the enquiry,
but, forthwith to pronounce authoritatively—most likely, if
there be any tincture of originality in the man—to damn
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him pretty distinctly. Such a method is eminently unjust,
its result on the whole being, that the man of sterling
honesty and sincerity is branded as a serious sinner, or at any
rate is marked with a note of interrogation, while the
plausible hypocrite passes muster with commendation. Now,
there are three facts which, militating against such a mode of
procedure, suffice to upset it completely. The first is, that
man is not the measure of the universe, nor of its Creator:
the second is, the impossibility of any man producing^
himself, springing up by spontaneous generation just such a
being as he might wish to be: and the third fact is
this, that a man cannot, either mentally or bodily, live
in vacuo. Admitting the standard of comparison to be
correct, which it might be had the world ceased to move,
there are to be taken into consideration then, in the formation
of a just judgment, the original nature of the man, and the
circumstances in which, happily or unhappily, he has been
placed—the character of the modifying force, and forces amidst
which this has been placed. It is from practically neglecting
these important considerations that we sometimes stare
aghast at a man in helpless paralytic attitude, as though he
were some strange and inexplicable montrosity in the
universe. Science has satisfactorily demonstrated the so
called physical montrosities to be nothing more than parti¬
cular arrests, exaggeration of development, still in accord¬
ance with a certain definite type; and so it may be probable,
if we will but consider it, that moral montrosities have come
to that pass by sure laws. Edgar Allan Poe, therefore*
“ such a warped slip of wilderness ” as he was, we cannot
look upon as one rushing through space without purpose and
without orbit; and black as his character seems, yet may
there be, in an examination of circumstances, some explan¬
ation. Nay, if we reflect for a moment, on such a phe¬
nomenon as a scoundrel without excuse, is it not a physical
impossibility in the universe ? Effect coming in the form of
“ error and evil behaviour,” may have its cause somewhere
back in the far past For how much therefore are we to
doom the man responsible ?
By the necessity of its nature, genius is compelled to
move more or less out of the beaten track; and the paths of
knowledge and of morality, at any rate of practical
morality, run parallel, so that when a man gets off one, his
relation to the other is also considerably changed. Now, the
greatest seem often to have the power to drag the unwilling
world after them, in spite of its many-tongued cry of
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Edgar AUan Poe ,
“ shame/' until by success they have stayed the noise, and
have forced themselves into acceptation. But many, and
many a one, wondrously endowed, yet of a lesser order,
wanting that calmness of temperament and that control of
reason, which are necessary to sustain them in great con¬
flict, fight and fail. It is a grievous and painful spectacle to
observe their tragical struggles, and miserable end—to see
the taper, lighted from heaven, prematurely flare out in
, bitter sorrow and anger. Such have been called the
Infanti Perduti.—The Forlorn Hope of Humanity .—“ Look¬
ing back on their pale, disfigured faces, where the wrath of a
Titan is so often blended with the weakness of a child, and
the fury of a maniac with the light of immortal love, it is no
weak, unintelligent, useless pity which loves to dwell there,
and to find there if possible, instruction and hope ."—Infanti
Perduti.—Edinburgh Essays.
We must, indeed, look back at such, so mighty, yet so
fallen, in order duly to appreciate the gigantic nature of those
who have fought the fight, and have won the battle. The
strength of the building which has remained firm and unin¬
jured after the earthquake, is best understood by contem¬
plating the massive ruins around it. How otherwise can
we feel the wonderful significance that there is under the
ordinary, quiet, exterior life of William Shakspeare ? What
sufferings must he have undergone, who could create such
characters as those of Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, and Lear ?
and what power must he have had who after all, lived a
quiet life, died in peace with all mankind, and might have
had the epitaph of the most ordinary stuccoed respectable ?
Perhaps, great as his works prove him to have been, his
life proves him greater. Is there anything in experience
which can satisfactorily represent to the mind the compressed
force that there was in Shakspeare ? Were any conception
of the final break up of the world possible, one might
form some idea of the crash amongst moralities and con¬
ventionalities which would have been produced had he
exploded. But he was far too great and too wise for
that; and has left an example to prove to all ages,
and to all spasmodic individuals, that genius can conform.
Perhaps he has further proved that it is only the very
greatest that, seeing beyond, can so conform ; and that this
of all others, is for genius the hardest task under the sun,
being, when accomplished, the surest mark of the greatest.
Nevertheless, however reason may commend such men as
Goethe and Shakspeare, our sympathy will always be most
339
by Dr. Maudsley.
with the fallen—with Burns or with Poe; the former appear
so distant from us, almost Godlike; the latter are near to us,
and wc feel them to be of the same nature as ourselves. It
is a great service to render to humanity, for a man who has
suffered, to embody his sufferings with beautiful art in a
drama or in a novel, and there to let the evidence of them
end; but the feelings will always be on the side of the
genius who could not be calm, and conform to the inevitable,
but who bruised himself to death in the fearful conflict
And one cannot see how this is to be avoided, so long as
humanity itself is not simply an exquisite drama, or a beau¬
tiful picture, or a cold marble statue. Perhaps there may be
after all justice in the direction in which the feelings point,
seeing that there is considerable selfishness often in self-
control ; and seeing also that a man is not to be credited
with his temperament as with a virtue. Goethe, for example,
when in the flush of youth, at that period of life when man
is least apt to calculate consequences, and most prone to
generous impulses, never appears to have forgotten his future
interest. Falling in love (not once only) with a woman not
his equal in worldly position, and engaging deeply her
affections, he took his departure, suddenly, and without
excuse, and left her disconsolately to pine alone, when the
time for action came; so that it is almost impossible to read
the history of Goethe’s youth without hating him. Luckily,
the sure ages always do bring justice, and we can forgive the
resistings of Goethe’s youth when one sees him hag-ridden
in old age. Now Edgar Poe, with such a temperament
as he had, would most surely, under like circumstances, be
rash and impulsive ; he would be the victim, not the victim
maker; there would be with him no calculation of conse¬
quences, no fear of frustrating his destiny, but an utter
abandonment of himself heart and soul to the strong passion
that was in him. There might, however, in this abandon¬
ment be as much of selfishness as in Goethe’s self-control;
little merit can be justly credited to either of them, insomuch
as the differences between them are constitutional and fun¬
damental
Edgar A. Poe was born at Baltimore, it is believed, in
1811: was the grandson of a quarter-master-general, the
great-grandson of an admiral, and the son of a father named
David, who gyrated in an irregular manner through the
univorse. For he took to his arms in lawful matrimony
“ an enchanting actress, of uncertain prospects,” of whom
he begat three children—Edgar the eldest. Here now is the
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Edgar AUan Poe ,
place for respectability to make a moral demonstration ;—
the son of a quarter-master-general and grandson of an
admiral ;—so well connected,—to marry a strolling actress.
How disgraceful! What will society say to it ? Was it not
possible for you foolish David, to have taken her as your
mistress, and thereby to have kept yourself within the pale of
decency—to have taken her for the better only ? Bat to
have taken her “ for better or for worse ”—it is pitiable, and
the decencies discard you. So David Poe, deficient of
decencies, bade farewell to law of which he had been
student, along with respectability, and with Elizabeth
Arnold, the beautiful English actress, went forth into the
wide wide world. On the whole, the wide world cannot be
said to be a very suitable place for a man to enter upon who
has given up respectable routine for a beautiful actress—if
he wants to do anything but die therein. Oh, it was pitiful,
it was bad, irrecoverably bad, David Poe, for are not the
sins of the father visited upon the children unto the third
and fourth generation ? We grieve for the transaction, yet
we cannot well regret it; for had not things so happened,
there would have been for us no Edgar Poe, no Raven, and
no Lenore. Strange, and the observation is very trite, how
far back lies the origin of any event in this world. The
thing done remains in action for ever. One cannot help
thinking of the young lawyer sitting with enraptured coun¬
tenance in the pit of the theatre, absorbed in the enchanting
actress upon whom every one of the multitude present was
intent in admiration—for she was a great favourite—who
should have pointed to that face, and have said, that in tho
sympathetic and admiring glance which beamed there¬
from towards that actress, lay the germ of things which
were to occupy the world’s attention, as long, may be, as it
existed. Edgar Poe, his poetry, and the amazement of
mankind at his strange, lurid, irregular existence! nay, that
glance is also actually accountable for this present waste of
ink and paper.
David JPoe, after discarding respectability, cast in his lot
with his wife, himself became an actor, and after six or
seven years of such life, fell sick and died, leaving in “ utter
destitution," three children, Edgar, Henry, and Rosalie.
His partner in sorrow, having accomplished what play
within a play she was destined to perform, shuffled off the
stage of life about the same time, to join him, we may
fervently hope, in that kingdom where there are no more
plays of the tragedy sort, but where the tears are wiped from
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by Dr. Maudsley.
every eye. There can be little doubt that there was tragedy
enough for them in their sojourn together on this stage of
time—much angry recrimination, passionate outbursts,
tragical remorse, and, at any rate, final departure in “ utter
destitution."
Inasmuch now, as a man is not his own father, it is in¬
cumbent upon us to take these things into consideration in
estimating Edgar Poe. For we may rest assured of this, that
infirmities of mind are transmitted from parent to child by
a law as sure and constant as is any physical infirmity.
Consumption is not more constantly inherited than is
insanity, and the peculiarity of temperament which manifests
itself in moral disease, descends as surely as either. “ The
weaknesses and defects,” says Nathaniel Hawthorne, “the bad
passions, the mean tendencies, and the moral diseases which
lead to crime are handed down from one generation to
another, by a far surer process of transmission than human
law has been able to establish in respect to the riches and
honours which it seeks to entail upon posterity/’ If then a
man have inherited the constitution and temperament of
his father, and if that father went wrong in youth, living
ever after in an irregular way, aggravating in fact, as far as
possible, the inherent mischief) it can be no matter of
astonishment should his son turn out to be an irregular
being ; for it is as certain that weakness added to weakness
through generations, cannot produce other than weakness,
as it is, that equals added to equals, cannot result in any¬
thing but equals. And if the circumstances into which the
offspring is introduced, instead of being purposely and intel¬
ligently determined for combating the evil, be those which
of all others are most favourable for fostering and developing
it, what possible good can come? Then, again, there is
much to be attributed to the mother's influence during
gestation. Before the child is born, it is certain that its
after-constitution may be seriously affected by its mother's
state of mind. Numerous examples, in the shape of visible
changes in nutrition on the body of the child, attest this
fact; but these may, after all, be looked upon as coarse
illustrations. It is the delicate and sympathetic nervous
system that suffers most from shocks of the mind; and
hence it happens that active emotional states of the mother's
mind are sometimes notably attended with a change in the
nutrition of the nervous system of the unborn babe. The
child may be born with a hyper-sensitive nervous organiza¬
tion, and may be no more able to help being excitable, or
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Edgar AUan Poe,
having a vicious tendency, than the earth can help moving
in its orbit round the sun, or than the sun can avoid shining
alike on the just and the unjust. Thus, a mother, during
pregnancy, is exposed to a sudden fright, and her child is
born, subject for the first few years of its life to convulsions,
it soon afterwards has a manifest affection of the brain, and
ultimately gets into a state of terrorism, in which, as it grows
up, it see persons armed with daggers and pistols, for the
purpose of murder, and hears bullets whizzing through the
air: the fright of the parent has thus been incorporated into
the constitution of the child, and what was a temporary
occurrence in the mother, becomes a permanent and, as it
were, a natural constitutional defect in the offspring.*
Such things happened during the French revolution, and
in the fearful war in La Venade. Let us apply such con¬
siderations to Edgar Poe. Given then in his case a father
who had been defiant of respectabilities, and who had lived
in an irregular way ; given a mother who had been very
beautiful, and who was an actress; given also ‘ utter desti¬
tution/ and the many untoward circumstances which two
such words connote, and what, in the way of product, are
we justified in looking for ? Surely some such a child as
that of which Poe was the development Development—
that introduces another important consideration, the cir¬
cumstances under which it took place, excitable tempera¬
ment and perverse disposition inherited from the parents ; it
behoves us next to examine how these were dealt with—what
was the education ? For it is a very unjust error, of which
the world is guilty in its judgment of a man, to look upon
him as solely responsible for all the error or evil which he
may have fallen into. Might it not be almost as just to say
to the tree planted upon a rock, “ Why hast thou not grown %
or to the horse in the knacker’s yard, “ Why dost thou not
shake thy mane, and laugh at the voice of the thunder ?” Ohl
is it not too true that man at the best, can only control cir¬
cumstances in a pigmy way, not fashion them ? And if there
is implanted in him a principle which, by an irresistible sym¬
pathy, assimilates the untoward circumstances, stretches out
towards them, finding there its suitable nourishment—the
predominant tendency being so situate—what is to control
circumstances? Accident, or what we in our ignorance call
accident, often fortunately effects this for ua For in the
endless variety of circumstances in which by possibility a
man may be placed in this world, there is probability which
* Esquirol, des Maladiet Mentalea.
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is often realized, that the evil may be corrected, that some¬
thing may occur to modify the peculiarity, that some result
may be brought about antagonistic to the development of the
inherent mischief. It is thus a happy thing when a man
learns grammar in early youth, when he finds that as well as
“I,” there is a “thou," and a “he;” and by conjugating,
comes to perceive that “ thou hast a passion,” and that “ he
has a passion.” Edgar Poe never appears to have had an
opportunity of learning this lesson until it was too late to
profit by it Let us hear him speak himself:—“ I am the
descendant of a race whose imaginative and easily excitable
temperament has at all times rendered them remarkable;
and in my earliest infancy I gave evidence of having fully
inherited the family character. As I advanced in years, it
was more strongly developed, becoming, for many reasons,
a cause of serious disquietude to ray friends, and a positive
injury to myself. I grew self-willed, addicted to the wildest
caprices, and a prey to the most ungovernable passions.
Weak-minded, and beset with constitutional infirmities akin
to my own, my parents could do but little to check the evil
propensities which distinguished me. Some feeble and ill-
directed efforts resulted in complete failure on their part,
and of course in total triumph on mine. Thenceforward
my voice was household law, and at an age when few chil¬
dren have abandoned their leading strings, I was left to the
guidance of my own will, and became in all but name, the
master of my own actions.”
Here, then, we have it all; “ imaginative and easily ex¬
citable temperament;” “ development” thereof in Edgar;
“ wildest caprices, and the most ungovernable passions
“ weak-minded parents beset with constitutional infirmities
akin to my own,” and so on. There is one phrase in this bit
of autobiography which it may be well to seize and dwell
upon for a moment; his parents were beset with constitu¬
tional infirmities akin to his own, to which, “wildest caprices,
and the most ungovernable passions,” as might have been
expected in the case of an individual who had run away
from his prospects with a beautiful actress, and in
the case of a beautiful and favourite actress, who had
married an eligible match, and had found by bitter ex¬
perience that there was nothing eligible in it “Wildest
caprice,”—poor David doing the most perverse, out-of-the-
way things in a defiant, desperate way; and the once en¬
chanting actress in no wise sparing him her tragic tongue ;
“the most ungovernable passions,” perhaps what little
VOL. VI. no. 33.
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M4 Edgar AHqn Poe,
crockery ware or furniture there might be with “ utter des¬
titution," flying about the room; and over all a leaden
cloud of repentance and remorse. Edgar Poe was thus born
under a canopy of remorse, and imbibed as his first lesson,
the melancholy dirge of “ Nevermore ! Nevermore 1” Here
was, indeed, an atmosphere of circumstances for educating,
inducing, bringing out what good or bad tendencies nature
might have implanted in him. Even in the earliest childhood
the surrounding influences exercise a powerful effect upon
the child ; it assimilates them unconsciously, and they be¬
come a part of it. The mother who flies into a violent
passion, and raves accordingly, does not rave idly; her infant,
sprawling upon the carpet, may feel the effect, unconsciously
incorporating into its system the power which passion
represents—power persisting through eternity; there can be
but few idle words or acts in the universe. Esquirol relates
an extreme case in which the effect of evil influence was
marked. A. little girl of three years of age frequently hears
her step-mother cursing in her passions, and soon becomes,
as it were, insane—wishes constantly for her step-mother's
death, ana, at the age of five years and three months, makes
the first of several attempts to kill her. Whence it is manifest
that passion and curses are not attuned to a healthy child's
feelings, and further also manifest that they produce serious
consequences, even though these be not apparent at the
time.
What Poe’s education was likely to be, we may easily
conceive—an excitable and passionate disposition having
been set to sail in a whirlpool of passion ; tne vessel in the
midst of a raging storm, having to make the quiet harbour
without rudder and without compass. Should the storm
resolve itself fortunately and a propitious wind drive it to the
haven, good and well; if not, there will be no cause for wonder
if the vessel be lost. We have seen what Edgar Poe said of
his circumstances; “ feeble and ill-directed efforts," to
correct an unhappy disposition, ended in his being left to
the guidance of nis own, and to the mastership of his own
actions. So the unhappy child was placed; no propitious
Deity to pour oil upon the troubled waters, nay, rather
malignant fate in the form of unhappy circumstances, pour¬
ing oil upon the flames. Thus, native bad, by the addition of
acquired bad, was made worse. The unlucky law-student,
running away from respectability under that foolish enchant¬
ment, had not done in that act of his all the evil that
destiny had doomed him to do. May we not surely depend
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upon this, that consequences of evil action follow as inevit¬
ably thereupon sooner or later, as does the day on the night,
or the night on day; that human actions are under as
certain laws as is any physical phenomenon in the universe.
The whole course of a man is changed by one act of his life,
and not only so, but the course of his children. Whatever
power the man may represent, whatever he may do for all
his lifetime, the force that each individual embodies, dies
not with him, but goes forth working to all eternitv—ends
not when the earth is shrivelled up like a scroll of parch¬
ment, persists through the courts of heaven, and in the cells
of hell It would be a sobering reflection for a man if he
could but realize it, that he represents so much force in the
universe, and that force cannot be annihilated; therefore,
that every word and action which he launches on the ocean
of time and space, goes its way and is never lost. Each
individual represents, as it were, force self-conscious for a
time in the conflux of two eternities—from everlasting to
everlasting; and therefore that every word and act must,
surely appear on that great day when all is completed. “ It
is a high, solemn, almost awful thought for every individual
man, that his earthly influence, which had a commencement,
will never, through all ages, were he the very meanest of us,
have an end. What is done, has already blended itself with
the boundless, ever-living, ever-working universe, and will
also work there, for good or for evil, openly or secretly,
throughout all time. But the life of every man is as the
well-spring of a stream, whose small beginnings are indeed
plain to all, but whose ulterior course and destination, as it
winds through the expanses of infinite years, only the
Omniscient can discern. ’— Carlyle.
Thus considering our helplessness, and yet our importance,
have we not abundant cause to admire the mighty, nay to
us, fearful Intelligence, which conducts us so unconsciously
upon our way, the “Providence that shapes our ends,
rough hew them as we may V Yes, wrong as it sometimes
seems that we have gone, and bitterly as we may repent it,
both the wrong and the repentance have their purpose in
the sum-total that our existence is working out in the
scheme of the universe. So, when respectability shrieks out
at us for running away with an actress, or such non-defen-
aible action, although we are sinning perhaps as regards
ourselves personally, and respectability has a just right to
clamour at us, yet we are not dashing blindly through spaoe,
but are guided to our destined end by the unseen hand of
o*
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Edgar Allan Poe,
Omnipotence. Men may shake their heads, or stand aghast
at us; but then men at one time stood aghast at the comet,
as though a fearful and unguided danger were rushing
through space, deeming, forsooth, in their wisdom, that the
Omnipotent was asleep, or upon a journey. Let a man,
then, having done grievously wrong in the world be fully
prepared to accept the consequences of his wrong, whether
these come in the form of injury to his worldly prospects, or
in the form of intense mental anguish, such recompense being
inevitable ; but let him not despair, as though he had frus¬
trated the purposes of his existence, and were an anomaly in
creation. He is going right, although he has gone wrong,
and bitter repentance accompanies him on his way. Strange
moral phenomena are not purposeless in the universe.
“ Yet they wha fa' in fortune’s strife,
Their fate we should na censure,
For still the important end of life
They equally may answer.”
The circumstances amidst which Edgar Poe’s infancy was
passed were the natural result of the conjunction of the actress
and of the law student, and Poe himself the inevitable ultimate
product. In the contemplation of his life it is almost impossible
to avoid the conviction that circumstances were intelligently de¬
termined so that he might become just what he was; for when
his parents died, he, being a handsome and lively child, was
adopted by a rich Virginian planter, who had no children of
his own. Kindly as this was done, it was not altogether a
blessing ; and perhaps this observation may be made, that if
a rich and childless man and his wife adopt a lively and hand¬
some child they are likely to make of it a kind of plaything.
But a child is not a light and amusing thing to be played with,
but a very serious thing to be worked upon ; and that, not by
irregular and spasmodic effort, but by constant and sustained
attention. Edgar Poe would above all other children, require
such effort; for had he not already been too much spoiled 1
spoiled, as we have seen, fundamentally in his origin;
spoiled in his embryotic life ; spoiled in his earliest infancy;
r iled by his father, by his mother, and by circumstances ?
d yet nad destiny reserved for him yet further unhappy
influence; for in the house of his adopted parents he was
indulged and humoured, until, young as he was, he became
master there. Evidently, the kina people who had taken
pity upon the young orphan had no adequate idea of the
responsibility which they had undertaken. Unfortunately,
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there is nothing singular in such a circumstance; a child
not spoiled is becoming every day a rarer and rarer pheno¬
menon ; and one might be tempted to conclude that it
was, after all, natural and proper to spoil children, were it
not that there is so much sin and so much evil in the world.
General indulgence, relieved by an occasional act of capricious
severity, and such act followed by sure extra indulgence after¬
wards—that is one method of training childhood. In process
of time the result comes out, an Edgar Poe, or something of
that sort, exactly what any reasonable being should expect;
and then foolishly also often comes a howl of anger and
astonishment, a sort of expostulation with Heaven, in that it
had not reversed its laws, and planted the rose of virtue on
the tree of folly. Have we not, in Poe’s case, been so far
prepared as not to expect “ grapes from thorns, or figs from
thistles ” ?
After so much of the malignant, came for a time a little
sunshine. Poe was sent to England in J816, where he
remained for five years at school at Stoke Newington. “ En¬
compassed ” says he, “ by the massy walls of this venerable
academy, I passed, yet not in tedium or disgust, the years
of the third lustrum of my life. The teeming brain of child¬
hood requires no external world of incident to occupy or
amuse it; and the apparently dismal monotony of a school
was replete with more intense excitement than my riper
youth has derived from luxury, or my full manhood from
crime.” We may consider this as the evidence of his having
been at last under a beneficial system; for it appears that
man always is in reality happiest when he is under some
restraint; when by the force of rods or rules or conven¬
tionalities and respectabilities, in spite of ebullition of passion,
he is forced into self-denial, and made a reasonable creature.
What else, indeed, can be expected, seeing that happiness,
such as is to be had, follows in the train of moral law, even if
it be morality by compulsion? The greatest satisfaction
doubtlessly results from self-government, by the laws of a
wisely developed reason, but such development can only take
place through the force of reason that exists in the rules
applied for government in youth. Looking at his after life,
we cannot suppose that Edgar Poe assimilated such reasonable
restraint, and profited by it; and perhaps we have no just
cause to expect that he would. For, that assimilation may
take place, there must be an adaptability of the matter to be
assimilated to the substance into which it is to be received;
and, as we have already seen, in the present case, there was
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Edgar Allan Poe,
on one side inherited, passionate and excitable temperament,
aggravated by unhappy circumstances, and on the other
routine and rule, whence came little in the shape of available
nourishment If there were any sense in regretting aught that
has happened in this world, one might regret that such outer
control had not been exercised on Edgar Poe for a much longer
time, or at a much earlier period of his life. It were perhaps
as well, however, to accept the government of the world as we
find it, and forbear for the present criticising, from our point
of view, the ways of Providence: sufficient it is for us to
observe them, and to learn therefrom what lessons may be
serviceable for our individual guidance.
Poe returned to the United States in 1822, went for a few
months to an academy at Richmond, and thence to the
university at Charlotteville. Think of him for a moment so
sensitive and so excitable,|in the spring-time of youthful man¬
hood, in the novelty of new passion, thrown into the license of
the university. When a man gets a new coat, he cannot rest
quiet long until he has tried it on, and has looked at himself
in it; and are we to wonder that a man should be eager
to gauge a new passion ; especially if he be one who by con¬
stitution is endowed with such an unhappy intensity of feeling
as was Edgar Poe. It would have been amazing had he,
such as we have seen him bom and so far built up, resisted.
No ! he went his natural and inevitable course ; he plunged
headlong into dissipation, and became remarkable as the most
wildlv reckless and debauched of all students! and, yet he was
noted for his quick intellect, his brilliancy and vivacity, and
his skill in fencing, swimming, and all such feats—not incom¬
patible elements with immorality in a character, as too many
examples every day prove. Indeed, looking curiously at the
young men of an university, one might be tempted to conclude
that those with the best natural endowments were the most
given unto dissipation; and that it was the moderate and
plodding man who bore the best character and carried away
the most honours. Perhaps this may be considered a wise
dispensation, whereby the plodding man may have an equal
chance in the battle of life; for what would become of
him in the strife, if talent were always industrious and
respectable. Opinion is very inconsistent in the sentence it
S renounces at different periods on remarkable men. Now-a-
ays every one feels himself justified in sneering or s miling at
the Justice Shallow, who prosecuted William Shakspeare for
deer-stealing, though it might appear that the Justice was
only doing his duty, and was sanctioned therein by the
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unanimous verdict of respectability. Bat the after develop-
ment of Shakspeare has put the Justice on the wrong side;
and there he hangs, ludicrously gibbetted for ever. Is not this
somewhat melancholy ? That a man, according to the faculty
that was in him, should do his duty, and yet should, in conse¬
quence, be gibbetted for after ages to laugh at by the criminal
on whom he was exercising legitimate justice. Really, but it
would be well as a mere matter of policy to be cautious in
passing judgment on the extravagancies of exuberant
youth, lest after ages may have cause to laugh. Learned
professors, unhappily often ignorant of human nature, are
apt to look severe, and to talk of “ talents thrown into
the gutter,” forgetting that there is a great deal of hu¬
manity in the gutter, and the man who has rolled therein,
and has struggled out, may speak with much likelihood of
benefit to such humanity. Misapplied talents and wasted
time, says respectability, in professorial gown, forgetful that
some have a talent for the gutter—forgetful, in fact, that
wheat is wheat and not mustard seed; and that, moreover,
manure is very serviceable in promoting the growth of it.
Here is a pertinent question : what would have become of our
great men, had respectability only had its way with them ?
Would not one have jogged on to death as he jogged on to
market; and might not another have spent Ins energy in
pounding pills in an apothecary’s shop ?
All in this mottie, misty clime,
I backwards mused on wasted time.
How I had spent my youthfu* prime,
Ari done naething
But stringing blethers up in rhyme
For fools to sing.
Had I to gude advice but harkit,
I might by this, hae led a markit,
Or strutted in a bank and clarkit
My cash accounts;
While here half-mad, half-fed, half-sarkit
Is a’ the amount.
Perhaps most people will now be of opinion that it was well
that Burns did not in his “ youthfu’ prime ” hearken to good
advice—that it was better that, “half-mad, half-fed, half-
sarkit,” he was occupied in “ stringing blethers up in rhyme.”
Can a man sing, except like a jay, or speak, except like a
parrot, who has not suffered; and furthermore, will a man
who is always good, suffer t “ The gold that is refined in the
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Edgar Allan Poe,
hottest furnace, comes out the purest,” in more senses than
one. Herr Von Goethe was guilty of many things in youth,
antagonistic to respectabilities; but has not the after-develop¬
ment of him sanctioned these things as the right things for
the youth ? Heavens! let us cease, in common chanty, if
not in common sense, to direct a man, and to judge each action
of his life by a certain high conventional standard. It is
something more than absurd to seize upon a certain event in
a man’s life, and with doleful regret to whine, “ What a pity
that this so happened!” Let this question be pondered,—
Should we have had the man, had such things not so
happened ? and if not, this further—was it not better on the
whole that these events should have so happened than that
we should have been without the man ? The two greatest
men perhaps that the world has seen, who seem, as far as can
be judged, to have been fortunate in regard to equality of
temperament and power of self-control, went not in youth
exactly the way that respectability would have pointed out to
them. Did any great man ever do so ? The best thing then
that we can do, seems to be to accept a man as we find him,
not as though he were an anomaly upon earth, but as having
a final purpose,
And trust the universal plan
Will all protect.
Edgar Poe at this period of life took the wrong turning, and
never afterwards recovered his way ; he had been destined by
constitution to it. Right was it that he should suffer in con¬
sequence, and suffer surely he did. The immediate result was
his expulsion from the University ; and when Mr. Allen, his
patron, who had been very liberal to him in money matters,
refused to pay some gambling debts, he wrote to him a violent
and satirical letter, and embarked on board a ship, with the
avowed intention of joining the Greek insurrection, and of
freeing Greece from the Turkish yoke. “ We rarely hear of
a more heroic project,” remarks one commentator. It may
have been so, but we cannot see anything heroic about a
man’s weaknesses ; they may have been inevitable, and must
be accepted in the course of things, but they are none the
less un-heroic. Heroic project! it was best but an impulse
rising out of weakness; a passage out of the diary of a
spoiled child ; ungrateful pettish anger, with much of malice
in it; gratification of his own personal resentment, with
speedy forgetfulness of Greece and insurrection there—if such
were ever seriously thought of at all Heroic! Don Quixote,
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rushing at the wind-mill, was a hero in comparison. It would
have been infinitely more heroic had he struggled to free
himself from the dominion of his own passion, and from the
taint of base ingratitude, which must now for ever abide by
him. Such as he was, however, the event is not to be won¬
dered at—impulsive act in a sensitive and excitable tempera¬
ment under the painful feeling of obligation. It is character¬
istic of human nature, when a rupture has taken place, to
hate the giver of benefits, especially when the intent of these
has been frustrated by wilful and wicked conduct on the part
of the recipient. Hence it seems almost inevitable that Poe
should have acted as he did ; for the benefits had been so
great, and his was a disposition in which self-feeling was
everything, and reasonable will nothing. It is not, moreover,
a characteristic of human nature, when it has been constantly
bolstered up by indulgence and assistance, to be in any way
strengthened thereby. A being so treated when deprived of
his supports is apt to have a sort of convulsive fit, and, fancy¬
ing it strength, to fall down heavily in consequence. So it
was with Poe when he spasmodically started for the Greek
insurrection, and, as might have been expected, never arrived
there. Probably Greek insurrection lost nothing thereby. He
was not the man to sacrifice himself for Greece, or for any
thing else ; there was not bora in him such capability ; for
had not his father sacrified his life to a momentary passion
for a beautiful actress, and transmitted to him such faculty for
self-indulgence ? Accordingly we find that after disappearing
for a year he turned up in a state of intoxication at St. Petere-
burgh, was relieved from his embarassments there by the
American Minister, and was sent back to his native land.
On his return Mr. Allen was again kind to him; he was
entered at the Military Academy, and in ten months was
cashiered. Henceforth no good in life can be hoped from
him. He had been tried in routine and respectability, and
failed, which is at once damnation to a man. He had been
left to his own resources to struggle amongst irregularities
and non-respectabilities, and had failed there also. This latter
failure indelibly stamps him with weakness; for had there
been in him any of that high genius, which, although it goes
off the beaten track, makes a clear track of its own, he could
not have so missed his way. Is there power in a man he may
laugh at circumstances, for in some position or another he
must rise above them, by a law as sure as that by which a
stone must fall. Edgar Poe had no such power, and, being
worsted in his dealings with the world, he complained, ana
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vrhined, and begged: is not complaint in any case a sure sign
of weakness?
Little is to be gained by pursuing the Btoiy of his life to
its end; it is very gloomy. Cashiered at the Military Academy,
he was received by Mr. Allen into his house, but behaved so
badly, that writers only hint darkly, dare not venture to de¬
scribe, how badly. He was turned out of doors. Next he
enlisted as a private soldier, and in a very short time deserted,
By birth and education he had now become what he was to
remain, unstable as water; no important change for the
better could be looked for. “Can the Ethiopian change his
skin, or the leopard his spots f ” Perhaps it is only in an
asylum for the insane that the impossibility of reformation
in a character which has grown after a certain type can be
witnessed in its utter hopelessness. At times Poe seems
almost to have felt that such an abode would have been fit¬
ting for him ; at any rate he sent on one occasion to a gentle¬
man whom he had vilely injured, in the person of his sister,
an apology, with a statement to the effect that he was out of
his mind. Did ever mortal before make such an excuse ?
After his desertion he became very poor and exceedingly
wretched. His next appearance was as the winner of a prize
offered for the best tale, and on that occasion he was found
haggard and in rags. Wonderful ability as had been noted
at college, was unhappily not the ability to keep respectable
garments on him, a thing which any vestry-man can do.
Really, inexcusable as it doubtless is, there is yet something
refreshing in the contemplation of a man who is not equal to
a good coat; it is the pig-stye interposed in the row of stuc¬
coed buildings. Think of it thus—that this man alone in the
midst of a multitude of featherless bipeds, has not the faculty
in him to keep a coat upon his back : there must manifestly
then be in him some singular other faculty. Spirit of
Teufelsdrockh, what wilt thou say to it ?
There is one pleasing circumstance in the history of Edgar;
and it is this, that the world has no cause to reproach itself
for neglect of him; as it does so reproach itself in respect of
its treatment to certain unhappy geniuses. Kindness inter¬
posed constantly from the cradle to the grave, and did what
could be done to rescue him from the misery that he was ever
bringing down upon himself. His case may, indeed, be cited
as instructively showing how vain it is to reproach ourselves
for not showering aid on such unhappy beings. Would not
Chatterton, being such as he was, have died of arsenic, or
even more miserably, whatever had been done for him ? And
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Byron, would he have been more wayward and more wretched,
had he been born to poverty and starvation instead of being
born to an income and to a coronet ? When a man cannot
do something for himself he seems to be like a sieve, to let
all the good that others may do to him run through. Is it
not, moreover, somewhat inconsistent with the character of
genius to look for such aid ? If the man has been sent into
the world, so pre-eminently endowed, he has been sent to en¬
lighten and to benefit the world, and not to be nursed and
coddled by it like a delicate child. It is a poor case when
insight and strength come to rest for support on blindness and
weakness. Better after all that genius should be miserable,
and be cradled into poetry by wrong, “ For they breathe
truth that breathe their words in pain.” After winning the
prize for his tale Poe was sought out by a Mr. Kennedy,
furnished by him with respectable clothes, and placed in the
way of employment as a literary man. In this capacity he
wrote successfully, but acted very irregularly and unsuccess¬
fully. The details of his conduct are sickening, and are best
left undescribed. During this period, however, he married
his cousin, Virginia Clemm, who appears to have been a very
gentle and affectionate being. And in spite of his many
faults, in his family relations Edgar Poe attracted much
affection to himself. His mother-in-law, who faithfully and
devotedly tended him and loved him after her daughter’s
death, speaks of him as “ more than a son to myself, in his
long-continued and affectionate observance of every duty.”
One does not, however, wonder that women should have loved
him ; he was weak, exacting, and, no doubt, demanded much
assistance. There is a wonderful love of self-sacrifice in a
woman’s heart; and her love increases by tidal of it: it is not
on the strong self-reliant man that it is poured out in greatest
abundance, but on the poor, feeble mortal who can weep upon
her bosom, and confide his sorrows to her ears, demanding
sympathy, compassion, and help. And many a poor helpless
being who reels about, it might almost seem purposeless, on
the earth, has abundant affection lavished on him, simply from
the capacity that he has of receiving. Did not Marlborough
do the right thing to make himself loved, when he took money
from his admirers ? A lively and brilliant, but feeble ana
not self-reliant man who is often in conditions requiring sym¬
pathy and assistance, is well adapted to obtain all the love
that a woman can give. All accounts agree in this, moreover,
that in his intervals of sobriety Edgar Poe was refined and
attractive in his manners and conversation. “ I have never
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Edgar Allan Poe,
seen him,” says Mrs. Osgood, “ otherwise than gentle, gene¬
rous, well-bred, and fastidiously refined.” Unhappily we
know not his inner family life—a naturally refined soul under
the most favourable conditions approached nearest that was
possible to that ideal after which it thirsted. The mad fits of
his drunkenness are the most palpable things in Foe’s life;
and so the world’s judgment upon him is apt to be dr unk or
mad. It is the way thereof. When Hamlet asks the grave¬
digger, “ how long hast thou been a grave-digger; ’’ the
reply was that he “ came to it on that very day that young
Hamlet was bom; he that is mad and sent to England.”
That was all he knew about the affair. “ How came he mad,”
asks Hamlet, anxious possibly to know if there was not some
idea abroad of the fearful mental struggles through which he
had passed in a mesh of tangled villainy. “ Very strangely,
they say,” replies the Clown. “ How strangely ? ” “ Faith
e’en with losing his wits.” “Upon what ground ? ” “Why,
here in Denmark.” Just so ; why ask so many questions, the
man having been mad palpably, and that being sufficient
What are circumstances and conditions to us, who have only
to do with the man as he actually appears as he walks amongst
us ? How came Edgar Poe to be a drunkard ? Faith e’en
with drinking. Upon what ground ? On the public-house
floor. And having thus settled the matter we pass on our
way to the other side. Meanwhile there is a good Samaritan
or two who tend him carefully, feeling instinctively that there
is more in the matter than appears.
There are so many circumstances in Poe’s life which might
admit of blame, that it is not easy to fix upon one as notably
so worthy; else his marriage with his cousin might, in a
journal of this character, merit grave censure. Here was a
man who by constitution and circumstances had developed
into something as irregular and unstable as was possible
without utter deliquescence; and by way of mending matters
he marries his cousin. Had there been any offspring to such
marriage, we should have been justified, by experience, in
expecting that one would have been bom blind or deaf,
another strumous or deformed, another epileptic, and, perhaps,
sdl mad at some time or another. Happily, however, one has
cause, here again, to admire the wisdom which rules the
world, and by sure laws obviates the mischief for which we so
often lay the train. The eternal laws exhibit their warning
in disease and deformity ; and if such be disregarded, the end
soon comes. A family given to frequent intermarriage,
degenerates until there is no longer the capability of pro-
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by Dr. Maudsley,
during offspring, and then mercifully dies out; whereby it
happens, that aristocratic pride cannot perpetuate itself for
ever. What would not man in his pride and in his folly make
of himself, were it not for the powers that are above him ?
During his marriage life, which lasted ten years, Poe sub¬
sisted on his literary labours, at one time as contributor, and
at another time as editor, varying his work on one occasion by
preparing, during the absence of the proprietor, the prospectus
of a new magazine, by which he intended to supplant that
which he had been employed to edit. Let this excuse, such
as it is, be made for him—that it is very hard to make, con¬
tentedly, another man’s fortune. Doubtless Poe felt, in a way
he only could feel, that it was by him that this magazine was
preserved in existence, and yet that he profited not most by
it, but was rather employed as a literary hack upon it; where¬
upon, being a man who could only feel, could not look forward
and reason, he foolishly and foully kicked. It is, indeed,
foolish for a man to look only at his immediate position in the
universe, and at what he may be doing therein, and thereupon
to grow dissatisfied. What he should do, if he will do other¬
wise than act in his position, is to consider how he came there,
and he will surely discover, if he have any faculty of insight
in him, that he it was who placed himself wherever he may be.
There is no accident in human life; “ As a man sows, so must
he reap.” What is it then to a man that he should be making
the fortunes of fifty persons, and should not be making his
own, when their fortunes and his labour have come to that
pass by equally certain laws. “ Let the dead past bury its
dead,” if so be that it has an ugly aspect:
“ Act, act within the living present.
Heart within and God o’erhead.”
When Poe’s wife died, which event happened in 1846, he
was in a very destitute state, and certain land souls appealed
for help on his behalf in the newspapers. Of course Poe,
while gladly getting hold of money wherever he could, denied
that he wanted any assistance in high theatrical style, and
then attributed such denial to a “justifiable pride,” which had
induced him to conceal his wants. There is need of all pos¬
sible patience with men who act in this manner ; no justifiable
pride with them in acting rightly, but a cheap pride in talking
grandly—the “ justifiable pride ” of a lie. Accept whatever
assistance to the result of folly may be needful and can be
obtained, and then in place of gratitude, or acknowledgment,
take oath that it was never wanted. It is pitiable, but like
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other lamentable things, apparently inevitable. There are
men who, like Poe, having such an intense se£/-feeling, can¬
not realize the fact of a not-self; they seem to look upon the
world as a place created for them to play their pranks in,
and accept whatever help they may receive, not as a charity
or a kindness, but as a right, and are ungrateful accordingly.
Insincerity of character, one might say ; for sincerity involves
the appreciation of relation—of the relation of the individual
to something else, as well as of the relation of something
else to the individual; whereas the vision of such men is so
much perverted by their self-feeling, that they are positively
unable to see themselves in relation to anything else. So that
insincerity with them is not really so wilful and wicked as it
might appear. A radical evil has never been corrected by cir¬
cumstances. So it was with Poe, who could never feel for
any one or any thing, except, as it were, through himself
And yet, from his poetry, it might at first sight appear that
there was in him a powerful love for another ; for has he not
written some beautiful lines which have reference to his de¬
puted wife ? Beautiful and melodious, truly, but yet no real
feeling of sorrow discernible therein. One cannot but feel, on
perusal of his poetical lamentation, that it is artificial and
ingenious in construction, and must have cost him much labour
in plan and pre-contrivance—that it is not nature, not even
true art, which is the reflex of nature, but artifice. It does
not “grow up from the depths of nature through this noble
sincere soul, who is a voice of nature.” And withal there is
noticeable a sort of selfish and unresigned tone about it. No
solemn sorrow, or humble acquiescent resignation in the
inexorable decrees of Destiny. When the wind came out of
the cloud by night, killing and chilling his Annabel Lee, it
was because—
“ The angels not half so happy in heaven,
Went envying her and me—
Tes ! that was the reason (as all men know
In this kingdom by the sea),
That the wind came out of the cloud by night,
Chilling and killing my Annabel Lee.”
And again, who can help seeing this stage passion in those
beautiful verses, addressed to “ One in Paradise,” which may
be quoted here in order to contrast them with the wail of real
sorrow:—
M Thou wast that all to me, love,
For which my soul did pine—
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A green isle in the sea, love;
A fountain and a shrine,
All wreathed with fairy fruits and flowers,
And all the flowers were mine.
“ Ah, dream too bright to last!
Ah, starry Hope ! that didst arise
But to be overcast!
A voice within, from out the Future cries,
(Dim gulf) my spirit hovering lies
Mute, motionless, aghast!
“ For alas t alas 2 with me
The light of Life is o’er 2
* No more—no more—no more.’
(Such language holds the solemn sea
To the sands upon the shore)
Shall bloom the thunder-blasted tree,
Or the stricken eagle soar I
“ And all my days are trances,
And all my nightly dreams
Are where thy dark eye glances,
And where thy footstep gleams—
Injwhat ethereal dances,
By what eternal streams."
With which compare what a poet, whose heart was full of
real sorrow, has said
“ Break, break, break,
On thy cold grey stones, 0 sea 2
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.”
• • * * •
“ And the stately ships go on
To their haven under the hill 2
But O for the touch of a vanished hand,
And the sound of a voice that is still.
“ Break, break, break,
At the foot of thy crags, 0 sea 1
But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Will never come back to me.
No doubt Poe felt sorrowful when his wife died, for she had
ministered kindly and attentively to him. Had not she and her
mother come nearest to what he thought the whole world
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358 Edgar Allan Poe,
ought to be in regard to him—the world forgetful of its destiny
to wait upon him :
“ She tenderly kissed me,
She fondly caressed,
And then I fell gently
To sleep on her breast;
Deeply to sleep,
From the heaven of her breast.
“ When the light was extinguished
She covered me warm,
And she prayed to the angels
To keep me from harm—
To the queen of the angels
To shield me from harm.”
Ah! it was very hard to bear so great a loss, and hope
seems for ever gone.
“ Shall bloom the thunder-blasted tree,
Or the stricken eagle soar.”
Yes! within two years the thunder blasted tree began to
put forth new blossoms, and the stricken eagle sought another
mate. Within that time he became engaged to “ one of the
most brilliant women of New England;” and one ignorant of
Poe’s character might suppose from the lines which he ad¬
dressed to her, that never man yet suffered from passion so
intense and so exalted; but we can see here, as we have seen
before, only an artificial passion, a passion “ from the throat
outwards.” The verses are those commencing
I saw thee once—once only—years ago:
in which he informs the lady that, after her departure in the
evening from the garden,
Only thine eyes remained
They would not go—They never yet have gone
They have not left me (as my hopes have) since
They follow me—they lead me through the years
They are my ministers, &c., See. * *
* * • * •
They fill my soul with Beauty (which is Hope)
And are far up in Heaven—the stars I kneel to
In the sad, silent watches of my night;
While even in the meridian glare of day
I see them still—two sweetly scintillant
Yenuses, unextinguished by the sun !
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Being congratulated, however, by some friends on his
brilliant engagement, Poe replied ; “No, No ! you’ll see there
will be no marriage after all.” And the way whereby he
brought about the fulfilment of his prediction was to appear
in the street and at the lady’s house exceedingly drunk and
outrageously extravagant, so that the police were called in,
Poe was carried away, and the match was broken off It has
been surmized by way of explanation that he felt that this,
brilliant lady knew only the better part of him, and that the
marriage would surely make her miserable; he therefore,
broke it off as he did, not having strength of purpose to do it
in any other way. But such an nypothesis gives to Poe’s cha¬
racter credit for an unselfishness and sincerity which it is
certain that it never possessed ; and the strange circumstance
admits of an easier and more natural explanation on the
supposition of his selfishness and insincerity of character.
He was possibly impressed with the feeling that a modest,
lovely, unselfish Virginia Clemm was far better adapted to be
his wife than “one of the most brilliant women of New
England”—that on the whole it was very probable that the
latter might make him miserable. “ No ! no ! there must be
no marriage.” So one day, when in his drunkenness this
feeling came very forcibly over him, as on such occasions
similar feelings are apt to do, and when drink had inspired him
with that courage which, weak mortal as he was, he possessed
not without, he started off suddenly with the determination to
break off the affair somehow. And he succeeded by, perhaps,
the strangest method that ever was adopted under like
circumstances. Can we forget his apology on the occasion of
previous discreditable behaviour—that “Poe was out of his
mind.”
Soon after this unpleasant event, being, through further
excesses, reduced to a condition in which he was obliged to
beg money at Philadelphia, he made a sort of convulsive
effort to reform by signing the pledge. Not the least
certain evidence of his weakness of character, nor the least
curious phase in his history this—Edgar Poe, a teetotaller !
Here at Philadelphia, a few months after his last escapade,
this “stricken eagle” again proposed to a lady and was
accepted. So he set out for New York to prepare for his
marriage ; but on his way entered a tavern, where he met
some friends, and, what more need be said—gave himself up
to a night of furious “debauchery,” in the morning was
carried to the hospital, where he died, aged, as far as is
known, 38 years. Such a leave-taking is not altogether
vol. vi., no. 33. b
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Edgar Allan Poe,
unexampled. Some nine months before his death, Burns
dined at a tavern, returning home about three in the morning
benumbed with cold and intoxicated ; he had in consequence
an attack of rheumatism, and from that time gradually failed
until he died. So pass away some men indubitably marked
with the stamp of genius, leaving for our reflection the
important question—-how happened it?
Of all men of note who have walked upon the earth, it is
scarcely possible to point to one whose history discloses more
of folly and more of wretchedness than that of Edgar Poe.
It was not because he sinned often and sinned sadly that his
anguish of mind was lessened. Black-plumed remorse, as sure
as death itself, visits all who invite it; and croaks its grating
dirge of sorrow in the ears of the most abandoned, as loudly
and harshly as in the ears of the occasional sinner. Those
fitful gleams of sunshine in his life indicate to us too plainly
Poe’s misery and remorse; and perhaps more painful
evidence thereof than all is that signing of the pledge. It was
the convulsive effort of a miserable and feeble human soul to
escape from its misery and degradation. But convulsion is
not strength, and we wonder not that the act was followed by
a speedy falL Alas ! imagination connot penetrate the thick
gloom of remorse which enshrouded this weak child of nature.
Through life accompanied him “ vast formless things,”
Flapping from out their condor wings
Invisible woe!
Acute sensibility is the prominent feature in Poe’s character,
and an intense love of the beautiful, the genuine element in
his poetry. It was through the former that he was rendered
such an unhappy being in the world; it was by the latter that
we recognise in him a spark of the divine light of genius.
And among the unhappy tendencies which his father had
transmitted to him, let us not forget to give due credit to
David Poe for this exalted feeling. Had not the father been
so sensible of the beautiful as to sacrifice all his prospects
in life to the pursuit of the concrete beauty, his son might
have wanted that intense aspiration after the ideal, without
which we should have wanted his poetry. Every day life does
not unfortunately afford much satisfaction to such a feeling,
and a man so endowed is apt to become wearied of the ever¬
lasting sameness of things, and desperate at the coarseness and
selfishness of humanity. Not feeling calmly he cannot think
calmly, and hence comes to express himself strongly—to speak
of “ Fate, whose name is also Sorrow,” of society as “ being
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principally composed of villains,” and of the earth as “ a hated
world” and a “ damned earth.” So spoke Edgar Poe ; and
one cannot avoid contrasting with such outbursts the more
calmly expressed conviction of a stronger and more far-seeing
genius.
“ I’ll na say men are villains a’
But oh ! mankind are unco’ weak,
An’ little to be trusted.”
It requires a genius of a still higher order to be able to see
through the crust of evil, and to discover “ good in every¬
thing. ’ Poe, having just escaped madness, took refuge from
the anguish of his crushed feelings in alcohol, and sought for
consolation there; in intoxication he endeavoured to realize
his ideal of the beautiful. Doubtless whilst the excitement
lasted he experienced joys which he could not grasp otherwise;
but the reaction, winch must to him have been so terrible,
followed, and has left its stamp upon his poetry.
The truly genuine, the—so to say—sincere elements in his,
poetry are thus, his intense aspiration after the beautiful,
and the melancholy of remorse. Everywhere, both in his
prose and his poetry, do we find the expression of his keen
love of the beautiful
“ Alas! alas !
I cannot die, having within my heart
So keen a relish for the beautiful.
As hath been kindled in it.”
And again, of Helen’s eyes he says—
“ They fill my soul with beauty (which is hope).”
One of his earliest poetical compositions, written when he
was but a boy, was that chaste and beautiful address “to
Helen,” which is notable partly for the absence of the usual
sepulchral gloom, in consequence of having been written
before remorse had marked him for its own.
“ Helen, thy beauty was to me
Like those Nicean barks of yore,
That gently, o’er a perfumed sea,
The weary, way-worn wanderer bore
To his own native shore.
“ On desperate seas long wont to roam,
Thy hyacinth hair, thy classic face,
Thy Naiad airs have brought me home
To the glory that was Greece,
And the grandeur that was Rome.”
6 9
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“ Lo in yon brilliant window niche, ^
How statue-like I see thee stand,
The agate lamp within thy hand !
Ah, Psyche! from the regions which
Are Holy Land!-
In his prose writings he even maintains “ that Beauty is
the sole legitimate province of the poet;” that “ the pleasure
which is at once the most intense, the most elevating, and the
most pure,” is to be found in the contemplation of the Beau¬
tiful—nay, he actually offers one of his productions as “ this
book of truths, not in the character of truth-teller, but for the
beauty that abounds in its truth, constituting it true.”
Unhappily he could find no satisfaction for so keen a senti¬
ment, and became somewhat desperate in consequence:
“ Oh ! I am sick, sick sick, even unto death
Of the hollow and high-sounding vanities
Of the populous earth.”
The melancholy tone of his poetry must be regarded as the
effect of his melancholy view of life, but by no means as an
unconscious effect. He considered a tone of sadness, as he in¬
forms us, to be the tone of the highest manifestation of beauty;
—“ Beauty of whatever kind, in Jits supreme development, in¬
variably excites the sensitive soul to tears. Melancholy is
thus the most legitimate of all the poetical tones.” And his
poetry is all most ingeniously, one might almost say, cunningly
constructed in accordance with such a view. Does it not con¬
sist throughout of beauty and sorrow—of Psyche and of death,
which is the greatest sorrow, “ of all melancholy topics, what,
according to the unvveraal understanding of mankind, is the
most melancholy ?” “And when is this most melancholy of topics
most poetical V “ When it most clearly allies itself to beauty.
The death, then, of a beautiful woman is unquestionably the
most poetical topic in the world; and equally is it beyond
doubt that the lips best suited for such a topic are those of a
bereaved lover.” Hence Psyche is brought “ in the lonesome
October,” with her wings “ sorrowfully trailing in the dust,”
“ by the dank tarn of Auber, in the gnoul-haunted woodland
of Weir,” until she is “ stopped by the door of a tomb.”
“ By the door of alegended tomb;
And I said, ' Whit is written, sweet sister,
On the door of this legended tomb ?’
She replied—* Ulalume, Ulalume—
’Tis the vault of thy lost Ulalume!’ ”
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Hence also we hear of
“ The lilies there that wave,
And weep above a nameless grave.”
He embodied the spring blossoms of his life, bis hopes and
aspirations, which had all been blasted and wrecked, in the
form of a beautiful woman, as the form most beautiful on
earth; and this he chained to a vault, or otherwise represented
under circumstances of intense gloom. In this way he
blended the actual and the ideal in his poetry,
“ My love, she sleeps 10h, may her sleep
As it is lasting so be deep!
Soft may the worms about her creep !
Far in we forest dim and old,
For her may some tall vault unfold,” &c.
Gloomy gates open to disclose the beautiful statue of Psyche,
and sorrow and “ dying embers ” in the “ bleak December,”
accompany “ the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels
name Lenore.”
“Ah ! distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,
And each separate, dying ember wrought its ghost upon the
floor.
Eagerly I wished the morrow—vainly I sought to borrow
From my books surcease of sorrow—sorrow for the lost
Lenore—
For the rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name
Lenore,
Nameless here for evermore.
As he “nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a
tapping ” at his chamber door; and in steps a “ stately raven
of the saintly days of yore.’’ Passionate appeal then is his to
this embodiment of utter hopelessness for “ respite, respite
and nepenthe from the memories of Lenore.”
“ * Prophet!’ said I, ‘ thing of evil! prophet still, if bird or
devil!
Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest toss’d thee here
ashore.
Desolate, yet all undaunted on this desert land enchanted—
On this home, by horror haunted—tell me truly, I implore—
Is there—-is there balm in Gilead ? tell me—tell me I
implore!’
Quoth the raven, ‘^Nevermore!’
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“ 4 Prophet!’ said I ‘ thing of evil—prophet still, if bird or
devil!
By that heaven that bends above us—by that God we both
adore!
Tell this soul with sorrow laden, if, within the distant Aidenn,
It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels name
Lenore
Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name
Lenore!’
Quoth the raven, ‘ Nevermore!’ ’
A notable feature is the absence of anything sensual from
Poe’s poetry; the beautiful is as chaste as a statue; it is
not Venus, “not even a lissome Vivien,” but Psyche—
always Psyche from the regions which are Holy Land. And
this pure passion for the beautiful, so much above earth
in its aspiration, which was inherent in him, would but tend,
being rudely crushed, to increase his degradation, and to ag¬
gravate his remorse. Unhappily endowed being! probably
few people have lived upon this earth as miserable as was
Edgar Poe.
The genius of Poe lies in his keen sentiment of the
beautiful; therein had he a glimpse into that “ mystery of the
universe what Goethe calls 4 the open secretthe possession
of a faculty of insight into which on one aspect or another, is
necessary to constitute a man of genius. Dr. Johnson has
said—“ As among the works of nature no man can properly
call a river deep or a mountain high, without the knowledge
of many mountains and many rivers; so in the production of
genius nothing can be styled excellent till it has been com¬
pared with other works of the same kind.” But in adopting
such a canon of criticism, it behoves us to be very careful that
we do compare things of the same kind. It does not follow
most certainly that, because we attribute genius to a man, we
are justified in dragging forward his production and comparing
it with that of any other man of genius, and, forthwith,
being disappointed by the comparison, pronouncing him
infenor. As well might we compare the lilac of the garden
with the banyan of the forest. There are men of genius
belonging, so to say, to different species, as well as trees of
different species; and in the one case as well as in the other,
one may be beautiful and pleasing to look at and another
mighty and useful to profit from. Heaven sends us both, and
finds it not good to give to the laburnum the branches of the
gnarled and knotted oak. The poet, the prophet, and the
philosopher, the man of genius in any shape do, indeed, at
bottom see but the same thing, and that what Fichte calls
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“ the Divine idea which lies at the bottom of all appearance
but they see it in different aspects. The poet sees the beauti¬
ful in it, the philosopher the true, and the prophet the good;
and yet the beautiful, the true, and the good are all aspects of
one and the same. No man has genius who possesses not the
faculty of seeing this in one form or another; he may have
talent, but talent dies with him. In his sympathy with the
beautiful lies what of genius Edgar Poe had ; for we say
nothing of the beauty of his language and of his melody here;
no other insight had he. His sorrrow is nothing more than a
morning headache after a night of intemperance, and his view
of man’s life and destiny upon earth is nothing more than a
perverted vision—by reason of which he was incapacitated
from seeing ought but the “ tragedy man.”
And much of madness, and more of sin,
And horror the soul of the plot
The auestion might arise for us at this stage, as to what
view Edgar Poe entertained of man in the universe; but,
unhappily, as we have said, he does not appear to have been
capable of any serious or comprehensive view at all; merely
felt that he was a very miserable creature with acute sensi¬
bility, and strong aspiration for something beautiful, for which
he could by no means find satisfaction. In the conduct of his
life, he made the important mistake of supposing that happi¬
ness was attainable by self-indulgence, instead of by self-
denial, and acted accordingly. He sought his own pleasure,
and never dreamed that the object of a man’s life might be
the happiness of others, and therein the greatest happiness to
himself. So he flung down the dice with a deeper and deeper
stake on each occasion, and lost more and more peace of
mind, until he thought that the dice must be loaded, that a
conspiracy exististed against him on the part of society, and
deemed the earth to be a “ damned earth.” And he poured
forth his anger and his hatred together, with his sorrow for
his lost love, and his blasted hopes, thus :
Ah, broken is the golden bowl! the spirit flown for ever 1
Let the bell toll! a saintly soul floats on the Stygian river;
And Guy de Vere, hast thou no tear ;—weep now or never
more!
See on yon drear and rigid bier low lies thy love, Lenore !
Come! let the burial rite be read—the funeral song be sung!—
An anthem for the aueenliest dead that ever died so young—
A dirge for her the doubly dead in that she died so young.
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Edgar AUan Poe,
“ Avaunt! to-night my heart is light—no dirge will I upraise,
“ But waft the angel on her flight with paeon of old days !
“ Let no bell toll! lest her sweet soul, amid its hallowed mirth,
“ Should catch the note as it doth float up from the damned
earth.
“ To friends above from fiends below, the indignant ghost is
riven—
“ From Hell into a high estate far up within the heaven—
“ From grief and groan, to a golden throne, beside the King
of Heaven.”
We wonder not that so weak a mortal, seeing life only
through his own morbid soul, could find therein nothing but
madness and horror and sin. Better and stronger men have
with earnest supplicating cry questioned destiny, to whom it
has given but a doubtful reply. Oh, that my existence had
been postponed for some thousands of years, might be the
prayer, not altogether of a madman; that it might have been
put off till the end was nearer at hand—that I had been bom
when some reasonable guess might have been made at the
final purpose ! Better would it have been, than to live now,
when desire is so intense yet without satisfaction, to have
lived amongst the Titans, with Odin or with Thor ; to have
made bricks in Egypt, or to have defended the pass at Ther¬
mopylae. But to be as it is—hemmed in by conventionalities,
which are some of them manifestly not of eternity and
heaven, but of time and the devil; madly thirsting after
knowledge, but incapable of attaining it—it is difficult indeed
to be calm and to steer aright. There is a just need of the
rudder of a reasonable faith to enable a man to do so ; a faith
in God, rather than the devil, ruling the world. From certain
passages in Poe’s writings it might appear, were it legitimate in
such way to draw conclusions, that ids views were somewhat
sceptical; that he had notable faith only in the * conqueror
worm.’ “The boundaries which divide life and death,” says
he, “ are at best shadowy and vague. Who shall say where
the one ends and the other begins ? We know that there are
diseases in which occur total cessations of all the apparent
functions of vitality, and yet in which these cessations are
merely suspensions, properly so called. They are only tem¬
porary pauses in the incomprehensible mechanism ; a certain
period elapses, and some unseen mysterious principle again
sets in motion the magic pinions and the wizard wheels. The
silver cord was not for ever loosed, nor the golden bowl irre¬
parably broken. But where, meantime, was the soul?" And
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again in the conversation which the learned Doctor Pononner
holds with the resuscitated Egyptian mummy, Count Alla-
mistakeo, the following remarks occur, “ But since it is quite
clear,” resumed the doctor, “ that at least five thousand years
have elapsed since your entombment, I take it for granted
that your histories, at that period, if not your traditions, were
sufficiently explicit on that one topic of universal interest,
the Creation, which took place, as I presume you are aware,
only ten centuries before ? ” “ Sir f said the Count Allamis-
takeo. The doctor repeated his remarks; but it was only
after much additional explanation, that the foreigner could lie
made to comprehend them. The latter at length said, hesi¬
tatingly, “ The ideas you have suggested are to me, I confess,
utterly novel. During my time, I never knew any one to
entertain so singular a fancy as that the universe (or this
world, if you win have it so,) ever had a beginning at all I
remember once, and once only, hearing something remotely
hinted, by a man of many speculations, concerning the origin
of the human race; and by this individual, the very word
Adam, (Red Earth) which you make use of, was employed.
He employed it, however, in a generical sense, with reference
to the spontaneous germination from rank soil, (just as a
thousand of the lower genera of creatures are generated),
the spontaneous germination, I say, of five vast hordes of
men, simultaneously upspringing in five distinct and nearly
equal divisions of the globe.
Such observations, however, are of no great import, since the
character of Poe, as we see it in his writings ana in the facts
of his life, clearly makes manifest that, whether he were in
the ‘ everlasting no,’ or whether he had arrived at the ‘ centre
of indifference, he certainly had not attained to a knowledge
of the ‘ everlasting yea.’ Angry and envious, malignant and
cynical, without sense of honour or love of Ins kind, he was
utterly destitute of that faculty of reasonable insight, by
which a man sees in human life something more than what is
weak, sinful, and contemptible. If a man determine to reject
all creeds and dogmas, yet, if he have any power of vision,
must he surely discover ‘ eternal veracities’ in the heaven, in
the earth, ana all that therein is; feel them as they are
traced by the finger of Omnipotence day by day in his own
moral experience. The highest devolpment of scepticism
can in the end, but arrive at this conclusion, that sin is
ignorance ; and if a man have the capability of knowledge in
him, is he not responsible for such ignorance ? If, however,
he grasp at the present, forgetting the eternal, and hope to
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Edgar Allan Poe,
find pleasure or satisfaction in the fleeting things of time, he
may say with Edgar Foe, dubiously and despairingly,
I stand amid the roar
Of a surf-tormented shore,
And I hold within my hand
Grains of the golden sand—
How few! Yet how they creep
Through my fingers to the deep,
While I weep, while I weep !
O God ! Can I not grasp
Them with a tighter clasp ?
O God ! Can I not save
One from the pitiless wave ?
Is all that we see or seem
But a dream within a dream ?
There are many melancholy spectacles in the world, but,
perhaps, none more melancholy and more pitiable than that of
a man of genius howling out in his own weakness; a Byron
shrieking curses to the listening stars ; or a Poe doing evil,
and angrily damning the punishment thereof If a brave
man struggling with adversity be a sight pleasing to the gods,
surely the angels may weep over such a spectacle; for.
Hell rising from a thousand thrones
Shall do it reverence.
There appears no further possibility of ‘explaining’ Edgar Poe.
We must accept the facts of his life, and in them we can
only see the result of a fundamental constitutional fact and
an unhappy oollocation of circumstances. It seemeth good
to the Ruler of the spheres to embody in human form now
and then the various vices and weaknesses to which human
nature is liable, and by the erratic and unhappy course thereof,
to ‘ teach the nations wisdom and the people understanding.'
It behoves us to look on, ‘ more in sorrow than in anger
rather than to curse, to pray with the Arabian philosopher,
“ O God! be kind to the wicked; to the good thou hast
already been sufficiently kind, in making them good."
Alas! it is exceedingly difficult to accept calmly such an
anomalous being as Edgar Poe. Is no explanation of him
possible ? Is the tragedy played out with no unity preserved
therein ? For the present it is; but the time will surely
come, when Edgar Poe may be proved to have been legiti¬
mate and no otherwise possible. Meanwhile the curtain falls.
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ. 369
Out—out are the lights—out all!
And over each quivering form.
The curtain, a funeral pall.
Comes down with the rush of a storm,
And the angels, all pallid and wan,
Uprising, unveiling, affirm
That the play is the tragedy, “ Man,”
And its hero, the Conqueror Worm.
Consciousness as a Truth-organ considered, or Contribu¬
tions to Logical Psychology. By Rev. W. G. Davies,
Chaplain, Asylum, Abergavenny.
(Continued from p. 119.)*
Pabt I. Section 2.
The first class of objects to be viewed as producing a
distinct order of consciousness embraces the fundamental
sensation, and its attendant sensations. But perhaps it is
necessary to explain before entering upon the task of
analysis, that it would be foreign to the nature of Logical
Psychology to enumerate, and enlarge upon the objects con¬
tained in each class of that nature. Tne demands of that
science are fully answered when we have pointed out that a
certain class of objects—though we may know little else
about it—marks out a distinct variety of intellectual power.
Let it be remembered then, that it is the aim of these con¬
tributions to describe—not the objects of consciousness, even
when these are mental in their character—but, exclusively,
the cognition of them. The following table will, it is trusted,
clearly determine the boundaries of that department of
psychology to which these researches are confined.
* Erratum. In the last at p. 118, for H it is not lying there unknown,”
Bead, “ is it not lying there unknown ? ”
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The Rev. G. W. Davies on
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t Those last in Bain's Senses and the Intellect, page 122 el seq. are classed thus in¬
sensibility of Bones and Ligameits Feelings of Expiration
Organic Sensations of Nerve S^UonsofthcAUm^taiy Canal
Organic Feelings of the Circulation and Nutrition Feelings of Electrical States
With these should be classed, it seems to us, the Organic Muscular Feelings, treated of by
Mr. Bain, at page 85, et seq
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ, 871
Perception relative to its different kinds of objects ex¬
amined.
The Fundamental and Kindred Perceptions .*—There is
an act of perception which, from the highly important office
which it holds among intellectual powers, claims more than
common notice. Its importance arises, not from its dignity,
but from its fundamental and abiding character,{it being the
basis of every other cognitive act If it fails, the whole
mind fails with it This elementary perception seems to be
that of ourselves as possessed of extended animation. Its
two elements (c+o) appear to be, first—The consciousness ;
secondly—Of extended life. The most striking feature of
this perception is, that it is permanent during our waking
moments—always a perception, c in conjunction with o.
Other psychical manifestations are intermittent, but as long
as we experience any of them, we must be experiencing this.
And while internal observation leads us to this result, reason
also concludes that since all sensations, excepting that which
is the object of this perception, whether they occupy the
whole body or but a part; since all our appetites and
emotions; and, since all our mental operations come and
go with more or less frequency, they must of necessity
involve a senation which is abiding, within the boundaries
of which they must need have their habitation. Without
this fundamental perception, all other acts of consciousness,
on the supposition of their existence being possible, would
be as entirely isolated from each as are the Isles of Greece.
It is therefore the basis of our personality, and the bond
which unites our other powers into one complete whole,
forming the subject or ego. Our personality—such is the
evidence we possess—is a whole, made up of many parts,
some co-ordinate, and some successive; but like a piece of
music written in one key, it combines unity with diversity.
Qf this whole, the element which forms the bond of union, is
the ever fixed perception which we are examining. Upon
this, as it were, or pre-supposing it, we have other, more or
less variable, psychical attributes, those which are nearest
the base being less subject to change than those which are
considerably removed from it; it being a law of nature that
the most fundamental is the most abiding, the most simple,
•To prevent misapprehension, we here explain that fhndamental perception
is equivalent to both fundamental cognition and fundamental sensation ; and
that the former of these last means the c element—the latter, the o element of
the perception, thus
Fundamental Perception { **&»*«** J £
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The Rev. GL W. Davies on
the most general; while the superincumbent is ever tending
to greater variableness and complexity, and less generality.
It may here be alluded to incidentally, so essential is it
to establish the point under discussion, that comparative
physiology fully confirms the view here taken, for it teaches
that the principle of unity, or personality in man, is of the
same class as that which in animals reaches very low down
in the kingdom to which they belong, enabling each of them
to realize its individual existence. Since, therefore, person¬
ality, or, if that term be thought too dignified to be so
applied, the realization of individual existence in conscious¬
ness be similar in all the animated occupants of the earth,
it becomes manifest that we must look for its characteristic,
not in that in which man transcends the rest of the animated
creation ; not even in that in which one animal rises into a
higher sphere than another, but exclusively in that in which
the meanest, as well as the greatest of mortal beings, re¬
semble each other. And what is this, but the fundamental
perception which now engages our attention ?
Difficulty of Defining the Fundamental Sensation. Since
the fundamental sensation never exists without the accom¬
paniment of other sensations, it is extremely difficult to
detect its precise nature. Though its character as distin¬
guished from all other psychical attributes is permanency,
still it is never unattended, and possibly cannot be unat¬
tended, by some one or other of the variable manifestations
of conscious life, in that sense in which it is essential; for in¬
stance, that a day should be either long or short, bright or
cloudy, warm or cold, but neither of these in particular.
But though it is so difficult to realize this sensation as
clearly distinct from feelings which pre-suppose it, we may,
nevertheless, in so far as it is permanent, and they not, run
no risk of confounding it with them. What it appears to us
to be, we have said, is a feeling of extended animation.
May not the sense of touch have an inward operation, by
means of which, though without realizing any knowledge of
the organism as a body, which it does by its outward opera¬
tion, it becomes cognizant that the several parts of the
organism are external to each other ? And is not this the
fundamental perception ? That touch proper cannot be the
required perception, seems to us to afford no room for doubt,
for it does not possess that character of permanency which
is the distinguishing mark of the latter. By what means
are we cognizant, say, of a finger which is kept out of sight,
and free from contact with an external body ? Certainly
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ. 373
not by touch proper, which cannot, therefore, be the funda¬
mental perception, seeing that is present where touch does
not operate.
We have now laid the foundation, but there is much re¬
maining to build upon it All the knowledge that we
acquire through the senses; all our emotional revelations ;
all our intellectual operations, one only excepted, and that
of the lowest order, and capable of existing in a state more
instinctive than intellectual, are as yet supposed to be un¬
known. And deprived of these what should we have left ?
There would be no notion of matter, because there would be
no touch and muscular discrimination, in short no conscious¬
ness whatever of anything external, and consequently, of
nothing but the pervading or extended animation, attended
with some of the variable organic feelings.
That there are higher and lower faculties in the human
mind is quite manifest to us, not only from the excel¬
lence of some over others, but from the fact that the
superior powers of the mind pre-suppose the inferior, as the
animal world does the vegetable; the teaching of com¬
parative physiology on this head, therefore, is fully corro¬
borated by reflective observation. And as to the question
of the intellectuality * of a faculty, we may safely con¬
clude that it is in proportion to its dignity, and that this is
determined by the purpose which the faculty has to fulfil.
The final cause of some of our faculties is to be cognizant
of feeling merely to that extent which is essential to the
preservation and enjoyment of animal life. The final cause
of other faculties is to extend our knowledge, so that we
may walk in the light of it to a higher elevation of moral and
intellectual existence, in short to know with a view to human
progress. It can be readily understood, then, why it is that
some objects of consciousness are so much more distinctly
and vividly thought of than others. In one class there is
not so much to think of, and not much to be gained by
doing so. In another class, we find full scope for deep and
constant thought, and reap from it a plentiful harvest of
grand and precious truths. The faculty next to be examined
is
The Perception of the Non-ego. It has already been stated
that one of the conditions of consciousness is a realization
of the ego. In the cognition of the external world this is a
most salient fact When we recognize the existence of an
external object, we have on the one hand the ego, and on
* See Bains on the Senses end the Intellect, p. 330. 7.
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the other, the outward thing, which in contrast to the ego,
we call the nonrego. Consciousness being by one act aware
of the existence of the extended animation, as we have
endeavoured to shew, thu6 realizing the basis of the ego ; in
an act of sensible perception, is furthermore cognizant of
something possessing extension, equal to that of the extended
animation of the part through which the perception is ob¬
tained. This something is twofold, first, our organism as a
material subject, and the seat of our extended animation ;
and secondly, a material object possessing qualities similar
to those of the material subject, as extension and impenetra¬
bility ; but external to the extended animation, and there¬
fore called not-self. We are, therefore, conscious of our
organism as a body , not by any inward sense, but by means
of the very same sense by which we become aware of the
existence of the material world in general
It is clearly impossible to confound the organism with the
outward object in the perception, because the extended
animation which pervades the organic man produces such a
striking contrast between it and such object. They who
deny the externality of the thing apprehended convict
consciousness, therefore, of incompetency to discriminate
between two things so widely contrasted as the organism and
the outward object are. And what is the consequence?
Consciousness having pronounced that to be the nonrego,
which is the ego, clearly does not know the ego truly, since
it has proclaimed a portion of it to be what it is not, a non¬
ego. After this we may reasonably infer that consciousnes
is wrong in distinguishing between itself and an object of
any sort; what it pronounces to be an object, being not an
object, but a portion of itself.
And again, that conscioushess is wrong in discriminating
between one aspect of itself and another aspect, what is
pronounced to be a phase differing from some other, not
being different, but identical with it To question the reality
of the non-ego, therefore, is virtually to question the existence
of any object whatever, yea, in fact, to doubt the existence
of consciousness itself; for if the declarations of consciousness
are given the lie in this suspicious fashion, then that declar¬
ation by which consciousness announces its own existence,
Inust be distrusted, and a blank nihilism be proclaimed.
But happily, every such doubt loses its own life, in the act
a taking away that of its victim.
Media through which the non-ego is known. These are
touch and muscular discrimination. Touch reveals to us
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ.
something outside, extended commensurately with the ex¬
tension of the fundamental sensation in the organic surface
revealed to us in the same act of contact* The leading object,
then, which this sense discloses is objective extension,
namely, that of our organism as the material seat of the
pervading animation; and also that of the material surface
which is in contact with our organism. Objective dimension,
therefore, appears to be made known, in the first place, by
means of the fundamental sensation which spreads through¬
out the corporeal man—the measure of exterior dimension
in touch, being the extended animation of the part in which
contact takes place.
But it is necessary that the motive power should come to
the aid of touch before the latter can possess its full power.
By means of muscular discrimination we can actively test
the resistance which exterior bodies offer to our flesh, bones,
and muscular force, and these to external bodies. The
impenetrability of matter, or its resisting power, as also the
impenetrability of our corporeal system, and our muscular
force are revealed to as by that force in operation. But
what it is which resists—the extension, figure, quality of
surface, &a, of a body—are revealed by touch. Were you
to place your hand in contact with the table, and press it
ever so hard, unless you had the sense of touch, you would
have no knowledge of what it was which resisted you; you
would merely detect that your motive power was opposed by
some extrinsic cause. The sense of touch reveals to us what
that cause is. On the other hand, this sense would be
highly defective without the auxiliary motive power, as we
can readily ascertain by placing the back of the hand upoa
some support, and requesting some one to put upon the
fingers, while we refrain from looking, any thing the name of
which we are not told. It will then appear that the sense
of touch is comparatively gone.
This sense, as the complement of the fundamental percep¬
tion, with muscular discrimination, seems to afford the origin
of the notion of space. Space is not a notion simply, but
an object which has its origin for us in perception, in which
it is quite distinct from the cognition. It seems to have its
rudimentary manifestation in the very groundwork of our
nature, as the extended animation, which seems to be the
medium through which all objective space is cognizable.
Into the nature of space as an infinite and independent
existence, we cannot enter at this stage of our enquiry. To
VOL. vi. no. 33. c
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The Eev. G. W. Davies on
solve that question we need the aid of a law which remains
to be enunciated.
We have now examined two kinds of consciousness, the
fundamental perception, and the perception of the organism
and non-ego. The next step is to examine, but from our
special point of view—
The four quasi-objective senses. There are four senses
which nave tor their objects something subjective, it is
usually taught, but according to the evidence, something
of a nature between subjective and objective. Touch, as
we have just seen, boldly professes to be an objective or out¬
ward sense. The other four also appear to be objective, but since
the evidence of their subjective character is too strong to be
put aside, we suggest that they ought to be named quasi-ob-
jeotive senses, i.e., objective practically, but subjective specular
tively. The only positive experience (positive as opposed to
negative) which we have of these senses is in their objective
aspect Their subjective character is known only as an
inference, not realizable, (such is the stubborness of their
asserting force,) in positive thought In confirmation of the
view here taken, we proceed to state that the objects of these
senses are not apprehended as emotional, though to a certain
extent pleasure or pain, liking or aversion, accompanies the
perception of them ; and it is difficult to conceive why our
organism, since it is a material subject, should not be the
seat of phenomena of an inanimate nature, such as light and
sound, if not savour and odour, are recognized to be. This
seems the only description which is consonant with the
declarations of consciousness as made by these senses; and
which adequately accounts for the universal conviction,
practically viewed, that the objects of these senses sire non-
egoisticaL
Again, every one thinks that the extension of an external
object, say this page, viewed at the nearest distance for
distinct vision, corresponds very nearly with its extension
to the touch*; consequently, tne visible dimension of the
page is much greater than that of the retina, or indeed,
of the cerebral centre with which that communicatee.
The consequence of this fact must be, that a visible object
must be apprehended as external to that whose dimensions
its own is ielt to exceed. That is, the fundamental sensation
* We may understand touch to include muscular discrimination, when the
Cornier term alone is used, and there is no occasion for distinguishing between
them.
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ.
in and abont the eye is cognised as much less in extent than
that of the page upon which the eye gazes; and since the
greater cannot be judged to he contained by the lesser, it
must be regarded as exterior to the eye. To eyes newly
couched, and which had not been able to see before, objects
may certainly appear to touch the organ, but that must be,
on the outside; and even then the extension of objects, and
of the sphere of vision would be the same as m eyes in
general What would be wanting would be that which touch
and muscular discrimination supply, namely, the notion of
distance. Certain degrees of remoteness, by being constantly
perqeived in conjunction with certain variations in hue and
outline, and optical adjustment, become so blended with
these, that we actually seem to realize distances by means of
the eye alone, and cannot bring ourselves to be sensible of
the contrary.
From what we have now said, it will be discovered that we
hold that doctrine which teaches that colour is apprehended
as extended, in opposition to that which teaches that it is con¬
nected with this attribute by association alone. When we try
our utmost to imagine colour which is not spread over a plane
surface we find ourselves completely baffled. We can no
more imagine an unextended colour, than we can imagine a
square yard of sound. If it be granted that we cannot call
up a notion of colour without dimension, then it is granted
that colour deprived of this quality is inconceivable. But
it will be argued, this quality is not a constituent part of
colour, since that would make colour an external thing, but
it is simply blended with it by means of association. In
answer to this, it is urged, that the sense of sight, when
interrogated ever so strictly, still avers that colour is cog¬
nized as possessed of plane extension by the organ of vision
alone ; and that it is solid dimension or distance only which
is blended with it by association. It must be borne in mind
that extension is not exclusively an objective fact, but a sub¬
jective one as well, as we have previously endeavoured to
establish. The impossibility of imputing a subjective phe¬
nomenon, as colour, to an external body, by the law of
association, therefore, does not clash with the fact that, colour
is possessed in itself of plane extension, and that it is this
subjective extension, which, by association, is admirably con¬
founded with the objective dimension of an external body,
and regarded as if inherent in the same.
How colour, if at first occupying no space, could afterwards
appear to diffuse itself over an outward object, by the law of
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association is inexplicable, and can be nothing better than a
supposition, because it is impossible, by the most searching
mental analysis, to conceive colour apart from extension, that
ire may verify the doctrine. Indeed, it seems to us that a
doctrine so unlikely as that colour is not! in itself extended,
could never have suggested itself, but for the confusion of the
plane dimension of colour, with solid dimension or remoteness.
The five senses form one complex perceptive faculty.
Having endeavoured to prove that four of the senses, while
cognizant of objects which have no existence independently
of ourselves, are still cognizant of them as unemotional
objects guost-objective, and that touch is really conscious of
an external world, the existence of which does not depend
upon us—we next proceed to shew that in an act of sensible
perception, although the qualities of a thing are discovered
through five different inlets, there is but one thing or indi¬
vidual perceived. Now that round which the qualities
apprehended by the four gucm-objective senses congregate, is
the thing as cognized by the sense of touch. The other
senses presuppose that of touch, as that and every kind of
cognition presuppose the fundamental perception. The five
senses therefore form together one complex organ of sensible
perception. Touch makes known to us that substratum to
which the qualities revealed by the other senses are imputed:
another proof that such qualities are not apprehended as
affections of the ego as animated, since then they could not
be imputed to an outward substratum, but as purely une¬
motional phenomena.
Although it is to touch and muscular discrimination that
we owe our elementary notions of the outer world—it is to
the very efficient manner in which sight completes these
senses, and forms with them a complex perceptive power,
that we are indebted for the major portion of our knowledge
of material reality. The visible, although it involves an
extended, figured, solid, and remote substratum, involves at
one view, it may happen, a substratum of such magnitude,
that it would be quite impossible to grope an acquaintance
with it by means of the objective sense alone. Sight,
therefore, may be regnrded as a sense which practically
conveys touch out of the body, and diffuses it over areas of x
vast extent, and of various degrees of remoteness. If it is to
touch, therefore, that we are indebted, in the first place, for
a knowledge of the external object—it is to sight cniefly, as
completing that sense, that we owe, in the second place,
our knowledge of the material universe.
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ.
The consciousness of our mental emotions and desires.
The only remaining class of objects, known to us, as deter¬
mining a distinct kind of consciousness, is composed of our
mental emotions and desires. In this inquiry we are called
upon to do little more than draw attention to the single fact,
that it is a class of objects manifested in a manner which
clearly marks it out as separate from every other. In
proof of this, we point out as a characteristic of our
mental emotions and desires, that they are not localized,
or which amounts to the same thing, are not possessed of the
quality of extension ; and that they require as their com*-
piemen t, a knowledge of a related object. There may be a
knowledge of a certain object without the emotion which it
is the occasion of calling forth ; of which fact we have a very
good illustration in those lines of Wordsworth, which, we be¬
lieve, run thus:
“ A primrose by a river’s brim,
A yellow primrose was to him,
And it was nothing mom”
But there can be no emotion-related attribute without the
object to which that attribute is ascribed by the emotion ; for
the latter always fastens upon something in the object as
pleasing or otherwise, as the case may be; and without this
something to be directed towards, may be supposed some¬
what analogous to the condition of the oigan of sight in a
man who is confined for a long period in a place impervious
to light
That our mental emotions and desires afford the origin of
many truths, for instance, those of a moral and social nature,
is undeniable; for what in general language may be styled
heart-attributes, are all from this source. But it must be
clearly understood in what manner, and to what extent, our
mental emotions extend our knowledge. That there are
moral maxims, or first principles; in other words, universal
moral truths springing up out of the depth of our emotional
nature, and incapable of reduction into simpler elements—we
have no evidence. The reply which consciousness vouchsafes
to our importunate enquiries on this point is, that mental
emotions do not know; they are known. They are purely
objects of consciousness, which last alone reveals to us
what an object is. Now what consciousness discloses to us
concerning our mental emotions is, that certain of them fasten
upon certain perceptions or thoughts, which, in consequence,
are looked upon as having certain attributes in addition to
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The Rev. G. W. Davies on
those which they already possess, and aptly styled emotion-
related attributes, i.e., something in what we may call the
AsocZ-attributes of an object are regarded by our emotional
nature, as possessed also of hea/rt- attributes. Thus, for ex¬
ample : good, beautiful, excellent, are names of certain emo¬
tion-related attributes in certain objects fitted to be the
occasion of calling up the sentiments which correspond to
those terms. What our consciousness furthermore reveals is,
that universal moral truths are derived from our emotional
manifestations by that intellectual procedure which elicits
universal truths from perceptions of objects not emotional
The relations existing between our sentiments and desires on
the one hand, and certain objects on the other, relations con¬
stituting heart-attributes, form a class of objects, which, like
every other, is capable of receiving a full or philosophic de*
velopment exclusively from the operation of those intellectual
faculties, which, first, from our perceptions, educe the pri-
mordal universals; and, secondly, by tne help of these, con¬
struct a system of deductive truth. Instead of obtaining the
primary universals of moral and social matters, therefore,
immediately out of the depth of our emotional nature, we obtain
the rudiments only, from this source ; the process by which
moral and social axioms are educed from these, is purely in¬
tellectual, as we hope to be able to prove when we examine
the faculty of reason. Now, in accordance with the view here
presented in faint outline, if it be asked what is beauty, for
example; there are two modes of answering the question,
the one loose and popular, but most in accordance with the
a priori method, the other scientific. Popularly speaking,
that is beautiful to any one, which is regarded by his emotion
of the beautiful, as having the related attribute. Scientifically
speaking, that only is unmistakably beautiful, which answers
to the definition of beauly ; a definition yet to be discovered
perhaps, but which it is the mission of the scientific intellect
to seek for, till its diligence be rewarded with success. Pro¬
visionally, we must call that beautiful which is allowed to
possess some degree of excellence by the unanimous consent
of competent judges; and which, moreover, can be reckoned
such without detriment to the true and the good, since, what¬
ever is immoral, false, and unnatural, ought not, at least to be
invested with the embellishments of poetic sentiment
From the preceding observations, it might be inferred that
moral sentiments, instead of being complete in themselves as
regulators of oonduct, require for their guidance a knowledge
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ.
of the relative universal truths ; and it is the perfect subser¬
vience of moral emotion to moral truth which constitutes
genuine morality. Good done from a bad motive, or injury
done unintentionally, from ignorance of the relative moral
truth, with a good motive, have in each of them an element
of evil, attaching to the agent in the one case, and to the
action in the other. Pure morality results, therefore, from
the harmony of the moral sentiment with the relative moral
law: the nearest approximation to the last being a well
grounded belief that a certain course of conduct is best
One more remark which we wish to make on this head is,
that a mental emotion finds its destination simply in pursuing
the course of action enounced by the moral truth, that is, with¬
out reference to any ulterior principle, as utility, or the greatest
happiness, as the end to which the action may be made sub¬
servient. There may be total ignorance of the final cause, yet
the emotion would still find its destination in carrying into
effect the moral truth. It is the law—the course to be pur¬
sued—and not the result to be obtained by the fulfilment
of that law, to which the emotion is drawn, by a species of
attraction, to its destined end.
But we believe that it is a dominant or arch-emotion which
thus finds its destination in moral truth. It is the emotion
which transmutes the True into the Good, and as such exclu¬
sively is actuated by it Other emotions—the love of the ex-
cellent, or the poetic sentiment not excepted, which also appears
to be a presiding faculty, though subonlinate to the arch-emo¬
tion—are attracted to their relative objects, not as to a law or
truth, but simply as to a concrete instance. The arch-emotion,
however, acts in conjunction with these, and the result of their
combined action is a work of love or desire presided over by
a sense of duty, or reverence for a law. The sentiment of
benevolence would, for example, prompt, when an occasion
offered, to an act of generosity without reference to any
principle of brotherly love, which would be the contribution
of the dominant sentiment, or love of the good. If the latter
emotion operated in the absence of the former, the result
would be a sort of soulless imitation of a generous deed—a
deed performed not from love, but from an instigation of
conscience.
Grand, distinction between the objects of consciousness.
This section of our inquiry, would be incomplete, did we
not touch, before concluding it, upon two grand distinctions
which exist among the objects of consciousness. Emotional
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The Rev. G. W. Davies on
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objects, local and mental, and also gium-objective objects,
form a distinct class, which must be called subjective ; while
the remaining objects must be styled objective. Now the
chief distinction between these two classes is, that the sub¬
jective objects have no existence but when they are experi¬
enced. They have no existence but in us, and in us only
when they are felt The objective objects, on the contrary,
though they can exist for us in the perception alone, yet have
an existence in the perception—so consciousness—out of us.
From this, and from the fact of the external object being
in the order of nature prior to the cognition—so Reason—it
is concluded that the objective, unlike the subjective, has an
existence, not only in the perception, but out of it, that is,
when not known by us.
Another distinction which separates these two classes of
objects from each other in a striking manner is, that the two
elements—object and cognition—are confused in subjective
perceptions, but not in objective. In the case of tooth-ache,
for example, where is the object as distinguished from the
cognition ? It seems impossible to detect any difference be¬
tween them, and yet to the perceptive faculty a tooth-ache is
an object of thought, and can be predicated of as such like
an external object The same with a mental emotion, it
seems impossible to detect the two elements of the perception
in it yet it is placed in the same category, as to form, as the
most distinct exterior object
But there is one class of objects which holds a place mid¬
way between these two. These objects are the gtiost-objective.
They stand aloof from the cognition in the perception, as if
they were unwillingly detained within the sphere of the ex¬
tended animation. In this respect they resemble objective
objects, and therefore it is, that we have ventured to style
them ^turn-objective. In other respects they are purely
subjective—they exist in us alone, and that only when ex¬
perienced.
It is between the emotional and the objective objects,
therefore, that the contrast which we are considering exists
in full force. The quasi-obj ective objects hold a place be¬
tween these two, being objective practically, but subjective
speculatively.
In the perception of emotions, because the two elements
seem to be confused, it is common to describe the whole per¬
ception in one only of its aspects. Thus, we speak of feeling
and being cognizant of feeling; or, having a sensation, and
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ.
383
being conscious of a sensation, as if one and the same thing.
Hence, some metaphysicians have located all bodily pain or
pleasure in the mind; and, to be consistent, they must have
identified all mental emotion also, with consciousness. This
was paying little deference to the persistent asseverations of
consciousness, that a pain, e.g. is there where it is felt to be.
Thus, if we feel pain in the foot, we say the pain is in the
foot, the consciousness of it in the mind ; although, at the
same time, it must be confessed, that if we begin to dis=
tinguish between the one and the other, we fail to do so. Yet,
in a certain way, we remember the pain, we make it the ob¬
ject of thought, for we predicate of it certain qualities or their
absence, and treat it in respect of form exactly as we would any
object which was not of an egoistical nature, all which to
our minds affords good reason for classing it with the objects
of consciousness. Indeed, the feet that the object is equally
as much within the ogo i as the consciousness of it, both prac¬
tically and speculatively, is enough to account for this seem¬
ing confusion. If the object is not known as being in one
sphere of extension, and the subject in another, as is the case¬
in objective perception, it seems to us that this seeming con¬
fusion is a neoeseary consequence If the object be located,
but not the cognition, the latter will seem to be one with the!
former. If neither be located, they will seem mutually one;
and this in each case, because there is no contrast to separate
the consciousness from the object, or both from each other.
We may, from this point of view then, describe objective
E rception as that in which the object and the cognition are
town as being each in a distinct sphere of extension, and.
subjective perception, as that in which the cognition ia not
separable from the locality of the object, if that be in the*
organism, or cognition and object from each other, if each
be unlocalized or mental, that is, are not apprehended as in¬
volving space; all that is known of them, in this respect
being, that they are within the boundaries of the fundamental
sensation.
It will he seen, from what we have now written, that we
can find no reason for regarding sensations, feelings, sensi¬
bilities, sentiments, desires, passions, excitements, or whatever
is akin to emotion, as one class of cognitions, and perception
as another; on the contrary, we find reason for thinking, that
the class emotion is a very distinguished body forming one of
the wings of that grand army of objects, of which perception
holds the immediate command. And when we enter upon
the more logical sphere which forms the next portion of this
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Consciousness as a Truth-organ .
inquiry, we believe that reasons will emerge which will com¬
mend this classification to the reader’s acceptance more
effectually, than anything which we have been able to ad¬
vance in its favour in the section which is here brought to a
close.
(To be Continued.)
Book Notice. Histoire Litter aire des Foot, par Octave
Delbpierre, fcp. 8vo., p.p. 184, London, Trubner and Go.
A delightful little work on a most interesting subject The
author displays, for a Frenchman, a remarkable knowledge
of English literature. His bibliographical lore is wide and
curious, and although he treats his subject almost exclusively
as one of literary research, he affords abundant and rich
material for the reflections of a psychologist Want of space
prevents us at the present time from giving more than the
briefest notice of this work, but we hope on a future oppor¬
tunity to give it the consideration it deserves.
Appointment. Dr, Edwin Wing, M.D., Lom>., to be
Medical Superintendent of the Hospital for the Insane at
Northampton.
ty Google
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THE JOURNAL OF MENTAL SCIENCE.
VOL. VI. Joly, I860. No. 34.
A Case of Homicidal Mania, without Disorder of the
Intellect. By C. Lockhart Robertson, M.B., Cantab.,
Member of the Royal College of Physicians; Medical
Superintendent of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and Honor*
ary Secretary to the Association of Medical Officers of
Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane.
I. History of the Case. G. T., No. 279, age 30, was ad¬
mitted into the Sussex Lunatic Asylum under an order
from the Secretary of State, on the 14th November, 1859.
He was transferred (as belonging to the parish of Brighton)
from the Kent County Asylum. I received the following
letter respecting him, from Dr. Huxley, the Medical Super¬
intendent of that asylum. It very clearly and accurately
relates the previous history of the case.
The County Asylum, Maidstone, Kent,
October 13th, 1859.
My dear Sir,—I this morning received the Secretary of
State’s order, directing the removal of G. T. (Brighton) from
this, to your asylum. I have written to Mr. Thorncroft,
assistant overseer, Brighton, to see whether he would prefer
to undertake the removal. If I do it I shall only think it
safe to proceed in one particular way. In a few days, then,
when I have heard from Mr. Thorncroft, you may expect to
have G. T., and I heartily trust he may not, with you, repeat
all the mischief he has done here. It is my duty to acquaint
you with the nature of the case, in order to put you on your
guard against surprises, whether in the shape of violence to
VOL. VI. NO. 34.
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A Case of Homicidal Mania,
the person or to property. Scarcely anybody who has been
concerned with G. T., but has suffered more or less. One at¬
tendant, in particular, was very severely injured about the
head, two or three years ago, in such a way as to endanger
his life; but happily, he got over it. Others in a less degree.
I have sustained malicious personal attacks twice ; Dr. Hills,
three times, until at length (and now for some considerable
time) I have established extra precautions with this man, by
which he is baffled ; I say baffled, because his disposition to
repeat his injuries as regards myself and Dr. Hills at least,
has remained, and been often manifested in efforts which
would be absurd if they were not insane, on account of the
smallness of their chance of success. One point I wish par¬
ticularly to mention : this man has never attacked with his
fists in the fair English fashion; he always resorts to a weapon
such as can be used stiletto-wise. In the case of the attend¬
ant badly injured, it was an old bone-knife, sharpened up and
rigged with a strap to give firm hold of the handle, which he
dug and drove into his scalp (which was seriously tom,) inflict¬
ing half-a-dozen blows in quick succession. In my and Dr. Hills*
cases, it has been a bit of sharpened stick or wood split off
something, held dagger-wise ana driven at the face with the
expressed intention of gouging out an eye. This man appears
to me to be an sftsassin by nature. Another feature I have to
mention. It is his treachery. His first attack on myself was
made under peculiar treachery. Trust him not. He can calcu¬
late well his time for attack so as to have his intended victim
at a disadvantage. In his first serious assault upon the attend¬
ant he took the occasion of the temporary absence of the second
attendant, and fell upon his man when he had his hands full,
carrying a large tray of plates and utensils. As for his de¬
struction of property, one day, before we knew him, he broke
more than one hundred squares of glass in no time with his
shoe, (he didn’t hurt himself!) and some other things, and for
a year or two subsequently it was his constant and often
successful effort to break all the glass he could get at in any
way. He has left this off of late, but I don’t think him
really better. I must now give you some particulars of his
history.
First admission, August 31st, 1855. Chemist’s assistant.
Age 25, single, supposed to have been nine months insane.
Symptoms: Said he was a prophet and inspired and obliged
to obey commands from above. Heard voices in the night
which he was obliged to obey. A loaded revolver was found
upon his person and he said it was necessary from the con-
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without Disorder of the Intellect.
dition of society. He sent a pistol to a gentleman whose wife
he had taken a fancy to, and a message to meet him which
could only be a challenge to fight. Has written many and
voluminous letters to the lady above alluded to—subject, his
own inspiration and gift of prophecy.
Removed, on his mother’s undertaking, on October 31st,
1855. His conduct in the asylum had been quiet and harm¬
less. Re-admitted, by Warrant, from Maidstone Gaol, on
December 16th, 1856. Committed for twelve months for want
of sureties in a breach of the peace. His mother had died in
the summer, and it may be supposed that the necessary sur¬
veillance had thus been removed. The mental symptoms
were as before, but, in addition, the violence was soon dis¬
played and it has been continued. 1 think 1 have mentioned
everything material to your proper information. The effort
to do justice to the case itself and not, in any precaution, to
exceed the actual necessity has, I assure you, been trying as
well as long. I trust in your modem establishment you may
find all the means, for this is an exceptional case, and requir¬
ing something more than the common securities. I shall be
happy to answer any questions and satisfy you on any points
which my letter may not meet, or not meet fully.
Believe me, my dear Sir,
Very truly yours,
Dr. Kobertson. JAMES HUXLEY.
On admission the patient was calm and collected in his
manner. He gave a most accurate account of his previ¬
ous history, expressing extreme regret at the misconduct of
which he had been guilty. Altogether I failed, after repeated
observation and examination, in detecting the slightest trace
of intellectual disorder. Under these circumstances, I filled
up the usual medical statement for the Commissioners in a
qualified manner, by saying, with respect to his mental state,
that “ He is, as I am informed by Dr. Huxley, subject to
attacks of impulsive homicidal mania.”
The patient continued under close observation, but still
shewed no symptom of mental disease. I supplied him with
books; the assistant medical officer, Mr. Gwynne (who thought
he was quite sane) took him a walk round the farm ; he came
to our weekly balls ; and, at last, so much did his apparent
sanity throw me off my guard, I asked him (being a man of
some education) to undertake the duties of Chapel clerk, and
those he performed up to the morning of his homicidal attack
on Mr. Gwynne.
d?
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A Case of Homicidal Mania,
During one of my conversations with him, he expressed
his intention, when liberated, to apply a small sum of money
he had in the hand of a relative, to make compensation to
the attendant, whom he had injured at Banning Heath. He
admitted that he was perfectly conscious of right and wrong,
and said himself that if he committed murder, he ought
to be made amenable to the law.
I certainly thought he was convalescent, and I entirely
failed in tracing in him any deviation from the healthy stand¬
ard, either intellectually or morally. He appeared to feel
much the degradation of his position, and his plans of future
amendment and usefulness were frequently spoken of by him.
His general conduct, up to the moment of his homicidal at¬
tack on the assistant medical officer, was that of a person of
sound mind.
In consequence of the qualified certificate which I gave on
the 19th November, the Commissioners in Lunacy wrote,
asking for a further report on the case. On the 6th of
January, 1860, I consequently transmitted the following
memorandum to their Secretary.
Memorandum by Dr. \tobertson on the case of 0. T.
Sussex Lunatic Asylum, 6th January, 1860.
With reference to my certificate in the case of G. T., a
criminal patient transferred from the Kent Asylum on the
14th November, 1859, I have now to state :—
1. That to the best of my knowledge the patient has, since
his admission here, exhibited no symptom of mental disease.
2. That I believe him to be conscious of right and wrong.
3. That his conduct has been most exemplary. He has
mixed freely with the other patients, and joined in our weekly
balls. He has also, at my request, undertaken the duty of
chapel clerk, and attends the daily morning prayer.
4. I consider this statement and opinion reconcilable with
Dr. Huxley’s report of his violence on many occasions and of
his homicidal propensities if it be assumed that he is the
subject of that form of mental disease termed by French
writers, monomanie meurtrfore (homicidal insanity) which
form of mental disease certainly exists in spite of the opinion
of the judges to the contrary.
Under these circumstances I am of opinion that G. T.
should be detained here until such time as the Commissioners
in Lunacy examine and personally decide the question.
(Signed) C. L. Robertson.
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without Disorder of the Intellect.
It will be seen by this memorandum, that my opinion leant
to his ultimate discharge, and that I thought he had re¬
covered from his homicidal mania.
This memorandum was written on the 6th of January. On
the evening of the 18th of January, the patient who had con¬
tinued to conduct himself with perfect sanity, was present at
one of our weekly balls. I spoke to him, and he complained
to me of not feeling very well, and his tongue was white, and
he looked, I thought, rather out of sorts. While I was speak¬
ing to him, he complained of faintness, and I took him into
the assistant medical officer’s room, adjoining the ball room,
where I gave him a glass of whisky and water, and he laid
down on the rug. In a quarter of an hour he was better,
and I advised him to go to bed, which he did. I recollect
knives were lying on the table, and he could, had he been so
disposed, then dangerously have injured either Mr. Gwynne
or myself. Next morning (January 19th), while Mr. Gwynne
was on his morning round in the airing court, the patient
came up and shook hands with him, as usual, and said he
wanted to speak to him about some money matters of his
own; he then suddenly, and without the slightest pro¬
vocation, attempted, with a sharp piece of wood he had con¬
cealed about him, to destroy Mr. Gwynne’s eye. The blow
fortunately glanced off his forehead, but was so severe as to
knock him down. He then closed with him, and attempted
to kick and injure him, but was speedily overpowered. He
was placed in the padded-room, and visited by me an hour
afterwards. His manner was much excited. He said he had
done it; that he always had an objection to medical officers ;
that he would not injure any of the attendants; that Mr.
Gwynne had a lucky escape, &c., &c.
He was informed that he would be kept under restraint,
and secluded while here. He said he had brought it on him¬
self by his misconduct, and that he had been leniently dealt
with.
On the evening of the 19th of January, I addressed the fol¬
lowing letters to the Home Office, and to the Secretary of the
Commissioners in Lunacy.
[Copy]
January 19 th, 1860.
Sir,—I have the honor to enclose herewith a copy of a
memorandum I have this day addresed to the Commissioners
in Lunacy, having reference to the case of G. T., a criminal
lunatic, removed under your Order of the 4th of October,
1859, (25153), from the Kent Asylum, at Banning Heath, to
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390 A Case of Homicidal Mania,
this asylum. The arrangements of this asylum are so entirely
Unsuited to the safe detention of so dangerous a case of homi¬
cidal insanity in its most aggravated form, that I cannot
longer accept, with any justice to my other patients, the re¬
sponsibility of his further detention and custody. I venture,
therefore, to solicit your authority for his immediate removal,
at the cost of his own parish, to the licensed house at Fisher-
ton House, Wilts, where, as I am informed, many such
dangerous criminal patients are confined, and the arrange¬
ments adapted to their safe custody.
I have the honor, &c., &c.
The Right Hon. the Secretary of State
for the Home Department.
[Copy.]
Sussex Lunatic Asylura, Hayward’s Heath,
January 19 th, 1860.
Memorandum by Dr. Robertson on the case of 0. T.
With reference to my memorandum of the 6th instant,
relative to the case of G. T., a criminal patient confined here,
I have now to add, for the information of the Commissioners
in Lunacy, that this morning he evinced symptoms of the
homicidal insanity to which I referred, in an unprovoked and
sudden attack on Mr. Gwynne, the assistant medical officer of
the asylum. As in former cases at the Kent Asylum, this
attack also was directed to destroying with a short implement
the eye of his intended victim. It is interesting to observe
that the attack was preceded by febrile symptoms (slight)
yesterday evening.
I have to add that I have placed him in seclusion and
under personal restraint, his hands fastened to a belt, and that
I feel it my duty, looking to the safety of the other members
of the establishment, equally under my protection, to keep
him in this condition of seclusion and restraint so long as it
shall be the pleasure of the Secretary of State that he be
detained here It is my intention to solicit his sanction to
the removal of G. T. to Fisherton House, where a large
number of criminal lunatics are, as I am informed, in safe
-custody. The arrangements of this asylum partake too much
of those of a hospital for the cure of disease, to enable me to
deal with so formidable a case of homicidal insanity. I
venture to hope that the Commissioners will concur in this
view of the case.
(Signed) C. L. Robertson.
The Secretary of State was pleased to grant my request.
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without Disorder of the Intellect 391
and on the seventh day of February last, G. T. was removed
to Fisherton House Asylum.
From the time of his attempt on Mr. Gwynne until the
date of his removal he was constantly seeking for an oppor¬
tunity to renew his attack. His countenance assumed a
fierce expression, and his eye lighted up with the glare of a
wild beast when visited and spoken to either by Mr. Gwynne
or myself. As I said above, I did not give him another
chance, but kept both his hands fastened in the ordinary
police waist-belt during his stay here. Had that stay been
prolonged to the day of bis death, I should not, I think, have
felt myself justified in authorizing the entire removal of the
restraint. When the intellect is affected by disease, the pre¬
cautions suggested by experience enable us to deal with the
various manifestations resulting from that disease, whereas in
one of sound intellect, and hence able to plan and arrange
future schemes, no precaution could at all times in the
crowded wards of a county asylum, and with the freedom and
liberty allowed, protect the officials or patients from the
sudden homicidal assaults of lunatics of the class under
consideration.
II. Clinical remarks on the case. This case is instructive
as shewing how morbid action of the will leading (contrary
even to the knowledge of the wrongness of the act) to at¬
tempts at homicide may exist in a mind apparently sane. I
believe any jury would have convicted the patient of murder
had he been discharged from this asylum previous to commit¬
ting the attempt He was undoubtedly, as I have remarked
above, conscious of right and wrong. No one could have
expressed more fully or more properly, his regret at the acts
of violence he had committed at the Kent Asylum; his in¬
tention hereafter both to conduct himself better and also to
make what atonement he had in his power for the injury
formerly done by him. He freely admitted that he was
conscious of right and wrong, and that he should be made
amenable to the law in the event of his renewing his homicidal
attacks. And yet there can be no doubt that the attempt he
did within a few days of this avowal make to destroy the life
of Mr. Gwynne was the act of a person of unsound mind. It
was made without provocation ; indeed, in return for unvary¬
ing kindness and attention. It was done before witnesses and
without the slightest chance of escape. He was in the airing
court where two attendants were on duty and Mr. Gwynne was
accompanied by the head attendant at his visit. Even had
he succeeded he knew that such an act would certainly insure
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392 A Case of Homicidal Mania,
his prolonged detention here, and yet when I pressed these
r ints in conversation with him afterwards, the only answer
got was that he would not injure the attendants, that he
had an objection to medical officers, and that Mr. Gwynne
had had a fortunate escape. When told that the Secretary
of State had decided on placing him in an asylum where be
would enjoy less liberty and be subject to more restraint, he
said he fully deserved it, that he had brought it upon himself,
and that he acknowledged the forbearance with which I had
treated him.
The previous history of this case, at once points to
the existence of some deep-seated moral perversion, or lesion
of the will more likely, or perhaps both, it is hard to
say, from which these homicidal attempts resulted. There
had been auditory illusions (one of the most intractible forms
of partial insanity), and he had been the subject of delusions
also, as is related by Dr. Huxley, in his history of the case.
There had been violence and insane attempts to break glass
and destroy property. These symptoms had, it is true, either
been cured, or had passed into abeyance, but their result in
the lesion of volition and perverted emotion which led to
this homicidal attempt shew how deep-seated the morbid
mental action had become, and may serve as a warning
of how the utmost caution and circumspection are necessary
in discharging from the controul of an asylum, any case in
which this homicidal mania has ever shewn itself. Like a
horse who has once reared, these cases are, in my opinion,
never safe, and I should not sanction, under any circum¬
stances, the entire restoration to liberty of any undoubted
case of homicidal mania.
In an able pamphlet* just published. Dr. Hood confirms
with his experience this opinion. “ Is it safe (he says) as re¬
gards the public, is it right as regards the individual, that the
man, who, under the influence of insanity, has, deliberately
or impulsively committed an homicidal act, should be again
a free and irresponsible agent, permitted to wander at will,
unrestrained as regards his actions, temptations, and with an
aggravated tendency to insanity, if not to crime ? The loss
of liberty for life is a frightful doom, but is it not better that
this should be endured by one, than that thousands should be
exposed to danger, and live in dread 1 It is true that every
patient is not desirous of being discharged—to some, return-
* Criminal Lunatics; a Letter to the Chairman of the Commissioners in
Lunacy, by W. Charles Hood, m.d., Physician to Bethlehem Hospital.
Churchill, I860.
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393
without Disorder of the Intellect.
iug to society brings with it a remorse far more painful to en¬
dure than any imprisonment, and the recollection of the past
inclines the individual to be thankful for a harbour of safety,
and too anxious to escape from public gaze, and, probably,
the finger of scorn ; but to others returning sanity brings no
such reflections, and sanity is hardly established before dis¬
satisfaction at the continued confinement is loudly expressed,
hardship and injustice complained of, and if personal appli¬
cation for liberty are not effectual, friends, relatives and mem¬
bers of Parliament are enlisted in an attempt to wrench from
the Home Secretary, the clemency of the Crown. There is a
small class among those who may, perhaps, with a degree of
safety, be liberated after a sufficient lapse of time, namely,
those who have committed infanticide under the influence of
puerperal mania after the period of child-bearing has passed,
and the restoration to liberty of such is now, I believe, more
frequently sanctioned by the Home Secretary of State than
was usual before the subject was so ably treated by Lord St.
Leonards.”
The act of a sane man is judged by the motives which led
to its commission. When a person of sound mind commits
murder he is led to the deed by passion, misdirected it is true,
but whose springs of action we are nevertheless capable of
analyzing and explaining. In cases of homicidal mania with¬
out intellectual disorder on the other hand, all motive is
absent, the deed, as in the case in question, is done without
any object or chance of advantage, and no attempt is made to
conceal the act or to escape from its consequences.
Farther, I believe that in every case a careful analysis of
the history of the patient will shew that some previous
morbid lesion of mind existed. Thus in the present case
there had been both auditory illusions and intellectual hallu¬
cinations, either of which morbid actions are sufficient to
break up the unity and harmony of the various elements of
the mind, and so justly to render the object morally irrespon¬
sible for his acts.
In every genuine case of homicidal insanity without intel¬
lectual disorder, some previous aberration from the standard
of mental health will be found. It may be an hereditary
taint conjoined with symptoms of passive congestion of the
brain ; or again the homicidal act may be in intimate relation
with disorder and irregularity of the catamenia. I entirely
doubt whether in a mind perfectly sound and without any
previous premonitory symptoms, mental or physical, a so-
called instinctive impulse to homicide ever does by disease
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A Case of Homicidal Mania,
arise * It would be contrary to our belief in the responsibility
and freedom of the human will to hold this opinion, and no
proof has yet been given of the existence of this form of
mental disease. In every case, of which I have examined the
history, in which this blind instinct to murder is said to have
been the sole and only symptom of mental disease, I have
found many other traces of disorder. Either there has been
a previous attack of mania, which has laid in abeyance rather
than been cured, or there has been some auditory illusion,
deep-seated, and not often shewn, or some physical disorder,
hereditary or otherwise, pointing to and causing mental
disease. It is the gathering in and weighing of these symp¬
toms and bringing them to the test of experience which con¬
stitutes the value of medical testimony in medico-legal cases
of presumed insanity. The homicidal act is, I hold, only the
overt and most striking symptom of the disease not its essential
nature. That lies deeper far, often beyond the reach of our
analysis, in the intimate and unfathomable relations between
mind and body—between slight intellectual or moral disorder,
and morbid impulse of and overt acts of violence. In Dr.
Morel’s Traits ass Maladies Mentales, just published, I find
in his chapter on the relations of homicide to its morbid
causes, the following foot note. “ Les annales de la mddecine
ldgale des alidnds contiennent plusieurs faits de ce genre et l’on
* I copy the following remarks bearing on this point from Dr. Henry Monro’s
Remarks on Insanity , (London, 1850.) “That form of tho disease called instinctive
madness is neither so common nor so distinctly marked as intellectual insanity ;
that there are such fox-ms as these where the intellect is clear, but the impulse to
some unnatural or rather outrageous acts is violent, there can be little doubt; and
that these are not the ordinary results of the evil principle residing within us,
but require the supposition of morbid action in the sensorium, is equally clear ;
on no other supposition can we account for persons imploring others to keep out
of their way for fear they should kill or otherwise injure them; an act which
they feel impelled to irresistibly, though their reason and moral sense con¬
vince them of the horror of the deed. Again, of the existence of that form
called moral insanity, where the moral sense is unaccountably and suddenly
changed, while the judgment remains pretty clear, there can be no doubt, though
I believe that this form is much more mixed up with intellectual deficiency than it
generally acknowledged in the present day . ... I refrain from dwelling
much on these forms from a sense that it is most difficult, and replete with
danger both socially as well as religiously, to decide where actual physical
disease of such an amount as to incapacitate the mind from its proper action
steps in; for nothing can have tho cover of disease except that condition which
is really beyond the control of the will; and the distance between what a person
evilly disposed (as we all are by nature) imagines to be the boundary over which
he really could nse control if his whole will were bent to the effort, is immense;
and thus, while I feel it to be necessary to think that some are really the victims
of a disease which they cannot resist, and would endeavour to shield them from
punishment which otherwise they would deserve, I should fear very much to
extend this shelter further than the real facts of the case would require,”
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without Disorder of the Intellect.
peat citer comme un specimen do cette esp&ce de ddlire,
l’histoire de Joberd, qui le 15 Septembre, 1851, k Lyon
pendant une representation th^atrale tua line jeune femme
enciente qu’il ne connaissait pas. L’histoire medico-legale de
cet indiviau faite par le docteur Arthaud, nous rdpresente un
alidne de la plus dangereuse espdce. Outre des tendances
hdrdditaires incontestables, il existait chez lui un dtat ndcro-
pathique de plus prononce, dh k des excfcs veneriens, k des
habitudes onanistes effirdn&s remontant k la premiere
enfance.”
This is a very interesting case and one bearing directly on
my observation, that in these cases of so-called instinctive
impulse to homicide, there is some deeper seated and more
retd trace of mental disease than the homicidal act, to be found
by those who know how to look for it. Thus in the case re¬
ferred to by Dr. Morel, the patient evinced to a superficial
observer, doubtless, no trace of mental disease, yet the skilled
psychologist found the seeds of the malady, of which the un¬
provoked homicidal act was but a symptom, in a confirmed
hereditary taint, and in a shattered nervous system resulting
from gross and continued acts of onanism.
This accurate diagnosis of homicidal mania is always a
most difficult ‘problem.
I cannot better illustrate this difficulty than by quoting two
cases referred to by Dr. Hood, in his pamphlet, and with the
history of which I am familiar; in one of which a sound
prognosis, upheld amid much opprobrium from the public
press, saved an undoubted lunatic from execution ; while in
the second instance, a mistaken opinion enabled a very wicked
man to escape the just punishment of his crime. Both cases
occurred in the practice of the same physician. It will suffice
for my present purpose to quote the short summary of these
cases from Dr. Hood’s pamphlet.
“ M. B. was tried at Guildford, in August, 1854, for the
murder of six children ; the principal medical witness, who
had had great experience in cases of lunacy, and obtained a
considerable popularity, as connected with the treatment of
mental disease, stated that, in his opinion, the prisoner was of
unsound mind, and entered into a scientific explanation of the
evidence of insanity. The accuracy of this opinion was not
challenged by the prosecution; nevertheless the jury con¬
sulted two hours before they could agree to acquit the
prisoner of legal responsibility by a verdict which was after¬
wards severely commented upon by the press and ill-received
by the public. Time, however, has proved the accuracy of
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A Case of Homicidal Mania,
the medical diagnosis; the most incredulous juryman must he
now convinced, and the greatest stickler for retributive justice
would admit, could they now see the unfortunate woman that,
instead of the gallows being cheated of a victim, her execution
would have been a faint echo of her crime. It appeared upon
the trial that only twenty-four hours before she killed her
children she was in a composed and rational state of mind.
The jury very properly hesitated before accepting a statement
that twenty-four hours could work so frightful a mental
change; but had the trial been postponed, the opportunities
for increased medical surveillance would have given the medi¬
cal testimony greater weight, and would have prevented that
erroneous impression which was formed by the public. There
can be no doubt but that the prisoner was most justly ac¬
quitted, for the disease, of which this frightful tragedy was
the manifestation, had then commenced.”
Case II. “ J. A. was tried at York, in December, 1858, for
murder; three medical witnesses of considerable repuation
formed an opinion, after two hours’ interview with the
prisoner whom they had never seen before, that he was insane
and an irresponsible agent. It is not necessary to go into the
evidence given undoubtedly with all the solemnity and con¬
sideration that the case deserved ; but the conclusion arrived
at by these gentlemen in so short a space of time, and which
influenced the jury in their verdict, was opposed to the
prisoner’s previous life, and most diametrically at variance
with his mental state and general conduct from the close of
the trial to the present date. He is a shrewd, designing, bad
man, and had either of those medical gentlemen who gave
their evidence had a prolonged opportunity of testing his real
character, they neither could nor would have sanctioned by
the weight of their testimony a plea of insanity, which was
unfounded in reality and unjust and dangerous to society.”
It is foreign to ray present observations to refer at any
length to the several forms of homicidal mania. These are :
1. Homicidal mania without disorder of the intellect, as in
the case of G. T., which I have related in this paper.
2. Homicidal mania with delusions bearing directly on the
act. Auditory illusions are a frequent variety of this form.
3. Homicidal mania with epilepsy, with weakness generally
of the mental powers, with confirmed chronic mania.
In the two latter varieties of homicidal mania, whether
complicated with delusions or with imbecility, epilepsy, or
confirmed chronic mania, no medico-legal questions are likely
to arise. Homicide committed by persons so afflicted is ad-
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without Disorder of the Intellect.
mitted on all sides to be the irresponsible act of a lunatic. It
is only in cases such as the one I have related in this paper,
where homicidal mania exists without any intellectual disorder,
that the question of responsibility can be raised. Were the
homicidal act really the only evidence of morbid mental con¬
dition, I for one should pause before admitting a doctrine so
subversive of all moral responsibility, as that in a mind other¬
wise healthy, the homicidal act should be received as conclu¬
sive evidence of insanity.
The object of these clinical remarks has been to shew that
such is not the case, and that to the experienced observer
other and deeper seated traces of mental disorder will appear.
In their discrimination lies the skill of the medical jurist,
as on their presence should alone be based the acquittal of
the accused.
Hayward’s Heath, Sussex, June, 1360.
P.S.—While this sheet was passing through the press, I
have received the following letter from Dr. Finch, relating
two similar homicidal attempts by this patient.
Fisherton House, Salisbury,
May 30, 1860.
Dear Sir,—I have to apologize for not replying to your
letter of the oth instant before. It was by some means
overlooked at the time, and I have only just come across it.
G. T. made an attack on one of our attendants on the
8th of April, striking him on the back of the head with a
short piece of wood. Stabbing him with it twice. And
on the 2nd inst. he struck another of the attendants
(evidently aiming at the eye) on the face, about half an inch
below the right eye, with a bone penholder, the end of it
being shaped like a hand, and consequently rather pointed.
Half an inch higher and it must have gone right through
the eye-ball.
On the first occasion I talked to him, and he promised
not to attempt anything of the sort again ; and on the
second attack, I blistered the back of his neck, and gave
him some sulphate of magnesia and small doses of antimony
together with low diet for three days.
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Hiatoire Litteraire dee Foua,
With the exception of these two attacks he has behaved
very well. We never use any restraint or seclusion, so wc
have not adopted any means of this sort.
I do not consider him the most dangerous man we have.
Though he is undoubtedly very dangerous and requires con¬
stant watching.
I shall be happy to supply you with any other particulars
that you may require.
I remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully,
W. Cobbin FiNcn.
Dr. Lockhart Robertson.
Hiatoire Litteraire des Foua ; 'par Octave Delepierre.
London: Triibner & Co., 1860.
The author of this little work, which will be found interest¬
ing to every one, and may be instructive to those who are
afflicted with an insanabile cacoethes scribendi, supposed, in
first considering his subject, that he had proposed to himself
a not altogether difficult task, and one which would require
only a little patient research for its accomplishment. But as
investigation proceeded and materials were accumulated, the
work assumed gigantic proportions, and it appeared as though
a biographical account of literary madmen would involve in
the end nothing less than a history of the world. “ For mad¬
ness enters in some measure into the history of most of the
great minds with which history makes us acquainted, and it
often becomes very difficult to establish the difference which
predispositions to madness present, from certain conditions
known as those of reason.” The authority of M. Ldlut is
invoked to prove that Pythagoras, Numa, Mahomet and
others, whose influence has been of such vast moment in the
world, were all in some measure affected in mind. “ They
were simply men of genius and enthusiasm, with partial hal¬
lucinations.” The good daemon which so often whispered
counsel in the ears of Socrates, and the amulet discovered
after death in Pascal’s pocket, have convinced M. Ldlut, who
has ingeniously attempted to convince others, of the insanity
of those great philosophers. An English philosopher will
feel rather uncertain about the foundations of Berkeley’s fame,
and a Berkleian may not be undisturbed when he is informed
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par Octave Ddepierre.
“ That a person possessed with a hallucination realizes up to
a certain point the supposition of the Berkleians, who pretend
to decide that it is not positively necessary that the existence
of the universe should be real, in order that we should per¬
ceive it as it appears to our senses.”
Is the world then moved by madmen, we may naturally, in
some trepidation, ask ? Or is it with M. Ldlut and others of
his school, as it was with the people of Abdera when they
took Democritus to be mad, and sent for the learned Hippo¬
crates that he might exercise his skill upon him ? “ When
Hippocrates was come to Abdera the people of the city came
flocking about him, some weeping, some entreating of him
that he would do his best. After some little repast, he went
to see Democritus, the people following him, whom he found
(as before) in his garden in the suburbs, all alone, sitting upon
a stone under a plane tree, without hose or shoes, with a
book on his knees, cutting up several beasts, and busy at his
study. The multitude stood gazing round about to see the
congress. Hippocrates, after a little pause, saluted him, whom
he re-saluted, ashamed almost that he could not call him like¬
wise by his name or -that he had forgot it.” And thereupon
ensues a discourse, in which Democritus shows that he had
good cause to laugh at the miseries, the madness, and the
follies of mankind. “ It grew late : Hippocrates left him ;
and no sooner was he come away but all the citizens came
about flocking to know how he liked him. He told them in
brief, that notwithstanding those small neglects of his attire,
body, diet, the world had not a wiser, a more learned, a more
honest man ; and they were much deceived to say that he was
mad.”* The opinion of so illustrious a judge should be de¬
cisive ; and yet there are some who will not be convinced that
the laughing philosopher was not, after all, mad; for, cogently
remarks one author, “ considering the way in which he lived,
either he was insane and the people of Abdera like the rest
of the world, or else they were all really mad, and Democritus
alone was wise. A strange supposition.” Strange enough
truly, but scarcely more strange than that which regards as
madmen so many of the great men who have left their stamp
upon the history of the world. Who in history can escape
the critical minuteness of M. Ldlut’s special eye ? Numa was
mad inasmuch as he professed that a certain nymph appeared
to him in a cavern, whom he called Egeria; would not such
an acknowledgment be a decisive ‘ fact ’ in any medical cer-
* Barton’s Anatomy of Melancholy—where the account is quoted almost ver¬
batim from Hippocrates' Epistle to Damagetos.
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400 Histoire Litteraire des Fous,
tificate ? Notwithstanding which, however, some may be of
opinion that of the two hypotheses—the first, that Numa was
mad and yet capable in his madness of thinking out much
legislative wisdom, and of establishing many prudent insti¬
tutions ; the other, that Numa being of sound mind, was
politician enough to perceive that superstition was the most
powerful instrument by which to impress new doctrines upon
a primitive people—the latter has about it a far greater ap¬
pearance of probability. “Nihil aeque valet ad regendos vulgi
animos ac superstitio,” says Tacitus. But fraud, M. Ldlut
believes, could never have had such great power in the world.
Why, even if Numa were mad, was not the nymph still a lie ?
And the wisdom which he somehow acquired not a lie ? A
madman’s delusion, though it be true for him, is not true
for the universe, and cannot therefore but die with its author.
That fraud cannot live, but must inevitably some day perish,
is, or should be, an axiom ; but truth, though wrapped for a
time in lies, must as inevitably live, and in the end it casts off
those temporary wretched rags, and appears in its own glori¬
ous nakedness. So Numa’s wise laws have had their influ¬
ence and are still working in the world, while the temporary
accessories by which they were rendered acceptable to the
barbarian mind have long since vanished—gone to the halls
of their author, the father of lies. /
Mahomet mad too! because, amongst other things, the
angel Gabriel was said to have paid visits to him. “ The
lies which well-meaning zeal has heaped round this man are
disgraceful to ourselves only. When Pococke enquired of
Grotius where the proof was of that story of the pigeon
trained to pick peas from Mahomet’s ear, and to pass for an
angel dictating to him ? Grotius answered that there was no
proof! It is really time to dismiss all that. The word this
man spoke has been the life guidance now of one hundred
and eighty millions of men these twelve hundred years. These
hundred and eighty millions were made by God as well as we.
A greater number of God’s creatures believe in Mahomet’s
word at this hour than in any other word whatever.”^ And
we are asked to believe that it was the wisdom of mad¬
ness ! Well, if so, a reflective mortal can have but little hope
of his race.
Of Cromwell’s grievous madness there will be little doubt
in certain minds. Did not a spectre appear to him in the open
day, or some strange woman open the curtains of his bed at
night, and predict to him that he should be king of England ?
And a Huntingdon physician told Sir Philip Warwick that he
t Carlyle’s Lectures on Heroes —Mahomet.
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par Octave Delepxerre.
had often been sent for at midnight; Mr. Cromwell was full
of hypochondria, thought himself near dying, and had “fancies
about the town cross.” Moreover, he was subject to uncon¬
trollable fits of laughter on serious occasions. “ One that was
at the battle of Dunbar told me that Oliver was carried on by
a Divine impulse. He did laugh so excessively as if he had
been drunk. The same fit of laughter seized him just before
the battle of Naseby.”J Divine impulse leading him on—>
so madness comes. “ Deorum afflatu nic furor provenit,” says
an ancient writer on insanity.
“ Mad call I it; for to define true madness,
What is’t, but to be nothing else but mad.”
Again, there was once a “ report raised by the devil, that Mr.
Whitfield was mad,” and he himself says, “ he might very
well be taken to be really mad, and that his relations counted
his life madness.” Here is an account from his journal, of
what seems to have been a compound of indigestion and
nightmare, wherein may be discernible by certain mortals
something of a mad ring: “ One morning rising from my bed,
I felt an unusual impression and weight upon my chest. In
a short time the load gradually increased, and almost weighed
me down, and fully convinced me that Satan had as real
possession of my body as once of Job’s. ... I fancied my¬
self like a man locked up in iron armour ; I felt great heav-
ings in my body, prayed under the weight till the sweat
came. How many nights did I lie groaning under the weight,
bidding Satan depart from me in the name of Jesus.”
But why continue a list, which by a “ speciality ” criticism
might be made to include almost every great actor in this
mad world—George Fox stitching for himself a leathern suit;
Ignatius Loyola, “ that errant, shatter-brained visionary
fanatic,” as Bishop Lavington calls him ; St. Francis, founder
of the Franciscans, who was wont to strip himself naked in
proof of his innocence, and to appear in fantastical dresses ;
and many others in whom appears a mixture, more or less,
of fanaticism and imposture. “ The windmill is, indeed, in all
their heads.” Perhaps if there is one man to whom a reader
of English history would point as having seen more than
what lay immediately under his nose, as being that rare
animal in political life, one who entertained wide and philo¬
sophical views instead of having faith in the expediency-
doctrine of the moment—that man is Edmund Burke. “ He
possessed (says Coleridge) and had sedulously sharpened that
X Aubrey’s Miscellanies.
vol. vi. no. 34 . e
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Hietoire Litter air e dee Foue,
eye which sees all things, actions, and events in relation to
the laws which determine their existence, and circumscribe
their possibility. He referred habitually to principles, he was
a scientific statesman.” Truly a rara avis, a bird whose ap¬
pearance might be welcome to some in these times! But
what is the use of setting up any idol in the nineteenth cen¬
tury, unless it be for some one to batter down ? Buckle, in
that learned work on the History of Civilization, has brought
forward certain ingenious reasons to prove that Burke was for
a time mad. •* Nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtur& de¬
menti*.”
A biographical account of celebrated madmen would be an
exceedingly interesting undertaking, but it had better on the
whole not be attempted if it be necessary for its completeness
that it include such men as Socrates, Pascal, Mahomet,
Cromwell, and Burke. When a few people put their hands
on a table expecting_that it will move, it generally does move;
and when a professed psychologist investigates minutely the
history of any very notable man, he is pretty sure to discover
somewhere therein a taint of insanity. So that, since this
class of investigators has multiplied so greatly of late, an
unbiassed observer might be apt to think that there is a
madness-finding epidemic abroad.
Considering the immense labour which a complete history
of literary madness would involve, M. Delepierre determined
to confine himself to a sketch of certain madmen whose men¬
tal derangement had been very decided; sufficiently so to
render precautions on their account necessary. Thus limiting
himself, he, to avoid confusion, makes four divisions of mad
authors; the first consisting of theological madmen, the
second of literary madmen properly so-called, the third of
philosophical madmen, and the fourth of political madmen.
At this stage aptly is this reflection made, ‘ that the psycho¬
logical problem, a few elements of which are here collected,
may exercise in every reflective mind, a painful but salutary
influence upon the feeling of pride ana conceit which the
power of intelligence sometimes gives rise to. This mixture
of greatness and weakness is well adapted to give us, in a
practical form, a lesson of profound humility.’ ‘ The halluci¬
nations and madness of Tasso, of Benvenuto Cellini, of the
painter Fuseli, of Cowper, of Swift, of White, and of many
others whose names press under the pen, exhibit a page in
the history of the human mind, which would almost make us
agree with Aristotle, that it is of the essence of a good poet
to be mad.’ Humility is a lesson which man individually,
and humanity generally, are very slow to learn; but perhaps
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par Octave I) depier re.
no reflection can be better calculated to teach it than this—
that in some of the highest illustrations of human intellect,
a curious observer can discover the indications of madness ;
and this further one—that many of those who have exercised
the greatest influence on mankind may actually enter into a
history of insanity, as written by certain psychologists. On
the other hand—and this is not calculated to increase our
vanity—some are found to look up to, as heroes and prophets,
those whom others designate as insane. Even Carlyle, as
some suppose, in his zeal for earnestness and sincerity, gets
hold now and then of a questionable hero, and appears to for¬
get that a madman is generally the most sincere of men, and
for the most part madly in earnest.
The first division of literary madmen to which we are in¬
troduced is that of theological madmen. “ Religious madmen
differ in many essential points from others in then aberrations;
their objects are the emotions, the passions, and the instinctive
impulses of the soul. A boundless horizon is presented to
the religious mind, in which conjectures, hopes, and fears
assume every variety of form which the imagination can lend
them. The realities of material existence disappear with the
fanatic or religious madman, not in consequence of reasoning,
as in certain philosophical systems, but because he believes
it his duty to annihilate them in the interest of his souL His
entire existence is absorbed in that thought which not only
exercises an immense influence upon his madness as cause,
but modifies every phase of the external manifestations of his
mind. His chimerical conjectures have no limit, and reason
may convince us a priori that theological doctrines, opinions,
and theories form not the least curious, nor least fruitful part
of the literary history of madness.” The devout theologian,
as an article of his creed, passes beyond the confines of reason,
and calmly reposes on his faith amidst the mysteries which he
desires not, and attempts not to comprehend ; but the theolo¬
gical madman, by striving to extend the domain of reason
into the sphere of the unconditioned, overstrains and cracks
it, rendering it henceforth powerless even in its own sphere.
While the former, therefore, rests securely on the Infinite,
and, asserting the imbecility of reason, admits no argument
from its armoury against the evidence of faith in what eye
cannot see, nor ear hear, nor can it enter into the heart of
man to conceive ; the latter projects the fantastical creations
of a disordered reason into the field of faith, and claims the
evidence of a valid witness to a manifest absurdity. What
then can argument do? Reason has no valid standing ground;
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we have entered upon the region of the Infinite, the uncon¬
ditioned ; and the religious madman may oppose to us a
witness, the validity of whose evidence in another case we ad¬
mit. So it comes to pass that theological doctrines and opi¬
nions form such an important part in the history of literary
madness. But there is often another reason which may be
indicated by this question : What in the world could have
induced this being, nowise particularly endowed among
mortals, to fancy himself the favoured depositary of Heaven’s
secret mysteries ? Clearly, it is ofttimes vanity that has so
worked, excessive self conceit, “ un amour propre colossal
a morbid exaltation, as one might say, through unfavourable
circumstances on a naturally weak character. “ Vanity, or
self-conceit, is another circumstance that for the most part
prevails in the character of an enthusiast . . . and the
breath of that inspiration to which they pretend, is often no
more than the wind of this vanity.”* And when in the lines
of a mad face Heaven itself has written with no uncertain
hand, vanity, vanity, it is for ever the mene, mene, tekel,
upharsin, of reason; for to argue with vanity is to pour
water on a wax-cloth. There is yet another circumstance
which will tend to increase the number of theological mad¬
men ; if a man of little education takes to writing and
teaching, it must necessarily be on religious subjects; for,
from the poverty of his education, he has none other than
religious knowledge. Strange, indeed, are sometimes the
compositions of those who have 60 written. Here is the title
of a book, Spiritual Syringe for Devotionally Constipated
Sinners; and this the title of another, A Spiritual Snuff
Box to make Devout Souls Sneeze. A Jesuit named Paoletti,
who, in the middle ages, wrote against Thomas Aquinas’
doctrine concerning Predestination and Freewill, and who had
been in confinement five years when he wrote, composed a
treatise in which he ‘demonstrated that the aborigines of
America were the direct descendants of the devil and one of
the daughters of Noah; consequently it was absolutely im¬
possible that they should ever obtain salvation or grace.’ A
certain Guillaume Postel, who lived in the sixteenth century,
maintained that Jesus Christ had only redeemed the souls of
men, and consequently that women remained yet to be ran¬
somed, which they would be through the mediation of
Qrarulmh'e Jeanne —said Grandm&re being an old courtezan
with whom Guillaume was infatuated. He believed, moreover,
that he was inspired, and that it was the Spirit of Christ
* Lyttleton’s Convtrtion of St . PavL
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which wrote in him; this was the end of him—‘ il fut con-
damn4 & tire bruU vif .’.’ Geoflroy Vallde, another French¬
man, who had a shirt for each day in the year, and who used
to send his shirts to a certain spring in Flanders to be washed,
composed a book after being placed under care for insanity,
the title of which clearly indicated madness, but which resulted
nevertheless in his being condemned as an atheist He and
his book were burnt together the 9th February, 1574 ; and as
he was conducted to the stake, * he cried out with a loud voice
that the people of Paris were putting to death their God upon
earth, and that they would repent of it.’ So lunatics were
treated at that time, or rather heterodox lunatics; for the
Catholic Church has exhibited considerable policy in dealing
with its mad folks. If they were orthodox and could be em¬
ployed for the advancement of religion, they were not unfre-
quently canonized ; if heterodox, they were burnt. Simon
Morin, who had published an absurd book, was arrested by
order of the French Parliament, and was ordered to be sent
to a mad-house for the rest of his days. But, having abjured
his follies, he was released, and soon after published another
.book in which he maintained that he was no other than the
Son of Man. ‘ He was condemned in 1662 to be burnt alive
with his books, and his ashes to be cast to the wind.’ So
Simon Morin and his heterodoxy were extinguished. On the
other hand St. Francis, the founder of the Franciscans, who
loved to strip himself naked, and to appear in strange garb,
who saw visions, ‘as of an angel with six burning wings,
bearing a figure nailed upon the cross,’ and who at any rate
was at one time chained down in a dark room by his parents,
and was ‘ deemed to be mad both by the learned and vulgar’;
he was canonized.* Another saint, St. Rosa de Luna, mixed
gall and foeces with all her food ; Agnes de Jesus opposed,
from humility, the destruction of the vermin which swarmed
in her hair; and St. Catherine de Sienne was received as a
veritable spouse into the bosom of the Saviour. “ It is true,
indeed, as the Legendaries own, ‘that St. Catherine was
slandered as a fond and light woman ;’ ” but, as the Church
says, ‘this a wicked woman gave out by the devil’s insti¬
gation.’ f There can be little doubt as to the insanity of
* Here is a fact which may be worth consideration by certain authorities,
when they find the pillows of pauper lunatics too thin and feel moved to recom¬
mend thicker ones :—“ St. Francis happening once to use a pillow on account
of illness, the devil got into his pillow, and made him uneasy all night. But
upon his ordering the pillow with the devil in it to be carried away, he presently
recovered.”
f Enthusiasm of Methodists and Papists compared .—Bishop Lavington.
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some of these so-called saints, brought on, as seems probable,
by the long fastings, the watching, want of cleanliness, and
the great severities practised upon the body ; they are not,
however, illustrations of our author, but are here interposed
for consideration.
The author’s illustrations of theological insanity are by no
means confined to France. Amongst others in England, he
mentions the well known Mrs. Elizabeth Cottle, of Kirkstall
Lodge, Clapham Park, who ‘ is ready to put an end to all the
little political and social difficulties of our epoch, and to re¬
generate the human race.’ With this object she is in the
habit of addressing letters to the Queen, Prince Albert, the
different ministers of England, and the principal sovereigns
of Europe. It appears that at the commencement of the
present year, Bright received a letter from her couched in
apocalyptic style, informing him that she had become his
enemy because he wished to extend the right of voting. The
Emperor of the French and the King of Sardinia have been
lately favoured by her. The fact related in the Gospel of St
Peter being guarded by four centurions, is, according to her, an
allusion to the quadruple alliance of 1815, and to the Austrian
quadrilateral in Italy. It is a fair illustration of the curious
association of ideas that not unfrequently occurs in insanity—
incoherent ideas associated through vague resemblances of
terms or sensations. A similar incongruity of ideas is pro¬
duced many times a dav in the soundest mind; and a man of
the most vigorous intellect may, by careful observation, dis¬
cover the most extravagant ideas combined in the most
whimsical fashion; were he to body them forth in words, he
would be deemed mad. The most striking examples of such
incongruous creations are to be met with, however, in that
border-land which intervenes between waking and sleep; it is
a land peopled with the strangest phantoms, such as we meet
also in that other stage through which we must pass previous
to the final sleep, the Valley of the Shadow of Death. Every
one knows how pleasant it is as the consciousness gradually
fades and the strange frolic of ideas begins just before sleep ;
but one is apt to look upon it as a painful thing when mani¬
fested in that mild delirium which often immediately precedes
death. Nevertheless experience confirms the conjecture which
from analogy we should form, that this delirium of ideas is as
pleasant in one case as in the other; and we are fully justified
in the conclusion that the act of dying is generally very
agreeable. It was either Dr. Cullen or Dr. Black, who told
his friends, when dying, * that he wished he could be at the
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trouble to tell them how pleasant a thing it was to die.’ But
this is rather a digression, and the fact on which attention
is to be fixed at present is this—that the best plan of obtaining
sleep when tossing restless on the bed, is voluntarily to create
and associate the most incongruous ideas, and the better we
succeed the sooner shall we be asleep. Strange indeed, that
voluntary association of incongruous ideas, wilful insanity in
fact, should at times be a serviceable exercise in a sound
mind. But the insane man believes that there are facts in the
universe conformable to his extravagant ideas : he does, but
how happens it ? By virtue of that very tendency which is
so powerful in the sound mind, and which has produced so
much error in philosophy, the tendency to suppose that an
idea involves an existence conformable to it; that the same
order must exist amongst the objects of nature as exists
amongst our ideas ; that man is the measure of the universe.
When Descartes assumed as the fundamental principle of his
philosophy that “ omne id quod valdk, dilucidb, et distincte
concipiebam, verum esse,” he would seem to have left know¬
ledge at the mercy of any madman. Metaphysical philosophy,
some might then think, exists by reason of the same vanity
in the human mind, whereby comes so much insanity. This
gives scarcely a cheering reflection, when analyzed, of man’s
destiny. Shadows from the regions of madness project over
us every moment of our lives, and there is not a single link
wanting, not a single link defective in the chain which, run¬
ning through humanity, connects in uninterrupted series the
wisest and most exalted with the lowest and most idiotic of
mankind.
Johanna Southcote, is the last example given by M. Dele-
pierre of theological madness; she is dismissed in a few
words, being not very gallantly described as “ cette hallucinde
laide, vieille et ignorantebut who had at any rate the
faculty of persuading that she was pregnant with the Messiah
many who, in their “ inexplicable enthusiasm,” actually pro¬
vided a cradle and splendid garments for the forthcoming
prodigy. Well may we say “ inexplicable enthusiasm,” ana
grieve over so humiliating an exhibition of human credulity
and folly. But men are unhappily liable, as all history shows,
to epidemics of madness ; and there is nothing so monstrous
and absurd but what, if it be proclaimed only with sufficient
audacity, will find many believers. At this moment, on the
other side of the Atlantic, is a colony of human beings
who have forsaken country and friend, and are prepared to
suffer any persecution for the Gospel according to Joseph
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Smith—he, self-styled prophet, a foul emanation from the
dregs of society, stained with most of the vices and crimes
which can sully human nature. But epidemics spare neither
high nor low, and even society’s holy of holies has been entered
by an epidemic of spirit-rapping ; so that minds equal to the
closest logical problems are now believing in the existence of
“ mediums,” through whom spirits communicate the secrets
of the unknown world. Such things have always been, and
are well calculated to teach man a lesson of profound humility.
In the eighteenth century commercial manias were the
fashion; the Mississippi Scheme in France and the South Sea
Scheme in England proved that gold was as potent for evil
over mankind then, as it was when Jupiter in its form intro¬
duced himself to the charms of Danae. In that century, too,
a whole nation went mad; and the French Revolution, al¬
most a puzzle to philosophers, remains a fearful exhibition of
the capabilities that there are in man. The most notable
madmen of the sixteenth century were the Anabaptists ; and
in the centuries preceding their appearance, witchcraft seems
to have been an epidemic mama. Numbers of supposed
witches in those days actually confessed to sabbath meet¬
ings with Satan, whom they found to be a very pleasant
companion, asserted that they were constantly being changed
into cats, in such form committing numberless homicides,
and in that faith were burnt by authority, which was all
the while unable to discover any increase in the mortality.
In the 14th century, there swept over Europe in connection
with that most fearful epidemic, the Great Plague, or Black
Death, certain moral epidemics; the Flagellants or Whip-
pers, and the Dancing Maniacs, reflected in the human
mind the fearful epidemic which was destroying the
human body. But why enumerate more instances? Is
not history, if we reflect upon it, but a history of human
madness, speaking to us in the ruins of once flourishing
cities, and m the extinction of once mighty nations, of the
madness whereby they came to destruction! History
writes plainly enough, when it writes too in such characters
as the Sphynx and the Pyramids of Egypt.
But it is full time to proceed to M. Delepierre’s second
division, that of literary madmen. “ Here the digressions
of the human mind only glance at the objects; imagination
touches them with a light hand. Figures, tropes, and whim¬
sical analogies are the instruments which it makes use of.
It galops and bounds like a horse without bridle, or revolves
upon itself like a top, which seems to have less motion, the
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more rapid its movement is." The madmen of this class,
do not occupy themselves with deep speculations on ab¬
struse subjects; they rarely go below the surface of things,
and are concerned rather with the mode of expression of
common ideas, than with the nature of the ideas themselves.
And thus, “ the intellectual powers of the individual being
less concentrated than in those who are occupied with philo¬
sophical or theological ideas, the exhaustion is much less."
Many belonging to this class would appear to be persons
who, in madness, are still afflicted with the insanabile scri-
bendi cacoethes, and who “ write out of the itching humour
that every men hath to shew himself; they commonly pre¬
tend publtc good; but, as Gesner observes, ’tis pride and
vanity that eggs them on. ... Bewitched with this desire
of fame, etiam mediis in morbis, they must say some¬
thing " (Burton.)
Yet some there are, who, out of (.decay, emit bright phos-
phorences of genius, and compose, in good style, what a pro¬
fessed philosopher may read with advantage ; the writings
of Nathaniel Lee, born about the end of the 17th century,
have been praised by no less illustrious a judge of English
composition than Addison. One night when Lee was com¬
posing one of his dramas in his cell in Bedlam, a cloud
passed before the moon, by the light of which he was
writing, when he suddenly cried out: Jove, snuff the moon.
Dryden relates how this same Lee once replied to a bad
poet who had made the foolish remark, that it was very
easy to write like a madman : “ It is very difficult to write
like a madman, but it is very easy to write like a fool.
Alexander Cruden, whose ‘Biblical Concordance' is still
the standard concordance, became insane while at the Uni¬
versity, in consequence of falling violently in love with a
young lady who, unhappily, could not reciprocate his passion.
He was sent to an asylum, but after a short time became so
calm that he was set at liberty; and it was after that event
that he wrote his Concordance. The most remarkable
feature in his case was the immense labour which he accom¬
plished ; spasmodic efforts of occasional brilliancy we are
prepared to expect in insanity, but the spectacle of a mad¬
man undertaking and executing so much patient research,
we can scarcely witness without some astonishment He
was three times placed in confinement, and after his release
on the last occasion, despairing of obtaining what he deemed
justice for his wrongs, he wrote to his sister and several of
his friends, proposing, with the utmost simplicity, that they
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should iu an easy way afford him a slight compensation.
His proposition was simply that they should subject them¬
selves to imprisonment for a time in Newgate. Heavenly
voices towards the end of his life, informed him that he had
a divine mission ; and he demanded that he should be recog¬
nized of the King in Council, and that he should be created
by Act of Parliament, * Corrector of the People.'
Living at the same time as Cruden was a certain Christo-
S her Smart, who, after a brilliant career at Cambridge, un-
appily became insane. During his confinement he wrote,
by means of a key, on the panels of his chamber, a poem of
nearly a hundred stanzas to the * Glory of David, King and
Prophet' Here are some of his verses—
“ He sang of God —the mighty source
Of all things—the stupendous force
On which all strength depends;
From whose right arm, beneath whose eyes
All period, power, and enterprise
Commences, reigns, and ends."
* • * * *
“ Glorious the sun in mid career;
Glorious the assembled fires appear;
Glorious the comet's train ;
Glorious the trumpet and alarm ;
Glorious the Almighty’s stretched-out arm ;
Glorious the enraptured main.
Glorious—more glorious is the crown
Of Him that brought salvation down
By meekness, call'd thy Son ;
Thou that stupendous truth believed,
And now the matchless deed’s achieved,
Determined, dared, and done."
Here are a few lines of a poem by one Thomas Lloyd, who
passed most of his life in a mad-house ; for, though he was
several times set at liberty, it was always necessary in &
short time to put him under restraint again.
“ When disappointment gnaws the bleeding heart;
And mad resentment hurls her venom'd dart;
When angry noise, disgust, and uproar rude.
Damnation urge and every hope exclude ;
These, dreadful though they are, can't quite repel
The aspiring mind that bids the man excel.
• • * * *
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To brighter mansions let us hope to pass,
And all our pains and torments end. Alas !
That fearful bourne we seldom wish to try,
We hate to live, and still we fear to die.
*****
Methinks that still I see a brighter ray,
That bids me live, to see a happier day,
And when my sorrows, and my grief-worn spirit flies.
My Maker tells me—fear not Lloyd—it never dies.
This cheering hope has long supported me,
I live in hope much happier days to see.”
A lunatic in the Bic&tre, who had unsuccessfully attempted
suicide, thus writes—
Mon Dieu vous m’ avez vu chaque jour vous prier
De terminer la vie que je ri ai pu m’ 6ter!
Ami, qui m' emp&chas, viens done me consoler!
John Clare, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, who
was so’remarkable when insane for the tenacity and accuracy
of his memory, does not escape mention. He could depict
with an accuracy extending to the minutest particulars, and
in so graphical a manner as to excite admiration, the ex¬
ecution of Charles L, of which he professed to have been an
eye witness. In the same way he would give, with wonderful
exactness in the nautical terms, an account of the Battle of
the Nile, and of the death of Nelson, maintaining that he
was one of the sailors present at the action; and vet he had
never seen the sea in his life. “ C'est une pareille lucidity
que les partisans du magnetisme animal qualifie de Clair¬
voyance,” remarks M. Delepierre.
In 1811, Thomas Bishop published a drama, which had
cost him three years labour, entitled ** Koranzzo’s Feast, or
the Unfair Marriage, a tragedy founded on facts, 2366 years
ago, and 665 years before Christ, &c. Amongst the actors in
this tragedy, are the King of Babylon, the King of Persia,
Lord Strawberry, Dr. Pill, four Queens, Mrs. Hector, three
Savages, and five ghosts. The stage directions for the last
scene run thus: “ On one side representation of a forest, part
of which is in darkness, two sofas and the appearance of a
clock. Three savages in the distance." Sofas and savages,
forests and clocks, “ founded on facts," how different must
things have been 2366 years ago! There is a contempt for
common-place facts among such writers which is quite superb.
A bold and original thmker, and an eloquent and vigorous
writer has said : “ I have a sympathy with these mad men.
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Were the world’s ways wiser than they are, these unfortunates
had not gone mad. It is chiefly the most thoughtful and
best intentioned men amongst us, that now become demented;
men who think, till they know not what to think, then,
soul-sick, mope or rave, or smile on vacancy, till death en¬
lightens them! A chaos is theirs of glory and misery ;
particles of the ineffable light of Divinity, glittering here and
there amidst an ocean of gloom; the light supplied by nature
interposed with the darkness supplied by authority, and
called light, no marvel they are madl they are, however,
wiser than the sane; for they have seen that evil is para¬
mount on the earth, and have had some glimpses of a bright
hereafter: and to both these experiences most of the sane
are strangers. Sanity signifies an inordinate love of self.’’*
It may be, and doubtless is so, in some cases; but on the
whole it would be as correct to say, that insanity signifies an
inordinate conceit of self. If a man cannot reconcile himself
with circumstances, it argues frequently a too high opinion
entertained of himself; and there is no feature so striking in
a history of literary madmen, as their excessive vanity. If
a man cannot in some measure bend circumstance to a
reconciliation with himself, it argues weakness on his part;
and that also is a feature abundantly manifest among these
madmen. They have mostly too much feeling and too little
knowledge; their power of insight is not equal to the
feeling which they have of their own importance in the
universe. Insignificant atoms in a world which is itself but
an atom in the universe, they are possessed with the delusive
fancy that the whole creation should reconcile itself with
their inward life, instead of striving to bring their life into
harmony with the creation; and destiny being much stronger
than they are, they break down in the unequal conflict, and
go mad. But their vanity persists, nay flourishes, amidst the
decay of better things ; and volumes are published by them
to revolutionise a world, which is wrong mainly in having
failed to recognise their importance. Philosophy is in con¬
sequence a favourite subject with those of the insane whose
education has introduced them into its courts; and the feeble
mortal who could not keep himself right in his small sphere,
claims the faculty of being able to put a world right.
May we not depend upon this, that any one who suddenly
discovers that the world has been going hitherto altogether
wrong, and who aspires to force the current of progress into
* The Alpha, a Revelation but no Mystery, By Edward B. Dennys.
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a different channel, is more or less affected in his thinking
faculties. For the question simply is, whether the universe
has advanced up to its present point upon a false system,
and can now be turned round and pushed into a true one, or
whether the individual who so believes, is or is not in his
right senses.
Philosophical madmen are then in a somewhat similar
position to that in which theological madmen are; they are
mostly vain persons who have lost their way in matters too
deep for them, and by reason of their vanity and of the
nature of the subject of their pursuits, they are as hopeless
satisfactorily to deal with as those who speculate on reli¬
gious mysteries. A deplorable instance of the class is af¬
forded by Thomas Wirgman, who, after making a large
fortune as a goldsmith, squandered it all as a regenerating
philosopher. He had paper made specially for his books,
the same sheet consisting of several different colours ; and
as he changed the plan of the work many times while it was
passing through the press, the cost thereof was in the end
by no means slight: one book of four hundred pages cost
two thousand two hundred and seventy-six pounds sterling.
He published a grammar of the five senses, which was a sort
of system of metaphysics for the use of children, and main¬
tained that when it was universally adopted in the schools,
peace and harmony would be restored to the earth and
virtue would everywhere replace crime. We believe, al¬
though the fact is not mentioned by M. Delepierre, that the
Quardians of St Pancras actually allowed him a trial of his
system among the pauper children; and at the end of a
week or two he, at an examination, demonstrated the won¬
derful superiority of his method over others by this question,
* How do you know the existence of a God ? ’ Answer by
small boys in full chorus—* By intuition/ Wirgman made
a table of the ‘ Science of the Mind,' containing twenty
elements, of which he says :—“ The twenty elements which
constitute the human mind are not only discovered, but so
completely classified as to defy posterity either to add one
more element or to take one away, or even to alter the ar¬
rangement so scientifically displayed in the British Euclid,”
(a book of his) “ The work is done for ever; like the Py¬
thagorean Table which was made six hundred years before
Christ, and not only stood the test of ages to the present
period, but actually defies succeeding generations to the end
of Time, either to add to or detract from its perfection."
In many parts of his works he complains plaintively that
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people will not listen to him, and that, although he had de¬
voted nearly half a century to the propagation of his ideas,
he had asked in vain to be appointed Professor in some
University or College—so little does the world appreciate
those who labour unto death in its service ! Nevertheless,
exclaims Wirgman, after another useless application, “ while
life remains 1 will not cease to communicate this blessing to
the rising world." Can we refuse our tribute to the sincerity
and heroic earnestness of the man ?
The learned men of Italy in the year 1529, were much
excited by the publication of a work on the Anatomy of
Language , by Joseph Bernardi, composed while the author
was in a mad house. In it he maintained, amongst other
things, that monkeys had the faculty of speech, but were
exceedingly jealous of exhibiting it, from a reasonable fear
lest they should be made slaves of by men. This doctrine
he professed to demonstrate by the anatomy of the throat
of monkeys, which clearly showed that they had the faculty
of speech and even of singing, and by the authority of Marco
Polo, in the first edition of whose travels it had been estab¬
lished, said Bernardi, that monkeys could sing. Father
Cremoni, a Jesuit, thought the doctrine worth refuting, and
composed a treatise in which he maintained that, although
his adversary had written very well upon the subject, yet
his opinion was opposed to the testimony of Holy Writ, and
must, therefore, be untrue. So that the argument which
did service against Galileo was used to demolish Bernardi.
Do the facts testify to one thing, and authority to another I
Tant pis pour les faits. The reader will decide, says M.
Delepierre, which (the Jesuit or Bernardi) was the more
mad of the two.
William Martin, brother of the Jonathan Martin who set
fire to York Minster, published several philosophical works
in which he announces himself as having overthrown the
Newtonian philosophy. Being rather rudely treated by the
critics, he defied them in a publication entitled, WtUiam
Martin’8 Challenge to all the World as a Philosopher and a
Critic 1 Another of his titles is : A Critic on all False
Men who pretend to be Critics, not being men of wisdom or
genius.
“ Well they know that William Martin has outstript
Newton, Bacon, Boyle, and Lord Bolingbroke."
He was “ convinced that he was the man whom the Divine
Majesty had selected to discover the great secondary cause
of things, and the true perpetual motion." “I supplicate
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the English Government to put an end to the abominable
system that is practised under the eyes of God and man. A
fool may rise and make a noise, but noise is not argument,
and whoever from among the servants of the devil oppose
the system of Martin, let them stand up one after another,
and give a good reason for their opposition/’ The irritated
philosopher was evidently in earnest.
A certain John Steward, who died in 1822, travelled over
a great part of the earth, with the object of discovering the
“ Polarization of Moral Truth.” He published several books,
and as he was of opinion that the kings of the earth would
form a league for tne purpose of destroying them, he begged
of his friends that they would carefully wrap up some copies,
so as to preserve them from moisture, and bury them seven
or eight feet deep, taking care on their death bed to declare
under the seal of secrecy, the place where they had buried
them.
Let us glance at political madmen. “Political science
must necessarily involve profound study, and exact a con¬
stant and vigorous use of the highest faculties of reason. In
practice it excites passion in eager minds and blinds them,
although superficially there reigns the appearance of calmness
and coolness. It is this necessary appearance which strength¬
ens twofold the energy of the conviction. And when the
political sinks into the party spirit, and personal interest and
ambition have an open course, a rich and fruitful field is
offered to disordered thoughts.” We can give but one
example. A certain Davesne or Davenne, in the reign of
Louis XIV., was of opinion that of right he ought to supplant
that monarch, and mount the throne; and he proposed two
plans of deciding the question. “Call the Cardinal, the
Regent, the Duke of Orleans, the Princes Beaufort, and
those who are deemed most holy in the world; have a
furnace kindled ; let us all be thrown into it, and he who
comes out uninjured, like a renovated phoenix, from the
flames, let him be regarded as the protegd of God, and
be ordained prince of the people.” Fearing however, natu¬
rally enough, that so severe a test might not be acceptable,
he proposes another. “ Let the Parliament sentence me to
death for having dared to speak the truth to princes. Let
them execute me, and if God does not protect me from their
hands in a supernatural way, let the memory of me be
extinct. If God preserves me not from the hands of the
executioners, nothing shall be done to them ; but if a super¬
natural arm tears me from their clutches, let them be sacri-
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ficed in my place." Pretty clear evidence this of his sin¬
cerity and faith.
It appears, then, or should appear, from the free use which
has been made of M. Delepierre's book, that he has given
us much pleasant and interesting information on an attrac¬
tive subject. A history of literary madness must, by the na¬
ture of it, be rather a sketch of certain prominent features in
a deep mysterious whirlpool, than an attempt to sound its
depths, and to come to some explanation of it This must
be the aim of a philosophical history of madness, should it
ever come to pass that such an one is undertaken ; a history
which should aspire to establish some principle or principles,
but which, at any rate, should not be content to occupy
itself with a catalogue of appearances. The manifold va¬
rieties of insanity which we see are, so to say, crystalliza¬
tions on eternal types; and it might appear to some, that
there must be some unity discoverable even in madness. Is
not this what we have to find out in the history of any
madman, how it happened that he failed to reconcile him¬
self with his environment ? Were circumstances too powerful
for one who possessed moderate strength, and wherein too
powerful; or was the individual by nature too weak or
otherwise unable to cope with ordinary circumstances, and
wherein too weak.* Such history is but a part of biography,
which should teach us on all occasions, the way by
which any mortal arrived at that pass at which he was
when, his work done, he ceased to be mortal, and blended
with the Infinite; how, in fact, the successful man came to
the coronet, the beggar to the workhouse, and the madman
to the madhouse. In an account of insanity in any form,
there are thus two elements to be taken into consideration,
one almost as important as the other ; these are the subject
and the environment, the man and his circumstances, sub¬
jective force and objective forces, both passive and active ;
and the problem for solution is, what there was in the one
or in the other whereby harmonious co-operation between
them became impossible, and a discord, was, of necessity,
produced. And, inasmuch as every variety of insanity
which has marred the harmony of existence since Adam s
fall may be included in one of certain types, examples of
* The great modern sage has thus qoietlj expressed deep troths. “ Die
Geschichte des Menschen ist sein character.” Wilhelm Meister, vol. II., 916.
and again, “ Wie glucklich ist der iiber alles, der um sich mit dem Shicksal in
Einigkeit su setcen, nicht sein ganzes vorhergehendes Lebon wegsnwerfen
brancht. II., 238.
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par Octave Delepierre.
which are to be met with in any asylum of moderate size,
it does not seem impossible that a general history of in¬
sanity should be written in a philosophical spirit, from ma¬
terials which lie in profusion around every one who has
devoted himself to the care and treatment of the insane.
The unfruitfulness of the psychology both of the sound and
unsound mind has been the inevitable result of its method;
for the method has consisted in an enumeration and classi¬
fication of results, a wearisome list for the most part of
certain so-called faculties of the mind, with the occasional
indication of some connection between one state of mind
and another, while the forces by which such faculties are
brought into active existence, whereby they are so much
modified during their operation, and without which there
would be no operation at all, are for the most part ignored.
It is precisely the mistake which physiologists appear to
have made in speaking of life; they have enumerated
certain functions and have called such enumeration life;
but function is, not life, but the result of life; it is vital
organ in action. Bichat, who was of all physiologists the
most philosophical, defined life as “the sum-total of the
functions which resist deathwhich amounts merely to
this—that life is life. And a lecturer on medicine, of con¬
siderable note in the medical world, thus defines disease:
“Disease is an altered relationship of action to structure
or organic element, depending immediately on either sepa¬
rately, or on both conjointly.” This is a verbal bombshell
filled with wind, which on being* examined amounts to this,
that disease is a disturbance of function, which may or may
not be attended with disease of structure, in fact, that
disease, all things considered, is disease. “ L’opium endormit
parce qu’il a une vertu soporifique.”
Bichat’s definition of life is manifestly faulty in this, that
it ignores the essential co-operation of the medium or
surrounding circumstances in which an organization is placed,
and is, therefore, as one sided and useless as any definition
would be which might ignore the organism, and enumerate
the circumstances as life. Circumstances and individual are
correlative, both in psychical and organic life ; and man’s life,
mental and organic, is the result of such correlation. This
is what Coleridge indicated, when, in his “ Hints towards tho
formation of a more comprehensive theory of life,” he defined
life as “ the Principle of Individuation/’-f The consideration
f A plagiarism from the Germans, (in this case from Schelling) as so much
of Coleridge’s philosophy was.
VOL. VI. NO. 34. /
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Histoire Litter air e des Fous,
is of as weighty importance in psychology as it is in physio¬
logy; it applies to life in all its manifestations, and should be
a fundamental principle, in an investigation into the history
of any madman. Might not, indeed, something profitable be
obtained from a biography of insanity ? It is remarkable
how difficult a matter it is to recognise a madman, when his
biography has been well written by one who knows how to
do full justice to the man, and to the circumstances: witness
Friedrick Wilhelm, as painted by Carlyle, and others of that
author’s questionable heroes.
An interesting feature in a general history of insanity
would necessarily be an account of the various ways in which
the insane have been dealt with at different periods, amongst
different nations; on which subject this extract from a
lunatic’s diary may merit attention. “ Some have defined
man as a cooking animal, some as a laughing animal, some
as a tool-using animal, and others as a tailless monkey; but
the truth is that man is the animal which puts its fellow into
a lunatic asylum.” A rather hasty and unwarrantable gen¬
eralization, dictated by feeling, rather than founded on
knowledge; for history teaches us that among the many
strange things which man has made objects of adoration, he
has not failed to worship for a time even madness. Those
who in ages past maintained the existence of spirits of
different orders and qualities, founded their theories of in¬
sanity upon the intercourse which they supposed to exist
between the spiritual and material world. “ In some
instances, the intellectual principle was believed to be merely
deranged by the malignant influence of a demon, but in others
where the change of character was more evident and more
complete, an actual change of spirit was imagined to have
taken place; and the maniac was consulted as the organ of
an oracular spirit, or shunned aa embodying an emissary of
the evil principle.”f Such being the diagnosis, it was
natural that the treatment should be in the hands of the
priests; for they were the only people in those days who
pretended to have control over the invisible world. A
“ medium ” is a thing of modern creation.
The system of treatment seems to have been excellent At
both extremities of Egypt were temples dedicated to Saturn,
to which melancholics resorted in great numbers in quest of
relief. In these abodes, surrounded by shady groves and
beautiful gardens, varieties of games and recreations were
established for the amusement of the mind and the invigo-
t Preface by Dr. Davis, to his translation of PineL
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par Oetave Delepierre.
ration of the body, while the imagination was impressed
with the finest productions of the sculptor and painter.
This was nothing less than the treatment which Pinel
laboured to restore when he struck off the chains from the
lunatic, and by reverting to the system of a comparatively
benighted age, destroyed that barbarous and cruel system
which was disgracing the character and satirizing the vaunts
of an advanced civilization. They were, indeed, wonderful
people, those ancient Egyptians, with their tenets of a resur¬
rection, a day of judgment, a future retribution and an in¬
carnation of God ; perhaps justice has scarcely been done
them by those who owed so much to them. Thus Pythagoras,
who was the first Greek philosopher who practised medicine,
seems to have inherited most of his philosophy from them ;
and may well have introduced into Greece, with the doctrine
of metempsychosis, the plan after which the Egyptians
treated insanity. At any rate the method of Asclepiades,
who is looked upon as the real founder of a psychical mode
of cure among the Greeks, was Egyptian. “Music, love,
wine, employment, exercising the memory, and fixing the
attention were his principal remedies.”* He recommended
that bodily restraint should be avoided as much as posssible
and that none but the most dangerous should be confined by
bonds. It was reserved, as we have already seen, for more
recent times to discover the ingenious plan of once for all
disposing of lunatics by burning them alive, and to mingle
with a barbarity scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous
time the degraded folly which discovered in some of them
saints worthy of canonization. The cells, the whip, and
the chains were of even yet more recent date; but now
happily, resting on the solid basis of the highest moral law,
we apply every comfort which humanity can suggest, and
every instrument which science can devise, to relieve the un¬
happy beings whom destiny has so fearfully afflicted. One
would fain believe that no change will ever take place in
the principle of dealing with the insane, and that whatever
changes may occur in the application of it will be practical
improvements or modifications in details, merely to adapt
its operation to the altered conditions of society.
In gratefully taking leave of M. Delepierre’s book, we can¬
not refrain from noting with pleasure and admiration, the
profound acquaintance which he exhibits with English liter-
* Feochterlcben’s Medical Psychology. The work which would appear to give
most information on this subject, but which we have not seen, is Systematised
LitUratwr der Aerzdichen Psychologic: Berlin, 1833.
f 2
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Dr. Tuke, on
ature. Here in fact we have a French author, who not only
does not believe that it is an Englishman’s custom, when
tired of his wife, to put a halter round her neck, and lead
her into the market-place to sell her, but who, in a book of
180 pages, quotes such English writers as Carlyle, Dryden,
Shakspeare, Robert Hall, and Moore, with others, whom to
know, argues much love of dusty shelves, and musty manu¬
scripts. Happily amongst writers in France, ignorance seems
to be the privilege of writers in newspapers ; and so it
happens that an interesting and instructive French book is
rendered more gratifying and more complete by the intimate
acquaintance which its author exhibits with English litera¬
ture, current and past.
Henry Maudsley.
On Oeneml Painty sis. By Harrington Tuke, M.D.
(Continued from page 205).
Among the symptoms of apoplexy, says one of the most
distinguished of our recent writers on medicine, that are more
especially of evil omen, are those which can be traced to the
involvement of the automatic functions of the cerebro-spinal
axis ; nineteen out of twenty patients will die, in whom the
phenomena appear which indicate derangement of this portion
of the nervous system. I fear that in cases of the special
disease we are now considering, the loss of power over the
“ sphincters” is almost of equally fatal import, but still it very
naturally differs from the same symptom in ordinary apoplexy,
inasmuch, as it may exist for many months, before the fatal
issue of the complaint. Apparent want of power over the
sphincters may arise in general paralysis from various other
causes besides absolute lesion of the cerebro-spinal axis, such
as the presence of delusions, or the supervention of sudden
spasm in the patient, and still more frequently from a want
of attention on the part of the attendants, and these last
are of course essentially distinct in their nature, and require
a special treatment ; but even in cases in which the loss
of power has been sudden, even those in which paraplegia
has appeared, and the patient, comatose and insensible, seems
on the point of death, if they have before been suffering from
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general paralysis, they may, and often do rally; in fact, the
prognosis is less gloomy when there has been long-continued
disease of the brain of this kind, than in patients in whom
the symptoms have supervened upon perfeet health.
The question arises, how is it that a symptom of such grave
import, indicating in cases of ordinary apoplexy, the absolute
tearing or “ploughing up” of the substance of the brain,
should occur in general paralysis without an immediately fatal
consecutive result, and even sometimes entirely disappear?
The answer involves a theory, but it is still a very simple one,
and is at least susceptible of verification ; it is because a much
less amount of mischief, in the already morbidly affected brain
of a general paralytic will produce these serious symptoms,
than is necessary in the heretofore healthy nervous centres of
the suddenly apoplectic. I have seen a very small meningeal
clot, produce paraplegia, and palsy of the sphincters in cases of
general paralysis, because being an addition to already exten¬
sive morbid changes, it acted with as much force as a ruptured
vessel in a previously healthy brain, producing the same effect
as would follow the breaking down the substance of the corpus
striatum, or the effusion of a large quantity of blood at the
base of the cranium. The practical fact to be deduced is,
that the supervention of these acute symptoms is less danger¬
ous in general paralysis than in apoplexy.
The consideration of the various forms of real or apparent
paralysis of the sphincters belongs to another part of my
subject, as bearing rather on treatment than prognosis, but it
may be said here, that it must not be imagined that in general
paralysis, in its early stage, there is always relaxatioh of the
sphincters; on the contrary, there is sometimes retention of
urine with severe spasm ; and there is in some patients often
a difficulty of passing catheters, from the exaggerated reflex
action of the uretinal muscles which is increased by the
attempt to introduce an instrument. Cases also must be
carefully distinguished in which only the voluntary power over
the bladder is lost, the reflex function continuing in its
integrity.
The derangement of the excito-motory function which the
paralysis of the sphincters indicates may then be present for
a long time in cases of general paralysis, yet slowly and surely
comes on at last the inevitable termination of the disease, and
the remaining groups of involuntary muscles—those essential
to existence—are in turn attacked.
I have already alluded to the singular effect produced upon
the action of the heart, in some cases even in an early stage ;
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Dr. Tuke, on
ae the disease progresses the powers of deglutition, digestion,
and respiration are affected, coma sets m, and lastly the
failure in the action of the orbicularis of the eye-lid, one of
the most delicate tests of the continuance of the power in the
cranio-spinal system, proves organic life to be at an end.
It might, perhaps, be difficult to prove that the constipation
accompanying many cases of general paralysis depends upon
the diminution of power in the muscular coat of the stomach
and intestines, although no physician accustomed to watch
these cases would, I think, dispute it, or doubt that the dimin¬
ished peristaltic action fully explains the symptom. It may,
perhaps, be only theory which ascribes the emoarassed respir¬
ation to the origin of the pneumogastric nerve becoming in¬
volved in the progress of the malady, but there can be no
doubt whatever that the derangement of the function of
deglutition, invariably more or less present, is clearly to be
traced to the absence of normal reflex action in the muscles of
the pharynx. From this cause arises great difficulty in feed¬
ing those patients who have lived to the last stage of general
paralysis, a difficulty hardly to be appreciated by those who
have not had practical experience of it. A still more striking
evidence is the frequent occurrence of even fatal accidents to
the paralytic, from the inability of the pharynx to carry down
the morsel introduced into the mouth.
I would not only advert to the peculiar catch in the
breathing which, in the last stage of these cases, precedes
death, as indicating the still more extended implication of the
origin of the pnemogastric nerve, but I would point to a symp¬
tom, which is very remarkable in general paralysis, is almost
universal, and, as far as I know, has not been explained, I
allude to the singular deposition of adipose tissue which usu¬
ally occurs in the second stage of the malady ; the patients
become visibly stouter, and are therefore thought by their
friends to be improving. In some cases this may arise, or be
aided by the enforced inaction which the progressive paralysis
of the lower extremities muBt entail; but this would not be a
sufficient explanation in those cases in which increase of weight
precedes incapacity for locomotion. I believe it to be the first
symptom of a diminution of the respiratory function; the
automatic movements of the respiratory muscles become
slower, the functions of the lungs are no longer duly per¬
formed, and much of the starch, oil, and other non-azotized
compounds are deposited as fat in the tissues, instead of being
excreted through the air-cells in the form of carbonic sudd
and water. The disease, as I have said, commonly attacks the
General Paralysis. 423
most robust and powerful frames, men whose organs are
healthy and digestion vigorous, the supply of aliment is there¬
fore kept up, hence it is that almost mechanically an accumu¬
lation of fat takes place, from the failure of power in this
important portion of the secretory apparatus of the body; the
rapid emaciation which sometimes, although very rarely, takes
place depending upon the existence of a tendency in the
kidneys or other organs to take upon themselves compensatory
functions of excretion.
The derangement in the functions of the skin in this disease
must also assist in accumulating the components of adipose
tissue in the body ; excretion from the surface is almost at an
end, it becomes dry and hard, a thick sourf forms frequently
upon it, and the use of frequent baths and flesh-brushes, or
coarse towels, becomes more essential to the preservation of
cleanliness in these cases than in almost any other.
The paralysis of the reflex function of the nerves has been
the subject of interesting experimental researches by Dr.
BucknilL I have, myself, nothing to add to his remarks upon
the subject, which appear conclusive, and have been corrobo¬
rated at his request by other observers ; among them, by Dr.
Manley, Dr. Boyd, Mr. Tyerman, and Mr. Ley. However,
the talented and esteemed physician of the Morningside
Asylum, Dr. Skae, at the Meeting of the Association of
Medical Officers of Asylums for the Insane, held at Edin¬
burgh, in 1858, controverted with considerable ability, in the
discussion which followed my reading a paper on general
paralysis, the views Dr. Bucknill entertains, and which he has
published in the Manual of Psychological Medicine, upon
this peculiar paralysis of the reflex function. Dr. Skae’s re¬
marks and Dr. Bucknill’s reply will be found in the fifth
volume of the Journal of Menial Science, to which I would
refer those interested in the question. I agree entirely with
Dr. Bucknill; but it appeared to me at the time, and the after
perusal of Dr. Skae’s observations did not alter my opinion,
that the difference in the views held by these physicians is
easily explicable : the brain being the seat of the disease, the
reflex function is more or less universally affected, but in ex¬
periments as to the state of the reflex functions in the muscles
of the lower extremity, those most remote from the diseased
centre, very different results may be induced by the more or
less dynamic condition of the spinal cord, in different cases,
and the greater or less power of contractility in the muscular
fibre in individuals. Reflex action cannot be entirely des¬
troyed while life remains, yet nothing but the serious im-
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Dr. Tuke, on
pairment of its powers can account for the effects upon the
muscles of deglutition and of respiration, together with the
loss of the excito-motory power of the sphincters which I
have described, and the existence of which no observer can
deny. The grey matter of the brain is certainly affected, in
all patients attacked with general paralysis; the reflex function
of the same grey matter in the cord will vary in different
cases, since it does not necessarily follow, that the ganglionic
system should be universally and equally affected, either
directly or sympathetically. Dr. Skae’s experience and judg¬
ment must, however, give great weight to his opinion, and
his views upon general paralysis, shared as they are by many
of the French physicians, must again be referred to and
examined with respect.
There are several symptoms in general paralysis indicating
derangement in the physical system, more or less, associated
with the same want of nervous power that produces the
paralysis, but still very distinct from it; and it will be well
to advert to the most prominent among them before entering
upon the description of the mental affection. The first of these
is the sense of fatigue so often complained of; the muscles are
tired simply by the weight of the body, this is shewn by a
characteristic stoop, and by the desire of the patient to be al¬
lowed to go to bed. A patient suffering from general paralysis,
at least this is my experience in private practice, will seldom
sit up late ; whatever his former habits may have been he will
retire to rest, if allowed, at an absurdly early hour, probably
finding relief from the horizontal position; it by no means
follows that he will sleep; on the contrary, patients suffering
under even the first stage of the malady, are very wakeful,
and often talk and mutter to themselves the whole night long;
there is excitement of the brain conjoined with muscular
prostration. In ordinary mania there is usually increase of
muscular power, but this is not so in general paralysis, at
least the rule is as I have stated it. There is sometimes a
restless irritability ; the patient will spend the whole day ar¬
ranging and ^-arranging papers, or turning over the leaves
of a book, or taking off and putting on his clothes, but a quiet
inaction is the ordinary characteristic, or if action there be, it
is not one involving much exertion. The usual and persistent
voracity of the appetite for food is another indication of the
exhaustion of nervous power that signalizes this terrible
malady.
In all the cases, but one, I have ever seen there was an
entire absence of sexual desire, and I have on several oc-
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General Paralysis.
casions ascertained that there had been this symptom before
the disease had made much progress. Guislam, however,
states that he has met with cases of an opposite description.
The former being the more usual experience has probably led
to the erroneous idea that general paralysis was necessarily
attendant upon, or frequently accompanied, sexual excess.
The temperature in this disease, as in ordinary paralysis, of
course falls, the sensations are blunted, and pain is little com¬
plained of. I have made no experiments myself upon the
state of the skin as to the function of sensation; in private
practice such experiments are not easily carried out. But an
able article by M. Auzouy in the Annales Medico Psycho -
S ues, gives the details of several ingeniously devised and
ully conducted experiments to elucidate this question
through the agency of electricity, and the result he arrives
at is doubtless correct; that the want of sensibility of the
skin in all cases of insanity, is in definite proportion to the
amount of diminution in the mental energy, and he finds,
as might have been expected, a more decided want of sensi¬
bility in cases of dementia than in other forms of mental
disease. M. de Croizart has called special attention to the
failure of cutaneous sensibility existing in a marked degree
at an early stage of general paralysis, and affording, there¬
fore, a means of diagnosis. M. Baillarger, who quotes this
opinion, does not appear to lay so much stress upon its value
as its author; he, however, says that he has found the sen¬
sibility of the skin diminished in the greater number of
cases he has seen, and this principally in the upper ex¬
tremities, and comes to the conclusion that it may be an early
symptom, but is more generally an indication of an advanced
stage of the disease. The low state of vitality in the cu¬
taneous surfaces in the progress of general paralysis, of
which diminished sensibility is only an initial symptom, is
shown by the tendency to sloughing of the skin and cellular
tissue that is so frequent, and that is certain to lead to the
formation of large and dangerous sores, without the exercise
of incessant watchfulness on the part of the medical at¬
tendant. The danger of bed-sores in these cases is now un¬
derstood, and prophylactic measures adopted, still the very
slightest amount of continued pressure will occasion them.
In cases of dementia, particularly in the dementia consecu¬
tive on general paralysis, I have even seen the bones of the
pelvis exposed by large sloughs upon the nates, and in the
old hospitals these terrible cases were not uncommon. The
patients do not appear to suffer much pain, and a large sore
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42(>
may exist without producing fever or indication of feeling.
This is doubtless from the diminution of sensibility already
referred to, but it is important to remember this as pointing
to the necessity for a daily examination of the points ex¬
posed to pressure in patients confined to bed in any stage of
the general paralysis of the insane. Head-ache is a symp¬
tom mentioned by one French writer, which I have not
noticed in general paralysis. Infiltration of the eyelids, and
even of the ears with blood or serum, is not unfrequently
seen, but these symptoms appear to be the natural accom¬
paniments of congestion of the vessels of the brain, and
need hardly be examined as being special or distinctive.
In the foregoing description of the physical derange¬
ment, marking the course of general paralysis, I have not
intended to convey the impression that I consider any of
the symptoms I have detailed, taken alone, to be necessa¬
rily evidences of disease of the nervous centres so exten¬
sive as to render it impossible that the mental functions
could be properly performed. It may be that they may co¬
exist with a perfect integrity of the reasoning faculty, and
some remarkable cases on record would appear to give
strength to this supposition, but I confess I think it unlikely,
and am rather inclined to believe that those cases in which
insanity is said to have supervened upon a paralysis, marked
by such a series of symptoms as I have described, are only
those in which the presence of mental disease has not been
detected, either from a deficiency of experience in the ob¬
server, or from want of sufficient opportunity for investi¬
gating the particular case. I have myself seen instances of
progressive and entire paralysis in which the mental powers
were unimpaired ; but the purely spinal origin of the symp¬
toms, was clearly shown, the lower limbs were first affected;
the speech was not impaired till towards the close of life,
there were no convulsions, the limbs were wasted, and did
not as in general paralysis present a fictitious appearance of
health. In such a case the medulla oblongata becoming
at last involved the brain may suffer secondarily, coma ana
even delirium may set in, but the patient is not a lunatic,
and although he may be said to be generally paralytic, he
does not suffer under the same disease as that which Calmeil
and the French School of Medicine have taught us to recog¬
nize under the name of paralysie gfrifrrale.
It has been said that there may be impairment of the
mental powers, without delusion, associated with general
paralysis, such as I have described, which I will call for the
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moment, paralysis affecting the brain proper, as contradis¬
tinguished from spinal paralysis. Now this assertion appears
to me to turn upon the question of the degree of insanity
that may exist, and to divert the discussion from the true
issue, which is whether the patient, has or has not exhibited
symptoms of unsoundneas of mind; is or is not insane ?
It will be at once seen of what momentous importance it
may become that the acts of a patient labouring under the
physical symptoms of general paralysis, should not be judged
by the same standard as is applied to healthy brains, and
moreover that the exact date should be fixed at which the
impairment of intellect commenced, when undoubted de¬
lusion has first appeared, or dementia clearly shewn itself.
I think the presumption should be in all these cases, that
mental alienation nad long existed, the former history
of the patient should be studied, eccentricities of conduct,
even acts of crime should be impartially examined, and if
irreconcilable with the previous bearing and character of
the patient, they should not be too hastily condemned as the
acts of a responsible agent. It may be our own fault that
we cannot discover the malady that, nevertheless, has
throughout existed, and rendered the unhappy sufferer en¬
titled to our utmost consideration and pity. It can be easily
understood that general paralysis may supervene upon
chronic insanity; or that paralysis of every limb, of every
muscle, voluntary and involuntary, may be present without
intellectual lesion, may be conceded : but it is obvious that
such a state of things can but admit of negative proof, the
supporters of such a doctrine can only say it is so, because
they could not or have not discovered any symptom of
lunacy; the question is practically important, for to al¬
low it to be possible that delusions or dementia are likely
to, or do accidentally supervene on caxes presenting the
physioal symptoms of centric general paralysis, appears to
me to be most unphilosophical, and a distinction drawn
between impairment of mental power and insanity as evi¬
denced by delusion, not founded upon logical premises.
I would strengthen this view, which involves a point of such
interest, by a familiar example ; a child, unable himself to
describe his symptoms, is brought to a physician in the
spring, his parents state simply that he has severe cough; in
the summer an attack of haemoptysis seriously weakens
him, and in the following winter he dies of undoubted
phthisis ; the lungs are found to be studded with tubercles,
a cavity with a small ruptured vessel upon one of its walls
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Dr. Tuke, on
accounts for the loss of blood ; it could surely not be fairly
maintained that tubercle, haemoptysis, and death had
supervened upon cough, because cough is often pre¬
sented without producing these results; the physician on
the contrary would infer, that the parents had over¬
looked the rapid emaciation, the night-sweats, the general
weakness of their child, that probably had been present,
and conclude, that even in the spring, the existence of
tubercle was certain, although they had not suspected its
existence, enquired for its further symptoms, or recognised
the cough as its warning signal.
It may be truly said that such a case is hardly possible, it
would be unpardonable in an educated practitioner to over¬
look so serious a disorder in the lungs as the one supposed;
his enquiries would be at once directed to the symptoms
that usher in pulmonary pthisis; and his experience would
tell him what symptoms to enquire for, and what deduction
he ought to draw from their presence or otherwise. It
ought to be equally impossible that a practitioner called
in to, or accidentally meeting, a patient presenting the
early symptoms of paralytic insanity, should not at once
suspect, even if he fail to detect the presence of mental
affection, and be able to refer the change in the morale of
his patient to its proper source ; but, unfortunately, for the
reasons already stated, the general physician has not studied,
or has no knowledge of such cases ; the early mental symp¬
toms are therefore overlooked, and the nature of the patient's
disease is only suspected when it is too late to arrest its
course, or when some act, more or less insane, has damaged
his fortune, and brought misery and ruin upon his family.
But strong as my own conviction is of the special nature
of ‘ general paralysis,' and of the fact that it cannot co-exist
with healthy action of the intellect, I can hardly venture to
dispute the occurrence of some anomalous cases of the
disease, in which the intellect has remained clear in spite
of the presence of such physical symptoms as I have de¬
scribed, since it is attested by so capable an observer as Dr.
Skae. In the French medical schools, M. Pinel and others
also strongly assert the same fact, and even make two
classes of the affection, one simple, the other complicated;
the first existing without mental disturbance of any kind,
and being in fact the general paralysis described by our
medical writers, the definition of which I have already
quoted from Dr. Copland. Admitting then this as being
possible, it must still remain as only negatively proved, and
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the disease certainly must be very uncommon Another
question of practical importance is, whether the mental
symptoms ever supervene upon the paralysis, as the paralytic
symptoms certainly do upon the mental disorder? The
great names of Esquirol and Calmeil are quoted in support
of the hypothesis that the paralytic symptoms precede in
some instances the mental ones, and the question is worth
examining, premising only that neither of these two authors
speak of general paralysis as existing at all, except as a
complication of insanity. Esquirol, speaking of the malady,
says, “ ells eclate tantdt avec lea premieres symptdmes du ddire,
tantdt elle prkedde le ddire, tantdt die vient en quelque sorte
sejoindrea lui” this taken alone would appear conclusive,
to those who reverence, as I myself do, the accuracy of
Esquirol’s descriptions; but it would appear to me that
Esquirol does not intend to assert, that the mind is sound
after the paralysis has appeared; it becomes with him a
question of degree, and he would probably be found to agree
in Dr. Skae’s distinction between absolute delusion and an
impairment of mental power. Monomania or violence may
not indeed appear for some time after the [development of
paralytic symptoms, but Esquirol may be taken to admit
some amount of mental affection being present at the com¬
mencement, as he goes on to say, that the disease “ pro¬
gresses in a way peculiar to itself, always increasing in
intensity as it proceeds, while at the same time the under¬
standing becomes weaker." And this pari passu advance
would seem to be the meaning Esquirol intends to convey,
as he afterwards uses the word paralysis generically to
express mental and physical affection together, in the sen¬
tence cette paralysie quelque soit le caractkre du ddlire fait
passer promptement d la ddmence chronique.
Calmeil leaves us equally uncertain as to his opinion,
although if his words are not examined carefully, they may
be mistaken, and indeed have been, as decisively in favour
of the opposite opinion to my own, and to that generally
taught, it becomes important, therefore, to examine his words
carefully. In page 337 of his work, On the General Paralysis
of the Insane , Calmeil observes, “during a long time I
was under the impression that the paralytic symptoms never
preceded the insanity; in five or six cases, the relatives of the
patients have told me that they had noticed the staggering
gait of the sufferers, long before the symptoms of madness
h$d appeared, but on cross examination, it always appeared
that tney used the word madness in the sense only of violence
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Dr. Tuke, on
or fury. It is now certain, however, that the brain lesion
which occasions general paralysis, may exist before the mind
is affected.—See Case X VI." This would appear conclusive,
but the very case quoted, p. 61 ibid, exactly resembles the
five or six cases already mentioned, for the existence of the
paralysis for four months, without the appearance of mental
alienation, rests only upon the fact, that Calmeil was assured
that this was the case by the relatives of the patient. Calmeil
did not speak from his own experience, and the next
sentences show that he had only adopted the opinions of
Esquirol.
The opinion of Guislain upon this subject, is strongly ex¬
pressed, but, in my judgment, is invalidated by the want of
precision in his account of the intellectual state, thus leav¬
ing it as Dr. Skae has done, a question of degree. Guislain
•ays : “ Since reading the recent publications upon general
paralysis, I have had recalled to my recollection several
cases which might really be classed among instances of
this malady, existing without mental alienation. One such
case was that of a young lady who died of general paralysis,
but in whom during the whole course of the disease,
there was no confusion of ideas, seulement il y avail,
chez eUe une espbce de fatigue de Vesprit, une inaptitude aux
travaux intellectuels.” Guislain goes on to state that in
his own private practice he has seen cases of progressive
paralysis of the muscular system, without any sypmtoms of
lunacy; but I have already alluded to these cases, and
pointed out the difference between them and paralytic
insanity, the one presenting spinal, the other mental
symptoms.
The question in dispute is one of great practical import¬
ance, it may happen that a patient who has long presented
symptoms of paralysis may commit some crime ; undoubted
lunacy of the particular kind Calmeil has described may
supervene, while his trial is still proceeding; who among us
will take upon himself to say, such a man is a responsible
agent. There is only mental weakness, or fatigue of the
understanding, but an unsoundness of mind only consists in
the presence of absolute delusion or delirium.
The manifestations of insanity, which in my opinion in¬
variably precede, or are synchronous in their approach with
the morbid physical phenomena of special general paralysis,
present also a marked analogy with them in their rise, ad¬
vance, and progress, and may, in their description, be re¬
garded also as presenting three stages; but these divisions of
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General Paralysis. 431
the mental symptoms are by no means so easily demonstrable,
or so clearly defined as the stages of physical debility, they
are more apt to run one into the other, remissions of their
intensity are more frequent, and they by no means constantly
coincide ; thus the last stage of mental derangement may
co-exist, with the first stage of the paralysis, there may be
very slight evidence of insanity with very marked loss of
muscular power, or from the beginning there may be com¬
plete imbecility, terminating in the complete prostration of
the physical and mental faculties.
In the course of Dr. Conolly’s clinical lectures at Hanwell,
I first heard the apt comparison of the progressive symptoms
of cerebral disease in general paralysis to the stages of
vinous intoxication, which gives so vivid an idea of the
mental and physical phenomena presented by the malady.
This exact and happy illustration, repeated in the Croonian
Lectures for 1849, and since so frequently quoted, was, I
believe, first employed by Dr. Conolly, and no one conversant
with the disease, can fail to recognize and appreciate the
justice of its application. The writer of an elaborate and
clever article on general paralysis, in the Psychological
Journal of last year, even believes that the “ study of the
phenomena of drunkenness will tend to throw much light
upon the symptoms attendant on its early or congestive
stage.” The only difference between them being that “ the
one state is transitory, the other is progressive and perma¬
nent.”
Although I cannot quite concur in this last opinion, I am
quite prepared to admit to the fullest extent the analogy
between the symptoms of alcoholic poisoning, and the slower
progress of paralytic insanity, and I would apply this simili¬
tude as Dr. Conolly does, not only to the congestive, but to
all stages of the disease. Dr. Conolly and the author whom
I have quoted, are rather considering the physical than the
mental symptoms of the malady, or at least lay no special
stress on either; in my own opinion, the stages ef mental
alienation are even more signally like those of intoxication,
than the stages of physical weakness, and while the clipped
syllables, the gradually powerless extremities, the final im¬
mobility of the toper wonderfully mimic the gradations of
paralytic disease; still more irregularly do the excited
extravagance of the first, the wild folly of the second, and
the entire extinction of reason in the last stage of drunken¬
ness, find their analogues, in the mental symptoms that
mark the course of the general paralysis of the insane.
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Dr. Tuke, on
It must, however, be remembered that while there is
little discoverable difference between the bodily organs of
one strong man and another, and that, therefore, under the
influence of the same form of disease there will be a great
resemblance in the bodily symptoms it produces, the case
is far different with their minds. The varieties of idiosyncra-
cies, the presence or absence of culture, the variable powers
of self-control, of judgment, of memory, the differences of tem¬
perament in all of those attacked by general paralysis, alter,
obscure, or exaggerate the manifestations of morbid mental
action ; and just as one man in his cups becomes quarrel¬
some and taciturn, a second, amiable, and talkative, yet
both unmistakably intoxicated, so in paralytic insanity, one
and the same cause produces diverse effects upon the in¬
tellectual faculties, although, if examined, they will be
found reducible to the same type, and are, indeed, the re¬
sults of an identical disease.
For this reason I am inclined to think that M. Jules
Falret, in his admirable work Recherchea sur la Folie Para-
lytique, has laid too much stress upon the division of the
disease into varieties; the disease is indivisible, and Bayle
is nearer the truth, and he has given the type of the disease
better, in making it to consist in a dhlire ambitieux, falling
at the same time into error, in considering the mental phe¬
nomena of general paralysis to be necessarily of the same
character in all cases; a mistake apparently arising from
his desire to force the symptoms to coincide with his theory
of an invariably similar pathological condition in the biain.
The physician, unfamiliar with the various types of in¬
sanity will be surprised in going round the wards of Han-
well, or any other asylum in which the disease is not re¬
fused admittance, to find patients presenting almost every
imaginable form of mental alienation, pointed out to him as
suffering under general paralysis; he will wonder to see
cases that appear to him simply those of mania or melan¬
cholia, rejected at the gates of Bethlem and St. Luke’s, be¬
cause rightly considered to be affected with this special
form of malady, which their rules compel them to exclude;
he will fairly ask how the diagnosis is to be made, what is
the type of the uncomplicated disease, what is its effect
upon the moral and intellectual faculties? and how is it
to be distinguished from other affections of the brain ? I
do not know that I am justified in saying that in every case
of general paralysis, the mental symptoms can be con¬
sidered as peculiar in their nature; but, certain it is that
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General Paralysis. 433
in most cases, at some period, they are as pathognomonic,
as the special form of paralysis I have described, and if they
exist, sooner or later muscular debility must supervene. It
is only by long experience that the psychological physician
can detect, in the raving of the violent maniac, or in the
tearful complaints of the hypochondriac, the insidious ap¬
proach of general paralysis, and it is difficult to explain the
mental process by which he arrives at a correct conclusion.
Esquirol instances a patient in whom he diagnosed the
presence of general paralysis, from the facility with which
he submitted to the restraint of an asylum. M. Jules Falret
acutely points out that the delusions of the general-paralytic
are more coherent and plausible than those of the insane;
and Guislain follows Esquirol in stating that the patients
attacked with general paralysis, however violent, are more
amenable to discipline, and more easily manageable than in
ordinary insanity. Their melancholia, also, is of a distinc¬
tive form ; it is more allied to dementia than the acute form
of melancholic disease, and resembles rather the melancholia
attonita of the ancient physicians.
The great majority of the cases of general paralysis
which crowds our English private and public asylums is
in the second stage, and at this period the mental symp¬
toms when once discovered, are easily recognizable; they
present the features of a special form of delusion, which
constitutes the dllire ambitieux of Bayle, the * expansive*
variety of Jules Falret, the * peculiar delusions’ which I
have alluded to in my attempt at a definition of general
paralysis. Recurring to the analogy between intoxication
and progressive paralytic insanity, we may consider the
three stages of the disease to be,—first, excitement of brain
and bewildered judgment; secondly, ambitious mania;
and finally, dementia.
The last, as far as diagnosis is concerned, is not practi¬
cally, of much importance, because in most cases in which
dementia has set in, the former history of the disease will
be ascertainable, and afford a sufficient guide to its nature
and treatment; but even in this closing phase of the malady
there is some degree of difference between the patient
afflicted with chronic dementia, and the general paralytic ;
the expression in the face of the latter will be happier, and
rather indicative of stolid indifference than of stupidity, and
if any articulate sounds can be uttered, they will evidence
the existence of contentment and satisfaction; the ruling
vol. vi. no. 34. g
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Dr. Tuke, on
idea is still persistent, and such patients will die declaring
to the last that they are quite well and quite happy.
The second stage, although confused with the usual symp¬
toms that accompany much impaired power of memory and
feebleness of judgment, is characterized by the same happi¬
ness that continues to be so remarkable to the very close of
life; no sense of suffering is ever present, the restraint of an
asylum is not needed, the departure or coming of friends is
a matter of almost equal indifference ; their own too often
wretched physical condition is entirely ignored; such patients
pass their lives in a dream of bliss, possessed with their own
self-importance, absorbed in their ideas of long life, wealth,
and grandeur, they amuse themselves with schemes for the
future, or enjoy tne present, with a delight that becomes
painful to the observer, who recognizes the omen he cannot
avert
“ I am," said one of my patients frequently, “ Duke of
Devonshire and Marquis of Westminster ; I shall marry the
Countess of Blessington, and live in the Vatican, which I
have ordered to be pulled down and rebuilt at Kensington.
My wife is the handsomest woman in the world, she and I
are the best singers; I am to appear in Othello to-night I
have won five millions on the Derby; I am the strongest
and the happiest of men."
Dr. Conolly, in his Croonian Lectures, refers to the case
of one of his patients, who described himself as having “ five
wives, Jenny Lind being one, the Queen another. He fur¬
ther declared that he was a major in the army, a captain in
the navy, a medical man, one of the judges, and High Con¬
stable of England, and particularly mentioned that he once
held a capital place, being head Commissioner of the Cus¬
toms, for which he received £12,000 a year, and had some¬
times nothing to do."
1 one day asked a patient under my own charge, afflicted
with this terrible disease, whether he was fond of animals ?
With an air of profound conviction, he returned his usual and
characteristic reply, “ this kid that you call yours, and I am
now feeding, I brought by a stamp of my foot from under
ground ; I have but to whistle, and thousands of giraffes,
wild boars, and elephants would come over the walls; when
animals die I can bring them to life again ; I am going to
make all England into a large Zoological Garden, and I shall
be the richest man that ever lived, and yet you are silly
enough to ask if I like animals ?"
It is true that these are selected cases, but they well show
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General Paralysis.
the type of the disease, and will be recognised as fair ex¬
amples of it by every alienist physician; the delusions,
however are sometimes more consonant with probability, and
less easy to deteot. “I can walk with ease eight miles an hour,’*
was the assertion of a patient in whose case I was consulted,
which gave me an instant impression that his disorder might
be general paralysis, inasmuch as he was a merchant in the
city of London, and obviously unfitted for pedestrianism.
My suspicions were confirmed, when, on another visit, he
shewed me a plan for making a new front to his warehouses,
entirely of cedar wood, and expressed his conviction that he
should be soon elected Lord Mayor. These delusions led me
to the conclusion that the paroxysms of mania which he
had suffered under were the initial symptoms of q special
and perhaps hopeless form of insanity, and the result proved
that my forebodings were correct
The nature of the delusion agrees sometimes singularly
with the former desires, pursuits, or habits of the patient;
the lawyer imagines himself Chancellor ; the rector becomes
a bishop ; and the sportsman shoots two hundred stags, and
one hundred hares, in an imaginary day, with his own gun.
“ I am to be made commander of the forces in Ireland,” said a
captain in the army. a patient whom I saw with my friend
Dr. Meyer, “ you, sir, shall be Inspector-General of Hos¬
pitals, and have £800 a-year; Dr. Tuke shall be Deputy
Inspector, but shall have the same salary.” “ I am going
to leave here to-morrow,” said a paralytic to me at the
asylum at Exeter; “I am to have £*30 a week to be the
Queen’s coachman, and I shall drive her Majesty in an
omnibus, tandem /” This man had been a coachman, and
thus his delusion took the stamp of his former pursuits.
It would be a curious statistical problem if the materials
were at hand, to enquire into the comparative frequency of de¬
lusions of this nature in insane of different nations. In
France it seems more common than in England; it might be
surmised that the temperament of the Gascons, would pre¬
dispose them to this disease ; and were such an enquiry pos¬
sible, the sanguine disposition and mercurial liveliness of
the natives of our sister land, would lead to the supposition
that they were particularly liable to general paralysis. In
American asylums, the malady is common and well known,
and some of the cases quoted by Dr. Pliny Earle, in the
American Journal of Medical Science, show the extrava¬
gance of the delirium more strongly than anj I have yet
quoted. That the type of the delusion is the same in
9 9
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Dr. Tuke, on
the New World as at home, a few specimens will suffice
to prove. “ Mr.-declares that he is to be the next
President, that he is the Duke of Gloucester, and heir
to the English throne, that the Supreme will come down
at his birthday, that he will give to each of his attendants
a carriage, horses, and twenty thousand dollars to start
upon, that his legs are made of iron, that he wound up the
sun yesterday; the last words he uttered contained an
assertion that he was one of the personages of the Old
Testament”
These examples are sufficient to show the type of the malady
in its second stage, which, in default of a better term, I have
called that of ambitious mania; they will also serve to show
its great analogy to the delirium of intoxication; its resem¬
blance, indeed, is so striking, as to have led to the expres¬
sion of the hope I have already quoted, that the study of the
progress of alcoholic poisoning may throw some light upon
the nature of paralytic insanity. In describing ambitious
mania as the characteristic of the second stage of general
paralysis, I by no means intend to follow the clearly erro¬
neous doctrine of Bayle, who wishes to prove that all
cases of general paralysis must present first, monomania ;
secondly, mania ; and, thirdly, entire dementia. This is cer¬
tainly sometimes true, but not universally so, and I do not
adopt his opinions in taking his expression dMire ambitieux,
giving it, however, a wider significance than it has generally
received, for I think Bayle has been misunderstood in
having had the words in question too rigidly taken as syn¬
onymous with delusions of wealth and grandeur; it ap¬
pears to me that the dMire ambitieux is the true and essen¬
tial type of the disease, if only we take it in its fuller mean¬
ing; for even in cases in which the disease has been so
severe at its outset, that imbecility becomes an initial
symptom, the special nature of the imbecility is apparent in
its nappy type as well as in its rapid progression towards
entire dementia. This feeling of self-contentment, this
bien-ftre, this indifference to isolation, to physical pain,
this unconsciousness of woes, present or to come, seems to
me to be peculiar to the malady; it would be easy to coin a
word to express this, but as the expression chosen by Bayle
to designate the delirium is so constantly correct, it may be
as well to adopt it, taking it to express the existence of de¬
lusions of gratified wishes, whether those of ordinary am¬
bition or otherwise.
I believe that ideas of riches and grandeur are so fre-
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General Paralysis. 437
quently pathognomonic of the disease, because they are
the leading ideas in the minds of so many men absorbed
in the pursuit of wealth, who fancying happiness to consist
in its possession, naturally consider themselves wealthy and
powerful, when attached by a disease of the brain, whose
essential symptom is a visionary happiness and success. The
delusions will vary with the desires of the patient, but they
present the same character; thus (and I am quoting from
actual observation) the valetudinarian, in addition to all
other blessings, becomes in imagination the most robust of
men ; the struggling professional man becomes possessed in
idea of boundless wealth ; the millionaire, to whom money
can hardly be a want, deems himself a marquis ; while the
coachman is quite content with the illusory possession of
thirty pounds per week to drive the Queen in an omnibus!
The wider acceptation of the term dtilire ambitieux may
be taken as embracing all these varieties of day-dreamings.
I cannot pretend that my own experience will go far to
decide the important question of the greater or less identity
of delusion in all cases of paralytic insanity, but I never
myself saw a case of the disease, in which *happiness’ did
not seem the characteristic feature. I am not dismayed by
the peremptory dictum of Calmeil, who declares that the at¬
tempt to assign a constant form of delirium to cases of
general paralysis, argues “ un mauvais esprit d’observation ;”
and in the absence of statistical records will quote some of
the authorities on the subject who support my view of the
Q uestion. The opinion of Bayle I have already given.
Isquirol, who says that paralysis may “ complicate melan¬
cholia, mania, and ambitious monomania,” adds that it more
frequently accompanies the latter, and, as I have already
mentioned, arrived rapidly at the conclusion that a particu¬
lar case was one of paralysis, from the suspicious readiness
of the patient to remain under restraint. “General paralysis,
says Dr. Conolly, is so frequently associated with ideas of
wealth and grandeur, that when these prevail strongly, we
expect that disease to supervene.” The expansive variety,
observes M. Falret, is the most frequent form of general
S aralysis, and, under the name of the expansive variety, he *
escribes the same symptoms as those Bayle has classed
under the head of ambitious delirium ; and Dr. Bucknill’s
opinion is still more strongly expressed; he says, “ the form
of intellectual disorder is frequently of a most remarkable
kind; the patient fancies himself possessed of wealth and
power illimitable, and is often fantastically imaginative. . .
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438 General Paralysis.
When a patient exhibits this imaginative extravagance of
idea, accompanied with slight emotional disturbance, any
loss of clearness in vocal articulation will suffice for a posi¬
tive diagnosis .”—Manual of Psychology, p. 385. Even if we
recur to the work of the first and greatest writer upon the
disease, in spite of the trenchant opinion I have quoted, we
shall find Calmeil himself admitting the existence of a “ pe¬
culiar delirium” which, however, he strangely describes as
“ masking” the intellectual feebleness; this exists he says in
a great number of patients, and he gives the following
striking example of that which he himself names the dMire
sxclusif: “ A general paralytic will assert; I am the most
powerful of Emperors, in four hours I shall build a new
ft Paris, the streets paved with gold, a bazaar, with galleries
around it, shall occupy the centre, everywhere will be found
columns of marble, statuary and bronzes; I shall have a
seraglio, the beds are to be made of rosewood, the curtains
are to be mirrors, fixed to the four corners upon curtain
rods (quenouilles) of diamonds”
It may then at least be admitted that in the majority of
cases, delusions of an ambitious type are prominent; whether
they are or are not invariably present, in a greater or less
degree, remaining as a question open to further examination ;
but it seems certain that if with such delusions as I have
instanced, the physician detects in his patient the charac¬
teristic and fatal embarassment of the speech, or tremulous¬
ness of the hands, or symptoms of paralysis in the lower
extremities, or even the dilatation of the pupil of the eye, the
nature of the case should be patent to nim ; he may fear
and anticipate that the delusions will rapidly increase in
their number and intensity, that the powers of locomotion
and prehension in the patient will become each day more
feeble, and that the last period pf this stage approaches, in
which, before complete dementia and immobility set in, the
patient will present the spectacle of a tottering imbecile,
sometimes expressing the wildest delusions, at rare intervals
singularly rational, yet always insanely happy, and full of
confidence in himself and nis fortunes.
Throughout the second stage of general paralysis; even
in its worse phases there are occasionally extraordinary re¬
missions of the malady—even delusive recoveries; these
pseudo lucid intervals are of great importance, and will
merit attentive consideration.
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Ulster Revivalism.
439
On Physical Affections in Connection with Religion , as
illustrated by “ Ulster Revivalism By the Rev. W.
Mc’Ilwaine, A.M., Incumbent of St George’s, Belfast
In a former paper contributed to this Journal, containing
a retrospect of “ Ulster Revivalism,” the writer took occasion
to remark that the physical features of that extraordinary
movement were to be considered not merely as an accompani¬
ment or accident but in reality as an essential and integral
portion of it This assertion will bear to be submitted to the
most stringent test of fact so far as its truth is concerned;
and if borne out affords a most important and suggestive view
of the entire subject; so much so indeed that its legitimate
inferences will be found to throw an instructive reflex light on
all past movements of the sort under consideration, as well as
to afford some useful and practical considerations as regards
the future. The intention of the present paper is to take a
brief historical glance at the physical development of certain
religious movements of this class, accompanied by an endeav¬
our to trace these into that one which has just transpired,
mainly for the purposes above indicated.
In so doing, it is important, in limine , to note the fact already
alluded to, that the late Revival in Ulster was ushered in, ex¬
tended, and continued throughout by these physical affections.
Not one of its historians and panegyrists has ventured to deny
this. These affections are variously viewed and descanted
on by divers authorities, medical and other; but they are
there all the while. As an example of the manner in which
this part of the subject has been handled by medical writers,
of the Revivalist school, I may be permitted to introduce an
extract from Three Letters on the Revival in Ireland, by
James C. L. Carson, m.d., Coleraine.
This gentleman writes as follows :
“ In regard to the nature of the physical agent, I have no
hesitation in acknowledging my utter ignorance. I know of
nothing to correspond exactly with it it in the whole range of
philosophy. It is apparently more closely allied to electro¬
biology than anything else ; but it still differs from it in some
leading particulars. * * * * Be the physical
agent what it may, it is evidently sent by God for a special
purpose. What is this special purpose? Why, simply to
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The Rev. W. Mc’IIwaine on
excite such a degree of attention to spiritual matter* as,
humanly speaking, could not be done by any other means.”
If any person be anxious to ascertain the degree of “ utter
ignorance ’ thus frankly acknowledged by Dr. Carson, and to
discover with tolerable precision the curriculum through
which his researches have extended, in exploring, as above
stated, “ the whole range of philosophy ,” he has only to read
the masterly demolition of the theory thus propounded, in a
pamphlet, in reply, by Stephen Gwynn, jun., A.B., entitled The
Ulster Revival a Strictly Natural and Strictly Spii'itucd
Work of Ood. Although from a non-professional pen, this
exposure of the inexcusable ignorance and really dangerous
theorizing of the Coleraine physician is complete, and reads to
all concerned as well as himself, a solemn lesson as to the
rashness and presumption of asserting that the Author of all
Good had condescended on the means of actually creating a
new physical agent of evil, for the purpose of “ exciting at¬
tention to spiritual matters.”
Such a mode of theorizing, however, on the physical
features of the movement is not confined to medical men ; we
find a similar attempt at their solution among divines and
others. Very early in the history of the Ulster movement, a
pamphlet appeared in Belfast, from the pen of a Presbyterian
minister, of high standing in that town, the Rev. James
Morgan, D.D. This tract, as the preface states, embodies
a discourse delivered to his congregation by Dr. Morgan,
and afterwards “published by request,” and it contains
the following passage. This writer having drawn atten¬
tion to the fact that “ the goings of God in the Sanctuary”
had been manifested by “ tokens of the Divine power and
mercy graciously vouchsafed to his people at various periods
of their history,” as in his intercourse with the Patriarchs,
and the cloud of] the Shekinah, and the “rushing mighty
wind,” on the day of Pentecost, proceeds to illustrate his
subject as follows:
“Keeping this truth in mind, it should not astonish or
stumble us to observe unusual tokens of His presence
among ourselves. Why should it be thought an incredible
thing that He should cause it to he seen or fell in remark¬
able affections of the body ? These are facts at present before
our eyes, which, however they are to be explained, cannot be
denied. In this and in other lands, hundreds and thousands
of persons have been smitten by an unseen hand which they
could not resist They have fallen down under it and been
instantly prostrated in weakness. The bodily affection has
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been universally accompanied by strong and new mental
exercises. An agonizing sense of sin has seized upon the
soul. No remedy has been found effectual to meet their
case, but the .name of Jesus. That has been successf ul. By
its application, body and soul have both been healed. Balm
has been found in Gilead, and a physician there, by which the
health of the daughter of God’s people has been healed, [sic]
These are facts, patent to the observation of all men. We
cannot ignore them. How then are they to be explained ?
There has been no solution offered independent of the Spirit
of God, which could satisfy any thoughtful and reasonable
mind. Indifference and scepticism and mocking are out of
place. They are unworthy of rational and responsible beings.
One thing is certain, that it is in harmony with the past
dispensation of the Spirit to give outward signs of His
power now."
Not to notice the congeries of crudities which the above
extract furnishes, viewed in a theological light, such as that of
the great Scripture fact, of the descent of the Holy Spirit on
the day of Pentecost being classed among the signs of the
Divine presence, or the Jewish period being designated as
“ the past dispensation of the Spirit,” what can be said of the
assertion that this new, and, as it is represented, mysterious
bodily affection, is to be accounted another manifestation of the
Divine “ presence among ourselves,” and placed in parallelism
with the presence of God “in his intercourse with Adam,
and Noah, and Abraham,” or with the symbol of the same
presence in the cloud of Shekinah! Comment on such teach¬
ing is needless; yet this was offered among the most approved
and accepted interpretations of the movement in Ulster, of
1859.
To return, however, to the purpose for which this quotation
was introduced. Here have we once again, the fact of these
physical accompaniments not only admitted, but spoken of
with reverential thankfulness, and in terms very far from al¬
luding to them as mere accidents. It may be noted that such
was the language employed, and the views promulgated re¬
specting these, in the earlier stage of the Revival movement.
Thus, at the Annual Meeting of the “ General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church in Ireland,” in the beginning of the
month of July, 1859, in the course of a carefully drawn up
document, styled a “ Report on the state of Religion ” in that
body, “the leading features of the awakeni/ng ” are pre¬
sented in a summary, the very outset of which is as follows—
“ 1. Persons of both sexes, of all ages, of different grades
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of society, of various denominations of professing Christians,
including Unitarians, Roman Catholics, have been at once
convinced of sin, and apparently converted to Christ
“ 2. These spiritual emotions have been accompanied in a
very large number of cases, by physical impressions, pro¬
ducing bodily infirmity, and continuing, in some cases, for
hours, and in others for days, occasionally terminating in
peace of conscience, and sometimes in joy unspeakable and
full of glory.”
Here is a direct and unqualified recognition of the physical
element/ not as Dr. Me.Cosh subsequently would have it ac¬
counted as a mere accident but as a prominent and essential
part of the movement.
At a future step, and when these manifestations amounted
in number and in fearful results to an acknowledged epi¬
demic, of a really disastrous sort, it became convenient to
speak of them otherwise. Thus, at the meeting of the Evan¬
gelical Alliance held in Belfast during the month of Sep¬
tember last, Dr. Mc.Cosh, Professor of Moral Philosophy
in Queen’s College, Belfast, in a paper read before that body,
tr«ta of the “ physiological accidental” as he tones them, as
follows :
“ But I do not found my belief in the work, as a genuine
work, on the bodily manifestations! This would be as contrary
to Scripture as it is to science. Scripture sets no value on
“bodily exercise,” and nowhere points to any bodily effect
whatever as a proof or test of the presence of the Spirit of
God. Nor have I ever heard any one who takes an enlight¬
ened interest in this work ever appealing to any such evi¬
dence,” &c., &c.
It is not unimportant to notice, in passing, the manifest
difference existing between these two statements of Dre.
Morgan and Mc.Cosh. Both, however, agree in admitting
that physical agency, of the peculiar kind under consideration,
had to do with the movement. My position is that it had so
much to do with it, that without it we never should have heard
of such marvellous results, be they really spiritual and desir¬
able, as the gentlemen above quoted agree in believing, or
be they in a much larger degree than they would admit* natu¬
ral and transitory, if not positively evil I may, perhaps,
have another opportunity of testing Dr. McCosh’s statements
respecting the alleged connection of such physical manifesta¬
tions with Divine agency: my reference to him, as an au¬
thority, is for the present answered, in directing attention to
the sophism (doubtless unintentional, though not the less real)
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which underlies his entire statement, namely, that the affec¬
tions in question are to be viewed merely as “ physiological
accidents, and not essentials of the movement, considered in
its integrity. It began with them, continued with them, pro¬
gressed with them. They have ceased ; and so has the spread
of “ Revivalism” in Ulster, at least for the present.
It is not my purpose, nor is it, indeed, my province, to en¬
quire into the precise character of these physical affections.
Their occurrence, however, in connection with a professedly
religious movement is a fact which deeply concerns any
Christian community, and is one into which any Christian
teacher is not only entitled, but, in my judgment, bound care¬
fully to enquire. These affections have been patent and
prevalent in the late “ Ulster Revival,” and a little careful
examination conducted historically, will go far to reveal their
true nature and character, sufficiently for all practical purposes,
without, as just noted, going into the depths of the subject
That such affections have occurred, in connexion with re¬
ligion, from an early date in the history of Christianity down
to our own day, ana the late movement in this country, is an
undeniable fact. The history of “The Flagellants” or
“ Brethren of the Ctors,” a sect extending over the greater
part of Europe in the fourteenth century,—of the “ Dancing
Mania” in the Netherlands, at nearly the same date,—of
“Tarantism” in Italy in the 15th century ; and still more re¬
cently of the “ Convulsionaires” at the tomb of the Abbe
Paris, at St Medard, in France, as well as that of the Pres¬
byterian “ Revival ” in Kentucky and Tennessee in the be¬
ginning of the present century, which originated the exercise
of “ the Jerks,”—all demonstrate the fact that such affections
accompanying religious excitement are no “ new thing.” This
fact being once established, apprehended, and duly appreciated,
might surely suggest caution in admitting the moral and
spiritual value of the results flowing from a movement com¬
bining such manifestly opposite elements. An adequate
investigation into such movements would, by right, lead to an
enquiry into and comparison with the still earlier, though less
understood affections which, unquestionably, found their way
into Paganism, antecedent to the establishment of the
Christian faith. It is impossible to read of the convulsive
contortions and weird utterances of the ancient Pythoness, or
the priestess of the Delphic oracle, without being struck with
their resemblance to some of the affections last referred to,
and this but confirms the truth of the assertion that the alii-
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ance between the bodily and spiritual elements in question is
nothing new or strange.
In making this assertion, it is, perhaps, needless for me to
add, that it is far from my intention to identify all that is
above enumerated with “ Ulster Revivalism.” I am willing
to allow its advocates full credit for sincerity, and to admit
that the words uttered, the visions alleged to be seen, and even
the hallucinations which confessedly existed, were all of the
Christian type. It might be even still further admitted that
effects of a moral and, as some believe, a spiritual and bene¬
ficial sort have resulted; but, even with all these admis¬
sions, any person treating of the subject, and who has duly
examined the past in connection with it, is, I submit, fully
authorized to plead for great caution before any movement
unquestionably attended, not to say originated, by such
physical manifestations, is received either with confidence or
approval
Reverting to the particular history of this, the most recent
manifestation of the sort, I imagine that it is a matter of but
little difficulty to trace it, historically, and to furnish a toler¬
ably accurate account of its rise and progress, which, accord¬
ingly, I shall proceed to essay, with as much conciseness as
is consistent with the object at present in view.
It is in every sense worthy of observation, that the
birth-place of these bodily affections, the class of religionists
among whom they made their earliest appearance, and the
peculiar circumstances which gave rise to them in the early
part of the seventeenth century, are nearly all identical with
their most recent development We have authentic accounts
of these remarkable phenomena in the Western parts of Scot¬
land, as also in the counties of Antrim and Down at the date
just noted ; the instruments by whom they were propagated
being the Presbyterian ministers of the Scottish settlement in
Ulster, and their followers. It will be borne in mind that
this was the date of the settlement of the northern counties of
Ireland under the reign of James I., who planted colonists of
his own countrymen there, in the room of thp Irish insurgents
who had forfeited their lands to the Crown by rebellion.
These men, under the guidance, in many cases, and accom¬
panied by their religious teachers, settled in this part of
Ulster ; and the persons, who, during the Revival of 1859,
manifested the state of body and mind which has attracted so
much notice, in most cases are the lineal descendants of these
original settlers. It is extremely singular to find the features
of these two periods of religious excitement so strongly re-
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sembling each other, a fact which may well prepare us to look
for similar results in both instances.
Among the Scotch Presbyterian ministers who visited Ulster
at this time were Livingstone and Blair. The former had been
assistant minister at Torpichen, in Scotland, and was silenced
for non-conformity by Spottiswood, Archbishop of St. An¬
drew’s, in 1627. It was during his ministrations in the latter
county, that bodily affections, almost exactly identical with
those of the Ulster Revival, made their appearance. These
were noticed especially under the ministry of a person named
Dickson, at Irvine, about the year 1625, and “by the pro¬
fane rabble of that time, called the Stewarton-sickness, as
Fleming states in his Fulfilling of Scripture. Fleming thus
describes this state of things, as it afterwards manifested it¬
self in the West of Scotland. “ It can be said that for a con¬
siderable time few Sabbaths did pass without some evidently
converted, or some convincing proof of the power of God ac¬
companying His word; yea, that many were so choked and
taken by the heart, that, through terror, the Spirit in such a
measure convincing them often, in hearing of tne Word they
have been made to fall over, and thus carried out of the
Church, who often proved most solid and lively Christians,
and it was known, some of the most gross, who used to mock
at religion, being engaged upon the fame that went abroad of
such things, to go to some of these parts where the Gospel
was then most lively, have been effectually reached before
their return, with a visible change following the same. And,
truly, this great spring-tide, as I may call it, of the Gospel,
was not of a short time, but for some years’ continuance.
Yea, thus, like a spreading moon-beam, the power of godli¬
ness did advance from one place to another, which put a mar¬
vellous lustre on those parts of the country, the savour
whereof, brought many from other parts of the land to see
the truth of the same.”
It is needless to invite attention to the strange coincidence
between this account, given by Fleming, of the Scottish Re¬
vival of the seventeenth century, and that of Ulster in the
nineteenth. Both, it will especially be noted, were ushered
in, and accompanied by physical manifestations of precisely
the same character. It was under the ministry of the same
person, Livingstone, that the often-recorded scenes took place,
at “the Kirk of Shotts,” on June 21, 1630, and following
days, when, under a sermon preached by him, the number of
“ stricken cases ” was so numerous; and, speaking of which,
Fleming, already quoted, asserts that “near five hundred
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The Rev. W. Mc’Ilwaine on
had, at that time, a discernible change wrought on them, of
whom most proved lively Christians afterwards.”
Such was the state of religion in Scotland, and especially
in the western part of it at this date; nor can we feel surprise
when we are informed that “ in the year 1628 and onwards,
powerful revivals prevailed in Ireland.” Blair and Livingstone
imported not alone the peculiarities of their religious creed,
but these physical accompaniments of their preaching into
the counties of Down and Antrim. Other ministers of the
same persuasion and similar views were at that time located
here, among whom we find the names of Brice of Broad
Island, (near Larne) Cunningham of Holywood, Hamilton of
Bally waiter, Welsh of Temple-patrick, Stewart of Donegore,
and others, all of whom were men of precisely the same re¬
ligious caste.
It may be interesting to notice, in passing, that although
Presbyterian in principle, and fiercely opposed to the Episco¬
pacy and ritual of the Church of England, these men were
admitted to livings in the Established Church of Ireland, by
a compromise with certain of the then northern bishops there
(Echlin of Down, and Knox of Derry) and with the conni¬
vance, if not the approval, of Archbishop Ussher, whose
charitable designs and wishes for compromise and compre¬
hension are well known. Without questioning either the
wisdom of the prelates of the Established Church, who ad¬
mitted to benefices in Ulster, men who were not alone
avowedly Presbyterians, but who opposed and even reviled
“ the English Service Book ,” or the state of moral feeling
on the part of these latter who could thus accept, and en¬
deavour to retain, such a status in a church not their own, it
might easily have been foreseen in what this compromise
would certainly end. They were eventually suspended (or
most of them) from the benefices into which they had been
intruded by Bishop Echlin of Down, and afterwards retired to
Scotland, England, or the Continent
Referring, however, to the physical affections which ac¬
companied, and in a manner ushered in, this Scoto-Ulster
Revival, with which we are at present concerned, it is most
remarkable that even the men who at the first spoke of them
as divine and with unqualified approbation, appeared eventu¬
ally to have not only distrusted, but absolutely rejected and
discountenanced them. A curious reference to them occurs, in
the following terms, in an autobiography of Livingstone,
lately republished. Writing of the proceedings instituted
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against himself and others, as Presbyters, for Non-con¬
formity, before the Bishop of Down, he remarks,—
“ The primate (Ussher) very cheerfully dealt for us with the
Bishop, so that we were at that time restored. But the
Bishops of Scotland sent to the king information against us
by Mr. John Maxwell, called Bishop of Ross; and thinking
that Non-conformity would not be a crime sufficiently heinous,
they informed that we stirred up the people to ecstasies and
enthusiasms. There were, indeed, in some parishes, especially
in Broad Island, where was a godly, aged minister, Mr. Edward
Brice, some people who used in time of service to fall on a
high breathing and panting, as those who have run long.
But most of the ministers, and especially those who were
complained of, discountenanced these practices, and sus¬
pected them not to proceed from any working of the Spirit
of Ood, and that upon this ground that those people were like
affected whatever purpose was preached; yea, although by one
who had neither gifts nor gooa affection to the work of God ;
and accordingly few of these people ever came forward to
any solid exercise of Christianity, but continued ignorant
and profane, and left off that seeming motion .”
It would be difficult to conceive of a more conclusive testi¬
mony against such novelties in Christianity than the above.
We have in this deliberate judgment their condemnation by
one who was among their earliest abettors and promoters, as
well as proof, not to be disputed, of the unsatisfactory results.
Have we not a parallel at our doors ? Where is the man of
common sense, now, that will venture to defend or even speak
apologetically of those phenomena, which, at the meeting of
the Evangelical Alliance in Belfast, last autumn, were looked
upon as something marvellous, if not Divine? Need the
parallel be further insisted on between the unsatisfactoiy con¬
verts of Livingstone, in the earliest Ulster Revival, and the scores
of the deluded, or deluding victims of the latest Revival in
the same locality, who, in 1859, were exercising the offices of
preachers, teachers, and evangelists, and who have, in 1860,
returned to all the carelessness and godlessness of the most
barren profession, or even to the ranks of the scoffer and the
profane ? Let the “ blind guides” of such followers bethink
themselves of the fruit of such labours and be ashamed.
A remarkably similar narrative of the religious Revival in
Ulster of the above date is given, authoritatively, by the late
Dr. J. S. Reid, in his History of the Presbyterian Church
in Ireland, vol. i., p. 102. The passage bears so fully on the
physical affections that it shall be quoted at length.
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“ The singular circumstances connected with tlje origin of
this religious revival, the first important incident occurring in
the history of the Presbyterian Church in Ulster, deserve to
be noticed, and are thus fully narrated by Stewart: * Mr.
Blair coming over from Bangor to Carriekfergus on some
business, and occasionally hearing |Mr. Glendinning to preach,
perceived some sparkles of good inclination in him, yet found
him not solid, but weak, and not fitted for a public place, and
among the Euglish. On which, Mr. Blair did call him, and
using freedom with him, advised him to go to some place in
the country, among his countrymen; whereupon he went to
Oldstone near the town of Antrim, and was there placed. He
was a man who would never have been chosen by a wise as¬
sembly of ministers nor sent to begin a reformation in this
land. J'or he was little better than distracted; yea, after¬
wards did actually become so. Yet this was the Lord’s choice, to
begin with him the admirable work of God ; which I mention
on purpose that all men may see how the glory is only the
Lord’s m making a holy nation in this profane land, and that
it was not by might nor by power, nor by man’s wisdom,
* but by my Spirit,’ saith the Lord. At Oldstone, God made
use of him to awaken the Consciences of a lewd and secure
people thereabouts. For, seeing the great lewdness and un¬
godly sinfulness of the people, he preached to them nothing
but law-wrath, and the terrors of God for sin. And in very
deed, for this only was he fitted ; for hardly could he preach
any other thing.
“ But, behold the success; for the hearers finding themselves
condemned by the mouth of God speaking in His word, fell
into such anxiety and terror of conscience, that they looked
on themselves as altogether lost and damned ; and this work
appeared not in a single person or two, but multitudes were
brought to understand their way, and to cry out: ‘ Men and
brethren what shall we do to be saved ? ’ I have seen them
myself stricken into a swoon with the word ; yea, a dozen in
one day carried out of doors as dead, so marvellous was the
power of God, smiting their hearts for sin, condemning and
killing. And of these were none of the weaker sex or spirit,
but, indeed, some of the boldest spirits, who formerly feared
not with their swords to put a whole market town in a fray;
yet, in defence of their stubbornness, cared not to be in prison
and in the stocks, and being incorrigible, were as ready to do
the like next day. I have heard one of them, then a mighty
strong man, now a mighty Christian, say that his end in
coming to Church, was to consult with his companions how to
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work some mischief. And yet at one of those sermons was
he so catched, that he was fully subdued. But why do I
speak of him? We knew, and yet know, multitudes of such
men who sinned, and still gloried in it, because they feared no
man, yet are now patterns of society, fearing to sin because
they fear God. And this spread through the country to ad¬
miration, especially about that river commonly called the Six-
mile Water, for there this work began at first.”
It is hardly necessary here, again, to point out the strange
coincidence manifest between the two Ulster Revivals under
review. The results will present some other no less remark¬
able points of resemblance. We are told, further on, in Dr.
Reid’s narrative, that “ when the multitudes of wounded
consciences were healed, they began to draw into holy com¬
munion, and meeting together privately for edification, a thing
which in a lifeless generation is both neglected and reproved.”
Further, “ they spent their time in prayer, mutual edification,
and conference on what they found within them. But these
new beginnings were more filled with heart exercise than head
notions, and with fervent prayer rather than conceity gifts,
to fill the head.”
All this religious fervour, however, we are permitted to un¬
derstand, veiy soon came to an end ; nor is the concluding
notice of Mr. Glendinning, the author, as he is described, of
the Revival in these parts, the least remarkable feature in
the narrative. “ Mr. Glendinning,” we are told (p. 106) “was
also at the first glad of the confluence of the people. But we
not having invited him to bear a part in the monthly meeting,
he became so emulous, that, to preserve popular applause, he
watched and fasted wonderfully. Afterwards he was smitten
with a number of erroneous and enthusiastic opinions, and
embracing one error after another he set out, at last, on a
visit to the Seven Churches of Asia"
And thus ends this contemporary account of the great
Ulster Revival of the 17th centuiy, in one of its most favored
localities: a most befitting one surely. Here we have a half-
demented “preacher of nothing but law-wrath, and the
terrors of God,” inaugurating a Revival, with most striking
physical accompaniments, and ending in delusion and hetero¬
doxy, if not positive insanity, with “ a visit to the Seven
Churches of Asia.” It were well that the Revivalists of our
day, before they quote the former great Revival of the 17th
century, dating from the Kirk of Shotts and Clydesdale, and
concluding with the labours of Blair, Livingstone, and Gleu-
vol. vi. no. 34 . h
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Rev. W. Mc’Ilwaine on
dinning in Ulster, would make themselves better acquainted
with its history and results.
The next point in the history of revivals which draws at¬
tention to their physical accompaniments is that of New
England, wherein the celebrated Jonathan Edwards took so
conspicuous a part. A full account of this remarkable re¬
ligious awakening is given by Edwards, and deserves an
attentive perusal. It would appear that in this Revival, which
dates from 1735 to 1742, and whose locality was chiefly in the
town of Northampton, Massachussets, there was but little of
extraordinary physical affection, the manifestations which
accompanied it being chiefly of a mental and spiritual sort*
some of which, however, were sufficiently marked by paroxysms
of violence, and not unattended by enthusiastic delusion,
against which, in his review of the entire, Edwards felt
constrained to utter words of very solemn warning. Closely
following this revival occurred that singular work in New
Jersey, which has been chronicled by the Missionary, David
Brainerd, under the title, “ Divine Grace Displayed -, or the
Rise and Progress of a Remarkable Work of Grace-,
amongst a number of Indians in the Provinces of New
Jersey and Pennsylvania. 1745.”
The facts here recorded demand a careful consideration,
inasmuch as the remarkable influence which Brainerd’s
preaching seems to have produced among these Indians was
unquestionably accompanied by physical effects, closely re¬
sembling those of the Ulster revivals. Thus, in his Journal,
under date Aug. 7, 1745, we have the following entry:—
“ Preached to the Indians from Isaiah liii 3—10. There
was a remarkable influence attending the Word—a great
concern in the assembly, but scarcely equal to what appeared
the day before,—that is, not quite so universal However,
most were much affected, and many in great distress for their
souls. Some few could neither go nor stand, but lay flat on
the ground, as if pierced at heart, crying incessantly for
mercy. Several were newly awakened; and it was remarkable,
that as fast as they came from remote places round about, the
Spirit of God seemed to fill them with concern about their
souls. After public service was concluded, I found two other
persons who had newly met with comfort, and of whom I had
g ood hopes, and a third that I could not but entertain some
opes of, whose case did not appear so clear as the others.
These men, now six in all, who had got some relief from their
spiritual distresses, and five whose experience appeared very
.clear and satisfactory ”
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In other parts of the Journal we find similar scenes des¬
cribed, such as:— “ They were almost universally praying
and crying for mercy in every part of the house, and many
out of doors, and numbers could neither go nor stand.”
In endeavouring to come to a just conclusion respecting the
true character of the physical affections above described, as
well as regards the real value to be attributed to them, it is
only right to remark that some features here occur which
serve to draw a decided line of distinction between them and
those of the Ulster revivals. The bodily prostration of
Brainerd’s converts may have resulted from strong mental
emotion. We are not sufficiently acquainted with their
physical character to know whether such occurrences were
usual or not, but from all we know of Brainerd as a teacher—
his austere and ascetic habits—the stern and awful character
of his theology (sincere though his opinions may have been,
yet mixed with much of gloomy terror), nothing which occurs
in his Journal can well surprise us, nor can we be at a loss to
account for it on natural principles, without having recourse
to his own supposition, that any very extraordinary manifesta¬
tion of Divine and spiritual power was present. Similar
manifestations of intense feeling have unquestionably occurred
under similar circumstances, and in the case of those who
have had the awful realities of eternity for the first time pre¬
sented to them. At the late meeting of the Evangelical
Alliance in Belfast, a missionary (French Protestant) from
South Africa detailed effects of his preaching among the
aborigines extremely similar to those recorded by Brainerd
among these North American Indians. A highly intelligent
minister of the Established Church, long a resident, as
chaplain, in India, informed me, some few years back, that he
had witnessed agony of spirit, in the case of some partially
enlightened Brahmins, which developed itself in the most
violent manner. This gentleman described their depth of
despair, under a sense of sin, as something extremely awful,
and unusual among professing Christians. Such considera¬
tions will at once show that but little, if any real parallel,
exists between the revivals in New England, during the early
part of the eighteenth century, and those in Ulster at present
under review. Neither will an intelligent or discerning ob¬
server confound these latter with the effect observed among
the totally different classes of persons concerned, viz.: heathens,
and those who have heard for the first time in their lives the
truths of Christianity. As regards the final results of all
such m anifestations, and viewing them historically, it is
h*
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instructive to note their issue, as far as we can come to any
just conclusion, and in so doing we cannot but be struck by
the fact that these results are anything but either remarkable
or encouraging. It would be difficult to discover any, even
the remotest traces of the Indian congregation among whom
Brainerd thus laboured, although he was succeeded in his mission
by a brother of almost equal devotedness; a circumstance which
reminds us of the fact that the tribes among whom his pre¬
decessor Elliott laboured, with so much zeal, have so entirely
disappeared, that the very translation of the Scriptures into their
language made by him, and which may be said to have formed
the great aim of his missionary life is now unintelligible ; the
few copies which remain being thus now utterly lost to all
practical use.
Such considerations may well lead us to pause before at¬
tributing any surpassing value to the physical accompaniments
of religion, or asserting their extraordinary and Divine origin.
The period of the New England Revival was also that of
of the remarkable events, which, in England, Wales, and
Scotland, accompanied the preaching of Whitfield and his
fellow-labourers. These latter are too well known to require
in this place any distinct record. It is quite evident that,
as in the case of the Revival of 1859, the influence in these
lands then came from America. In 1735, New England was
undergoing the process described by President Edwards, while
from that date, until 1742, Whitfield was preaching in
England and Scotland, with very similar results.
It will be remembered that it was after Whitfield’s first
journey to America, and his visit to the scene of the New
England revivals, and to Dr. Edwards, under whose ministry
they had at first manifested themselves, that the number of
alleged conversions, accompanied by bodily affections, took
place in Great Britain. The link of connection between these
extraordinary manifestations may be thus directly traced. The
scenes which took place during Whitfield’s preaching at
London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Cambuslang, and elsewhere,
are familiar to most persons at all acquainted with the religious
history of the past century. An extract from one of Whit¬
field’s letters thus describes what occurred on the 11th July,
1742, at the last specified place:
“Yesterday morning, (he writes) I preached at Glasgow t
a very large congregation. At noon I came to Cambuslang,
the place which God hath so much honoured. I preached at
two, to a vast body of people; again at six in the evening,
and afterwards at nine. Such a commotion was surely never
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heard of, especially about eleven o’clock at night. It far out¬
did all that ever I Baw in America. For about an hour and
a half there was such weeping, so many falling into deep
distress, and manifesting it in various ways, that description
is impossible. The people seemed to be smitten by scores,
were carried off, and brought into the house like wounded
soldiers taken from the field of battle. Their agonies and
cries were deeply affecting. Mr. McCullough preached after
I had done, till past one o’clock in the morning, and even
then the people could scarcely be got to retire. Throughout
the whole of the night might the voice of prayer and praise
be still heard in the fields.”
It was at the same place, Cambuslang, that a few days
afterwards, Whitfield represents himself as having preached,
on one occasion to above twenty thousand people. This was
on Friday. “ On Monday morning,” he writes, “ I preached
to nearly as many, but so general a stir I never saw before.
The motion passed swift as lightning from one end of the audi¬
ence to the other. You might have seen thousands bathed in
tears, some wringing their hands, some almost swooning, and
others crying out and mourning over a pierced Saviour.
During the whole night you might have heard the different
companies praying and giving praise to God.”
It is impossible not to perceive the close resemblance be¬
tween those scenes and the accompaniments of the recent
Ulster Revival. The effects are stated, by the contemporaries
and companions of Whitfield, as of the most extraordinary
kind. Within the space of a few months it is stated that “ in
one locality alone, upwards of five hundred souls have been
awakened; most of them it is added, savingly brought home
to God.” On one occasion of a communion, upwards of one
thousand seven hundred communicated. On another, on one
Lord’s day, and in three tents, on a sacramental occasion, a
multitude variously estimated at from thirty to fifty thousand
are said to have partaken of that ordinance.
The above facts are selected from a volume published under
the sanction of the committee of the General Assembly of the
Free Church of Scotland, entituled The Revivals of the
Eighteenth Century, &c., by the Rev. D. Macfarlan, d.d.,
Renfrew; and the same volume furnishes a most instructive
comment on them. Such was the state of things, and the
aspect of religion in Scotland in 1743 and 1744. Nine years
afterwards, that is in 1751, appeared A Review of the Fruits
of the Revival at Cambuslang, from the pen of the Rev. W.
McCulloch, one of Whitfield’s fellow labourers, and a more
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melancholy though wholesome comment on all such religious
excitement, to any unprejudiced judge, can hardly be con¬
ceived. The writer of this report states—•
“ There were many in 1742 w ho, in time of sermon, fell
tinder various bodily agitations and commotions, such as cry¬
ing aloud, fainting, falling down dead, &c. Concerning such
bodily effects, we cannot certainly conclude that the persons
bo affected are tinder the influence of the Spirit, whether con¬
vincing, comforting or sanctifying, because, for aught we know,
they may proceed from the mere power of the imagination, or
from some bodily disorder.”
Then follow some exceedingly sensible remarks on such
bodily affections, which, it is much to be regretted, appear
never to have met the eyes of the Ulster Revivalists of the
present day. The foliowring is a word of caution which might
commend itself to all such.
“ Meantime, we see in some things the malice of the wicked
one. When he saw a number under deep convictions that
were likely to issue well, as these appeared towards the end of
1741 and the beginning of 1742, he taught certain of his
Wretched bondmen to mimic them, crying out, falling down
as dead, and afterwards reporting dreams and visions, making
a high profession, some for weeks, some for months, and some
for years, and when this was ended they were driven on in
evil courses—some falling into habits of uncleanness, some of
drunkenness, some of lying, some of cheating, and some of
other abominations, utterly casting away from them all re¬
spect for religion.”
As regards the actual numbers of those who are reported to
have maintained anything like a decent outward profession of
religion, thereby proving the sincerity of their alleged con¬
version, the utmost extent is stated vn this report at four
hundred. How solemn a warning does this statement con¬
tain, we may be sure the most favourable possible, thus made
a few years afterwards by one of Whitfield’s enthusiastic com¬
panions in the Cambuslang Revival, when we call to remem¬
brance, not the hundreds, but the thousands believed to have
been made the subjects of saving faith under his preaching!
Here, once more, is matter for earnest consideration for
modern Revivalists.
The rapid historical sketch here attempted, if pursued
seriatim, would lead to a mention of the American Revivals,
dating from 1800 and the following years, in Kentucky; those
which have succeeded in that country down to the most re¬
cent in 1858, as well as to those in Scotland, at Kilsyth and
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Dundee, in the year 1835, concluding with the Ulster Revival
of last year. It may suffice to notice that, with the exception
of the American Revival of 1858, wherein bodily affections
were nearly altogether absent, these phenomena were more
or less noticeable, while in the most recent case, the Ulster
Revival, they constituted, as already stated, its very “font et
origo," and accompanied the movement, as an essential ad¬
junct, until its intensity spent itself. We are, therefore, I
trust, in a position to take a calm, retrospective glance at
these singular accompaniments of religion, and make a few
deductions which may appear fully warranted, even by what
has just been stated respecting them. For a more full un¬
derstanding of the subject, and of the grounds on which the
following suggestions are made, the more ample records of
these events must be consulted.
First, then, be it observed, that these physical affections
have occurred in connection with one phase of the Christian
religion almost exclusively, and have followed in the wake of
teachers of one doctrinal description alone. These are, mani¬
festly, of the school of Whitfield ; the bodily affections which
we are considering, are the exclusive growth of Presbyterian¬
ism in these countries, and down to their very latest exhibi¬
tion, have primarily occurred in the bodies of religionists pro¬
fessing that creed. Some qualification to this assertion may
be urged when the case of Methodism is considered, and it
must be admitted that excitement, physical as well as
spiritual, is one of the normal elements of that sect : but the
peculiar sort of physical affections which are now before us, is,
nevertheless, the growth of Presbyterianism, more or less
strictly so called, as is proved by its history among us, from
the days of Hamilton, Blair, and Glendinning, down to the
Ulster Revivalists of 1859.
Let this fact be accounted for as it may, it is a patent and
undeniable one.
Referring to it I may be permitted to trace in its occurrence,
periodically, as it may be styled, a singular illustration of the
often cited adage, that “ extremes meet.” The wildest bodily
contortions ana mental illusions of Tarantism, and of the
Convulsionaires of Romanism, to say nothing of the Jerkers
and Peter Cartwrights among American Methodists, have
found an exact parallel among the proverbially apathetic
Presbyterian peasants and mechanics of Ulster, during the
late excitement; while ministers of the “ General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland ” have been found
among the originators, abettors or apologists of these extrava-
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gancies. It were a task as facile as disagreeable to illustrate
these statements by proofs, some ludicrous, and others sadly
instructive. Just to mention one: I have it on most reliable
authority that a Presbyterian minister in Ulster, during the
prevailing excitement, actually preached to his congregation
for several successive Lord’s Days, while under the influence
of bona Jide mental derangement, owing to which he had after¬
wards to be placed under restraint. On more than one of these
occasions he addressed to some of his hearers, individually,
from the pulpit, messages which he asserted to have been de¬
livered to him, for their spiritual benefit, during his visits to
heaven, whither he had been carried in the Spirit Some of
these messages were of the most painfully ludicrous descrip¬
tion. To one man he addressed himself specifically, saying
that in former times he had stolen a cock, and that he (the
preacher) had seen that cock in heaven, reserved there for the
purpose of convicting him of the theft, &c., &c. These
addresses produced the usual physical effects on the hearers,
who were “ struck,” and carried out of the congregation, to be
treated in the usual and prescribed manner: but the truly
melancholy part of the subject is, that this unhappy man,
diseased in mind, like his predecessor, Glendinning, was not
only not recognised and treated as such by his hearers, but
his mission as a Revivalist believed in.
This fact, then, namely, that the bodily affections of the
Ulster revival of 1859, as of its predecessors, were the growth
of Presbyterianism proper, deserves our consideration, as well
as a careful record. It must be admitted that Methodism soon
joined in with the system so utterly opposed to it in doctrine
and discipline. So did the Baptist denomination. This sect
has had a perfect harvest among the Revivalists. So has
Plymouthism, which has developed itself into an ultra Baptist
sect. I regret to have to add that some few of the clergy of
the Established Church in Ulster joined the ranks of Revival¬
ism, but from its very earliest date, in the 17th century, down
to our own day, it has never found a place in the Church of
the land; its sayings and doings here are as entirely unknown
as they are in the inspired record. No one physical manifes¬
tation, in connexion with religion, has ever had either origin
or abode in the United Church of England and Ireland. To
account for this would take us to the region of theology, or
lead us to discuss these phenomena in the light of Scripture
and reason, in their moral and psychical aspect, a view of
the subject which must not, for the present* be entered on.
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I prefer, on this account, merely to note the facts already
mentioned.
Recurring to their origin, as above, it is painfully instructive
further to note, that among the religionists where the physical
affections have occurred in their most striking form, it will be
found, on careful enquiry, that superstition, often of the
grossest and most humiliating form is discoverable. This
statement is, I am but too well aware, calculated to offend the
prejudices of many, but the interests of truth, and above all
of God’s truth, must be paramount, especiallv at a time like
the present, when they are so alarmingly endangered. It is
really humiliating to peruse the records of the Ulster Revival
of 1859, some of these from men and teachers whose names
stand high for orthodoxy of sentiment and sobriety of charac¬
ter, and to perceive the deep tinge of credulity, tending to
superstition which overspreads them. One of these brochures
is from the pen of the Rev. John Baillie, author of Memoirs
of Hewitson, &c., as the title page informs us, and a more
melancholy exhibition of simplicity—I had nearly written
gullibility—as regards alleged facts, as well as of the prone¬
ness to believe wonders, often imaginary or worse, is hardly to
be found in the whole region of pamphleteering. If this
writer only knew the mischief he has done, in chronicling as
true converts, persons easily recognisable by those on the spot,
whose real characters, as since and now exhibited, are so ut¬
terly unlike what his heated imagination has depicted, he
would be very slow in again acting as the historian and inter¬
preter of what he so imperfectly understands. He is quite
prepared for any amount of miraculous interposition which
may present itself: all the wonders of Pentecost, including
the out-pouring of the Holy Spirit, “ so far from being con¬
fined to any particular season,” we are told, “ might be ex¬
pected to be reproduced so often as God might have any of
His wise and gracious ends to serve by their reproduction.”
Here we have personal conflicts with the Devil in abundance,
as for example that of a mill-girl, (recorded in chap, ii, p. 7)
to whom Satan appeared almost visibly present, so that “ the
sweat lashed oat of her.” This gentleman is quite delighted
with the swoons and fits and fallings down of these unhappy
young females, some of whom, though he knows it not, may
be at this moment suffering under permanent bodily disease,
from the effects of his ministrations. Writing of one of his
addresses, and its effects of this description, “ when suddenly
several individuals were stricken and screamed aloud; ” Mr.
Baillie, with much nmveU, adds “ now we are free to add—it
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Rev. W. Mc’Uwaine on
were mere prudery to withhold the confession— that toe re -
turned home that evening feeling that we had received a
visible seal of our ministry. The same work might have
been done in that soul without any outward manifestation of
it; but the latter was added, and we thanked God and took
courage.” p. 15.
Such is the Rev. Mr. Baillie’s candid confession in avoidance
of prudery, and we are “free to add,” in common honesty, what¬
ever the evangelical world may think of such an avowal on
his part, that to us it savours of most depraved spiritual appre¬
hension, and is double dyed with the traces of the most
dangerous superstition.
Tracing this physical manifestation, in connection with
religion, backward towards its source in the seventeenth cen¬
tury, honesty compels me to add, that its authors discover, to
an attentive observer, the most palpable evidences of supersti¬
tion, and that often of a very degrading character. It would
hardly be believed, were it stated, how much of this mental
delusion lurks among the Presbyterian population of Ulster
at the present day, and the same remark applies to their ec¬
clesiastical progenitors. The seventeenth century was rife
with superstition, and that among even its puritan professors.
The immediate descendants of the Puritan Fathers—Pilgrim
Fathers, as they are generally styled—in New England, were
superstitious to an extent that is hardly credible. A most
singular production from the pen of one of those religious
teachers, Increase Mather, well known as a man of reputed
piety, has lately been reprinted (1856), its original date being
Boston, in New England, 1683, under the title Remarkable
Providences, Illustrative of the Earlier Days of American
Colonization, the alleged miracles of which leave far behind
them nearly all the tales of the marvellous, which are to be
found even in the legends of Romanism. Apparitions, mon¬
sters, satanic freaks, in thunder, lightning, up and down
chimneys, on old women, and tubs of milk , and pans of cream
and butter, here abound.
Now, let it be borne in mind, that it was among precisely
the same class of religionists the physical forms of religious
conversion made their earliest appearance, and have been per¬
petrated. The Scottish ministers who imported these into
Ulster present not a few traces, in their character, of precisely
the same tendency. Thus, appended to the autobiography
of Livingstone already referred to, we have his own state¬
ment, that John Knox “ dispossessed cun evil spirit out of a
chamber in East Lothian.” The same author ascribes “ the
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spirit of prophecy,” to Mr. John Davidson, minister at Pres-
tonpans, and gives several alleged instances of its exercise.
What is this but superstition ? To give illustrations of the
same spirit, as characteristic of the Ulster Revival of 1859,
were not to write an essay, but to fill a volume. Lights and ap¬
paritions, unearthly visions of heaven and hell, sounds celestial
and infernal, music in the air, lights from above and around,
conversations with spirits of all sorts, alleged answers to
prayer of the most marvellous magnitude and exactness, all
these, and countless other concomitants, have marked its rise
and progress. These may all, to answer a purpose, be styled
accidents, but like the physical affections themselves, they
have been the unfailing attendants of the movement through¬
out.
After such an historical (perhaps it might be said geo¬
graphical) review of the physical portion of revivalism, some
few concluding inferences may legitimately, and also profitably
be permitted to suggest themselves.
This physical phase, then, of the movement, being an essen¬
tial one, is that movement therefore, the more likely to be, as
is so loudly asserted by its advocates, an extraordinary, divine,
and spiritual one ? The very opposite is the conclusion to
which an intelligent enquirer, and moreover an enlightened
Christian, might be expected to arrive. Viewing Christianity
as a whole, and tracing it, historically, to its origin, we are led
to perceive that these physical adjuncts are a novelty, and in
this case every novelty is dangerous. “ The faith ” which we
profess was “once delivered to the saints.” The pmotice
to be pursued by all intelligent Christians is that which
exhibited itself in the New Testament model—in the life and
in the death of the Great Author of our religion, as well as in
those of his immediate followers and disciples. Where, it may
well be asked, in the New Testament, do we discover scenes
such as those enacted in Ulster, during the revival either of
the seventeenth or the nineteenth century ?
Again, the history of this movement, even as it has been
rapidly glanced at in these pages, demonstrates it to have been
most partial and limited in its operations, manifesting itself
exclusively among one set of religionists and no other. Is
there here any resemblance to that religion whose mission is
to “all kinareds and nations and peoples and tongues”
whose message is “ to every creature ?” Will it be believed
that the Blessed Spirit who descended on the day of Pentecost,
and, as a type and first-fruit of his future operations, baptized
not only Jews, but Parthians and Medes and Elamites—re-
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Ulster Revivalism.
presentatives of all nations dwelling at Jerusalem—has in
the nineteenth century inaugurated “ another Pentecost,” and
signalized it by some dubious conversions among a sect or
two in Ulster ?
Least of all can we concede such a demand on our faith
when we see this movement not only materialized by bodily
affections, and those in numberless cases morbid ones, but
accompanied throughout by works of superstition so gross as
to become offensive, even to many who at first did not know
what to think of it, whether to approve or to distrust
Above and beyond all, let the alone sure test, that of its
fruits, be applied here. These are now beginning to develope
themselves in tolerable abundance. And generalizing this
test, we may lawfully ask, what have been the abiding results
of ail the past revivals attended like that of last year, by
physical manifestations ? History can answer that question.
The Ulster Revival of Livingstone and Blair ended in the
apathy, the worldliness, the Socinianism of Ulster during
the years intervening between it and the period of our own
memory. Who can trace any permanent results from “ The
Work” in Edwards’ and Brainerd’s day ? In what have the
labours even of Whitfield and his companions ended, however
earnest and evangelical ? And however beneficial may have
been the result in individual conversions, let the harvest of
sects and heterodoxy which followed, in part, at least, answer
the question. What has been the tendency and the realized
results of the camp-meetings of Kentucky and Tennessee,
almost within our own recollection ? What even of the ex¬
citement fostered by the excellent M’Cheyne and others
still later? Will any one venture to give a reply ap¬
probatory of all these? If even present rumours from
across the Atlantic convey truth, the American Revival of
1858, although accompanied by so little of physical excite¬
ment, has been far from productive of so much permanently
spiritual fruit as some at first supposed it would yield. Surely,
all these considerations should suggest more than caution re¬
specting the finality of the Ulster Revival of 1859 ; and, be¬
yond all, as regards its physical accompaniments. “ Revi¬
valism ,” is a thing which may be both apprehended and ap¬
preciated. Let it be but weighed in the balances of reason
and Scripture, as well as tested by history and experience, and
so far from being dealt with apologetically or approvingly, in
connexion with “ pure and undefiled religion,” it will be con¬
signed to the region of distrust and disapprobation.
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461
On Potentiality and Actuality in Man. By J. Stevenson
Bushnan, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians
of Edinburgh; late Senior Physician to the Metropolitan
Free Hospital; Resident Proprietor of Laverstock House
Asylum, near Salisbury.
Potentiality refers to an idea sufficiently well known
both in physiology and psychology. Thus, in physiology,
a serous empty sac is a potential cavity; and, as respects
potentiality, in reference to mental phenomena we may con¬
veniently conceive it as parallel to the potentiality of the
phenomena of life existing in the germ at the moment of its
first detachment from the parent, previous to the com¬
mencement of uterine life.
Potentiality may be viewed as belonging either to the in¬
dividual, as pointing to the particular mental history of one
man; or, in a larger view, to men in general as constituting
a species in the animal kingdom ; or, lastly, to an individual
as the type of a high standard of the human race. It is this
last form of potentiality to which the following brief obser¬
vations chiefly relate. To such a type of mankind the ob¬
servations we have to make on actuality also belong.
Potentiality, as belonging to the germ, necessarily in¬
cludes the susceptibility of every possible mode of mental
existence which is to be realized in the future life of the
individual into which the germ is to be developed.
The first potentiality to be noted is the great potentiality
of consciousness. This great potentiality of consciousness
with striking contrast distinguishes man from the most ex-
* alted member of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the most
elaborate development of life does not in the least degree
imply actuality of consciousness. It might even be conceived
that the human germ might attain an actuality of life little
inferior to that possessed by an ordinary full-grown man,
without having attained the actuality of consciousness.
Such a case at least is not to be described so much as im¬
possible, as next to unattainable under the ordinary circum¬
stances of life at the surface of the earth. How nearly such
a case approaches to realization appears from the well known
histories of the all but complete development of anencepha-
lous foetuses.
Of mere consciousness in its most limited degree, animals
very low in the scale seem to be susceptible; Whatever
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On Potentiality and A duality in Man,
animal is susceptible of pain, is, by the very terms of that
proposition, declared to be susceptible of consciousness. But
in the lower animals in which pain occurs, the consciousness
of pain may occur for a moment and cease; it may again
occur and cease, and so on for a number of times, and yet
each pain may be, as it were, a separate existence. Such an
animal may have no other consciousness than the conscious¬
ness of pain ; in which case it will possess as many mental
lives, of short duration indeed, as occasions during its
bodily life occur on which it has suffered this consciousness
of pain. The case of such an animal is not, however, alto*
getner without a parallel in man ; for there may be states of
consciousness which occur but a few times during his life, at
intervals so long, that, on each separate occasion, no reference
is made to the other occasions on which the same conscious¬
ness took place. In the case of such an animal as that just
referred to, it is manifest that there is no foundation for
identity. The elements which compose the body may, or
may not, remain the same throughout the whole period
within which these several occasions of pain have arisen;
but there is no foundation in its mental life for identity.
Nevertheless there is manifestly no need for any other kind
of consciousness of pain to establish a feeling of identity:—
what is wanted is the susceptibility of recognizing each
consciousness of pain as a repetition of a form of conscious¬
ness of pain. This consciousness is equivalent to mental
existence, and if there be no connexion between several
successive states of consciousness, then there are as many
mental existences as there are consciousnesses, but no
identity.
To return to man. The potentiality of consciousness
implies the potentiality of a feeling of mental existence
so long at least as each 6tate of consciousness lasts, but does
not imply identity.
The next great potentiality to that of consciousness
is the potentiality of the notion of time. Every animal
which can recognise a state of consciousness as resem*
bling a consciousness which occurred before, has the
potentiality of the notion of time, even although between
the periods at which these successive states of consciousness
arise, it may have been dead to all feeling. An animal may
recognise several successive consciousnesses of pain as re¬
sembling each other, while each suggested those which pre¬
ceded it, so as to have an imperfect notion of successive
interrupted states of existence. The same animal may have
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by Dr. Stevenson Bushnan.
successive consciousnesses of pleasure, each suggesting those
which preceded it, and jet each of those consciousnesses of
pleasure, may not suggest the consciousness of pain; and
thus the animal may have two separate .courses of mental
existence each independent of the other, or even an indefinite
number of such courses of mental existence corresponding to
the several kinds of consciousnesses of which it is susceptible,
provided each kind do not suggest the others, but only those
of its own kind. The bearing of this view on some states
of mental derangement is obvious, and to which, upon a
future occasion, I propose to allude.
The third great potentiality is the potentiality of identity.
This potentiality implies that each state of consciousness, of
whatever kind, remembers the previous successions of
consciousness.
The next great potentiality is the potentiality of the
notion of space.
Of all the modes of consciousness, by far the most pre¬
dominant, particularly in early infancy is sensation. In
every sensation there is the generic consciousness common
to all mental phenomena, with the additional element of an
absolutely fixed locality. Let the sensation be produced by
the most delicate touch of the finest possible needle in the
infant but just bora. This sensation consists of a conscious¬
ness and of a local seat, namely, in the minute area of space
occupied by the point of the needle. This, then, is the
character of all sensation ; consciousness with a local seat.
The human germ, then, unquestionably has the potentiality
of existing in consciousness, combined with a feeling of
locality. No anatomy is required to determine this truth.
Pure metaphysical reasoning is but confused by reference to
anatomical knowledge. The only evidence admissible in
metaphysics is, reflection on the subjects of consciousness—
whether direct or by testimony. It is certain that every
sensation analogous in magnitude to that supposed to be
S roduced by the point of a needle, has a local seat, just as
efinite, whatever be its origin.
The next great potentiality is the potentiality of the notion
of motion. From an early period of life the muscular fibres
of the locomotive system contract spontaneously in various
automatic acts, as they are called, long before distinct motions
are performed by volition. The contraction of every fibre, or
at least of every minute portion of such a muscle, by affecting
the nervous filament spread over it, produces a sensation.
This sensation, like all othersensations, has alocalseat, namely
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464 On Potentiality and Actuality in Man.
in the area where the impression is made by the contraction
of the fibre. It is manifest, however, that a single fibre, or a
minute portion of a muscle, cannot move without the nervous
filament being at the same time moved. Hence the beginning
of the sensation must involve one locality, apd its termination
another locality. Thus the sensations, which take place during
the contraction of muscular fibres, leap, as it were, from one
locality to another. This is the earliest actuality of motion;
the realization of the potentiality and the notion of motion.
“ The element of motion is involved in the sensation atten¬
dant on the contraction of every portion of muscular sub¬
stance supplied with a sentient nervous filament/' (Dr.
Seller. See Report of the British Association for 1860, p.
136.) When tne hand passes over the surface of the body
accidentally, or under automatic movements, there is
another actuality of motion. When an object depicted on
the retina changes its place with the movements of the
eye, there is another actuality of motion. If any one doubts
the existence of distinct sensations under the contraction of
muscular fibres, let him attend to his own feelings in the
act of yawning. In this act he exercises no volition, and
for that very reason, perhaps he is more distinctly sensible
of the distinctive feelings which attend the movement of the
several muscular fibres concerned. In the early period of
infancy, all the muscular movements are of the same charac¬
ter as the act of yawning, that is, movements determined
by what physiologists name reflex or excito-motory acts. It
is found that every individual possesses a perfect knowledge
from his feelings of the attitude in which he happens to be at
the moment; that is to say, he knows by the sensations at¬
tending the particular muscular acts, by which his present
attitude is determined, the exact position in which the body
stands, sits, or lies. If a man awake in the night in
the most complete darkness, he knows at once in what atti¬
tude he is placed. This knowledge, doubtless, is the result
of the attention given in early infancy to the sensations ac¬
companying the muscular acts determined by reflex action,
rather than by those which are, at a later period, the effects
of volition.
If a sleep-walker were suddenly to awake in a particularly
dark room while he stood in some unusual attitude, he would
at once know with the most perfect accuracy what that atti¬
tude was. Let the metaphysicians say whether this know¬
ledge be subjective or objective. No physiologist will for a
moment doubt that such knowledge can only be subjective.
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Scotcfi Lunacy Commissioners’ Report.
465
Second Annual Report of the General Board of Commis *
eioners in Lunacy for Scotland. Presented to both
Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty\
Edinburgh, I860, pp. 225.
In our July number of last year we gave an account of the
state of lunacy in Scotland as shewn In the first annual report
of the Scotch Commissioners. We concluded that notice with
the following sentence: “ We here conclude our observations
on this first report of the Scotch Lunacy Commissioners. It
is a document drawn up in a wide and comprehensive spirit,
dealing with the question of the treatment and care of the
insane in all its varied relations. It bears evidence through¬
out of that unwearied industry and conscientious search after
truth, which characterized Dr. Browne’s long series of Reports
of the Dumfries Asylum. It is full and accurate in the in¬
formation it conveys of the present state of the insane in
Scotland, and of the measures in progress for their ameliora¬
tion ; while, at the same time, its wide grasp of the whole
question of lunacy, has led us on, following the example of
its writers, to depart here and there from the purely local
question of the treatment of the insane in Scotland, and to
touch on the wider element of the future development here
in England, as well as beyond the Tweed, of the principles
of the treatment of the insane poor embodied in the lunacy
legislation of the last twelve years, and evolved in the success¬
ful efforts of the English Commissioners in Lunacy to apply
those principles to practice. The work is already well for¬
ward, and has only to be persevered with in the same spirit
in which it has hitherto been carried out.”
The report now before us fully realizes these expectations.
The Commissioners have successfully applied the powers in¬
trusted to them to the alleviation of the condition of the in¬
sane in Scotland, and their report bears ample evidence of the
zeal and diligence with which the work has been carried on.
Our countrymen north of the Tweed are not so tied in
red tape, and seem to trust more to their own unaided com¬
mon sense and good intentions, than we are permitted here
in the south to do.
vol. vi. no. 34. i
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Second Annual Report of the
We shall proceed to give a summary of the contents of this
Second Report of the Scotch Commissioners.
I. The Number of Insane in Scotland.
a. Total number of the Insane in Scotland.
The total number of the insane in Scotland, on 1st January,
1859, including those private patients living singly, of whose
existence the Commissioners have cognizance, amounted to 7878,
distributed as follows :—
i i
1 Private. |
| Pauper.
a.
F.
1 TOT.
M.
F.
TOT.
if.
F.
TOT.
Public Aayl.
1271
1225
2496
413
396
809
858
829
1687
Private „
351
470
821
90
110
200
261
360
621
Poorhousea
328
469
797
• .
2
2
328
467
795
Private Ho.
1879
1885
3764
1041
846
1887
838
1039
1877
Total
3829
4049
7878
1544
1364
2898
2285
2695
4980
It appears from this Table that of 7878 insane persons in Scot*
land, 2898 are supported by private funds, and 4980 by parochial
rates. Another important fact which may be deduced from it, is
the preference given by the friends of private patients to public
asylums over licensed houses; and this affords a strong argument
in favour of providing accommodation of a superior kind in con¬
nexion with the district asylums. It is shown that while 809
patients of this class are placed in public asylums, only 200 are
placed in licensed houses; and the former number would probably
have been even greater, had the public asylums been able to receive
all those for whom application was made.
A very large proportion of the non-parochial patients who are
found in private houses, belong to families so little removed above
pauperism, that many of them are detained at home entirely from
the inability of friends to pay for their maintenance in asylums.
This is a fact of very grave import, and should be constantly borne
in mind in all arrangements for providing a national system of
asylum accommodation.
b. Increase of Insanity in France, England, and Scotland
“ The experience of all countries has shown, that the numbers
of the insane increase so rapidly that the accommodation provided,
however sufficient it may at first have appeared, has in a short time
been found inadequate. In France, for instance, the numbers of
the insane in public and private asylums amounted, on'1st January
1835, to 10,539; whereas, on 1st January, 1854, they had increased
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467
Lunacy Commissioners for Scotland.
to 24,524. In England and Wales the number of pauper lunatics
amounted, in August 1843, to 16,764; of whom 3525 were in
county asylums, 2299 in licensed houses, and 4063 in workhouses.
On 1st January, 1859, the number of pauper lunatics had increased
to 30,318; of whom 14,481 were placed in county or borough
asylums, 2076 in registered hospitals and licensed houses, and 7963
in workhouses. It thus appears that in sixteen years the number of
pauper lunatics in England and Wales had nearly doubled, and
that in 1859 nearly as many were in public and private asylums
as were on the roll in 1843. In Scotland, we And similar results.
According to the returns of the Board of Supervision, the number
of insane poor relieved during the year ended 14th May, 1847,
amounted to 2945, and to 5564 for the year ended 14th May, 1858;
thus showing an increase of 2619 in eleven years. These numbers
refer to the pauper lunatics relieved during the year ; but supposing
that the moderate deduction of ten per cent, be made to determine
the numbers on any stated day, we shall have 2650 as the actual
number of insane poor in Scotland on Nth May, 1847.”
c. Estimate of numbers in Scotland, for whom asylum
accommodation may be required.
“Reference to the preceding Table will show, that on 1st January
1859, there were 2308 pauper lunatics in public and private asylums,
and 795 in the lunatic wards of poorhouses. That is, there were
in lunatic establishments, in 1859, no less than 3103 pauper patients,
or 453 more than the total number of the insane poor in 1847.
From the investigations undertaken with the view of determining
the amount of accommodation that should be provided in district
asylums, we arrived at the conclusion that provision would be
required for 4353 pauper lunatics ; and, on mature consideration,
we are not inclined to consider this estimate as excessive. On the
contrary, were we to draw our conclusions from past experience,
we should have only too great reason to fear that it would soon
prove insufficient, The estimate, it may be well to point out,
is founded on the supposition that all pauper lunatics are to bo
accommodated in district asylums, or asylums recognised as efficient
substitutes, and presupposes the extinction of all licensed houses
and lunatic wards of poorhouses. On this supposition, additional
accommodation would be required for 2666 patients, as this number,
with the 1687 in public asylums on 1st January, 1859, makes up the
estimate of 4353. But, during 1859, additional accommodation for
about 400 patients has been provided by the opening of the new
asylum of Montrose, and the enlargement of the Southern Counties
Asylum at Dumfries, so that the further accommodation now
absolutely required, supposing the old asylum at Montrose to re*
main in permanent operation, is only for 2266 patients. Of these
2266, however, 1416 are already in licensed houses and lunatic
I*
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468
Second Annual Report of the
wards of poorhouses, so that the actual deficiency of any kind of
accommodation is only for 850.
“ We entertain strong objections to the residence of panper
lunatics in licensed houses and lunatic wards of poorhouses, as well
on grounds of economy as on those of general treatment, and these
we shall state more fully in other portions of this Report. At present
we shall merely direct attention to the fact, that it must of necessity
be more for the interests of the districts to place their pauper luna¬
tics in establishments under their own management, than to consign
them to the custody of the proprietors of private asylums, who
must draw their own profits from the payments made for the main¬
tenance of the patients. We shall also afterwards bring forward
strong reasons for thinking that the maintenance of patients, even
in the lunatic wards of poorhouses, is less economical than their
maintenance in public asylums.
“ To prevent misconception, it may be well to state that we do not
-consider it advisable that the old asylum at Montrose should be
permanently retained in operation. Indeed, the directors derided
on the erection of the new asylum, chiefly on the ground that the
accommodation afforded by the old house was not in harmony with
the modern improved treatment of the insane. It is therefore only
as a measure of temporary relief that we have suggested its con¬
tinued occupation.”
II. Distribution op Pauper Lunatics in Scotland.
The following valuable table, which we copy from page 39
of this report, gives a mass of information relative to the dis¬
tribution of the insane poor in Scotland. (Table No. 1.)
III. Statistics op Insanity in Scotland.
The Commissioners enter very carefully into the statistics
of the disease in Scotland. Some of these tables are sug¬
gestive of improvements in our method of recording the result
of treatment in the English county asylums.
Our limits will only permit us to reproduce here two tables
giving a summary of the admissions, discharges, and deaths,
the one in the public asylums, the other in the private li¬
censed houses of Scotland. (Tables Nos. 2 and 3.)
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Totals and Averages 12888742 179199 ■ 980 I 2308 <795 I 1877 I 27*4161 1723 162 879 I 46*346 I 15*963 137*691
(No. 2.) g. Re suits of Treatment in the public asylums of Scotland during the year 1859.
470 Second Annual Report of the
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8-186 I 7*484
Lunacy Commissioners
472
Second Annual Report of the
Thus, in the public asylums of Scotland, we find the pro¬
portion of recoveries on the admissions under that of the
licensed houses, but the mortality, the surer test of good man¬
agement, is, as one would expect, higher in the licensed
houses by about one per cent.
IV. Condition of Lunatics in Scotland.
a. In Public Asylums.
In this, their second report, the Scotch Commissioners
confirm the opinion we expressed in our review of their first
report on the relative condition of the Scotch and English
Asylums.
“ During the past year, they state, the condition of the public
asylums has on the whole eontinued to improve, although in several
respects its falls considerably below the general standard of English
county asylums. But in making this comparison, we must direct at¬
tention to the fact, that in one very essential respect the Scotch
asylums do not occupy nearly bo favourable a position as those of
England. In the latter country, the necessary funds are raised by
assessment; and an asylum, calculated to afford accommodation for
all the patients of the county, and supplied with all the necessary ap¬
pliances, is at once provided. Should this accommodation be after¬
wards found to be insufficient, a further assessment is made, and
additional buildings are erected. In Scotland, on the other hand, the
directors of the public asylums possess no compulsory powers of
raising funds. The houses have been built with money derived from
legacies, charitable donations, and subscriptions; and their extension
chiefly provided for by the payments made for patients. The cost of
the original building, and its subsequent extension, have thus both
been defrayed from uncertain sources; and a considerable portion of
the payments for patients has been diverted from the more legitimate
object of providing for the proper treatment and comfort of those on
whose account they were made, into furnishing accommodation for
others. In this way, a large proportion of the public asylum accom¬
modation in Scotland has been provided from monies levied directly
on the friends of the insane, by making the payments on their
account considerably exceed the expenditure, instead of by the
fairer course of assessing the community.”
As a fair sample of the Scotch Commissioners’ visitation
reports, and also of the actual state of these Scotch chartered
asylums, we subjoin the following report of their visit in
August, 1859, to the Royal Edinburgh Asylum, at Morning-
side. In August, 1858, the Morningside Asylum was visited
by this Association.
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473
Lunacy Commissioners for Scotland. ,
•“All parts of the house were carefully inspected, ami the Commissioner is of
opinion, while fully admitting the difficulties under which the establishment is
carried on, in respect of over-crowding, and the vicious construction of many
parts of the building, that, with more energy, or more concentrated responsibility,
the condition of the house is susceptible of considerable improvement. . . The
errors which most interfere with the proper treatment of the patients are, as for¬
merly noticed, the erection of separate buildings for the noisy and excited patients,
and the deficiency of single rooms in other parts of the house; and the evils re¬
sulting from these errors are further aggravated by the faulty construction of the
separate buildings themselves. On the male side, their proper ventilation is im¬
possible: hence the urinous smell which, in spite of every exertion, adheres to the
rooms there occupied by wet patients. The Commissioner must also again com¬
ment upon the cheerless nature of the male sick-rooms and airing-court, and
the almost total absence of easy chairs and other furniture suitable for sick and
infirm patient^. He would further strongly direct attention to the scanty and
inappropriate washing accommodation in the male refractory wards and sick¬
rooms. On the female side, the evils of concentrating 60 or 70 excitable
patients in the separate building is aggravated by the necessity of placing many
of them in associated dormitories. There is a deficiency even here of single
rooms, and the want of them cannot fail to tend to keep up excitement.
“ 1 In the galleries of the main building, a number of patients were observed
stretched on the floor—an indication either of deficient supervision by the
attendants, or else of a want of seats. From inquiries made by the Commis¬
sioner, he is led to doubt whether the staff of attendants be sufficiently numerous.
Many attendants act in the double capacity of attendants and artizans ; and
with the double call upon their attention and time, which this combination
involves, the duties of the galleries are left to be performed by a too limited
staff. For instance, it is stated that the total number of male attendants in the
west house is 34 ; but of these, 7 are artisans or tradesmen never employed in
the galleries. Of the remaining 27, 14 are tradesmen and gardeners, who assist
in the galleries, but who also accompany the patients to the garden and work¬
shops ; so that only 13 remain to do the work of the house and look after the
large number of patients who remain in the galleries and airing-courts. This
state of matters will help to account for a certain air of untidiness which
pervades the establishment, and also for the large proportion of patients who
are never beyond the airing-courts. To a certain extent these results are, no
doubt, due to the over-crowded state of the house, which is now so great that it
has been found necessary, especially on the female side, to relieve the dormitories
by placing beds in the day-rooms. With the view of diminishing the evils of
overcrowding, the Commissioners would suggest that the Board of Lunacy be
furnished with the names of any patients who, in the opinion of the superinten¬
dent, might properly be placed under private care in their parishes. The
recommendation of the Board not to discharge patients who had not recovered
without their sanction, was intended as a check to stop the practice of inspectors
of removing patients improperly, but was not meant as an impediment to the
removal of those who could, with propriety, be intrusted to their friends. TTie
Commissioner notices, with satisfaction, the measures in progress for supplying
improved washing accommodation in several galleries where it was formerly
defective, and the preparations making for providing the female refractory wards
with a second airing-court. In connexion with the subject of airing-courts, he
would suggest the propriety of placing urinals in those of the male department,
where the corners are at present kept in a filthy condition from the want of any
proper arrangements.
“ In a large establishment such as this, it is absolutely necessary, for the safety
of the patients and building, that strict discipline should be maintained, without,
however, unnecessarily interfering with any proper indulgence to the patients.
The Commissioner, however, is inclined to think that greater precautions are
necessary to guard against the risk of fire. Gas is kept burning in many places
for the convenience of smokers ; and the gas lights in the dormitories are too
much within reach of the patients. Indeed, the house has narrowly escaped
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474 Second A nnual Report of the
being burned to the ground, on two separate occasions, during the last few
weeks. On one of these, the bed of one of the assistant physicians was pur*
posely, it is feared, set fire to ; and on the other, the patient enveloped himself
in flames by setting fire to his sheets at the gas in the dormitory,
“ 4 The bedding of the patients was carefully examined, and, with the ex¬
ception of one or two beds in the male sick rooms which had been neglected
by an attendant, was found clean and in good condition. The large dormi¬
tories occupied by the wet patients were found free from any offensive
smell. The dress of the patients was, in general, clean, and in good repair,
but there was room for some improvement in the cases of some of the im¬
becile and excited patients. Three males wore strong canvas dresses. On an
average about five patients daily are in seclusion; by much the larger portion
being females. The period of seclusion occasionally extends to several days.
There are two entries of restraint, one with polka with closed sleeves, and the
other with miU to prevent the destruction of clothing. Of the total number of
patients, 60 males and 84 females are considered curable; 142 males and 175
females are employed; 130 males and 127 females attend chapel on Sundays;
93 males and 48 females attend morning prayers; and 99 males and 71 females
attend the weekly ball. The proportion of patients employed, and of those
Attending chapel and amusements, thus appears low, and would in all proba¬
bility be increased, with advantage to the patients, with a fuller staff of
attendants. The new workshops are now in occupation, and the rooms formerly
occupied by the tailors and shoemakers are about to be converted into a
billiard* room aifd reading room. Additional workshops, for the more varied
occupation of the patients, would, no doubt, have a beneficial influence, by
increasing the number of workers. The sanitary condition of the house is
satisfactory—only 5 males and 6 females being registered as suffering from
bodily ailments. . . . While the Commissioner has considered it his duty
to comment fully upon the condition of the asylum, he desires to record his
opinion of the very satisfactory manner in which the medical staff, under many
difficulties, fulfil their responsible duties / 99
b. In Licensed Houses.
So far as we know them, the Scotch Pauper Licensed
Houses are wretched places, very inferior to those about Lon¬
don, as Camberwell or Bethnal Green. We believe they have
very much improved under the rule of the Commissioners.
In our notice of their first report we dwelt sufficiently on this
point, and have only here to record that they continue, with
unabated zeal, their struggle against the selfishness and sordid
efforts of the proprietors to defraud the patients of their
rightful comforts and necessaries.
“ During the past year (the Commissioners observe) we have
granted our license to the private house of English town, near
Inverness, for the reasons stated at p. xxi. The accommodation
afforded by licensed houses has been further increased, and is still
being enlarged, by additions to several of these establishments at
Musselburgh; and although we are on principle opposed to the
extension of private asylums for the accommodation of pauper
patients, yet we can scarcely regret that the dilatoriness of District
Boards has thus in some degree been compensated. It would,
however, be a very serious misfortune to the country should the
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Lunacy Commissioners for Scotland
provision of this additional accommodation be considered as confer¬
ring on the proprietors any claim to be permanently licensed. The
extensions were undertaken with the full knowledge that district
asylums were in future to constitute the sole legal provision for
the insane poor; and we took occasion specially to direct the
attention of the proprietors of the houses to this fact before the
alterations were commenced.”
c. In Union Houses.
In our notice last year of the Scotch Report, to which we
have already made reference, ( Journal of Mental Science,
July, 1859) we gave a tabular statement of the result of treat¬
ment in the lunatic wards of the Scotch Union Houses during
the year 1858. The mean annual mortality was shewn to be
14 per cent.
In the report now before us the Commissioners give a series
of their entries at their visits to these Poor-houses.
“ A perusal of them will show that, while the treatment accord¬
ed to the patients might generally be considered appropriate, were
they to be looked upon as sane paupers and voluntary inmates, it
cannot be regarded as proper for persons suffering from disease and
prevented from discharging themselves. In forming an estimate of
the nature of the accommodation provided for the insane poor in
workhouses, these two points are veiy apt not to receive due con¬
sideration from members of parochial boards, who draw their
conclusions from hurried visits, and are satisfied if they see clean
wards and sufficiently-clothed inmates. But they do not realize
the weary monotony of the patients’ existence; their prolonged
confinement to rooms the clean bareness of which is in itself
chilling and depressing; their scanty exercise in narrow yards;
and the feelings of injustice which such treatment frequently en¬
genders in the minds of those in whom disease has not altogether
destroyed the power of reflection. The influence of these agencies
is seen in the high mortality ; one-sixth of the average number of
male patients resident in poor houses having died within the year.”
d. Single Patients.
As appears by the table which we have reprinted at page
469, the Commissioners have cognizance of no less than 3764
lunatics living as single patients in private houses, of which
number 1887 are private, and 1877 pauper. This is a very
large number. They appear to have been most diligently and
systematically visited, particularly by the assistant medical
inspectors, the country being divided into districts for the
purpose. In a long appendix (E) the reports of these assist-
tant medical inspectors are given.
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Second Annual Report of the
“ We have given (says the report) in the Appendix to our First
Report, details of a number of cases, both of private and pauper
patients, illustrative of the condition of the insane who are not in
asylums. With the same view we have appended to this Report
(Appendix E), a general account of the condition of the insane in
several of the districts visited by the Commissioners. We have
only recently called for these general statements, and are led to
print them from a conviction that they are better calculated to con¬
vey a correct idea of the condition of the insane resident in their
homes, than individual reports in single cases. We may also
point out that they embody a kind of information which, so far as
known to us, is not within the reach of any other Board of
Lunacy; and we refer more especially to those on Ayrshire, Dum¬
barton, and Shetland as giving considerable insight into the condi¬
tion of the population generally. Indeed, it is a peculiar advantage
enjoyed by this Board, that our jurisdiction extends, in a greater
or less degree, over the whole of the insane, wherever they may be
placed. We are thus frequently enabled to improve the condition
of a class of patients which, in most countries, is placed under no
kind of surveillance, and occasionally to procure their removal to
asylums before the occurrence of a probable catastrophe. In many
cases, too, we are thus in a position to trace the history of the
patient through its various phases, and to acquire a knowledge of
his peculiarities, which is occasionally found to be of great practi¬
cal value. Unfortunately, the warnings which we consider it our
duty to give are frequently disregarded; and there is also occasion¬
ally a disposition displayed to regard as vice or crime, peculiarities
of character which we believe are more justly to be ascribed to
insanity.”
The following remarks from the report itself embodies the
enlightened views by which the Commissioners are actuated
in dealing with this difficult class of cases.
“ The chief objects (they state) which we had in view in our
visitations were, first, to procure the removal to asylums of such
patients as there were reasonable grounds for thinking were still
capable of being restored to sanity, or, at all events, of being im¬
proved in mental health; secondly, the removal of those who, from
the nature of their malady, or from the circumstances in which
they were placed, there was reason to fear, might prove dangerous
to themselves or others; and lastly, the removal of those who, from
their mental or physical ailments, could not be properly cared for
at home. Another equally important object was, as far as possible,
to insure the proper treatment of those patients whose removal to
asylums was dispensed with. With this view we frequently con¬
sidered it proper to recommend an increase of the alimentary
allowance, and a supply of bed and body clothing; and we had
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Lunacy Commissioners for Scotland. 477
occasionally to take steps to procure the removal of patients from
out-houses to the dwellings occupied by the persons charged with
their care. In other cases, where it was necessary for the adults of
the family to leave home for their work, and where the patients
were, in consequence, left either alone, or under the care of children,
we called for the appointment of some trustworthy person who
should see to the proper care of the patient during the temporary
absence of his responsible guardians. The attainment of these
objects was often a matter of considerable difficulty, and frequently
entailed a lengthened correspondence. There cannot be a doubt
that many patients have in times past suffered grievously from neg¬
lect ; and we are well aware that a long time must elapse before a
better system of home treatment can be thoroughly established;
but we trust that the risk of neglect is already considerably di¬
minished, and we hope that such evidence of its occurrence as is
afforded by scars and mutilation by fire, and the permanent con¬
traction of the limbs, will every day become more and more rare.
In Orkney alone, we have evidence of many patients suffering un¬
der permanent flexure of the limbs from intractable muscular
rigidity; and, in the Highland counties especially, a large number
of cases of most serious injury from burning have come under our
observation.
“ We are inclined to ascribe great importance to the visitation of
single patients, not only for improving the treatment and manage¬
ment of those actually visited, but for elevating the general condition
of the insane whether placed in asylums or in private houses. One
of our chief objects in single visitations has been to inculcate
sound principles regarding the nature of insanity, and to point out
the advantages of early treatment in promoting recovery, and the
effect of kindness and attention in warding off degrading habits
when recovery is no longer probable. We aim, in short, at exten¬
sive and general improvement; and we have every reason to hope
that the result of our labours will gradually become manifest, in the
steady diminution of those degraded cases which our own investi¬
gations, and those of the Royal Commissioners, have brought to
light. The condition of patients in asylums, too, cannot fail to be
beneficially influenced by the improved character of the cases ad¬
mitted ; and the number of recoveries will certainly be increased
from the greater promptitude with which those attacked are now
placed under treatment.”
e. Criminal Lunatics.
The criminal lunatics in Scotland are confined in the
Central Prison, Perth, which many of the visitors to the fair
city may have seen standing in the middle of the plain
around which the Tay sweeps in its course towards the city,
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478 Second Annual Report of the
a site described by Sir Walter Soott, in his Fair Maid of
Perth .
44 The number in the lunatic wards of the Central Prison, Perth,
on 1 st January, 1859, was 29, of whom 21 were males, and 8
females.
44 There appears to be a growing inclination on the part of the
public authorities to place criminal patients in public asylums
instead of in the lunatic wards of the Central Prison. This ten¬
dency, however, is checked by the uncertainty which prevails as to
the parties, who in such cases, shall be considered liable for the
burden of their maintenance; and it is accordingly of some im¬
portance that this point should be placed on a definite footing.
44 The following extracts from the entries made by the Com¬
missioners in the register of the Central Prison, will show the
condition of the patients in the lunatic wards of that establish¬
ment :—
“ From Entry of 21 it June 1859.—Visited the lunatic wards of the prison,
which at present contain 20 male and 10 female patients. Every part of the
premises was inspected, and*all the patients seen. The condition of the house
remains nearly the same as described in previous reports, and calls for no special
remarks. Of the males, 2 were hobbled and restrained in one arm, and 4
others had one arm restrained. One female was restrained in a similar manner.
The patients were generally free from excitement, and were clean in person
and orderly in dress. The staff of attendants embraces 5 male and 2 female
warders.
" From Entry of 2bth November 1859.—The numbers found in the lunatic
criminal wards of the General Prison at the statutory visit made this day, were
22 males and 11 females. Besides these, the Reporter visited 4 male* and 5
female epileptics, 10 male and 5 female imbecile prisoners, whose minds dis¬
play various slight forms of alienation. For these latter classes great improve¬
ment has taken place in accommodation and management. One prisoner was
seen in the general wards who appears to labour under delusions, and whose
case is at present under the consideration of the medical officer. In reference
to the special lunatic department, it appears that since last report there hare
been 6 admissions. 1 death, and 2 discharges ; both individuals having been
sent back to the prison from which they had been received, a few days previous
to the expiry of sentence, still labouring under insanity. All the inmates were
seen, and found, with one exception, to possess good physical health, and to
present the aspect of vigour. The exception alluded to is J. F., who was ad¬
mitted from the jail at Wigton with a partially cicatrized wound of the throat,
involving the larynx and oesophagus, to which succeeded laryngitis and indam*
raation of the surrounding tissues, apparently produced by exposure during the
journey. The attention of the Board of Lunacy is specially directed to this
case, and to the antecedents of the lunatic. Three males and one female were
found nndcr restraint These expedients are stated to be generally resorted
to in order to prevent suicide. With the view to meet this tendency, the
medical officer has recommended the appointment of a night watch. It is
strongly advised that this suggestion should be adopted, as it is calculated to
do away with the necessity for physical coercion, to secure the comfort of the
inmates during the night, and is dictated by the soundest principles of treat*
ment. The only structural change which has taken place consists in dividing
two of the bedrooms in each division ; thus obtaining 4 additional rooms, so
that the means of isolating cases, supposed to be dangerous, is increased.
Within these few months all the lnnatic prisoners have been placed upon full
convict diet.
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Lunacy Gommissionerr for Scotland.
479
V. Proceedings of District Boards to Erect New
Asylums under the Act.
In our notice of the former report of the Scotch Commis¬
sioners we referred at some length to the constitution of these
district boards, their powers, &c., and expressed our extreme
regret that the local prison boards had by their jealousies been
allowed, under a clause of the act, to split up the eight dis¬
tricts, into which for asylum purposes the country had been
divided, into twenty-one.
It is, we then observed, indeed, a matter of most serious
regret that the limits of the original eight districts should
have been altered, and their number so materially enlarged.
Eight county asylums, including those already existing, viz :
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dumfries, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen, and
Elgin, would have sufficed for all the wants of the country for
many a long year to come, and would have entailed the build¬
ing of only two new asylums, viz., one for the Ayr, and
another for the Stirling district; two of the wealthiest districts
in the land, and where the asylum-rate would not have fallen
over heavily. The other existing chartered asylums, with
proper additions, would have met all the requirements of the
respective districts. We use the term, with proper additions,
in its widest sense, as applied to the grouping round the Cen¬
tral Hospital (Heil-anstadt), the various arrangements of
cottages, cheaper buildings for the incurable, &c., &c. With
due arrangements there is not, in our opinion, the slightest
sanitary objection to massing six hundred patients together,
while economically the gain is self-evident*
Now the Scotch Prison Boards have managed to split up
the country into 21 districts ! Fancy the amount of useless
building! Surely something should be done to stop such
folly. The Commissioners treat the question far too mildly.
They give in detail the proceedings of the 21 District Boards,
for all of whom they have taken the trouble to compute the
number of patients they will require to build for.
Now these small asylums of 140 and 200 strong, will be
expensive failures, and it becomes the rate-payers of Scotland
at once, and loudly, to protest against the folly and small
jealousy of the respective Prison Boards, which have led to
•The apparent contradiction to this statement, in the high maintenance* rate
at Hanwell and Colnej Hatch, is owing to the want of one central controling
authority in these ill-managed places. The Committee are jealous of their
Medical Officers, and uo one has a personal interest in the successful working
of the whole.
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Scotch Lunacy Commissioner's Report.
the well-digested division of the country, under the Act, into
eight districts, being set aside. The present district of Bute
has 15 male, and 16 female patients ; the district of Had¬
dington, 96. Are the Prison Boards in their senses, to propose
to erect separate asylums for these numbers 1 We can only
renew the expression of our surprise at the mild notice the
Commissioners take of this folly, and commend the matter
to those more directly interested, the visitors and rate-payers
of the Scotch counties.
The result has been as we anticipated. The local Lunacy
Boards have more sense than to rush into building these use¬
less twenty-one asylums, and wisely wait to see what time
may do against the folly of the Prison Boards.
“ The progress (say the Commissioners) made by the local lunacy
Boards, since the date of our last Report, in providing district
accommodation for the insane poor, has not on the whole, been
satisfactory. Several of these Boards have taken no steps whatever
for this purpose; others have been impeded in making arrange¬
ments with existing public asylums by legal difficulties due to
preferential rights of accommodation enjoyed by parishes and indi¬
viduals; and others again have postponed measures already in
progress, in the expectation that their position would be affected
by fresh legislation. Only three or four districts have made satis¬
factory progress towards meeting the requirements of the present
law.”
Small blame to them we say !
The Commissioners give the following estimate based on
the existing number of lunatics of the asylum accommodation
in each of the twenty-one districts.
Districts,
Estimated
Asylum
Accommo¬
Districts.
Estimated
Asylum
Accommo¬
1 Aberdeen
dation re¬
quired.
. 299
13 Haddington .
dation re¬
quired.
88
2 Argyll
. 148
14 Inverness .
. 339
3 Ayr
. 180
15 Kincardine
. 66
4 Banff
. 79
16 Orkney .
. 35
5 Bate
. 25
17 Perth
. 323
6 Caithness.
62
18 Renfrew.
. 193
7 Dumfries.
. 230
* 19 Roxbarg
. 123
8 Edinburgh
. 599
20 Shetland
. 30
9 Elgin
10 Fife
63
21 Stirling .
. 268
. 243
.. ...
11 Forfar .
. . 340
Totals,
4353
12 Glasgow .
. 620
Let any unprejudiced reader only look through this es¬
timate of the Commissioners, and he will be convinced of its
impracticability. Do they really suppose that the magistrates
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Notes on Nursing,
of any county in England, would for a moment listen to a
proposal to provide a public asylum for 20, 30, 40, or 60
patients ? The absurdity of the scheme is so patent that we
need only here refer to it, adding the expression of our hope
that farther legislation will compel the Prison Boards to revert
to the original subdivision of the country into eight districts,
when by the enlargement of the existing asylums of Glasgow,
Edinburgh, Bumf'ties, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen, and
Elgin, and the farther erection of two asylums for the dis¬
trict of Ayr and Stirling, the whole difficulty might be
met.
Notes on Nursing. What it is, and what it is not; by
Florence Nightingale. London: Harrison. 8vo. pp. 79.
This is a remarkable book, and if the name of Florence
Nightingale had never been heard beyond the usual narrow
sphere of woman’s life, the reader of these pages would be
constrained to admire the singular union of courage, sense,
and delicacy which they display. The language is of the
most terse and racy kind, and the thoughts so clear and de¬
cided that if they were not the expression of the soundest and
homeliest good sense, the work would be somewhat liable to
the imputation of being dogmatic. People, however, are apt
to be dogmatic on subjects which they thoroughly understand,
and which they desire to impress. One may say of it as
Emerson says of Montaigne, “ I know not anywhere the book
that seems less written, it is the language of conversation
transferred to a book. Cut these words and they would bleed,
they are vascular and alive. One has the same pleasure in it
as one has in listening to men about their work, when any
unusual circumstance gives momentary importance to the
dialogue, for blacksmiths and teamsters do not trip in their
speech, it is a shower of bullets.” As for the general matter
of the Notes, the best test of our opinion is, that we have
distributed copies among our nurses with the earnest request
that they would study the work diligently; and we recom¬
mend our brother superintendents to do the same if they have
not already done so. Of course a great portion of the work
is occupied by the enunciation of principles which, however
novel to nurses, would not be so to our readers ; there are
vol. vi. no. 34. k
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Notts on Nursing ,
however, many from which we may gain instruction, and some
few to which we may venture to demur; for we are “ nothing,
if not critical”
First then with regard to Ventilation and Warming. Miss
Nightingale, we are happy to see, is as fond of fresh air and
even night air, as if she were a real nightingale warbling in a
poplar tree. There is no good word said of artificial ventilation
and warming, of air be-devilled by contact with hot plates,
like the leg of a turkey in a frying-pan; no, Miss Nightin¬
gale’s sick man must be supplied with air admitted through
windows open at all times of the day and night.
“ With a proper supply of windows, and a proper supply of fuel
in open fire places, fresh air is comparatively easy to secure when
your patient or patients are in bed. Never be afraid of open windows
then. People don’t catch cold in bed. This is a popular fallacy.
With proper bed clothes, and hot bottles if necessary, you can
always keep a patient warm in bed, and well ventilate him at the
same time.”
Perhaps Miss Nightingale makes rather a hobby of this
opinion and rides it a little too far. The ingress of fresh air can
be provided for more conveniently than through windows,
which often cannot be opened in rainy weather, or which may
be so situated as to douche patients with a stream of cold air.
Some better provision moreover than fire-flues, even with Ar¬
no tt’s valves, ought to be made for the egress of air from the
upper part of the sick chamber. Wide ventilating orifices and
tubes to open and close at pleasure, are the simple and unob¬
jectionable substitutes for the constantly open window. Of
fumigations, the authoress says,
“ Let no one ever depend upon fumigations, * disinfectants,’ and
the like, for purifying the air. The offensive thing, not its smell,
must be removed. A celebrated medical lecturer began one day,
* Fumigations, gentlemen, are of essential importance. They make
such an abominable smell that they compel you to open the window.’
I wish all the disinfecting fluids invented made such an ‘abominable
smell ’ that they forced you to admit fresh air. That would be a
useful invention.”
She objects to slop-pails, and very properly; the ordinary
slop-pail is an offensive abomination, and when its use is per¬
mitted, the utensil is seldom rinsed as it ought to be; but for
all this, the night attendants ought to be permitted to use the
slop-pail and to use it frequently, or the air of the hospital
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by Florence Nightingale. 483
dormitories will be impregnated before morning by the large
surface of urine in numerous utensils.
Miss Nightingale condemns sinks, “the ordinary oblong
sink is an abomination, that great surface of stone which is
always left wet, is always exhaling into the air; I have known
whole houses and hospitals smell of the sink.” Still there
must be sinks for the very purposes of cleanliness; the proper
thing to use, however, is a leaden trough with a well made
trap for its outlet.
The authoress attributes the physical degeneration which
is supposed to exist in the present day to our coddling
ourselves too much.
“ The houses of the grandmothers and great grandmothers of this
generation, at least the country houses, with front door and back
door always standing open, winter and summer, and a thorough
draught always blowing through,—with all the scrubbing, and clean¬
ing, and polishing, and scouring which used to go on, the grand¬
mothers, and still more the great grandmothers always out of doors,
and never with a bonnet on except to go to church, these things
entirely account for the fact, so often seen, of a great grandmother,
who was a tower of physical vigour, descending into a grandmother
perhaps a little less vigorous, but still as sound as a bell and healthy
to the core, into a mother languid and confined to her carriage and
house, and lastly into a daughter sickly and confined to her bed.
For, remember, even with a general decrease of mortality you may
often find a race thus degenerating, and still oftener a family. You
may see poor little feeble washed out rags, children of a noble stock,
suffering morally and physically, throughout their useless, degenerate
lives, and yet people who are going to marry and to bring more such
into the world, will consult nothing but their own convenience as
to where they are to live, and how they are to live.”
We fear there is great truth in all this as it relates to the
women, and that if physical degeneration does prevail, it is to
be traced rather to the influence of their habits than to those
of the men, who live almost as much in the open air as their
forefathers, and whose infinitely increased temperance must
be set down as a large item in the account per contra.
Miss Nightingale repudiates infection, except where poison
is encouraged to breed; she has seen, for instance, “ with a
little over-crowding, fever grow up; and with a little more,
typhoid fever ; and with a little more, typhus; all in the same
ward or hutbut she certainly pushes this opinion too far
when she applies it to small-pox, which there is every reason
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Notes on Nursing,
to believe, cannot be generated but by contagion. How it first
arose is not the question, but when Miss Nightingale says, that
“ I have seen with my eyes and smelt with my nose small-pox
growing up in first specimens, either in close rooms or in over¬
crowded wards, where it could not by any possibility have been
‘ caught,’ but must have been begun.”
she expresses an opinion at variance with all the experience
of the medical profession upon which the penal law against
innoculation has been founded.
Noise. The authoress remarks that it is unnecessary noise,
and noise which excites a patient’s expectation, as a whispered
conversation just outside the room ; intermittent and sudden,
or sharp noise, and especially noise with jar, which is injurious.
These observations are very judicious and indicate the minute
accuracy of the authoress’s observation. Noise is one of the
great curses of asylums, one of which patients who are able
to complain, complain the most; and from which others are
likely, uncomplainingly to suffer deepest; and what is most
S revoking is, that it generally arises in a large asylum only
•om some three or four patients, who either make it them¬
selves or excite it in others ; for one noisy, stormy patient will
often put a ward into an uproar. Some idiots are most dread¬
ful nuisances in asylums from the monotonous inarticulate
noises which they make, and which are so painful as to grate
upon and to jar even the strongest nerves ; what then must
they be to nerves morbidly sensitive ? In public asylums, more
complete means of classification would be a tolerable remedy,
but in the smaller asylums for private patients, this remedy
is scarcely possible, and noise is the evil of which, perhaps,
patients who have resided in private asylums most complain.
In connexion with the subject of noise, Miss Nightingale
gives a hint of importance in its bearing upon night watching:—
“ Of one thing you may be certain, that anything which wakes
a patient suddenly out of his sleep will invariably put him into a
state of greater excitement, do him more serious, aye, and lasting
mischief, than any continuous noise, however loud.
“ Never to allow a patient to be waked, intentiontally or acciden-
ally, is a sine qud non of all good nursing. If he is roused out of
his first sleep, he is almost certain to have no more sleep. It is a
curious but quite intelligible fact that, if a patient is waked after
a few hours’ instead of a few minutes’ sleep, he is much more likely
to sleep again. Because pain, like irritability of brain, perpetuates
and intensifies itself. If you have gained a respite of either in sleep
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by Florence Nightingale.
you have gained more than the mere respite. Both the probability
of recurrence and of the same intensity will bediminished ; whereas
both will be terribly increased by want of sleep. This is the reason
why sleep is so all-important. This is the reason why a patient
waked in the early part of his sleep loses not only his sleep, but his
power to sleep. A healthy person who allows himself to sleep
during the day will lose his sleep at night. But it is exactly the
reverse with the sick generally; the more they sleep, the better
will they be able to sleep.”
If it could be arranged that patients should not be awaken¬
ed out of their first sleep for the purposes of night cleanliness,
the objections which, on medical grounds, have been raised to
this great improvement in asylum management would lose
all their validity; and on the whole perhaps, the balance of
advantages would appear to be in favour of leaving the first
period of the night, say to two a.m. without disturbance.
The chapter on Variety is one which the superintendents
of asylums may well ponder over, for if want of variety is so
great a drawback in the management of the ordinary sick,
what must it be when the mind itself is diseased, and where
the period of disease and monotonous confinement is in¬
definitely prolonged ? The efforts which are so laudably made
in asylums to provide a variety of objects of interest are apt
in themselves to become monotonous ; thus, a weekly ball may
become as monotonous as a drill. There are, however, some
means of changing the interest which never fail, especially
that derived from the ever varying face of nature, and one
of the greatest improvements that have been introduced by
the Commissioners in Lunacy into asylums, at least as far as
the pleasure derived from it by the patients, is that system of
country walks which they have now pretty generally estab¬
lished. Another source of change of wnich we have ourselves
experienced the immense benefit, is that of having the asylum
in distinct and separate parts, and unlike each other, so that
a change from one of the long wards to one of the cottage
wards, or to the ‘ new house,” is really like going into a new
place of residence. This advantage was still more apparent
during the two years when we had a branch asylum at
the sea side—an establishment which we closed with great
regret. We are happy to remark in the last Report of the
Wakefield Asylum, that a farm house at some distance from
the building, has been erected, and is used as a small branch
asylum. All such means of changing, even for a few patients,
the monotony of a long residence in the galleries of an asylum
built and arranged and furnished on the same monotonous
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Note* on Nursing,
{dan, are calculated to alleviate the unexpressed sufferings of
our patients to a greater extent than may at first sight appear
possible ; and the provision of such means ought to be borne
carefully in mind in increasing asylum accommodation, which
has hitherto run on in the old rut of routine.
“ To any but an old nurse, or an old patient, the degree would
be quite inconceivable to which the nerves of the sick suffer from
seeing the same walls, the same ceiling, the same surroundings
during a long confinement to one or two rooms.
“ The superior cheerfulness of persons Buffering severe paroxysms
of pain over that of persons suffering from nervous debility has
often been remarked upon, and attributed to the enjoyment of the
former of their intervals of respite. I incline to think that the
majority of cheerful cases is to be found among those patients who
are not confined to one room, whatever their suffering, and that the
majority of depressed cases will be seen among those subjected to
a long monotony of objects about them.
“ The nervous frame really suffers as much from this as the
digestive organs from long monotony of diet, as e.g. the soldier
from his twenty-one years ‘ boiled beef.’ ”
*• Volumes are now written and spoken upon the effect of the mind
upon the body. Much of it is true. But I wish a little more was
thought of the effect of the body on the mind. You who believe
yourselves overwhelmed with anxieties, but are able every day to
walk up Regent-street, or out in the country to take your meals with
others in other rooms, &c., Ac., you little know how much your
anxieties are thereby lightened; you little know how intensified they
become, to those who can have no change; how the very walls of
their sick rooms seem hung with their cares; how the ghosts of
their troubles haunt their beds; how impossible it is for them to
escape from a pursuing thought without some help from variety.
“ A patient can just as much move his leg when it is fractured as
change his thoughts when no external help from variety is given
him. This is, indeed, one of the main sufferings of sickness; just
as the fixed posture is one of the main sufferings of the broken
limb.”
The observations on “ Taking food,” rather apply to the
treatment of the sick at home, than in hospital or asylum,
where the want of careful attention to these points is inex¬
cusable, and probably not common. The fault, however, is
undoubtedly often committed of allowing a patient too long
to indulge a disinclination to food; and in the treatment of
the insane out of asylums this neglect is one of the most
frequent sources of mischief. The number of patients who
are admitted into asylums with physical health irretrievably
broken down from the want of sufficient nourishment is very
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by Florence Nightingale.
sad, and this occurs not only among the poor, but among the
rich. The pre-occupations and delusions with regard to food
and the derangement of all domestic regularity, often result in
the wealthier insane taking far less nourishment than would
be necessary for them even in health, and which, under the
exhausting processes of insanity, terminate in a persistent
tendency to denutrition (if we may coin the word) which is at
once the cause and the condition of incurable disease.
“ In chronic cases, lasting over months and years, where the
fatal issue is often determined at last by mere protracted starvation,
I had rather not enumerate the instances which I have known where
a little ingenuity, and a great deal of perseverance, might, in all
probability, have averted the result. The consulting the hours
when the patient can take food, the observation of the times, often
varying, when he is most faint, the altering seasons of taking food,
in order to anticipate and prevent such times—all this, which re¬
quires observation, ingenuity, and perseverance (and these really
constitute the good nurse), might save more lives than we wot of.
“ To leave the patient's untasted food by his side, from meal to
meal, in hopes that he will eat it in the interval, is simply to prevent
him from taking any food at all. I have known patients literally
incapacitated from taking one article of food after another by this
piece of ignorance. Let the food come at the right time, and be
taken away, eaten or uneaten, at the right time ; but never let a
patient have ‘ something always standing' by him, if you don’t
wish to disgust him of everything.
“ On the other hand, I have known a patient’s life saved (he was
sinking for want of food) by the simple question, put to him by the
doctor, ‘ But is there no hour when you feel you could eat?’ ‘ Oh,
yes,’ he said, * I could always take something at — o’clock, and —
o’clock.’ The thing was tried and succeded. Patients very seldom,
however, can tell this; it is for you to watch and find it out.
“ A patient should, if possible, not see or smell either the food of
others, or a greater amount of food than he himself can consume
at one time, or even hear food talked about or see it in the raw
state.”
We are not quite prepared to endorse all Miss Nightingale's
opinions of what food a sick person should take; for instance,
her low estimation of the value of beef-tea; this, of course,
may be of any degree of dilution, from mere teakettle broth
to a solution of beef & la Liebig, a pound of rump-steak to
half a pint of water. Upon milk we are glad to observe she
places great value, and not less so, that she speaks disparag¬
ingly of cocoa, which has been introduced in asylums as a
substitute for milk, “ because the patients like it better.”
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Notes on Nursing,
“ Cocoa is often recommended to the sick in lieu of tea or coffee.
But independently of the fact that English sick very generally dislike
cocoa, it has quite a different effect from tea or coffee. It is an oily
starchy nut, having no restorative power at all, but simply increas¬
ing fat. It is pure mockery of the sick, therefore, to call it a
substitute for tea. For any renovating stimulus it has, you might
just as well offer them chestnuts instead of tea.”
On beds and bedding. Miss Nightingale recommends iron
bedsteads, “ the only way of really nursing a real patient.”
No reason however, is assigned for preferring them to wooden
bedsteads, and it is probable that the prejudice against wood
is derived from the old four-post abominations common in
English domesticities. We cannot see why the light wooden
bedsteads used in asylums, should not also be found in
hospitals, lighter, cheaper, and better looking than iron ones.
On the ubject of bed sores, the authoress says :—
“ It may be worth while to remark, that where there is any
danger of bed-sores, a blanket should never be placed under the
patient. It retains damp, and acts like a poultice.”
Still there must be something under the patient, and that
thing both soft and warm. Nothing used to be more pro¬
ductive of bed sores than the cold hard canvas stretchers which
were at one time recommended. The best thing to place im¬
mediately under the hips of a patient liable to bed sore, is a
thick cotton sheet several times doubled. The superintendents
of asylums may take a hint from the following :—
“ Never use anything but light Witney blankets as bed-covering
for the sick. The heavy cotton impervious counterpane is bad, for
the very reason that it keeps in the emanations from the sick person,
while the blanket allows them to pass through. Weak patients are
invariably distressed by a great weight of bed-clothes, which often
prevents their getting any sound sleep whatever.”
It has been the fashion of late in asylums to discard the
old woollen counterpane, and to replace it with a dense, heavy
cotton fabric. The thick white cotton counterpane may look
better than the orange-coloured worsted fabric, copied from the
ordnance article, but let any superintendent try the two upon
his own bed, and he will feel that Miss Nightingale is right in
recommending the former, for we take it that the difference
between a Witney blanket and a light, permeable worsted
counterpane is inconsiderable. A bed looks unmade without
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by Florence Nightingale.
something over the blanket. For home use we have found
that very light and permeable texture known as Bath blank*
eting to be the most comfortable thing.
The habit which is pointed out as the cause of scrofula
among children, and of injury to ordinary patients, is very
general among the insane. The number of idiots and of
paralytics, and of demented people, who habitually get their
heads under the bed clothes is very great, and it is quite ob¬
vious that such a habit must be injurious, although there are
probably few people who have thought upon its being so. It
is the accurate and minute observation which overlooks
nothing calculated to affect the health of the sick, which
constitutes the great value of this little work. This one hint,
for instance, will repay its perusal by an asylum superinten¬
dent, who will of course give instructions to his night nurses
to overcome, as far as possible, this pernicious habit.
“ There is reason to believe that not a few of the apparently un¬
accountable cases of scrofula among children proceed from the habit
of sleeping with the head under the bed clothes, and so inhaling air
already breathed, which is farther contaminated by exhalations from
the skin. Patients are sometimes given to a similar habit, and it
often happens that the bed clothes are so disposed that the patient
must necessarily breathe air more or less contaminated by exhala¬
tions from his skin. A good nurse will be careful to attend to this.
It is an important part, so to speak, of ventilation.”
In the chapter on the cleanliness of rooms and walls, Miss
Nightingale uses her pen in its most vigorous style against
the “ dusty carpets, dirty wainscots, musty curtains and furni¬
ture,” and general dirty circumstances which pervade houses,
especially London houses, even of the expensive and fashion¬
able kind. She inveighs against the lazy habits of modem
housemaids, whose common practice it is to move the dust
once a day, flapping it from one part of a room to another,
but never to remove it She quite runs a muck at carpets.
“ As to floors, the only really clean floor I know is the Berlin
lackered floor, which is wet rubbed and dry rubbed every morning
to remove the dust The French parquet is always more or less
dusty, though infinitely superior in point of cleanliness and
healthiness to our absorbent floor.
“ For a sick room, a carpet is perhaps the worst expedient which
could by any possibility have been invented. If you must have a
carpet, the only safety is to take it up two or three times a year,
instead of once. A dirty carpet literally infects the room. And if
you consider the enormous quantity of organic matter from the feet
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of people coming in, which must saturate it, this is by no means
surprising.”
We quite agree with all this, not only with a Brussels car¬
pet, fitted ana nailed to the floor from which it is removed
only once or twice a year, but even to a less extent with the
matting and loose bedside carpets which, in the attempts to
increase the comforts of the insane, have been introduced into
their wards. Frequently upon investigation we have found
the close smell of a ward arise from the matting covering the
floor. The question then seems to be, whether you will discard
these things for the sake of health, or retain them for the
sake of comfort? Retain them, we say, under a constant
sense of the necessity which their use entails for increased
diligence in cleanliness. In many wards matting' and carpeting
ought to be removed and beaten in the open air two or three
times every week, and it would be well even to have a double
set, so that one might be exposed to the purifying influences
of the open air while the other is in use. It must be remem¬
bered that these things obviate the necessity of floors being so
frequently scrubbed, which is a clear gain on the score of
healthiness. In medio tutissimus holds true in all these mat¬
ters. To scrub floors too frequently, or to leave them too long
unscrubbed, are equally injurious, though not exactly in the
same way. Our own experience in this matter, when house
surgeon to one of the London hospitals, led to the opinion that
in wards where the floors are daily wetted by the housemaid’s
soap and water, the patients will be very liable to erysipelas,
and that in wards not wetted quite often enough, they will be
subject to dysenteric diarrhoea.
Miss Nightingale also objects, on behalf of the sick, to the
modern ornamentation of walls.
“ As for walls, the worst is the papered wall; the next worst is
plaster. But the plaster can be redeemed by frequent lime-wash¬
ing ; the paper requires frequent renewing. A glazed paper gets
rid of a good deal of the danger. But the ordinary bed-room
paper is all that it ought not to be.
“ I am certain that a person who has accustomed her senses to
compare atmospheres proper and improper, for the sick and for
children, could tell, blindfold, the difference of the air in old painted
and in old papered rooms, cceteru paribus. The latter will always
be musty, even with all the windows open.
“The close connexion between ventilation and cleanliness is
shown in this. An ordinary light paper will last clean much longer
if there is an Amott’s ventilator in the chimney than it otherwise
would.
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“ The best wall now extant is oil paint. From this you can
wash the animal exuviae.
“ These are what make a room musty.
“ The best wall for a sick-room or ward that could be made is
pure white non-absorbent cement or glass, or glazed tiles, if they
were made sightly enough.”
It will be well to keep, these things in mind in the modem
E ractice of ornamenting asylums, by painting the walls, val-
incing the windows, &c., &c. The importance of rendering
a residence for the insane as comfortable and cheerful as
possible cannot be denied or doubted, but in carrying it
into effect, care must be taken that the improvements in
this respect are not antagonistic to the wholesome sweetness
of the dwelling. Unfortunately a superintendent intent upon
decorating his asylum, is too often prevented from doing so
in the best way, and thus in covering the walls, his choice
lies between a cheap paper and lime wash. He can paper
his galleries at a penny a yard, or he can lime wash them
at much less, but paint will cost 8d. or lOd. per yard.
After all, we are inclined to think that Miss Nightingale
rather expresses a prejudice than an opinion founded upon
well-observed data in her antipathy to wall papers.
The chapter on “Chattering, hopes, and advices” is admirable,
although it does not much apply to our specialty. The ob¬
servant authoress, however, remarks on the benefits conferred on
persons suffering from chronic sickness from many influences
which we know to be beneficial to the insane; pleasant cheerful
conversation free from lachrymose cant and whining, and
advice and preachments, is the first and best of these ; then
there are objects, which, so to say, tickle the affections, small pet
animals for instance, and still better “ the baby,” “ It freshens
up the sick person’s whole mental atmosphere to see the
baby.” We have often observed this with the insane, though
perhaps, the mental impressions on the infant mind, which
such associations are likely to produce, ought not to be for¬
gotten, lest in attempting to administer to the temporary
happiness of some, we sacrifice the permanent well-being of
others.
The chapter on the observation of the sick, perhaps, shews
more than any other how well the authoress can reflect upon
what she observes. Here is an instance appropriate to ou*
specialty on the important subject of sleep, given in illustration
of the uselessness of leading questions.
“ ‘ Has he had a good night ?’ New, one patient will think he
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Notes on Nursing,
has had a bad night if he has not slept ten hours without waking.
Another does not think he has had a bad night if he has had
intervals of dosing occasionally. The same answer has actually
been given as regarded two patients—one who had been entirely
sleepless for five times twenty-four hours, and died of it, and
another who had not slept the sleep of a regular night without
waking. Why cannot the question be asked, How many hours’
sleep has-had ? and at what hours of the night ?
“ This is most important, because on this depends what the
remedy will be. If a patient sleeps two or three hours early in
the night, and then does not sleep again at all, ten to one it is not
a narcotic he wants, but food or stimulus, or perhaps only warmth.
If, on the other hand, he is restless and awake all night, and is
drowsy in the morning, he probably wants sedatives, either quiet,
coolness, or medicine, a lighter diet, or all four. Now the doctor
should be told this, or how can he judge what to give ?
“ I knew a very clever physician, of large dispensary and hospital
practice, who invariably began his examination of each patient with
4 Put your finger where you be bad.’ That man would never waste
his time with collecting inaccurate information from nurse or
patient. Leading questions always collect inaccurate information*”
The authoress shews the folly of using general and leading
questions on other matters, such as the taking of food, in
which “the same answer will often be made as regards a
patient who cannot take two ounces of food per diem, and a
patient who does not enjoy five meals a day as much as usual.”
The same inaccuracy is complained of in the description of
symptoms : and generally speaking. Miss Nightingale pro¬
pounds the opinion that “ as long as observation is so little
cultivated as it is now, I do believe that it is better for the
physician not to see the friends of the patient at all” The
complaint, however, that sound and ready observation is a
rare faculty, is extended not only to the friends of patients,
but to professional nurses and even to medical men. We so
entirely feel the truth of these strictures that we are inclined
to ask the question, whether this all-important faculty of ob¬
servation, the foundation of all accurate medical knowledge is
not declining in these latter years, and whether the modem
physician with his test tubes and microscope does not after all,
use his own eyes with less diligence than his professional an¬
cestors 1 We not only do think that this is the fact, but we
have at least a plausible explanation to offer. The mental
stature of man, if we measure it by the average of his faculties,
perhaps differs less in the different ages than we, in the con¬
ceit of our advancing civilization and progress of science, are
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by Florence Nightingale.
apt to believe. But whether this be so or not, there can be
little doubt that some of the mental faculties are antagonistic
in their fullest development to the growth of others: and
among these, reflection seems to be antagonistic to observation.
The deeply reflective man is absorbed in the processes of
thought; and the mathematician, who has walked into a river
without perceiving it, and yet poring on his book, exclaims
“I must get to the bottom of this problem before I go
a step further,” is but a caricature of the reality, a grotesque
exaggeration of truth. Only in the rarest instances do the
twin powers of observation and reflection develop with
equal growth. Commonly one dwarfs the other, whether as
the permanent habit or the temporary condition of the mind.
Let any superintendent examine himself on the point. When
any difficulty has caused him to be more than usually thought¬
ful, does he find himself able to observe the condition of his
patients as readily and accurately as when the unoccupied
mind, bright, cheerful, and prompt, is not “ sicklied o’er with
the pale hue of thought ” ? We offer this view in explanation
but not in apology, for to the medical man the demands which
the greater perfection of his science make upon his powers of
reflection are as little excuse for neglecting the diligent use
and cultivation of his observing faculty, as they would be to
the astronomer or the navigator.
The want of observation which Mias Nightingale complains
of in nurses, doubtless arises from a very different source,
generally either from the scatter-brained flightiness of a weak
mind, or from the stolid dullness of the uneducated senses.
With too much truth she complains that the occupation of
nursing is the refuge of incapacity. “ This reminds one ot
the parish where a stupid old man was set to be schoolmaster,
because he was—past keeping the pigs.”
The subject of nurses for the insane, “attendants” we
generally call them, is one of the most important questions of
our specialty ; and one to which we hope before long to recur.
Miss Nightingale indicates two general dangers, which have
been felt in asylums as well as hospitals; first, that arising
from the useless fine-lady nurse, a kind of fungus that the
sunshine of her own fame has helped to hatch into existence,
but of which she is indeed the very anti-type ; secondly, of
“ the poor workhouse drudge, hard up for a livelihood,” igno¬
rant, and stolid, and perverse and cheap.
Miss Nightingale concludes her admirable little work with
a note on the woman’s mission question.
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Notea on Nursing,
“ I would earnestly ask my sisters to keep clear of both the jargons
now current everywhere, (for they art equally jargons) of the jargon,
namely, about the ‘rights of women/ which urges women to do
all that men do, including the medical and other professions, merely
because men do it, and without regard to whether this it the best
that women can do; and of the jargon which urges women to do
nothing that men do, merely because they are women, and should
be * recalled to a sense of their duty as women/ and because * this
is women’s work/ and 4 that is men’s,’ and ‘ these are things which
women should not do/ which is all assertion and nothing more.
Surely woman should bring the best she has, whatever that is,
to the work of God’s world, without attending to either of these
cries. For what are they, both of them, the one just as much as
the other, but listening to the ‘ what people will say/ to opinion, to
the 4 voices from without ? And as a wise man has said, no one
has ever done anything great or useful by listening to the voices
from without.
44 You do not want the effect of your good things to be, ‘ How
wonderful for a woman f nor would you be deterred from good
things by hearing it said, 4 Yes, but she ought not to have done
this, because it is not suitable for a woman/ ”
This, however full of womanly feeling and piety as it is,
scarcely shews that resolute acumen which usually distin¬
guishes the authoress’s opinions : for surely Miss Nightingale
must see that she has neither cut nor unravelled the knotty
question of “ What is woman’s work, and what is man’s ? ”
but has left it exactly where it was for that individual inter¬
pretation, which may lead a young lady into the obscene
filth of the dissecting room, or Black-eyed Susan to handle
the boarding-pike ? As a general rule by which to find that
which is, and that which is not “ suitable for a woman,” the
test proposed, namely the goodness of the thing to be done, is
fallacious; and entirely evades the real question, whether
much which it is good for a man to do, is not good for a
woman, and vice versd. Of course, exceptional circum¬
stances place women in exceptional positions. The Maid
of Saragossa did well to fight for the hearth of her affect¬
ions and the altar of her faith, although she might be
covered with blood and brains; but this example will not
justify Sarah Jane, if, under the disguise of unmentionables,
she takes the recruiting sergeant’s shilling, and obtrudes
herself into that dubious part of “the pomp and circum¬
stance of glorious war" which is comprised in the low,
drunken life of a private soldier.
There can be no other solid foundation for a general rule of
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action, then the general good of all if pursued by all Would
it or would it not be for the benefit of mankind if women
undertook all kinds of work, admitting it be good work, in
which men engage? We think that nature has answered the
question, not so much, perhaps, by making the body of woman
the home of the foetus, as by making it the laboratory of food
for the infant In fixing upon the breast of woman the milk¬
bearing glands, nature stamped her leading attribute and vo¬
cation, to be gentle, affectionate, and domestic, to be the nurse
and mother of the human race.
If this evident intention of the great mother, nature, should
be systematically invaded, doubtless some female prodigies of
manly virtue may be witnessed ; but may not also female
prodigies of masculine vice develop themselves ? May not
the domestic affections be scorched up in the fire of ambition ?
Would not the human race languish and decay, and the
sum of human happiness be wretchedly stinted, if all our
women were formed even upon so noble a type of character
as thatrof Queen Elizabeth ?
No, let us without reservation discard this repulsive novelty
of female manhood, a mere excrescence of the brag and
conceit of a country whose free-born citizens would send
the distinctions of sex after those of social rank. Let us at
least hold by the conservatism of nature, and maintain that
primordial distinction which Milton so exquisitely expresses.
“ For valour he, and contemplation formed,
For beauty she, and sweet attractive grace.”
J. C. B.
Annual Reports of Lunatic Asylums.
We have been diverted for too long a time from the im¬
portant and agreeable task of reviewing the reports which
are annually issued by the superintendents of our public
asylums. It is true that these reports are addressed rather
to the general than to the medical public, and that from the
constant recurrence of the same kind of circumstances
whether they be evils to be complained of, or benefits to be
thankfully noted, they are, taken as a whole, so monotonous
that it is impossible to keep up the full interest which their
first consideration affords. The men from whom they ema-
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496 Annual Reports of the
nate, however, possess collectively so vast a fund of experi¬
ence, and of skill and knowledge in all that appertains to the
care of the insane, that even in these reports written for lay
readers as they are, the careful student of the interests of the
insane cannot fail to mark the expression of new opinions, or
of old ones seen from new points of view. The latter, indeed,
are certainly the most frequent, and perhaps also the most
important, for the re-considerations of old opinions, directed
by an enlarged experience and a more matured judgment,
are in matters of this practical kind more likely to come to
the very marrow of the truth than propositions or opinions
rejoicing in the new gloss of recent manufacture. One evil
our delayed review has entailed, namely that of preventing
us from undertaking the whole task as of yore, in the alpha¬
betical order of the reports. The series is disarranged and we
must be content to follow the example of the worthy
E reacher who ensured an impartial rotation of his sermons
y taking the first that came to hand from the lower part of
the barrel in which he kept them, and returning it to repose
among its fellows through the bung-hole. We take then the
reports as they come to hand, and here, to begin with, in a
fat pamphlet, almost like a blue-book, is the report of the
oldest and richest of these institutions, Bethlem, with its
income of <£*29,091 a year. A noble institution indeed, con¬
ducted in a spirit of the most enlightened liberality, and
able to boast of the most satisfactory results in a per cent-
age of cures of 66, “ the largest ever recordedto rejoice,
we ought to say, not to boast, for Dr. Hood too well under¬
stands the ground-work of statistics not to perceive, that
however satisfactory this result may be, it must be compared
with judgment even with the work of the same institution
in other periods of its history.
“ The annual per centage is but a meagre—often a very false—
criterion, of the continual outpouring of charitable aid rendered by
this Institution; the record of cures actually effected, although
gratifying in proportion to their number, is but a circumscribed
evidence of its usefulness, which must not be valued by the ebb and
flow of medical success, or the thousand unforeseen circumstances
which in the course of twelve months may affect the rise or fall of
the statistical barometer. The mean average of a number of years
will alone show, if comparison is required, whether we are before or
behind our predecessors in success ; a conscientious desire and hearty
exertion on our part will alone shield us from inferiority. With
this view the following Table has been prepared, and although some
years appear to yield us less credit than others, it will show more
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497
English County Asylums.
forcibly than words, that by dividing the last forty years into four
decennial periods, the per centage of cures has gradually increased.”
The table shows that—
From 1820 to 1829 inclusive, the cures were 46 per cent.
1830
„ 1839
?>
52
1840
„ 1849
77
54
1850
„ 1859
9
56
This is highly satisfactory, and there can be no doubt that
the results of treatment at Bethlem would bear favourable
comparison with that of any like institution in the world.
The elements of comparison, however, with the pauper
asylums of this country, are absolutely wanting, owing to
the rules of the institution, which admit only uncomplicated
and recent cases, presenting prima jacie a probability of cure,
while the bulk of the patients admitted into county asylums,
idiotic, epileptic, paralytic, and demented, are, at the date of
their admission, obviously incurable. That the per centage
of cures would be very high in county asylums also, if the
patients were selected on account of their curability, is a
fact which no one can doubt, and which, if needed, would
receive confirmation from the following passage from the last
report of the physician of the Derby Asylum :—
“During the past year nineteen recent cases, such as
-would have been admissible for treatment in the curative
hospitals of St. Luke and Bethlem in London, have been
received; and of these, thirteen have been discharged cured,
one awaits her discharge, and three others are approaching
convalescence, and will be fit to return home in a few weeks.
Thus seventeen cases out of nineteen have emerged, or are
emerging from their malady.”
The fact and its explanation stated in the following pas*
sage deserve earnest attention in regard to the oft mooted
opinion, that asylums for the middle class are so urgently
needed at the present time.
0
“ A considerable decrease in the number of admissions must be
Tecognized. I do not for one moment believe that this results from
any want of appreciation of the benefits offered by the Hospital, but
rather that under existing circumstances the supply is greater than
the demand. Public Asylums have sprung up in every county,
in some instances in each division of the county, and Private
Asylums, formerly licensed only for pauper lunatics, are now willing,
because deprived of their original patients, to receive patients of the
middle class on terms very little above those usually charged for
paupers. In another large Metropolitan Hospital for the Insane, a
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similar decrease in the number of admissions has occurred, and to
some .extent still remains, although as an inducement to those who
shrink from the receipt of entirely gratuitous relief, the privilege of
admission has been offered to such on the payment of a small
amount, as some remuneration for the benefits received. When in
the course of a short time, by the removal of the criminal lunatics
from Bethlem, there will be accommodation for an increased number
of other patients, the Governors may think it right to recommend
some alteration either in the qualifications for admission or period
of residence.”
The table referred to below details the occupation of the 158
curable patients admitted during J 859. Of the 58 men, 27
appear to have been in a social position above the artisan
class, and of the 100 women, 45 were the wives or daughters
of professional men, of clerks, or tradesmen, 8 were gover¬
nesses or schoolmistresses. It appears then that the social
rank of about one half of the patients admitted was above
that of the artisan and servant class. To no part of Dr.
Hood’s judicious innovations at Bethlem do we attach more
value than to his consistent endeavour to rescue it from the
use of the London parishes as an economical anti-chamber
to the pauper asylums, and to devote its noble charity to
that suffering class to whom destitution has not given a
claim upon the poor rate. As for the supply being greater
than the demand for the wants of the poor but not pauper
insane, we can only think that it is true in its application to
the immediate neighbourhood of Bethlem and St Luke's,
and that if the benefits of these charities were as widely
known throughout the country as they deserve to be, no lack
«f candidates for them would be felt This would especially
be the case if Dr. Hood’s wise suggestion of some alteration
in the period of residence should be adopted, since the limita¬
tion of residence to one year would be more disadvantageous
to patients coming from a distance than to those whose
friends reside near at hand.
“ Table XVIII. records the admission of Governesses, Clergymen,
Medical Men, Clerks, and Mechanics. To each of these the associ¬
ation in a County Asylum would have been painful, and the
recollection of the acquirement of pauperism necessary before their
admission into it, would have remained when their hearts were filled
with lively gratitude for returning mental health. In Bethlem such
feelings are spared them : and on leaving these gates they return to
their families, their neighbourhood, and their oocupation, with their
small savings untouched, their social pride unabashed, their gratitude
unalloyed,”
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Dr. Hood records that seven male criminal patients had
received their discharge, some of whom had committed mur¬
der, and he very justly comments upon the grave responsi¬
bility which rests with those who petition, and those who
report, and those who decide upon the discharge of such
patients. All the difficulties which encompass the question
of criminal lunacy will not be solved by the opening of the
state asylum.
We find in the report of St. Luke’s, the emulous younger
sister of Bethlem, regret still more earnestly expressed on
“the gradual falling off of the numbers admitted." The
explanation suggested is not that the supply exceeds the
demand, but that the advantages offered by the institution
are insufficiently known.
“ It has occurred to us that as the members of the medical pro¬
fession become most early aware of cases of insanity occurring in
the class to which we allude, that it would be an excellent plan to
send circulars to them, stating shortly the objects of the Charity.
We can hardly express the surprise we have felt at the want of
knowledge on this subject that seems to prevail. We can state
without fear of cavil, that very few medical men are aware that
patients of the middle classes who are in indigent circumstances are
received into St. Luke’s Hospital without payment of any kind, that
a still smaller number are aware of your recent resolutions to
receive at a small weekly payment, patients whose friends wish to
place them in a public Institution, and yet are desirous that they
should not be considered as recipients of charity.”
The results of treatment here also have been in the highest
degree satisfactory, 68 59 per cent of the patients admitted
having being cured.
The reporters conclude with the expression of sorrow for
the absence of their colleague, Dr. Sutherland, on account
of severe illness, and the earnest hope of his speedy con¬
valescence. All who know, either personally or by report,
this accomplished physician and highly esteemed member of
our Association, will be delighted to learn that the hope of
his colleagues has been fully realized.
The old story of the manner in which patients are brought
to asylums receives a curious illustration in the following
anecdote from the first report of theDurbam County Asylum
by Dr. R. Smith.
“ We must regret that those entrusted with the transmission of
patients to this Asylum should so frequently employ restraint. We
may refer to one instance ; a man, handcuffed, and with a police-
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man on each side, arrived at the neighbouring railway station; one
of the officers of the Asylum happened to arrive by the same train,
and as the policeman had taken no care to procure the attendance
of a vehicle, offered to drive the patient to the Asylum provided the
handcuffs and the policemen were removed; it need scarcely be said
that the offer was accepted, and that the patient proved a tolerably
agreeable travelling companion.”
The report of the Surrey Asylum, purely official as it is, in¬
dicates an active spirit of improvement The mode of en¬
larging the Asylum appears to be still under discussion, the
Commissioners finding so many fundamental objections to
the plans that they have requested that the architect may
he placed in direct communication with themselves. The
fundamental objection, undoubtedly, is the unlimited aug¬
mentation of this already over-grown asylum.
The soundness of the principles for which the Commis¬
sioners so long and stoutly, but ineffectually, battled for with
the Middlesex Justices is now almost universally acknow¬
ledged. The vast metropolitan receptacles for the insane
are extravagant in cost, unwieldy in management, and de¬
pressing in effect on the minds of sane and insane
In the eighth report of the Derbyshire County Asylum,
Dr. Hitchman reports a case of epilepsy in which “ the fits
were of so violent a character that the patient’s shoulder has
been dislocated by the spasmodic force of the muscles, and
has been brought back into its place again by convulsive
action aided slightly by manipulation.”
Dr. Hitchman accounts for the death of epileptics who
turn upon the face in bed, in the following manner,
“ The pre-existing congestion of the brain and spinal cord has
blunted the respiratory sense, and thus reduced the energy of the
inspiratory act; next, the inspiratory act (in the absence of all
consciousness on the part of the patient, the nose being pressed by
the pillow,) even if excited, may draw up the wetted sheet into the
mouth, and thus, without excluding all air, may admit it in quanti¬
ties too small for the continuance of life; and in these rare cases
the usual characteristics of suffocation would be more conspicuous
than in those where all air had been instantaneously shut off from
the patient.”
We are inclined to attribute a large amount of the causa¬
tion of death in these cases, to the reduced energy of the
respiratory act, lor we have seen several epileptics at
the point of death, merely from the fit having come on
during the act of mastication and deglutition, and this up-
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parent ly without the food having become impacted, or having
passed into the larynx, as in the fatal accident to which para¬
lytics are liable. An epileptic patient of our own once died
under the following circumstances,—the fit sometimes pro¬
duced vomiting, and he was found dead in bed lying with his
face upwards, with the mouth and nares filled with the soft
pulp of half-digested bread and milk which the strength of the
respiratory effort, depressed by an epileptic fit, had been un-
able to eject. These deaths of epileptics in which the face is
found pressed upon the, pillow, appear therefore to be to so
great an extent the result of the disease that they cannot fairly
be considered accidental deaths, and this view is taken by many
coroners who refuse to hold inquests upon them. We observe
in looking through the reports that this accident is of frequent
occurrence, although probably an efficient system of night¬
watching renders it less so than it otherwise would be. We
also have found that a pillow made of materials very permeable
to air (namely of coir covered with strainering), to be of un¬
doubted service in preventing this occurrence. When the face
is turned downward on a pillow of this kind, a small supply of
air will make its way through. The pillow must be made in
the shape of a long wedge like that recommended by Mar¬
shall Hall, and care must be taken that the patient does not
cover it with the sheet.
When doctors disagree, who shall decide ? This old
question may well be asked by architects in relation to the
warming and ventilating asylums. In the ninth Report of
the Wilts Asylum, we find Dr. Thurnam attributing the
comfortable temperature of the wards during severe frost,
to Mr. Price’s efficient warming and ventilating apparatus,
and this excellent authority on all asylum matters unequi¬
vocally expressing his opinion in favour of these artificial
means:—
“ It has of late been proposed to dispense with any such artificial
system of wanning in the construction of asylums, and to trust
entirely to open fires. It appears, however, to the Medical Super¬
intendent, that by this means an adequate temperature could never
be insured, and that at night at least the patients would be exposed
to a degree of cold which they manage to escape, under the thatch
of their own small dwellings. If, as is most essential, well lighted
and spacious buildings be constructed for the insane, it becomes all
the more requisite to provide for their being duly warmed in winter,
which no number of open fires available—seeing these can hardly
be afforded in every sleeping room or associated dormitory—would
secure.”
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We remember that the Royal Commission on Irish lunatic
asylums, on which Mr. Wilkes and Mr. Lutwidge acted, con¬
demned artificial means of warming and ventilating; and we
have heard others of the English Commissioners in Lunacy
also express a strong objection, founded upon their own ex¬
perience of the difference, not so much of the temperature,
as of the quality of air in asylums warmed by apparatus
and those wanned by open fires. We entirely concur in this
objection. Air which nas been cooked by contact with hot
{ dates or hot pipes always seems to us to be spoilt, and as
ittle exhilarating as boiled champagne, if such a thing ever
was. Undoubtedly by the artificial apparatus an equable
temperature is ensured during the night as well as the day,
but is this altogether a desirable thing ? For persons in
tolerable health the common opinion is, that a fire in the
bedroom is unwholesome. Miss Nightingale says, that no
person ever caught cold in bed, an opinion which she advo¬
cates so strongly that she recommends the windows to be kept
open at night. Moreover, in weather of unexceptional severity
it is not difficult to have the gallery fires kept up during
the night, so that the temperature of the wards may not be
permitted to fall very low. On the whole, placing the fresh¬
ness of air which accompanies the use of the open fire
place against the more equable temperature undoubtedly
obtained by a warming apparatus, we think that the balance
of health and comfort inclines greatly in favour of the
the former.
We admit, however, that the question is an open one while
men of such mature experience as Dr. Thumam, Dr.
Huxlev, Dr. Robertson, Mr. Ley, and others, earnestly advo¬
cate the artificial system of warming and ventilating. The
question can scarcely be decided by personal preferences or
even by general arguments. It must be brought to some
practical test or always remain a question open to difference
of opinion.
The question of a suitable place for the detention of
criminal lunatics was thus referred to at the Wiltshire
Quarter Sessions.
“ Mr. Lowther said this matter deserved the most careful con¬
sideration of the Court, seeing that we had in this county (at Dr.
Finch’s), more than one fourth of the criminal lunatics of the whole
kingdom. Without attaching the slightest blame to Dr. Finch,
whose establishment was conducted with great skill and humanity,
be could not help feeling that the Fisherton Asylum was not
adapted for the reception of criminal lunatics; and in his opinion a
English County Asylums. 503
private asylum ought not to wear the aspect of a gaol. Several
escapes had recently taken place, and in one instance three men
actually made their way through a 14-inch wall, near where the
keeper was sleeping. It so happened that they came into Orcheston,
and broke into the house of a poor man who had sent him (Mr.
Lowther) an account, in the hope of being remunerated for the
property he had lost. These escapes operated strongly against the
interests of Dr. Finch, who was under the necessity of offering a
reward for the capture of. the fugitives, but he hoped the Court
would not object to a copy of the Committee’s Report being
forwarded to the Secretary of State, with an expression of hope that
some steps would shortly be adopted to remedy the evil which had
been most energetically combatted for the last twelve years by the
Lunacy Commissioners—namely the lack of some central establish¬
ment for the reception of the criminal lunatics of the country.—
Agreed to.”
The eleventh report of the North Wales Asylum contains
the following example of the condition in which patients
are sometimes sent to asylums for care and treatment.
“ One poor man, in the prime of life, was sent from a long
distance suffering from an extensive fracture of the skull, with
depression of the bone, caused by an injury inflicted nine months
previous to his admission. He had been confined to his bed for
that period. He was extremely feeble, semi-comatose, and obliged
to be fed. He only survived his admission a few days, when death
put an end to his sufferings. Upon examination, after death, the
temporal, parietal and frontal bones were found fractured, and
pressing on the brain, and with partial union of the scalp. The
constant irritation of the fractured bones had produced an abscess,
the size of a pigeon’s egg, which had burst and discharged itself
into the substance of the brain.”
Dr Humphrey, in the Report of the Buckinghamshire
Asylum, mentions that thirty-two of the patients admitted
had suicidal tendencies, several having attempted drowning
or hanging, and three having been brought in with wounds
in their throats.
Dr. Campbell, in the Essex Report, bears similar testimony
to the prevalence of this most distressing symptom, and in
the following passage he well expresses the harrassing and
anxious nature of the duties which it entails upon the
medical guardians of these unhappy creatures.
“ During the past year a very large number of patients have been
sent in, from their propensity to self-destruction, and although
several suicides were attempted, I am glad to say, no accident of any
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kind took place. Of all the painful forms which insanity assumes,
there is none more distressing than that in which the natural love
of life is subverted, and the hand of the patient is turned against
himself; and there are no cases which cause more anxiety to the
officers and attendants of an Hospital for the insane. These cases
require great delicacy and reserve in the treatment, lest on the one
hand, we should compromise the comforts, the liberty and rational
enjoyments of these unhappy people, by an overweaning anxiety for
the preservation of their life,—or on the other hand, forfeit the con¬
fidence of the public, by the occurrence of accidents which arise out
of mis-placed indulgence, or an imprudent latitude of freedom.
This difficulty is increased by the imposing manner, the artful
bearing of some of these patients, who try to lull into fatal security,
those who have the care of them ; and it is wonderful to observe
with what patience and constancy of purpose, for a great length of
time, some such people will watch their opportunity, and seize the
unguarded moment for effecting the object of their fatal design.
In aome cases indeed, there is reason to believe, that with all the
care that can be taken, and all the expedients that can he devised,
a determined suicide will bafilc the moat refined ingenuity to
prevent him.”
The twelfth of the series of Dr. Boyd’s excellent reports
contains as usual much information and much matter for
reflection. That important question, the accommodation of
chronic and harmless patients is mooted in a manner which
leads us to believe that Dr. Boyd is now for from satisfied
with the care and treatment which this class are likely to
obtain, or do actually obtain in union house wards.
The greater number of the Bath patients have been re¬
moved from the asylum at Wells to new lunatic wards erected
at the Bath workhouse, and we have before us a boastful
report from the guardians upon the condition of these
patients. From this report it appears that the entire cost
of the patients is 5s 5d per head per week.
“ A portion of this 5s. 5d. consists of establishment charges, which
are obviously greater than those of the ordinary inmates of the
workhouse, occasioned not only by the extra expense incurred in
building the Lunatic wards, (the interest of which, as well as the
rent of the acre of land being duly calculated,J but also by the cost
of extra diet, by the salaries of nurses, superintendents and medical
care.”
We learn from the report of the county asylum from
whence these patients were removed, that the weekly ex¬
pense per patient for provisions alone was 3s 8d, to which
must be added the cost of farm and garden, fid, so that
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supposing the patients in the Bath union-house to have the
same amount and quality food as they had at the asylum the
sum of Is 4d per head per week would be left to defray the
cost wages, establishment charges, coals, &c., together with
the interest of the building debt, and <£182 10s a year
towards liquidating the capital. We say advisedly, if these
most unfortunate patients receive the same amount of food
which they did at the asylum, for we have heard a remark¬
able account of the quantity of food which, for a time, they
actually have received.
However, the guardians undertake to show the great saving
which their lunatic wards effect, and they vaunt figures
which demonstrate that they do in deed and truth effect a
money saving of i?194 3s 4d per annum out of the wretched
insane people whom a loop-holed legislation has placed under
the tender mercy of their saving management They succeed
in keeping most of their patients in these economical wards;
“ In only ten cases has it been necessary to remove to Wells
patients requiring personal restraintand they conclude the
report with an expression which, if read by any reasonable
inmates of the workhouse, would certainly have saved
them a dinner, for whose appetite would not be spoilt by
this, * Praise God Barebones' finale to the balance sheet of
an undertaking by which, without the slightest legal sanction
or right, they imprison the wretched inmates of these lunatic
wards in such a manner as to effect a saving of just cent per
cent upon the cost of that care and treatment to which the
laws of the land entitle a destitute lunatic; the whole cost
of rent and maintenance in the workhouse being 5s 5d, and
that at the asylum being 10s9id. The Committee conclude
with the hope that, “ The lunatics’ wards in the Bath Union
will be found, under the blessing of Almighty God, to have
answered their appointed end ’ill
Well may Dr. Boyd express a doubt of workhouse assis¬
tance to the very different “ appointed end” of asylums.
“ It is submitted that, under the present poor law, no de¬
pendence can be placed on the workhouses to relieve the
asylum of chronic cases to any great extent.”
Dr. Boyd records numerous applications for the admission
of patients of the middle class, unable to pay the charges of
private asylums. He enforces the experience of other super¬
intendents that “the intercourse of private patients with the
pauper lunatics in an asylum is not desirable ; the private
patient becomes discontented, and renders the others so.”
He however thinks that, “ in the acute stage no inoon-
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venienoe would be experienced by associating the two classes
of patients,’' and he expresses an opinion, though not as his
own, which goes still further.
“ It has been suggested, that it would simplify proceedings, and
afford time for the friends to make their arrangements, without
injury to the patient, if all cases, not found lunatic by inquisition,
were sent at once for curative treatment to the County asylum.
Slight alterations in County asylums might be sufficient for such
a purpose.’ 1
We cannot approve of this suggestion nor of the admission
of middle class patients into county asylums, during any
stage of the disease. We have had some personal experi¬
ence in this matter, respecting which, the last opinion
given on the same basis, is that of the Visitors to the Essex
Asylum who say in their report, “ that the admission of
private patients was inconvenient and inconsistent with
the quiet and with the 'good management of the great
body of pauper lunatics," and was therefore discontinued.
Surely it will in every way be best to keep the county
asylums to their legitimate purpose, and to utilize to the ut¬
most the noble charities for the insane for the benefit of the
struggling and suffering class intervening between wealth
and pauperism. Bethlem and St. Luke’s cry aloud for
patients, and the well-informed physician of the former af¬
firms that one reason why that noble charity has so few ap¬
plicants is, that many private asylums now receive private
patients “ on terms very little above those usually charged
for paupers." Then there are other excellent hospitals for
the insane, founded, like St. Luke’s, upon the donations of
the benevolent, the Warnford, the St Thomas’s, Barn wood,
Coton Hill, Nottingham, Cheadle, the York Retreat, &c.; let
all these fulfil the charitable duties for which they were
founded, as indeed most of them worthily do, and it these
means are insufficient for the demands made upon them, let
them shew a good cause and again appeal to the unbounded
charity of the wealthy English public. This is the obvious
solution of the middle class insane difficulty. Let this be
fully tried and found wanting before we wander in devious
and, as yet, illegal paths.
We have availed ourselves of passages in Dr. Boyd's re¬
port to ventilate our own opinions rather than to criticise
those which he so well expresses not as his own but as those
which are floating in society at this time when there is a
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wide, though perhaps not very earnest, agitation in all ques¬
tions of lunacy.
Dr. Boyd's report is, as usual, a model for such documents
in the professional department. He details the number of
patients under treatment and the nature of the diseases
during each quarter of the year: gives tables marking the
daily number of fits of each epileptic; also a most useful
summary of the facts elicited by the statistical tables, and
another devoted to the obituary. Among the epileptics the
number of fits by day has been more than double those by
night; the largest number during the year was 380 in a man,
and 433 in a woman.
We are glad to observe that the largest number of patients
admitted was brought from their own homes, namely 102,
as against 42 from workhouses, and 8 from other asylums.
In some counties the objectionable and unlawful practice
exists of taking all, or nearly all, pauper lunatics to the
workhouse first, even with the full intention of passing them
to the asylum. It would have been interesting if Dr. Boyd
had noted the relative proportion of patients cured among
those who came from their own homes and from workhouses.
In the pathological part we note as a curious fact that ten
patients (more than one-fifth of the whole) are stated to
have died from inflammation of the brain or its membranes;
in our experience cerebral inflammation is rare among the
insane. There was one instance of inflamed kidney, but no
Bright's disease, from which the insane appear to enjoy a
degree of immunity which is remarkable considering that
intemperance is the most frequent cause both of insanity
and of Bright's disease, and that in the latter affection, de¬
lirium is of frequent occurrence.
What superintendent will not envy the management of an
asylum so spacious and airy that the Commissioners them¬
selves recommend the conversion of galleries into dormitories,
as at the Lincolnshire Asylum ?
“ To relieve pressure for the present, the recommendation of the
Commissioners in Lunacy to convert one of the galleries on each
side of the Asylum into a dormitory, and to double the number of
patients now passing the day in two other galleries, is being carried
out. It is hoped that this arrangement, by which forty additional
beds will be secured, will not irremediably interfere with the ven¬
tilation of the galleries which are to receive the increased number
of patients during the day, but it can scarcely be regarded without
some misgiving. Should the difficulty, however, not arise, and the
experiment now being made of returning patients who are incurable
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and harmless to their friends or parishes be successful, the necessity
for enlarging the building may be avoided for another year at least.'
Mr. Symes, in the report of the Dorsetshire Asylum, com¬
ments upon the worthlessness of the returns in admission
papers as to the duration of the disease.
“The great frequency of parish officers in their “statement ” when
patients are admitted, noting down “ one week, two weeks, a month,
a few months,” as to the time the patient has been insane ; whereas,
in many instances, I have found that “ an odd way of going on,”
or “ great peculiarity of manner, causing observation,” Ac. has been
noticed probably for a year, or even more. Doubtless, this was
when the patient should have been cared for, and then with every
probability of recovery.”
The statements contained in these papers of the supposed
cause, and of the dangerous or suicidal tendencies of the
patients are, according to our experience, scarcely more trust¬
worthy. We can, however, witn a bad grace find fault with
the relieving officers and overseers by whom this part of the
paper is filled up, when our medical brethren display so
much negligence and ignorance in filling up the medical
certificates. It is stated in the. report of the Devon Asylum
that a patient was brought for admission on the statement
of facts as indicating insanity, “ that he put things in his
pocket and could not talkand we have recently had a
sharp looking youth brought for admission with a medical
certificate containing only this statement of facts indicating
insanity —" Nothing except his appearance.”
In the many essays on criminal lunacy which have of late
appeared, a very legitimate distinction, as it seems, has been
drawn between persons acquitted of crime on the ground of
insanity, and who may fairly be presumed to be in many
instances the victims of neglect, and the very different class
of criminals who have become insane after conviction, in¬
sane convicts as they are called, whose presence in county
asylums must be much more objectionable than that of the
former class. Yet here is an instance of a new method by
which the Government authorities may disincumber them¬
selves and gain admission for these insane individuals into
county asylums.
“The man had been a convict in Dartmoor Prison for some length
of time, and was discharge on “ ticket of leave, ” and sent to his
parents at Weymonth. His first act was the use of violent lan¬
guage towards them, swearing they were no relations oi his, aad
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uttering threats of a very unpleasant nature. He was immediately
conveyed to the Union, and from thence here. He was reported
to me as having been insane several months, and this being so he
must have been discharged from the prison in an insane state. It
was a great annoyance, therefore, to receive such a criminal; yet,
with one exception, be has hitherto behaved quietly enough. An
application was made to the Secretary of State for his removal, but
refused.”
This plan is almost as ingenious, though not quite so
hardy, as the manner in which the military authorities of
Chatham have disembarrassed themselves of insane soldiers,
namely, by turning them loose in the high street of Roches¬
ter, having given previous information of their intention to
the poor law officials.
The Leicestershire and Rutland Lunatic Asylum is one of
the last examples of a mixed asylum, and we observe that
the Visiting Commissioners, Mr. Procter and Mr. Gaskell,
recommend that the private patients should be accommo¬
dated elsewhere, in the following terms :
“ There are fifty private patient* in the Asylum. We understand
that patients of this class have been repeatedly refused admission
here. We submit to the consideration of the Committee of Visitors,
the expediency of separating the two parts of the establishment from
each other, and procuring (or if necessary, erecting,) a building on
some other site for the private patients alone. This plan has been
adopted at several places where the same union of private with
public patients existed, namely at Gloucester, Stafford, and Not¬
tingham, and has been attended, we believe, with success in each
instance.” ,
Thus we find that even in those institutions which were
originally designed and constructed for the joint occupation
of pauper patients and middle-class private patients, and
which derive funds for the maintainance of the latter from
the accumulated donations of the benevolent, the system
of treating the two classes under the same roof, has after a
long period of trial been abandoned, in all instances we
believe] except that of this asylum, and that on the best
authority its abandonment is recommended here also. With
this experience before us how can we recommend the admis¬
sion of private patients into county asylums, where neither
structural accommodation nor yet funds have been provided
for their maintenance ?
We shall |includen in this notice what may be called
the Report of a private asylum, being the fourth number of
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Annual Reports of the
Dr. Prichard’s Reports of Cases of Insanity treated at Abing-
ton Abbey. We cannot quite concur with Dr. Prichard
in the importance which ne attaches to the statistics of
treatment m asylums, whether public or private. Even a
large asylum, under admirable management, may be filled with
chronic cases, so as to exclude the admission of recent ones ;
and this may still more readily be the case in small private
asylums. A small asylum of this kind under the most
able and liberal management, might not discharge a patient
from one year’s end to another, while in another the number
of cures during one year might exceed the admissions; in¬
deed this appears to have been almost the case at Abington,
where 14 patients were dismissed, 10 being cured, against
11 admissions. If the publication of statistics of cure is to be
accepted at the value which Dr. Prichard proposes, the guar¬
dians of the Bath Union not only triumph over the superin¬
tendents of county asylums in their wonderful economy, but
in the results of their treatment, for they affirm that in their
little lunatic establishment, containing only 89 patients,
most of whom are idiots, they have within two years dis¬
charged 35 patients wholly recovered, and that 43 more have
derived great benefit It is true that we attach far more credit
to Dr. Prichard’s private statistics than to those of this pub¬
lic board; but it not the less seems to us an unscientific test,
unless the things compared are placed under the same con¬
ditions, except in regard to the condition whose influence it
is proposed to test. If the proportion of cure is to be ac¬
cepted as the test of treatment, it would lead us to strange
conclusions. The number of transient cases of insanity
which recover at home and nothing said, is greater than
most people would believe, and yet physicians are on no
point more unanimous than in their condemnation of the
home treatment of insanity.
We believe that a well conducted private asylum is a great
public boon, and that its value is not to be fairly tested by
figures put into the form of statistical returns, which make
no count of the alleviation of suffering, or of additions to the
sum of happiness, however great, unless positively marked
off minus by death, or plus by cure.
We are so far from giving credit to the assertion that the
physicians of private asylums detain their patients beyond
the period of their recovery, that we believe the practice
to be far more common in county asylums. Take for
example a case of intercurrent mania; a patient liable to
this form of insanity often finds a permanent home in a
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county asylum ; after two or three discharges the parochial
officials find that it is more economical to leave the patient
in the asylum than to be fluctuating between the expenses
of admission and discharge ; the patient reconciles himself
to the asylum as a home, and there he remains : but in a
E rivate asylum the responsibility of detaining a man from
is home, being in a sound state of mind, in anticipation of
a future attack, would scarcely be incurred. We fear, in
fact, that the recent agitation in these matters has been the
cause of no little mischief in the discharge of patients whose
detention would have been conducive, not less to their in¬
dividual welfare than to the interests of public security.
The tide of public opinion has set strongly against asylums;
soon, however, it will be slack water, and then a few out¬
rages will probably turn the prejudices of the fickle public
against the liberty of mad folk. A few striking examples
either way are sufficient to turn the direction of public
opinion.
“ An habitation giddy and unsure
Hath he that buildeth on the vulgar heart"
Dr. Prichard directs attention to the mischief which
threatens the true interests of the insane from legislation,
calculated to degrade the status and character of the class
upon whose character their welfare immediately depends,
and he quotes the candid and wise forethought of this
danger which was expressed by Mr. Campbell before the
Select Committee on Lunatics.
“We must especially notice the very just remarks of Mr.
Campbell, ono of the Commissioners in Lunacy, in bis evidenoe
before that Committee, as they appear so apposite and forcible
(although only such as we could have expected from a man of
his experience and judgment,) and display views of so liberal and
enlightened a character, when compared with those of some of
the other witnesses—well meaning men no doubt—who, in their
eagerness to make out a case for legislative interference, speak with
an air of authority which does not properly belong to them, and
who give expression to opinions which, under the most charitable
interpretation, are indicative of narrow views, and which are, in not
a few instances, unjust.
“I wish,” said Mr. Campbell, "to call the attention of the
“ Committee to a point which seems to me to have been forgotten
“ by some of the witnesses, and that is, that asylums are places for
“ the cure and treatment of the intone as well as places of detention ;
“ and I think that great care should be used, when we surround
“ Asylums with so many safeguards, that we do not degrade them,
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Reports of English County Asylums.
“ and also those toko keep them ; — I speak of licensed bouses. I a til
“ fully aware of the defective and very unadvisable arrangement of
“ having a licensed house for the detention of insane persons
“ (because the treatment of the insane involves the detentiou
“ of the person.) The fact of a person receiving another for profit,
“ and having the power of depiiving him of his liberty, is, 1 think,
“ a most objectionable arrangement, but the question is, whether
“ that arrangement can be got rid of, and whether all persons can,
“ by law, be forced into chartered hospitals and public asylums. 1
“ think that if that cannot be accomplished, that it is desirable
“ to try and induce persons of the highest character only, to take
“ licensed houses and receive patients. I am afraid that by degrad -
“ ing them , and shewing such extreme suspicion of all those persons,
“ by treating every one who has the care of an asylum or licensed
“ house as a person who is primd facie a man who would take
“ advantage of bis patients, and deprive them of their liberty for
“ profit, we shall be doing an injury to the cause.”
These are the observations of a gentleman who knows what
asylums really are, and who, we verily believe, desires to do justly
by all parties, and we earnestly hope that the legislature may
be guided and influenced by those who breaths the like generous
and earnest spirit,”
“Doubtless, there is still room for advancement in many points,
and that some alterations in the law, as it affects the insane, may be
necessary and advisable; but we are decidedly of opinion that more
substantial good will accrue from the judicious counsel and co¬
operation of those who inspect asylums, and the voluntary efforts
of those who have the care of the insane throughout the country,
than by over minute legislation, which must inevitably oppress, and
prove vexatious to men actuated by high and honourable motives,
should it not have the effect of inducing them to withdraw from
asylums altogether.”
The following statement from the report of the Notting*
ham County Asylum indicates the great difficulty which
must be experienced by the authorities at Bethleiii in ascer¬
taining the non-existence of insanity in those cases of
mariito raisonante of which Dr. Robertson has given us so
instructive an example in this Journal We presume that
this dangerous and criminal woman has been re-admitted
into the Nottingham Asylum as an ordinary patient, and
that the superintendent will now be deprived of all oppor¬
tunity of re-transmitting her to Bethlem, unless, indeed, she
be discharged, and allowed to commit some new offence.
The artificial distinction of insane persons founded upon the
accident whether they have or have not committed some of¬
fence against the law, will be more than ever felt when the
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Criminal Lunatics.
613
new state asylum is opened Is a murderous assault com*
mitted within the walls of an asylum an offence against the
law ? And if not, why not ? If it is, lunatics of dangerous
criminal tendencies may effectually be separated from others
on something like a natural and real ground of distinction.
“ The circumstances which necessitated the removal of a criminal
patient in September last, require a more particular notice. The
lunatic was a powerful woman, of depraved conduct, offensive
language, and with a disposition to commit homicide. She had been
an inmate of several asylums and prisons, had been a source of
trouble to the public and to her own family for several years ; and
on one occasion had given rise to a trial at the assizes. She had
several times during her residence here assaulted iniirm patients
and threatened to kill others. On the 18th of August last, with¬
out any provocation, she attacked a melancholic patient, and
amongst other injuries fractured her thigh bone. It is yet doubtful
whether the poor woman will recover from the effects of this
violence. An order was obtained from the Secretary of State, for
the removal of the prisoner to Bethlem, to which place she was
accordingly conveyed, but has since been set at liberty, upon the
ground of her not being insane. This Patient was again ad¬
mitted as a dangerous Lunatic, January 24th, 1860.”
J. C. B.
(To be continued.)
Criminal Lunatics. A Letter to the Chairman of the
Commissioners in Lunacy. By W. C. Hood, M.D.,
Physician to the Royal Bethlem Hospital. London;
Churchill, (Pamphlet, pp. 28.)
No one can speak with the authority of so much experi¬
ence and knowledge on the subject of criminal lunatics as the
able physician of Bethlem, and his well timed and well
written pamphlet is very acceptable now that the new State
Asylum is approaching completion.
Dr. Hood points out the indiscriminate and not very
accurate use of the term, “ criminal lunatics,” and the wide dis¬
tinction between those whose offence has been the result of in¬
sanity, perhaps neglected, and those whose insanity has been
the sequel of crime.
There is another class who are the pest of all asylums in
which they are found, namely, sane criminals, who have been
VOL. VI. NO. 34.
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514
Criminal Lunatics,
acquitted on the ground of insanity, or who have escaped
from the prison to the asylum by feigning insanity. An in¬
stance of this latter kina when in an asylum, “ will poison
the minds of all with whom he is associated, and if he is sent
back to prison, will speedily return, followed by others whom
he has induced to act with equal duplicity.” Here is a picture
of this kind of animal drawn from the life.
“ J. F., while awaiting transportation, as a convict in Millbank
Prison, in the year 1849, murdered one of the warders; on his
trial he was acquitted on the ground of insanity, and being ordered
to be detained during Her Majesty’s pleasure, was removed to
Bethlem Hospital. His conduct in the hospital has been uni¬
formly bad, and if any of his wishes are opposed, he threatens
either attendants or fellow-patients with violence, and has twice
nearly murdered those who were placed over him. He sets all his
attendants at defiance, and takes the earliest opportunity to induce
any fresh inmate to follow his example. He has spent most of his
life in prison, and is known to be a worthless and depraved man.
Not having shown any symptoms of the mental disease on which
ground he obtained his acquittal, repeated applications were made
by the authorities of Bethlem Hospital to the Home Office for
his return to prison. These resulted in an order to transfer him to
Millbank; bnt after remaining there three months, the Governor
of the prison obtained a warrant for his return to the hospital, not
because he was insane, but because being neither a prisoner nor convict,
the authorities had no power to detain him in prison, consequently
he continues an inmate of an institution in which gentleness and
kindness are of the utmost importance for the well-being of the
patients; and although his character is depraved, his example
pernicious, and his antecedents exhibiting him as a savage mur¬
derer, and the worst possible type of humanity, his acquittal and
subsequent sentence to be confined during Her Majesty’s pleasure,
prohibit his detention in prison, while his conduct requires that the
general morale of the hospital shall be invaded and deteriorated by
a stem discipline, very similar to that of a criminal gaol, which is
indispensable in such cases.”
Dr. Hood points to the distinction that must be drawn
between those lunatics who have been convicted of slight
offences, and those who have been guilty of graver crimes,
and he proposes to extend the jurisdiction of the Commis¬
sioners of Lunacy, over the former class, and to empower
them to discharge on the guarantee of friends or relations,
that they shall be prevented from again disturbing the public
peace. But a mere guarantee without penalty in case of
infraction of its conditions, would be of little service; besides,
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515
by Dr. W. C. Hood.
it would confer no power over the conduct of the person dis¬
charged, however dangerous it might be. A more efficient plan
would be to place a doubtful case under the surveillance of some
relative or medical man who should enter into recognizances to
superintend the mode of life of the discharged prisoner, and
to whom statutory power should be granted somewhat equiva¬
lent to that possessed by a Committee of the Person over a
Chancery lunatic.
As for extending the jurisdiction of the Commissioners in
Lunacy, we are convinced that it will be found needful to do
so over all criminal lunatics whatever their degree of crime or
their condition of mind. There is an excellent precedent for
this in the practice adopted in Ireland, where the Inspectors
of Asylums have the actual control of the State Lunatic
Asylum, and where the action of the Government in all that
relates to criminal lunatics, is directed by their advice. The
inevitable difficulties which will attend the opening of the
new State Asylum, of determining who to admit and who
to exclude, who to retain and who to discharge, whom to
treat with strict discipline and whom to indulge with com¬
parative liberty; all these are matters which will, perhaps,
need the sanction of the Secretary of State, but which will be
best judged of and recommended by one or more of the Com¬
missioners in Lunacy to whom this thorny department should
be especially assigned. This, and other thiugs, point to the
necessity for a division of labour at that Board, greater than
that which no doubt already exists though in an unrecognized
form.
Dr. Hood commenting upon the several cases who, ac-
3 uitted on charges of murder on the plea of insanity, had
isplayed no symptom thereof during their residence in
Bethlem, points to one of the main causes of this mischievous
fiction in the manner in which “ specialist ” physicians lend
themselves to be the instruments of the lawyers to whom the
defence is entrusted.
“ If not insane, why were they acquitted ? The answer to this
inquiry must be that the jury acted upon the evidence of the medical
witnesses, who had formed erroneous opinions of the cases. If this
be a fair conclusion, we are led to enquire whether the evidence of
medical witnesses, ‘ experts,” as they may be in insanity, is always
sure guidance to a jury. It is believed that the majority of the
medical profession object both to the mode in which evidence is now
procured and now given in criminal cases; the solicitors for the
prosecution and defence seek medical testimony not to elicit the
truth, but to obtain a verdict for their respective clients. Physician
m*
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516 Criminal Lnnatm,
is pitted against physician, and surgeon against surgeon, while
‘specialists’ (a modern and very undesirable soubriquet) are supposed
to bring with them the clenching evidence produced by concentrated
study or particular aptitude, and all this difficulty is increased by
cross-examination, which endeavours to reduce to the narrow limits
of a mathematical problem the reasons for ever-changing patholo¬
gical conditions.
“ In criminal cases where the plea of insanity is to be advanced,
the medical practitioner, unless he has been previously in attendance
upon the prisoner, has seldom a sufficient opportunity of testing the
mental condition of the accused. A few hours, perhaps less, are all
that is allotted, and he is Lurried into the witness-box to state before
a learned judge, an astute and adverse counsel, and a perplexed
jury, the ground of the opinion he has formed, usually involving
some of the most delicate questions of psychological science.
“ If the opportunities for arriving at an opinion were increased,
the remedy would be to some degree provided; but, nolens nolens,
the evidence sought from him, except by cross-examination, is only
such as will benefit the case of the counsel who examines him in
chief. I could instance cases of great difficulty, and in a question n
which very few men were capable of giving an opinion at all, in which
particular medical men were retained, not for the purpose of giving
evidence, but in order to prevent their experience and knowledge being
made available by the opposite side; as a large retaining fee is often given
to an eminent counsel, only to exclude the possibility of his taking part with
the opponent. Sometimes the public are satisfied, sometimes irrita¬
ted, at the result.”
How degrading is all this to the professional character!
How inconsistent, indeed, with common honesty, for what
right has any witness to accept a retaining fee, to allow the
faithful expression of his knowledge and convictions to be
burked with a bank note! There is no parallel between
the position of a counsel and a witness. The one for the
purposes of argument is the recognized after ego of the
accused, and all that he says and does is accepted as such.
But a witness ? A witness is a person who gets into the box
and kisses the gospels in token that what he shall say shall
be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. If
there are men in our department of the professsion, psy¬
chological physicians, who can allow themselves in the witness
box the liberty of counsel, or even allow their mouths to be
stopped in the manner described by Dr. Hood, if we were
to call such men by their right names we should call them
very harsh ones.
The remedy which Dr. Hood proposes is, that there shall
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by Dr. W. C. Hood. 517
be two trials, one to determine the state of mind, and the
other to ascertain the commission of the offence.
“ The question arises, how is this to be altered ? I would
suggest, whenever insanity is set up as a defence, the trial of the
prisoner for the offence with which he is charged, whatever may be
the stage at which it has arrived, should be postponed, until the
state of the prisoner's mind at the time has been made the subject
of inquiry, at the same or some following session or assize, as the
case may be, and as then shall be directed before an ordinary jury,
whose verdict of insanity, if such it shall be, shall in all cases be
recorded by the Court as an answer to the previous indictment.
It seems, indeed, altogether inconsistent and contradictory to allow
a prisoner to allege that he did not commit the offence of which he
is charged, and that when he did commit it he was of unsound
mind; yet both these grounds of defence are admissible under the
plea of Not Guilty/'
The following is the legislative formula into which Dr.
Hood proposes to cast this opinion for practical use, in the
sketch of a statute with which he concludes his pamphlet.
“If any prisoner shall appear on arraignment or during trial
to be insane, or if on the trial of any prisoner evidence be given
that such prisoner was insane at the time the offence with which
he or she is charged was committed, it shall be lawful for the
court before which such prisoner is arraigned, or being tried, to
postpone such trial if it see fit, and to direct that at the same or
some following assize or session, the state of the prisoner’s mind be
made the subject of separate inquiry before a petty jury; independ¬
ent medical testimony in every such case being directed by the
court to be provided by summons of one or more medical men.
And in the event of the prisoner being found by the jury on such
separate inquiry, to be insane when arraigned, or during trial, or
when the offence with which he or she is charged was committed^
as the case may be, then in every such case the prisoner shall be
sent to the county asylum or other proper receptacle for insane
persons, and be dealt with as is herein above provided for persons
duly certified to be insane while imprisoned in any prison or other
place of confinement.”
When a prisoner so found insane shall be recovered, the
author proposes that he shall be removed back from the
asylum to the prison, and at the following or some subsequent
assize shall be tried for the offence.
There are grave objections to this plan of a double trial.
First, there is the double trouble and expense; then there is
the delay before the second trial would take place, during
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518 Criminal Lunatics,
which evidence would decay—nothing is more evanescent;
then there is the impossibility of separating the inquiry into
the state of mind from the inquiry into the offence. The
one almost invariably illustrates the other. Very often the
character and circumstances of the offence constitute the
main evidence of sanity or insanity. For example, there was
Dove, the strychnine poisoner, whose deliberate and ghastly
crime was the main evidence that he possessed a very clear
knowledge of what he was about,—how could his state of
mind have been inquired into without a minute inquiry
into the circumstances of the offence? In nine cases out
of ten the fact of the commission of the offence admits of
no doubt. The offences of real lunatics are generally com¬
mitted without disguise or attempt at concealment; and
when there has been any attempt at concealment the plea
of insanity is likely to be so ticklish, that counsel will not
resort to it except in despair of obtaining acquittal in any
other manner. The trial for the offence, therefore, in all but
very exceptional cases, does practically resolve itself into
a trial of the state of mind. While, therefore, we fully
acknowledge the evils which the author has pointed out, we
do not recognise the practical wisdom of the scheme by
which he proposes to obviate them. The more simple ana
effective plan would be that which we have formerly pro¬
posed, namely, to require counsel before the trial to declare
their intention to advance the plea of insanity, and on this
declaration to delay the trial until the criminal has been
placed for a sufficient time under the observation of ex¬
perienced medical men, appointed by the Government for
the purpose of examining into and ascertaining his real
state of mind. Access under proper limitations, must of
course also be permitted to any medical men named by
those acting for the prisoner. The conviction and execution
of Luigi Buranelli was undoubtedly determined by the evi¬
dence of Drs. Mayou and Sutherland, who were employed
by the Government to ascertain his state of mind. In the
case of James Atkinson, who escaped execution for murder
in 1858, and whom Dr. Hood has found to be ‘a shrewd,
designing, bad man,” whose mode of life, both before and
after the trial, was diametrically at variance with the plea
of insanity which had been supported by three medical wit¬
nesses of considerable reputation, no medical man had ex¬
amined the prisoner on behalf of the prosecution, so that
his acquittal was entirely decided upon what Dr. Hood calls
“ ex parte medical evidence”
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by Dr. W. C. Hood.
Although we differ from Dr. Hood on one or two points to
which, as critics are apt to do, we have given a prominent
place in the above notice; on other subjects mooted in his
excellent pamphlet we entirely concur, and we have no doubt
that our associates will be as much pleased as we have our¬
selves been, with the general tenor of his wise and humane
opinions.
J. C. B.
Note .—We are glad to see that Sir Q. C. Lewis has com¬
muted the sentence of death, passed on Annois (the foreign
sailor who had assassinated his captain, and who was sus¬
pected but not proved to have been in an unsound state of
mind at the time when the offence was committed) into one of
penal servitude for life. A most unreasonable outcry has been
raised against this solution of the difficulty, on the ground
that the man was either sane, and ought to be executed, or
insane and ought to be deemed innocent and therefore left
unpunished. This chop logic assumes, that all sane murderers
are executed, and all insane ones are left unpunished, both of
which limbs of the argument are notoriously unsound. Our
law fortunately admits of degrees of punishment according
to the degree of guilt involved in the same kind of crime.
It is not with us “ an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth ”
and a life for a life, and if there is any one circumstance which
more than another must be admitted to modify the degree of
moral guilt, it is the state of mental health of the criminal
Insanity is a sliding scale from the smallest deviation from
mental health to the most complete madness. Why should
its responsibilities and immunities be ruled with geometrical
precision ? If the man sentenced to penal servitude is found
hereafter to be really insane he will without doubt be placed
in an asylum. Is not this better than that he should be
placed for life in an asylum although he is of sound mind ?
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Resident and Visiting Physicians
Observations on the Offices of Resident and Visiting Phy¬
sicians of District Lunatic Asylums in Ireland. By
Joseph Lalor, Esq., m.d., l.r.c.s. 1 ., Resident Physician,
and Manager of the Richmond District Lunatic Asylum.
Pamphlet, pp. 48. Dublin.
In an Association composed of such various elements as
our own, in which the one claim for membership is to be
specially engaged in the medical treatment of the insane, the
most ordinary prudence, as well as the most obvious justice
would dictate, that all questions relating to the interests of
the classes or divisions into which the Association naturally
divides itself, should be treated in the spirit of the broadest
toleration which is consistent with the primary object of the
society, namely, the promotion of the welfare of the insane.
This spirit of toleration will dictate to us that we must not
too rashly judge questions relating to Irish or Scotch
questions in lunacy by an English standard of opinion ; and
that while we are ready to gather instruction from all quar¬
ters, to shew that in turn we are ready to instruct in that
catholic spirit which takes cognizance of those differences
of opinion which different laws or other circumstances have
imposed. It is certainly thus that the English members of
our Association will desire to judge of the very important
question which has arisen in the sister island respecting the
relative duties of visiting and resident physicians of asyluma
Judged by the English standard of opinion such a question
could not now-a-days come into court, since it has over and
again been proved by superabundant evidence, that, in this
country at least, the system of dividing the responsibility
of the treatment of the insane between a physician resident
in an asylum and another physician resident somewhere else,
has been quite incompatible with even a moderate standard
of that easy and domestic, but not less real and regular dis¬
cipline, upon which to so great a degree the successful manage¬
ment of an asylum and the efficient treatment of the insane
must ever depend. In England the appointment of visiting
physicians to asylums has been condemned not only in opinion
but in practice, and the two or three examples of it which
still remain, are understood to exist only during the con¬
tinuance of personal interests. In Ireland, however, every
asylum has its visiting physician or physicians, the limitation
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of Ireland, by Dr. Lalor. -S22
of whose duties is at the present time an earnest and anxious
subject of enquiry ; and one on which we are delighted to
welcome a pamphlet from the pen of an Irish Superintendent
which does honour *both to himself and to his class, for it is
rare indeed to meet with a pamphlet on medical polemics so
logically and powerfully, and at the same time so temper¬
ately, written.
It would appear from Dr. Lalor’s account that the visiting
physician of the Irish asylums is a remanet from old times
not quite pre-adamite, indeed, or even so old as the round
towers, but certainly anterior to all modern improvement
in the treatment ef the insane, since he was created under
the law which entrusted the management of the asylums to
what were called lay managers, who were “ subject to the di¬
rections of the visiting physician in all that regarded the
treatment of the patients. With the exception of one unique
specimen, the lay manager has disappeared, having been
supplanted, according to Mr. Darwins theory of the origin
of species, by a class possessed of far more vitality and use¬
fulness, to wit, the resident physician ; but the visiting phy¬
sician, necessary under the old lay manager system, has m
the new era rotained at least his existence, if not all his
importance, and the question presses for solution to what
extent the circumstances of the new era shall impress them¬
selves upon his activity.
It will be remembered by our readers, that one of the
most important recommendations of the Royal Commission¬
ers of enquiry into Irish asylums, was that the office of
visiting jthysican should be transmuted into that of consult¬
ing physician, a very legitimate and useful transmutation
of species under the new circumstances, as every one on
this side of the Irish Sea will readily admit.
Dr. Corrigan, however, a physician of some eminence in
Dublin, who had been associated in the Commission with
gentlemen of great knowledge and experience in asylum
mutters, dissented from this earnest and unanimous recom¬
mendation of his colleagues, and he even went to the length
of protesting against it in a letter, which, in its utter absence
of common sense, would seem merely whimsical, if it were
not also mischievous to the interests of the insane, and
painfully unjust to that body of men upon whose action
these interests most intimately depend. This injustice
applies not only to the resident physicians of asylums
in his own country, but to such officers wherever they may
be. Indeed, he draws his illustration from this side of the
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Channel, pointing most invidiously to the unhappy shower
bath occurrence at the Surrey Asylum, as an instance of the
cruelty, ill treatment, neglect, Ac., which are likely to be
committed or connived at by medical superintendents who
are not under the espionage of visiting physicians. If Dr.
Corrigan’s judgment, had not been blinded by prejudice, he
must have seen that this solitary instance which he was able
to quote to serve his purpose, really, if examined, told the
other way. When Mr. Snape was first appointed to the
Surrey asylum, he was appointed as a subordinate medical
officer to Sir Alexander Morrison, who was the visiting phy¬
sician, and when this latter office was abolished he became
by seniority as it were, medioal superintendent. Now one
of the strongest arguments against visiting physicians is,
that the subordinate position in which their existence places
the resident medical officers of asylums, prevents these latter
appointments from being filled by first-rate men. Now
altnough we would not say so much if it were not to
refute this mischievous argument of Dr. Corrigan's, we
affirm without fear of contradiction, that poor Mr. Snape
was not the kind of man who would have been likely
to have been appointed to have had the sole medical
responsibility of one half of the great Surrey Asylum. His
appointment was made under the blighting influence of that
very system in support of which Dr. Corrigan cites its unfor¬
tunate result; a result from which those best calculated to
judge, namely, the visitors of the asylum, have been so far
from drawing the same inference that Dr. Corrigan has
drawn, that in the reorganisation of their staff, and the
appointment of Dr. Meyer, they have placed even a greater
and more undivided weight of power and responsibility on
the shoulders of their resident physician.
It is not easy to make extracts from Dr. Lalor's pamphlet,
for it is so well and closely reasoned that one can scarcely
get a whole link of the chain as a sample, without breaking
its connexion, and exhibiting it as a fragment. Here, however,
is a part of the argument against Dr. Corrigan's whimsical
proposition, that visiting physicians should treat all bodily
illness occurring in the inmates of asylums, leaving the
medical as well as general treatment of insanity to the
resident physician:—
“ And yet there are physuriaas and Burgeons found to say that if
a lunatic in the paroxysm of his insanity cut his finger, however
slightly, he should be handed ever, as a matter of course, whether
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of Ireland, by Dr. Lalor.
the resident physician like it or not, to the surgeon, and that the
resident physician should thenceforth have no voice in the manage¬
ment of his case until the cut finger was healed; or that if a patient
was admitted in the early stage of acute mania, with ulcers on his
leg, produced, perhaps, by straps with which he was tied before his
admission, he should first be cured of those ulcers by the surgeon
before the resident physician be allowed to prescribe for his so-called
mental disease: and, further, that if the surgeon considered a strait
waistcoat necessary to prevent the patient from removing the
dressing ordered for the local disease, that he should have the power
to order such instrument of restraint, irrespective of the advice of
the resident physician, whose experience might enable him to
suggest the care of an attendant, or other means, as more desirable.
So, also, it is argued that a lunatic with diarrhoea, catarrh, psora,
&c., should fall solely, and by right, to the charge of the visiting
physician, no matter what his mental condition might be. Such
absui dities, if permitted by rule, can have only one of two termina¬
tions, as regards the offices of resident and visiting physicians, and
that is the abolition of one or other.
“ In cases of sudden emergencies the resident physician must of
necessity act, and if he is not permitted to treat ordinary cases of
bodily disease that occur in his own institution, how can a man, so
tied to the apron-strings of his visiting colleague—taught to rely
entirely on the supposed superior skill of this colleague, and to
thank his lucky star that he has such a person to share his respon¬
sibility, or rather to leave him none whatsoever in cases of bodily
disease—totally unaccustomed to exercise his own independent
judgment or unassisted tact—how can such a man be relied upon in
such sudden emergencies as must arise ? It is only a mockery to
call the services of such a man, medical or surgical aid always at
hand!!!
“ The division of responsibility is a principle to the benefit of
which, I think, the resident medical officers of lunatic asylums
entitled in certain cases ; but in other cases the opposite principle
of a definite and undivided responsibility is a safeguard which £
think the public interest has a right to demand for its protection;
and I think this right is in no case more clear than in that of the
ordinary treatment of the insane, as regards both their mental and
bodily ailments. The public should on no account permit the
resident physician to shift off this responsibility, or even share it
with others; and no room should be allowed for doubts as to where
the onus lies in case of any derilection or malfaisance in the discharge
of such duty.
“ In place of reducing the office of resident physician to that low
professional rank which I think the carrying out of Dr. Corrigan’s
principle, by withdrawing the treatment of the bodily ailments of
lunatics from his care, would be calculated to do, 1 think it would
be desirable to make it still more the object of an honourable
ambition than at present, so as to induce the highest class of men
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Resident and Visiting Physicians
to enter this specialty, and having entered it, to devote all their
energies, not alone to the preservation of all their previous skill
and knowledge, but even to the increase of it.”
“ It seems almost unnecessary to remark how much the resident
physician must be lowered in the estimation of his fellow-officers,
the attendants, and even patients of the institution, when it becomes
known that he is not permitted to treat the bodily diseases that
may arise in the lunatic asylum under his charge ; and how much
such a position is calculated to lessen the respect and authority in
which I should hope it is agreed by all as desirable to place an
officer, whom Dr. Corrigan himself admits should be chief officer of
the institution.”
Dr. Corrigan not only imputes the possibility of con¬
nivance at cruelty, neglect, ill treatment, and immorality, to
the resident physicians of asylums, but he maintains that
from their very position they must necessarily be ignorant
medical practitioners, because, says he :—
“ An asylum cannot furnish a resident physician with sufficient
practice to keep up his knowledge of bodily disease, and he cannot
have practice out of doors. No one would consider, for himself or
his family, the professional opinion of a resident physician of an
asylum as of equal value with that of the practising physician or
surgeon outside.”
The existence of this ignorance must be very much a
matter of opinion; for our own part, we concur in Dr.
Lalor’s belief, that it does not exist; but if it does exist, and
for the reason assigned by Dr. Corrigan, namely, insufficient
practice, surely it is a strange proposal to take away the
small means of knowledge, which the poor superintendent
does possess! Dr. Lalor, however, rather retorts the charge,
or at least institutes a comparison unfavourable to the visiting
physicians:—
“ If we view this question, as to the competency of resident
physicians to treat serious bodily diseases as it should be viewed,
not solely from Irish ground, the competency of the resident
physicians, even unassisted by visiting physicians in ordinary or as
consul tees, of lunatic asylums of even small size in various part of
the world in which the management of the insane has received the
greatest and the most benevolent consideration, and in which the
highest reputation in the specialty has been obtained, is so folly
established, that in these countries the ridiculous assertion to the
contrary would only create a laugh. The numerous publications of
standard value from the pen of many such men, having reference
not only to the moral but to the medical and surgical treatment of
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of Ireland, by Dr. Lalor.
insanity and the bodily diseases with which it may he connected or
complicated, rank high in general medical literature. None of the
few publications from visiting physicians of asylums which have
appeared since the establishment of the office of resident physician
can at all bear comparison with the latter.”
In connexion with this subject, he complains that the
visiting physicians of the Irish asylums, towards whom under
trying circumstances the resident physicians have done all
in their power to preserve friendly relations, have given no
sign of disapprobation of the offensive letter of their self-
constituted advocate:—
“ I could have wished that all belief in this charge of incompetence
against resident physicians of lunatic asylums, as well as in the
assertion that there could be no sufficient safeguard against cruelty,
ill-treatment, neglect, and even immorality, without a visiting phy¬
sician, whose office it would be to see all cases of illness, accident,
injury, pregnancy, and child-birth, had been publicly disclaimed by
our visiting colleagues. Their testimony, though quite unnecessary
for our vindication, would have been a consolation to us when
smarting under the publication of an opinion not a little disparaging
to our body. This consolation would have been the more grateful
and the more graceful from men who refused to be complimented at
the expense of their colleagues. It would have been a bond of union
between the two classes, if the resident physicians were assured that
none of their colleagues shared in such sentiments.”
Dr. Lalor has not overlooked the fact that this question
is at bottom not so much one of the relative degree of useful¬
ness of resident and visiting physicians, as of the relative
degree of usefulness of visiting physicians, and of assistant
resident physicians:—
“There is a point of vital importance, as regards the well-being of
lunatic asylums, which I notice here, because it is not unfrequently
mixed up with the questions of the duties of resident and visiting
physicians, that is, the necessity of giving a resident medical assis¬
tant to the resident physician in asylums, of a certain size. It is
not unfrequent in persons to make unfavourable comparisons be¬
tween English and Irish asylums without reference to the staff of
officers which the Irish resident medical officer has at command ;
and it is not uncommonly thought that a visiting medical officer is
of equal use as a resident assistant. There cannot be a greater
fallacy. A visiting physician may divide the responsibility, but he
cannot possibly save either time or labour to a resident physician.
“ Any one'who knows anything of medical practice, knows that it
takes more time from both ordinary and consulting physicians to
treat a case conjointly with another than singly; insomuch the
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Resident and Visiting Physicians
co-operation of a second physician, far from being a saving either of
time or labour, is a loss of both to the resident physician. Not so
the services of a subordinate resident assistant physician, who fre¬
quently acts under general directions from the bead physician, saves
him much time and labour; and by examining into details, and
seeing them properly carried out, is a constant help and assistance
to his superior officer. It is not my wish to take advantage of a
misconception that may be on the mind of some, that the abolition
or modification of the office of visiting physician would be a saving
of expense—I believe it would be none; and in England, where
there are no visiting physicians, the average cost per bead for medical
officers of asylums is, I believe, higher than in Ireland. But how
much of the superior order and moral treatment of English asylums
is owing to the superiority in number of the resident staff? I think
that the office of visiting physician as a consultee has advantages,
and I trust, therefore, that no consideration of small economy will
lead to the abolition of the office ; but a sufficient resident staff is
still more necessary, and is in fact indispensable, and if the public
will not grant such a staff and a consulting physician at the same
time, I must honestly say that I think the resident t-taff is the most
important of the two. At the same time let it not be thought that
there will be any saving to the public or loss to the profession from
the adoption of the English system in preference to the Irish. For,
as I have already stated, the English system, I have reason to
believe, costs more on the average.”
Dr. Lalor might have said, English and Scotch system,
for in truth, this system is more satisfactorily carried out in
north than in south Britain; the full and thoroughly
efficient medical staff of the Scotch chartered asylums being
the very best feature in those institutions. In the Irish
asylums there are no assistant medical officers, as they are
called in England, there is only the visiting physician and the
resident physician, and the consequence is, that whenever
the latter leaves his duties for business or recreation, the asy¬
lum is left for a time without a medical officer. Now,
any one not blinded by passion or prejudice must admit that,
among a population so liable to medical or surgical emer¬
gencies as that of a lunatic asylum, the constant and real
presence of a medical man is essential. A physician in the
neighbouring town may be quite competent to order cod
liver oil to a phthisical lunatic, or a surgeon to superintend
the granulation of an ulcer on an old woman’s leg, but what
would be their use in a case of suspended animation from any
cause, or attempted suicide from cut throat, or the very com¬
mon asylum accident of choking from food in the pharynx or
larynx ? In asylums where the constant presence of a medical
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of Ireland, by Dr. Lalor.
man is not imperative, loss of life which would be preventable
by medical aid is inevitable. We recommend the first
coroner who holds an inquest on such a case to call Dr.
Corrigan as a witness to justify the medical arrangements.
This, to our mind, is the most important point of the dis¬
cussion. By all means let the visiting physicians enjoy
“ their vested pecuniary interests,” as Dr. Lalor calls them,
whether in the shape of salaiy or pension; but let them not
stand in the way of officers so essential to the safety and
general welfare of the inmates of asylums as the subor¬
dinate medical residents undoubtedly are ; officers, indeed,
upon whom in this country, and in Scotland, it is impossible
to bestow too high a meed of praise. They are, in fact, to the
resident physicians what his lieutenants are to a naval cap¬
tain. A visiting port admiral may be all very well in his way,
but we cannot do without the lieutenants.
We earnestly advise the resident physicians of the Irish
Asylums to direct all their efforts to the acquisition of that,
whose want Dr. Lalor even in the metropolitan asylum so
deeply deplores, namely “ sufficient interior assistance.” They
should “ ciy aloud and spare not ” until they obtain these es¬
sential requisites to the proper management of an asylum ;
and, if in addition to this constant aid, they should also
enjoy the periodical satisfaction of receiving advice in diffi¬
culties from a friendly consultant, they will owe their gratitude
to a Government more liberal to our common profession, than
the one under which their British brethren labour in the
commonweal.
We conclude our notice of Dr. Lalor’s excellent pamphlet,
with the statement of the reasons which have urged him to
its publication.
“The resident physicians of Ireland have for some years en¬
deavoured to accommodate themselves to a denial of their just
position before the public, and in their own institutions hurtful to
their just self-re6pect and honest ambition ; and the publication of
opinions on the part of some of their colleagues, reflecting on their
competency, has not prevented them from continuing their efforts
to bring about, by friendly arrangement, such a settlement of the
question at issue between them and the visiting physicians as might
be satisfactory, not only to them but to the public. The desire of
the resident physicians to preserve amicable relations with their
Colleagues, and to avoid controversy as long as possible, is abundantly
proved by this endurance and those efforts. But in my humble
opinion the resident physicians cannot consent to perpetuate an
undignified quiet by the sacrifice of what is due to public and pro-
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Aspirations from the Inner Life,
fessional interests, and to the welfare of the institutions in which
they should have so high an interest. Other means having failed,
I see no alternative left but an appeal to public and professional
opinion, and particularly to that of the Association of Medical
Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane, whose zeal for the
cause of the unfortunate creatures afflicted with insanity is so much
above all suspicion, that coupled with their experience and knowledge
of the subject, will give to any opinion expressed by them that
weight which knowledge and impartiality are always sure to com¬
mand ; whilst the character for a proper esprit de corps which their
efforts to sustain and advance general professional interests has
earned for this association, entitles it to that general confidence from
the profession which I believe it enjoys as it merits.
“ I would therefore beg leave to submit for the consideration of
my colleagues, the resident physicians, the advisability of bringing
their case forward at the next meeting of the association, on the 5th
of July, in London.”
The Association could not have a more legitimate object
for its deliberations, and we trust that the collective experi¬
ence and knowledge of its members may either succeed in
discovering valid reasons for the maintenance of a system of
asylum management which has been universally condemned
here; or that they may be able to suggest some means of
satisfying the "vested pecuniary interests ” which stop the
march of improvement in the sister country.
We trust that the good offices of the Association may
succeed in promoting a settlement of this question in the
manner most conducive to the efficiency of the medical staff
of the Irish asylums, and to the best interests of their inmates.
J. C. B.
Aspirations from the Inner, the Spiritual Life, Aiming to
Reconcile Religion, Literature, Science, Art, with Faith ,
and Hope, and Love, and Immortality. By Henry
M'Cobmack, m.d. London: Longman, 1860. 8vo. pp. 370
If, from the above title, the readers of this book expect to
find anything like an attempt to reconcile by aigument the
apparent inconsistencies of faith and knowledge, like that of
Dr. Combe’s work on science and religion, they will be en¬
tirely disappointed. The work is a mosaic of fragments on an
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529
by Dr. M'Cormack.
infinite variety of subjects more or less connected with ethics
and theology. We were about to say that it is an example of
what an able pen in Macmillan calls Pens4e writing ; but the
instances there given, namely, Pascal, Novalis, Jobert, the
Hares, &c., to which, of course, might be added Rochfoucauld,
La Bruydre and others, all aim at an epigrammatic style,
which is scarcely attempted by Dr. M'Cormack. As far as
the form of this interesting work goes, Southey’s common¬
place book is nearer the mark, for a just comparison. Its mat¬
ter escapes description, not only from its infinite variety but
from the pervading character of its contents. A vast number
of subjects either of thought or of sentiment, from religion,
morals, metaphysics, science, and the topics of the day are
referred to and played with, rather than discussed and ex¬
amined ; but in a manner indicating extensive reading, culti¬
vated understanding, and a chastened taste. It is a delightful
book to take up for five minutes, but few will have the reso¬
lute perseverence to read it from beginning to end. In many
parts Dr. M'Cormack takes up the subject of insanity, looking
at its surface, and what are, to him, its obvious relations.
Here are his views on “ A mind diseased.”
" Insanity, whether as regards the mind or the heart, is simply
the last result of impaired control over one’s soul. Indolence,
hypochondriasis, imbecility, spleen, in their several degrees, are
forms of the same drear malady. But insanity evinces as many
varieties as does the sound mind itself. It is still mind, indeed,
but mind in ruin, perversion, and decay. Partial insanity, the
tyranny of false ideas and emotions, or of emotions or ideas
wrongly placed, is the minimum of which confirmed insanity,
dementia, in short mental ruin, is the maximum. Multitudes,
wanting power over their own minds, are continually lapsing into
insanity, or living on its very verge. For, let us repeat it, there is
no exact line of demarcation between the sane and the insane. The
defects and perversions of the insane mind, are simply, in a more
or lest tiftggerated form indeed, the deficiencies and perversions of
the sane mind itself.
“ The more decided our self-mastery, the greater, so to speak, is
the impossibility of becoming insane. But the feebler our self-
jurisdiction, the more the soul is given up to a perverted will, is
wanting in development, the greater is the proclivity to spiritual
decay. Ill-directed culture alone, lies at the root of this monstrous
evil, and not mere disorganization of the brain and nerves, as an
illogical, and, in itself, in truth, insane hypothesis, would have us
to imagine.”
This is, indeed, like turning to the pages of some old author;
vol. vi. no. 34. n
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530 Aspirations from the Inner Life,
to find cerebral disease ignored in the production of insanity.
It is curious to note such opinions, though it would be waste
of labour to endeavour to refute them ; neither would it be
fair to the author to deal with his aspirations as if they pre¬
tended to be statements of scientific truth. They are some¬
thing above, or below, or beyond knowledge, often, indeed,
placed in that dream world of spiritual things, in which all
except the most hard and dry natures are apt to wander in
periods of intellectual reverie, and to do so we firmly believe
not without advantage to themselves ; for the conceited pedant
who believes in nothing but the multiplication table or the
atomic theory of definite proportions, is as one-sided in his in¬
tellectual nature as the metaphysical dreamer himself. If we live
and work in the fertile plains of practical life, it is good some¬
times to ascend the mountain tops of speculation even though
the air be attenuated and the view be obstructed by cloud and
mist. It is good sometimes to walk alone in the spirit in
those paths which lead we know not whither, to face the in¬
visible, and to question the unknown.
Dr. M'Cormack’s book is deeply suggestiveof this tendency of
thought; its very fragmentary form is peculiarly adapted,
whether by design or not, we cannot say, to provoke
mental thirst for that knowledge which is unattainable
Brief statements on intricate questions must ever be either
platitudes or half truths. Dr. M'Cormack’s statements and
opinions are rather of the latter kind, and succeed in setting
us to beat the bounds of our intellectual possessions, ana
craving to know what lies beyond; not unfrequently also
they indicate a partial view through the cloud-border. Take
for example, the following on “ Spiritual Reclamation” :—
“ The progress of souls from darkness to light, from ignorance to
knowledge, is among the more beautiful spectacles of our spiritual
life. And, soon or late, this is a consummation which awaits us ail.
Yet, spiritual reclamation, whether on the large scale or the small,
demands concentration of purpose, energy, and intelligence.
“Would we realise heaven, let us begin now. The paradise of
our aspirations has its foundations here, and the capacities of the
future are grounded on those of the present life.
“ A twofold cosmos, natural things and spiritual.
Must go to a perfect world.
For whoso separates those two.
In arts, in morals, or the social drift,
Tears up the bond of nature and brings death.
"As we love here, we shall love in a degree hereafter, as we fed and
think now, so must we in somewise feel and think for ever. The
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631
by Dr. M‘Cormack.
unseen world, with all its momentous transactions, let us be assured,
is simple and natural as that in which we dwell. Ascetic horrors
and ascetic gloom, travestying and deforming with frightful, yet
vain imaginings, the beautiful city of God, are sorry preparatives
for heaven. How, indeed, should sourness and formality, convic¬
tions on which no ray of imagination or feeling seems to shine,
consort with the angelic amenities, the transporting assurances of
the life to come. For this, let us be well assured, is not as some
inquisition torture-chamber, reformatory hulk, or condemned cell.
In the celestial life, as here, so surely as God is light, and truth,
and love, goal shall succeed goal, and quest follow quest, for ever.
A new iris shall spring up, not to foil past efforts, but to allure us
on to new, a constant becoming of which the perfect realisation is
sever. There, indeed, the great-souled patriot shall freedom find at
last, there each self-denying stunt the sanctities which lie folded
within the inner life, and of which the perfect home is heaven.”
Here is another example of the manner in which the author
treats more mundane subjects :—“ Unreal Crimes.”
“ Crimes that are no crimes, connected with belief and unbelief,
have been set up in every age and time. Yet belief and unbelief,
if the profession be sincere, have nothing in the world in common
with crime. If belief and unbelief, observes Bailey, be involuntary,
to apply rewards and punishments to opinion, were absurd as to'
raise men to the peerage for being ruddy, to hang them for scrofula,
or to whip them for the gout. To set up as objects of praise and
blame, things that really involve neither praise nor blame, is but to
undermine the principles of morality, to play fast and loose with the
best interests of our kind. All truth, conceptions the most spiritual
and elevated, are self-evident and demonstrable, need, indeed, no
extraneous aid or sustenation whatever. The idolatory of forms,
and opinions, and times, irrespective of right and wrong, is only less
reprehensible than the worship of stocks and stones.”
It is refreshing and delightful to find a work so ingrained
with pious feeling and religious thought, and, at the same
time, so entirely free from the thraldom of any dogma. In
his attempts to unite and combine the truths of philosophy
and religion the author is peculiarly felicitous ; a result, per¬
haps in some measure due to the unlaboured fragmentary
manner in which he indicates rather than explains their
numerous points of contact There are some mental districts
of which trigonometrical survey is scarcely possible, and this
is especially true of the border Inarches between religion and
philosophy. We can travel through the country, even live in
it, but can scarcely map it out.
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532 Aepirations from the Inner Life,
Here is a pleasant well painted view seen on the journey :—
On “ Real Growth.”
“ The only real growth is spiritual growth. Behind the physical
the savage sees a demon, the civilised man a soul. Philosophy,
indeed, will hake no bread, hut it will procure us God, freedom, im¬
mortality. It is the marriage of nature with the human soul. The
principles of psychology, of all philosophy, like those of all religion,
all truth, have subsisted from the beginning, not so, however, man’s
appreciation of them, which is progressive.
“ The soul, observes a recent writer, in its attempts to bring the
divine into closer union with the consciousness, has gradually built
up its appreciation of the character of Christ. And thus it is more
or less in our delineations of all greatness and goodness, our concep¬
tions of the ideal and its realisation in man.
“ It has been asserted that psychology, in place of correcting,
ratifies the delusions or ordinary thought. This, however, must
mean an erroneous psychology. Otherwise, we may gladly subscribe
to Ferrier’s eloquent remark, that all God’s truths and man’s
blessings lie in trodden ways, and that intellect and genius are but
the power of discerning wonders in common things.”
It will be seen from these quotations that this book is what
is called a good book without being insipid. Full of religious
thought, it has not a tinge of cant or bigotry. It is also
learned without pedantry, and is evidently the long accumu¬
lating record of the opinions and reflections of a highly culti¬
vated mind.
J. C. B.
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APPENDIX
INQUISITION IN LUNACY.
A Commission de lunatico inqutrendo was opened on Friday, Aug. 12, at the
Castle Of Exeter, at ten o’clock a.m., before Samuel Warren, Esq., Q.C., and a
Jary. The person whose sanity was questioned was Miss Phoebe Ewings, a lady of
80 years of age, and the petitioner for the enquiry was the nearest relative.
Dr. Greenup, of Warrington, in Lancashire. Mr. M. Smith, Q.C., and Mr.
Karslake (instructed by Mr. Daw), appeared for the petitioner ; and Mr. Collier,
Q.C., Mr. Coleridge, and Mr. Kingdon (instructed by Mr. Gray), attended in
opposition to the petition. The learned Commissioner was attended by
Mr. Stewart, a gentleman attached in a responsible capacity to the Master’s Office.
The jury was composed of gentlemen of high standing in the county, the
foreman being G. W. Soltau, Esq. The court throughout the enquiry was
crowded.
The learned Commissioner, in opening the enquiry, said that they had
assembled under the authority of the Great Seal, as they had just heard from
the officer of the court, to enter upon a question of great delicacy and importance
—the sanity or insanity of the lady whose name had been just mentioned. He
had frequently had to sustain the very painful and anxious responsibility of
pronouncing the decision of that question himself, without the intervention of a
jury, and heartily rejoiced that, in the present instance, that responsible duty de¬
volved on so large and influential a body of gentlemen, taken from the body of this
great oounty, as he now saw impannelled before him. He was also glad to have the
valuable assistance of so many of his learned friends at the bar, whom he rejoiced
to meet on this occasion, “ I must remind you,” said the learned Commissioner,
44 that the exact and the only question which you have to try is, the present
sanity or insanity of Miss Phoebe Ewings. To enable you to determine the
question, a great body of conflicting evidence, I have reason to believe, will be
brought before you ; [at a subsequent stage of the proceedings the learned
Commissioner stated that he had signed nearly 70 summonses to witnesses,] and
among other witnesses are medical gentlemen, some of them of great eminence.
But I must earnestly caution you against allowing your province to be
invaded, or surrendering your rights to any witness whatsoever, however justly
eminent. You will yourselves judge of their premises, and the inferences
which they deduce from those premises their testimony as men of great
experience and skill is very valuable, but it is you and you alone who must
pronounce the decision, in accordance with your own well considered view of
their—and indeed of all other—evidence. As the law of England premises
innocence till guilt has been proved, so it presumes sanity till insanity has been
established. Finally, gentlemen, it is by this lady’s own act that you are
summoned together to-day— in the exercise of that important right which the
law gives her. She thereby says, in effect, * You allege me to be insane : but I
will have that all-important question submitted to, and determined upon, by a
jury of my country.’ That is the simple question before you, and the learned
counsel for the petition will now proceed to open the matter to you.”
Mr. Smith, Q.C., then stated the cose. He said Miss Phoebe Ewings, the
lady who was the subject of the enquiry, was 80 years of age. She was born in
Devonshire, her grandfather having been rector of Feniton, and her father a
captain of a vessel; but her mother was a native of Lancashire. In the year
1800 , her father died, and her mother was left with four children—a ton, who
was an idiot, and died in the same year; and three daughters, of whom Miss
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Phoebe Ewings was the only survivor. In the same Tear her mother removed to
Warrington, in Lancashire, and Miss Ewings lived there till after the death of
her mother and her two sisters, when she came down to Exeter. In 1853, the
sister Elizabeth died, and that circumstance preyed much upon Miss Phoebe’s
mind. She was observed at that period to be constantly moaning, and she
wandered abot t the Btraets. Notwithstanding the remonstrance of her friends,
die required that her sister’s grave should be watched for a considerable period—
a course which a sane person would not have adopted. From that time her
mind, which was naturally feeble, became still more enfeebled. A gentleman,
named Holland, who formerly lived at Honiton, but was now at Norwich, ana
who was related to Miss Ewings, called upon her after her sister’s death, but
her manner towards him was entirely changed since he last saw her, and aha
behaved with great rudeness to him. In the early part of October last she waa
attacked with paralysis, and was in a great measure deprived of speech. She
recovered physically to a considerable extent; but her mind was entirely broken
down. Indeed, there could be no doubt that disease of the brain had then
supervened, for about that period she had an attack of insanity. She fancied
that the persons about her were going to murder her, and she rushed out into the
street at midnight. There could be no doubt that at that time she was insane.
Mr. Beamont, solicitor, of Warrington, then managed her affairs, and it was
thought desirable that medical gentlemen should see her. An investigation took
S lace, and she was placed in a lunatic asylum. Dr. Kendrick and Mr. Sharp,
tie medical gentlemen who gave the necessary certificates, stated that she was
incoherent in her discourse, and violent to her attendants, imagining that they
attempted to strangle her. Down to the present time there was the same
incoherence, and she still laboured under the same delusion. Upon the certifi¬
cates of Dr. Kendrick and Mr. Sharp, she was placed in the Hay dock Lunatic
Asylum on the 30th of December last, her property being taken care of by Mr.
Beamont. She then fancied that the persons at the asylum were endeavour¬
ing to make her a Roman Catholic. After being there a short time her relatives
thought an asylum was scarcely a fitting place for a person of her means. The
Rev. H. T. EllacoinbG, the rector of Clyst, in this county, and a first cousin
to Miss Ewings, thinking himself the next of kin, visited her at Warrington
and removed her from the asylum, with tho view of placing her with some of
her friends. Steps were then taken by Mr. Beamont, who now opposed the
present petition, to apply for a Commission of Lunacy, at the instance of Mr.
Ellacotnbe. Pending these proceedings, she was taken from the asylum, and
brought to Exeter. When she got to the railway station she exhibited great
violence, showing that she was still in a state of insanity. She was placed in a
first class carriage, but she thought it was a second, and alleged that great
indignity had been shown her. On arriving at Exeter she was taken to the
lodgings of Miss Cousens, with whom she had formerly lived. Mr. EUaoombe
thought it would be desirable that a medical man should see her ; and he called
in Dr. Shapter. At that time her manner to Mr. Ellacombe was very kind ; but
it was suddenly changed, and she became entirely subject to the influence of Dr.
Shapter. Mr. Ellacombe called a short time afterwards, but she refused to see
him. Sudden changes of this kind were generally a symptom of unsoundnesa of
mind. Mr. Ellacombe was requested by Dr. Shapter not to visit her ; but Dr.
Shapter assured him that there should be no dealing with her property, with
which ho should not be made acquainted. He also added that Miss Ewings had
placed herself under his care and protection. About this time it was discovered
that Mr. Ellacombe was not the next of kin, but that the gentleman who filled
that position in the family was Dr. Greenup, who resided in Lancashire. That
gentleman came to Exeter in April : and Dr. Shapter at first refused him permis¬
sion to see Miss Ewings. He did, however, subsequently have a short interview
with her, and his opinion was that she was not of sound mind, and was not able
to take care of herself. On his return to Lancashire, Dr. Greenup wrote to Dr.
Shapter asking permission for Dr. Fox, a well-known authority, to visit Mis*
Ewings. Dr. Shapter made no reply; but a letter was received from Mr.
Beamont, who was then acting with Dr. Shapter and against the relative*,
giving a flat denial. Under these circumstances, believing Miss Ewings to be
mad, Dr. Greenup petitioned the Lord Chancellor for a commission to enquire
into her state of mind. The case came before the Lords Justices on the 3rd of
June. The application was opposed by affidavits from Dr. Shapter, and from
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some medical gentlemen whom he had called in ; bnt the Lords Justices were
not satisfied, and they directed Dr. Bucknill of this county, to make an im¬
partial report. That gentleman in his conversations with Miss Ewings, discovered
that she had made a will, leaving the whole of her property, except a few
legacies, to Dr. Shapter. She was utterly unable to give any account of her
property, but she produced a paper, written by Dr. Shapter, on which there was
a statement of the sources of her income, the property being set down at
£13,700. She herself did not know how much it was, or how it was invested.
Another extraordinary fact appeared, namely, that Dr. Shapter had been ap¬
pointed by her the guardian of her property and her person. It ^as certainly a
strange thing that a ward should make a will in favour of her guardian ; and
the law observed very great jealousy in such cases. But why was Dr. Shapter
appointed guardian ? Sane persons did not require guardians. He (Mr. Smith)
was happy tfi come to an explanation given by Dr. Shapter, namely, that he did
not intend to derive any personal benefit from the affair. But, if a person of
sound mind chose to give another his property, why should not that other
person accept it ? Upon Dr. Shapteft affidavit going before the Lords Justices,
they at once granted the Commission. In a Tetter to Mr. Beamont, Miss
Ewings’s solicitor, Dr. Shapter said, “ I have consented to undertake this charge,
(Hie guardianship) and will, therefore, be obliged by your coming hero and
taking her instructions and doing what is requisite.*’ On the 12th of March,
a month after her arrival in Exeter, Dr. Shapter wrote:—“Miss Ewings has
never said anything to me about making a testamentary disposal of her property,
but I beg most explicitly to state that I shall not in any way suggest or interfere
with her disposition of her property; save that, were she to propose to bequeath
any property to me, placed in relation to her as I now am, I should use my
influence to counteract such an act, and should undoubtedly repudiate it if
done.” The prophecy, unlike most prophecies, came true, though it was not
every one who had the opportunity of assisting in the realisation of his own
prophecy. The account which Dr. Shapter gave of the instructions for the
will was this:—“On the 15th of May she desired me to take her instructions
for her will. I at first declined, and desired her to consult her solicitor. She,
however, urged me to comply with her request, and I at last consented to take
her instructions. She then declared certain legacies, amounting altogether to
£1,000, and desired me to be residuary legatee. I objected, but she positively
insisted, and expressed the greatest desire to constitute me residuary legatee,
so as to dispose of all her property, preferring me to anyone else. To relieve
her mind, but still adhering to my determination previously made known, not
to avail myself of any benefit, I added my name as residuary legatee, and she then
signed the instructions.” Was that the mode in which a Bane person was
usually treated ? Would he not have said, “ I am much obliged to you, but 1
really cannot take this benefit; and if you make such a will it will not be acted
upon? 1 * A solicitor was called in afterwards, and a copy of Ihe instructions given
him. This was just prior to the hearing before the Lords Justices ; and the will
was mado behind the backs of the relatives. Giving Dr. Shapter the fullest
credit for honourable intentions, no man could say that his intentions could be
carried out under all circumstances that might occur. The bequest under certain
circumstances might have become absolute, and it would then be beyond his
power to control it. The repudiation of the £12,700 in the letter to Mr.
BeAmont was no legal obligation upon Dr. Shapter. There was another fact
which seemed to show that Dr. Shapter did not treat Miss Ewings as a person
of sound mind. In his affidavit he declared that he had never received any
fees from her, and that he had not cashed the draft for £30 which she had given
him in return for small sums he had advanced to her, nor would he allow his
daughter to accept a present of a work-box from Miss Ewings ; and yet he took
the will in his own favour. It was difficult to understand such conduct except
on this theory—that Dr. Shapter was under some delusion that she was of
sound mind, while in his own sane senses he believed she was not. He must
have had two minds on the subject. He had the delusion that Miss Ewings was
sane ; but as an honest man he thought she was not; and as an honest man he
would not take the benefit of anything she gave him. The learned counsel
then gave a summary of the evidence which he intended to produce. In conclu¬
sion he said that six months ago Miss Ewings was in an asylum raving mad, and
it was plain that she was now in a state in which any man of intelligence, who
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was friendly to her, could do m he pleated with her. Dr. Shapter might exeraM
his control for the bait, but supposing she took a sudden dislike to that gentle¬
man and became subject to the control of another person, there was no
guarantee that she would be properly treated. The object of the present enquiry
was to place her, supposing she was of unsound mind, under the protection of
the Court of Chancery, which would appoint responsible and impartial persons
to CAre for her. He (the learned counsel) believed the iury would arrive at tha
conclusion that owing to her unsoundness of mind she was unable to manage
her property.
The following witnesses were then examined
Dr. James Kenrick : I am a doctor of medicine residing at 'Warrington. I
have known Miss Ewings for many years. I never attended her professionally
until October, 1858. For the past few years there appeared a listlessness in her
manner, she walked in the streets as if she was walking neither for pleasure nor
business. On going to the house in October last 1 was told that she had had a
paralytic attack. Upon visiting her I found the usual symptoms. I thought from
one circumstance that she was incoherent. jHer speech was imperfect, and her
pulse low. I called again and found the pulse better. In the December following
I was desired by some of the Beamont family to go and visit her. I did go and
I examined the state of her mind. I found Mr. Wood and Mrs. Mould with
her. I had a conversation with her, and am of opinion that she waa then
decidedly insane. I gave a certificate accordingly. I may say that I found her
in an excited state. She said that she should like to be taken away from the
house. I said, where would you like to go, and she replied 44 1 do not know.®
Upon mentioning Torquay she either said that she did not care about going
there, or that there was no one there that cared about her. She said,
44 Would those creatures follow us there V 9 This was said in reference to a
statement that during the night some demons had attempted to strangle her and
rob her. I believe mention was made of the demons being outside the door at
that time. I said to her 44 Certainly they will not follow you.” She talked of
liking to go to a Mr. Greenall, who is a magistrate, and also about a Mr.
Lowe, who had been dead twelve months. She said she should like to go with
him to Mr. GreenalTs. Mr. Wood, the clergyman of the parish, was present,
but Miss Ewings treated him as Mr. Lowe, who was the former clergyman. I
had no doubt of her state of mind when I signed the certificate.
Cross-examined : Mr. Sharp is the regular medical attendant of Miss
Ewings. The attack of paralysis might produce a confusion of words, at least
to a certain extent; but if often repeated I should look upon it as a oonfusion
of ideas and not of words. When she was taken to the asylum she thought
she wa* going to Mr. GreenalTs.
Mr. Smith said he understood his learned friends admitted that she was of
unsound mind. .
Mr. Collier: Not in October. I admit that she was in December.
Ann Worrall: I formerly lived as servant to Miss Phoebe Ewings. I am
now living with Mr. Hardy, in Cheshire. I lived with this lady about three
years ago. I stayed 15 months, then went away, and returned in January of
last year. I recollect Miss Ewings having a paralytic attack in October. It
was very sudden. I went for a doctor. I was not the only person in the house.
I went for Dr. Kenrick, Mr. Sharpe not being at home. I think that paralyse
attack affected her memory. She was not able to recollect things as well after¬
wards as before. I observed that she called Mr. Ashton Miss Ashton’s
sister. This lady was afterwards with her. She frequently called persons by
wrong names.
By the Commissioner : This was after the attack of paralysis.
Re-examined by Mr. Smith : I don’t remember her calling persons by their
wrong names before she had the attack. I recollect her being taken to the
Hay dock Lunatic Asylum.
The Commissioner : I think it is admitted that at this time the unsoundness
was apparent.
Mr. Smith : This evidence is merely to show the character of tho
unsoundness.
Examination continued: One night Mias Ewings followed me npstain,
and then ran out into the street. I followed her in order to take care of her.
This was between nine and ten o’clock in the evening, and she was dremed,
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We got her book, bat she fan oat again. She said she thought there was some
one in the hoose. I did not hear her say what she thought the person would
do to her. There was no one in the house at the time but myself.
By the Commissioner : She had only one servant.
Examination continued : The second time she went out she remained until
Mr. Sharpe came. When she was brought back she would not go to bed
because “she dared not.”
By Mr. Collier : There was no “ follower” of mine in the house. (A laugh.)
Mary Lawton : I am a servant in Mrs. Lowe’s employ at Warrington. I
knew Miss Ewings for the last nine or ten years. She used to come almost
every day to Mrs. Lowe’s. I always thought her a “ curious” sort of person.
By the Commissioner : I thought so for nine or ten years. She used to
dress very shabbily, and her house was very meanly furnished.
Examination continued : I remember her sister's death. After that she used
to be very sorrowful. She used to sigh and moan. Her sister died in 1853,
and that I think affected her a good deal. I heard her say that she would
have her sister’s grave watched. I remember her having a paralytic stroke. I
stayed in the house two nights by Mrs. Lowe’s desire, there being only
one servant kept. Miss Ewings did not know that I was there. The second
night she called out “ Fire !” and said the house was on fire. The house was
not on fire nor was there any light or fire in the house at the time. Sho
shouted out— “ Who is there ? Some one is there”—just before she was taken
ill I saw her and she then said I was Mrs. Lowe’s sister. She told me twice
that she was afraid of being murdered. One time she called me “ Mrs. Wood.”
She told me that she was afraid the window would be blown out. She said
there was a dreadful storm, instead of which the night was beautifully fine.
Just after that she went to the asylum. I went to Exeter with her by the
permission of Mrs. Lowe. She went in Mr. Nicholson’s Carriage, and on the
way to the railway station, she *'‘rambled” all the way. I cannot say whether
she was alarmed or was in & merry humour. I did not understand what
she said.
By the Commissioner : Mr. Nicholson and Mr. Ellacombe were with us.
Examination continued: When she got to the railway station she
screamed out “ murder,” and said they were going to make a Homan Catholic
of her. She screamed “murder” several times, and called out for the police.
Her manner was violent and she appeared terrified. After some trouble she
was got into the railway carriage. Mr. Nicholson went with us as far as
Birmingham. At Birmingham, when Mr. Nicholson got out of the carriage, she
imagined that it was Mr. Beamont, and called out “Mr. Beamont, Mr.
Beamont.”
By the Commissioner: Mr. Beamont was her lawyer, and was not near
at the time.
Examination continued: She called out and wanted to know if they could
not “ start,” saying that she had been travelling all the winter. “ Can’t you
start us,” sho said, “ we are almost frozen.” All the way to Exeter her manner
was “ rambling.” I saw her taken to Miss Cousens, in this city.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: It was after the death of her sister that
I observed the “ sighing and moaning*’ I did not see her while she was in
the asylum. At the Warrington station I saw Mrs. Barnsley, but I cannot say
whether she keeps a private Lunatic Asylum.
By the Commissioner : I cannot tell whether it was after or before she saw
Mrs. Barnsley that she refused to go.
Cross-examination continued : I do not think that the two porters who
were called to assist in placing her in the carriage placed her in feet foremost.
Will swear they did not put her in by force. One porter rode in the carriage
with her. Mr. Nicholson and Mr. Ellacombe gave orders that this porter
should ride in the carriage.
By Mr. Collier : I did not hear Miss Ewings say to Mrs. Lowe—“ You, a
clergyman’s widow, and order me to be forced into a carriage !” I did not
take sufficient notice to see whether she was tired or not. I did not ask her.
Mr. Coleridge : What were you there for ?
Witness : I was sent for company. She had refreshments at Birmingham;
she came from Birmingham to Exeter without any, I had refreshments
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myself at Birmingham, bat not anywhere else. When Mist Ewings was at
Miss Cousens’B she seemed very happy ; I have not seen her sinoe.
The Rev. Ralph Allen Mould: I am the incumbent of Holy Trinity, at
Warrington ; I have known Miss Ewings since 1852. I lived next door to her.
Her sister died in 1853. After that I observed that she walked in the streets
“ sighing and moaning.” I heard that she had an attack of paralysis. When
she began to go about again, I observed that she seemed in low spirits ; and
she used to call my mother my sister; and her general conversation was about
her being “ miserable.”
By the Court: She complained of “ those creatures.” I said “ Why do you
complain so V 9 and she replied “ Oh dear, oh dear, those creatures.” I cannot
say that I formed an opinion of the state of her mind. The day before she was
removed to the asylum her servant ran into my house to summon me. I
afterwards heard her screaming ; she did not articulate an y p articular sound.
I went into the house about ten o’clock in the forenoon. When I went in I
found the nurse who had sat up with her during the night apparently
struggling with her to keep her away from the window. When I went in the
servant released her. Miss Ewings caught hold of the collar of my ooat, and
asked me to protect her. She said, “They are trying to strangle me and
murder me.” She repeated those words many times over. I tried to pacify
her, and convince her that she was wrong ; but I did not succeed. I tried to
induce her to sit down in an easy chair near the window. She walked acrocs
the room still holding my collar. She then beat the window with her fists
as if to attract the attention of any one who might pass. I took hold of one
of her hands to prevent her breaking the windows, and got one of the servants
to draw down the blind until the arrival of Mr. Beamont, who had been emit
for. Mr. Beamont, Mr. Wood, Mr. Sharpe, and Mr. Kenrick were sent for.
We held a consultation, and it was then that we thought she had better go to
an asylum. I and Mr. Wood signed the certificate.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: I have every reason to believe that she
was attached to her sifter. I think that when a person continues in the state
of mind in which Miss Ewings was for so many years—walking backwards and
forwards in the street, sighing, &c., although it may not be a sign of insanity,
it is a sign of simplicity and disorder.
Mr. James Nicholson: I am an attorney and solicitor practising at
Warrington, and living there. I have known Miss Ewings for many years.
I remember her walking in the streets. She had great difficulty in compre¬
hending any subject. I may term it a “listlessness of manner.”
By the Commissioner : I would not say positively whether I noticed it
before her sister’s death, but it might have existed.
Examination continued : I understood that there was an objection by some
of her friends to put her in an asylum. In consequence of what was said I put
myself in communication with Mr. Beamont. I went to the Haydock Asylum
in company with Mr. Wood. I had expressed my dislike to her going to an
asylum, and was aware that she had means to support her out of one. When
we went to the asylum on the 29th of January, I and Mr. Wood were
introduced into the sitting-room. There was an attendant. Dinner was on the
table. As soon as she saw us she rose up in a state of the greatest excitement,
and seized hold of my hand. She seized hold of me with one hand, and Mr.
Wood with the other.
The Commissioner : Pleased or excited ?
Witness: In a sort of “ pbrenzy, or of uncontrollable passion.” We
requested her to sit down on the sofa. She did so, and then addressed me
“Oh! Richard, Richard.” My name is James. She repeated the expressions
many times. She then said “ Richard Greenall.” There was a Mr. Greenall
living in the neighbourhood of Warrington. She said “Don’t leave me, don’t
leave me, they will murder me.” She said this in a very excited manner, and
then added “they will murder me to night.” Both I and Mr. Wood did our
utmost to pacify her. She then said, “ They are Roman Catholics here, they
are Roman Catholics here.” Her conversation did not seem to have any
connection. I made use of some suoh expression as “ nonsense;” but she said
“ They are, they have a priest, and they want me to go to their prayers.”
By the Commissioner : She is a Protestant.
Examination continued : Her conversation was decidedly incoherent. 1
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have given a fair sample of her manner. I put myself in communication with
Mr. Beamont both previously and subsequently. In February I undertook on
my own responsibility to take care of Miss Ewings and place her in a private
place. In February I received a letter from Mr. Beamont, informing me that
I might take tne responsibility upon myself. I assented. That was on the
11th of February, 1859. Several lady friends requested me to take her out of the
asylum. The next day after I had the consent, Mr. Ellacorabe called upon me.
He was then a perfect stranger to me. Mr. Beamont told me that he was a
relative, and rector of Clyst St. George, near Exeter. The name of Ellacombe was
familiar to me. I had had conversations years before with Miss Ewings about
her family pedigree. I then understood that Mr. Ellacombe was ready to receive
Miss Ewings into his charge, when I said “ Of course now a relative has ap*
peered my office is at an end/' and I retired from any further action in tne
matter. At his request I accompanied him to the Haydock Asylum, which is a
private one. When we saw Miss Ewings, her conversation and manners were
pretty much the same as before, but we were only with her a short time, say a
quarter of an hour. We communicated to her that we were going to take
her away. She was then very much excited, and seemed gratified beyond
measure, and went down on her knees, and offered up a prayer for her
deliverance. She asked for her shawl and bonnet, and put them on. Mr.
Ellacombe conversed with her more than I did, calling to her mind family matters.
By the Commissioner : She went with us eagerly. She kissed every body
around her before she went. Immediately after we had left the asylum she
became very excited indeed, and seized hold of me. This was without apparent
cause. She addressed me as 44 Oh, Joe ! Oh, Joe !” She looked wildly out of
the window, and said 44 You are deceiving me.” She never called me 44 Joe I
Joe !” before. She said 44 You are deceiving me, you are deceiving me,” at the
top of her voice. I endeavoured to persuade her that we were not deceiving
her. When we passed by churches, &c., I pointed them out, but sho denied that
there were any at all. At Newton I pointed out a church but she said 44 It is
nothing of the sort, it is no church.” We took her to Mrs. Lowe’s, she begging
that we would not take her to her own house. She did not give any reason for
it. She stayed there till the morning of the 15th. I then accompanied her to the
station at her own request. I said, 44 1 will go with you, Miss Ewings, if it
is any comfort.” Her answer was, 44 You must, you must.” I told her she
was going to her “dear Devonshire,” having heard her express herself in those
terms of that county. Mrs. Lowe’s servant also accompanied her. When we
were leaving Mrs. Lowe’s house, I said 44 We must not lose time ;” and she
replied, 44 Oh, I must have my time.” When we got to the station her
manner was perfectly quiet, and she did not apparently object to leave. She
afterwards cried out 44 Murder.” This was on the platform. She cried ont
44 Murder, murder; police, police ; they are going to make a Roman CathoUo
of me.” This was just as the train came up. I do not think that it was upon
seeing Mrs. Barnsley. Her passion for the time was uncontrollable, and she
continued to cry 44 Murder and police.” Mrs. Lowe endeavoured to pacify her,
reminding her that sho was going into Devonshire. It was when on the point
of starting that the porter w r as requested to help. She was not taken up and
put in feet foremost. There was no violence more than 44 pressure.” In conse¬
quence of the outbreak, Mr. Ellacombe got one of the porters to come into
the carriage. I rather think I suggested it. Her manner was very much
.worse than it was before. I went with her as far as Birmingham, but during
the journey she spoke very little. We tried to draw her into conversation, but
did not succeed. At Birmingham she seemed perfectly content and tranquil.
She had refreshments there with the servant, Mr. Ellacombe, and myself.
She did not appear to be alarmed at tlie appearance of Mr. Ellacombe.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: I am attorney for the petitioner. I did
not at any time maintain that she was not of unsound mind. I did not say
sho was ‘’illegally” detained. I might have said 44 improperly.” My view of
her case was that she might have been provided for otherwise than by going to
an asylum, that she might have been cared for in her own house. I did not
threaten to apply for a habeas corpus on the ground that she was not mad. I
oerttinly threatened to apply for her discharge from the Lunatic Asylum.
Hie Commissioner : Did you threaten to apply for a habeas corpus ? You
know very well if you did; you are an attorney. Witness: My letter will
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say. I oertainly threatened to make an application on her behalf. [The letter
was then read. It stated that in the writers opinion “ Miss Ewings was mi*
properly confined in the Lunatic Asylum.”] 0
The Commissioner : Did you write this ? Witness: Yes.
The letter went on to say unless she is at once released from the asyhun,
I cannot refuse to act in accordance with their (her friend’s) instruction*,
and apply for a habeas corpus, or in such way as counsel may ad rise.”
The Commissioner : Did you write that? Witness : Yes.
The Commissioner: Did you not know, as an attorney, that yon had no
right to a habeas corpus , except upon the ground that she was not mad?
Witness : I cannot say that I so minutely weighed the letter.
Mr. Collier : Did you not know perfectly well that the only ground for a
habeas corpus would be that she was illegally detained, not being mad ? Witness :
I considered that my application would be that she would be delivered up to her
relatives for them to take charge of her.
In reply to the Commissioner the witness said: I cannot say that I con¬
sidered it in respect to that point of law.
The Commissioner : On what ground, if not on that ground, could you
make your application ?—Witness : That she had been hurried away from her
house, under tho pretence that she was going to see some friends.
Mr. Collier : Do you mean to say that you threatened to apply for a habeas
corpus because she had been taken to the asylum under the pretence that she
was going to a friend’s? Pray be careful, I am sorry to say so to you.—
Witness : It was one part of my grounds.
The Commissioner : What wa* tlic rest ?—Witness : I considered that Miss
Ewings could just as well be cared for and attended to out of the asylum and
under proper treatment as in the asylum.
The whole of the letter was then read. In addition to the above passages
it stated that Miss Ewings* friends were desirous that she should not be kept
in the asylum.
The Commissioner : A habeas corpus is a matter of right.—Witness : Yes.
The Commissioner : Then could the application do anything else than state
that she was not mad ?—Witness : No ; but the letter was written in the hurry
of the moment and without due consideration.
Mr. Collier: Did you not tell Mr. Beamont that you thought she was
not mad ?—Witness : I will swear that I did not say so. I objected to the way
in which she was hurried away from her house and confined.
Examination continued by Mr. Collier : I saw her on the 29th of January,
more than ten days before I wrote this letter. She was extremely anxious to
get away from the asylum. She said 44 They will murder me,” and expressed
a great dislike to be there. When she was taken away I accompanied her in
the carriage. She went pretty quietly for the first 40 or 60 yards. It did not
occur to me that she might think that having been “ tricked ” onoe she was
going to be tricked again. She did not say that she mistrusted where we were
going to take her. I told her where we were going, but she denied the truth of
It. W1 len at the railway station she called out before Mrs. Barnsley came up to
her. I differ from the other witnesses on that point. I was utterly unable to
account for her crying out. She had been tricked once, but I will not say
whether it was through this that she cried out. The porters led Miss Ewings
to the carriage. She was unwilling and resisted, but I cannot say that she
made “active” resistance. The porters said, 4 4 Now, lady, the train is going
on.” A porter was put in the carriage with her. She would not speak after¬
wards. I and Mr. Ellacombe were standing by when the porters put her in.
There is a Roman Catholic chapel at Ashton, about a mile from the Haydock
Asylum. I cannot say whether there were any Roman Catholic patients in tho
asylum. It was my intention if she came out of the asylum that she should
be taken oare of, either by myself or other friends. I have known Miss Ewings
for 30 years, and her manner was always very peculiar. Her conversation was
strange, and she was essentially dull in comprehending. For the last seven or
eight years she had a difficulty in remembering names And circumstanoes. I cott-
aiaered that it formed a feature of her conduct, and it must have struok every¬
body. I do not know that it occurred to me that this peculiarity was any sign
of her madness.
Elisabeth Bennett; I was attendant at Haydock Lodge Asylum, but I am
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not to now. While I was there I attended on Mitt Ewings, who always
teemed in a very excited state. She said, “lam sent here, because my servants
ill-treated me.” At another time she said, “ There are some persons behind the
door coming in to hang me with ropes, or kill me.” This she repeated whenever
she was left alone. When she came to the asylum she had some money concealed
about her. Thero were some notes, about £60 or £70 concealed in her stays.
The state of her mind was bad. I do not think she was capable of taking care
of herself.
Cross-examined by Mr. Coleridge: When I was putting on her dress she
said, “ Here is something to buy me a dress.” What she said led me to look
for the notes.
By the Commissioner : The notes were stitched in a piece of calico, both
sides of the notes were covered.
Mr. Daniel Kossiter : I am resident surgeon, at Haydock Lodge Asylum,
and have been connected with other asylums before. I was at Haydock when
Miss Ewings came there, and I visited her daily. Her memory was very defec¬
tive, she laboured under several delusions, one of which was that she was going
to be murdered, and after she had been there a month she believed that we
wanted to make her a Roman Catholic. This delusion continued the whole
time she was there. There is a chapel in the asylum, the service being con¬
ducted by a clergyman. There are no Roman Catholic ladies in the asylum, and I
can say that no attempts at conversion were made. When she left her health
was better, and there was a slight improvement on the mind, but I consider
that when she was in the asylum, and when she left, she was insane.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: She had apartments to herself. She
always had an attendant, Elizabeth Bennett, who did not attend on any one
else. When there was any amusement going on she came down into the
ladies’ room. Some of the ladies could visit her.
By the Commissioner : I cannot undertake to say that no Roman Catholic
E atient had communication with her. I cannot say to two or three dozen
ow many Roman Catholic patients there were, but to the best of my belief
thero was no private Roman Catholic patient there. The others were paupers.
Both classes were provided for in the asylum.
The Commissioner : Do you call it a first-class establishment ?
Witness: Yes, we take private patients. At the time Miss Ewings came,
there was about 140 paupers and 40 or 50 private patients. 50 of these might
have been Roman Catholics. The priest came about four times. There is
only one priest that ever visits the lodge; there may be more in the neigh¬
bourhood. The first time I was told of his coming was in March. I found
that the priest occasionally came there, and I gave directions that I should be
told when he came.
Re-examined by Mr. Karslake : I have no reason to doubt that my instruc¬
tions were obeyed.
By the Commissioner: Miss Ewings went to the chapel and conducted
herself well. I will not swear that there was no Roman Catholic lady there,
but I believe they were all Protestants.
• By Mr. Karslake : There is no communication between the paupers and
private patients.
By the Commissioner : I never heard of a proselyte. I have heard patients
complain of the priest not visiting them.
The Rev. H. T. Ella combe, rector of Clyst St. George: I am a relative of
Miss Ewings ; I was supposed to be the next of kin ; I am a third cousin once
removed. I had a correspondence between 20 and 30 years ago with the Misses
Ewings about our family pedigree or relationship. The letter might have been
sent to the sister who is dead. 1 do not think that 1 had ever seen Miss Ewings
till I went to Warrington. I received & letter from a lady, a stranger, m
consequence of which I wrote to Mr. Beamont, saying that I believed I was
elated. I went to Warrington on the lltli of February. I was informed
hat Mr. Nicholson w'as willing to receive her ; J received her from the two
ftntleinen who had signed the certificate. 1 afterwards made an arrangement
itth Mrs. Lowe that she would receive her until she could be placed in cotn-
f+table lodgings. I went to the asylum, and I was introduced to Miss Ewings.
Sfe seemed to recollect my name. 1 told her we were come to take her away,
ad she said “ When V She was told “ Now.” When she was satisfied of our
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intentions the fell on her knees end appeared thankful. She took m▼ arm,
and went down stairs, where I handed her into the carriage. Before she left
she kissed all the attendants. On oar way to Warrington she “rambled”
in her conversation. [The witness then confirmed much of the previous
evidence as to the absence of mind manifested by Miss Ewings as to certain
things and places on the route.] I made arrangements for Miss Ewings to
oome down to Devonshire with me. I took her to Miss Cousens, and reported
her to Dr. Shapter. She arrived here on the 15th of February. When I left
her at Miss Cousens I said she would remain there only a short time. Dr.
Bhapter gave orders that no one was to see her, and I did not see her when I
called the next day. I saw her on the following Friday, and she asked what I
had been about, and I replied, to try and get a comfortable place for her; but
•he refused to go, became excited, fell on her knees, and said, “ You can’t
take me away, 1 am very comfortable.” I said I am not going to take you away
immediately, but you must go. I have since met her twice accidentally. I was
prohibited from visiting her, and I consequently made no endeavour to do so.
By the Commissioner : I refrained from visiting her because I understood
that it was the wish of Dr. Shapter, and also that she had taken a great dislike
to me. I afterwards understood that I was not the next of kin. Miss Ewings
was bom in 1780.
The Commissioner : How do you know it ? Witness : I have an affidavit
made by her mother.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: Miss Ewings was glad to come to Exeter,
but 1 did not hear her say anything after I left her in the custody of Miss
Cousens. I cannot say whether Miss Ewings was very glad to see & servant
called Mary. I will not undertake to say that she recognised that servant. 1
believed she was comfortable at Miss Cousens. When I went to her the next
morning to tell her that I had a comfortable house for her, she did not seem
inclined to go. The words I used might have been, “ That she must go,” but
she was exceedingly annoyed at it. 1 did not attempt to persuade her, though
I gave her to understand that she must go.
By the Commissioner: 1 did not think from her manner to me that she
had taken a dislike to me. She has the demeanour of a lady of education.
By Mr. Collier : I cannot 6ay, without looking at my notes, when I learnt
that I was not the next of kin. I do not know when I heard that Dr. Greenup
was the next of kin. 1 have made no arrangement with anyone respecting
this matter.
By Mr. Smith : At Warrington she said she was very glad to see me, and
that 1 should have all the money she had. From my own observation of Miss
Ewings she appeared to be a person of weak intellect and not capahle of
managing her own affairs. I have made a note to that effect.
By Mr. Collier: At the interview on Friday after she came down, I did
not think she was sane.
Mr. Collier : Was there anything at that interview to show that she was
of unsound mind ?
Witness, after a long pause: If I had not seen her before I should not
have said anything about it.
The Commissioner repeated the question and the witness replied : Certainly
not, nothing occurred to lead me to think she was of unsound mind.
By Mr. Collier: She knew the persons where she was staying, and was
aware I wished to remove her.
By Mr. Smith : My opinion from the whole of the interview was that she
was of unsound mind. I have done duty in a Lunatic Asylum, and have had &
gentleman lunatic under my own care.
Dr. Frederick Greenup : I am the petitioner in this case. Some years since,
about 14, I called upon the two sisters. The conversation w’hich ensued about
our relationship lasted twenty minutes. At that time Miss Ewings appreciated
the relationship. I did not see her again for some years, when I heard this
she was in Exeter. It was my intention to call upon her. Before going to »e
her I called upon Dr. Shapter understanding that he was her medical attendait,
I told him I wished to see her.
The Commissioner here interfered by saying that he was not here to enqtire
into the oonduot of Dr. Bhapter, but only to ascertain the state of Miss Ewugs*
mind.
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Mr. CoUier: I shall call Dr. Shapter.
The Commissioner: I do not either want to criminate or to exonerate
Dr. Shapter.
Examination continued by Mr. Earslake : I went to see her, I sent in my
card, but she said she did not know any one of the name. I said I had oome
from the neighbourhood of Warrington, and that some of her intimate friends
of that place wished to see her. I mentioned the name of Mr. Nicholson, when
she hesitated and said, “ I dont know the name/’ She afterwards said to me.
“ Are you Mr. Nicholson T 9
The Commissioner : Did she put the question ?
Witness : Yes, I am quite certain. I then explained who I was, and Miae
Ewings’* attendant in a very kind manner explained the matter, but she merely
said, “ Eh, Eh,” and made no further reply. Mentioned other person’s names,
and particularly that of Mr. Blackburn, but she did not know them. After a
time she said, “I am much obliged to them.” T was with her about a
quarter of an hour. I considered that her memory had in a great measure
left her. I should say that her intellect as far as regarded memory had gone.
An application that Dr. Fox, of Bristol, should see her was answered by Mr.
Beamont.
The correspondence upon this point was put in and read.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier : Dr. Fox has since seen her. I had seen
Miss Ewings once in my life before.
Mr. Collier : Do you generally make such an impression upon ladies ?
(Laughter.)
By Mr. Collier : Miss Ewings did not intimate that she thought I was oome
for her money. 1 only came to judge of her mental state. I did not oome to
Exeter to see if I was next of kin, but I had that object “ ultimately.”
Mr. Collier: 44 Ultimately !” Did not the old lady know what you came
for? Witness : No ; when I saw her 14 years ago it was at the suggestion of
my sister. During the interval I have not sent any message. I have made
enquiries from other persons. I did not come to Exeter until I understood
that I was next of kin. I have brothers and sisters. 1 have not made any
arrangement that we are to share the costs of this action. I am to bear the
cost, but if I am unsuccessful, I believe my brother will bear me out. 1
presume that my brother will have part of the money, or at least as much as
the law allows.
Christopher Holland: I am a surgeon practising at Norwich, and am a
cousin of Miss Ewings. In 1827 the two sisters sought me out at Honiton:
I was then an apprentice. They understood from enquires that I was the
sole survivor. They were staying at Sidmouth, and invited me to visit them.
Their manner was very kind. In 1831 they again visited Devonshire, when
I saw them. I dined with them at the York Hotel, and they were very
kind to me. In 1853 I heard of the eldest sister’s death. I visited Miss
Phoebe in that year, at Rochdale, and she received me with great rudeness.
She knew me perfectly well.
Dr. John Charles Bucknill: I am the superintendent of the Devon County
Lunatic Asylum. I have been so 15 years. During 18 years I have had
experience in lunacy. The present number of patients in the asylum is 600, and
it has increased gradually from 400. If you take the average it would be 450.
I received a order from the Lords’ Justices to visit Miss Ewings, and to report
to them upon her mental condition. I visited her upon the 6th, 8th, 10th,'
11th, 13th, 15th, 17th, and 21st of June. The interviews were generally long.
On six occasions I had interviews with her at Miss Cousens*, at St. Sidwell’s.
I made notes of my visits. The result was that I thought that her powers of
mind were in a state of decay, and that she was undoubtedly in an unsound
state of mind, not being able to manage her own property. She was very
tranquil, and seemed glad to see me; she offered me roses and straw¬
berries, and pressed me to see her again as a friend. In the first interview
I elicited very little except defective memory. The memory was particularly
defective with regard to names. Her manner was very lady-like and self-
possessed, so mnch so indeed that persons not going below the “ surface, ”
might observe no defect. On the seoond interview, although Miss Ewings was
generally tranquil, I found that she had been crying, and she said that Dr.
Shapter, had been with her, and that she felt anxious about the termination of
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the matter. She also laid frequently, “ Won’t you protect me, won’t you
beoome my friend. They won’t take me away and use me cruelly 7” I asked
her if she was used cruelly in the asylum, and she said, “ Oh ! no, I have been
used most kindly,” but she added that she did not like being in the asylum. I
then examined her with the view of eliciting a delusion which she had in the
asylum as to her attendants wanting to kill her, and she laughed at the idea, and
denied that she had ever entertained such a thought. She said that she had heard
strange noises in the asylum, but that they had been explained to her. She
could not tell how long she had been at her present lodgings in Exeter. She
said she had been here about six months, and Miss Cousens who was present
remarked—“ You mean to say you have left home six months.” Miss Ewings
then Baid she left home at Christmas. When I explained that I wanted to
know how long she had been in the house, she could not then tell, but afterwards
she repeated that it was six months, which confirmed my opinion as to the loss of
memory. She was afterwards spoken to about her property, and the death of
her sister. She said that she was bom near Honiton; and she fetched a
drawing of Feniton church, of which she said her father had been rector. I
believe now that it was her grandfather who was rector. She added that her
mother was wife to Dr. Bertie, oousin to the Earl of Derby. Other parts of
the conversation confirmed my opinion as to her loss of memory. She proceeded
without any enquiries from me to say that she had no relatives. She said that
Mr. Ellacombe was not one, and that she had never seen him in her life before
he came to the asylum. Then she proceeded to say, that she was afraid they
would take her away, and that she thought they only wanted her money. I
said “ Very likelyand she said “ I will take care that they shall not have
any; it is all provided for.” She then stated that she had made a will leaving
some legacies, and also some money to the Christian Knowledge Society, but
all the rest to Dr. Shapter who had been a very kind friend to her. I asked her
if he was to be her executor, and she said “ Yes.” I said to her “ perhaps
this enquiry is being made to prevent your making a will,” when ahe replied “It
is already done,” but in a manner which made me doubt whether the will had
actually been made. She said Dr. Shapter had made all the arrangements,
and was to have the management of everything. Before I went to see her
I asked Dr. Shapter to inform her of my visit and its purport, and I dare say
that he had done so.
The Commissioner : What made you doubt it ?
Witness : She mentioned it in a hesitating way, as if in fact she was only
expressing an intention. I wrote down my impressions at the dose of eacn
interview. I enquired what her property was, and she said “ I don’t know.”
I asked if she could tell to a £1,000, and she said “ No I cannot.” “ To £5,000,”
and she said “ I cannot.” “ Any money in the banker’s hands f ’ and she replied
44 a little for present use.” “What does your property consist of V 9 her reply
was 44 of funds and railway shares.” Upon the point of time I asked her the
day of the week.
A discussion here took place between the Commissioner and the oounsd,
respecting the report of Dr. Bucknill, which was very volumions. The learned
Commissioner remarked that if he had a full copy before him, he hardly thought
it would be necessary’ to write down Dr. BucknilTs statement as read .from
notes of which the report was a copy. The original report sent to the Lords
Justices was then handed to the Commissioner.
Dr. Bucknill then proceeded to read his report at length. The following
were the most striking passages :—“Did she know the day of the week?”—
“ No.”—“ The day on which I last visited her f ’—“ No.”—She said my last visit
was on a Sunday, which was not the fact. I thought her powers of apprehension
were defective as well as her memory. June 10th, T visited her and questioned
her about her property. She said she had made Dr. Shapter her residuaiy
legatee, “ was that not the proper word V 9 I asked Dr. Shapter if a will were
made, and he said it was. Dr. Shapter added “ I should wish some alteration
to be made in the will for my own sake.”
Mr. Collier: My learned friend has made an attack upon Dr. Shapter, and
I think 1 shall be able to show that he is & man of honour.
Mr. Smith said he had not made an attack.
The Commissioner; I think undoubtedly that a statement has been made—
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we wDl not call ii an attack—and it ia only reasonable on the part of Ur. Collier
that an explanation should be given.
Mr. Collier: It is an indirect attack, which is worse; and. therefore, I wish
Dr. Backnill to say all that passed.
Dr. Backnill: I make tne statement, because I feel that it is only fair to
Dr. Shapter. He told me this—although, when I drew up my report and sent
it to the Lords Justices, I did not feel myself called upon to mention it.
Mr. Collier : What was it he mentioned ?
The Commissioner read the statement made by Dr. Backnill— 44 1 asked Dr.
Shapter if she had made her will, and he said she had and had signed it. I asked
him when it was done, and he said subsequently to the visit of Mr. Sharpe, and
that he (Dr. Shaptor) wished some alterations to be made in the will for his own
sake.” This conversation took place in Dr. Shapter’s cottage garden, on the 10th
of June. My fourth visit was on the 11th June. Whenever I questioned Miss
Ewings about her will, it was only to see what her state of mind was. At this date
I questioned her respecting her annual income and what the interest was, but she
could not tell. I asked her what she paid for her lodgings, and she replied supposing
I pay £100 a-year— that is £50 for the half-year, and £25 for the quarter. She
could not tell what it was per week. In speaking of the will she said Dr. Sbapter
was her sole executor. Miss Cousens said she had witnessed the execution of
the will. I was surprised to find her deficiency in figures. At one interview she
said, 44 What would my poor mother say if she knew that they persecuted me
for my money. 17 [Dr Bucknill then stated at considerable length several
trials in counting money, to which Miss Ewings had been subjected. In
some instances she failed, but in others she succeeded with some difficulty. ]
At my dictation she wrote a cheque for £15,000, but thinking it might
not be a fair trial, as she might have thought it was only done to shew her
power of writing, I tore the cheque up. Her manner at these interviews
was calm and possessed. After mentioning many other instances, in which she
was tried with figures. Dr. Bucknill said “ I told her that she made a bad hand
when she replied, 44 1 know you have a right to examine me, but you are very
kind and patient.” I asked her to read, and she read two or three sentenoes from
the 44 Companion to the Altar,” and 44 The Common Prayer. 77 She said she
hoped that she would be allowed to take the sacrament, adding that she was
not allowed to take it while she was in the asylum, and that they tried to make
her a Roman Catholic, but that she said to them 44 1 am a member of the Church
of Christ.” She read seven verses from the Psalms, but she miscalled or omitted
one-fourth or one-fifth of the words. I wrote a note to Dr. Shapter, and asked
her to give it to that gentleman. I can’t say whether she knew what I had
written, but she promised to deliver it for me. During a long examination re¬
specting a visit on the 17th of June, the witness said I again subjected her to
tne figure test, and with the same result as in former trials, though if anything
more favourable. She told me she had learnt the multiplication table, and said
twice two made four, atid twice three made six. She also said 20 pence made
Is. 8d., and 30 pence 2s. 6d. She could not tell me the names of the persons at
the asylum where she had been, nor the name of the asylum itself. I asked her
if she could tell the time by my watch.
The Commissioner : Had she her glasses on ?
Dr. Bucknill: No Sir. It might have been owing to the want of spectacles,
or to the illegibility of the dial, but I cannot say. The time was ten minutes
to nine, and the light was good.
The Commissioner : It was a rather sharp test for an old lady of 80.
Dr. Bucknill then referred to the examinations on the 21st of June, which
were similar in character to former ones. Miss Ewings said she had been
agitated by remembering that Haydock and Haddock were the same. She said
she thought she bad been with Miss Cousens six months. She thought her
income was or might be a £1,000 a-year. She could not tell what she had given
to the Christian Knowledge Society, whether it was £500, £1,500, or £15^000.
She could not tell the time on my watch, it being in the middle of the day, and
the time quite legible. The decay of mental powers may be set down as in
part due to mania, and in part due to paralysis. If the paralysis only bad
occurred without subsequent mania, the probability is that we should have found
her poind in a state of decay without delusion.
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The Commissioner: Are you speaking with regard to her advanced age.
Dr. Bucknill: No. It would he very unjust to argue with regard to a person
80 rears of age, in the Earn© way as with regard to a person of 40 yean of age.
At oO years of age a person was getting into what might be called “ Second
childhood.”
By Mr. Smith : I think those two causes would be more likely to produoe
the effect of insanity in a person of advanced age. In fact I have no doubt of it.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier : Dr. Shapter read to me the names of several
persons to whom Miss Ewings intended to make legacies. I said “Will she
leave you anything?” Dr. Shapter replied “Some trifling matter, perhaps.”
During the course of a conversation I understood that she intended to make a
will, and I said to Dr. Shapter “ Will you allow her to make a will while this
question is pending f’ Dr. Shapter said, “ I assure you, on my honour, my intan*
tions are straight and honourable.” Dr. Shapter said “She is in as sound a
state of mind as I am.” When I left Dr. Shapter I was under the belief that a
will would not be made. I don’t think she is a person to be shut up in a Lunatic
Asylum. I go farther and say I think she ought to be plaoed under the care of
her friends. I do not think her mind is quite gone. I have examined her eight
times, extending altogether over nine or ten hours. I went into this enquiry
with the thought that Miss Ewings was sane, and have put down things with
perfect impartiality. I had no desire to prove her insane. I went into the
enquiry in an impartial spirit. The witness was then cross-examined upon his
evidence with respect to the answers which had been given to him by Miss
Ewings. She said that she was afraid that when she was taken away by Mr.
Nicholson and Mr. Ellacombe, she was going to be taken to a place where she
would be cruelly treated. She several times repeated her account of the
journey in a very consecutive manner, and this goes to a certain extent
to prove that she was of sound mind. Her loss of memory and her mis¬
statement of facts were evidence as far as they went, that her mind was
unsound. She stated that she rode in a second-class instead of a first-class
carriage, and also that she was put feet first into the carriage. Upon the first
interview alone I would not venture to say that she was of unsound mind.
Nothing then passed sufficient to determine the fact. By itself imperfect
memory is not a proof of unsoundness of mind. On the first interview Miss Ewings
was agitated when I first went into the room, but afterwards became tranquil.
She seemed to have a fear of “ those people,” meaning her relatives, taking her
to an asylum. I am not aware that she knew that her liberty would depend
greatly upon my report to the Lords Justices. I stated in my report that she
lived in “ dread of this event,” meaning thereby her removal to an asylum. The
knowledge of my reporting to the Lords Justices would tend to make her nervous,
and thereby affect her calculating powers; but I may state as a fact that she was
not nervous. She did not complain of ray questioning her about money
calculations. At the second interview she told me she paid £100 a-year for
lodgings, and she said that is £50 the half year, and £25 the quarter. I then
asked her how much £100 a-year amounted to per week, but she could not
tell me.
Mr. Collier: Can you yourself tell ?
Dr. Bucknill hesitated.
Mr. Collier : Don’t be nervous; take time. (Laughter.)
Dr. Bucknill: I decline to tell you.
Mr. Collier: You wont or you can’t?
Dr. Bucknill: I decline.
The Commissioner : I almost question whether the learned counsel himself
could have told unless he had been instructed. (Laughter.)
Mr. Collier : Do you generally ask such puzzling questions.
Dr. Bucknill: No, but it was not done to puzzle her.
Mr. Collier: Was such a question likely to produce a soothing and
tranduilizing effect? (Laughter.)
Dr. Bucknill: Certainly not.
Be-examined: When I had the first conversation with Dr. Shapter he
said “ I give you my honour that my intentions with regard to this property
are straightforward and honourable,” and I believed him. To a casual observer
there would be nothing in Miss Ewings’s manner to indicate unsomxdness of mind.
By the Commissioner: Judging from my last interview on the 21st of June
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last, I should say that she was of unsound mind. I should call her unsoundness
of mind a mixture of chronic mania and dementia. Speaking iu popular
language I should call it a mixture of mania and fatuity, occurring in a person
who once had a sane understanding. Her age and paralysis might be concurrent
causes. The death of a beloved relative occurring to a person Whose mind was
already enfeebled by these two causes, might tend to bring on an attack of acute
mental disease—mania, but the sister died seven years before the attack of
paralysis.
The following is the conclusion of Dr. BucknilTs Report to the Lords
Justices on the mental and bodily state of Miss Phoebe Ewings
“ Your Lordships will perceive from the above recital that it is impossible
for me to concur either with those witnesses who believe that Miss Ewings is in
the full possession of her faculties, or with those who consider her quite
incoherent or imbecile. There can be no question that she suffered an acute
attack of insanity in December last, and during the early part of this year. ‘Her
present state appears to be that of imperfect recovery. The attention, the
memory, and the general intelligence remain to a certain extent permanently
damaged ; but not so far as to prevent Miss Ewings from taking part in society,
or to justify the slightest interference with her personal liberty. It is impossible
for me to say how ^kr the suspicion and dislike which Miss Ewings entertains
towards her relatives are the result of unsoundness of mind. The only
indications that they are so are to be found in her unfounded belief that Mr.
EHacombe placed her in the asylum, and in her great and constant fear that she
will be again taken to an asylum. The only trace of delusion I can discover is
the belief that at the asylum they attempted to make her a Roman Catholic.
This belief was expressed to me in so cautious and circumstantial a manner that
I thought it might possibly be founded upon some misapprehension of reality.
I therefore wrote a letter to Mr. Sutton, the proprietor of the asylum, requesting
him to be so good as to inform me whether any of the official persons connected
with that place were Roman Catholics, and whether the service of that faith
was celebrated there. His reply in the negative, together with a letter on the
subject from the Superintendent, to whom I did not write, I transmit to you.
On one point my examinations have been conclusive to my own mind, namely,
that Miss Ewings is quite incapable of transacting business, or of managing her
property. On tho other hand I am convinced that any interference with her
personal liberty would indict much needless suffering upon her, and as she lives
in dread of this event, I beg leave to suggest to your Lordships that if not
inconsistent with your ditties in this case, you should cause her mind to be set
at ease on this point without delay. Miss Ewings places the greatest confidence
in Dr. Shaptcr and in Miss Couscns, and the fear that she may be removed from
them and placed among strangers or persons to whom she has unfriendly feelings,
embitters a period of life which all would desire to render as smooth and happy
as circumstances permit. At present Miss Ewings enjoys excellent bodily healtn.
She takes long walks, and has a good appetite. To a person, however, of her
age, who has recently suffered from paralyis and insanity, the probability of some
recurrence of active disease of the brain is very great. I think it right to
inform your Lordships that Dr. Shaptcr consulted me on these proceedings on
the 18th of May last, but that I declined to give an opinion on Miss Ewing’s
state of mind on his statement, or to visit her, on the ground that your Lordships
might possibly wish to place upon mo the duties of medical referee. I beg leave
to subscribe myself.”
Joseph Charlton Parr : I am a member of the firm of Messrs. Parr, Lyon,
and Co., bankers of Warrington. Miss Ewings had an account at our bank;
and when she left Warrington for Exeter, she had a balance of £2,124 Sb. 6d.
Since that time £211 9s. have been added to the credit side, making
£2,335 18s. 6d. Tho sum standing to her credit on the 30th of June, was
£1,672 16s.—£663 2s. 6d. having been drawn out since the previous February.
The account had remained untouched from the 24th of November, 1858, to the
15th of February last. In March we received an order signed by Miss Ewings,
directing us to honour cheques drawn by Mr. Beamont. We have only
honoured one cheque since, for £18 2s. 6d. Of the £663, £500 was for the
Christian Knowledge Society drawn by cheque, signed by Miss Ewings, on the
28th of May. We were not surprised at so large an amount. I received the
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dividends on £7,307 in the new three per oente, end on £300 in the three per
eents.
Cross-examined: In December, 1853, Miss Ewings end her sister gave £600
to the Christian Knowledge Society ; and in November, 1858, Miss Ewings
herself gave another £500, making, with the £500 in May last, £1,500.
Dr. Charles Joseph Fox : I am the proprietor of an asylum for the insane
at Brislington, near Bristol; and have been in practice nearly 30 years. I came
to Exeter on the 10th of March, and in company with Dr. Shapter visited
Miss Ewings. I received from her an incoherent account of her fears at
Warrington, lest she should be injured by her servants. She told me that
she had been placed by 44 those persons'* in the asylum. I referred to Mr.
EUacombe having liberated her from the asylum, but she seemed oblivious of
that fact, and only mentioned her apprehensions as to her removal to the
station. My interview was not with reference to my giving evidence to-day.
The interview was so short that although I formed an opinion I declined to
make an affidavit upon it. On the 21st of July I saw Miss Ewings again, the
interview lasting an hour and a quarter. She received me kindly and calmly.
I told her I came at the request of Mr. Nicholson, of Warrington ; and she
spoke of him and his family as kind friends. She first said Mr. Nicholson was
a Roman Catholic, but afterwards corrected herself, saying she meant her
neighbour Mr. Ashton. She said she would not remain in her own house auy
longer but would rather remove to the parish workhouse «s she considered
herself in danger. She expressed great indignation against 44 those persona”
who caused her to be removed to the asylum, though she said she had been
kindly treated. Dr. Fox then confirmed former evidence as to the fears
entertained by Miss Ewings respecting the designs upon her faith while at
the Lunatic Asylum. I could not find out why she apprehended it. In her
account of her resistance at the railway station, the reason she assigned was
that she was placed in an inferior carriage. I asked about her property. I
said is it £30,000? and she said “ £30,000,” repeating the words. I then said
44 Is it £20,000 or £13,000 ?’ She then said “Oh! £30,000 is not much.”
When I asked her what would be the interest of £1,000 at five per cent, she
could not tell—I said £50, and then I asked her what would be the interest of
£1,000 at two-and-a-half per cent., and she replied £25, and sho added
44 tiie bankers only allow me two-and-a-half per cent.” I then said 44 If
the cost of your boarding be £3 per week, what is that per month ?’ She
oould not answer, so I repeated the question, but instead of answering it, she
said 44 My income is more than I can spend.” She could not tell me anything
about the details of her property. I did not press her to get the details. She
said that during her sister’s lifetime she knew all about her money matters.
I asked her what year it was, but she could not tell, nor could she tell me the
day of the month or of the week. I gave her my name, and repeated it once or
twice, but she afterwards addressed me as 41 Dr. Buckland.” I put no questions
to her respecting her will, but said 44 In case a person dies without a will the
law provides for its distribution among the relatives,” and she replied 41 1 have
no relatives.” Miss Cousens was in the room throughout the interview, and Miss
Ewings frequently appealed to her for an answer to my questions. I had an
opportunity of forming an opinion about the state of Miss Ewings’s mind, and
I came to the conclusion that she was of unsound mind, labouring under dementia,
consequent upon paralysis. Assuming her to be 80 years of age, I should think
it highly improbable that her health would be restored. Jane Warren, who was
the attendant, told me 44 she was not out of her mind.”
The Commissioner : That is not evidence.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier: What I based my opinion of her
insanity upon was her great incoherence, her very impaired memory, and her
difficulty of comprehension. In no instance do I recollect that by repeating
my questions she could give me an answer. But I will not swear that such was
not the case. I do not think that simply looking at the fact of her repeating
my questions was a conclusive fact in itself. I could not get any conuectea
statement of the occurrences at Warrington before her removal to the
Haydock Asylum, nor the names of any one connected with her, but she
spoke of them as 44 those persons.” If she had been 44 lugged” into a carriage
by two porters I should not be surprised to hear her speak of it. Mr.
EUacombe gave me an aooount of the manner in which she was treated, and J
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understand that she was not roughly handled. She oould not tell me the
day of the week, nor recollect my name. I think that when I pressed her she
tried to recollect. She could not remember the difference between l>r. Buoknill
and Dr. Buckland, though I do not attach much i nportance to that. I think
her memory must have been defective to forget the name of a person who
frequently visited her. I did not question her, being an old lady, In the same
manner as I should a person of greater powers. She knew Dr. Shapter perfectly
well. She did not remember Jane Warren being in attendance upon her. It
is not unusual for old ladies to forget names and dates. She seemed to think
that she was in danger from her servant. That was certainly a delusion.
Upon my asking her the amount of her property she did not say she could tell
the amount by calculating, but she did say that she could tell another day.
When I asked her how much £3 a-week would be per month, I did not »ay
whether it was a calendar or a lunar month.
It being now quarter past eleven o’clock the oourt adjourned.
SATURDAY. —SECOND DAY.
The enquiry was resumed this morning at ten o’clock.
Dr. Samuel Budd, who was the first witness, said I am a physician
practising in this city, and am physician at thF Devon and Exeter Hospital.
I have paid two visits to Miss Ewings with the view of ascertaining the stata
of her mind. The visits were on the 5th and 6th of the present month. I
made notes of the questions, and the answers show strong evidence of the state
of her mind. At the first interview, on the 5th instant, I conversed with her
about her property and found her ideas very indistinct. She had no knowledge
of the funds and could give no account of her property; she could not tell
where it was placed, sho thought it was in the Savings’ Bank. She oould
comprehend nothing of principal or interest. J said to her “ When you want to
buy anything where do you go for money ?” She told me she had money in
her purse, but knew not how it got there. She said at last when she awoke
in the morning sho found it there. I said “ Supposing all that money spent
and gone where would you go for more ?” Sho said Dr. Shapter would give
her some; he was so kind to her. I said, “ If Dr. Shapter was unable to
give you any what would you do then?” She then said, shedding tears, she
supposed she would then be obliged to go into the workhouse. Miss Cousens
was present. After remaining with her some little time her excitement subsided
and she laughed and seemed to enjoy herself. She shook me heartily by the
hand. The interview did not seem painful to her. There was nothing peculiar
in her manner. My interview lasted about an hour. The next day I paid her
a shorter visit. Her manner was not strange. She shook me by the hand and
seemed to remember me, though she did not recollect the time of my previous
visit, but seemed to think it was on the previous night. On the 6th I first
spoke of the weather. It was raining hard, and she said, “ The rain will do
a good deal of good to the harvest and make the corn swell outshe said
that during the hot weather she had been very well. I said the season of the
year had arrived when we must expect the heat to abate, aud she said,
“ October and September.” She said the present month was September, and
that she came to Exeter in October. She said first that sho was born in
Lancashire and then in Devonshire. I said “ Do you know Mr. Ellacombe ?”
She replied “No.” “Is he not a relative of yours?” She answered “No.”
Sho added “ I have heard of such a man, but I never saw him.” I said “ Did
he not take you from the asylum in Lancashire and bring you to Exeter V 9
She replied “ What business had he to do that?” Her responses quite
convinced me that she is in a state of imbecility, and that she is quite
incompetent to manage her property or to transact business. She is suffering
from dementia. I should be quite surprised to hear that after an attack of
paralysis, and an attack of acute mania, a lady at such an advanced age came
out quite unscathed or recovered her mental faculties in their integrity.
Cross-examined by Mr. Collier : I should be rather surprised to hear that
an old lady of her advanced age, should, after an attack of paralysis and
dementia, walk several miles a-d&y. I understood that I was employed by
the oourt. I was aware that there had been a petition for a commission. I
preferred being employed by the court rather than by the petitioner. I consider
that I saw her on the part of the court. I communicated the notes I made
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to Dr. BucknQl, and I think I sent a oopy to Mr. Daw, the attorney for the
petitioner, but' not to the attorney on the other side, though of
coarse I should not hesitate to do so. I put down the answers which I thought
would be evidence. There were many I did not take, and many which were of
a negative character. I should think it was impossible to converse with her tea
minutes without discovering her loss of faculties.
Mr. Collier : Do you agree with Dr. Bucknill that a person might convene
with her for a hour and a-half without being convinced of her unsoundnees of
mind ?
Dr. Budd : It is not my impression. I do not think you oonld converse
with her for an hour and a-haif without seeing it. It is probable that her
condition will not improve.
Mr. Collier: Of course it is not likely that a lady at 90 years will be
brighter than a person at 90 years.—Dr. Budd: I will not say that her
condition will materially alter in a month. I do not think she made hundreds
of answers to my questions. I conversed about the weather, Ac., on both
oocasions.
Mr. Smith : Did you remark anything peculiar in Miss Ewings’s manners?
Dr. Budd : No ; I thought her manners pretty good.
Mr. Smith : Could a person sit at table with Miss Ewings for a certain time,
and unless his attention were directed to her mental condition, might he go
away without discovering that she was of unsound mind ?
Dr. Budd: I think it possible that she might pass muster under such
conditions. But it is a very thin crust which in her case sustains the ordinary
amenities of social life, beneath which lie the mere ruins of a mind.
By Mr. Collier : I cannot say that she liked being “ trotted” through
her property. I dare say that she knew the object of my visit. She did
not appear to know anything respecting the funds.
Mr. Collier : Why did you ask her then ?— Dr. Budd : I first asked her if
she had money in the funds, and 1 found that she did not know anything about
them. I cannot say that those were the terms. I did not ask her directly
what the funds were. I cannot recollect all her answers. I will not swear what
her answer was about the funds. With respect to her property I might have
said, " Is it in land?” but I will not swear one way or tue other. I have not
a very distinct recollection.
By the Commissioner: I have no belief on the subject but probably I
might.
Cross-examination continued : I have no recollection that she said '‘It
is not in land, but it is in the bank.” I will not swear that she did not
use the words. She told me that all her money was in the “ Savings Bank.”
Mr. Collier : I ask you if your recollection is so clear that you will swear
that she did not say so.
Witness : I thoroughly believe Bhe did not. I did not say “ What are the
funds?” or at least I don’t think I did. I will not swear positively that I did
not. My recollection is not so clear that I will swear to every word used during
so long an interview. I did say she had no distinct idea about property ana
income. She appeared not to bo able to draw the inference that if she had
money in the funds or anywhere else it would bring her an income. I did
not put any direct enquiry upon it.
Mr. Collier : I am asking you what are your premises; because, with all
respect to you, we may come to a different conclusion.
Witness : I did not ask her any direct questions on these points but
I give you what I inferred. I don’t think I asked her if she was in the habit
of going out and buying things in the shops, and paying for them. I
think she might be capable of going about to shops, and paying for articles,
and taking the change. She would know that a penny would buy a bun.
To a slight amount she would do shopping, but anybody might easily cheat her.
I think she might sometimes, but not always, see that the change was right.
I can’t say whether she would ask for discount, but I think she might be
taught to do it parrot-like. I did not know that she had some money in the
“Savings Bank.” I said, where is your money placed? and she said in the
14 Savings Bank.”
Mr. Collier: That she told you. You said before “all the money” wu
l*» * rod you Mid wb»t Broil, rod thro ijw replied “Ju tt»# Bftvtyf*
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. Bank Witness: I can’t say that she used the word “all”—but my impression
was that she did. I asked her where both her property and her money were
placed, but I cannot recollect whether she or I used the word “ all.” She
told me that Dr. Shapter managed her affairs. She said “My lodgings are
managed.” It would not seern extraordinary that she received money from
a person who managed her affairs. I think her condition shows a considerable
extinction of faculties. I did not detect any delusion. I did not find there
were any signs of mania. Judging from what I saw, I should call it dementia,
I saw no signs of distinct mania.
Mr. Collier: Do you differ from Dr. Bucknill, who said that it was a
mixture of dementia and mania ?—Witness : D& Bucknill said he had detected
delusion.
Mr. Smith: You may ask him his opinion, but not whether he differs
from Dr. Bucknill.
Witness : I give you the result of my impressions upon her mental state
from my own observation only.
Mr. Collier : I want to know whether you doctors agree or differ because
we have to judge between you. Do you think it is a mixture of chronio mania
and dementia ? Do you agree with Dr. Bucknill upon that ?— Dr. Budd: I
suppose I must differ so far, that he observed what I did not. A person who
has a delusion may not show it. You may have to seek for it. It does not
always come to tho surface. I consider her, judging from my own observation,
to be in a state of dementia. I did not detect the signs of mania; and,
therefore, so far as that goes, I suppose I must differ from Dr. Bucknill.
By Mr. Smith : I decidedly think she did not know the nature of discount,
&o. Her condition may differ from day to day.
Dr. Harrington Take: I reside at Manor House, Chiswick, and am
Superintendent of a private asylum at that place. I have devoted my entire
attention to mental diseases for 18 or 19 years. I was requested to visit Mfca
Ewings. I saw her on the 10th instant. 1 was introduced by Dr. Bucknill in
the presence of Dr. Shapter and a young lady. I did not understand her to
be Dr. Shapter’s governess, but learnt so subsequently. Dr. Shapter went
away in a few minutes, and I was left with Miss Ewings and Miss Anthony.
Finding that she was tranquil and calm, I suggested that Miss Anthony should
leave, but she went up to Miss Ewings, and said “ You don’t wish me to leave,
do you ?” and Miss Ewings replied, “ Ch, no.” I felt her pulse, and found it
fast. I mentioned this to Dr. Shapter, and he said it would naturally be so on
the introduction of a stranger. Afterwards it became tranquil, and so was her
manner, except at intervals. I was with her two hours and a-half. She was
perfectly agreeable to sit with me, and I think I could have sat there all day.
I several times asked her if I tired her, and she said 44 No.” She said Dr.
Bucknill never tired her. I said 41 1 thought you were ill after two interviews;”
but she replied, “Oh, no.” I put this several times, and she said positively,
44 Oh, dear, it was not so.” 1 found her vory rational upon some things.
She retained considerable power of mind both as to memory and facts, but
it was uncertain power. It was deranged in its action. Sometimes there
secerned to be an absolute want of memory; the general answers evinced a
want of the power of comprehension. I asked her who was the reigning
sovereign. She did not seem to understand the question. I said, 4 ‘ Who
governs the country, but don’t hurry yourself ; I want to know who is the
head of the country ; who administers the law.” I put it in all the ways I
^ could think of, but sho seemed unable to understand it. But the ocher lady
very kindly interposed, and said “ Who is the present Queen ?” Miss Ewings
immediately said, “ Queen Victoria to be sure.”
The Commissioner: I think she beat you in your question.
* Witness: Tho governess knew that Miss Ewings was aware of that fact,
because she had heard her say a short time before that Queen Victoria was
a good woman. I asked Miss Ewings “ who is this lady ?” and she said Miss
Shapter ; when Miss Anthony said 44 you mean Miss Anthony.” Miss Ewings
had been addressing Miss Anthony as Miss Shapter during the conversation.
She answered many questions pretty well when they were put slowly and
o&refuUv. I asked her the day of the week, month, and vear, but all separately.
She said it was Thursday, whereas it was Wednesday ; she also said it was the
gf September. I wked her the year of our Lord, she said 1839. The
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governess said you mean ’59. I again expostulated with Miss Anthony, hat
it was not done by her offensively, although it interfered with me. I asked
her the above questions at different intervals, five times begging her to take
time to answer them. Each answer was wrong, although I carefully told
her each time. Sometimes she said it was March, and at others September,
but never August, although I told her it was the harvest month, and she said it
was her favourite month. Twice she shed tears, And several times laughed;
tears on account of her state of thankfulness to Almighty God for her then
state of happiness, and also when she mentioned the death of her sister.
She laughed once very heartily. When I mentioned the subject of money, she
seemed a little nervous, but after a time talkel freely. I asked her the amount
of her property, and she replied, with great hesitation, £13,000 and then
£700. She then asked “ Is that right ?” I said I could not be sura,
but I thought it was. I asked her how it was invested ? Those were my
words as near as I oan recollect; where it was and how much it produced. I
asked those questions singly, but could only get an answer to the last, she said
—“ About £400 a-year. Is that right V I think she said I oould calculate it
I am sure she did. I said I thought it was right, and that she need not trouble
herself. I was very anxious not to put her through difficult calculations. She
said she did not think she could write a cheque. 41 Do you know what a cheque
is?” She did not. Do you know what a draft is? She said, “Yes. It is
always what I signed when I went to the bank to get my money.” “ Do you
sign such things at other times?” “No, never.” Did you not write a cheque
for Dr. Bucknill ?” She denied it and asked the governess, who said she had
never heard of it. Miss Ewings then seemed convinced she had not. “ You
must have written ohe<jues for Dr. Shapter ?” I said this slowly over and over
again, but she denied it. It suddenly occurred to me that I recollected the
amount of the last cheque and said “ Did you not give a cheque for £30 ?” She
had no recollection of it, and positively denied it. It was an extraordinary
instance of want of memory because I mentioned about the charities. She then
•aid— 44 Yes £500 to the Christian Knowledge Society,” but she denied as to any
other. She could not state what her expenses were, but that they were paid
once a fortnight. I asked her if she paid her bills with the £12 (the money
in her pocket) how long it would last her ?—She had previously said she bad
that sum. She could not answer the question. I could not get any reply as
to her expenses, she never looked at the bills. She said when her sister was
alive she managed the joint money affairs. They took it in turns once a
fortnight. She counted £12 10s. well. She said she did not pay Dr. Shapter
because he was her friend and protecter. I said 44 What does he protect you
from ?*’ and she said.—“Ho is my protector, at my age I want a protector.” I
said have you not relations, and she answered “None at all”—“ No second
or third cousins?” “Mr. Ellacombe?” The suggestion of the name came
from the governess. Miss Ewings said she would not have anything to do
with him. This she said angrily and added, I would send him out of the room
if he came into it. I expostulated with her, asking her reasons. She said she
had been cruelly used and that .Mr. Ellacombe had sent her to an asylum. I
suggested the reverse, that he had taken her out, and she admitted it. 1 asked
her what motive she thought Mr. Ellaoombe had, but she did not seem to
understand tlio question. At last she said—“ It must have been a bad motive
of Mr. Ellacombe”—She told mo a long story about her journey in the railway
'carriage. She said her feet were placed foremost. She stood up desiring the
young lady to hold her shoulders, and take her feet up as indicating tlio way
a person would bo carried. Believing it to be untrue, I repeated it; and sb«
said her own servants held her with Mr. Sharp. I asked her about the asylum,
but she could not mention the name of the place. I asked her who paid the
expenses. She answered 44 I did not, and my lawyer did not.” She said she
was well treated, that she had a fine room, and that it cost her nothing.”
She then laughed most heartily, seeming quite to enjoy it. I asked her about
her house, but she said she did not know anything about it. She said the
furniture was taken to the bank. I said, 44 You don't mean the furniture?”
and she replied 44 No, no, I don't know where it is.” She then gave me a long
account of her ioumey from Warrington. It was coherent, but I did not think
it was true. She said that she rode in a second-class carriage, and that I fouqd
to be untrue.
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By the Commissioner: I asked her now much money she had, and she replied
that she did not know. Witness : I asked her if she went to the bank would
they give her any money she asked for,and she replied “Yes, they would give
£5,000 or £10,000. Would they give £20,000? I said. She hesitated, and said
44 I should never ask for so large a sum.” I then asked her about her will. She
said M I have made my will; it was my own act and deed.” I asked her as
gently as I could how she had left her money, and she said she had given some
legacies to servants, and £500 to the Christian Knowledge Society. She said
she had a great many legacies given to her. I said “ What have you left to
Dr. Shaptcr?” She could not tell. I inferred this, as she did not answer. Con¬
sidering this very important, I suggested various sums to her. Have you left
him more or less thau £500? She said “I cannot tell.” I am quite certain
about the words. I said “ Do you kuow you have left him a handsome fortune.”
She said “ Yes, it may be ; he is my friend and protector.” This conversation
occupied some time. I asked her about her illness, whether she had been ill.
She said 44 She never had been ill.” I said “ Have you never had an attack of
paralysis ?” She did not understand the question, and I explained as well as I
could what the attack was, and she said “ No, thank God, I have never lost my
sense of sight, my speech, or any of my senses.” She seemed angry, and said,
what will they say next ? I apologised, saying, I had information from her
own medical attendant, Mr. Sharp. She was angry and agitated, and said “ It
is impossible.” I asked her whether she had ever suffered under 44 nervous
derangement.” I said this as delicately as possible. She said “ Never.” She
aaid it as if the thing had never occurred to her. I said, you have been in an
asylum. She said 44 Yes.” I said 44 No one can be put in an asylum without a
certificate of mental derangement. She said “It was quite absurd. Me ever
insane ? quite absurd.” I asked her if she believed in the Roman Catholics,
trying to make her a papist. She said “ No, never.” But you surely have
said so previously? She said “ No, I never have.” I mentioned Dr. Sharp’s
name, saying he might have thought you ill and signed the certificate thinking
that you were ill. She said “ She could not suppose it, she was never ill.”
She said Dr. Shapter never gave her any medicine, he came to see her only as a
friend. I said had you not 100 guineas in youY stays when you were taken to
the asylum. She said 44 1 will tell you all about that.” This story of hers, like
others was told at length, but very difficult to get at in consequence of her
44 rambling manner.” It was very difficult to get at her meaning. Sho said she
believed people were coming in and going out of her house improperly, but she
could not say what people, ouly she was sure they were there improperly and
that they were flurrying her, and therefore she put all the money in her stays.
That she was frightened, and added “ Life you know is very dear to me.” I
asked her if she was frightened of her life, and she said no, only she was afraid
of the house coming down. The people came in and out, she was then seized
and cruelly used, and then taken to the asylum. She showed me again how sho
was put in the carriage, which as the same way as before. Mr. Sharp, she said,
was not present. It was her own servant who held her. I could not succeed
in obtaining who it was had cruelly used her. I examined her to the best of my
ability. She said she never read the newspaper, but at my request would try to
do so. I handed her the paper, but finding that she was quite bewildered, so
as to make nonsense to the listener by misplacing words, I said, “ Oh, I will
read it then.” The governess said “ It is because her hand shakes so,” but I gave
up the attempt, thinking it flurried her. In the course of a conversation she
told me that she liked Dr. Bucknill very much, and that he was coming to see
her that afternoon. When I took leave of her she evidently seemed to mis¬
understand who I was, I said I hope this long conversation has not tired you.
and she said “ No, oh dear no. It is so kind of my friends to come and see me.
At other times she seemed to kuow me, and the object of my visit. Sho was
excessively kind and affectionate, sitting by mo and holding iny hand, but this
might have been through my trying her pulse. The other hand clasped that of
the governess. I do not like to form a judgment upon one visit, and applied for
leave to make another, but was refused. I formed an opinion of the state of her
mind. I think she is of unsound mind, and incapable of managing herself and
property, but wish to be distinctly understood that in her present state, sho
should not be placed in an asylum for the insane, because I think she might
be taken care of out of an asylum, and her delusion about strange people would
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be increased by the presence of other patients. To the question do yon believe
strange people had been in your house improperly? she told me that she still
thought it was so.
The Commissioner : To what category do you refer her disease ?
Witness : It is difficult to refer it, I consider it to be weakness of mind,
following as it constantly does, either paralysis or acute mania, but there is
some chronic delusion, and in technical language I will say it was the first stage
of dementia.
By Mr. Karslake : Loss of memory, and inaccuracy of dates and facts and
names are often consequent upon paralysis, not so often the result of mania.
By the Commissioner: Attacks of paralysis in the case of a person of so
advanced an age are generally fatal.
The Commissioner : Supposing delusion to exist, is it more likely tobedue to
aeftte mania than paralysis?
Witness : Probably acute mania and not to paralysis. The loss of memory
and the errors as to dates, facts, and names, which I observed are in my judg¬
ment the result of deranged action of the brain, and not the result of old age
alone.
Dr. Tuke, cross-examined by Mr. Collier. He said : I wished to see the
old lady again, but I had not the permission. I came here on Tuesday,
hearing that her medical attendants did not wish me to see her on Thursday, the
day before the commission; but I saw her only on Wednesday, and could not
see her on the Tuesday.
Mr. Coleridge explained that it was in consequence of the legal gentlemen
being absent at Wells.
Cross-examination continued : I would strongly advise your side, as you call
it, not to produce her before the court at all. Upon a hypothetical case, 1 should
say it would be better that sl\e should not be examined t>y a mo lic.il gentleman
the day before the commission. 1 mean to say that a conversation of two hours
and a-half conducted in the way I did, would not have injured her. I tried
whether it injured her physically, and think it did not. Upon my oath it did
not confuse her, for at the end of the conversation she seemed more alert. In
cases of feeble circulation it would act as a stimulant. Her defects arose in some
degree from weakness or feeble circulation. There is a difference between weak¬
ness through too little circulation and madness. Her loss of memory, dates, &€.,
might be owing to a feeble circulation through the brain, and I think I may
attribute part of her symptoms to feebleness in the circulation through the
brain, but I cannot say to what extent it may be. It would be very variable.
She might be better after dinner than before, or after a little wine, but it might
act the reverse, but so far as my observation went it did. I think her very
extraordinary and marked mistake as to persons, is one symptom of derangement
of brain, and not old age. One mistake was calling Miss Anthony Miss Shapter.
-Another feature was her persistance in the mistake of names, which is a sign
of the decay of the brain. I should-not say that it showed “ derangement”
though.
By the Commissioner : Miss Anthony is a young lady.
Examination continued.: She talked of several persons being at places where
they were certainly not. The two things, names and places, are in my opinion
the same. I should not think it derangement if she said Ellacombe instead of
Nicholson. She used the word “workhouse” for “asylum.” When she said
“ workhouse” the governess said you mean “ asylum.” This slie said frequently.
I am aware that this asylum was a place where paupers were, but she certainly
confused her ideas about two places, so that her conversation was quite nonsense,
I think she knew what “ asylum” was. An old lady might be oblivious of dates,
&c., without being deranged, but after I had told her four or five times she could
recollect, ff I see there is a person that cannot understand “ Wednesday” when
I tell her time after time, I think there is some deficiency of brain. I put
down those questions which I think bore upon her unsoundness of mind. The
two hours and a-half were much taken up by the conversation of the lady herself
and Miss Anthony. I have put down what might be evidence of soundness of
mind. I asked her if she was afraid of the “French invasion,” and she said
“ No.” There were several questions which she answered most correctly, and
like a person of sane mind* I know that if an old lady is interrupted when
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telling a story she is “ put oat.” I asked her several questions about the head
of the Constitution.
The Commissioner : If you were to ask Mr. Roebuck who was head of the
Constitution, he would say the House of Commons. (A laugh.)
Mr. Collier : To witness. Who administers the law ? A: I don’t answer.
Q: You complain of a question you put to a lunatic and yet when put to yourself
you say it is not plain enough. A : I don’t understand you. (A laugh.) Q : I
put it to you clearly enough. Who rules in this country? A: The King or
the Queen. Q : Should you say it is the Queen or the Chief Justice of England
who administers the law? A: I should have said “It is the Queen.” Q:
What would you say upon consideration ? Mr. Montague Smith interrupted.—
Mr. Collier : There is no commission upon you. (A laugh.) After being further
pressed the witness said this question might not have been put in the most
proper manner. After a variety of questions the witness said that one of
her symptoms of insanity was her morbid aversion to Mr. EUacombe, the
reasons she gave being insufficient. “ If an old lady gives me an opinion
founded upon insufficient reasons I do not say it is morbid” I, therefore, recall
that answer. The dislike to Mr. Ellacombe was exaggerated and untrue.
Supposing that Mr. EUacombe was “ fallible” and that Miss Ewings’ dislike
to turn was just her behaviour to him, would be explained. If she had no wish
to go into the train, and Mr. EUacombe ordered ner to be put in by porters,
it might account for her dislike, but she bad 44 condoned” the matter.
Jar. Collier : We are to suppose*we are in the Divorce Court.
Cross-examined : I believe that she was very happy and contented at Miss
Couse ns. Mr. Ellaoombe wishing to remove her might have accounted in part
for her disUke, and especially when be said you “ must go.” Still I think it was
a morbid opinion as she bad no cause of complaint against him. It did not
occur to me that her friends had not informed her that she had had an attack
of paralysis. I told her that Dr. Sharp had said sho had had an attack of para¬
lysis. When I told her of it she was much excited and was angry, and said,
“What will they say next?” I presume that she said about losing speech,
sight, Ac., from my explanation of paralysis, and then she said 44 I thank God.”
On my oath as a medical man it did not alarm her. She then said 44 What will
they say next.” I don’t think it is right to conceal from persons of old age
that they had an attack of paralysis.
The learned Commissioner : It might embitter or poison the rest of her life.
Dr. Tuke : I am very sorry that I mentioned it at aU then.
Cross-examination resumed : I said it was the first stage of dementia, I do
not think it right to put me in the box upon a conversation of two hours and
a half.
By the Commissioner : I do not think Miss Ewings is likely to recover.
This was the last witness for the petitioner; and Mr. Smith appUed that
the original instructions for the will and the will itself should be put in as
evidence. Mr. Collier objected to put in the will, as great difficulty might be
experienced supposing Miss Ewings was not found to be a lunatic. The in¬
structions were broken up when the will was signed.
The Commissioner agreed that there would bo difficulty in putting in
thewilL
Mr. Karslake then summed up the evidence for the petitioner, contending
that it proved the unsoundness of Miss Ewings’s mind, and her incapacity
to manage her property.
Mr. Collier then addressed the jury. Ho said this was an extremely painful
enquiry, and one that was altogether unnecessary. There was not the slightest
necessity for disturbing the few remaining years of this old lady’s life. There
was no reason whatever why she should be questioned and cross-questioned by a
number of mad doctors. What was her state according to the evidence of the
petitioner’s own witnesses ? She undoubtedly had an attack of paralysis, and
suffered at one time from mania; but that was at the close of last year. Sinoe
that time Miss Ewings had oome to Exeter, and according to the petitioner’s
witnesses she was now perfectly comfortable with Miss Cousens. What had
•he done that all theseJproceedings should be taken against her? Had she
ever injured anybody? Had she ever acted like a mad woman except at the
time when she was taken to the asylum ? Why then had these proceedings been
taken? The answer was this, that Dr. Greenup, towards whom she had all her
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life entertained a well-founded aversion, wanted her money. The question that
was now being tried was in effect the case of Greenup v. Ewings. Dr. Greenup’s
family some years ago had instituted a chancery suit against her branch of the
family, and Dr. Greenup’s side had had to pay the expenses. According to Dr.
Greenup's own evidence he had only seen her once before during his life, and
yet he came down to Exeter, searched her out aud then commenced these pro¬
ceedings, which had the effect of torturing the old lady. He (Mr. Collier)
regretted the manner in which this ca3© had been conducted. It had been
managed like an ordinary nisi prius cause—the only desire of the petitioner being,
by nisi prius manoeuvres, to obtain a verdiot. What evidence had been produced!
There was Dr. Holland, who was brought all the way from Norwich to state
that in 1853 Miss Ewings behaved rudely to him. The fact was that her sister
died in October, and Dr. Holland went in the following May to condole with
her. His learned friend (Mr. Smith) was going at great length into her con¬
dition some years ago ; but the learned Commis doner very wisely suggested that
the question in which the jury was more immediately inteiested, was her mental
oondition since she had been in Exeter. Why had they not called Miss Cousens,
with whom she had lived here ? If they had been sinoere in their desire to throw
any light upon the case, they would have produced that witness. Instead of
doing that, they had called a number of mail doctors, who were always looking
out for insanity, and beating about the bush to find madness. He hoped the
jury would bear in mind the warning contained in the learned Commissioner's
charge not to surrender their judgment to doctors. Go 1 help all our old mothers,
grandmothers, and aunts, if their faculties were tithe tried by mad doctors. The
opposite side had designedly withheld Mr. Sharp who had been for 30 years,
the medical attendant to Miss Ewings. Dr. BuckniU admitted that that gentle¬
man’s evidence would have been important ; but nevertheless he had not been
produced, and the reason was that his opinion did not agree with that of Dr.
BuckniU. Evidence had been given to show that she was much distressed at
the death of her sister. He (Mr. Collier) conceded to his learned friend that she
did grieve at the loss of her dear relative ; ho gave him the fuU benefit of aU
the madness which he could extract from grief at her sister’s death. He (Mr.
CoUier) believed he should be able conclusively to show that since Miss Ewings
had left the asylum she had perfectly recovered. Mr. Collier then went on
to state that he should caU Mr. Sharp befc>re them. What was the manner in
which the case had been brought before them ? The other side had come before
them (the jury,) saying they were only desirous of affording every information.
They repudiated the idea of trying to get a verdict against Miss Ewings, but
that the enquiry was only for her benefit. And yet they withheld from them
the most important information they could give them. He (the learned counsel)
would enquire how the case had been conducted, before he disclosed to them the
evidence which he should bring before them. His learned friends had carefully
•voided caUing before them persons who had ever had dealings with Miss Ewings
in Exeter. And by giving them no information whatever themselves upon
the manner in which her affairs were conducted, they contented themselves by
calling medical gentlemen, who were perfect strangers to her, gentlemen who
formed their opinions partly upon what they said and partly upon what they heard.
The first medical gentleman was Dr. BuckniU. This gentleman had made a very
long report. The first observation which occurred to him to make was this, that
probably if the jury had read that report themselves they would have come to con¬
clusions quite opposite to that at which he arrived. He could not help thinking
—and he thought his learned friend had thought so to —that they were not at aU
anxious that the whole of this report of Dr. Buck mil's should be read to them
(the jury). It was his desire that the whole of the report should have been
placed before them, because lie thought that it would show that this old lady was
never mad at all. They had not the opinions of the medical gentlemen only, but
^be premises upon which they founded their opinions. They could, therefore,
form their opinions upon those premises as well as upon the opinions of the
medical gentlemen themselves. He did not know that dealing with lunatics
strengthened the logical powers and bestowed powers of reasoning. The doctors
said, 44 W© think she is & lunatic because of this, and that, and so on.” But we
were'able to judge as well as they could, and we could draw our conclusions. He
the learned counsel) invited them to take notice of the premises, and he had*no
doabt that they would differ from them in their conclusions upon these said
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premises. He had three or four medical gentlemen, of the highest respectability,
who would be put before them, and who would entirely differ from Dr. Bucknul
and the other medical gentlemen called by his learned friends. They would
tell them that they thought the lady quite capable of managing her affairs at the
present moment. He would beg their attention now while he went into detail
upon the evidence. With respect to the evidence of Dr. Bucknill, that gentleman
expressed a somewhat hesitating and qualified opinion upon the matter. He
thought he was allowed this observation with respect to Dr. Bucknill’s evidence.
The case seemed to have puzzled him a good deal. It was a long time before he
could make up his mind that the old lady was mad. He examined'her for one^
hour and a-half at the first interview, and he said very candidly that although
there were some indications of loss of memory, still if he had been called before
them as a witness, after the first interview; he would have given his evidence in
favour of Miss Ewings. That struck him as a strange fact. Here was Dr.
Bucknill accustomed to discover insanity and trace it iu its lurking places. He
went to her for the purpose of discovering it with regard to Miss Ewings. He
examined her for one hour and a half, and the result was that he could not form
a decided opinion that her mind was unsound or that she was unable to manage
her own affairs. That same gentleman tried her again and again, he believed
altogether eight times. Well Dr. Bucknill told them that all this was very
pleasing to her, and that she liked it very much. He thought they would
be satisfied before the case closed that it was quite different, and that she
dreaded those interviews beyond everything. She knew but too well all that
was going on. She knew perfectly well that there were those who wanted her
money. She knew that proceedings had been taken against her in Chancery,
and she knew that they— (the jury)—had to determine upon her sanity or
insanity; and that upon the result of their verdict depended her liberty;
aye, her life, and all the comforts of her remaining days. She knew it, and
felt it painfully. She knew that Dr. Bucknill was a man of great power. She
knew that he was an agent of the court. She understood that she was to
be put as it were through her catechism, and that she would be sent
to school again. She knew the puzzling questions which were put to her,
and although Dr. Bucknill and the other medical gentlemen did not
mean it, yet it was their way of doing it. Why the poor old lady lay
half awake with the multiplication table floating before her eyes in all directions.
He dared say she lay awake counting twice two are four, twice three are six,
twentypence make one and eightpence and thirty pence two and sixpence. (A
laugh.) She really must have thought that she was to be put through a kind of
catechism in this respect. When she was asleep some visions of the multiplication
table were no doubt there topsy turvy or before her in some shape or other.
(A laugh.) Talk of the ordeal of the plough share in olden times; this was worse.
Upon that examination it did not depend whether she was to be admitted to a
degree, but upon it depended whether she was to enjoy her liberty for the rest
of her life. She knew that it was so. She understood what it was to enjoy
life, and she was apprehensive of the examination of those powerful men. He
said that it was the very anxiety on her part to do well before Dr. Bucknill,
which prevented her doing well. He bad known very able men who were entirely
broken down because of their anxiety to do so. A very able man in this state
lay awake thinking of the examination, and through it he was “plucked.” He
believed that she had been plucked by Dr. Bucknill. After further remarking
upon this point, the learned counsel went on to say that he believed that when
they came to examine her themselves they would find that she possessed a great
deal of knowledge, that would astonish all these mad doctors. A peculiarity of
the disease under which the unfortunate lady suffered was then pointed out by
Mr. Collier, who explained that its effect was some days to make a person able
to transact business with comparative facility and again the reverse. The evidence
of Dr. Bucknill, which he criticised with much ability, was then noticed, the
learned counsel at great length contending that instead of being unfavourable to
Miss Ewings, it would, if they looked at it in its proper light, tend decidedly in
her favour. The difference in the testimony of the various medical witnesses was
S ointed out, and from it the conclusion drawn that one day Miss Ewings was
epressed, which caused an unfavourable impression, and the next day was nyieh
better. It spoke nothing against her total incapacity. In speaking of the
questions which were put to the old lady, Mr. Collier characterised the majority
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of them u too difficult, and quite sufficient to cause nervousness. He particularly
alluded to the £100 a-year question put by Dr. Bucknill, who when asked himself
the very question he had put to this alleged lunatic, what per week is £100 a-year,
could not tell. Her answers to questions about her property they found exactly
correct. What was it? £13,000, and then in a few seconds the second answer
£700. This was found to be the case; her property was £13,700. Then, what
is your income ? £400 a-year. What was it ? £3% ! Did this bespeak insanity ?
Upon these answers were they to found a verdict of insanity? After further
reference to conversations, Mr. Collier directed the attention of the juiy to the
difference in the medical testimony respecting her actual mental condition. Dr.
'/Bucknill said Bhe was/>f unsound mind, because she did not know her property,
but that was done away with by Dr. Tuke, who said she did. So they would
find that they all differed more or less. He begged them seriously to consider
the question. Dr. Tuke asked her about her will, and the property she had left
to Dr. Shapter, but she did not answer. That was no proof of madness, because
she might not have wished to tell, and only replied in that form by way of an
evasive answer. But this was put down to her non-comprehensivcness, and upon
these premises they built their conclusions, and they said—“ She is labouring
under delusion, and chronic mania." He believed that anything less like a
maniac they had never seen. She was no more of a maniac than either of them.
Then they said, she is suffering under insane delusion and morbid aversion. Her
aversion to Mr. Ellacombe was no proof, and yet they were told that it was.
According to Dr. Tuke it was evidenoe of insanity—not mere weakness from old
age—but derangement. The learned counsel then remarked upon the circum*
stances which probably led Miss Ewings to entertain a dislike to Mr. Ellacomba.
He thought it would turn out as complete a “ mare’s nest" & was ever imposed
upon mad doctors. Mr. Ellacombe thinking that he was next of kin took all
of a sudden a great interest in this lady, but as soon as he found out that he was
not next of kin, his interest vanished. (A laugh.) Mr. Collier then expressed
his delight that he had to appeal to them- a tribunal of jurymen—instead of
doctors—and had to ask them whether this lady was really under a delusion. It
was said that one of her delusions was that violence was used when she was taken
to the asylum. But the truth was that some force was used. She discovered
that she was being taken there, and she resisted, so that her attendants employed
some violence. Then with regard toRoman Catholics, it was an undoubted fact
that there was an unusually large number of Roman Catholics at the Haydock
Asylum—the proprietor having admitted that there were at least 50. Another
material fact was that the proprietor could not swear that one of the lady
inmates was not a Roman Catholic, and had not had communication with
Miss Ewings, ahd that that lady was not in the habit of attending a Roman
Catholic church within half a mile from the asylum, and the priest
was in the habit of visiting the asylum. If all this were true was it
unlikely that some efforts would be made to convert her there? Roman
Catholics, when they were sane, looked upon proselytism as their great
object; and we could understand that that object would be pursued even more
eagerly when they were insane. At any rate it was clear that the whole thing
was not a matter of the imagination. Miss Ewings was a strong protestant,
and like many others she entertained a dread of the Roman Catholics. Then
with regard to Mrs. Barnsley, Miss Ewings saw that person at the railway station,
and it occurred to her that she was again about to be tricked, as she had been
tricked before, when she was taken from Warrington to the Asylum, when she
had seen Mrs. Barnsley. The party handed Miss Ewings over to a porter, who
bundled her into a carriage heels first. A porter was also placed by her side in
the carriage, and it was not surprising that she thought she was in a second class
carriage. He (Mr. Collier) in all his experience had never seen a porter riding
in a first class carriage ; and it was quite excusable that Miss Ewings should be
mistaken. Then it was Btated that she did not speak to Mr. Nicholson and Mr.
Ellacombe during the journey to Exeter; but this was accounted for, when it
was remembered that she felt indignant at their ordering a porter to place her in
the carriage. When she arrived at the house of Miss Cousens, she recognised
that person, and her state of mind rapidly improved. Mr. Ellacombe was begged
to leave her alone, as she had endured a long journey; but he called to sooner
the next day. He also went again three or four days afterwards. And what did
he go for ? Although she was perfectly comfortable at Mias Cousens’ he told her
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that she most leave and go to another house. She thereupon took a dislike to
him ; and this the mad doctors called a proof of insanity. Thus the delusions
when they came to be grasped disappeared. He did not impute anything wrong
to Mr. Ellacombe, bub his conduct at the railway station, and his desire to remove
Miss Ewings, caused her to dislike him. That was the kind of evidence upon
which the medical witnesses had formed their opinion as to her sanity or insanity.
JJh believed he might have rested satisfied by replying to the caso of lib learned
friend on the other side. When the evidence of the witnesses was analysed their
conclusions vanbhed. The alleged want of memory was to a great degree
explained by nervousness and other causes. When the doctors differed from each
other as to the character of the disease, and the facts upon which they formed
their conclusions, he might well leave the case in the hands of the jury, feeling
satisfied that they would say the allegation of insanity had not been proved. Ha
intended, however, to call Dr. Shapter and a number of witnesses, including those
whom the other side had withheld. In the first place he should call Mr. Beamont.
an old friend, who was acting as Miss Ewings' solicitor. That gentleman would
give a short hbtory of her caso before she came to Exeter. This would not
differ from the statement of the other witnesses as to the fact that when she
was in the asylum she was suffering from mania or delirium. Mr. Bcamont would
further tell them that she had such a knowledge of her affairs as might fairly be
.expected from an old lady of 80 years of age. She was never a woman of business,
or a woman of figures ; but she knew quite enough of her affairs to be trusted
with the management of them as well as with her personal liberty. Ho would
also call Mr. Sharp her medical attendant, whom the other side were exceedingly
anxious not to call. Mr. Sharp would tell them that her memory for a few
years somewhat failed as regarded names and dates, a failing common to most
old persons ; but at the same time he believed there was no reason whatever for
any interference with her liberty or with the management of her affairs. Another
witness would be Miss Cousens, with whom Mbs Ewings had lived perfectly
happy since she had been in Exeter. Miss Cousens would state that she had
conducted herself like any other lodger. Ann llattenhury the servant at Miss
Cousens would also be produced. It would be shown that Miss Ewings had walked
about Exeter, making small purchases, giving tho right money and taking the
right change. In addition to these witnesses, he should call Dr. Shapter, and
in reference to that gentleman he felt it necessary to make a few remarks. His
learned friend (Mr. Smith) had disclaimed all intention of attacking Dr. Shapter,
but he had nevertheless insinuated everything against him. The tacts were these.
Mbs Ewings came to Exeter, but not at the solicitation of Dr. Shapter. Dr.
Shapter had known her when she and her sister were here before in 1852. They
had corresponded with Dr. Shapter’s sister, which continued till the death of
the latter in 1858. When Mbs Ewings came to Exeter, in February last, Mr.
EUacombe called in Dr. Shapter. Mbs Ewings at once recognised him, and he
treated her with great kindness. She had no relations about whom sho cared a
farthing ; she disliked Dr. Greenup, for the reasons already mentioned, and she
was also displeased with Mr. Ellacombe, who was a third cousin once removed.
8he had lost her onlv sister, and she had not a friend or a near relation in the
world. Dr. Shapter behaved very kindly to her, and what was more natural than
that she should become attached to him ? Any old lady of that age would
require some one to take care of her; and Miss Ewings took a liking to Dr.
Shapter. He knew this, and being a highly honourable man, and thinking that
she might make a testamentary disposition of her property in his favour, took a
most manly and honourable course. He felt that, however straightforward his
conduct might be, and however free might be the disposition of the property, yet
as a medical man, such an act might be reflected upon. To be free, therefore,
from ill reproach he adopted a course than which none more honourable could
have been pursued. Ho wrote a letter to Mr. Beamont, sending copies to Mr.
Nichobon and Mr. Ellacombe, in which he expressed his determination not to
accept any bequest that might be made in lib favour. A more unfounded attack,
therefore, than that made by Mr. Smith had never been made on any professional
man. Miss Ewings strongly urged him to become residuary legatee, and he only
consented when he wrote those letters renouncing all benefit to himself. If, after
writing such letters, Dr. Shanter had taken possession of any of the property,
he would never have been able to have shown his face in Exeter again. An
important fact connected with the will was, that Miss Ewings did not resolve
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Upon making it until after the Tint of Dr. Greenup. She knew that Dr. Greenup
wanted her money, and she was determined he should not have it. She knew
also that if she died without a will her property would go to him; and accordingly,
as soon as he had left, she determined that the will should be made. These were
the facts, and he anxiously hoped that the jury would not by their verdict deprive
lfh« Ewings of her liberty during the few remaining years of her life.
The learned Counsel then called the following witnesses
Mr. William Beamont, solicitor, Warrington, said : I have known Mias
Phoebe Ewings for more than 50 years. Sho lived in a house of mine for 30
years. I have been on intimate terms with her. I am her attorney, but 6he baa
not had any law business since her sister's death, on the 10th of October, 1853w
Then I settled her affairs. Her mother died in my house in the year 1826.
Mr. Coleridge : Do you know that there has been an estrangement between
the pet itioner's branch of the family and Miss Ewings ?
Witness : I know it now, but I did not know it before. Miss Ewings
frequently went away for a long time into Devonshire. On one occasion she
was away for three years, and on two other occasions she was away two
years. She had lodged for a considerable time with Miss Cousens previous
to the last occasion. I recollect Miss Ewiugs being much distressed at the death
of her sister. She withdrew at t e time from society more than was thought
wise. I tried to pacify her, and told her to go more into society. I always
considered the elder sister had the entire guidance of all her affairs when she
was living. I did not live in the house with them, but three doors below.
I saw them constantly. I recollect in October last having heard that Miss
Ewings had had a paralytic stroke. Perhaps it was a month after that time,
but Iheard of it. When I saw her she appeared just as before. She appeared
to be completely restored so far as her bodily appearance went. There was no
trace of it in her body, but there was a little in her mind, and also her disposi¬
tion. She seemed rather more melancholy than before. She appeared quite
capable of discussing matters with me. 1 saw her on the 23rd of December
at her house ; I went there. She seemed quite as usual. I called on her as a
matter of friendship. She was tolerably cheerful, more so than usual; she
asked me to come again. She was not at that time a lunatic. She talked to
me about my wife and ail sorts of subjects the same as another old lady. It
did not oocur to me that there was anything the matter with her mind. I
promised to see her again in a week. On the morning of the 30th of December,
the morning on which I was about to visit her, I was fetched by Mr. Mould
to go to Miss Ewings. I went and found there Mr. Mould, his mother,
Mr. and Mrs. Wood, a Miss Harrison, an attendant, and a servant. Miss
Ewings was very much exhausted. She remained at the window and called to
the persons who were passing for protection. She complained of persons being
in the house. She complained also of her servant. I don't remember that
she said anything but that her servant was dishonest, and that she was going to
harm her. I did my best to pacify her. I succeeded in the course of two
hours in getting her to sit down. Mr. Sharp, of Warrington, was her medioai
attendant, and 1 sent for him. He did all he could to soothe her, but without
efifeot. She had the belief that there was great danger in rem aining in the
house. She showed me her throat, and said persons had tried to strangle her.
We all (eight of us) came to the conclusion that the best thing would be to send
her to *n asylum. I thought her decidedly insane. There was an interval of
three hours before she was sent away. She was taken to the asylum in a
carriage. She went in the carriage in the expectation that she was going to
live somewhere else. Whilst she was in the asylum I asked Mr. Sharp to
visit her and report to me. I wrote on the 31st of December to Dr. Shapter.
I knew that a correspondence had taken place between Miss Ewings and Dr.
Shapter, and that was the reason I wrote to him. In consequence of the letter
I wrote to Dr. Shapter, I received a communication from Mr. EUacombe.
Prom time to time I received reports from Mr. Sharp, and I transmitted
them to Dr. Shapter. I sent one or two of the reports to Mr. Ellacombe.
On the 6th of February last I received a letter from Mr. Ellacombe. In
consequence of that letter I sent him a full report of her case. He arrived at
my house on the 11th of February, and he went with Mr. Nicholson and
myself the next morning to Miss Ewings. I never saw her after she left
Warrington until I saw her in Exeter. I heard of her arrival at Exeter
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through Mr. Ellacombe. In consequence of a letter previously received from
Dr. Shapter, I went to Exeter, ana I there saw Miss Ewings. She was very
cheerful, and said she was very happy; she appeared more nappy than I had
seen her for several years past. In my opinion she appeared as if her mind was
in no way affected. In speaking of her business, she said “You know I don’t
like business, and I hope it will be settled for me.” She then gave me a cheque
for £100 for the payment of several debts. I filled up the cheque, and she
signed it. She told me to settle with Miss Cousens about the expense of her
living, and told me that I was to get the money when I wanted it. She said
she aid not want to be stinted, as she had property amounting to £12,000; she
said her income was several hundreds of pounds, and that was the reason she
did not want to be stinted. At that time I was not aware of the total amount
of her personal property.
It being now half-past six o’clock, the oourt adjourned till Monday.
MONDAY.—THIBD DAY.
The oourt resumed its sitting this morning at ten o’clock. The interest in
the case was evidently undiminished.
Mr. Beamont was re-called. He said, Miss Ewings first said she thought
her income must be about £600 a-year, but she spoke doubtingly. I told her
that I thought it could hardly be so much. I was some considerable time
with her. I said “ yes, madame,” and she said she had told me three or four
years before not to use that term, which was quite true. She showed me some
letters received from her friends, and made some comments, which appeared
quite just. One letter she said she should not answer, as she did not think the
writer had behaved well to her. I think it was a just conclusion. It was a
lady who wrote the letter.
The Commissioner : Does it compromise the lady to mention it ?
Witness: Yes.
The Commissioner: Then we had better say nothing about it.
Witness : Her statement was quite rational about the letter. I saw her
the B&me evening at Dr. Shapter’s cottage. The conversation took place at
Miss Cousens’. In the evening when I saw her at Dr. Shapter’s she was
exoeedingly polite, pointing out several places in the scenery. She named
the places correctly, because I have since learnt such is the case. She showed
me Exmouth, the direction of Dartmoor, Starcross, kc. Exmouth is some
distance. She was quite correct; I did not discover any want of compre¬
hension. No conversation on business passed except this :—“ What present
was I going to take home to my wife,” and begged that I would show it to her.
I saw her the next day, when general conversation passed, and she begged to
be remembered to all her friends. I communicated with Mr. Ellacombe, sen.,
that day, and I told him what had passed. He sent in his account, and I
S aid it. I saw her in church on the morning of the 17th of April. We walked
ome together. We talked about ordinary subjects, she alluding to her friends
at Warrington. She said that she was very glad that Dr. Green&ll was likely
to come in again, referring to the election then pending. She said that she
had read my speech, and produced the Warrington paper containing it. On
the 18th of April I. talked to her about her will. Dr. Greenup had been there,
and that was one reason of my coming down. I told her she was well enough
to make her will, and if so she had better make it. She said “ I will when
I am a little more tranquil, but I will mention it to Dr. Shapter,” who was
not in Exeter that day. I think nothing else took place.
By the Commissioner: I told her that she had better make her will, as
people came hunting after her money.
Examination continued: She said nothing more about her will then. I
saw her again on the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd of May. She seemed somewhat
alarmed. She had been served with a process in lunacy on thef 17th.
By the Commissioner: She said she knew what I had oome about and she
wished me to defend it.
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xxx
Examination continued: I came in consequence of her sending me the
u paper.” She told me to defend it, and signed the notice for this jury.
Khe would not sign it till it was explained. I told her it was a notice that
she meant to resist the petition. At first she said she was afraid, I atked Dr.
Bhapter to explain it, who was present. He told her what I had said, and
she then signed it. Nothing else passed, I came away. That was on the
Monday. My impression is that she was not at church on the Sunday. I only
saw her once. I came late on the Saturday Dight. I was employed about
the affidavits. I saw her again on the 15th of June, first in Exeter and after¬
wards at Dr. Shapter’s. She told me that Dr. Bucknill had been putting her
through her calculations. She said 44 He asked her to count.”
By the Commissioner: 1 won't swear that it was the exact words that
she used, but 1 think they were.
Examination continued : She took out her purse. She said she had been
pussled. She was sitting at the time. She said “ He had asked her to count,
and said something about the multiplication table.” She had been pussled.
She took the money out of her purse and counted it correctly, she said she
was ashamed of her shabby purse, I then gave her mine. The purse was
shabby, and I believe she was ashamed of it. My purse was a very handsome
one. She put her money in her own purse, and folded mine carefully up
and put it in her pocket, and said she would use it when this enquiry was
over. I have seen her in company with some eight people at dinner. She
conducted herself mast rationally and properly. I think it was in April last.
She joined in conversation. She spoke of her friends, she starting the subjects,
which were principally about Warrington. Her remarks about what other
people said were quite pertinent. I recollected repeating an epigram about a
marriage which she laughed at very much. I have known her 40 or 50 years.
I think she is of perfectly sound mind and capable of managing her affairs. I
saw her yesterday and she talked rationally.
The witness here offered to repeat the epigram which related to the seige
of Sebastopol.
The learned Commissioner intimating that he should like to hear it, the
witness repeated the following
What means to-day the mingled rattle.
Of bells and cannons in our town ?
Is it that Mars, the god of battle.
Has brought the Russian eagle down T
No 1 still hov’rinp o’er us, in defiance,
Mara has not slam the traitor yet;
But love and hymen in alliance.
Have caught a Lion in their net !
By the Commissioner : I think her quite capable of managing her affairs,
and should have no objection to take her instructions to make a will. But I
would say that I have not seen her at any lengthened interview lately. In
May, when she had been served with a process, I don’t think I should have
liked to have taken her instructions.
Examination continued : I received all her letters. I ought to have received
a dividend warrant from the London and North-Western Railway. I did not
open her letters though. The dividend warrant did not arrive, and I asked if
it was among the letter? which I had sent her. She brought out her papers*
and it was nob among them. I afterwards learnt that Mr. Ellaoombe had
stopped it.
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : I searched to see if the letter was there.
I believe Bhe said she was not aware that it had not arrived.
By the Commissioner : It had not arrived.
Cross-examination continued : I am the solicitor in opposition. I came on
the 21st, a Saturday. I came because she had sent me the paper. She did
not send it, but Mr. Campion did. I saw her on the Monday morning. I saw
on the Sunday a gentleman, Mr. Charles Ellacombe, about making an affidavit.
I had spoken to Dr. Shapter about steps to be taken to oppose the petition.
Directly I received the notice, I commenced steps to have it tried by a
jury before I saw her. I think it was begun in London. She said that she
J ww on* of the persom who bad h#Jped send ber to Ha/docb, apd.
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therefore, the asked Dr. Shapter about it I think before signing. I eaa only
explain it by that, though I have been her solicitor so many years. [Mr.
Campion’s letter was put in and read.] She seemed to be attached to her friends
at Warrington, and was not therefore friendless. She had received kindnessej
from them. Mrs. Lowe was one of them. After the paralytic attack she seemed
more melancholy. I did not observe that her memory was any worse or more
defective. I know that it was thought desirable that she should be placed in
a private place and not in an asylum. I did not visit her in the asylum. I
think Bowden was the place mentioned. I believe it is a very healthy and
pleasant place. It is a suburb of Manchester. I did not know there were any
relatives, but afterwards understood from Mr. EUacombe that she had relatives
in Devonshire. He stayed at my house. My firm is Beamont, Urmson, and
Davis. It was agreed that an order should be made for an application in chancery.
I think when she went to the banks for money they filled up the cheques
and she signed them. I came down to Exeter in consequenoe of Dr. Greenup
having been here. I think Dr. Shapter wrote the letter which I received. I
have not received a letter from Miss Ewings since she has been in Exeter. I
do not think I received a letter from her for the last twelve years. I told her
■he was well enough to make her will. I commenced the conversation. I think
it is very likely that I might have heard from Dr. Shapter, either by letter or
word of mouth, about it. I won’t undertake to swear about it. I believe I did
not speak to Dr. Shapter about it. I think it very likely that Dr. Shapter, in
some of his letters, had alluded to her fitness to make a will. [A letter, dated
12th of March, was here put in and read.] I said on one occasion that she was
too much excited to have attested a will. I saw her alone on the 18th of April.
[Another letter, of the 7th of May, was here put in and read.] I did forward an
account of her property to Dr. Shapter. I have never written to her about it.
I sent the letter to Dr. Shapter. I did not prepare any document in consequence
of the letter of the 12th of March. I have certainly not prepared any docu¬
ments for her, except the cheque for £500, which I sent down in blank to
Dr. Shapter. It was filled up by me on the 10th of May, and sent on that day.
She pointed the places to me. In some respects her eyesight was remarkable.
By the Commissioner: She had “ long sight.” I have not seen her read
except at church.
Re-examined : She had friends at Warrington.
By the Commissioner ; Her friends comprised many of the principal people
at Warrington.
Re-examination resumed : She was greatly displeased with Mrs. Lowe about
the asylum. She said Mrs. Lowe had ordered her to be placed in the carriage
by force when she was coming to Devonshire. She repeated it again and again
that she was displeased with Mrs. Lowe. Mrs. Lowe had nothing to do with
taking her to the asylum.
By the Commissioner: I wished her to state the names of the friends to
whom Bhe wished to leave her money. She said nothing to me about being made
a Roman Catholic. I knew nothing about her delusions except from the affidavits.
The Commissioner : Don’t you think that any one sincerely wishing to
aaoertain the true state of her mind, should have made this enquiry ?
Witness : I did not do so.
Mr. John Sharp, surgeon : I live at Warrington, and have Attended the
Ewings's family for 30 years or more. Miss Ewings’s sister died in 1853. I
was in the habit of seeing Miss Phoebe Ewings from time to time before
her paralytic attack. I do not know whether I attended her professionally.
She visited my family. She retired from society much. She seemed to be
more desponding. She had peculiarities, but not more than most old maidens or
bachelors. (A laugh.) Her general disposition was generally good. Her con¬
versation was natural but often trivial. This is the character of her mind.
Her conversation, however, was natural. Prom the time of her paralytic stroke
her2memory was rather defective, and increased at the time of going to the
asylum. I visited her in the asylum four times.
The Commissioner : Mr. Collier admitted that she was at this time.
Examination continued by Mr. Kingdon : On the 8th of February, the last
visit, I did not detect loss of memory, but she said she heard noises in the
house. I did not see her again until the 28th of May, at her lodgings, at Mias
Cotuen’i, ip £*eter. I put dowp op a bit of paper potp of the eoprepatiop,
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E he witness then proceeded to reed from hie note* which he seid he hed made
e seme day.] Dr. Shapter told me that ho wished me to see her. She shook
me heartily by the hands, said she was very glad to see me ; began by referring
to the recent troubles in Warrington ; she said 44 You know,” but did not add
what. I said to her “ Come, now, you must not say anything about Haydock,
you know you are far removed from there.” She then enquired after Mrs.
Sharp, my sons, the alterations of the parish church to which she had given
some money— asking if any of the vaults there had been disturbed. Her mother
and sister had been buried there in vaults, but not her last 6ister which the
law prevented. This disturbed her. She was buried in a vault in St. Paul’s
Church. She thanked me for a newspaper I sent her, containing an account
of the laying the foundation stone of the extension of the church, and of Mr.
GreenaU’s election; asking about her pew in St. Paul’s church she used to go
to. It had been cleaned. She asked if her house had been turned 44 up side
down.” I know no more about the pew she mentioned. She asked how her house
in Busy-street looked. This was the one she lived in. There were five persons
at the dinner table that day besides Miss Ewings and myself. She asked me if
I would take a parcel for her to Warrington. She talked chiefly about the
•lection, and asked what the Radicals did. She was a good Tory. (A laugh.)
Mr. Smith : She has not chosen her counsel.
Mr. Collier: You cannot say not well. I don't think my friend oan call it a
proof of her madness. (Laughter.)
Mr. Smith : Certainly not.
Examination continued : When I was going away she gave me a parcel and
told me what it contained. It contained sea-weed collected by herself and
lister, and desired me to give it to Miss Sharp. When about to leave the
table she spoke to Dr. Shapter. Ail I heard was the 44 fee.” She did not say
anything to me about the 44 fee.” I was at Dr. Chapter’s about two hours. I
thought she took the greatest amount of talking, which rather interfered with
my eating. (A laugh.) The presence of an old friend was interesting.
By the Commissioner : Her conversation was quite rational, and such ai
she had been in the habit of using when in Warrington. I say the same of it
in the evening. I saw her yesterday morning and evening. In the morning I
was with her about a quarter of an hour. Mr. Cole and Dr. Shapter were with
her. In the morning she enquired after my health. Mr. Beamont went into the
sitting-room first, and I followed him. She was standing on the floor. She was
dressed in a walking dress. She said, “ I won’t go to church this morning.”
Dr. Shapter advised her to go, but she said, “No, I will go this afternoon.”
Then she made some reference to this “shameful affair.”
By the Commissioner : I don’t know that those were her words. I said
keep your mind easy, all will go on right. She then said something about Dr.
Kendrick and Mr. Mould going to the railway, that she met them, and that she
supposed they had been “ going against me.” I said I heard their evidence, and
I think it was as much for you as against you, if not more. She did not
make any reply. Nothing was said about seeing her in the evening. But about
six o’clock I was at Dr. Shapter’s country house, and Miss Ewings came. I
had three-quarter’s of an hours conversation with her. The princi pal part of
the conversation was about her friends in Warrington. She called their names
except two. One was Mrs. Lowe’s daughter, whose name I do not know
though I know her personally.
The Commissioner: During the three-quarters of an hour’s conversation,
did she refer to this enquiry ?
* Witness : I believe she did not once make allusion to this enquiry.
Examination continued : Her conversation at that time was quite rational,
and the same as before the attack of paralysis. She enquired about Mrs. Lowe,
who had told them to put her in the carriage. She asked how Mrs. Lowe and
her daughter were. I said she had hod a paralytic stroke. She said 44 1 am
very sorry for her though she behaved very cruelly to me. Her family is subject
to palsy.” I said I don’t remember whether they are. Twice she said she was
sorry, and twice that the family of Mrs. Lowe was subject to palsy. I think
she is of sound mind, but her memory is still defective. I think decidedly she
is capable of managing her property. I should have no objection to attest any
will she might execute. Bat I think she should not be excited. I have said
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that I think she was quite oompetent to exeoute a will. I hare said so to
several persons.
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : Her conversation was natural, but on
trivial subjects. Her memory so far as manner was concerned was failing. In
the year 1853 I observed it particularly. She was very much affected by her
sister's death. The paralytic attack affected her speech, and one arm. I signed
the certificate under which she was sent to the asylum, and visited her four times.
I saw her afterwards on the 13th of February. I thought she was unsound,
and I am still of opinion that at that time she was unsound. I did not see her
again until the 28th of May. After the paralytic stroke and before she went
to the asylum I found that she entertained some suspicions about the servants.
But I did not know at that time whether there was any foundation for the
thought. Mr. Sharp then confirmed a former witness’s statement about Miss
Ewings wandering in the streets, and especially when she run out of the house.
I liked the servant to be present at my professional interviews with her, to see if
she answered right. She 44 thanked ” me for a newspaper which I had sent her.
The Commissioner : I took it to be that she only 44 thanked ” me for it.
By Mr. Smith : I rather avoided any conversation that would excite her.
I did about her “ delusions. ” Last night she was quite calm when talking
about her Warrington friends. She was calm, in good spirits, and frequently
laughed. Mr. Ireland Blackburn lives about eleven miles from Warrington. I
recollect Mr. Isaac Blackburn’s family. They have left for a great number of
yeare. The Bostons have left about 20 years. Mr. Ireland Blackburn’s family
did not live in Warrington. I heard the word 44 fee.” Dr. Sh&pter nodded
his head. She did not give me a “fee.” She formerly paid me my amount every
year. Mrs. Lowe was always very kind to Miss Ewings, who had a very strong
objection to go to the asylum. She appeared contented to be in Exeter, ana
spoke words to that effect yesterday. She is able to manage her property, but
. of course requires a person to assist her. I can’t say whether she is able to
correspond.
By the Commissioner: Her sister could continue a conversation for a longer
period. Miss Phoebe would stop abruptly at times.
The Commissioner: Did you take wine ? A. No. Q. Did you see her
take wine ? A. No.
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : If she was free from excitement she would
be free to execute a will. Assuming that she was told that persons were coming
down hunting after her money, I don’t think she would bo- in a fit state to
exeoute any instrument, especially if she was told that they wore coming down
in an hour or a short time. If eight or ten people were to go and see her,
I don’t think she would be excited. A little tended to excite her, especially
strangers being present. I don’t think she is in a fit state to be taugnfc any¬
thing, or to learn by herself. I should have enquired about her 44 delusions' 9
had I not known her. I only wonder her 44 mania” has not returned after the
examinations she has undergone.
Re-examined by Mr. Collier: I think her memory has failed since her sister’s
death. She used one person’s name for another. I think it arose through a
mistake of words. Her mind had not failed so far that I should think her of
unsound mind. This is up to the time of the paralysis. When I saw her at
Exeter she had recovered very much to my astonishment, and I found her as well
as she was before she had the attack of paralysis. She looked very well, and
more like she used to do, she used to be very pretty. Bodily and mental
health often go together, but one may fail without the other. She looked better
than 8ho had for six years. There is nothing very peculiar in her failing, more
as regards memory, than when not excited. I was in court when Dr. Bucknill
gave his evidence. I think the examination of that gentleman did confuse her.
When cross-examined by Dr. Bucknill as she was, I should think she would be
confused, and should be astonished if she was not. When nervous she would
not be fit to make a will. But supposing her excitement to have subsided, and
only friends to be with her, then I think she would be in a fit state to make a
will. Each of the times I have seen her, I think she could have made a will.
Mr. Collier: Does she know by whom she is surrounded? Witness : Yes, I
think so.
Re-examination resumed: She shook me heartily by the hands.
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Mr. Collier: Does she know whet going to ohnreh means ? A: She was
pretty regular in her attendance.
Mr. Collier : We must assume a good motive.
Witness : When she is calm she knows her friends from others, and oould
call them by name.
By Mr. Collier : She has told me that she has visited the Bostons. She
spoke to me about the newspaper, and spoke about the contents. She asked me
about the vaults, &c.
The Commissioner: Did she refer to the contents in Buch a manner as to lead
you to believe that she had read it ?
Witness : Oh yes. I think she had said she had read every word.
Mr. Collier : We heard from Dr. Tuke that she failed to read a paper.
Might it be that when put into her hand she might fail through the examiner
doingit ?
Witness : I thought so when I heard the evidence. If excited she could
scarcely be able to read. She might be able to read, but I have no proof that
she can read.
Mr. Smith : I was going to ask that question.
Witness : I cannot say anything about her knowledge of figures. I should
say “ certainly not” to the question that every old lady was a lunatic because
she could not do figures. (A laugh.)
The Commissioner: You have told fis this morning the state of mind in
which you say you found her yesterday ?
Witness : Yes.
The Commissioner: It was your judgment that so far as her powers of
man age ment goes, she can manage her affairs ?
Witness : Yes.
The Commissioner : Now the question is, and I have written it down for
you, supposing Miss Ewings had yesterday taken the life of another person, and
you were this morning asked—if she were being tried for her life—whether she
was a rational being and accountable for her actions, would you answer that she
was of sound mind, or that she was not ?
Witness : I should say she was of sound mind when I saw her, but that
having had an attack of mania it might suddenly return, and then of course she
would bo of unsound mind, but if she had done it while talking to me then I
will say “ while in a sound state of mind,” but no medical man can say how
suddenly an attack of mania may return after it has once appeared. If my
memory serves me right, I might say that on the evening of the day when she ran
out of the house en an excited state she was calm in the morning.
The Commissioner : But supposing no attack of acute mania had 6npervened
—of which we have spoken —do you think that if she had killed any one it
would have been “murder?” Would you now sitting in that chair tell the
jury that in such an aspect of the case, you believed that she was of sound mind ?
Witness : Of sound mind.
The Commissioner : Suppose with your present knowledge—which you have
given to the learned counsel and the jury—you were now to be suddenly informed
by some one that she had taken away life ?
Witness : The answer would be, that a sudden attack of mania might have
set in; but my impression is that she would not have done it while talking
with me, but she might have done it in consequence of a sudden attack of mania
having come on.
The Commissioner: Are they very liable to such attacks of acute mania?
Witness : I can’t say peculiarly liable to sudden attacks, but I know they
may have it.
The Commissioner : Did you ever hear of the late Dr. Pritchard’s work ?
Witness : Yes.
The Commissioner : Do you consider him a good authority ?
Witness: Yes.
The Commissioner : Do you agree with this—“ The disease—mental insanity
— often appears in a more marked and sudden manner in elderly persons who
have sustained a slight attack of apoplexy or paralysis—which has perhaps
speedily recovered—and which might be expected to have left traces of the disease.
The expectation is verified so far as the sensatfve and motive powers are con¬
cerned, out the seat of intellect is found to have been shaken at its very oentre.”
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Witness : I don’t think my experience will enable me to say.
Charles Nicholls Cole : I was at Dr. ShaptePs last evening, about six o’clock,
and saw Miss Ewings. Dr. Shapter and Mr. Sharp were there. I walked up
with Mr. Sharp to dine there, and Dr. Shapter afterwards arrived. Miss Ewings
arrived afterwards. I was in her company from a quarter past six till a quarter
Pfst eight. She was introduced to me. Mr. Sharp spoke to her for about a
quarter of a hour, when I left. I could see that she knew to whom she was
conversing. I confirm ail Dr. Shapter said about her while I was there. At
dinner she sat near me. She appeared reasonable. She did not manifest any
want of intellect, and she talked about ordinary matters the same as other people.
Speaking about archery she said she could not pull the bow. I spoke about a
lady who broke her leg at the Crystal Palace. She said she regretted it, and also
she was sorry thatshehad never seen the Crystal Palace. She shook hands with
us and said, “ I trust my affairs will go on all right.”
By the Commissioner : She had a smile upon her countenance when she said
it. Perhaps it might have been in a cheerful manner.
Cross-examined by Mr. Karslake : Her manners are ladylike. She did not
of oourse talk to me like she did to Mr. Sharp, because I was a stranger. Our
conversation was upon general subjects.
By the Commissioner : I did not attempt to elicit the state of her mind.
She seemed very self-possessed. There was no depression about her. She does
not look above 60 odd years. She is the most remarkable person I ever saw for
80 years old.
Dr. Thomas Shapter examined by Mr. Collier : I am a physician, of Exeter.
I knew the Misses Ewings seven years ago when they were in Exeter. They
lodged here some months when they were here. I and my family saw a good
deed of them. I was their medical man, or, I should say, the elder sister. There
were acts of intimacy. My sister and Miss Phoebe Ewings contracted an intimacy.
After they went back to Warrington the cider sister died. During her illness I
was corresponded with, and after the death mourning was sent. My sister occa¬
sionally corresponded with Miss Phoebe Ewings. I had the misfortune to lose my
sister last year. I forwarded a letter ten days afterwards to Miss Ewings, which
I found addressed to her. I sent a note myself announcing her death. 1 received
a letter in reply, written by Mr. Wood. About Christmas last I received a letter
from Mr. Beamont, announcing Miss Ewing's illness, and making some enquiries
about her relations. I forwarded that letter to Mr. Charles Ellacombe, of
Alphington. To the best of my recollection I heard nothing of her till the 15th
of that day, when Mr. Ellacombe called and said he ha^ brought her from
Warrington. He gave me a general description of her being in an asylum. We
agreed that I should see her the next morning. I did call and see her. I will
speak chiefly from memory.
By Mr. Smith : The book I am referring to embraces all patients who visit me.
Mr. Smith : I must see it if necessary.
The book was handed in.
The Commissioner : As to everybody else it is strictly confidential, because
it is the “ general diary.”
Examination continued: When I saw Miss Ewings on the 10th, at Miss
Cousens, she was rather excited, bnt she told me in a coherent manner the
history of her troubles. She first spoke about my s steps death, and said she
hoped I had received the letter from Mr. Wood, which I had. She could write,
but it was rather the work of time, and labour, and trouble. Immense labour,
I may say, and not satisfactory to her afterwardis— she doubted her power. She
immediately recognised me, and asked at once about my children and family, and
seemed very glad to see me. She then proceeded to detail to me what she termed
II the sorrow she had gone through.” She first told me that she had had great
agitation, and that she distrusted her servant, because she thought her servant
was robbing her. She said one night she heard a noise up-stairs, that she crept
up quietly, that she looked through the keyhole of the maid servant’s bed-room,
and she saw there what alarmed her. She said “ It was shocking ; it alarmed
me greatly, and shocked me horribly.” “I then,” she said, “ran down stairs,
rushed out of the house, and cried thieves and murder, for I thought they were
going to murder me.”
Mr. Collier : Did she tell you then what she saw ?
Witness; No, not at that time.
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The Commissioner: Why ? Did yon not ask her ?
Witness: Because I listened to her tale. She said subsequently that she
thought she saw a man there. She then went on to say that she had been very
violently used in her own house. She said that she had been very violently held,
and that she had been thrown down by the person who had held her. Then the
next day she said eight or ten of her friends met in my house, and they tolc^me
if I staid in my house that injury would come to me, and that Mr. Gilbert
Greenall would be glad to see mo (Miss Ewings) at his house. She said 41 I doubt
the fact, because I think he was away”—however, I was put into a carriage with
a strange woman. I thought it might be important, said Dr. Shapter—but I
only ascertained it lately that the person who clasped her around the neck was
a one-arm person. She said she was put into the carriage with a strange woman.
After we nad gone some little distance I discovered that we were going the
Lancashire and not the Cheshire road, upon which I became alarmed, and said
44 You are deceiving me,” and she then described how she put her head out of the
window and called out to the postboy or driver to stop, because he was going the
wrong road. The woman in the carriage first endeavoured to soothe me, and
then held me down by force until we came by a turnpike-gate, when another
woman got in and assisted in holding me down, I then gave myself up as lost,
and was quiet for the rest of the journey. She then proceeded to relate
that she was put into the asylum and described to me the staircase, which
made an impression upon her. She said she was obliged to attend one or two
balls given to the insane patients which was distasteful to her. However,
she said they behaved very kindly to her and very proper. She then
said that Mr. Nicholson and Mr. Ell&combo had called to take her out of
the asylum, and she said, “ Very glad I was to get out.” She said Mr.
Ellacombe told m6 that he was the nearest relative, but I knew that he
wasn’t.” Then I was taken to Mrs. Lowe’s, who told me (Miss Ewings) that Mr.
Ellacombe had told her that he was the nearest relative, and that he, the elder
Ell&oombe, and all the Ellacombcs were to have my property. Jane Warren and
Miss Cousens were present at this interview. She then described to mo in nearly
the same terms as the other witnesses have done the scene at the railway
station at Warrington. I think she said she called out, 44 You a clergyman’s
widow, and yet see me treated in this way.” She spoke of Mrs. Lowe standing
by and seeing her thrown into the carriage in that way. She said the porter in
the carriage was in his shirt, and that it was in a second class carriage she was put.
She spoke of Mr. Ellacombe with disrespect and dread. The cause she assigned
was that he had been the cause of the violence at the railway station. When
Mr. Ellacombe called on me about one o’clock, I told him that she being an old
lady it would be better for him to let her stay three or four days. From my
conversation with Mr. Ellacombe he impressed on my mind that she suffered
under dementia, but 1 thought her much as before, except a little agitated.
On the 17tli she expressed a strong wish to stay at Miss Cousens. Her story
was coherent. On the evening of the 18tli, when I came homo, 1 found there
was an urgent message from her. I went and found her much agitated. She said
Mr. Ellacombe had been there, and had thought to remove her violently from
Miss Cousens, but that she had fallen down upon her knees to him, and then
he said 44 She must go to-morrow.” She then appealed to me. Jane Warren
and Miss Cousens were present at the time. She asked me as a Christian, and
as a geatleman, to protect her, and said 44 May I not apply to the Lord
Chancellor.” I told her no person could remove her against her will without
ft proper medical certificate that she was out of her mind, and that I was not
prepared to give such a certificate. I left her much calmed and comforted. The
next morning I saw her and told her I had received a letter from Mr.
Ellacombe, saying he had abandoned the intention of removing her. She
again appealed to me as a Christian and as a gentleman. They are her terms.
If there was any attempt to remove her I was to apply to the Lord Chancellor.
In the presence of Mr. Winslow Jones and myself Bhe repeated the story of
being taken to the asylum. Though he was a stranger there was no incongruity,
or incoherence, though she might have been agitated. She is perfectly able to
oonverse, and nas proved an agreeable friend to me.
The Commissioner : If I and the jury see her will that make her nervous?
A. : To ft certain extent it will, but I have prepared her for the visit, and I *hink
she is quite willing to oome this afternoon and see you in this court.
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'Witness: I think it is beyond her mind to be asked “ calculation questions. 9 *
If she is not agitated I think her capable of conversing upon all subjects. I
answer that without the slightest reservation. It is not remarkable for an old
woman of 80 to be easily puzzled. She told me she was 80 on the 18th of this
month. I.don’t think she looks more than 70. [As a proof of her physical
power the witness mentioned several instances, among which was that she had
walked to Cowley Bridge about a mile and a-half, and that seeing his
children using some 44 dumb bells” about a month since in his garden she took
them up and used them well. Each bell weighed 7 lbs J If there is any relict
of paralysis it is that she cannot propel her tongue. It was agreed between
myself and Mr. Jones that she should be left quiet for one month. I said I
would see Miss Ewings and ask her to pledge herself that during that period she
would sign nothing. Mr. Jones attended professionally on the 24th February
on behalf of the next of kin. She then complained of her want of wearing
apparel and money. She had, I am soriy to say, no change of linen from the 10th
to the 25th. She said she was kept without. On the 28th Bhe repeated the
complaint. She was very anxious to go to church on the 2nd Sunday after she
was in Exeter. She spoke about the church of St. Lawrence, where she used
to go. Upon putting a question to her she said, 44 1 recollect the clergyman
of St. Lawrence used to administer the sacrament in a way which I did not like.
For he used to give us the bread and cup together and then merely say the
words.” It is true that seven years before she had made that complaint.
I think it is a remarkable proof of her strength of memory. l)r. Fox called
on me on the 10th of March. It was left entirely to him whether he would
see her, and he did. In the presence of Dr. Fox and Mr. Ellacombe I said, in
my opinion, Miss Ewings was quite capable of transacting any and all business.
I said to Dr. Fox, and Mr. Ellacombe on the 10th of March that 44 1 thought
she was quite capable of signing any document properly explained to her, and
that I should have no hesitation in witnessing it. That she could leave her
property to whom she liked, but that I was the only man in England who could
not accept it.” I further told Mr. Ellacombe that if she signed any document
I would let him know.
By Mr. Collier: I said I could not accept it in reference to myself and my
position, and not out of any mistrust of her capacities. I know that observa¬
tions are made upon medical men when wills are made in their favour under
such circumstances.
The Commissioner: And it is very salutary too, that such observation
should be made.
After relating the particulars of an interview between Miss Ewings and
Dr. Fox on tho 10th of March, Dr. Shapter proceeded to sayOn the
12th of March she desired me to write to Mr. Beamont, authorising him to
make me her guardian. Sho said she wished to have her affairs settled, and
that she had never had the care of money. She said she had no relations,
• or none she cared about. That her nearest relations were unkind to her and
her mother, and that she wished to be protected against them. She hoped
I would not let Mr. Ellacombe come to her. She desired some money as Bhe
had not given Miss Cousens her Christmas-box. It was her custom to send
bor a guinea every year, but had omitted it this. I still adhere to the fact
that I think her mind is clear, and that she has mind to manage her affairs.
fA letter written by Dr. Shapter. in relation to this point, was here putin,
read, and confirmed by him.] Her wish to make me her guardian did not
make me think her unable to manage her own affairs. I certainly do think that
it does not indic&to an unsound mind for an old lady of 80 to wish a guardian.
I think her capable of signing anything she is called upon to do. She is a woman
of very remarkable mind. I will defy anyone to make her sign anything which
she does not wish to sign. [Instances were given by the witness to support
his testimony. Among them was one in which Mr. Beamont asked her to
sign a paper relating to the action, but which sho declined to do until
explained. Other instances referring to the gift of £500 to the Christian Know¬
ledge Society, and £45 towards the restoration of the church of Warrington.]
She signed a cheque for me for £30. I had advanced her the money. She
asked if she could sign the drafts, but I told her her money was her own.
She said this because of the pending action. She said she had a right to give
her own, went into a back room, sat down, adjusted her spectacles, and read the
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cheques. [The witness detailed at length the many enquiries aha made
respecting the cheques, Ac., to indicate her soundness of mind.] She said
“ Would you sign it if it were yours ?” I said “ Yes.” She then signed it, a
cheque for me for £30. She had no difficulty in doing so. She told me that her
clothes had arrived. She showed me a printed report of the Warrington
Ladies’ Society, and gave me a description of the persons. Her own name was
down, which she said was spelled wrong. When speaking of Mr. Nicholson—
who, she said, was an old friend of the family—at the railway station, she said
“I saw his heels,(A laugh.) She also added something else not compli¬
mentary to him.
By Mr. Smith : These notes were made at different times. One note
was made on the 28th of March, and there was a little addition about a
month ago. In looking over my notes I made some addition.
Witness: She wished me to open her letters. She received a letter
from a lady on the 4th of April—say from a Miss G. She read it and did not
very well like it. She said it was stuff and nonsense. She made a running
comment upon every paragraph read.
The Commissioner : One lady commenting upon another. (Laughter.)
Witness : It was a most accurate description of the letter. Her remarks
were so just that I made the remark. Having deposed to a call of Dr. Greenup,
Dr. Shapter said “When he came I thought he came to see her, because
he was the next of kin.” It was only after a good deal of persuasion that she
consented to see him. Afterwards she said she would make her will and leave
her money to whom she liked. She was only sorry that she had not done it
before, but she always disliked business. She said, “I particularly wish that Mr.
Ellacombe and Dr. Greenup—who, when she saw them, she received in a very
reserved manner—shall not have my property, because the Greenups have
tried to take my sister’s and mother’s property ; but there was a friend—
I don’t recollect the name—who fought the battle for us, and they had to pay all
the costs.” The next day slio again resumed the subject of her will. She wished
to have the particulars of her property, and I was to write to Mr. Beamont about
it. She remarked what an injury it had been to her not making her will, and
said she had nearly done it four years before. A reply was received from Mr.
Beamont, and I communicated it to her, when she said I thought it was
rather a little under £14,000. I made a copy on a piece of paper. I did not give
her Mr. Beamont's letter. She went through the items, and at length said
“ There are £200 in the Savings’ Bank. [Ev idence was then put in to show
that this was perfectly right. It appeared that each of the sisters had £199 in
the Savings’ Bank.] She said “My bankers at Warrington give me two per
cent., but my lady friends tell me that it is too little.” [A letter dated the
11th of May, and written by Dr. Shapter to Mr. Beamont, was then put
in and read.J—A long conversation here ensued respecting the regulations of a
will, but it possessed no public interest, except to show that Miss Ewings
exercised her reasoning faculties in giving certain directions respecting a few
gratuities to ten poor old women.—Witness : She perfectly comprehended what
she was about.^ The gifts to the ten poor women of 2s. a piece were to be
immediate. She knew the difference between an immediate gift and a bequest.
She said I should like to give away several things, but I must not make
myself too poor. After a few more questions upon this point the evidence
went on to Dr. Slfapter’s dealings with Dr. Bucknill. I Bhowed to Dr.
Bncknill the letter I wrote to Mr. Beamont, saying that I would not take any
bequest. Dr. Bucknill made a couple of comments. When he came to that
passage which Bays “I should repudiate anything left me, he said “Yes, that
is all very right.” On the 30th of May I again visited her, and she said she
wished her will to be made out of hand; I gave her the paper and proposed
to send for Mr. Beamont. She said, “but you can do it, can’t you.” 1 said
yes. I then read over the legacies and asked if they were the right sums,
and she said they were. She then said I wish you to be executor and
residuary legatee. I told her I did not wish to have her property. She remon¬
strated, and said she had a right to give it where she like. I then said I
would send her instructions to Mr. Beamont. She said, “I wish to have it
done now.” I then proposed that Mr. Gray, an attorney of Exeter, should be
sent for. She asked me who Mr. Gray was, and said he was Mr. Beamont’s
agent, and was acting in Exeter on her behalf. I also said he was the gentleman
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who had drawn up Mr. Sharp’s affidavit, and whom die had seen on Saturday.
She said she did not know and had no confidence in lawyers. She had
no confidence except in me. I told her there mnst be two witnesses ; and she
said she should like old Mary, the servant, and Miss Georgina. I told her
there was a difficulty, as Miss Georgina Cousens had a legacy. She said 9
“ Pay her at once.” I rang the bell for Miss Cousens, and desired her to go for
Mary, saying it was to witness Miss Ewings’s will. I added at the top of the paper,
“This is the will of me, Phoebe Ewings,” and at the bottom, “ I appoint Dr.
Shapter residuary legatee and executor.” By this time Miss Cousens and Mary
were in the room. I then explained to Miss Cousens that her witnessing the will
would invalidate her legacy ; that I had mentioned this to Miss Ewings, who had
said I was still to carry out her instructions and give her the legacy. Miss
Ewings, who at this moment had the pen in her hand, and was sitting at the
table rose from her seat, walked up to Miss Cousens and said, “You and your
sister can have your legacies directly,” and then turned to me and said, “Let
them have their money at once.” She next turned to old Mary and said-
“ Recollect there is no legacy for you.” She resumed her seat and signed
her name in the best signature I ever saw her make. The two witnesses signed*
I then explained to Miss Ewings before them what she had done, that her money
was still her own to give it away in charities, that she could destroy her will
or do what she liked with it, and that when Mr. Beamont came he must read
it over to her and explain it fully. I took it away and by that post I wrote a
full account of the transaction to Mr. Beamont. I also showed it to Mr.
Gray, who attended on Miss Ewings and made another will. She then said,
taking the original instructions, “ People are very curious,” and then tore
the paper to pieces. On the 2nd of July the second will was made, myself,
Mr. Gray, and Miss Cousens being present. Miss Ewings would insist on my
remaining, and she executed the will. Immediately afterwards I wrote to Mr.
Beamont. I have seen her before and after Dr. Bucknill’s visits ; And I noticed
that she was then very nervous and dreaded them excessively. On the day after
Dr. BucknilTs fourth visit she was dreadfully agitated, and her mind was so
disturbed that she could not say a word. She said she had been disturbed during
the whole of the night with figures. The night succeeding my interview was
a sleepless one, and she was much agitated on the following morning. I agree
with Mr. Sharp that the effect of such interviews would be to impair her cal¬
culating powers. Her politeness would often induce her to conceal a great deal
that annoyed her. On one occasion Dr. Bucknill cross-examined her in my
garden, and she fell back against the rails exhausted, saying, “ I can stand it
no longer,” and I remonstrated with Dr. Bucknill. I think Dr. Bucknill’s
visits would confuse her mind altogether. On the second visit of Dr. Bucknill at
my garden she was very cheerful and lady-like ; and it was quite impossible
for the most imaginative man to find out that she was insane. She is a little
enfeebled and embarrassed by these proceedings and examinations. She is not
looking so well now as she did a month ago ; but I am surprised that she bears
it so well, as she understands the nature of all these proceedings. Undoubtedly
she is in sound mind. I have never seen anything daring the six months sho
has been in Exeter to indicate that she was of unsound mind. 1 do not say that
her mind is not enfeebled by age. At times she does not show much quickness
of perception. You address a question to her, and you fancy the does not hear
it. You address it a second time, and then she is herself again, and will enter
into conversation. That is not uncommon in persons of her Age. She has a
most remarkable memory; much better than I have. She will, however, at
times make use of wrong words. She has a little difficulty with regard to
getting out the right name. If she were speaking to you (Mr. Collier) for ten
minutes she might turn round and address me as Mr. Collier. This is a
mistake of words, and not a confusion of ideas. I attribute it to the creeping
on of old age, and to the paralytic attack, which has given that peculiar quality
to her mind of making use of wrong words. That habit constantly recurs in
persons who have had paralytic attacks. My opinion has not been altered by
the evidence of Dr. Bucknill, Dr. Fox, or any other medical witnesses.
Mr. Collier : Have you made the slightest concealment of anything ?
Dr. Bhapter : Never, at any time. I showed the letter to several medieal
gentlemen. I believe all who came exoept Mr. Roberta. On the 28th of May,
•he til told that it was thought there would be an end of the petition, and she
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then asked if she were to make a will if it would be disputed? I said, "I
don’t think that any will which you were to make could be successfully dis¬
puted.” Dr. Shapter, in concluding his evidence, stated that Miss Ewings in
giving instructions about her will wished to make him residuary legatee.
Though he had never heard her use the word before. She said. Is it right?
u I told her I really did not wish to have her property.”
The court here adjourned from five o’clock until seven.
Dr. Shapter was then cross-examined by Mr. Smith : He said,— I had not
seen Miss Phoebe Ewings from 1852 until she came to Exeter lately. My siifcer
corresponded with her. I think she must have written within the last twelve
months. My impression is that she had paralysis which affected her tongue. I
never from the first to the last said she had any unsoundness except from the
decay of old age. I am not convinced that she has had any attack of mania.
I have very great doubt about it, and I still doubt it.
Mr. Smith : When she was put into the Lunatic Asylum do you think she
was unsound? Witness : l think she had a severe attack of delirium.
By the Commissioner : I mean that disturbance of the mind that she had
no control over herself.
By the Commissioner : Do you not call that insanity ?—Witness : You may
call it passing insanity.
By the Commissioner : Do you think the medical gentlemen who signed
the certificate wrong ?—Witness : I question the delusion. There was an
exaggerated feeling about her. She might exaggerate very much what took
place, but I think there was very good grounds for her belief. She told me
that a woman of one arm had thrown it around her neck.
Mr. Smith : Do you believe what such patients tell you ?— Witness : I have
since ascertained such to be the fact. I do not think she has been subject to
any delusions except sane hallucinations. There might not have been a man in
the room when she said there was.
Mr. Smith : What is the difference between delusions and halucinationi?—
Witness : She might have seen a shadow, and have become alarmed.
Witness : When she went into the street, I think there was an exaggerated
feeling from that hallucination.
The Commissioner : You do not think she was under any delusion ?
Witness : I do not think she was, but at any rate she had an exaggerated
impression. Taking her to the asylum might have made her mind more feeble.
The Commissioner : Do you think when she was removed that she was suffer¬
ing from unsound mind?
W r itnc88 : I think she was suffering from delusion.
The Commissioner : Was she rightly taken to the asylum as a person of
unsound mind ?
Witness : I doubt the poKcy of it.
A variety of similar questions by Mr. Smith were then put to some of which
the witness said : I do not surrender my opinion to that of others, who have seen
her before she went into the asylum, and when she came out. It is very difficult
to define the difference between delusions and mania. I should be very sorry to
do it. Delirium is more a passing irritation of the brain, while mania depends
more upon disease of the brain, and is more likely to be permanent. Delirium
would be likely to pass off with the source of irritation. I have known persons
suffer under delirium more than two months.
Mr. Smith : They would be in a state of bodily fever at the same time?
Witness : Yes.
Mr. Smith : Have you heard of any bodily fever in her case? Witness: I
have not heard of any delirium while she was in the asylum. 1 have not heard
in evidence of her being in a feverish state.
Cross-examination continued : Delirium might pass off with the exciting
cause. I discussed with Mr. Ellacombe the propriety of suitable lodgings for
Miss Ewings near Mr. Ell&combe’s house. I think I advised it, at least I knew
about it. She communicated her dislike about Mr. EH&eombe the first time I
saw her. He had been the means of bringing her out of the asylum. She said
Mr. Ellacombe had forced her into the railway carriage, and that she doubted
his intentions. I tried to remove her doubts, and have never spoke des¬
pairingly of Mr. Ellacombe. She believed that he had something to do with
placing her in the asylum. She could not believe that he had a good motire
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in bringing her to Devonshire. She hid a grudge against Mr. Beamont for
putting ner in the asylum. Though he is her solicitor now, she kill “ reflects"
upon him.
Mr. Smith : She has confidence in him as a solicitor, but thinks him wrong
in putting her into the asylum.
Witness : Precisely so. I think she has entire confidence in Mr. Beamont,
and still thinks him as a friend, but thinks of the “indignity” put upon her in
thrusting her into the railway carriage. I think Bhe was treated there with
great indignity. I told her generally that I thought Mr. Ellacombe intended
to act kindly towards her. Her conversations are very agreeable and not
trivial. [The witness was pressed upon this point by the Commissioner, but
maintained his opinion that her conversations were not frivolous and trivial.]
I differ from Mr. Sharp if he said so. I withdraw my words if I said she could
converse rationally on “ all” subjects. That is too comprehensive. I think she
had a good education. I had authority from Miss Ewings to refuse permission
to persons calling themselves “ next of kin.” (A laugh.) She said she had no
relations, and that her nearest relations had been unkind to her. I did not say
“ Oh ! It is a family quarrel, it will be good feeling to make it up.” I did tell
Mr. Fox and Mr. Ellacombe on the lOtn of March, “ That I was tlje only man
in England who could not receive her money.” The idea arose in my mind
that she intended to leave me something, and I knew my position was very
peculiar. She was a person of remarkable memory. I told Mr. Ellacombe that I
would let him know before she signed any document; that was on the 16th to
March.
Mr. Smith : And afterwards you spoke ofgetting the powers to enable her
to make you the protector of her property. What position did you expect to
occupy ? Witness : I thought she wished me to manage her pecuniary arrange¬
ments.
Mr. Smith : You might have done that without being formerly constituted
the protector of her property. Mr. Smith read the letter by Dr. Shapter.
stating that he was desired to apply for the power. Witness : I thought I should
take the charge of her, that nobody else should interfere. I told Mr. Ellacombe
I thought he was not the next of kin.
By the Commissioner : I think Mr. Ellacombe was rather a “ connection."
Witness : I think no man would make her sign a document if she did not wish
to do it. I do not say she could understand anything. As a general rule she
had a great dislike to transact business. She would not sign the notice for the
jury till it was explained. She signed a oheque as I have said, and one for me
for £30 for money advanced.
By the Commissioner: I have not used the draft. The date was the 16th
of May.
Cross-examination continued : I think she had a perfect right to do as she
liked with her money. I did not prefer cashing this cheque. All communication
with her was by me. The 5th of April was the first day mention was made about
her will. I don’t think she was in a state of excitement. I gave her the par¬
ticulars about her will, the day after I had received them. She first mentioned
her intention of giving me a legacy on the 11th of May. She merely said she
wanted to give me a legacy, I explained to her the position I was in, and that I
should not accept the legacy. She said “Their must bo some thousands left
and I should wish you to have them.”
By Mr. Smith : The legacies altogether were about £800. That would leave
about £13,000, or the bulk of her property. She said these persons are all wealthy
people, and my property is nothing to theirs, I only want to give them something
by which to recollect me. \
Cross-examination resumed : She still wishes me to be the residuary legatee.
She clearly understands now that I am. Maiy and Miss Cousens attested the
will. She had given Mary £10 a short time before. The will was entirely in mv
handwriting. I did not tell Mr. Ellacombe that she was going to make a will
nor Dr. Greenup. I did tell Mr. Holland. I said, in a letter, “ I mean to
repudiate all benefit myself.”
Mr. Smith: Had you sufficient influence to prevent its being done?—Witness:
It was not done with any premeditation. I thought that anything she wishe
to do under present circumstances ought to be done.
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Mr. Smith • Why t Ton would not take the cheque money “under existing
circumstances V 9 Witness : No, but I used a great deal of influence.
Mr. Smith : Could you have prevented it if you like ? Witness : I think
I might, but it would have placed me in a difficult position ; I rather wished to
avoid it if she asked me what she must do with the money. I never influenced
Miaa Ewings in any one respect.
Mr. Smith : Did you use your influence to counteract it? Witness: I did
use a fair amount of influence.
The Commissioner: You said just now, that you never influenced her at
•U, and now you say you used a great deal of influence. Is that consistent ?
Mr. Smith : Did you not say you used a great deal of influence in order
to get her to sign a paper, which Mr. Be&mont couldn’t ? Witness : I explained
the paper, and so far used that influence.
Mr. Smith: And should have undoubtedly have repudiated it if done ?
Witness : She believes 1 am now residuary legatee.
Mr. Smith: You said you never disguised anything from her? Witness:
Yes, I did.
Mr. Smith : This is a pretty considerable disguise, is it not ? Witness:
Yes, it is.
Mr. Smith : Do you think it is a strange thing to make you the depository
of £13,000? Witness : I should have repudiated it.
Mr. Smith : Did you intend for the “ next of kin to have it?” Witness : I
took it that the “next of kin” would have had it.
The Commissioner : You intended that the repudiation should comprise not
only yourself, but all members of your family ? Witness : Most unquestionably.
Mr. Smith : Did you suppose that it would ultimately have come to the
next of kin ? Witness : I did not suppose anything about it.
Cross-examination continued : If that will had come into operation to*
morrow I should have paid the legacies, and the other money to the next of kin.
That has been my expressed opinion.
Mr. Smith : Then you would have done this, and yet did you ever treat a
sane person that way before ? Witness : (After a long pause,) did not reply.
Mr. Smith : I suppose not? Witness : 1 did not know that you were waiting
for an answer. (Oh !)
The Commissioner: Did you ever treat a sane person in that way ? Witness
No, certainly not.
The Commissioner : This is a solemn question. Did you believe her sane at
the time ? Witness : Yes, and I think so still. 1 think she has a perfect right
to leave her money to whom she pleases.
The Commissioner : Supposing you had died the instant after she had, would
not your executors have had the property ? Witness: It did not flash acrom
my mind. I rather thought I should repudiate it, and not take the money.
Mr. Smith : Then this will was made by this old lady because Dr. Greenup
came and annoyed her, and then you take the property with an intention of
repudiating it. Witness : I believe so. That is the case. Persons were not
allowed to see hor by my sanction at her request. I don’t think that I should
S refer seeing a patient alone in such circumstances. The £10 she gave to
[ary was included in the £30. I think it is understood that Mr. Beamont
paid her lodgings. She paid nothing except little casual expenses about the
town. She had not made any agreement witli Miss Cousens, because she desired
that I would. There are additions to my notes. I have never received any
fees whatever myself.
Re-examined by Mr. Coleridge : If I remembered anything afterwards I
added it to my notes. The cheque for the £30 settled my account. I have never
treated any one before in a similar manner, because 1 was never placed in a
similar situation. I mentioned to several persons that I intended to repudiate
this money. I formed in my own mind a definite notion of what I intended
doing with the money. Supposing the will should have Come into operation
I questioned in my own mind whether I should give it to charities, and I then
came to the conclusion that I must repudiate it, because if I could give it to
oharities I could put it in my own pocket. Whether it was to go to charities
or to Dr. Greenup I had never thought. I distressed Miss Ewings if I expressed
a wish not to benefit.
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Mr. Coleridge: Was that the induoement to let it be done? Witness:
Hilt was the inducement to let it be made in that form.
Mr. Coleridge: Did it appear to give her relief ? Witness: Very great
relief.
Mr. Coleridge : Since the will was made in its present shape these proceed*
ings have been taken ? Witness : They have.
Mr. Coleridge: Therefore yon have had no opportunity of bringing to her
mind the effect of the present will? Witness : That is precisely the position of
the case. She had told me that she had no near relatives. She is disinclined
to transact business. Assuming Dr. Sharp’s account to be true, I should say
she was labouring under delirium, and that it was passing off. The common
sense of mania is that it is a disease of the brain itself. I should say there was
some physical cause for delirium, and that it subsided as it passed off. It is a
disturbed rather than a diseased mind. My notions of delusion are 41 false
conclusions ”—a belief in something which does not exist.
Mr. Coleridge: May a person in an- excited state have impressions made
upon their mind greatly exaggerated and yet not a foundation for it ? Witness :
Yes, undoubtedly.
Mr. Coleridge : That is different from a delusioq, is it not ? Witness : Yes.
Mr. Coleridge : Is that belief in continuing to entertain an exaggerated
mpression of a past fact perfectly consistent with a person being sound in mind ?
Witness : I think it is.
Mr. Gray, solicitor, of Exeter, said, I am Treasurer of the Lunatic Asylum.
I have, therefore, seen many lunatics. I attend a weekly board. I have met
Miss Ewings within the last two or three months. I met her at Dr. Shapter’g.
I had an opportunity of judging of her manners. She joined in general con¬
versation rationally, and there was nothing in her manner to induce me to think
she was anything different from other persons. I met her on the 28th of May
again. I met her at dinner. After confirming much of former witnesses* evidence
the witness went on to Bay that he had been employed in making the will. Dr.
Shapter told me that Miss Ewings would be glad for me to make a will, and in
consequence I went to that lady. Dr. Shapter had furnished me with a list of
the legacies. I told him that I should like to see her alone. I went into the
back parlour, and she shook hands. I thought from her manner that she expected
me. I said, I understand from Dr. Shapter that you have a wish to make your
will. She answered in the affirmative. I read every name with every amount,
and she nodded assent to it. I ascertained that she fully understood the matter.
I said have you any other legacies to leave ? She said “No.” I then said to whom
do you propose to leave the residue of your property? She said “ to my dear, kind
friend. Dr. Shapter.” Dr. Shapter was present. Ho had proposed to leave the
room, but she would not permit him. Sne took hold of his hand and said she
wished him to remain. She said I don’t wish to leave anything to any relatives.
I asked her this, JL said to her, “ supposing Dr. Shapter should die in your life¬
time, to whom then would you leave your property V After some consideration
she said, “ That can’t be, I am too old.” I said it is an event which might
happen. She replied, “ True, life is uncertain.” She then said, 44 I would then
wish my property to go to Master Tom and the rest of the children.” I said do
you mean Dr. Shapteris children ? She said, “ Yes.” In what shares ? She
replied in equal shares.
By the C ommissioner : Dr. Shapter was present all the time.
Witness : When she said she would leave the residue to him, he said 44 Pray,
don’t do it,” but she said you must, you must have it. She said 44 1 wish Master
Tom to have the larger portion.” I said 14 What proportion ?” and after a time
she said, 44 1 think I shall give him the whole.” l)r. Shapter did not make any
remark. 44 But suppose he dies in your lifetime ?” 44 Then the other children
oan have it?” 44 Equally?” 44 Yes.” I then went into another room and
prepared a will in accordance with those instructions. She said 44 Dr. Shapter
was to be the executor.” . I said 44 1 shall want a second witness.” Dr. Shapter
•aid 44 Won’t Miss Cousens do?” I said 44 Yes, excerit she has a legacy of 19
guineas, which will invalidate it.” He then said 44 Perhaps Miss Ewings will
permit her name being left out of the will, and will give it to her in her life-
rime.” She assented. She and Dr. Shapter were standing side by side. The will
was executed by Miss Ewings in the usual way. Dr. Shapter banded up to her
what was the will, which he had prepared, and she said 44 What am I to do with
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this,” holding it in her hand*. I said “ Yon can destroy it,” and she did tear
it up in very small pieces. She said “ I will tear it up, because no one *h *1l
see the contents.” Dr. Shapter did not make any remarks. I then left. I did
not take charge of the will. During all these proceedings I considered her in a
very Hound mental state, and also on every occasion on which I have seen her.
I saw her last evening in a cab and shook hands with her, though I did not speak
to her. She appeared to exercise an independent judgment in the matter.
Nothing indicated the slightest aberration of mind. Had she done so I should
not have allowed her to do so. It was evident that she was pleased when it was
finished.
Cross-examined by Mr. K&rslake : I left the will upon the table. Dr.
Shapter was there, and was the executor. I left Miss Ewings and Dr. Shapter.
My offices, which are in Queen-street, are about three-quarters of a mile from
Miss Ewings’. I took paper with me. I went to the house in Dr. Shapter’s
carriage. He was with her when she appeared. I waited about two minutes.
She seemed prepared for the interview. When she said, “ Dr. Shapter, my dear
friend, I leave the residue to you,” she burst into tears. I had seen her twice in
society. The first time I met her was on the 25tli of May, at T)r. Shapter’s. The
witness was then questioned as to the affidavits which he said Were sworn to
before him, on this occasion, he being a Commissioner. I do not come here as a
scientific man. I am the treasurer of the asylum. I made no draft of the will.
A discussion sprung up respecting the original, but the Learned Commis¬
sioner said he thought there was sufficient evidence.
Cross-examination continued : There is a legacy given to a gentleman named
EUicombe, that is Mr. Charles EUicombe. Master Tom is about 15 years old. It
was to go to Dr. .Shapter first, then Master Tom, and then to all the other
children equally. Dr. Shapter made no objection to that. I left Dr. Shapter
in the room, and found him there when I came back from making the will. *
Re-examined by Mr. Coleridge : There was a list of legacies. There might
have been relatives in the list.
The court here adjourned, it being nearly eleven o’clock.
TUESDAY.—FOURTH DAY.
The court opened this morning at ten o’clock.
Esther Georgian a Cousens : I keep a lodging-house in St. Sidwell’s ; I have
known Miss Ewings for 15 or 1C years; she and her sister have stayed at my
house two or three times, remaining two years on each occasion. Miss Ewings
was brought to my house on the 15th February, by a gentleman and two females;
it was about nine o’clock in the evening; she recognised me, and appeared
delighted to see me ; she recognised my servant, who saw her first; she has been
staying at my house since ; I have seen her almost every hour ; I consider her
perfectly sound in mind ; her memory is good, except as to names ; on the night
she arrived she enquired for her old friends in her usual manner; I recollect
hearing from Miss Ewings of a visit by Dr. Greenup ; she handed me his card,
and said, “ Another of my so-called relatives have come to see me, but I received
him very coldly.” She said, “ I know nothing more about him than you ; I don’t
know that I have ever seen him before ; I think I recollect one or twp of them
coming to my house in Warrington; I think it must be seven years ago.” She
added, “ I suppose he is another after my money.” Dr. Shapter was there
almost constantly ; I was generally present; I was there when Dr. Fox came; I
recollect a gentleman coining with a paper (the process). W r lien we were walking
in Exeter, some days afterwards, Miss Ewings saw the name of 44 Campion,” and
said, “ I suppose that is the man who has served me with the paper.” She is
quite capable of shopping ; she is very e^Lct about it; if I ever paid for anything
she always manifested care to repay me again. This has often happened ; she
bought a shawl and a bonnet; she attends church regularly, and seems to under¬
stand the service as well as any one ; she turns over the pages of the prayer-
book ; she has once taken the sacrament; she was disturbed in consequence of
41 those wicked people,” particularly Mr. Ellacombc, and did not, therefore, take
the sacrament oftener ; I have slept in the same room with her, and there has
been no disordered fear. Wlien Dr. Shapter and Miss Ewings conversed about
her property, I never listened—I always avoided that topic of conversation with
her. On the occasion of the signing of the will, Miss Ewings said she wished to
leave me and my sister £20 a-piece, but she wished me to have it then ; I then
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signed tlie paper; sometime afterwards I signed another paper; Dr. Shapter*
Mr. Gray, ana. Miss Ewings were there ; I saw Miss Ewings sign the paper, and I
then signed it. When Mr. Gray had left, she said, “ I am glad I have done what
I have.” Two or three days after she said, “ You can ask Dr. Shapter for the
£20—you might as well have it now.” She then said, “ I should like to make
it £?0, and this I will tell Dr. Shapter—I mean between you and your sister.”
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : She was never left alone.
The Commissioner : Why was she never left alone ?—Witness : When Isay
44 never,” I mean generally, but she used to prefer some one being with her.
Cross-examination continued : I did not hear what passed between Miss
Ewings and Dr. Shapter; I have not been in the habit of sitting with my
lodgers like I have with Miss Ewings ; she never told me that she cleared up the
“mystery” about Jane Warren ; she used the words 44 so-called relatives.”
By the Commissioner : I never told Dr. Shapter that she used these words.
Cross-examination resumed : Friends visited Miss Ewings ; there were Mrs.
Smith and Miss Chamberlain ; after Jane Warren left Dr. Shapter did not give
me directions not to admit any one without his consent; when she was absent
she constantly wrote to me; I have never seen her writing letters during the
time she has been with me ; some time since she said “I cannot trouble myself
with letter writing she never went shopping alone.
By the Cpinmissioner : I never recollect Dr. Shapter requesting me to go
with her ; she appeared much pleased with the visits of Dr. Bucknill so far as I
saw ; this continued for a little time, and then she got distressed again as with
other people.
Cross-examination continued : I told Mr. Beamont that she would not be
left much alone ; I believe Dr. Shapter knew that I went out with her; some
shawls were sent to the house for her to select from ; the bonnet was bought in
July ; she bought a small neckerchief and a few trifling things.
By the Commissioner : A little binding for a dress ; she never went out for
a walk alone ; she asked me to go with her ; I bought a few trifling things for
her when she first came ; no arrangements have been made for her lodgings, nor
has anything been paid ; Dr. Shapter and Mr. Beamont have spoken about it;
the two sisters when they were here paid £1 Is. per week for their lodgings ; one
paid one week, and the other the next; before Jane Warren left Miss Ewings
said “ Are you paid ?” I said 44 Do not trouble about thatwhen she said 44 We
are staying here like paupers.” At a conversation between Miss Ewings and Mr.
Beamont, she said, 44 You will provide all for me, and I wish you to be paid;”
I did not come to any terms.
By the Commissioner : She frequently made allusion to the death of her
sister.
Cross-examination continued : She spoke of being at the asylum ; she said
her servant had behaved badly, but that she wished to say nothing about it.
By Mr. Smith : I cant’t say whether she ever spoke of Mr. Ellacombe in Dr.
Shapter’s presence as 44 that wicked man she might have done so many times;
she never called Miss Pougelley, Miss Ellacombe, in my presence; she frequently
said ** I feel I am safe now she always appeared pleased after the visit of Dr.
Shapter ; I have not had the legacy; I always told her not to trouble herself
about it.
Re-examined by Mr. Coleridge: I have never been requested “ to keep a
watch over her; she chose the first shawl at £T Is., which was returned, and
likewise a second at £1 12s. ; when I gave her the change, 9s., she counted it
over ; she looked at the receipt and put it away ; when Mr. Ellacombe called and
told her she must leave she, was in great grief, and cried much; I do not consider
that be spoke kindly to her, and it was not till Dr. Shapter came that she was
comforted.
By the Commissioner : I breakfasted with her this morning ; she did not eat
quite as much as usual; she got up at seven o’clock; last night she asked me
now it was going on, and said she hoped it would soon be over. This morning
she grieved very much, and cried a good deal; she said how she had been
treated ; she said “ I suppose there will never be any rest for me again.”
By the Commissioner : I told her last night thairDr. Shapter had been ex¬
amined. She said “ I am sure he will do anything for me as a friend.” She
spoke about 14 the wicked man.” Last night when she went to bed she said
“Ah I ah! how bad he (Mr, Ellacombe) has treated me;” or “Ahl how
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lt lie dm Deen." She never said anything about being made a ward under
the Lord Chancellor. She never said anything to me about being made a Papist
or a Roman Catholic.
By the Commissioner : On my solemn oath I never heard her say so.
The Commissioner: “ I ask you again solemnly”—(A long pause.) Witnen :
No, sir, I do not recollect it.
The Commissioner: On your oath, did you not notioe an alteration in her
when she came ? Witness : No, sir; she was looking weak, and said she had
been very poorly.
A letter written by Miss Ewings in June, last year, was here produced by the
witness, read by Mr. Coleridge, and handed to the jury. There was nothing in
the contents indicating insanity in the writer.
Mary Ann Rattenbuiy : I have been a servant with Miss Cousens for 25
yean ; 1 see no difference in Miss Ewings now from when I saw her before, ex¬
cept in the want of memory as to dates, names, kc.
Mr. Charles Richard Ellicombe : I live at Alphington, on the Dawlish road.
I have known Miss Ewings from 20 to 30 years. I have seen her from time to
time. I am nephew of the Rev. Mr. EUacombe. We spell our names differently.
I have corresponded with the Misses Ewings. [A letter dated 2nd December,
1853, written by Miss Phoebe Ewings, upon the death of her sister, was here put
in.] I received other letters, but cannot say when I had the last. I have not
sot the reports of Mr. Sharp. I recollect Miss Ewings came here in February
last. My uncle first informed me of it by letter. About ten days afterwards I
called. She saw me. I found her much better than I expected. She received
me very kindly. She enquired about my mother, and hoped she was better, and
also about iny sister. My mother had beeit poorly. I saw nothing about her
which indicated unsoundness of mind. Several other matters were discussed. I
have seen her four or five times altogether. On the 18th of May I spoke to her
about a horticultural ftte coming off on Northemhay. She said she was going
there shortly for a walk. She asked if I was going to Scotland this year,
knowing that I had been in the habit of going there. I should think that her
memory was good. She spoke and conducted herself most rationally. I was
treated in the same way as any other person would treat me. I believe her to
be ape rson of sound mind.
The letter of the 2nd December, 1853, was put in. It was written in a very
pious and affecting manner, alluding to her sister’s death.
The Commissioner said he thought it was written with singular propriety,
and oertainly did not evince anything but the most proper feelings.
Mr. Coleridge : It shows her to be an educated person.
Mr. Smith : It was written in 1853.
The Commissioner: Of course, but it is exceedingly well written. I do
not beiievo that a single person in this oourt could write with greater p r o p ri e ty
and feeling.
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith: Dr. Shapter told him that he could see her
when he liked.
By the Commissioner : She did not speak upon her “ troubles.”
By Mr. Smith : I was not desired not to say anything upon that subject.
Maria Henley: I am a servant to the mother of the last witness; a few
weeks since, in June, I think, I took her Borne flowers from my mistress ; she
sent her kind love to Mrs. Ellicombe and was much obliged ; she said as soon
she was well enough she would call, but lately she had been so
she had not been able to do so.
Mr. George Carter: I am an optician of Exeter,
last I took some spectacles to Miss Cousens, and saw
them to her; she looked at several, and at last she found one that seemed to suit
her; she shewed me a pair she had purchased from me some time since ; I found
that she had chosen a pair of medium power, and opening a prayer book she read
a text, remarking that it was the text about which she and Miss Cousens had
been speaking, she said she could read it remarkably well. She added that she
could not see objects on the table better with the new than with the old specta-
cles; I explained that they were for “ near sight.” She afterwards spoke of
persons whom she had seen in my shop. She also asked after my sister ; I did
not know that she was aware I had a sister; she then enquired the prioe of the
i; I said two guineas; she said the prioe is not much more than for the
‘ worried” that
and on the 20th of m v
Miss Ewings ; J showed
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black ones; she put down two sovereigns, which I took np. I paused while she
Searched in her pocket for 2s. She seemed to make a calculation on the margin
of her purse, and then dropped the shillings back again ; she put the 2s. into
her purse, and “I mentally considered that they were gone for evermore,”
(Great laughter.)
The Commissioner : This is much too moving an incident not to be put down.
Witness : She enquired for a case, and desired me to go home and get one.
I did so, and brought some to Miss Cousens, and told her to present my compli¬
ments to Miss Ewings, and tell her that I had to receive 2s., the price of the
spectacles being two guineas. As I spoke these words, Miss Ewings appeared
and said “lam entitled to these 2s. for discount, and if you don’t like to let me
have them for the two sovereigns I will have the cheaper pair. I will have the
pair of “blacks, which were 18s.” That shut me up. (A laugh.) I let her
nave the spectacles and case for the £2. I thought her the “ shrewdest” woman
I ever knew. (Loud laughter.)
Mrs. Mayne : My daughter carries on business in High-street, as a milliner;
I assist her in her business ; on the 15th of last month a lady came to the shop,
my daughter showed her some bonnets, and she chose one : she 8Aid 1 am afraid
you have not one to fit me, they are worn so small. (A laugh.) They are worn
small. (Another laugh.) She wanted one made larger, and chose one for that
purpose. She said it was more becoming for the bonnet to come further over the
bead. She then asked to see the trimmings. She chose “ mauve.”
The Commissioner: 1 have not the slightest idea of what it is. (Much
laughter.)
Witness : It was most decidedly & good colour for an old lady. The bonnet
was trimmed and sent home, and she said if she was pleased with it she would
eall and pay for it. In the morning sho did call, and said it fitted her exactly,
and that she was pleased with it, and wanted her bill.
The Commissioner : Did it come over her head ?—Witness : Yes.
Mr. Coleridge: Was it a nice aged bonnet? (A laugh.)—Witness: She
said sho liked the bonnet very much, but added “You have put a different
straw. I shall be obliged to have the bonnet trimmed in a similar way if ever I
have it trimmed again.”
The Commissioner : Did she want it disguised where the “ junction” was ?
(Much laughter by the ladies in court.)—Witness: She paid for the bonnet
there and then.
By the Commissioner : She did not ask for discount. She paid £1 Os. lid.
for it. She said she thought the cost increased in consequence of the t rimming* .
She managed the whole business herself.—The witness then detailed several
instances of conversation to prove the rational manner in which Miss Ewings
conducted herself. A lady was with her at the time, but did not interfere.
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : Sho did it in a lady-like manner. (A laugh.)
Mr. Smith : Does it require much intellect to chose a bonnet?—Witness :
Yes. (A laugh.)
Mr. Smith : Is it the first thing they learn and the last they forget ?
The Commissioner : Take care, Mr. Smith—you are on ticklish ground !
The Witness—who appeared rather indignant at the observation of the
learned counsel—said, gentlemen are just as particular. (Renewed laughter.)
Mrs. Ann Carter, wife of Mr. Georgo Carter, said : Miss Ewings, when
passing her husband’s shop, came in and had a conversation with her. She
referred to her sister’s buying a pair of spectacles in the shop ten years before.
She mentioned her (witness) having had a little dog, and asked what she had
done with it. She told her that she had parted with it. In conclusion she
adverted to the fact of witness’s recollecting her. I did not observe the slightest
trace of unsoundness in her mind. Sho conducted herself the same as any other
person would.
Cross-examined by Mr. Karslake : The little dog used to Bit at the door of
the shop.
Mr. John Rickard deposed that Miss Ewings had a watch cleaned at his
shop, for which site paid. The manner in which she paid him indicated that she
must be a person of sane mind.
James Portbury : I am a gardener to Dr. Shapter, at his cottage. I have
seen Miss Ewings there several times. When there she particularly notioed
Exmouth, the Belvidero at Powderham Castle, and the Belvidere at Sir Lawrence
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talk’s. She talked most rationally about flowers, kc. Her knowledge, in my
opinion, denoted a person of superior mind, . , _.
F Mary Wood, who formerly lived as servant with the Muses Ewings, deposed
to the behaviour of Miss Phoebe Ewings. It was most rational and considerate.
She manifested great care in having her sister’s grave properly railed in. She
employed a person to watch the grave for some time in order that the brick¬
work might not be injured before the railings were put up.
Miss Susan Maria Louisa-Anthony, governess in Dr. Shapters family, gave
evidence to prove the sanity of Miss Ewings. She said Miss Ewings was quiok
in observation. Having had frequent opportunities of observing her, witness
should never have entertained the opinion that she was of unsound mind. The
witness narrated i n full the descriptions which Miss Ewings gave her of her
state of mind after the examination of the medical men. After a visit of Dr.
Bncknill, she said she felt fatigued and exhausted, adding I have borneit
nrettv well.” Once she fell on witness s neck in a very excited state, and sobbed.
Hie said “ I have gone through one of those questionings again ; it u dreadful.
u Ar onirita were low in consequence. Miss Anthony was then examined at
groat length upon some 1 notes which she had made. She firmly belie ved there
was nothing about Miss Ewings to indicate insanity. ......
Cross-examined by Mr. Smith : I remember telling Mr. Gray that I had
some notes. I made the notes partly for my own satisfaction and Partly oa
aocount of Miss Ewings, when Dr. Tuke visited her, but not on account of Mr.
Gray She has counted out her money before me, but I never counted it with
her 7 She volunteered to count the money with Dr. Tuke. Last night she said
“ th . t T ask is to be put in the position of a Christian woman. I am not
mi but they want to make me so.” She constantly spoke of Mr EUacombe
2 at the bottom of it, and said he was a “ wicked man.” She said last night
that there was some mystery between Mrs. Lowe and Mr. EUacombe, which she
°° Ul r)^George* Andrews Paterson: I practise at Tiverton, and have some
VnnwlAdm of lunacy cases : I have seen Miss Ewings for the purpose of forming
an oninion upon the state of her mind ; I met her on the 21st of May at Dr.
Shapter’s dinner table; her manner is collected and lady-like; she conversed
with those near her ; in many instances she started the conversation with perfect
propriety ; she mentioned the names of several of her friends and enqmrwi after
them in a manner which showed she understood what she talked about; she
__ nMwt . aft— dinner I had a private conversation with her; she spoke
c?her trouble of her being placed in an asylum, and also her fear of being placed
# • but beinc aware of these proceedings, and evidently a good deal
affectedby them ; there was nothing peculiar.about her; Ithought
wonderful for her time of life; she sometimes used one word instead of another;
aha saw the print of an epigram which was recited; she seems to be a very
pleasant person so far as I could judge ; .on the 20th of July, I saw her ag»m«*
herloAirintrs • I gave no notice of my visit beyond sending m my card, when I
saw her • I said “ Do you romember me ?” She replied Oh . yes, I remember
meeting you at Dr. Paterson’s;” I did not correct her in this mistake of names;
£e two months which had elapsed between the first and ^^ ‘n^ryiews w«e
favourable to her; in speaking of the bonnet bill, she said they had put
Hewing or Flewings instead of Ewings; she said the Ewings were a much older
family "than the Flewings, and that there was a knife gnnder of that name.
(A laugh ) I think this went to show that she recoUected Uungs; there was
nothing about her to indicate lunacy or insanity ; she has recovered from the
paralysis, except in the tongue, which is shghtly affected.
^ T) r Paterson was cross-examined at considerable length by Mr. Kars like,
especially as to his opinion respecting the difference between exaggerated unpnt*
Kd delusions. Dr. Paterson said that m his opmion mania ^ notasa
general rule follow paralysis. When such was the case, a change of character
generallytrokplac^^; I am a surgeon in Exeter, and have been inpn**
16 to 18 years. I have had occasional experience m lunacy oases. On the aWi
of May I had an interview with Miss Ewings. I was with her about two houi^
but wL not in conversation with her all that time. Shedemeanedherself ma
lady-like manner. I asked her the day of the week, and then month. She
replied oorrectly, May. I don’t think she was aware of my visit, and there-
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for# lh# conversation waa natural. We had had conversation previously about
the scenery. I pointed ont to her the estuary of the Exe, ana she observed a
vessel. After a moment's hesitation she gave me correctly the date of th#
month. Her answers were unpremeditated. There was nothing to indicate that
she was different from others. I was induced, taking into consideration her
great age, to consider that she had a strong mind.
By the Commissioner : A right answer which she gave about the time she
had been in Exeter, together with her general demeanour, led me to believe that
she was of strong mind.
Examination continued : The evidence I have heard does not alter my belief
that, considering her age, she has a strong mind.
Cross-examined by Mr. Karslako : For a lady of 80 she has a strong mind.
Mr. K&rslake : When do you begin to discount from a lady’s age ?
Witness : I think in this case you might have begun when she was 70.
Cross-examined by Mr. Karslake : I have never been asked before to discount
a lady. (Laughter.) Some ladies would be far more imbecile at 70 than Miss
Ewings is at 80.
Cross-examination resumed : Hesitation in giving the day of the month
showed carefulness. I have not had many lunatio patients. 1 did not know
that she had been questioned about the days of the month.
By Mr. Coleridge : I consider her a sensible person; the minds of persons
at 80 are generally not so sharp as at 40.
Mr. Charles Knighton Webb, consulting surgeon at St. Thomas’s Hospital,
said : He had visited Miss Ewings, and found nothing which manifested unsound¬
ness of mind.
This being the whole of the evidence,
Mr. Coleridge addressed the lory on the part of Miss Ewings. He said he did not wish to
use a strong or exaggerated wont, but this was a matter of life and death to that lady. The
whole pleasure and happiness of her life would be destroyed if their verdict was against her, and
he was sure they would not come to such a conclusion without clear and overwhelming evidence.
If the petitioner did not make out that she was of unsound mind they must say so. The
petitioner had to prove that at that moment she was incompetent and incaj»able of managing
her own affairs. It was not for him (Mr. Coleridge) to show that she was a )>erson of brilliant
or even of strong and unusual powers of mind He had not even to show that she was quite
equal to all the persons around her. If he showed that her judgment was still reasonable, that
her memory and her will were still in the language of the law—" disposing”—he apprehended that
the jury must draw the conclusion that she was, withiu the meaning of the legal term, of sound
mind and disposing will and understanding, and quite capable of managing her affairs. He had
showed that she had filled a lady’s p .ution m every respect till October, 1833. There was no
doubt that the death of her sister produced a very prejudicial effect upon her; but he did not
know that because she was extremely wrapped up in a beloved sister, and that the death of
that sister much affected her, therefore any foundation was laid at that time of insanity or
indications of a mind off its balance. No doubt they knew instances where the death of
beloved relatives did produce lasting effects. Then she was not a woman fond of business,
though she was equal to the discharge of the ordinary duties of life. Ou the part of the petitioner it
was attempted to be shown thAt at this time there came upon her one of those foolish and insane
feelings resulting in acts from which they were now to date the iusanity which was imputed to
her. It had been suggested by his learned friend, Mr. Smith, that because she had had her
sister’s grave watched, therefore she was under the influence of delusion. The fact was that she
was vexed that her sister could not be buried with her mother and sister, and during the time
the rails were being made to be erected round her sister’s grave, she had a person stationed
there to prevent injury to the tomb ; but immediately the railings were put up, the watching was
discontinued. But last year there came ujon her the slight-ho repeated slight—paralytic
stroke ; because from Mr. Sharp's and Dr. Kenrick’s evidence, it was clear that she was
treated for paralysis in a mild form, and that after a time she was as well as ever. He believed
it hail been proved that where paralysis and mania were connected-and where mania and
paralysis were intimately connected- no such recovery took place, but thAt the patient rather
went from bad to worse. But this oi l lady had recovered from all the external effects of this
attack of paralysis. In this state, and living by herself, she suspected her servant of dishonest*.
8he went up one night to this girl’s bed room, and there thought that she saw a tnon. He would
grant that it might not have been a man. but only a shadow. She did not investigate the
matter, but became extremely alarmed, excessively excited, and rushed out of the house crying
" thieves” and "murder,” and nothing would persuade her that she had uot seen a man ; she got
from bad to worse, was held down in her room, and having no authorised protector, no ]»er*on
with whom she was on intimate terms, she was sent to a neighbouring lunatic asylum. All this
while she was not mad, but in a highly excited state of delirium, with impressions made upon
her mind possibly real and i>osmhly unreal. If. as he submitted, she really was not insane, could
anything be more horrible, more distasteful to an old lady in her state ? She was labouring
under excitement—delirium, if they pleased— but not insanity. Why it was enough to overset
the mind of a man, much more that of an old lady. At all events, she rapidly recovered, and
when Mr. Ell acorn be arrived she was nearly well; Mr. Ellnoomhc’s motive in visiting her was
no doubt that of a man of the world with £12,000 or £13,000 in viow. The learned counsel then
reviewed the whole of the evidence in a very able manner. He contended that it did not prove
any unsoundneM of mind; he defended Dr. Shapter from the Attack which had been made upon
him by the counsel for the petitioner. With respect to the will it was only material to enquire
so far as it threw light upon Mias £ wings’s mind.
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The Commissioner: Exactly.
Mr. Coleridge continued: If they were of opinion that Mias Ewings had acted with her own
free will in dealing with her property, they might entertain what opinion they liked of Dr.
Shapter’s conduct, nut she was entitled to their verdict. If, on the other hand. Dr. Shapter
was the best man in creation, and deserved to lie crowned with a laurel crown, and yet
they thought Miss Ewings was not a free agent, that her mind was not free, then she was not
entitled to their verdict; she felt indignant towards Mr. Ellacoiube, and he (Mr. Oolendge)
thought she acted rightly in excluding him from her presence. The other person. Dr. Greenup,
was not a blood relation ; she had only unkind remembrances of him in respect to the Chancery
suit; she kuew that he caiuo to look after her money, aud she was determined that neither he
nor Mr. Ellacombe should be the objects of her bounty. These were the only persous kept
away at her expressed desire by Dr. Shapter. Miss Ewings regretted that which she might well
have reason to regret—that she had not made her will, and put it out of the oower of any person
to interfere with her ; she asked Dr. Shapter to make the will for her, and Dr. Shapter took
down her instructions with his own hand. Now were those instructions really her owu i What
could Dr. Shapter know about the persons at Worringtou to whom she wished to leave legacies ?
Ho.v could he have got at the different persons' names ? It was perfectly clear that he dhl- as
he alleged—take down these names. It would huvo undoubtedly been much better If Dr.
Shapter had then done that which he afterwards did—put the instructions in the hand of an
attorney, and say, “Now you go aud satisfy yourself that that is really her will, and that I am
not interfering in the matter.” But she saitb after making the various bequest*, 44 1 wish to
give these thousands to Dr. Shapter.” Dr. Bhapter had vimlicated his position to the several
medical gentlemen who bail been called. If Dr. Shapter had acted in the first instance as he
did afterwards, no doubt a great deal of this investigation would have been saved, but he did
not distinctly understand the matter in his own mind. Dr. Shantor’s honesty, however, cookl
not be disputed. It was clear that if Miss Ewings desired anything, it was that Dr. Bhapter
should have her money. Dospite all that had been said, thore was not the shadow of an
imputation upou the honour of Dr. Shapter. The medical evidence deserved notice, and he
begged tho jury not to attach to that of Dr. Bucknill any more weight than to that of an
ordinary witness. He denied that Dr. Bucknill had given it as a “ judge or arbitrator.” The
imputations about Miss Ewings being “watched” were totally unfounded. In conclusion, he
would again remind them that this was Mies Ewings’* case and not Dr. Bhapter’a. She resisted
this petition because the happiness of the rest of her life depended ui*>u it. He would not say
one syllable to them upon the duty they had to perform. He knew that they understood it; and
would properly discharge it. But he would say tho peace. the oomfort. and the happiness of
the rest of the life of Muss Ewings were in their hands. He trusted that they would not allow
her to lie interfered with for any mercenary or sordid motive. If they thought she could not
protect herself and property they must say so, but if that was loft in doubt, aud they considered
she was a person of ordinary intellect for a lady at her age, he hoped they would continue her
in tho position she now occupied.
It being now after eleven o’clock, the court adjourned.
WEDNESDAY.—FIFTH DAY.
Tho court sat at ten o’clock.
Mr. Karslake, in replying on the part of the petitioner, c nigra tula ted the jury upon the
approaching termination of the case. He could not understand why his learned friends for the
respondent had indulged in their insinuations and covert charges against one of his principal
witnesses. lie begged to disabuse their minds upon that point. Mr. Coleridge had prayed them
not to consent that this old lady should be the subject of a lunatic asylum. The sole object in
this enquiry was to know whether she was in a state of mind to take care of her own affairs.
Their verdict would not uffect her future destiny, as regarded her residence or the mode in which
she was to be taken care of. The place of rosi leuce would doubtless lie left to tier own
choice. He, therefore, begged them to dismiss that thought from their mind. The only
question was whether she was of sound mind and understanding, capable of taking care of her
own affairs. Tho enquiry chiefly embraced the period siuce the death of her sister in 1853,
but ue asked their attention to her conduct i>efore and subsequently to that date, for there
had been a most marked change in the manner in which she was treated, and also in the way in
which sho conducted herself. Did they expect to find persons of sound niiud walking in the
streets, moaning aud sighing in the way Miss Ewings had done? However, after that date they
found her managing her own affairs, writing letters, &c., in a manner which a lady of her mind
might do. At that time it was proved that she hod written a very affectionate and |*roper
letter. Had abo done anything of the kind since 1858 when she had this |>aralytic
attack . \Y ith toe exception of signing two or three cheques aud two wills, there was
not a scrap of paper to shovv that she had dene so. Was that not a remarkable
circumstance ? In December, 1858, he said unhesitatingly that she had an attack of acute
ipama. On the 30th of that mouth had she or had she not an attack of madness, mania, or
delirium? He cared not what they called it Did she believe in tilings which did not exist?
one did beyond all doubt. There was the delusion as to tho one-arm woman attempting to
strangle her, and other things, when by the advice of eight of her best friends it was
decided to place her in an nsylam. Whcu Ann Wcrrall was before them they did not venture
to ask her About any man being n her room. Then, did Miss Ewings contract any
delusion about the Roman Catholics while in the Haydock Lunatic Asylum V Was there any
delusion about the man being in her servant’s room? and did that delusion not exist now?
Was there not any delusion about the Rev. Mr. Ellaeomlie, who delivered her from the
asylum? It was suggested that great cruelty had been used towards her at the railway
station, and that upon seeing Mrs. Barddcy sho became violent, cried “Murder, police, and
Tv 7»i lre ^ olD ^ V 1 ? a Roman Catholic.” Instead of that, gentle persuasion was used.
Did they suppose the ladys friends near would have seen her jli-used ? Then they had Dr.
onaptors extraordinary conduct, which lie thought they must say with bn* counsel. Mr.
Coleridge, was lmpnideut. Did they tl.lnk there was sufficient evidence of the feelings
entertained by Miss Ewings towards Mr. Kilacombe ? Why she left him upon good term* the
evening alio wiw brought to Exeter. She was to go to a place to be prepared lorhcrTwhS!
•he understood beforehand. Now, it was said she called Mr. ElL combe “that wicked
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man, the cause of all her trouble.” Did Dr. Shapter explain this cause to her? Did he
5 y to disabuse her mind or dispel this delusion, and uot an exaggerated impression ?
e left Mr. Ellacoinbc’s character in their hands, and they would say how fairly it had been
assailed. Dr. Greenup was the other person who saw her ; Dr. Shapter had orders that none
of her relations were to see her, yet did not Mr Charles Ellicoiulw and Mrs. Ratcliff e-see her ?
Then did Dr. Shapter treat her as a sane person ? Why, if they looked at his acta they were
those that would be used towards an insane person ; she was treated just as a child treated
the moon. From the constant % isiting, her whole mind was tilled with Dr. Shapter, and Mr.
Ellacombe on the other hand was quite ignored. On the 10th of March Dr. Shapter gave Mr.
Ellacombe his pl»*ige that no will should be made without his knowledge. How on earth
could break his faith or justify that breach he could not understand. As a point of law, Mr.
Ellacombe had a better right to the proj»erty than Dr. Shapter. He would say this—a
promise given to a gentleman who placed an iusanc patient under his charge was a promise which
ought strictly to bo performed. His learned friends having no facts to go upon, had villilled
every oue called before them, and had said " If it had not been for the will these proceedings
would not have been taken.” Dr. Greenup and Mr. Ellacombe were there to ask the Court of
Chancery to prevent deigning people getting round her and having her inouey. As regarded
Dr. Shapter’s relation to Miss Ewings, he would say—" It was the soul speaking for tho body.”
Dr. Greenup, from his interview, formed the opinion that she was of unsound mind, and henco
the petition. He (the learned counsel) was sorry to have to endorse what. Mr. Coleridge had
■aid,—that Dr. Shapter had acted impudently. They must assume that I)r. Shapter was in¬
capable of a dishonest actiou. Could they then come to any other conclusion than that ho
treated her os of unsound mind ? He might have been blind to the fact, but let them look.
Then her conduct towards Mr. Be&mont was remarkable. He did not think it was the
proper office of a professional man to say— “ As people come hunting after your money,
you had better make your will.” Was ever such a speech* made to a sane lady? The way
in which the instructions about the will were acted upon was strange. If he were to give a
motive in opiraition to that of Mr. Coleridge, he should say that instructions were given for the
will in consequence of the i*etition, and it was uot the petitioner which brought them there, but
Miss Ewinjs hen-elf. Dr. Shapter, sitting by her side at the dinner-table, did not afford the
medical men a proper opportunity of seeing the state of her mind. The Act of Parliament
was imjHjrative that such examination should not be in tho presence of another medical man.
Theu with respect to tho will. Why did not Dr. Shapter himself attest the will? He would
then have got rid of tho £14,CC0 or £15,000 by a stroke of his pen. But no. It occurred to Dr.
Shapter that if Miss Cousens signed the will having a legacy—it would bo invalid, and, there¬
fore, tho 19 guineas were to be given to her. He asked them to look at it as reasonable men of
the world. If Dr. Shapter had made up his mind that he would not take oue shilling he could
have so acted. He did not say it offensively, but let them look at facts and tlraw their con¬
clusions about this matter. Dr. Shapter was asked " What do you intend to do with this
mouey thrust upon you?” He understood that he was to have mitticient power to pay the
legacies, and yet to reject the other. Would the relatives have it ? Yes, certainly. Then the
men she disliked were to have it. Was this not a deception? The thing she most disliked
was to be done the moment the breath is out of her body. Then they had Mr. Gray’s evidence
alxmt the will, and the disposal of the property. He (the learned counsel) was thunder¬
struck when he gave it. Dr. Shapter never breathed a word about his children having the money
when in the witness-box, and w hen he left he (the learned counsel) appealed to them whether
the belief on everybody’s mind was not that he was the sole residuary legatee? And yet the
fact was that if Dr. Shapter died Master Tom was to have it, and if he died the other childreu in
equal portions. Was Dr. Shapter dealing fairly with the court ? Was he dealing fairly with
his own character ? They had the medical testimony, and he contended that the balance was
iu the petitioner’s favour. They had men of the highest position and intelligence, and men
who had all their lifetime dealt with lunatics. Dr. Shapter was so blind, that he would not allow
the scales to fall from his eyes and mjc that Miss Ewings laboured under delusions. The learned
counsel then proceeded at great length, to review the whol» of the evidence of the vorioua
witnesses, whose testimony, he contended, established the fact that Miss Ewings was of unsound
mind, that she did suffer under exaggerated impressions, delusions, or what the jury liked to
call them, and that sho was not capable of taking care of herself and property. In concluding a
speech which occupied three hours and a hair. Mr. Karslake criticised the evidence of the
witnesses called on behalf of the respondent. He thought Miss Anthony had acted like the
Chorus in the Greek drama. (Laughter).
At the conclusion of tho learned counsel’s address the court adjourned until
hAlf-p&st two o’clock. Upon its resuming, the learned Commissioner, in accord¬
ance with an arrangement which he had previously made with the jury, appeared
for a moment in court without his robes ; and on withdrawing, was shortly
afterwards followed by tho jury to the Grand Jury-room, where Miss Ewings,
accompanied by Dr. Shapter and Miss Cousens, awaited their arrival. We
understand that the learned Commissioner requested Dr. Shapter to withdraw,
but permitted Miss Cousens to stay. He also allowed the two London agents of
the solicitors for and against the petition, to remain and witness the proceedings.
The interview lasted one hour, during which, as we arc informed, the learned
Commissioner and Miss Ewings were the only parties to a long and animated,
and apparently easy and agreeable, conversation—two or three of the jury from
time to time sending written questions to the learned Commissioner, which they
wished put to Miss Ewings. She appeared at once to enter into the most friendly
relations with the Commissioner, and did not seem to notice the absence of Dr.
Shapter, nor the presence of so many strangers. Her manner, we learn, was
easy and well-bred, and slic was more ready to talk than the Commissioner, who
succeeded, w’e are informed, in making her imbecility apparent to all present,
and more and more distinctly till the interview was closed—he (the Conunis-
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sioner looking round significantly, and asking if the jury were satisfied; Miss
Ewings observing, “ I have more to say, but I fear I have fatigued you.”
The Learned Commissioner said—Gentlemen of the jury, at length this pro¬
tracted, painful, and important enquiry draws to a close. I have endeavoured
to discharge my duties hitherto conscientiously for the purpose of having laid
before you evidence of a legitimate character, and excluding that which was
illegitimate, in order that when that evidence of facts, of conduct, of motive,
was before you, you might be in a condition to draw your own inferences.
That is the function of a person presiding over an enquiry of this description,
and I have endeavoured to discharge it honestly, as I am sure you have
the still more important duty devolving on you. I am greatly
gratified at being assisted in this enquiry by the presence of 23 gentlemen
collected from different parts of this great county—gentlemen of education, of
position, of experience of life, knowledge of character, and acquaintance with
ousiness, and who under my personal observation during these five day*,
through which this trial has necessarily, in my opinion, lasted, have listened
with signal patience and attention to the'evidence. The public is greatly
indebted to you. The case has passed now into a new phase. \ ou see no
learned counsel at that table ; they are called away by professional duties else¬
where ; but I beg, as a gentleman who never was on this circuit before, to
express publicly, what I dare say you agree in, my real admiration of the
temper, the courtesy, the discretion, the eloquence, and the ability with which
counsel have assisted us in our enquiry. I ain very glad to see on the jury
a gentleman with whom I was acquainted in former years, and who ia
of my own walk in the profession and experienced in the conduct of
legal proceedings. The question now is one to be determined by you and
me. When I say “and r.ie,” I mean only as the presiding officer of the court
in which you are assembled, and of which you form part. But the verdict
which you are to pronounce, is no verdict of mine—I am no party to it—I have
nothing whatever to do in sharing your responsibility, or exercising your rights.
All that I can do is to suggest to you some observations of a general character
to enable you to distinguish between the present and the former phase of
this enquiry, in this respect. Whereas throughout we have had eloquent
and able counsel, whose interest it was to present the case of their respective
client* most advantageously before you, keeping back, as far as they could fairly
and honourably, all those parts of their respective cases which they wished to
conceal from you, and to bring forward into prominence those parts which they
wished to present to you in a favourable aspect. That has passed ; and
now he who addresses you, lias nothing to do, out, having the same object as
yourself, to give you a few suggestions, from the experience I am presumed
to have, which may contribute towards enabling you to discharge your duties
satisfactorily to yourselves and the country. Sinco we met an hour aco in this
court the matter has passed into still another phase, of which the public knows
nothing up to this moment. You and I have been for the last hour closeted
with the lady whose melancholy cose is before us. I ask you what impression
that interview—which I conducted ou your behalf- has produced upon your
minds ? Has it dislocated the evidence which has been laid before you during
the last five days ? Or has it sigually consolidated and confirmed it ? Does it
lead you to believe that false facte have been told you, or erroneous inferences
drawn from true facte? You have had evidence from those who have been
surrounding this unfortunate lady during the lost six months, some of them
desirous apparently of presenting her before you as a lady in the full possession
of her faculties. They say 44 Wc never saw a person of greater strength of
intellect ; quite capable and fit to discharge all the ordinary duties of life,
with uncommon acuteness to deal hi little business matters; to mingle with
society, and in all other respects exhibiting herself as a rational, accountable,
responsible, and intelligent being, able to vindicate her own rights, to protect
herself, and her property, and to prevent the one or the other from becoming
the victim of over-reaching of any kind.” I ask, after the interview which you
have just had—and into which I shall not publicly enter here,—the verdict
being yours and not mine—nobody elses but yours—upon your solemn oaths—
what is the verdict to be ? Do vou believe at this moment—after what you
have seen and heard—that this lady now is, or is not of sound mind,
sufficient for the government of herself and management of her affairs T I have
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formed An opinion of my own, but I shall not trouble you with it. I shall not
presume to disturb the exercise of your duties or your functions ; but I shall
if you think fit bring before you in detail all the evidence that you have
heard. If you think it unnecessary, you can prevent my doing it, but if you
think it consistent with your sense of duty—and the public behests of justice—
that I should go through the case in detail, here am I prepared to do it, and,
indeed, most anxious to do it if you require it.
The Foreman : Shall I enquire of my brother jurymen ?
The Commissioner : I wish to go through it if you think it necessary, but
don't lightly give an answer one way or the other.
The Foreman : Shall we retire for a minute or two ?
The Commissioner: By all means.
Several jurymen intimated that they did not require to retire, and after a
brief consultation the
The Foreman said : We need not trouble you to read the evidence.
The Commissioner : Are you prepared to pronounce your verdict upon the
question I have given you, or do you wish to retire?
The Foreman : We wish to retire.
The Commissioner : Perhaps, before you go, you will allow me to say a fow
words to you. You are charged with a question of very great importance, of
deep interest to the individual concerned, and to the public; I shall make
after your intimation only a few general observations. Do not leap rashly to a
conclusion. If your minds are really made up after what you and I have seen
during the last hour, combined with the evidence before you, then it becomes
your duty, upon your solemn oaths to say—is Miss Phoebe Ewings, or is she not,
at this moment, in your judgment - as men of the world—gentlemen of ex¬
perience of human affairs, and knowledge of character—of a sound mind, so as
to be capable of governing and protecting herself and property ? That is the
question. Before you retire I beg to say that having already complimentarily
alluded to the exertions of counsel, I particularly specify for honourable mention,
if not presumptuous in doing so, the two addresses which you have last heard—
from Mr. Coleridge for the opponents of the petition—and this morning that of
Mr. Karslake for the petitioner. I beg to say that I think their addresses,
founded as they both are on the entire evidence on both sides, after the whole
has been laid before you, arc far more entitled to your attention than the
addresses which were delivered before that was the case. I really think there
has not been a mis-statement of a single fact by Mr. Coleridge last night, or by
Mr. Karslake to-day—or I should have interposed at once and corrected it—for
you cannot but have observed what extensive notes I have taken. I have
watched with particular vigilance every word, and each has abstained from any
mis-statement. Assuming, therefore, that each has presented to you the facta
exactly—more than that—that everything that could be urged on both sides
has been most acutely and ably presented to you, and that the most has been
made of each case—then you stand in the favourable position of being able to
apply to it your last hour's experience, and say to which side of the line, dividing
sanity from insanity, you incline in the solemn verdict you have to pronounoe ;
and I must disabuse you of any erroneous impression—though I think it is almost
an insult to gentlemen of your knowledge of life and of the law to do so—as to
what the result of your verdict will be. If you say this lady is of unsound mind,
don’t suppose that you will consign her ignominously and cruelly to a dungeon;
nothing of the sort. Let me tell you the course which will be taken by the law,
and which I now authoritatively explain to you. This step is a step of mercy
and of protection. If you think the lady to be at this moment inoompetent to
resist the attempts of those who would deceive and overreach her for their own
purposes, surely it is an act of mercy to plaoe her out of the reach of such
persons. If, on the contrary, you believe she is in no such danger—but has all
ner faculties fairly about her—having regard to her advanced years— and that
she can really take care of herself as a lady 80 years of age—and you recollect
what she said to mo—then if you think she is able to take care of herself and her
property, it will be an act of mercy and of justice, as, in the other case, to say
that she is competent. Suppose you say she is not competent, what will take
place? The lady will be under my charge—a most anxious, a most responsible,
and viligant charge. And as to her being incarcerated in a Lunatic Asylum,
leave that to the Lord Chancellor, the Lords Justices, and the humble individual
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who is now addressing you. Gentlemen, I would not hurt a hair of her head,
nor would one of you. I would not bring down her grey hairs with sorrow to
the grave, or humble her, by incarcerating a lady (who has spent, as she herself
feelingly remarked, a life of fifty years in unimpeachable respectability,) in a
mad-house. God forbid. The evidence on both sides which has been given
by highly qualified men—and persons of honour who are not medical men—is,
that she ought not to be confined in an asylum. If you think she ought to be
pronounced of unsound mind, and that she ought to be protected, all personal
comforts of every description will most anxiously be secured to her, and seemed
*>J the intervention of those who have tho deepest interest in her welfare, and
who will have to give a very good guarantee before being allowed to assume the
office of committees of her person and estate. Their management of their sacred
trust is under constant surveillance, so that if they go wrong there are thoee in
existence whose interest it is to point out that they are going wrong. The lady
herself suffers no indignity whatever. She has full liberty, consistent with her
mere personal safety ; and as to her property it is henceforth in the custody of
the law. But the first object of the law, as I tell you—responsibly administer-
ing that law—-is to let her have every imaginable personal comfort, and even
luxury, that her income and her means will allow. Gentlemen, before you with¬
draw I will make one observation on* a painful and delicate topic, connected
essentially and inevitably with this enquiry. I am not come here to try the
validity of this lady’s supposed will. It m$y be waste paper for aught I know,
or it may be an operative document. But the reason why I have alluded to it—
as responsible for the conduct of this enquiry and anxious not to exclude, but to
let in light upon it from all quarters—is this—that the transaction respecting
that alleged will is one of a most remarkable character—undoubtedly to some
extent involving—at all events the discretion—of Dr. Shapter. I say not one
syllable of a personal nature Coming here in the administration of lunacy law,
I do not desire to leave behind me a single rankling wound or utter an expres¬
sion which may be offensive or prejudicial to the interests of any one whatever.
I, therefore, make no remarks on the motives which have been alleged rather
freely, on one side and on the other, against persons interested in this will. I
do not say whether in my judgment that will is worth the paper on which it
is written, or whether it is an operative instrument. I do not say whether it
was extracted from this lady by Dr. Shapter when she was completely under his
control, and when he was—as was somewhat sarcastically and humorously said
by Mr. Karslake— in the relation of soul to the body of Miss Ewings. I
adopt not that expression. I offer no opinion upon the subject. It may
be that Dr. Shapter was acting from the purest motives, and yet has
acted hastily, precipitately, and indiscreetly. I offer no opinion. I
invite you to avoid the pain of pronouncing any opinion; you are
not called upon to do so. It is simply one element in the enquiry into
the state of her mental faculties. There may be among you, gentlemen
acquainted with business in all its branches. It is for you to say
whether having heard the evidence as to that alleged will, and the manner in
irhich it was obtained, and having seen and heard that lady for yourselves,
whether that alleged will could have been obtained consistently witli
with the complete sanity of the lady. But I am anxious to make myself under¬
stood. It is only one element— ono view of the subject. I repeat that I
express no opinion one way or the other. If you should pronounce this lady of
unsound mind, it will not affect the validity of that instrument, which if ever
it be attempted to be enforced must be subjected to the keen scrutiny of a
competent tribunal. If vou pronounce her to be of sound mind, neither will
that affect the validity of that supposed will; for in that case also will it bo
submitted to a competent tribunal.. Therefore, I beg to dismiss you to your
responsible duties in your private chamber, bearing in mind that the matter of
the will is only one element to enable you to look into this lady’s mind, and say
whether you think it is, or is not, sound. You have to say whether in your
judgment that lady is a lady of sound mind and sufficient for the government
of herself and her property. That is the commission entrusted to me under
the great seal.
One of the Jury: Would you kindly give ns the very words of the order
and commission?
The Commissioner; The question I put to you is as to her existing condition
at the present moment.
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The oreman : Thai is the simple question t
The Commissioner : Nothing else. The evidence as to the past is only to
bring yon to a conclusion as to what yon think her present state is.
The jury then retired, and returned in about ten minutes, when the Under
Sheriff called over their names. Having all answered,
The Commissioner said : Mr. Foreman, on the part of yourself and fellows,
do you say that Phoebe Ewings is now, or that she is not, a person of sound
mind, so as to be sufficient for the government of herself and property ?
The Foreman : The jury say that Phoebe Ewings is not now a person of sound
mind, so as to be sufficient for the government of herself and property. I am
requested to inform you that this is an unanimous verdict .
Upon the delivery of the verdict there was some slight applause in oourt
which wa3 instantly checked by the Commissioner.
The Commissioner then informed the jury that they would have to affix their
signatures to the return of their finding. Before doing so, he hoped they would
do him the justice to say that he hail endeavoured scrupulously not to obtmde
his own judgment upon them ; but, as they had now pronounced their
verdict, he might state that he entirely concurred in it. They might safely
trost Miss Ewings in his hands, and she should never know the difference
between her present and her .future mode of life, as far as related to her personal
ease, comfort, and enjoyment.
The Foreman of the Jury: I am desired by the jury to express our
strong sense of the kindness and courtesy with which we have been treated
ou.
be Commissioner : Gentlemen, I am very happy to receive this tribute of
your approbation. It has been a very agreeable duty to me to preside over so
large and able a body of gentlemen of the county of Devon.—The enquiry is now
dosed.
THE INTERVIEW WITH MISS EWINGS.
We are indebted for the following to the kindness of a gentleman who was
present, and who took full notes, the correctness of which we have had an
opportunity of ascertaining from another quarter:—
VOTES OF THE INTERVIEW BETWEEN MISS EWINGS, THE COMMISSIONER, AND
THE JUBT.
17th August, 1859.
The Commissioner (we are informed) introduced himself to Miss Ewings
(who was elegantly dressed) in the Grand Jury Room at Exeter Castle, and con-
vened with her cheerfully for a few minutes, standing near the window, on the
weather and other indifferent subjects. MisE Cousens was also present, sitting
dose to Miss Ewings, but never speaking to her. Tho jury and the two London
agents of the respective solicitors on each side entered within a few minutes’
tune and seated themselves quietly round the table, immediately after which the
Commissioner and Miss Ewings also took their seats at the table. Miss Ewings
sat between the Commissioner and tho Foreman of the Jury, who took copious
notes.
The Commissioner spoke to Miss Ewings about Warrington.
Miss Ewings said she had resided there until recently.
The Commissioner told her he had been a great deal in Lancashire, and had
relatives there, and in Cheshire, mentioning one of them. He also alluded to
the Epigram on the marriage of Mr. Greenall, the member for Warrington.
Miss Ewings was much amused, and said sho could not remember who
wrote it.
The Commissioner said he had heard she was 80 years of age, but he really
oould hardly believe it from her appearance, that she looked more like 60.
Miss Ewings smiled, and said she should be 60 on the 18th of August—“ to¬
morrow.”
The Commissioner made allusion to her dark hair.
Miss Ewings: It is not my own hair. After some other casual remarks.
The Commissioner asked if she had not “ had tronble.”
Miss Ewings : Yes, I have had my troubles.
?be Commissioner alluded to her sister’s death.
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Mm Ewings said it had distressed her re 17 much, repeatfaif “Ikon had
my troubles.”
The CommissioneT asked what other troubles she had had ?
Miss Ewings : I was afraid they would do for me. I was sent to an asylum*
The Commissioner questioned her about this, expressing great interest, and
said it was important he should know all about it.
She began eagerly—I was sitting at home about Christmas. I think it must
hare been two days after Christmas day, and they told me I could not stay in my
house, that I should be in danger of my life. They said I must|go to stay two
or three days with a friend.
The Commissioner asked earnestly what the danger was ?
Miss Ewings : There were bad people about. I could not get out of my own
house. A noue was made. I tried to get out, and they bolted the door. As
soon as I got through one door they bolted it, and I went through another. The
women came and held me by my hands and feet, and thrust me feet foremost in
at the door ; then my neighbours entered the house, and I was safe. It was not
night time. I was afraid to go to bed, and sat up all that night. The women
said “ how strong she is !”—“ Neighbours and that” got me home.
The Commissioner asked, who told her it was not safe to be in her house ?
Miss Ewings : Oh ! a great many said I must go ; that I should not be safe
another day in the house; they told me it would fall down ; they asked me to
go to a friend’s for two or three days, near Mr. Grecnall* ; they did not go the
right way ; they went another way ; the horses never intended to go the right
way; they went towurds Winwick ; when I found them going the wrong way I
told them ; they said it was right.
The Commissioner : Who said it was right ?
Miss Ewings : The post-boy said it was right; I tried to get out of the
carnage.
The Commissioner asked who were with her.
Miss Ewings : Oh ! rough women ; they got their clothes (or closed) round
me : they kept me back ; when I got to the asylum I said “ Good God ! what is
to become of me?” another woman pretended to be very genteel and said
gt Oh ! Ill take care of you I did not know where I was going ; I thought it
was some bad place ; it was a handsome place, large, with a handsome stair-case:
after waiting some time some person came ; it was a large place with a grand
staircase ; we entered into a handsome drawing room ; after a little time they
came and got the carriage stopped ; they sent my clothes ; a person came who
always attended these people, Elizabeth ; she came to protect me ; she asked if
I would have my tea ; I took tea; she asked if I would go to bed alone ? I said
I should prefer having another to sleep with me; the door had a great bplt;
they bolted me in, “ we were fastened in they bad a brass bolt to shut me in,
and they left me by myself; Elizabeth slept with me; I lay late, I was so
exhausted ; a lady came in the morning, one of the heads; eight o’clock they
said was the time for me to be up ; I thought I might be there for my life.
The Commissioner asked what the place was ?
Miss Ewings : It was an asylum ; I found out afterwards it was H&ydock
Lodge ; I have since heard of Haddock Lodge, that ft was the same place (repeat¬
ing the words several times). Hero she was several times asked by the Commis¬
sioner what the asylum was, without his receiving any answer.
The Commissioner asked whether it was a nunnery, and whether there was
a Lady Abbess, and whether there were any Roman Catholics there ?
Miss Ewings : I don’t know whether there were Catholics. I mind my own
business, and am a Christian—one of the true faith ! ” I found it was H&ydock
Lodge.
The Commissioner asked whether she would become a Roman Catholic ?
Miss Ewings (very earnestly) No ; I would die before I would beoome a
Catholic.
The Commissioner asked whether they had tried to make her a Roman
Catholio ?
Miss Ewings: I don’t know that they ever tried to make me a Catholio
at alL I said I am of the true Protestant Church—true Church of Christ.
The Commissioner questioned her about going to a Roman Catholic Chapel.
Miss Ewings : Sarah (meaning probably Elizabeth) said, would you like to
go ? there is no difference. They asked me to go. They read the prayers of
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the Church—but soma were left out. They had no surplice on. Here she
spoke of seeing the drove of dismal people and other attendants telling her they
were the lunatics (paupers), and her horror at inding she was in a Lunatic
Asylum. (The conversation was very rapid at this part.)
The Commissioner asked whether she went to the Roman Catholic Church ?
Miss Ewings : I did not go that way.
The Commissioner said he had heard that she had very generously given
£800 to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ?
Miss Ewings : I ought to have given more than the £500.
The Commissioner asked about her sister ?
Miss Ewings : I lost my sister.
The Commissioner asked if she (Miss Ewings) Was not a native of Devon ?
Mias Ewings : Yes.
The Commissioner questioned her about her sister’s vault having been
watohed?
Miss Ewings : After my mother’s death, and my sister’s death, I did not
like to leave her remains.
The Commissioner asked why she had her sister’s vault watched ?
Miss Ewings : I had her grave watched. I thought the grave was not very
good, and that the boys might knock down the bricks.
The Commissioner questioned her as to the purchase of some spectacles,
and whether she had not given two guineas for them ?
Miss Ewings : I gave £2 for them, not two guineas.
The Commissioner asked if she had not some friends in Devonshire named
Ellaoombe ?
Miss Ewings : Ellacombe? Yes, I know a clergyman’s lady and her son,
Mr. Charles Ellacombe.
The Commissioner asked if she had not some relation of that name ?
Miss Ewings : I know another Ellacombe ; I dare say you do too.
The Commissioner asked if he took her from the Asylum, and about the
circumstances ?
Miss Ewings : When I got to where 1 was kept at the Asylum, I was
thankful to get out any way. I never heard of him before, but he said I was
at liberty to leave with him. This Ellaconibe and Mr. Nicholson came ; 1 never
heard of him before. It was to get my money. He got roe out to put me worse
in. I stopped at Mrs. Lowe’s two or three aays as a friend, and the next day,
Sunday morning, I said to Mrs. Lowe the first thing I have to do is to thank
God for delivering me from the Asylum. Ellacombe came and wished to shake
hands, and at the ohurch the clergyman and this Ellacombe administered the
sacrament.
The Commissioner asked whether she would give more money for the
Church ?
Miss Ewings : I don’t know that I can afford to give any more to the
Church. About the Asylum I should like to finish it, if I am not fatiguing you.
When I got out the next day Sunday, Ellacombe said, “ Well, Miss Ewings. I
should like you to go soon into Lancashire ,” (meaning Devonshire.) I said I
have no intention of going ; I would rather go to the poor-house.
The Commissioner questioned her about Mrs. Lowe accompanying her to the
railway.
Miss Ewings : Three days after, Mrs. Lowe was a cruel enemy ! She tried
to send me away bag and baggage. She forced me away in one of those common
sort of carriages. Dr. Shapter came to see me in the morning.
The Commissioner asked about Mr. Ellaoombe visiting her at Miss Cousens’ ?
Miss Ewings : I won’t say but what Ellacombe was there. I don’t think he
was. I never heard of his being there. Dr. Shapter got rid of Ellaoombe.
After some other conversation about the window blinds and other little
matters,
The Commissioner asked her if she oould get her money when she wanted
any ?
Min Ewings: If I wanted any money Dr. Shapter would provide it, to be
sure. He is my protector. He always lets me have money.
Miss Ewings, (without being asked) took out her purse and counted ten
sovereigns and a-half sovereign, twice, into the Commissioner’s hands, with a
pl ea s ed air.
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The Commisaianer asked her if that did not make ten guineas ?
Miss Ewings said: Oh ! no, not ten guineas, £10 10s.; it has nothing to do
with ten guineas—there are no guineas now.
She offered the Commissioner two sovereigns rather bashfully, and said 1
will give you a couple of guineas if you will not be offended.
The Commissioner asked what they were for?
Miss Ewings: 1 will give you a couple of guineas, adding (after a pause
and apparently embarrassed) for the poor.
The Commissioner returned suddenly to the subject of her leaving
Warrington.
Miss Ewings : I did notknow where I was going when I left Warrington.
The Commissioner askedwhether she had made her will ?
Miss Ewings (quickly): I have made my will.
The Commissioner asked how she had given her money ?
Miss Ewings : I have given all my property to Dr. Shapter. I have no kind
friends ; he is very kind—he is my protector—it is my own act and deed
(emphatically.) I thought it a very blessed thing to have a kind friend.
The Commissioner asked the amount of her property ?
Miss Ewings : £13,700 is the amount of property.
The Commissioner asked what her income was—whether £100 a*year ?
Miss Ewings : £100 a-year ! “ Lori” what a way you talk ! (laughing.)
The Commissioner asked if she had money when she required it ?
Miss Ewings : When 1 want money I can always have it. (Showing her
purse, which, we are told, contained a few shillings short of £12.)
The Commissioner questioned her about Dr. Shapter.
Miss Ewings : He is my friend and protector, and also my guardian.
The Commissioner asked if she had made any one besides Dr. Shapter
“residary” legatee.
Miss Ewings : I don’t think there oonld be two reddary legatees.
The Commissioner : Will you not make me your residary legatee ? I am
your friend also.
Miss Ewings (laughing): Oh, yes—perhaps so ! I will make you residuary
legatee too, (or with Dr. Shapter.)
When the subject of the spectacles was mentioned, the Commissioner said
he also wore glasses, but they were not gold like hers—only steel. She said she
had had dark spectacles too. The Commissioner asked her to try to see with
his. She put them on, but said they did not help her. She then put on her
own glasses, and the Commissioner took out his small Pocket-book Almanack
i Goldsmith’s,) shewed her the title p&ge, and asked if she could read it through
ler glasses ? After a slight mistake, reading “ Smith” for “ Goldsmith,” which
die herself immediately corrected, she read it right—“Goldsmith,” and also
one or two other words.
The Commissioner said more than once, “ I am afraid I am fatiguing yon.”
But Miss Ewings said “ Oh, no ! I want to tell you more, but I am afraid l
am fatiguing you, I should like to tell you all about it—about my troubles.
She several times expressed great horror of being put into an asylum again;
and when the Commissioner assured her he would take care that she never saw
the inside of one again as long as she lived, she expressed great gratitude. She
several times grasped the Commissioner’s hand ana held it in hers. She often
smiled, sometimes laughed outright, and once was nearly in tears when die
alluded to her sister’s death. She said she knew Winnick Church; it was a
large object, and could be seen very distinctly from the road. Oh! very distinctly
ndeed.
Throughout the interview Miss Ewings conversed in the most affable and
cheerful manner with the Commissioner without embarrassment, or apparent
fatigue, and seemed not to be aware of the presence of the jury.
Miss Cousens sat close to, but a little behind her, and was never once turned
round to. or appealed to, by Miss Ewings; who also, we are told, took no notice
of Dr. Snapter’s withdrawing.
Two or three questions were proposed by jurymen, through written dips
passed to the Commissioner.
When the Commissioner took his leave, shaking Miss Ewings cordially by
the hand, she expressed a hope that she had not fatigued him, and said she should
always be happy to see him, and tell him more.
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