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MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
THE THOUGHTS
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THE EMPEROR
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
Ml
TRANSLATED BY GEORGE LONG.
BOSTON:
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
1890.
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.
PREFACE.
I HAVE carefully revised the Life and Philosophy
of Antoninus, in which I have made a few correc-
tions, and added a few notes.
I have also made a few alterations in the transla-
tion where I thought that I could approach nearer to
the author's meaning ; and I have added a few notes
and references.
There still remain difficulties which I cannot remove,
because the text is sometimes too corrupt to be under-
stood, and no attempt to restore the true readings
could be successful.
George Long.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Biographical Sketch i
Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 33
The Thoughts 8[
Index of Terms 285
General Index 289
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
IVyT ANTONINUS was born at Rome, a. d. 121, on
• the 26th of April. His father, Annius Verus,
died while he was praetor. His mother was Domitia
Calvilla, also named Lucilla. The Emperor T. Anto-
ninus Pius married Annia Galeria Faustina, the sister
of Annius Verus, and was consequently the uncle of
M. Antoninus. When Hadrian adopted Antoninus
Pius and declared him his successor in the empire,
Antoninus Pius adopted both L. Ceionius Commodus,
the son of Aelius Caesar, and M. Antoninus, whose
original name was M. Annius Verus. Antoninus then
took the name of M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, to which
was added the title of Caesar in a. d. 139 : the name
Aelius belonged to Hadrian's family, and Aurelius was
the name of Antoninus Pius. When M. Antoninus
became Augustus, he dropped the name of Verus and
took the name of Antoninus. Accordingly he is gen-
erally named M. Aurelius Antoninus or simply M.
Antoninus.
I
2 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
The youth was most carefully brought up. He
thanks the gods (i. 17) that he had good grandfathers,
good parents, a good sister, good teachers, good asso-
ciates, good kinsmen and friends, nearly everything
good. He had the happy fortune to witness the ex-
ample of his uncle and adoptive father Antoninus Pius,
and he has recorded in his work (i. 16 ; vi. 30) the
virtues of this excellent man and prudent ruler. Like
many young Romans he tried his hand at poetry and
studied rhetoric. Herodes Atticus and M. Cornelius
Fronto were his teachers in eloquence. There are
extant letters between Fronto and Marcus,^ which
show the great affection of the pupil for the master,
and the master's great hopes of his industrious pupil.
M. Antoninus mentions Fronto (i. 11) among those
to whom he was indebted for his education.
When he was eleven years old, he assumed the
dress of philosophers, something plain and coarse,
became a hard student, and lived a most laborious,
abstemious life, even so far as to injure his health.
Finally, he abandoned poetry and rhetoric for philoso-
phy, and he attached himself to the sect of the Stoics.
But he did not neglect the study of law, which was a
useful preparation for the high place which he was
designed to fill. His teacher was L. Volusianus
Maecianus, a distinguished jurist. We must suppose
that he learned the Roman discipline of arms, which
was a necessary part of the education of a man who
1 M. Cornelii Frontonis Reliquiae, Berlin, 1816. There are
a few letters between Fronto and Antoninus Pius.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 3
afterwards led his troops to battle against a warlike
race.
Antoninus has recorded in his first book the names
of his teachers, and the obligations which he owed to
each of them. The way in which he speaks of what
he learned from them might seem to savor of vanity
or self-praise, if we look carelessly at the way in which
he has expressed himself; but if any one draws this
conclusion, he will be mistaken. Antoninus means to
commemorate the merits of his several teachers, what
they taught, and what a pupil might learn from them.
Besides, this book, like the eleven other books, was for
his own use ; and if we may trust the note at the end
of the first book, it was written during one of M.
Antoninus' campaigns against the Quadi, at a time
when the commemoration of the virtues of his illus-
trious teachers might remind him of their lessons and
the practical uses which he might derive from them.
Among his teachers of philosophy was Sextus of
Chaeroneia, a grandson of Plutarch. What he learned
from this excellent man is told by himself (i. 9). His
favorite teacher was Q. Junius Rusticus (i. 7), a phi-
losopher, and also a man of practical good sense in
public affairs. Rusticus was the adviser of Antoninus
after he became emperor. Young men who are des-
tined for high places are not often fortunate in those
who are about them, their companions and teachers ;
and I do not know any example of a young prince
having had an education which can be compared with
that of M. Antoninus. Such a body of teachers
4 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
distinguished by their acquirements and their charac-
ter will hardly be collected again ; and as to the
pupil, we have not had one like him since.
Hadrian died in July a. d. 138, and was succeeded
by Antoninus Pius. M. Antoninus married Faustina,
his cousin, the daughter of Pius, probably about a. d.
146, for he had a daughter born in 147. He received
from his adoptive father the title of Caesar, and was
associated with him in the administration of the state.
The father and the adopted son lived together in perfect
friendship and confidence. Antoninus was a dutiful
son, and the emperor Pius loved and esteemed him.
Antoninus Pius died in March, a. d. 161. The Sen-
ate, it is said, urged M. Antoninus to take the sole
administration of the empire, but he associated with
himself the other adopted son of Pius, L. Ceionius
Commodus, who is generally called L. Verus. Thus
Rome for the first time had two emperors. Verus
was an indolent man of pleasure, and unworthy of his
station. Antoninus however bore with him, and it is
said that Verus had sense enough to pay to his col-
league the respect due to his character. A virtuous
emperor and a loose partner lived together in peace,
and their alliance was strengthened by Antoninus giv-
ing to Verus for wife his daughter Lucilla.
The reign of Antoninus was first troubled by a Par-
thian war, in which Verus was sent to command ; but
he did nothing, and the success that was obtained by
the Romans in Armenia and on the Euphrates and
Tigris was due to his generals. This Parthian war
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 5
ended in a. d. 165. Aurelius and Verus had a triumph
(a. D. 166) for the victories in the East. A pestilence
followed, which carried off great numbers in Rome and
Italy, and spread to the west of Europe.
The north of Italy was also threatened by the rude
people beyond the Alps from the borders of Gallia to
the eastern side of the Hadriatic. These barbarians
attempted to break into Italy, as the Germanic nations
had attempted near three hundred years before ; and
the rest of the life of Antoninus, with some intervals,
was employed in driving back the invaders. In 169
Verus suddenly died, and Antoninus administered the
state alone.
During the German wars Antoninus resided for three
years on the Danube at Carnuntum. The Marcomanni
were driven out of Pannonia and almost destroyed in
their retreat across the Danube ; and in a. d. i 74 the
emperor gained a great victory over the Quadi.
In a. D. 175, Avidius Cassius, a brave and skilful
Roman commander who was at the head of the troops
in Asia, revolted and declared himself Augustus. But
Cassius was assassinated by some of his officers, and
so the rebellion came to an end. Antoninus showed
his humanity by his treatment of the family and the
partisans of Cassius ; and his letter to the Senate, in
which he recommends mercy, is extant. (Vulcatius,
Avidius Cassius, c. 12.)
Antoninus set out for the East on hearing of Cassius'
revolt. Though he appears to have returned to Rome
in A. D. 1 74, he went back to prosecute the war against
6 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
the Germans, and it is probable that he marched
direct to the East from the German war. His wife
Faustina, who accompanied him into Asia, died sud-
denly at the foot of the Taurus, to the great grief of
her husband. Capitolinus, who has written the Hfe
of Antoninus, and also Dion Cassius accuse the em-
press of scandalous infidelity to her husband and of
abominable lewdness. But Capitolinus says that An-
toninus either knew it not or pretended not to know
it. Nothing is so common as such malicious reports
in all ages, and the history of imperial Rome is full of
them. Antoninus loved his wife, and he says that she
was '' obedient, affectionate, and simple." The same
scandal had been spread about Faustma's mother, the
wife of Antoninus Pius, and yet he too was perfectly
satisfied with his wife. Antoninus Pius says after her
death in a letter to Fronto that he would rather have
lived in exile with his wife than in his palace at Rome
without her. There are not many men who would
give their wives a better character than these two em-
perors. Capitolinus wrote in the time of Diocletian.
He may have intended to tell the truth, but he is a
poor, feeble biographer. Dion Cassius, the most ma-
lignant of historians, always reports and perhaps he
believed any scandal against anybody.
Antoninus continued his journey to Syria and Egypt,
and on his return to Italy through Athens he was ini-
tiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. It was the prac-
tice of the emperor to conform to the established rites
of the age, and to perform religious ceremonies with
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 7
due solemnity. We cannot conclude from this that
he was a superstitious man, though we might perhaps
do so if his book did^not show that he was not. But
this is only one among many instances that a ruler's
public acts do not always prove his real opinions. A
prudent governor will not roughly oppose even the
superstitions of his people ; and though he may wish
that they were wiser, he will know that he cannot
make them so by offending their prejudices.
Antoninus and his son Commodus entered Rome in
triumph, perhaps for some German victories, on the
23d of December, a. d. 176. In the following year
Commodus was associated with his father in the em-
pire, and took the name of Augustus. This year a. d.
177 is memorable in ecclesiastical history. Attains
and others were put to death at Lyon for their adhe-
rence to the Christian religion. The evidence of this
persecution is a letter preserved by Eusebius (E. H.
v. I ; printed in Routh's Reliquiae Sacrae, vol. i. with
notes). The letter is from the Christians of Vienna
and Lugdunum in Gallia (Vienne and Lyon) to their
Christian brethren in Asia and Phrygia ; and it is pre-
served perhaps nearly entire. It contains a very par-
ticular description of the tortures inflicted on the
Christians in Gallia, and it states that while the per-
secution was going on, Attains, a Christian and a Ro-
man citizen, was loudly demanded by the populace
and brought into the amphitheatre ; but the governor
ordered him to be reserv^ed, with the rest who were in
prison, until he had received instructions from the
8 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
emperor. Many had been tortured before the gov-
ernor thought of applying to Antoninus. The impe-
rial rescript, says the letter, was that the Christians
should be punished, but if they would deny their faith,
they must be released. On this the work began again.
The Christians who were Roman citizens were be-
headed ; the rest were exposed to the wild beasts in
the amphitheatre. Some modern writers on ecclesi-
astical history, when they use this letter, say nothing
of the wonderful stories of the martyrs' sufferings.
Sanctus, as the letter says, was burnt with plates of
hot iron till his body was one sore and had lost all
human form ; but on being put to the rack he recov-
ered his former appearance under the torture, which
was thus a cure instead of a punishment. He was
afterwards torn by beasts, and placed on an iron chair
and roasted. He died at last.
The letter is one piece of evidence. The writer,
whoever he was that wrote in the name of the Gallic
Christians, is our evidence both for the ordinary and
the extraordinary circumstances of the story, and we
cannot accept his evidence for one part and reject
the other. We often receive small evidence as a proof
of a thing which we believe to be within the limits of
probability or possibility, and we reject exactly the
same evidence, when the thing to which it refers, ap-
pears very improbable or impossible. But this is a
false method of inquiry, though it is followed by some
modern writers, who select what they like from a story
and reject the rest of the evidence ; or if they do not
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 9
reject it, they dishonestly suppress it. A man can
only act consistently by accepting all this letter or
rejecting it all, and we cannot blame him for either.
But he who rejects it may still admit that such a letter
may be founded on real facts ; and he would make
this admission as the most probable way of accounting
for the existence of the letter : but if, as he would
suppose, the writer has stated some things falsely, he
cannot tell what part of his story is worthy of credit.
The war on the northern frontier appears to have
been uninterrupted during the visit of Antoninus to
the East, and on his return the emperor again left
Rome to oppose the barbarians. The Germanic peo-
ple were defeated in a great battle a. d. 179. During
this campaign the emperor was seized with some con-
tagious malady, of which he died in the camp at Sir-
mium (Mitrovitz) on the Save, in Lower Pannonia, but
at Vindebona (Vienna) according to other authorities,
on the 1 7th of March, a. d. 180, in the fifty-ninth year
of his age. His son Commodus was with him. The
body or the ashes probably of the emperor were car-
ried to Rome, and he received the honor of deifica-
tion. Those who could afford it had his statue or
bust ; and when Capitolinus wrote, many people still
had statues of Antoninus among the Dei Penates or
household deities. He was in a manner made a saint.
Commodus erected to the memory of his father the
Antonine column which is now in the Piazza Colonna
at Rome. The bassi rilievi which are placed in a
spiral line round the shaft commemorate the victories
10 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH,
of Antoninus over the Marcomanni and the Quadi,
and the miraculous shower of rain which refreshed the
Roman soldiers and discomfited their enemies. The
statue of Antoninus was placed on the capital of the
column, but it was removed at some time unknown,
and a bronze statue of St. Paul was put in the place by
Pope Sixtus the fifth.
The historical evidence for the times of Antoninus
is very defective, and some of that which remains is
not credible. The most curious is the story about the
miracle which happened in a. d. i 74, during the war
with the Quadi. The Roman army was in danger of
perishing by thirst ; but a sudden storm drenched them
with rain, while it discharged fire and hail on their
enemies, and the Romans gained a great victory. All
the authorities which speak of the battle speak also of
the miracle. The Gentile writers assign it to their
gods, and the Christians to the intercession of the
Christian legion in the emperor's army. To confirm
the Christian statement it is added that the em-
peror gave the title of Thundering to this legion ;
but Dacier and others who maintain the Christian
report of the miracle, admit that this tide of Thun-
dering or Lightning was not given to this legion
because the Quadi were struck with lightning, but
because there was a figure of lightning on their
shields, and that this title of the legion existed in the
time of Augustus.
Scaliger also had observed that the legion was called
Thundering {Kepavvo/36\o^, or Kepawocfiopo^) before the
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I I
reign of Antoninus. We learn this from Dion Cassius
(Lib. 55, c. 23, and the note of Reimarus), who enu-
merates all the legions of Augustus' time. The name
Thundering or Lightning also occurs on an inscription
of the reign of Trajan, which was found at Trieste.
Eusebius (v. 5), when he relates the miracle, quotes
Apolinarius, bishop of HierapoLs, as authority for this
name being given to the legion Melitene by the em-
peror in consequence of the success which he obtained
through their prayers ; from which we may estimate
the value of xApolinarius' testimony. Eusebius does
not say in what book of Apolinarius the statement
occurs. Dion says that the Thundering legion was
stationed in Cappadocia in the time of Augustus.
Valesius also observes that in the Notitia of the Impe-
rium Romanum there is mentioned under the com-
mander of Armenia the Praefectura of the twelfth
legion named "Thundering Melitene;" and this po-
sition in Armenia will agree with what Dion says of
its position in Cappadocia. Accordingly Valesius
concludes that Melitene was not the name of the
legion, but of the town in which it was stationed.
Melitene was also the name of the district in which
this town was situated. The legions did not, he says,
take their name from the place where they were on
duty, but from the country in which they were raised,
and therefore what Eusebius says about the Melitene
does not seem probable to him. Yet Valesius, on the
authority of Apolinarius and Tertullian, believed that
the miracle was worked through the prayers of the
12 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
Christian soldiers in the emperor's army. Rufinus
does not give the name of MeUtene to this legion,
says Valesius, and probably he purposely omitted it,
because he knew that Melitene was the name of a
town in Armenia Minor, where the legion was sta-
tioned in his time.
The emperor, it is said, made a report of his vic-
tory to the Senate, which we may believe, for such
was the practice ; but we do not know what he said
in his letter, for it is not extant. Dacier assumes that
the emperor's letter was purposely destroyed by the
Senate or the enemies of Christianity, that so honora-
ble a testimony to the Christians and their religion
might not be perpetuated. The critic has however
not seen that he contradicts himself when he tells us
the purport of the letter, for he says that it was de-
stroyed, and even Eusebius could not find it. But
there does exist a letter in Greek addressed by An-
toninus to the Roman people and the sacred Senate
after this memorable victory. It is sometimes printed
after Justin's first Apology, but it is totally uncon-
nected with the apologies. This letter is one of the
most stupid forgeries of the many which exist, and it
cannot be possibly founded even on the genuine re-
port of x\ntoninus to the Senate. If it were genuine,
it would free the emperor from the charge of perse-
cuting men because they were Christians, for he says
in this false letter that if a man accuse another only of
being a Christian, and the accused confess, and there
is nothing else against him, he must be set free ; with
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 3
this monstrous addition, made by a man inconceivably
ignorant, that the informer must be burnt ahve.^
During the time of Antoninus Pius and Marcus
Antoninus there appeared the first Apology of Justi-
nus, and under M. Antoninus the Oration of Tatian
against the Greeks, which was a fierce attack on the
established religions ; the address of Athenagoras to
M. Antoninus on behalf of the Christians, and the
Apology of Melito, bishop of Sardes, also addressed
to the emperor, and that of Apolinarius. The first
Apology of Justinus is addressed to T. Antoninus Pius
and his two adopted sons M. Antoninus and L. Verus ;
but we do not know whether they read it.^ The sec-
ond Apology of Justinus is entitled " to the Roman
Senate ; " but this superscription is from some copyist.
In the first chapter Justinus addresses the Romans.
In the second chapter he speaks of an affair that had
recently happened in the time of M. Antoninus and
1 Eusebius (v. 5) quotes Tertullian's Apology to the Roman
Senate in confirmation of the story. TertuUian, he says, writes
that letters of the emperor were extant, in which he declares
that his army was saved by the prayers of the Christians ; and
that he "threatened to punish with death those who ventured
to accuse us." It is possible that the forged letter which is
now extant may be one of those which TertuUian had seen, for
he uses the plural number, "letters." A great deal has been
written about this miracle of the Thundering Legion, and more
than is worth reading. There is a dissertation on this supposed
miracle in Moyle's Works, London, 1726.
2 Orosius, VII. 14, says that Justinus the philosopher pre-
sented to Antoninus Pius his work in defence of the Christian
religion, and made him merciful to the Christians.
14 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
L. Verus, as it seems ; and he also directly addresses
the emperor, saying of a certain woman, " she ad-
dressed a petition to thee the emperor, and thou didst
grant the petition." In other passages the writer
addresses the two emperors, from which we must
conclude that the Apology was directed to them.
Eusebius (E. H. iv. i8) states that the second Apol-
ogy was addressed to the successor of Antoninus Pius,
and he names him Antoninus Verus, meaning M. An-
toninus. In one passage of this second Apology (c.
8), Justinus, or the writer, whoever he may be, says
that even men who followed the Stoic doctrines, when
they ordered their lives according to ethical reason,
were hated and murdered, such as Heraclitus, Muso-
nius in his own times, and others ; for all those who
in any way labored to live according to reason and
av^oided wickedness were always hated ; and this was
the effect of the work of daemons.
Justinus himself is said to have been put to death
at Rome, because he refused to sacrifice to the gods.
It cannot have been in the reign of Hadrian, as one
authority states ; nor in the time of Antoninus Pius,
if the second Apology was written in the time of
M. Antoninus ; and there is evidence that this event
took place under M. Antoninus and L. Verus, when
Rusticus was praefect of the city.^
1 See the Martyrium Sanctorum Justini, &c., in the works
of Justinus, ed. Otto, vol. ii 559. "Junius Rusticus Praefectus
Urbi erat sub imperatoribus M. Auielio et L. Vero, id quod
liquet ex Themistii Orat. xxxiv Dindorf. p. 451, et ex quodam
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I 5
The persecution in which Polycarp suffered at
Smyrna belongs to the time of M. Antoninus. The
evidence for it is the letter of the church of Smyrna
to the churches of Philomelium and the other Chris-
tian churches, and it is preserved by Eusebius (E. H.
IV. 15). But the critics do not agree about the time
of Polycarp's death, differing in the two extremes to
the amount of twelve years. The circumstances of
Polycarp's martyrdom were accompanied by miracles,
one of which Eusebius (iv. 15) has omitted, but it
appears in the oldest Latin version of the letter, which
illorura rescripto, Dig. 49. i. i, §2" (Otto). The rescript
contains the words " Junium Rusticum amicum nostrum Prae-
fectum Urbi." The Martyrium of Justinus and others is writ-
ten in Greek. It begins, " In the time of the wicked defenders
of idolatry impious edicts were published against the pious
Christians both in cities and country places, for the purpose of
compelling them to make offerings to vain idols. Accordingly
the holy men (Justinus, Chariton, a woman Charito, Paeon,
Liberianus, and others) were brought before Rusticus, the prae-
fect of Rome "
The Martyrium gives the examination of the accused by
Rusticus. All of them professed to be Christians. Justinus
was asked if he expected to ascend into heaven and to receive
a reward for his sufferings, if he was condemned to death. He
answered that he did not expect : he was certain of it. Finally,
the test of obedience was proposed to the prisoners they were
required to sacrifice to the gods. All refused, and Rusticus
pronounced the sentence, which was that those who refused
to sacrifice to the gods and obey the emperor's order should
be whipped and beheaded according to the law. The martyrs
were then led to the usual place of execution and beheaded.
Some of the faithful secretly carried off the bodies and depos-
ited them in a fit place.
l6 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
Usher published, and it is supposed that this version
was made not long after the time of Eusebius. The
notice at the end of the letter states that it was tran-
scribed by Caius from the copy of Irenaeus, the disciple
of Polycarp, then transcribed by Socrates at Corinth ;
*' after which I Pionius again wrote it out from the
copy above mentioned, having searched it out by the
revelation of Polycarp, who directed me to it," &c.
The story of Polycarp's martyrdom is embellished with
miraculous circumstances which some modern writers
on ecclesiastical history take the liberty of omitting.-^
In order to form a proper notion of the condition
of the Christians under M. Antoninus we must go
back to Trajan's time. When the younger Pliny was
governor of Bithynia, the Christians were numerous in
those parts, and the worshippers of the old religion
were falling off. The temples were deserted, the fes-
tivals neglected, and there were no purchasers of vic-
tims for sacrifice. Those who were interested in the
maintenance of the old religion thus found that their
profits were in danger. Christians of both sexes and
of all ages were brought before the governor, who did
1 Conj-ers Middleton, An Inquiry into the Miraculous Pow-
ers, &c. p. 126. Middleton says that Eusebius omitted to men-
tion the dove, which flew out of Polycarp's body, and Dodwell
and Archbishop Wake have done the same. Wake says, " I
am so little a friend to such miracles that I thought it better
with Eusebius to omit that circumstance than to mention it
from Bp. Usher's Manuscript," which manuscript however, says
Middleton, he afterwards declares to be so well attested that
we need not any further assurance of the truth of it.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1/
not know what to do with them. He could come to
no other conclusion than this, that those who con-
fessed to be Christians and persevered in their reli-
gion ought to be punished ; if for nothing else, for their
invincible obstinacy. He found no crimes proved
against the Christians, and he could only characterize
their religion as a depraved and extravagant super-
stition, which might be stopped if the people were
allowed the opportunity of recanting. Pliny wrote
this in a letter to Trajan (Plinius, Ep. x. 97). He
asked for the emperor's directions, because he did not
know what to do. He remarks that he had never
been engaged in judicial inquiries about the Chris-
tians, and that accordingly he did not know what to
inquire about or how far to inquire and punish. This
proves that it was not a new thing to examine into a
man's profession of Christianity and to punish him for
it.^ Trajan's rescript is extant. He approved of the
governor's judgment in the matter, but he said that
no search must be made after the Christians ; if a
man was charged with the new religion and convicted,
he must not be punished if he affirmed that he was
not a Christian and confirmed his denial by showing
his reverence to the heathen gods. He added that no
1 Orosius (vii. 12) speaks of Trajan's persecution of the
Christians, and of Pliny's application to him having led the em-
peror to mitigate his severity. The punishment by the Mosaic
law for those who attempted to seduce the Jews to follow new
gods was death. If a man was secretly enticed to such new
worship, he must kill the seducer, even if the seducer were
brother, son, daughter, wife, or friend. (Deut. xiii.)
1 8 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
notice must be taken of anonymous informations, for
such things were of bad example. Trajan was a mild
and sensible man ; and both motives of mercy and
policy probably also induced him to take as little no-
tice of the Christians as he could, to let them live in
quiet if it were possible. Trajan's rescript is the jfirst
legislative act of the head of the Roman state with
reference to Christianity, which is known to us. It
does not appear that the Christians were further dis-
turbed under his reign. The martyrdom of Ignatius
by the order of Trajan himself is not universally ad-
mitted to be an historical fact.-^
In the time of Hadrian it was no longer possible for
the Roman government to oyerlook the great increase
of the Christians and the hostility of the common sort
to them. If the governors in the provinces were will-
ing to let them alone, they could not resist the fanati-
cism of the heathen community, who looked on the
Christians as atheists. The Jews too, who were settled
all over the Roman Empire, were as hostile to the
Christians as the Gentiles were.^ With the time of
Hadrian begin the Christian Apologies, which show
plainly what the popular feeling towards the Christians
1 The Martyrium Ignatii, first published in Latin by Arch-
bishop Usher, is the chief evidence for the circumstances of
Ignatius' death.
2 We have the evidence of Justinus (ad Diognetum, c. 5)
to this effect : " The Christians are attacked by the Jews as if
they were men of. a different race, and are persecuted by the
Greeks ; and those who hate them cannot give the reason of
their enmity."
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 9
then was. A rescript of Hadrian to Minuciiis Funda-
niis, the Proconsul of Asia, which stands at the end of
Justin's first Apology, instructs the governor that in-
nocent people must not be troubled, and false accu-
sers must not be allowed to extort money from them ;
the charges against the Christians must be made in
due form, and no attention must be paid to popular
clamors ; when Christians were regularly prosecuted
and convicted of illegal acts, they must be punished
according to their deserts ; and false accusers also
must be punished. Antoninus Pius is said to have
published rescripts to the same effect. The terms of
Hadrian's rescript seem very favorable to the Chris-
tians ; but if we understand it in this sense, that they
were only to be punished like other people for illegal
acts, it would have had no meaning, for that could
have been done without asking the emperor's advice.
The real purpose of the rescript is that Christians
must be punished if they persisted in their belief, and
would not prove their renunciation of it by acknowl-
1 And in Eusebius (E. H. iv. 8, 9). Orosius (vii. 13) says
that Hadrian sent this rescript to Minucius Fundanus, pro-
consul of Asia, after being instructed in books written on the
Christian religion by Quadratus a disciple of the Apostles, and
Aristides an Athenian, an honest and wise man, and Serenus
Granius, In the Greek text of Hadrian's rescript there is
mentioned Serenius Granianus, the predecessor of Minucius
Fundanus in the government of Asia.
This rescript of Hadrian has clearly been added to the
Apology by some editor. The Apology ends with the words :
0 (pi\ov Tu> 0eco, Tovro yeveadco.
20 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
edging the heathen rehgion. This was Trajan's rule,
and we have no reason for supposing that Hadrian
granted more to the Christians than Trajan did.
There is also printed at the end of Justin's first Apol-
ogy a rescript of Antoninus Pius to the Commune
of Asia (to KOivbv Trj<5 'Acrtas) , and it is also in Eusebius
(E. H. IV. 13). The date of the rescript is the third
consulship of Antoninus Pius.-^ The rescript declares
that the Christians — for they are meant, though the
name Christians does not occur in the rescript — were
not to be disturbed unless they were attempting
something against the Roman rule ; and no man was
1 Eusebius (E. H. iv. 12), after giving the beginning of
Justinus' first Apology, which contains the address to T. An-
toninus and his two adopted sons, adds: "The same emperor
being addressed by other brethren in Asia honored the Com-
mune of Asia with the following rescript." This rescript,
which is in the next chapter of Eusebius (E. H. iv. 13), is in
the sole name of Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus
Armenius, though Eusebius had just before said that he was
going to give us a rescript of Antoninus Pius. There are
some material variations between the two copies of the re-
script besides the difference in the title, which difference makes
it impossible to say whether the forger intended to assign this
rescript to Pius or to M. Antoninus.
The author of the Alexandrine Chronicum says that Marcus,
being moved by the entreaties of Melito and other heads of the
church, wrote an Epistle to the Commune of Asia in which he
forbade the Christians to be troubled on account of their re-
ligion. Valesius supposes this to be the letter or rescript
which is contained in Eusebius (iv. 13), and to be the answer to
the Apology of Melito, of which I shall soon give the substance.
But Marcus certainly did not write this letter which is in Euse-
bius, and we know not what answer he made to Melito.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 21
to be punished simply for being a Christian. But this
rescript is spurious. Any man moderately acquainted
with Roman history will see by the style and tenor
that it is a clumsy forgery.
In the time of M. Antoninus the opposition be-
tween the old and the new belief was still stronger,
and the adherents of the heathen religion urged those
in authority to a more regular resistance to the in-
vasions of the Christian faith. Melito in his Apology
to M. Antoninus represents the Christians of Asia as
persecuted under new imperial orders. Shameless in-
formers, he says, men who were greedy after the prop-
erty of others, used these orders as a means of robbing
those who were doing no harm. He doubts if a just
emperor could have ordered anything so unjust ; and
if the last order was really not from the emperor, the
Christians entreat him not to give them up to their
enemies.^ We conclude from this that there were at
1 Eusebius, iv. 26 ; and Routh's Reliquiae Sacrae, vol. i.
and the notes. The interpretation of this Fragment is not easy.
Mosheim misunderstood one passage so far as to affirm that
Marcus promised rewards to those who denounced the Chris-
tians ; an interpretation which is entirely false. Melito calls
the Christian religion " our philosophy," which began among
barbarians (the Jews), and flourished among the Roman sub-
jects in the time of Augustus, to the great advantage of the
empire, for from that time the power of the Romans grew great
and glorious. He says that the emperor has and will have as
the successor to Augustus' power the good wishes of men, if
he will protect that philosophy which grew up with the empire
and began with Augustus, which philosophy the predecessors
of Antoninus honored in addition to the other relidons. He
22 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
least imperial rescripts or constitutions of M. Anto-
ninus which were made the foundation of these perse-
cutions. The fact of being a Christian was now a
crime and punished, unless the accused denied their
religion. Then come the persecutions at Smyrna,
which some modern critics place in a. d. 167, ten
further says that the Christian religion had suffered no harm
since the time of Augustus, but on the contrary had enjoyed all
honor and respect that any man could desire. Nero and
Domitian, he says, were alone persuaded by some malicious
men to calumniate the Christian religion, and this was the ori-
gin of the false charges against the Christians. But this was
corrected by the emperors who immediately preceded Antoni-
nus, who often by their rescripts reproved those who attempted
to trouble the Christians. Hadrian, Antoninus' grandfather,
wrote to many, and among them to Fundanus the governor of
Asia. Antoninus Pius, when Marcus was associated with him
in the empire, wrote to the cities that they must not trouble the
Christians ; among others, to the people of Larissa, Thessalo-
nica, the Athenians, and all the Greeks. Melito concluded
thus : " We are persuaded that thou who hast about these things
the same mind that they had, nay rather one much more hu-
mane and philosophical, wilt do all that we ask thee." — This
Apology was written after A. D. 169, the year in which Verus
died, for it speaks of Marcus only and his son Commodus.
According to Melito's testimony, Christians had only been
punished for their religion in the time of Nero and Domitian,
and the persecutions began again in the time of M. Antoninus,
and were founded on his orders, which were abused, as he
seems to mean. He distinctly affirms "that the race of the
godly is now persecuted and harassed by fresh imperial orders
in Asia, a thing which had never happened before." But we
know that all this is not true, and that Christians had been
punished in Trajan's time.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 23
years before the persecution of Lyon. The governors
of the provinces under M. Antoninus might have found
enough even in Trajan's rescript to warrant them in
punishing Christians, and the fanaticism of the people
would drive them to persecution, even if they were
unwilUng. But besides the fact of the Christians re-
jecting all the heathen ceremonies, we must not forget
that they plainly maintained that all the heathen re-
ligions were false. The Christians thus declared war
against the heathen rites, and it is hardly necessary to
observe that this was a declaration of hostility against
the Roman government, which tolerated all the vari-
ous forms of superstition that existed in the empire,
and could not consistently tolerate another religion,
which declared that all the rest were false and all the
splendid ceremonies of the empire only a worship of
devils.
If we had a true ecclesiastical history, we should
know how the Roman emperors attempted to check
the new religion ; how they enforced their principle of
finally punishing Christians, simply as Christians, which
Justin in his Apology affirms that they did, and I have
no doubt that he tells the truth ; how far popular
clamor and riots went in this matter, and how far
many fanatical and ignorant Christians — for there were
many such — contributed to excite the fanaticism on
the other side and to imbittei the quarrel between the
Roman government and the new religion. Our extant
ecclesiastical histories are manifestly falsified, and what
truth they contain is grossly exaggerated ; but the fact
24 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
is certain that in the time of M. Antoninus the hea-
then populations were in open hostihty to the Chris-
tians, and that under Antoninus' rule men were put to
death because they were Christians. Eusebius, in the
preface to his fifth book, remarks that in the seven-
teenth year of Antoninus' reign, in some parts of the
world, the persecution of the Christians became more
violent, and that it proceeded from the populace in
the cities ; and he adds, in his usual style of exaggera-
tion, that we may infer from what took place in a
single nation that myriads of martyrs were made in
the habitable earth. The nation which he alludes to
is Gallia ; and he then proceeds to give the letter of
the churches of Vienna and Lugdunum. It is proba-
ble that he has assigned the true cause of the perse-
cutions, the fanaticism of the populace, and that both
governors and emperor had a great deal of trouble
with these disturbances. How far Marcus was cogni-
zant of these cruel proceedings we do not know, for
the historical records of his reign are very defective.
He did not make the rule against the Christians, for
Trajan did that ; and if we admit that he would have
been willing to let the Christians alone, we cannot
affirm that it was in his power, for it would be a great
mistake to suppose that Antoninus had the unlimited
authority which some modern sovereigns have had.
His power was limited by certain constitutional forms,
by the Senate, and by the precedents of his prede-
cessors. We cannot admit that such a man was an
active persecutor, for there is no evidence that he
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 25
was,^ though it is certain. that he had no good opinion
of the Christians, as appears from his own words.'-^ But
1 Except that of Orosius (vii. 15), who says that during
the Parthian war there were grievous persecutions of the
Christians in Asia and Gallia under the orders of Marcus
(praecepto ejus), and "many were crowned with the martyr-
dom of saints."
2 See XI. 3. The emperor probably speaks of such fanatics
as Clemens (quoted by Gataker on this passage) mentions.
The rational Christians admitted no fellowship with them.
"Some of these heretics," says Clemens, "show their impiety
and cowardice by loving their lives, saying that the knowledge
of the really existing God is true testimony (martyrdom), but
that a man is a self-murderer who bears witness by his death.
We also blame those who rush to death ; for there are some,
not of us, but only bearing the same name, who give themselves
up. We say of them that they die without being martyrs, even
if they are publicly punished ; and they give themselves up to
a death which avails nothing, as the Indian Gymnosophists
give themselves up foolishly to fire." Cave, in his primitive
Christianity (ii. c. 7), says of the Christians : " They did flock
to the place of torment faster than droves of beasts that are
driven to the shambles. They even longed to be in the arms
of suffering. Ignatius, though then in his journey to Rome in
order to his execution, yet by the way as he went could not but
vent his passionate desire of it : ' Oh that I might come to those
wild beasts that are prepared for me ; I heartily wish that I
may presently meet with them ; I would invite and encourage
them speedily to devour me, and not be afraid to set upon me
as they have been to others ; nay, should they refuse it, I would
even force them to it ; ' " and more to the same purpose from
Eusebius. Cave, an honest and good man, says all this in
praise of the Christians ; but I think that he mistook the mat-
ter. We admire a man who holds to his principles even to
death; but these fanatical Christians are the Gymnosophists
whom Clemens treats with disdain.
26 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
he knew nothing of them except their hostiUty to the
Roman rehgion, and he probably thought that they
were dangerous to the state, notwithstanding the pro-
fessions false or true of some of the Apologists. So
much I have said, because it would be unfair not to
state all that can be urged against a man whom his
contemporaries and subsequent ages venerated as a
model of virtue and benevolence. If I admitted the
genuineness of some documents, he would be alto-
gether clear from the charge of even allowing any per-
secutions ; but as I seek the truth and am sure that
they are false, I leave him to bear whatever blame is
his due.^ I add that it is quite certain that Antoninus
did not derive any of his ethical principles from a re-
ligion of which he knew nothing.^
There is no doubt that the Emperor's Reflections —
or his Meditations, as they are generally named — is a
genuine work. In the first book he speaks of himself,
his family, and his teachers ; and in other books he
mentions himself. Suidas (v. MapKo?) notices a work
of Antoninus in twelve books, which he names the
"conduct of his own life;" and he cites the book
1 Dr. F. C. Baur, in his work entitled " Das Christenthum
und die Christliche Kirche der drei ersten Jahrhunderte," &c.,
has examined this question with great good sense and fairness,
and I "believe he has stated the truth as near as our authorities
enable us to reach it.
'-^ In the Digest, 48, 19, 30, there is the following excerpt
from Modestinus : ." Si quis aliquid fecerit, quo leves hominum
animi superstitione numinis terrerentur, divus Marcus hujus-
modi homines in insulam relegari rescripsit."
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 2/
under several words in his Dictionary, giving the em-
peror's name, but not the title of the work. There
are also passages cited by Suidas from Antoninus with-
out mention of the emperor's name. The true title
of the work is unknown. Xylander, who published the
first edition of this book (Zurich, 1558, 8vo, with a
Latin version), used a manuscript which contained
the twelve books, but it is not known where the man-
uscript is now. The only other complete manuscript
which is known to exist is in the Vatican library, but
it has no title and no inscriptions of the several books :
the eleventh only has the inscription MdpKov avTOKpd-
Topo<; marked with an asterisk. The other Vatican
manuscripts and the three Florentine contain only ex-
cerpts from the emperor's book. All the tides of the
excerpts nearly agree with that which Xylander prefixed
to his edition, Map/cou 'AvTojvivov KvroKpdropoq rwi/ cts
kavTov IBi(^\ia i(3. This title has been used by all sub-
sequent editors. We cannot tell whether Antoninus
divided his work into books or somebody else did it.
If the inscriptions at the end of the first and second
books are genuine, he may have made the division
himself.
It is plain that the emperor wrote down his thoughts
or reflections as the occasions arose ; and since they
were intended for his own use, it is no improbable
conjecture that he left a complete copy behind him
written with his own hand ; for it is not likely that so
diligent a man would use the labor of a transcriber for
such a purpose, and expose his most secret thoughts
28 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
to any other eye. He may have also intended the
book for his son Commodus, who however had no
taste for his father's philosophy. Some careful hand
preserved the precious volume ; and a work by An-
toninus is mentioned by other late writers besides
Suidas.
Many critics have labored on the text of Antoninus.
The most complete edition is that by Thomas Gataker,
1652, 4to. The second edition of Gataker was super-
intended by George Stanhope, 1697, 4to. There is
also an edition of 1704. Gataker made and sug-
gested many good corrections, and he also made a
new Latin version, which is not a very good specimen
of Latin, but it generally expresses the sense of the
original, and often better than some of the more recent
translations. He added in the margin opposite to
each paragraph references to the other parallel pas-
sages ; and he wrote a commentary, one of the most
complete that has been written on any ancient author.
This commentary contains the editor's exposition of
the more difficult passages, and quotations from all
the Greek and Roman writers for the illustration of the
text. It is a wonderful monument of learning and
labor, and certainly no Englishman has yet done any-
thing like it. At the end of his preface the editor
says that he wrote it at Rotherhithe near London in a
severe winter, when he was in the seventy- eighth year
of his age, 1651, — a time when Milton, Selden, and
other great men of the Commonwealth time were liv-
ing; and the great French scholar Saumaise (Salma-
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 29
sius), with whom Gataker corresponded and received
help from him for his edition of Antoninus. The
Greek text has also been edited by J. M. Schultz,
Leipzig, 1802, 8vo ; and by the learned Greek Ada-
mantinus Corais, Paris, 1816, 8vo. The text of Schultz
was republished by Tauchnitz, 1 8 2 1 .
There are English, German, French, Italian, and
Spanish translations of M. Antoninus, and there may
be others. I have not seen all the English transla-
tions. There is one by Jeremy Collier, 1702, 8vo,
a most coarse and vulgar copy of the original. The
latest French translation by Alexis Pierron in the col-
lection of Charpentier is better than Dacier's, which
has been honored with an Italian version (Udine,
1772). There is an Italian version (1675) which I
have not seen. It is by a cardinal. ^' A man illus-
trious in the church, the Cardinal Francis Barberini
the elder, nephew of Pope Urban VIII., occupied the
last years of his life in translating into his native lan-
guage the thoughts of the Roman emperor, in order
to diffuse among the faithful the fertilizing and vivify-
ing seeds. He dedicated this translation to his soul,
to make it, as he says in his energetic style, redder
than his purple at the sight of the virtues of this Gen-
tile " (Pierron, Preface).
I have made this translation at intervals after having
used the book for many years. It is made from the
Greek, but I have not always followed one text ; and
I have occasionally compared other versions with my
own. I made this translation for my own use, because
30 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
I found that it was worth the labor ; but it may be
useful to others also, and therefore I determined to
print it. As the original is sometimes very difficult
to understand and still more difficult to translate, it is
not possible that I have always avoided error. But I
believe that I have not often missed the meaning, and
those who will take the trouble to compare the trans-
lation with the original should not hastily conclude
that I am wrong, if they do not agree with me. Some
passages do give the meaning, though at first sight
they may not appear to do so ; and when I differ from
the translators, I think that in some places they are
wrong, and in other places I am sure that they are.
I have placed in some passages a f, which indicates
corruption in the text or great uncertainty in the
meaning. I could have made the language more
easy and flowing, but I have preferred a ruder style
as being better suited to express the character of the
original ; and sometimes the obscurity which may ap-
pear in the version is a fair copy of the obscurity of
the Greek. If I should ever revise this version, I
would gladly make use of any corrections which may
be suggested. I have added an index of some of the
Greek terms with the corresponding English. If I
have not given the best words for the Greek, I have
done the best that I could ; and in the text I have al-
ways given the same translation of the same word.
The last reflection of the Stoic philosophy that I
have observed is in Simplicius' Commentary on the
Enchiridion of Epictetus. Simplicius was not a Chris-
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 3 I
tian, and such a man was not likely to be converted
at a time when Christianity was grossly corrupted.
But he was a really religious man, and he concludes
his commentary with a prayer to the Deity which no
Christian could improve. From the time of Zeno to
Simplicius, a period of about nine hundred years, the
Stoic philosophy formed the characters of some of the
best and greatest men. Finally it became extinct,
and we hear no more of it till the revival of letters in
Italy. Angelo Poliziano met with two very inaccurate
and incomplete manuscripts of Epictetus' Enchiridion,
which he translated into Latin and dedicated to his
great patron Lorenzo de' Medici, in whose collection he
had found the book. Poliziano's version was printed
in the first Bale edition of the Enchiridion, a. d. 153 i
(apud And. Cratandrum). Poliziano recommends the
Enchiridion to Lorenzo as a work well suited to his
temper, and useful in the difficulties by which he was
surrounded.
Epictetus and Antoninus have had readers ever
since they were first printed. The little book of x\n-
toninus has been the companion of some great men.
Machiavelli's Art of War and Marcus Antoninus were
the two books which were used when he was a young
man by Captain John Smith, and he could not have
found two writers better fitted to form the character
of a soldier and a man. Smith is almost unknown
and forgotten in England, his native country, but not
in America, where he saved the young colony of Vir-
ginia. He was great in his heroic mind and his deeds
32 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
in arms, but greater still in the nobleness of his char-
acter. For a man's greatness lies not in wealth and
station, as the vulgar believe, nor yet in his intellec-
tual capacity, which is often associated with the mean-
est moral character, the most abject servility to those
in high places, and arrogance to the poor and lowly ;
but a man's true greatness lies in the consciousness of
an honest purpose in life, founded on a just estimate
of himself and everything else, on frequent self-exami-
nation, and a steady obedience to the rule which he
knows to be right, without troubling himself, as the
emperor says he should not, about what others may
think or say, or whether they do or do not do that
which he thinks and says and does.
THE PHILOSOPHY
OF
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
TT has been said that the Stoic philosophy first
showed its real value when it passed from Greece
to Rome. The doctrines of Zeno and his successors
were well suited to the gravity and practical good
sense of the Romans ; and even in the Republican
period we have an example of a man, M. Cato
Uticensis, who lived the life of a Stoic and died
consistently with the opinions which he professed.
He was a man, says Cicero, who embraced the Stoic
philosophy from conviction ; not for the purpose of
vain discussion, as most did, but in order to make
his life conformable to the Stoic precepts. In the
wretched times from the death of Augustus to the
murder of Domitian, there was nothing but the Stoic
philosophy which could console and support the fol-
lowers of the old religion under imperial tyranny and
amidst universal corruption. There were even then
noble minds that could dare and endure, sustained
by a good conscience and an elevated idea of the
3
34 PHILOSOPHY.
purposes of man's existence. Such were Paetus
Thrasea, Helvidius Priscus, Cornutus, C. Musonius
Rufus/ and the poets Persius and Juvenal, whose
energetic language and manly thoughts may be as
instructive to us now as they might have been to
their contemporaries. Persius died under Nero's
bloody reign ; but Juvenal had the good fortune to
survive the tyrant Domitian and to see the better
times of Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian.^ His best
precepts are derived from the Stoic school, and they
are enforced in his finest verses by the unrivalled
vigor of the Latin language.
The best two expounders of the later Stoical phi-
losophy were a Greek slave and a Roman emperor.
Epictetus, a Phrygian Greek, was brought to Rome,
we know not how, but he was there the slave and
afterwards the freedman of an unworthy master, Epa-
phroditus by name, himself a freedman and a favorite
1 I have omitted Seneca, Nero's preceptor. He was in a
sense a Stoic, and he has said many good things in a very fine
way. There is a judgment of Gellius (xil. 2) on Seneca, or
rather a statement of what some people thought of his philoso-
phy, and it is not favorable. His writings and his life must be
taken together, and I have nothing more to say of him here.
The reader will find a notice of Seneca and his philosophy in
" Seekers after God," by the Rev. F. W. Farrar. Macmillan
and Co.
2 Ribbeck has labored to prove that tnose Satires, which
contain philosophical precepts, are not the work of the real,
but of a false 'Juvenal, a Declamator. Still the verses exist,
and were written by somebody who was acquainted with the
Stoic doctrines.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 35
of Nero. Epictetus may have been a hearer of C.
Musoniiis Rufus, while he was still a slave, but he
could hardly have been a teacher before he was
made free. He was one of the philosophers whom
Domitian's order banished from Rome. He retired
to Nicopolis in Epirus, and he may have died there.
Like other great teachers he wrote nothing, and we
are indebted to his grateful pupil Arrian for what we
have of Epictetus' discourses. Arrian wrote eight
books of the discourses of Epictetus, of which only
four remain and some fragments. We have also
from Arrian's hand the small Enchiridion or Manual
of the chief precepts of Epictetus. There is a valu-
able commentary on the Enchiridion by Simplicius,
who lived in the time of the emperor Justinian.^
Antoninus in his first book (i. 7), in which he grate-
fully commemorates his obligations to his teachers,
says that he was made acquainted by Junius Rusticus
with the discourses of Epictetus, whom he mentions
also in other passages (iv. 41 ; xi. 34, 36). Indeed,
the doctrines of Epictetus and Antoninus are the
same, and Epictetus is the best authority for the
explanation of the philosophical language of Anto-
ninus and the exposition of his opinions. But the
method of the two philosophers is entirely different.
Epictetus addressed himself to his hearers in a con-
1 There is a complete edition of Arrian's Epictetus with the
commentary of Simplicius by J. Schweighacuser, 6 vols. Svo.
1799, 1800. There is also an English translation of Epictetus
by Mrs. Carter.
2,6 PHILOSOPHY.
tinuous discourse and in a familiar and simple man-
ner. Antoninus wrote down his reflections for his
own use only, in short, unconnected paragraphs, which
are often obscure.
The Stoics made three divisions of philosophy, —
Physic (^(jivcTLKov) , Ethic (tjOlkov), and Logic (XoytKoi/)
(viii. 13). This division, we are told by Diogenes,
was made by Zeno of Citium, the founder of the
Stoic sect, and by Chrysippus ; but these philosophers
placed the three divisions in the following order, —
Logic, Physic, Ethic. It appears, however, that this
division was made before Zeno's time, and acknowl-
edged by Plato, as Cicero remarks (Acad. Post. i. 5).
Logic is not synonymous with our term Logic in the
narrower sense of that word.
Cleanthes, a Stoic, subdivided the three divisions,
and made six, — Dialectic and Rhetoric, comprised
in Logic ; Ethic and Pohtic ; Physic and Theology.
This division was merely for practical use, for all
Philosophy is one. Even among the earliest Stoics
Logic, or Dialectic, does not occupy the same place
as in Plato : it is considered only as an instrument
which is to be used for the other divisions of Phi-
losophy. An exposition of the earlier Stoic doc-
trines and of their modifications would require a
volume. My object is to explain only the opinions
of Antoninus, so far as they can be collected from his
book.
According to the subdivision of Cleanthes, Physic
and Theology go together, or the study of the nature
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 37
of Things, and the study of the nature of the Deity,
so far as man can understand the Deity, and of his
government of the universe. This division or sub-
division is not formally adopted by Antoninus, for, as
already observed, there is no method in his book ;
but it is virtually contained in it.
Cleanthes also connects Ethic and Politic, or the
study of the principles of morals and the study of the
constitution of civil society ; and undoubtedly he did
well in subdividing Ethic into two parts. Ethic in the
narrower sense and Politic ; for though the two are
intimately connected, they are also very distinct, and
many questions can only be properly discussed by
carefully observing the distinction. Antoninus does
not treat of Politic. His subject is Ethic, and Ethic
in its practical application to his own conduct in life
as a man and as a governor. His Ethic is founded
on his doctrines about man's nature, the Universal
Nature, and the relation of every man to everything
else. It is therefore intimately and inseparably con-
nected with Physic, or the nature of Things, and with
Theology, or the Nature of the Deity. He advises us
to examine well all the impressions on our minds
(cfiavTaa-iat) and to form a right judgment of them,
to make just conclusions, and to inquire into the
meanings of words, and so far to apply Dialectic ; but
he has no attempt at any exposition of Dialectic, and
his philosophy is in substance purely moral and prac-
tical. He says (viii. 13), "Constantly and, if it be
possible, on the occasion of every impression on the
38 PHILOSOPHY.
soul,^ apply to it the principles of Physic, of Ethic,
and of Dialectic : " which is only another way of
telling us to examine the impression in every possible
way. In another passage (in. ii) he says, "To the
aids which have been mentioned, let this one still be
added : make for thyself a definition or description
of the object (t6 ^ai/rao-ToV) which is presented to
thee, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it
is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete en-
tirety, and tell thyself its proper name, and the names
of the things of which it has been compounded, and
into which it will be resolved." Such an examination
implies a use of Dialectic, which Antoninus accord-
ingly employed as a means towards establishing his
Physical, Theological, and Ethical principles.
There are several expositions of the Physical, Theo-
logical, and Ethical principles, which are contained in
the work of Antoninus ; and more expositions than I
have read. Ritter (Geschichte der Philosophic, iv.
241), after explaining the doctrines of Epictetus, treats
very briefly and insufficiently those of Antoninus. But
1 The original is iirl TrdTrjs (pavraa-ias. We have no word
which expresses ^avTaaia, for it is not only the sensuous ap-
pearance which comes from an external object, which object is
called TO (pavracrTov, but it is also the thought or feeling or opin-
ion which is produced even when there is no corresponding
external object before us. Accordingly everything which moves
the soul is (pavraarbv, and produces a (pavraaia.
In this extract Antoninus sa3'S (pvicoXoye^u^ iradoXoydv, dia-
X€KTiK€V€a6ai. I have translated iradokoyelv by using the word
Moral (Ethic), and that is the meaning here.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 39
he refers to a short essay, in which the work is done
better.^ There is also an essay on the Philosophical
Principles of M. Aurelius Antoninus by J. M. Schultz,
placed at the end of his German translation of An-
toninus (Schleswig, 1799). With the assistance of
these two useful essays and his own diligent study a
man may form a sufficient notion of the principles of
Antoninus ; but he will find it more difficult to ex-
pound them to others. Besides the want of arrange-
ment in the original and of connection among the
numerous paragraphs, the cormption of the text, the
obscurity of the language and the style, and sometimes
perhaps the confusion in the writer's own ideas, —
besides all this, there is occasionally an apparent con-
tradiction in the emperor's thoughts, as if his princi-
ples were sometimes unsettled, as if doubt sometimes
clouded his mind. A man who leads a life of
tranquillity and reflection, who is not disturbed at
home and meddles not with the affairs of the world,
may keep his mind at ease and his thoughts in one
even course. But such a man has not been tried.
All his Ethical philosophy and his passive virtue
might turn out to be idle words, if he were once
exposed to the rude realities of human existence.
Fine thoughts and moral dissertations from men who
have not worked and suffered may be read, but they
will be forgotten. No religion, no Ethical philosophy
1 De Marco Aurelio Antonino ... ex ipsius Commenta-
riis. Scriptio Philologica. Instituit Nicolaus Bachius, Lipsiae,
1S26.
40 PHILOSOPHY.
is worth anything, if the teacher has not hved the
''hfe of an apostle," and been ready to die "the
death of a martyr." " Not in passivity (the passive
affects) but in activity he the evil and the good of
the rational social animal, just as his virtue and his
vice lie not in passivity, but in activity" (ix. i6).
The emperor Antoninus was a practical moralist.
From his youth he followed a laborious discipline,
and though his high station placed him above all
want or the fear of it, he lived as frugally and tem-
perately as the poorest philosopher. Epictetus wanted
little, and it seems that he always had the little that
he wanted and he was content with it, as he had been
with his servile station. But Antoninus after his
accession to the empire sat on an uneasy seat. He
had the administration of an empire which extended
from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from the cold
mountains of Scotland to the hot sands of Africa ; and
we may imagine, though we cannot know it by ex-
perience, what must be the trials, the troubles, the
anxiety, and the sorrows of him who has the world's
business on his hands, with the wish to do the best
that he can, and the certain knowledge that he can
do very httle of the good which he wishes.
In the midst of war, pestilence, conspiracy, general
corruption, and with the weight of so unwieldy an
empire upon him, we may easily comprehend that
Antoninus often had need of all his fortitude to sup-
port him. Tlie best and the bravest men have mo-
ments of doubt and of weakness ; but if they are the
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 4 1
best and the bravest, they rise again from their de-
pression by recurring to first principles, as Antoninus
does. The emperor says that hfe is smoke, a vapor,
and St. James in his Epistle is of the same mind ;
that the world is full of envious, jealous, malignant
people, and a man might be well content to get out
of it. He has doubts perhaps sometimes even about
that to which he holds most firmly. There are only
a few passages of this kind, but they are evidence of
the struggles which even the noblest of the sons of
men had to maintain against the hard realities of his
daily life. A poor remark it is which I have seen
somewhere, and made in a disparaging way, that the
emperor's reflections show that he had need of con-
solation and comfort in life, and even to prepare him
to meet his death. True that he did need comfort
and support, and we see how he found it. He con-
stantly recurs to his fundamental principle that the
universe is wisely ordered, that every man is a part
of it and must conform to that order which he cannot
change, that whatever the Deity has done is good,
that all mankind are a man's brethren, that he must
love and cherish them and try to make them better,
even those who would do him harm. This is his
conclusion (11. 17): "What then is that which is
able to conduct a man? One thing and only one.
Philosophy. But this consists in keeping the divinity
within a man free from violence and unharmed, su-
perior to pains and pleasures, doing nothing without
a purpose nor yet falsely and with hypocrisy, not
42 PHILOSOPHY.
feeling the need of another man's domg or not doing
anything ; and besides, accepting all that happens and
all that is allotted, as coming from thence, wherever
it is, from whence he himself came ; and finally wait-
ing for death with a cheerful mind as being nothing
else than a dissolution of the elements of which every
living being is compounded. But if there is no harm
to the elements themselves in each continually chang-
ing into another, why should a man have any appre-
hension about the change and dissolution of all the
elements [himself] ? for it is according to nature ; and
nothing is evil that is according to nature."
The Physic of Antoninus is the knowledge of the
Nature of the Universe, of its government, and of
the relation of man's nature to both. He names
the universe (i) tCjv oXwv ovaia, vi. i),^ ''the universal
1 As to the word ovala, the reader may see the Index. I
add here a few examples of the use of the word ; Antoninus
has (v. 24), 7} crvfiTToiaa ovcrLa, ^' the universal substance." He
says (xii. 30 and iv. 40), " there is one common substance "
(ovjia), distributed among countless bodies. In Stobaeus
(torn. I. lib. I, tit. 14) there is this definition, ovaiav 5e cpaaiv
tQ)v 'ovTUiv cLTravToop T7]v irpibTrjv v\r]u. In VIII. ii, Antoninus
speaks of to ovaiwdes Kai vXlkoi^, " the substantial and the ma-
terial ; " and (VII. 10) he says that "everything material"
{evvXop) disappears in the substance of the whole (rrj twv oXojv
ovala). The ovaia is the generic name of that existence which
we assume as the highest or ultimate, because we conceive no
existence which can be co-ordinated with it and none above it.
It is the philosopli^r's "substance :" it is the ultimate expres-
sion for that which we conceive or suppose to be the basis,
the being of a thing. "From the Divine, which is substance
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 43
substance," and he adds that ''reason" (Aoyo?) gov-
erns the universe. He also (vi. 9) uses the terms
''universal nature " or " nature of the universe." He
(vi. 25) calls the universe "the one and all, which
we name Cosmos or Order" (Kocrfxoi). If he ever
seems to use these general terms as significant of the
All, of all that man can in any way conceive to ex-
ist, he still on other occasions plainly distinguishes
between Matter, Material things (vXrj, vXlkov), and
Cause, Origin, Reason (ama, airtiLSes, kayos)} This
in itself, or the only and sole substance, all and everything
that is created exists'" (Svvedenborg, Angelic Wisdom, 19S).
1 I remark, in order to anticipate any misapprehension,
that all these general terms involve a contradiction. The
"one and all," and the like, and "the whole," imply limita-
tion. "One" is limited; "all" is limited; the "whole" is
limited. We cannot help it. We cannot find words to ex-
press that which we cannot fully conceive. The addition of
" absolute " or any other such word does not mend the matter.
Even the word God is used by most people, often uncon-
sciously, in such a way that limitation is implied, and yet at
the same time words are added which are intended to deny
limitation. A Christian martyr, when he was asked what God
was, is said to have answered that God has no name like a
man; and Justin says the same (Apol. ii. 6), "the names
Father, God, Creator, Lord, and Master are not names, but
appellations derived from benefactions and acts." (Compare
Seneca, De Benef. iv. 8.) We can conceive the existence
of a thing, or rather we may have the idea of an existence,
without an adequate notion of it, " adequate " meaning co-
extensive and coequal with the thing. We have a notion of
limited space derived from the dimensions of what we call a
material thing, though of space absolute, if I may use the term,
we have no notion at all ; and of infinite space the notion is
44 PHILOSOPHY.
is conformable to Zeno's doctrine that there are two
original principles (dp^aO of all things, that which
acts {to ttolovv) and that which is acted upon (to
Trdcrxov). That which is acted on is the formless
matter (vXtj) : that which acts is the reason (Aoyos),
God, who is eternal and operates through all matter,
and produces all things. So Antoninus (v. 32)
speaks of the reason (A.oyo?) which pei-vades all sub-
stance (ova-La), and through all time by fixed periods
(revolutions) administers the universe (to ttuv) . God
is eternal, and Matter is eternal. It is God who gives
form to matter, but he is not said to have created
matter. According to this view, which is as old as
Anaxagoras, God and matter exist independently, but
God governs matter. This doctrine is simply the
expression of the fact of the existence both of matter
and of God. The Stoics did not perplex themselves
with the insoluble question of the origin and nature
of matter.-^ Antoninus also assumes a beginning of
the same, — no notion at a)! ; and yet we conceive it in a sense,
though I know not how, and we believe that space is infinite,
and we cannot conceive it to be finite.
1 The notions of matter and of space are inseparable. We
derive the notion of space from matter and form. But we
have no adequate conception either of matter or of space.
Matter in its ultimate resolution is as unintelligible as what
men call mind, spirit, or by w^hatever other name they may
express the power which makes itself known by acts. Anax-
agoras laid down the distinction between intelligence [povs] and
matter, and he said that intelligence impressed motion on
matter, and so separated the elements of matter and gave them
order", but he probably only assumed a beginning, as Sim-
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 45
things, as we now know them ; but his language is
sometimes very obscure. I have endeavored to ex-
plain the meaning of one difficult passage (vii. 75,
and the note).
Matter consists of elemental parts (o-rotx^ta) of
which all material objects are made. But nothing is
permanent in form. The nature of the universe, ac-
cording to Antoninus' expression (iv. 36), "loves
nothing so much as to change the things which are,
and to make new things like them. For everything
that exists is in a manner the seed of that which will
be. But thou art thinking only of seeds which are
cast into the earth or into a womb : but this is a very
vulgar notion." All things then are in a constant flux
and change : some things are dissolved into the ele-
ments, others come in their places ; and so the " whole
universe continues ever young and perfect " (xii. 23).
Antoninus has some obscure expressions about what
plicius says, as a foundation of his philosophical teaching.
Empedocles said, "The universe always existed." He had no
idea of what is called creation. Ocellus Lucanus (i, § 2)
maintained that the Universe (r6 irdv) was imperishable and
uncreated. Consequently it is eternal. He admitted the ex-
istence of God ; but his theology would require some discus-
sion. On the contrary, the Brachmans, according to Strabo
(p- 7^3, ed. Cas.), taught that the universe was created and
perishable ; and the creator and administrator of it pervades
the whole. The author of the book of Solomon's Wisdom says
(xi. 17) : •' Thy Almighty hand made the world of matter with-
out form," which may mean that matter existed already.
The common Greek word which we translate " matter " is
ij\r]. It is the stuff that things are made of.
46 PHILOSOPHY.
he calls "seminal principles" (^a-n-epfiaTiKol Xoyot).
He opposes them to the Epicurean atoms (vi. 24),
and consequently his " seminal principles " are not
material atoms which wander about at hazard, and
combine nobody knows how. In one passage (iv. 21)
he speaks of living principles, souls (xl/vxal) after the
dissolution of their bodies being received into the
" seminal principle of the universe." Schultz thinks
that by " seminal principles Antoninus means the
relations of the various elemental principles, which
relations are determined by the Deity and by which
alone the production of organized beings is possible."
This may be the meaning ; but if it is, nothing of any
value can be derived from it.^ Antoninus often uses
the word "Nature" (<^vcrt?), and we must attempt
to fix its meaning. The simple etymological sense
of </)vcrts is " production," the birth of what we call
Things. The Romans used Natura, which also means
" birth " originally. But neither the Greeks nor the
Romans stuck to this simple meaning, nor do we.
Antoninus says (x. 6) : " Whether the universe is
[a concourse of] atoms or Nature [is a system], let
this first be established, that I am a part of the whole
1 Justin (Apol. II. 8) has the words Kara (nrep/ii.aTLKou X^yov
fxepos, where he is speaking of the Stoics ; but he uses this ex-
pression in a peculiar sense (note 11). The early Christian
writers were familiar with the Stoic terms, and their writings
show that the contest was begun between the Christian ex-
positors and the- Greek philosophy. Even in the second
Epistle of St. Peter (11. i, v. 4) we find a Stoic expression,
IVa 5td Toirwv yhrjcrOe Oelas kolvwvoI cpvcreojs.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 47
which is governed by nature." Here it might seem
as if nature were personified and viewed as an active,
efficient power ; as something which, if not independ-
ent of the Deity, acts by a power which is given to
it by the Deity. Such, if I understand the expression
right, is the way in which the word Nature is often
used now, though it is plain that many writers use the
word without fixing any exact meaning to it. It is
the same with the expression Laws of Nature, which
some writers may use in an intelHgible sense, but
others as clearly use in no definite sense at all. There
is no meaning in this word Nature, except that which
Bishop Butler assigns to it, when he says, " The only
distinct meaning of that word Natural is Stated, Fixed,
or Settled ; since what is natural as much requires and
presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, /. e.
to effect it continually or at stated times, as what is
supernatural or miraculous does to effect it at once."
This is Plato's meaning (De Leg. iv. 715) when he
says that God holds the beginning and end and mid-
dle of all that exists, and proceeds straight on his
course, making his circuit according to nature (that
is, by a fixed order) ; and he is continually accom-
panied by justice, who punishes those who deviate
from the divine law, that is, from the order or course
which God observes.
When we look at the motions of the planets, the
action of what we call gravitation, the elemental com-
bination of unorganized bodies and their resolution,
the production of plants and of living bodies, their
48 niiLOSOPHY.
generation, growth, and their dissolution, which we
call their death, we observe a regular sequence of
phenomena, which within the limits of experience
present and past, so far as we know the past, is fixed
and invariable. But if this is not so, if the order and
sequence of phenomena, as known to us, are subject
to change in the course of an infinite progression, —
and such change is conceivable, — we have not dis-
covered, nor shall we ever discover, the whole of the
order and sequence of phenomena, in which se-
quence there may be involved according to its very na-
ture, that is, according to its fixed order, some variation
of what we now call the Order or Nature of Things.
It is also conceivable that such changes have taken
place, — changes in the order of things, as we are com-
pelled by the imperfection of language to call them,
but which are no changes ; and further it is certain
that our knowledge of the true sequence of all actual
phenomena, as for instance the phenomena of genera-
tion, growth, and dissolution, is and ever must be im-
perfect.
We do not fare much better when we speak of
Causes and Effects than when we speak of Nature.
For the practical purposes of life we may use the
terms cause and effect conveniently, and we may fix
a distinct meaning to them, distinct enough at least to
prevent all misunderstanding. But the case is differ-
ent when we speak of causes and effects as of Things.
All that we know is phenomena, as the Greeks called
them, or appearances which follow one another in a
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 4g
regular order, as we conceive it, so that if some one
phenomenon should fail in the series, we conceive
that there must either be an interruption of the series,
or that something else will appear after the phenom-
enon which has failed to appear, and will occupy the
vacant place ; and so the series in its progression may
be modified or totally changed. Cause and effect
then mean nothing in the sequence of natural phe-
nomena beyond what I have said ; and the real cause,
or the transcendent cause, as some would call it, of
each successive phenomenon is in that which is the
cause of all things which are, which have been, and
which will be forever. Thus the word Creation may
have a real sense if we consider it as the first, if we
can conceive a first, in the present order of natural
phenomena ; but in the vulgar sense a creation of all
things at a certain time, followed by a quiescence of
the first cause and an abandonment of all sequences
of Phenomena to the laws of Nature, or to the other
words that people may use, is absolutely absurd. ^
1 Time and space are the conditions of our thought; but
time infinite and space infinite cannot be objects of thought,
except in a very imperfect way. Time and space must not in
any way be thought of when we think of the Deity. Sweden-
borg says, " The natural man may believe that he would have
no thought, if the ideas of time, of space, and of things mate-
rial were taken away; for upon those is founded all the thought
that man has. But let him know that the thoughts are limited
and confined in proportion as they partake of time, of space,
and of what is material; and that they are not limited and are
extended, in proportion as they do not partake of those things ;
4
50 PHILOSOPHY.
Now, though there is great difficulty in understand-
ing all the passages of Antoninus, in which he speaks
of Nature, of the changes of things and of the econ-
omy of the universe, I am convinced that his sense of
Nature and Natural is the same as that which I have
stated ; and as he was a man who knew how to use
words in a clear way and with strict consistency, we
ought to assume, even if his meaning in some passages
is doubtful, that his view of Nature was in harmony
with his fixed belief in the all-pervading, ever present,
and ever active energy of God. (ii. 4 ; iv. 40 ; x. i ; vi,
40 ; and other passages. Compare Seneca, De Benef.
IV. 7. Swedenborg, Angelic Wisdom, 349-357.)
There is much in Antoninus that is hard to under-
stand, and it might be said that he did not fully com-
prehend all that he wrote ; which would however be
in no way remarkable, for it happens now that a
man may write what neither he nor anybody can un-
derstand. Antoninus tells us (xii. 10) to look at
things and see what they are, resolving them into the
material (vXyj), the casual (atnov), and the relation
(avacjiopd) , or the purpose, by which he seems to mean
something in the nature of what we call effect, or end.
The word Cause {alria) is the difficulty. There is the
same word in the Sanscrit {Jietu) ; and the subde phil-
osophers of India and of Greece, and the less subtle
philosophers of modern times, have all used this word,
or an equivalent word, in a vague way. Yet the con-
since the mind is so far elevated above the things corporeal
and worldly" (Concerning Heaven and Hell, 169).
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 5 I
fusion sometimes may be in the inevitable ambiguity
of language rather than in the mind of the writer, for
I cannot think that some of the wisest of men did
not know what they intended to say. When Anto-
ninus says (iv. 36), "that everything that exists is in
a manner the seed of that which will be," he might be
supposed to say what some of the Indian philosophers
have said, and thus a profound truth might be con-
verted into a gross absurdity. But he says, " in a
manner," and in a manner he said true ; and in an-
other manner, if you mistake his meaning, he said
false. When Plato said, '' Nothing ever is, but is al-
ways becoming" (aet ytyi/erai), he delivered a text,
out of which we may derive something ; for he de-
stroys by it not all practical, but all speculative notions
of cause and effect. The whole series of things, as
they appear to us, must be contemplated in time, that
is in succession, and we conceive or suppose intervals
between one state of things, and another state of things
so that there is priority and sequence, and interval,
and Being, and a ceasing to Be, and beginning and
ending. But there is nothing of the kind in the
Nature of Things. It is an everlasting continuity
(iv. 45; VII. 75). When Antoninus speaks of gen-
eration (x. 26), he speaks of one cause (atrta) acting,
and then another cause taking up the work, which the
former left in a certain state, and so on ; and we
might perhaps conceive that he had some notion like
what has been called "the self-evolving power of
nature ; " a fine phrase indeed, the full import of
52 PHILOSOPHY.
which I beUeve that the writer of it did not see, and
thus he laid himself open to the imputation of being
a follower of one of the Hindu sects, which makes
all things come by evolution out of nature or matter,
or out of something which takes the place of Deity,
but is not Deity. I would have all men think as they
please, or as they can, and I only claim the same free-
dom which I give. When a man writes anything, we
may fairly try to find out all that his words must mean,
even if the result is that they mean what he did not
mean ; and if we find this contradiction, it is not our
fault, but his misfortune. Now Antoninus is perhaps
somewhat in this condition in what he says (x. 26),
though he speaks at the end of the paragraph of the
power which acts, unseen by the eyes, but still no less
clearly. But whether in this passage (x. 26) he means
that the power is conceiv^ed to be in the different suc-
cessive causes (atrt'at), or in something else, nobody
can tell. From other passages, however, I do collect
that his notion of the phenomena of the universe is
what I have stated. The Deity works unseen, if we
may use such language, and perhaps I may, as Job
did, or he who wrote the book of Job. " In him we
live and move and are," said St. Paul to the Athenians ;
and to show his hearers that this was no new doctrine,
he quoted the Greek poets. One of these poets was
the Stoic Cleanthes, whose noble hymn to Zeus, or
God, is an elevated expression of devotion and phi-
losophy. It deprives Nature of her power, and puts
her under the immediate government of the Deity.
MARCUS AURELIUS, ANTONINUS. 53
" Thee all this heaven, which whirls around the earth,
Obeys and willing follows where thou leadest.
Without thee, God, nothing is done on earth,
Nor in the ethereal realms, nor in the sea,
Save what the wicked through their folly do."
Antoninus' conviction of the existence of a divine
power and government was founded on his perception
of the order of the universe. Like Socrates (Xen.
Mem. iv. 3, 13, &c.), he says that though we cannot
see the forms of divine powers, we know that they
exist because we see their works.
"To those who ask, Where hast thou seen the
gods, or how dost thou comprehend that they exist
and so worshippest them ? I answer, in the first place,
that they may be seen even with the eyes ; in the
second place, neither have I seen my own soul, and
yet I honor it. Thus then with respect to the gods,
from what I constantly experience of their power,
from this I comprehend that they exist, and I ven-
erate them." (xii. 28, and the note. Comp. Aris-
totle de Mundo, c. 6 ; Xen. Mem. i. 4, 9 ; Cicero,
Tuscul. I. 28, 29 ; St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans,
I. 19, 20 j and Montaigne's Apology for Raimond de
Sebonde, 11. c. 12.) This is a very old argument,
which has always had great weight with most people,
and has appeared sufficient. It does not acquire the
least additional strength by being developed in a
learned treatise. It is as intelligible in its simple
enunciation as it can be made. If it is rejected,
there is no arguing with him who rejects it : and if it
54 PHILOSOPHY.
is worked out into innumerable particulars, the value
of the evidence runs the risk of being buried under a
mass of words.
Man being conscious that he is a spiritual power
or an intellectual power, or that he has such a power,
in whatever way he conceives that he has it, — for I
wish simply to state a fact, — from this power which
he has in himself, he is led, as Antoninus says, to
believe that there is a greater power, which, as the old
Stoics tell us, pervades the whole universe as the
intellect^ (vov?) pervades man. (Compare Epictetus'
1 I have always translated the word vods, " intelligence " or
" intellect." It appears to be the word used by the oldest
Greek philosophers to express the notion of " intelligence "
as opposed to the notion of *' matter." I have always trans-
lated the word X670S by " reason," and XoyiKos by the word
" rational," or perhaps sometimes " reasonable," as I have
translated voepos by the word " intellectual." Every man who
has thought and has read any philosophical writings knows the
difficulty of finding words to express certain notions, how im-
perfectly words express these notions, and how carelessly the
words are often used. The various senses of the word Xuyo^
are enough to perplex any man. Our translators of the New
Testament (St. John, c. i.) have simply translated 6 Xoyos by
" the word," as the Germans translated it by " das Wort ; "
but in their theological writings they sometimes retain the
original term Logos. The Germans have a term Vernunft,
which seems to come nearest to our word Reason, or the
necessary and absolute truths which we cannot conceive as
being other than what they are. Such are what some people
have called the laws of thought, the conceptions of space and
of time, and axioms or first principles, which need no proof
and cannot be proved or denied. Accordingly the Germans
can say, " Gott ist die hochste Vernunft," the Supreme Rea-
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 55
Discourses, i. 14 ; and Voltaire a Mad". Necker, vol.
Lxvii. p. 278, ed. Leqiiien. )
God exists then, but what do^we know of his
nature? Antoninus says that the soul of man is
an efflux from the divinity. We have bodies like
animals, but we have reason, intelligence, as the
son. The Germans have also a word Verstand, which seems
to represent our word " understanding," " intelligence," " in-
tellect," not as a thing absolute which exists by itself, but as
a thing connected with an individual being, as a man. Ac-
cordingly it is the ca])acity of receiving impressions (Vorstel-
lungen, (pxvTaaiai), and forming from them distinct ideas
(Begriffe), and perceiving differences. I do not think that
these remarks will help the reader to the understanding of
Antoninus, or his use of the words vods and \6yos. The em-
peror's meaning must be got from his own words, and if it
does not agree altogether with modern notions ; it is not our
business to force it into agreement, but simply to find out
what his meaning is, if we can.
Justinus (ad Diognetum, c. vii.) says that the omnipotent,
all-creating, and invisible God has fixed truth and the holy,
incomprehensible Logos in men's hearts ; and this Logos
is the architect and creator of the Universe. In the first
Apology (c. XXXII.) he says that the seed {airkpixa) from God
is the Logos, which dwells in those who believe in God. So
it appears that according to Justinus the Logos is only in such
believers. In the second Apology (c. viii.) he speaks of the
seed of the Logos being implanted in all mankind; but those
who order their lives according to Logos, such as the Stoics,
have only a portion of the Logos [Kara aireptxariKod Xoyov
yuepos), and have not the knowledge and contemplation of the
entire Logos, which is Christ. Swedenborg's remarks (Angelic
Wisdom, 240) are worth comparing with Justinus. The mod-
ern philosopher in substance agrees with the ancient; but he is
more precise.
56 PHILOSOPHY.
gods. Animals have life {^xv)} ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^'^ ^^^^
instincts or natural principles of action : but the
rational animal man alone has a rational, intelligent
soul (^l/vxv A-oytK^, voepd). x^ntoninus insists on this
continually : God is in man/ and so we must con-
stantly attend to the divinity within us, for it is only
in this way that we can have any knowledge of the
nature of God. The human soul is in a sense a
portion of the divinity, and the soul alone has any
communication with the Deity ; for as he says (xii. 2) :
" With his intellectual part alone God touches the
intelligence only which has flowed and been derived
from himself into these bodies." In fact he says that
which is hidden within a man is life, that is, the man
himself. All the rest is vesture, covering, organs, in-
strument, which the living man, the reaP man, uses
1 Comp. Ep. to the Corinthians, i. 3. 17, and Jan.es iv. 8,
" Draw nigh to God and he will draw nigh to you."
2 This is also Swedenborg's doctrine of the soul. "As to
what concerns the soul, of which it is said that it shall live
after death, it is nothing else but the man himself, who lives
in the body, that is, the interior man, who by the body acts
in the world and from whom the body itself lives " (quoted
by Clissold, p. 456 of " The Practical Nature of the Theo-
logical Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg, in a Letter to the
Archbishop of Dublin (Whately)," second edition, 1859; a
book which theologians might read with profit). This is an
old doctrine of the soul, which has been often proclaimed, but
never better expressed than by the " Auctor de Mundo," c. 6,
quoted by Gataker in his " Antoninus," p. 436. The soul by
which we live and have cities and houses is invisible, but it
is seen by its works ; for the whole method of life has been
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 57
for the purpose of his present existence. The air is
universally diffused for him who is able to respire ; and
so for him who is willing to partake of it the intelli-
gent power, which holds within it all things, is diffused
as wide and free as the air (viii. 54). It is by living
a divine life that man approaches to a knowledge of
the divinity.^ It is by following the divinity within,
devised by it and ordered, and by it is held together. In like
manner we must think also about the Deity, who in power is
most mighty, in beauty most comely, in life immortal, and in
virtue supreme : wherefore though he is invisible to human
nature, he is seen by his very works." Other passages to the
same purpose are quoted by Gataker (p. 382). Bishop Butler
has the same as to the soul : " Upon the whole, then, our
organs of sense and our limbs are certainly instruments, which
the living persons, ourselves, make use of to perceive and
move with." If this is not plain enough, he also says : " It
follows that our organized bodies are no more ourselves, or
part of ourselves, than any other matter around us." (Compare
Anton. X. 38.)
1 The reader may consult Discourse V. " Of the existence
and nature of God," in John Smith's " Select Discourses."
He has prefixed as a text to this Discourse, the striking pas-
sage of Agapetus, Paraenes. § 3 : " He who knows himself will
know God ; and he who knows God will be made like to God ;
and he will be made like to God, who has become worthy
Gocl ; and he becomes worthy of God, who does nothing un-
worthy of God, but thinks the things that are his, and speaks
what he thinks, and does what he speaks." I suppose
that the old saying, " Know thyself," which is attributed to
Socrates and others, had a larger meaning than the narrow
sense which is generally given to it. (Agapetus, ed. Stephan.
Schoning, Franeker, 1608. This volume contains also the
Paraeneses of Nilus.)
58 PHILOSOPHY.
cat/xoji/ or 0€6<i, as Antoninus calls it, that man comes
nearest to the Deity, the supreme good ; for man can
never attain to perfect agreement with his internal
guide (^To y^ye^ovLKov) . " Live with the gods. And
he does live with the gods who constantly shows to
them that his own soul is satisfied with that which
is assigned to him, and that it does all the daemon
{^aijXMv) wishes, which Zeus hath given to every
man for his guardian and guide, a portion of himself.
And this daemon is every man's understanding and
reason " (v. 27).
There is in man, that is in the reason, the intelli-
gence, a superior faculty which if it is exercised rules
all the rest. This is the ruling faculty {to ip/eixoviKov) ,
which Cicero (De Natura Deorum, 11. 11) renders by
the Latin word Principatus, '' to which nothing can
or ought to be superior." Antoninus often uses this
term and others which are equivalent. He names
it (vii. 64) " the governing intelligence." The gov-
erning faculty is the master of the soul (v. 26)-
A man must reverence only his ruling faculty and
the divinity within him. As we must reverence that
which is supreme in the universe, so we must rever-
ence that which is supreme in ourselves ; and this is
that which is of like kind with that which is supreme
in the universe (v. 21). So, as Plotinus says, the
soul of man can only know the divine so far as it
knows itself. In one passage (xi. 19) Antoninus
speaks of a man's condemnation of himself when
the diviner part within him has been overpowered
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 59
and yields to the less honorable and to the perishable
part, the body, and its gross pleasures. In a word,
the views of Antoninus on this matter, however his
expressions may vary, are exactly what Bishop Butler
expresses when he speaks of " the natural supremacy
of reflection or conscience," of the faculty " which
surveys, approves, or disapproves the several affections
of our mind and actions of our lives."
Much matter might be collected from Antoninus on
the notion of the Universe being one animated Being.
But all that he says amounts to no more, as Schultz
remarks, than this : the soul of man is most intimately
united to his body, and together they make one ani-
mal, which we call man ; so the Deity is most inti-
mately united to the world, or the material universe,
and together they form one whole. But Antoninus
did not view God and the material universe as the
same, any more than he viewed the body and soul of
man as one. Antoninus has no speculations on the
absolute nature of the Deity. It was not his fashion
to waste his time on what man cannot understand.^
He was satisfied that God exists, that he governs all
things, that man can only have an imperfect knowl-
edge of his nature, and he iflust attain this imperfect
knowledge by reverencing the divinity which is within
him, and keeping it pure.
From all that has been said, it follows that the
1 ** God, who is infinitely beyond the reach of our narrow
capacities " (Locke, Essay concerning the Human Understand-
ing, II. chap. 17).
60 PHILOSOPHY.
universe is administered by the Providence of God
(TTpovoia), and that all things are wisely ordered.
There are passages in which Antoninus expresses
doubts, or states different possible theories of the
constitution and government of the universe ; but
he always recurs to his fundamental principle, that
if we admit the existence of a deity, we must also
admit that he orders all things wisely and well (iv.
27 ; VI. I ; IX. 28 ; xii. 5 ; and many other passages).
Epictetus says (i. 6) that w^e can discern the provi-
dence which rules the world, if we possess two things,
— the power of seeing all that happens with respect
to each thing, and a grateful disposition.
But if all things are wisely ordered, how is the
world so full of what we call evil, physical and
moral? If instead of saying that there is evil in
the worki, we use the expression which I have used,
^'what we call evil," we have partly anticipated the
emperor's answer. We see and feel and know im-
perfectly very few things in the few years that we live,
and all the knowledge and all the experience of all
the human race is positive ignorance of the whole,
which is infinite. Now, as our reason teaches us that
everything is in some way related to and connected
with every other thing, all notion of evil as being in
the universe of things is a contradiction ; for if the
whole comes from and is governed by an intelligent
being, it is impossible to conceive anything in it which
tends to the evil or destruction of the whole (viii. 55 ;
X. 6). Everything is in constant mutation, and yet
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 6 1
the whole subsists. We might imagine the solar sys-
tem resolved into its elemental parts, and yet the
whole would still subsist '' ever young and perfect."
All things, all forms, are dissolved and new forms
appear. All living things undergo the change which
we call death. If we call death an evil, then all
change is an evil. Living beings also suffer pain, and
man suffers most of all, for he suffers both in and by
his body and by his intelligent part. Men suffer also
from one another, and perhaps the largest part of
human suffering comes to man from those whom he
calls his brothers. Antoninus says (viii. 55), "Gen-
erally, wickedness does no harm at all to the universe ;
and particularly, the wickedness [of one man] does no
harm to another. It is only harmful to him who has
it in his power to be released from it as soon as he
shall choose." The first part of this is perfectly con-
sistent with the doctrine that the whole can sustain no
evil or harm. The second part must be explained by
the Stoic principle that there is no evil in anything
which is not in our power. What wrong we suffer
from another is his evil, not ours. But this is an ad-
mission that there is evil in a sort, for he who does
wrong does evil, and if others can endure the wrong,
still there is evil in the wrong-doer. Antoninus
(xi. 18) gives many excellent precepts with respect
to wrongs and injuries, and his precepts are practical.
He teaches us to bear what we cannot avoid, and his
lessons may be just as useful to him who denies the
being and the government of God as to him who be-
62 PHILOSOPHY.
lieves in both. There is no direct answer in Antoni-
nus to the objections which may be made to the ex-
istence and providence of God because of the moral
disorder and suffering which are in the world, except
this answer which he makes in reply to the supposition
that even the best men may be extinguished by death.
He says if it is so, we may be sure that if it ought
to have been otherwise, the gods would have ordered
it otherwise (xii. 5). His conviction of the wisdom
which we may observe in the government of the world
is too strong to be disturbed by any apparent irregu-
larities in the order of things. That these disorders
exist is a fact, and those who would conclude from
them against the being and government of God con-
clude too hastily. We all admit that there is an
order in the material world, a Nature, in the sense in
which that word has been explained, a constitution
(Karao-Keury), what we call a system, a relation of parts
to one another and a fitness of the whole for some-
thing. So in the constitution of plants and of animals
there is an order, a fitness for some end. Sometimes
the order, as we conceive it, is interrupted and the
end, as we conceive it, is not attained. The seed,
the plant, or the animal sometimes perishes before it
has passed through all its changes and done all its
uses. It is according to Nature, that is a fixed order,
for some to perish early and for others to do all their
uses and leave successors to take their place. So man
has a corporeal and intellectual and moral constitution
fit for certain uses, and on the whole man performs
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 6]^
these uses, dies, and leaves other men in his place.
So society exists, and a social state is manifestly the
natural state of man, — the state for which his nature
fits him, and society amidst innumerable irregularities
and disorders still subsists ; and perhaps we may say
that the history of the past and our present knowl-
edge give us a reasonable hope that its disorders
will diminiih, and that order, its governing principle
may be more firmly established. As order then, a
fixed order, we may say, subject to deviations real or
apparent, must be admitted to exist in the whole
nature of things, that which we call disorder or evil,
as it seems to us, does not in any way alter the fact of
the general constitution of things having a nature or
fixed order. Nobody will conclude from the exist-
ence of disorder that order is not the rule, for the ex-
istence of order both physical and moral is proved
by daily experience and all past experience. We
cannot conceive how the order of the universe is
maintained : we cannot even conceive how our own
life from day to day is continued, nor how we perform
the simplest movements of the body, nor how we grow
and think and act, though we know many of the con-
ditions which are necessary for all these functions.
Knowing nothing tJien of the unseen power which acts
in ourselves except by what is done, we know nothing
of the power which acts through what we call all time
and all space ; but seeing that there is a nature or
fixed order in all things known to us, it is conform-
able to the nature of our minds to believe that this
64 PHILOSOPHY.
universal Nature has a cause which operates continu-
ally, and that we are totally unable to speculate on the
reason of any of those disorders or evils which we per-
ceive. This I believe is the answer which may be
collected from all that Antoninus has said.-^
The origin of evil is an old question. Achilles tells
Priam (Hiad, 24, 527) that Zeus has two casks, one
filled with good things, and the other with bad, and
that he gives to men out of each according to his
pleasure ; and so we must be content, for we cannot
alter the will of Zeus. One of the Greek commen-
tators asks how must we reconcile this doctrine with
what we find in the first book of the Odyssey, where
the king of the gods says, Men say that evil comes to
them from us, but they bring it on themselves through
their own folly. The answer is plain enough even
to the Greek commentator. The poets make both
Achilles and Zeus speak appropriately to their several
characters. Indeed, Zeus says plainly that men do
attribute their sufferings to the gods, but they do it
falsely, for they are the cause of their own sorrows.
Epictetus in his Enchiridion (c. 27) makes short
work of the question of evil. He says, " As a mark is
not set up for the purpose of missing it, so neither
1 Cleanthes says in his Hymn : —
" For all things good and bad to One thou formest,
So that One everlasting reason governs all."
See Bishop Butler's Sermons. Sermon XV,, " Upon the Igno-
rance of Man."
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 6$
does the nature of evil exist in the universe." This
will appear obscure enough to those who are not
acquainted with Epictetus, but he always knows what
he is talking about. We do not set up a mark in
order to miss it, though we may miss it. God, whose
existence Epictetus assumes, has not ordered all things
so that his purpose shall fail. Whatever there may be
of what we call evil, the nature of evil, as he expresses
it, does not exist ; that is, evil is not a part of the
constitution or nature of things. If there were a
principle of evil (ypx^) ^^ ^^^ constitution of things,
evil would no longer be evil, as Simplicius argues, but
evil would be good. Simplicius (c. 34, [27]) has a
long and curious discourse on this text of Epictetus,
and it is amusing and instructive.
One passage more will conclude this matter. It
contains all that the emperor could say (11. 11) : ''To
go from among men, if there are gods, is not a thing
to be afraid of, for the gods will not involve thee in
evil ; but if indeed they do not exist, or if they have
no concern about human affairs, what is it to me to
live in a universe devoid of gods or devoid of provi-
dence ? But in truth they do exist, and they do care
for human things, and they have put all the means in
man's power to enable him not to fall into real evils.
And as to the rest, if there was anything evil, they
would have provided for this also, that it should be
altogether in a man's power not to fall into it. But
that which does not make a man worse, how can it
make a man's hfe worse ? But neither through igno-
66 PHILOSOPHY.
ranee, nor having the knowledge but not the power to
guard agamst or correct these things, is it possible
that the nature of the universe has overlooked them ;
nor is it possible that it has made so great a mistake,
either through want of power or want of skill, that
good and evil should happen indiscriminately to the
good and the bad. But death certainly and life,
honor and dishonor, pain and pleasure, all these
things equally happen to good and bad men, being
things which make us neither better nor worse.
Therefore they are neither good nor evil."
The Ethical part of Antoninus' Philosophy follows
from his general principles. The end of all his philo-
sophy is to live conformably to Nature, both a man's
own nature and the nature of the universe. Bishop
Butler has explained what the Greek philosophers
meant when they spoke of living according to Nature,
and he says that when it is explained, as he has ex-
plained it and as they understood it, it is " a manner
of speaking not loose and undeterminate, but clear
and distinct, strictly just and true." To live accord-
ing to Nature is to live according to a man's whole
nature, not according to a part of it, and to reverence
the divinity wdthin him as the governor of all his
actions. " To the rational animal the same act is ac-
cording to nature and according to reason"^ (vii. ii).
That which is done contrary to reason is also an act
1 This is what Juvenal means when he says (xiv. 321), —
" Nunquam aliud Natura aliud Sapientia elicit."
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 6/
contrary to nature, to the whole nature, though it is
certainly conformable to some part of man's nature,
or it could not be done. Man is made for action, not
for idleness or pleasure. As plants and animals do
the uses of their nature, so man must do his (v. i).
Man must also live conformably to the universal
nature, conformably to the nature of all things of
which he is one ; and as a citizen of a political com-
munity he must direct his life and actions with refer-
ence to those among whom, and for whom, among
other purposes, he lives.^ A man must not retire into
soUtude and cut himself off from his fellow-men. He
must be ever active to do his part in the great whole.
All men are his kin, not only m blood, but still more
by participating in the same intelligence and by being
a portion of the same divinity. A man cannot really
be injured by his brethren, for no act of theirs can
make him bad, and he must not be angry with them
nor hate them : " For we are made for co-operation,
like feet, like hands, like eyelids, like the rows of the
upper and lower teeth. To act against one another
then is contrary to nature ; and it is acting against
one another to be vexed and to turn away" (ii. i).
Further he says : " Take pleasure in one thing and
rest in it in passing from one social act to another
social act, thinking of God " (vi. 7). Again : *' Love
mankind. Follow God " (vii. 31). It is the charac-
teristic of the rational soul for a man to love his
neighbor (xi. i). Antoninus teaches in various pas-
1 See VIII. 52; and Persius ill. 66.
68 PHILOSOPHY.
sages the forgiveness of injuries, and we know that he
also practised what he taught. Bishop Butler remarks
that ''this divine precept 'to forgive injuries and to
love our enemies, though to be met with in Gentile
moralists, yet is in a peculiar sense a precept of Chris-
tianity, as our Saviour has insisted more upon it than
on any other single virtue." The practice of this pre-
cept is the most difficult of all virtues. Antoninus
often enforces it and gives us aid towards following it.
When we are injured, we feel anger and resentment,
and the feeling is natural, just, and useful for the con-
servation of society. It is useful that wrong-doers
should feel the natural consequences of their actions,
among which is the disapprobation of society and the
resentment of him who is wronged. But revenge, in
the proper sense of that word, must not be practised.
"The best way of avenging thyself," says the emperor,
" is not to become hke the wrong-doer." It is plain
by this that he does not mean that we should in any
case practise revenge ; but he says to those who talk
of revenging wrongs. Be not like him who has done
the wrong. Socrates in the Crito (c. lo) says the
same in other words, and St. Paul (Ep. to the
Romans, xii. 17). "When a man has done thee any
wrong, immediately consider with what opinion about
good or evil he has done wrong. For when thou hast
seen this, thou wilt pity him and wilt neither won-
der nor be angry" (vii. 26). Antoninus would not
deny that wrong natufally produces the feeling of
anger and resentment, for this is imphed in the recom-
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 69
mendation to reflect on the nature of the man's mind
who has done the wrong, and then you will have
pity instead of resentment ; and so it comes to the
same as St. Paul's advice to be angry and sin not ;
which, as Butler well explains it, is not a recommen-
dation to be angry, which nobody needs, for anger is
a natural passion, but it is a warning against allowing
anger to lead us into sin. In short the emperor's
doctrine about wrongful acts is this : wrong- doers do
not know what good and bad are : they offend out of
ignorance, and in the sense of the Stoics this is true.
Though this kind of ignorance will never be admitted
as a legal excuse, and ought not to be admitted as a
full excuse in any way by society, there may be griev-
ous injuries, such as it is in a man's power to forgive
without harm to society ; and if he forgives because
he sees that his enemies know not what they do, he is
acting in the spirit of the sublime prayer, " Father,
forgive them, for they know not what they do."
The emperor's moral philosophy was not a feeble,
narrow system, which teaches a man to look directly
to his own happiness, though a man's happiness or
tranquilhty is indirectly promoted by living as he ought
to do. A man must live conformably to the universal
nature, which means, as the emperor explains it in
many passages, that a man's actions must be conform-
able to his true relations to all other human beings,
both as a citizen of a political community and as a
member of the whole human family. This implies,
and he often expresses it in the most forcible Ian-
70 PHILOSOPHY.
guage, that a man's words and action, so far as they
affect others, must be measured by a fixed rule, which
is their consistency with the conservation and the in-
terests of the particular society of which he is a
member, and of the whole human race. To live con-
formably to such a rule, a man must use his rational
faculties in order to discern clearly the consequences
and full effect of all his actions and of the actions of
others : he must not live a life of contemplation and
reflection only, though he must often retire within
himself to calm and purify his soul by thought,^ but
he must mingle in the work of man and be a fellow
laborer for the general good.
A man should have an object or purpose in life,
that he may direct all his energies to it ; of course a
a good object (ii. 7). He who has not one object
or purpose of life, cannot be one and the same all
through his life (xi. 21). Bacon has a remark to
the same effect, on the best means of " reducing of
the mind unto virtue and good estate ; which is, the
electing and propounding unto a man's self good and
virtuous ends of his life, such as may be in a reason-
able sort within his compass to attain." He is a
happy man who has been wise enough to do this
when he was young and has had the opportunities ;
but the emperor seeing well that a man cannot always
be so wise in his youth, encourages himself to do it
when he can, and not to let life slip away before he
1 Ut nemo in sese tentat descendere, nemo. — Persius,
IV. 21.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 7 1
has begun. He who can propose to himself good
and virtuous ends of Ufe, and be true to them, cannot
fail to live conformably to his own interest and the
universal interest, for in the nature of things they are
one. If a thing is not good for the hive, it is not
good for the bee (vi. 54).
One passage may end this matter. ^' If the gods
have determined about me and about the things
which must happen to me, they have determined well,
for it is not easy even to imagine a deity without fore-
thought ; and as to doing me harm, why should they
have any desire towards that? For what advantage
would result to them from this or to the whole, which
is the special object of their providence? But if they
have not determined about me individually, they have
certainly determined about the whole at least ; and
the things which happen by way of sequence in this
general arrangement I ought to accept with pleasure
and to be content with them. But if they determine
about nothing — which it is wicked to believe, or if
we do believe it, let us neither sacrifice nor pray nor
swear by them, nor do anything else which we do as if
the gods were present and lived with us ; but if how-
ever the gods determine about none of the things
which concern us, I am able to determine about my-
self, and I can inquire about that which is useful ;
and that is useful to every man which is conformable
to his own constitution (/carao-Kevr/) and nature. But
my nature is rational and social ; and my city and
country, so far as I am Antoninus, is Rome ; but so
72 PHILOSOPHY.
far as I am a man, it is the world. The things then
which are useful to these cities are alone useful to
me " (VI. 44).
It would be tedious, and it is not necessary to state
the emperor's opinions on all the ways in which a
man may profitably use his understanding towards
perfecting himself in practical virtue. The passages
to this purpose are in all parts of his book, but as
they are in no order or connection, a man must use
the book a long time before he will find out all that is
in it. A few words may be added here. If we ana-
lyze all other things, we find how insufficient they are
for human life, and how truly worthless many of them
are. Virtue alone is indivisible, one, and perfectly
satisfying. The notion of Virtue cannot be consid-
ered vague or unsettled, because a man may find it
difficult to explain the notion fully to himself, or
to expound it to others in such a way as to prevent
cavilling. Virtue is a whole, and no more consists of
parts than man's intelligence does ; and yet we speak
of various intellectual faculties as a convenient way of
expressing the various powers which man's intellect
shows by his works. In the same way we may speak
of various virtues or parts of virtue, in a practical
sense, for the purpose of showing what particular vir-
tues we ought to practice in order to the exercise of
the whole of virtue, that is, as much as man's nature
is capable of.
The prime principle in man's constitution is social.
The next in order is not to yield to the persuasions
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 'J -^
of the body, when they are not conformable to the
rational principle, which must govern. The third is
freedom from error and from deception. '' Let then
the ruling principle holding fast to these things go
straight on and it has what is its own" (vii. 55).
The emperor selects justice as the virtue which is the
basis of all the rest (x. 11), and this had been said
long before his time.
It is true that all people have some notion of what
is meant by justice as a disposition of the mind, and
some notion about acting in conformity to this dispo-
sition ; but experience shows that men's notions about
justice are as confused as their actions are inconsis-
tent with the true notion of justice. The emperor's
notion of justice is clear enough, but not practical
enough for all mankind. " Let there be freedom
from perturbations with respect to the things which
come from the external cause ; and let there be jus-
tice in the things done by virtue of the internal cause,
that is, let there be movement and action terminating
in this, in social acts, for this is according to thy
nature" (ix. 31). In another place (ix. i) he says
that "he who acts unjustly acts impiously," which fol-
lows of course from all that he says in various places.
He insists on the practice of truth as a virtue and as
a means to virtue, which no doubt it is : for lying
even in indifferent things weakens the understanding ;
and lying maliciously is as great a moral offence as a
man can be guilty of, viewed both as showing an habit-
ual disposition, and viewed with respect to conse-
74 PHILOSOPHY.
quences. He couples the notion of justice with
action. A man must not pride himself on having
some fine notion of justice in his head, but he must
exhibit his justice in act, like St. James's notion of
faith. But this is enough.
The Stoics, and Antoninus among them, call some
things beautiful (/caXa) and some ugly (ato-xpa), and
as they are beautiful so they are good, and as they are
ugly so they are evil, or bad (ii. i). All these things,
good and evil, are in our power, absolutely some of the
stricter Stoics would say ; in a manner only, as those
who would not depart altogether from common sense
would say ; practically they are to a great degree in
the power of some persons and in some circumstances,
but in a small degree only in other persons and in
other circumstances. The Stoics maintain man's free
will as to the things which are in his power ; for as to
the things which are out of his power, free will ter-
minating in action is of course excluded by the very
terms of the expression. I hardly know if we can
discover exactly Antoninus' notion of the free will of
man, nor is the question worth the inquiry. What he
does mean and does say is inteUigible. All the things
which are not in our power (dTrpoatpera) are indiffer-
ent : they are neither good nor bad, morally. Such
are life, health, wealth, power, disease, poverty, and
death. Life and death are all men's portion. Health,
wealth, power, disease, and poverty happen to men,
indifferently to the good and to the bad ; to those
who live according to nature and to those who do
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 75
not.^ " Life," says the emperor, '' is a warfare and
a stranger's sojourn, and after fame is oblivion "
(11. 17). After speaking of those men who have dis-
turbed the world and then died, and of the death of
philosophers such as Heraclitus and Democritus, who
was destroyed by lice, and of Socrates whom other
lice (his enemies) destroyed, he says : " What means
all this? Thou hast embarked, thou hast made the
voyage, thou art come to shore ; get out. If indeed
to another life, there is no want of gods, not even
there. But if to a state without sensation, thou wilt
cease to be held by pains and pleasures, and to be a
slave to the vessel which is as much inferior as that
which serves it is superior : for the one is intelligence
and Deity; the other is earth and corruption" (iii. 3).
It is not death that a man should fear, but he should
fear never beginning to live according to nature
(xii. I ) . Every man should live in such a way as to
discharge his duty, and to trouble himself about noth-
ing else. He should live such a life that he shall
always be ready for death, and shall depart content
when the summons comes. For what is death ? "A
1 ** All events come alike to all : there is one event to the
righteous and to the wicked : to the good and to the clean and
to the unclean," &c. (Ecclesiastes, ix. v. 2) ; and (v. 3), "This
is an evil among all things that are done under the sun, that
there is one event unto all." In what sense "evil" is meant
here seems rather doubtful. There is no doubt about the em-
peror's meaning. Compare Epictetus, Enchiridion, c. i., &c. ;
and the doctrine of the Brachmans (Strabo. p. 713, ed. Cas.) :
dyadbv de tj KaKbv /xrjdh ehai. tQiv crvfx^acvdvTuv dvdpuTOis.
y6 PHILOSOPHY.
cessation of the impressions through the senses, and
of the puihng of the strings which move the appetites,
and of the discursive movements of the thoughts, and
of the service to the flesh" (vi. 28). Death is such
as generation is, a mystery of nature (iv. 5). In an-
other passage, the exact meaning of which is perhaps
doubtful (ix. 3), he speaks of the child which leaves
the womb, and so he says the soul at death leaves its
envelope. As the child is born or comes into life by
leaving the womb, so the soul may on leaving the
body pass into another existence which is perfect. I
am not sure if this is the emperor's meaning. Butler
compares it with a passage in Strabo (p. 713) about
the Brachmans' notion of death being the birth into
real life and a happy life, to those who have philoso-
phized ; and he thinks Antoninus may allude to this
opinion.^
Antoninus' opinion of a future life is nowhere clearly
expressed. His doctrine of the nature of the soul of
necessity implies that it does not perish absolutely, for
a- portion of the divinity cannot perish.^ The opinion
is at least as old as the time of Epicharmus and
1 Seneca (Ep. 102) has the same, whether an expression of
his own opinion, or merely a fine saying of others employed to
embellish his writings, I know not. After speaking of the child
being prepared in the womb to live this life, he adds, *' Sic per
hoc spatium, quod ab infantia patet in senectutem, in alium
naturae sumimur partum. Alia origo nos expectat, alius rerum
status." See Ecclesiastes, xii. 7 ; and Lucan, i. 457 : —
" Longae, canitis si cognita, vitae
Mors media est."
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. JJ
Euripides ; what comes from earth goes back to earth,
and what comes from heaven, the divinity, returns to
him who gave it. But I find nothing clear in Antoni-
nus as to the notion of the man existing after death so
as to be conscious of his sameness with that soul which
occupied his vessel of clay. He seems to be per-
plexed on this matter, and finally to have rested in
this, that God or the gods will do whatever is best,
and consistent with the university of things.
Nor, I think, does he speak conclusively on another
Stoic doctrine, which some Stoics practised, — the an-
ticipating the regular course of nature by a man's own
act. The reader will find some passages in which
this is touched on, and he may make of them what he
can. But there are passages in which the emperor
encourages himself to wait for the end patiently and
with tranquillity ; and certainly it is consistent with all
his best teaching that a man should bear all that falls
to his lot and do useful acts as long as he lives. He
should not therefore abridge the time of his usefulness
by his own act. Whether he contemplates any possi-
ble cases in which a man should die by his own hand,
I cannot tell ; and the matter is not worth a curious
inquiry, for I believe it would not lead to any certain
result as to his opinion on this point. I do not think
that Antoninus, who never mentions Seneca, though
he must have known all about him, would have agreed
with Seneca when he gives as a reason for suicide, that
the eternal law, whatever he means, has made noth-
ing better for us than this, that it has given us only
78 PHILOSOPHY.
one way of entering into life and many ways of going
out of it. The ways of going out indeed are many,
and that is a good reason for a man taking care of
himself.^
I Happiness was not the direct object of a Stoic's Ufe.
'There is no rule of life contained in the precept that
a man should pursue his own happiness. ^Many men
think that they are seeking happiness when they are
only seeking the gratification of some particular pas-
sion, the strongest that they have. The end of a man is,
as already explained, to live conformably to nature, and
he will thus obtain happiness, tranquillity of mind-, and
contentment (iii. 12; viii. i, and other places). Asa
means of living conformably to nature he must study
the four chief virtues, each of which has its proper
sphere : wisdom, or the knowledge of good and evil ;
justice, or the giving to every man his due ; fortitude,
or the enduring of labor and pain ; and temperance,
which is moderation in all things. By thus living con-
formably to nature the Stoic obtained all that he wished
or expected. His reward was in his virtuous life, and
he was satisfied with that. Some Greek poet long ago
wrote : —
" For virtue only of all human things
Takes her reward not from the hands of others.
Virtue herself rewards the toils of virtue."
Some of the Stoics indeed expressed themselves in
very arrogant, absurd terms, about the wise man's self-
1 See Plinius H. N. 11.', c. 7; Seneca, De Provid. c 6. ;
and Ep. 70 : " Nihil melius aeterna lex," &c.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 79
sufficiency ; they elevated him to the rank of a deity.^
But these were only talkers and lecturers, such as
those in all ages who utter fine words, know little of
human affairs, and care only for notoriety. Epictetus
and Antoninus both by precept and example labored
to improve themselves and others ; and if we discover
imperfections in their teaching, we must still honor
these great men who attempted to show that there is
in man's nature and in the constitution of things suffi- .
cient reason for living a virtuous life. /It is difficult
enough to live as we ought to live, difficult even for
any man to live in such a way as to satisfy himself, if
he exercises only in a moderate degree the power of
reflecting upon and reviewing his own conduct ; and
if all men cannot be brought to the same opinions in
morals and religion, it is at least worth while to give
them good reasons for as much as they can be per-
suaded to accept.
1 J. Smith in his Select Discourses on " the Excellency and
Nobleness of True Religion" (c. vi.) has remarked on this
Stoical arrogance. He finds it in Seneca and others. In
Seneca certainly, and perhaps something of it in Epictetus ;
but it is not in Antoninus.
THE THOUGHTS
OF
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
I.
TIj^ROM my grandfather Verus ^ [I learned] good
morals and the government of my temper.
2. From the reputation and remembrance of my
father,^ modesty and a manly character.
3. From my mother,^ piety and beneficence, and
abstinence, not only from evil deeds, but even from
^ Annius Verus was his grandfather's name. There is no
verb in this section connected witli the word " from," nor in the
following sections of this book ; and it is not quite certain what
verb should be supplied. What I have added may express the
meaning here, though there are sections which it will not fit.
If he does not mean to say that he learned all these good things
from the several persons whom he mentions, he means that he
observed certain good qualities in them, or received certain
benefits from them, and it is implied that he was the better for
it, or at least might have been ; for it would be a mistake to
understand Marcus as saying that he possessed all the virtues
which he observed in his kinsmen and teachers.
2 His father's name was Annius Verus.
3 His mother was Domitia Calvilla, named also Lucilla.
6
^SJC^t
82 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
evil thoughts ; and further, simpUcity in my way of
living, far removed from the habits of the rich.
4. From my great-grandfather/ not to have fre-
quented public schools, and to have had good teachers
at home, and to know that on such things a man
should spend liberally.
5. From my governor, to be neither of the green
nor of the blue party at the games in the Circus, nor
a partisan either of the Parmularius or the Scutarius
at the gladiators* fights ; from him too I learned en-
durance of labor, and to want little, and to work with
my own hands, and not to meddle with other people's
affairs, and not to be ready to listen to slander.
6. From Diognetus,^ not to busy myself about trifling
things, and not to give credit to what was said by
miracle- workers and jugglers about incantations and
the driving away of daemons and such things ; and
not to breed quails [for fighting], nor to give myself
1 Perhaps his mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus.
2 In the works of Justinus there is printed a letter to one
Diognetus, whom the writer names " most excellent." He was
a Gentile, but he wished very much to know what the religion
of the Christians was, what God they worshipped, and how this
worship made them despise the world and death, and neither
believe in the gods of the Greeks nor observe the superstition
of the Jews ; and what was this love to one another which they
had, and why this new kind of religion was introduced now
and not before. My friend Mr. Jenkins, rector of Lyminge in
Kent, has suggested to me that this Diognetus may have been
the tutor of M. Antoninus.
Book I.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 83
up passionately to such things ; and to endure freedom
of speech ; and to have become intimate with philoso-
phy; and to have been a hearer, first of Bacchius,
then of Tandasis and Marcianus ; and to have written
dialogues in my youth ; and to have desired a plank
bed and skin, and whatever else of the kind belongs
to the Grecian discipline.
7. From Rusticus ^ I received the impression that
my character required improvement and discipline;
and from him I learned not to be led astray to sophis-
tic emulation, nor to writing on speculative matters,
nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to show-
ing myself off as a man who practises much discipline,
or does benevolent acts in order to make a display ; and
to abstain from rhetoric, and poetry, and fine writing ;
and not to walk about in the house in my outdoor
dress, nor to do other things of the kind ; and to write
my letters with simplicity, like the letter which Rusti-
cus wrote from Sinuessa to my mother ; and with re-
spect'to those who have offended me by words, or
done me wrong, to be easily disposed to be pacified
^ Q. Junius Rusticus was a Stoic philosopher, whom Anto-
ninus valued highly, and often took his advice (Capitol. AI.
Antonin. III).
Antoninus says, rots 'ETTi/crT^ret'ois viroixv-qaacnv, which must
not be translated, " the writings of Epictetus," for Epictetus
wrote nothing. His pupil Arrian, who has preserved for us
all that we know of Epictetus, says, ravra i-rretpadrju virofji.v7}[xa,TaL
ifiavTcp dLa<pv\d^ai ttjs eKdvov diapolas [Ep. ad Cell.).
84 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
and reconciled, as soon as they have shown a readi-
ness to be reconciled ; and to read carefully, and not
to be satisfied with a superficial understanding of a
book ; nor hastily to give my assent to those who talk
overmuch ; and I am indebted to him for being ac-
quainted with the discourses of Epictetus, which he
communicated to me out of his own collection.
8. From Apollonius ^ I learned freedom of will and
undeviating steadiness of purpose ; and to look to
nothing else, not even for a moment, except to reason ;
and to be always the same, in sharp pains, on the oc-
casion of the loss of a child, and in long illness ; and to
see clearly in a living example that the same man can
be both most resolute and yielding, and not peevish in
giving his instruction ; and to have had before my eyes a
man who clearly considered his experience and his skill
in expounding philosophical principles as the smallest
of his merits ; and from him I learned how to receive
from friends what are esteemed favors, without^ being
either humbled by them or letting them pass unnoticed.
9. From Sextus,^ a benevolent disposition, and the
example of a family governed in a fatherly manner,
and the idea of living conformably to nature ; and
gravity without affectation, and to look carefully after
1 Apollonius of Chalcis came to Rome in the time of Pius to
be Marcus' preceptor. He. was a rigid Stoic.
2 Sextus of Chaeronea, a grandson of Plutarch, or nephew,
as some say ; but more probably a grandson.
Book I.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 85
the interests of friends, and to tolerate ignorant persons,
and those who form opinions without consideration : f
he had the power of readily accommodating himself
to all, so that intercourse with him was more agreeable
than any flattery ; and at the same time he was most
highly venerated by those who associated with him :
and he had the faculty both of discovering and order-
ing, in an intelligent and methodical way, the principles
necessary for Ufe ; and he never showed anger or any
other passion, but was entirely free from passion, and
also most affectionate ; and he could express appro-
bation without noisy display, and he possessed much
knowledge without ostentation.
10. From Alexander^ the grammarian, to refrain
from fault-finding, and not in a reproachful way to chide
those who uttered any barbarous or solecistic or strange-
sounding expression ; but dexterously to introduce the
very expression which ought to have been used, and
in the way of answer or giving confirmation, or joining
in an inquiry about the thing itself, not about the word,
or by some other fit suggestion.
1 1 . From Fronto ^ I learned to observe what envy
and duplicity and hypocrisy are in a tyrant, and that
^ Alexander was a Grammaticus, a native of Phrygia. He
wrote a commentary on Homer ; and the rhetorician Aristides
wrote a panegyric on Alexander in a funeral oration.
2 M. Cornelius Fronto was a rhetorician, and in great favor
with Marcus. There arc extant various letters between Marcus
and Fronto.
86 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
generally those among us who are called Patricians
are rather deficient in paternal affection.
12. From Alexander the Platonic, not frequently
nor without necessity to say to any one, or to write
in a letter, that I have no leisure ; nor continually to
excuse the neglect of duties required by our relation
to those with whom we live, by alleging urgent
occupations.
13. From Catulus,^ not to be indifferent when a
friend finds fault, even if he should find fault without
reason, but to try to restore him to his usual disposi-
tion ; and to be ready to speak well of teachers, as it
is reported of Domitius and Athenodotus ; and to love
my children truly.
14. From my brother ^ Severus, to love my kin, and
to love truth, and to love justice ; and through him
I learned to know Thrasea, Helvidius, Cato, Dion,
Brutus ; ^ and from him I received the idea of a polity
in which there is the same law for all, a polity admin-
istered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom
«
1 Cinna Catulus, a Stoic philosopher.
2 The word brother may not be genuine. Antoninus had no
brother. It has been supposed that he may mean some cousin.
Schultz in his translation omits " brother," and says that this
Severus is probably Claudius Severus, a peripatetic,
3 We know, from Tacitus {Annal. xiii., xvi. 21; and other
passages), who Thrasea and Helvidius were. Plutarch has
written the lives of the two Catos, and of Dion and Brutus.
Antoninus probably alludes to Cato of Utica, who was a
Stoic.
Book L] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 8/
of speech, and the idea of a kmgly government which
respects most of all the freedom of the governed ; I
learned from him also f consistency and undeviating
steadiness in my regard for philosophy ; and a disposi-
tion to do good, and to give to others readily, and to
cherish good hopes, and to believe that I am loved by
my friends ; and in him I observed no concealment of
his opinions with respect to those whom he condemned,
and that his friends had no need to conjecture what
he wished or did not wish, but it was quite plain.
15. From Maximus ^ I learned self-government,
and not to be led aside by anything ; and cheerfulness
in all circumstances, as well as in illness ; and a just
admixture in the moral character of sweetness and
dignity, and to do what was set before me without
complaining. I observed that everybody believed
that he thought as he spoke, and that in all that he
did he never had any bad intention ; and he never
showed amazement and surprise, and was never in a
hurry, and never put oif doing a thing, nor was per-
plexed nor dejected, nor did he ever laugh to disguise
his vexation, nor, on the other hand, was he ever
passionate or suspicious. He was accustomed to do
acts of beneficence, and was ready to forgive, and was
1 Claudius Maximus was a Stoic philosopher, who was
highly esteemed also by Antoninus Pius, Marcus' predeces-
sor. The character of Maximus is that of a perfect man. (See
VIII. 25.)
88 " THOUGHTS. [Book I.
free from all falsehood ; and he presented the appear-
ance of a man who could not be diverted from right,
rather than of a man who had been improved. I
observed, too, that no man could ever think that he
was despised by Maximus, or ever venture to think
himself a better man. He had also the art of being
humorous in an agreeable way.f
1 6. In my father^ I observed mildness of temper,
and unchangeable resolution in the things which he
had determined after due deliberation ; and no vain-
glory in those things which men call honors ; and a
love of labor and perseverance ; and a readiness to
listen to those who had anything to propose for the
common weal ; and undeviating firmness in giving
to every man according to his deserts ; and a knowl-
edge derived from experience of the occasions for
vigorous action and for remission. And I observed
that he had overcome all passion for boys; and he
considered himself no more than any other citizen ; ^
and he released his friends from all obligation to sup
with him or to attend him of necessity when he went
abroad, and those who had failed to accompany him,
by reason of any urgent circumstances, always found
him the same. I obsen^ed too his habit of careful
inquiry in all matters of deliberation, and his persis-
1 He means his adoptive father, his predecessor, the Em-
peror Antoninus Pius. Compare vi. 30.
2 He uses the word KOLVovoij/xoavur]. See Gataker's note.
Book I.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 89
tency, and that he never stopped his investigation
through being satisfied with appearances which first
present themselves ; and that his disposition was to
keep his friends, and not to be soon tired of them,
nor yet to be extravagant in his affection ; and to be
satisfied on all occasions, and cheerful ; and to fore-
see things a long way off, and to provide for the small-
est without display ; and to check immediately popu-
lar applause and all flattery ; and to be ever watchful
over the things which were necessary for the adminis-
tration of the empire, and to be a good manager of
the expenditure, and patiently to endure the blame
which he got for such conduct ; and he was neither
superstitious with respect to the gods, nor did he
court men by gifts or by trying to please them, or by
flattering the populace ; but he showed sobriety in all
things and firmness, and never any mean thoughts or
action, nor love of novelty. And the things which
conduce in any way to the commodity of life, and of
which fortune gives an abundant supply, he used with-
out arrogance and without excusing himself; so that
when he had them, he enjoyed them without affecta-
tion, and when he had them not, he did not want
them. No one could ever say of him that he was
either a sophist or a [home-bred] flippant slave or a
pedant ; but every one acknowledged him to be a
man ripe, perfect, above flattery, able to manage his
own and other men's affairs. Besides this, he hon-
90 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
ored those who were true philosophers, and he did
not reproach those who pretended to be philosophers,
nor yet was he easily led by them. He was also easy
in conversation, and he made himself agreeable with-
out any offensive affectation. He took a reasonable
care of his body's health, not as one who was greatly
attached to life, nor out of regard to personal appear-
ance, nor yet in a careless way, but so that through
his own attention he very seldom stood in need of
the physician's art or of medicine or external appli-
cations. He was most ready to give without envy to
those who possessed any particular faculty, such as
that of eloquence or knowledge of the law or of
morals, or of anything else ; and he gave them his
help, that each might enjoy reputation according to
his deserts ; and he always acted conformably to the
institutions of his country, without showing any affec-
tation of doing so. Further, he was not fond of
change nor unsteady, but he loved to stay in the same
places, and to employ himself about the same things ;
and after his paroxysms of headache he came imme-
diately fresh and vigorous to his usual occupations.
His secrets were not many, but very few and very
rare, and these only about public matters ; and he
showed prudence and economy in the exhibition of
the public spectacles and the construction of public
buildings, his donations' to the people, and in such
things, for he was a man who looked to what ought
Book L] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 9I
to be done, not to the reputation which is got by a
man's acts. He did not take the bath at unseason-
ble hours ; he was not fond of building houses, nor
curious about what he ate, nor about the texture and
color of his clothes, nor about the beauty of his
slaves.-^ His dress came from Lorium, his villa on
the coast, and from Lanuvium generally.^ We know
how he behaved to the toll- collector at Tusculum who
asked his pardon ; and such was all his behavior.
There was in him nothing harsh, nor implacable, nor
violent, nor, as one may say, anything carried to the
sweating point ; but he examined all things severally,
as if he had abundance of time, and without confu-
sion, in an orderly way, vigorously and consistently.
And that might be applied to him which is recorded
of Socrates,^ that he was able both to abstain from,
and to enjoy, those things which many are too weak
to abstain from, and cannot enjoy without excess.
But to be strong enough both to bear the one and to
be sober in the other is the mark of a man who has
a perfect and invincible soul, such as he showed in the
illness of Maximus.
17. To the gods I am indebted for having good
grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good
1 This passage is corrupt, and the exact meaning is uncertain.
2 Lorium was a villa on the coast north of Rome, and there
Antoninus was brought up, and he died there. This also is
corrupt.
3 Xenophon, Memorab. i. 3. 15.
92 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
teachers, good associates, good kinsmen and friends,
nearly everything good. Further, I owe it to the
gods that I was not hurried into any offence against
any of them, though I had a disposition which, if
opportunity had offered, might have led me to do
something of this kind ; but, through their favor,
there never was such a concurrence of circumstances
as put me to the trial. Further, I am thankful to the
gods that I was not longer brought up with my grand-
father's concubine, and that I preserved the flower of
my youth, and that I did not make proof of my viril-
ity before the proper season, but even deferred the
time ; that I was subjected to a ruler and a father
who was able to take away all pride from me, and to
bring me to the knowledge that it is possible for a
man to live in a palace without wanting either guards
or embroidered dresses, or torches and statues, and
such-like show ; but that it is in such a man's power
to bring himself very near to the fashion of a private
person, without being for this reason either meaner in
thought, or more remiss in action, with respect to the
things which must be done for the public interest in
a manner that befits a ruler. I thank the gods for
giving me such a brother,^ who was able by his moral
character to rouse me to vigilance over myself, and
who at the same time pleased me by his respect and
1 The emperor had no brother except L. Verus, his brother
by adoption.
Book I.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 93
affection ; that my children have not been stupid nor
deformed in body ; that I did not make more pro-
ficiency in rhetoric, poetry, and the other studies, in
which I should perhaps have been completely en-
gaged, if I had seen that I was making progress in
them ; that I made haste to place those who brought
me up in the station of honor, which they seemed
to desire, without putting them off with hope of my
doing it some other time after, because they were
then still young ; that I knew Apollonius, Rusticus,
Maximus ; that I received clear and frequent impres-
sions about living according to nature, and what kind
of a life that is, so that, so far as depended on the
gods, and their gifts, and help, and inspirations,
nothing hindered me from forthwith living according
to nature, though I still fall short of it through my
own fault, and through not observing the admonitions
of the gods, and, I may almost say, their direct
instructions ; that my body has held out so long in
such a kind of life ; that I never touched either
Benedicta or Theodotus, and that, after having fallen
into amatory passions, I was cured, and, though I was
often out of humor with Rusticus, I never did any-
thing of which I had occasion to repent ; that, though
it was my mother's fate to die young, she spent the
last years of her life with me ; that, whenever I
wished to help any man in his need, or on any other
occasion, I was never told that I had not the means of
94 THOUGHTS. [Book I.
doing it ; and that to myself the same necessity never
happened, to receive anything from another; that I
have such a wife/ so obedient, and so affectionate,
and so simple ; that I had abundance of good mas-
ters for my children ; and that remedies have been
shown to me by dreams, both others, and against
blood spitting and giddiness ^ . . . ; and that, when I
had an inchnation to philosophy, I did not fall into
the hands of any sophist, and that I did not waste my
time on writers [of histories], or in the resolution of
syllogisms, or occupy myself about the investigation
of appearances in the heavens ; for all these things
require the help of the gods and fortune.
Among the Quadi at the Granua.^
1 See the Life of Antoniu2is.
2 This is corrupt.
3 The Quadi lived in the southern part of Bohemia and
Moravia ; and Antoninus made a campaign again«t them.
(See the Life.) Granua is probably the river Graan, which
flows into the Danube.
If these words are genuine, Antoninus may have written this
first book during the war with the Quadi. In the first edition
of Antoninus, and in the older editions, the first three sections
of the second book make the conclusion of the first book.
Gataker placed them at the beginning of the second book.
Book II.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 95
II.
T3EGIN the morning by saying to thyself, I shall
meet with the busybody, the ungrateful, arro-
gant, deceitful, envious, unsocial. All these things
happen to them by reason of their ignorance of what
is good and evil. But I who have seen the nature
of the good that it is beautiful, and of the bad that it
is ugly, and the nature of him who does wrong, that it
is akin to me, not [only] of the same blood or seed,
but that it participates in [the same] intelligence and
[the same] portion of the divinity, I can neither be
injured by any of them, for no one can fix on me
what is ugly, nor can I be angry with my kinsman,
nor hate him. For we are made for co-operation, like
feet, like hands, like eyelids, like the rows of the
upper and lower teeth. ^ To act against one another,
then, is contrary to nature ; and it is acting against
one another to be vexed and to turn away.
2. Whatever this is that I am, it is a little flesh
and breath, and the ruling part. Throw away thy
books ; no longer distract thyself : it is not allowed ;
but as if thou wast now dying, despise the flesh ; it
1 Xenophon, Mem. 11. 3. 18.
96 THOUGHTS. [Book 11.
is blood and bones and a network, a contexture of
nerves, veins, and arteries. See the breath also, what
kind of a thing it is ; air, and not always the same,
but every moment sent out and again sucked in.
The third, then, is the ruling part ; consider thus :
Thou art an old man ; no longer let this be a slave,
no longer be pulled by the strings like a puppet to
unsocial movements, no longer be either dissatisfied
with thy present lot, or shrink from the future.
3. All that is from the gods is full of providence.
That which is from fortune is not separated from
nature or without an interweaving and involution
with the things which are ordered by providence.
From thence all things flow; and there is besides
necessity, and that which is for the advantage of the
whole universe, of which thou art a part. But that
is good for every part of nature which the nature of
the whole brings, and what serves to maintain this
nature. Now the universe is preserved, as by the
changes of the elements so by the changes of things
compounded of the elements. Let these principles
be enough for thee ; let them always be fixed opin-
ions. But cast away the thirst after books, that thou
mayest not die murmuring, but cheerfully, truly, and
from thy heart thankful to the gods.
4. Remember how long thou hast been putting off
these things, and how often thou hast received an
opportunity from the gods, and yet dost not use
Book II.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 97
it. Thou must now at last perceive of what uni-
verse thou art a part, and of what administrator of
the universe thy existence is an efflux, and that a
Hmit of time is fixed for thee, which if thou dost
not use for clearing away the clouds from thy mind,
it will go and thou wilt go, and it will never return.
5. Every moment think steadily as a Roman and
a man to do what thou hast in hand with perfect
and simple dignity, and feeling of affection, and free-
dom, and justice, and to give thyself relief from all
other thoughts. And thou wilt give thyself relief if
thou doest every act of thy life as if it were the last,
laying aside all carelessness and passionate aversion
from the commands of reason, and all hypocrisy, and
self-love, and discontent with the portion which has
been given to thee. Thou seest how few the things
are, the which if a man lays hold of, he is able to
live a life which flows in quiet, and is like the exist-
ence of the gods ; for the gods on their part will
require nothing more from him who observes these
things.
6. Do wrong ^ to thyself, do wrong to thyself, my
soul; but thou wilt no longer have the opportunity
of honoring thyself. Every man's life is sufficient. f
But thine is nearly finished, though thy soul rever-
1 Perhaps it should be, " thou art doing violence to thyself,"
v^pi^ecs, not v^pi^e.
98 THOUGHTS. [Book 1 1.
ences not itself, but places thy felicity in the souls
of others.
7. Do the things external which fall upon thee
distract thee? Give thyself time to learn something
new and good, and cease to be whirled around.
But then thou must also avoid being carried about
the other way; for those too are triflers who have
wearied themselves in life by their activity, and yet
have no object to which to direct every movement,
and, in a word, all their thoughts.
8. Through not observing what is in the mind of
another a man has seldom been seen to be unhappy ;
but those who do not observe the movements of their
own minds must of necessity be unhappy.
9. This thou must always bear in mind, what is
the nature of the whole, and what is my nature, and
how this is related to that, and what kind of a part
it is of what kind of a whole, and that there is no
one who hinders thee from always doing and saying
the things which are according to the nature of which
thou art a part.
10. Theophrastus, in his comparison of bad acts —
such a comparison as one would make in accordance
with the common notions of mankind — says, like a
true philosopher, that the offences which are com-
mitted through desire are more blamable than those
which are committed through anger. For he who is
excited by anger seems to turn away from reason
Book II.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 99
with a certain pain and unconscious contraction ;
but he who offends through desire, being over-
powered by pleasure, seems to be in a manner
more intemperate and more womanish in his offences.
Rightly, then, and in a way worthy of philosophy, he
said that the offence which is committed with pleas-
ure is more blamable than that which is committed
with pain ; and on the whole the one is more like
a person who has been first wronged and through
pain is compelled to be angry; but the other is
moved by his own impulse to do wrong, being car-
ried towards doing something by desire.
1 1 . Since it is possible ^ that thou mayest depart
from life this very moment, regulate every act and
thought accordingly.^ But to go away from among
men, if there are gods, is not a thing to be afraid of,
for the gods will not involve thee in evil ; but if indeed
they do not exist, or if they have no concern about
human affairs, what is it to me to live in a universe
devoid of gods or devoid of providence ? But in truth
they do exist, and they do care for human things, and
they have put all the means in man's power to enable
him not to fall into real evils. And as to the rest, if
there was anything evil, they would have provided for
this also, that it should be altogether in a man's power
1 Or it may mean," since it is in thy power to depart ; " which
gives a meaning somewhat different.
2 See Cicero, Tuscul. i. 49.
100 THOUGHTS. [Book II.
not to fall into it. Now that which does not make a
man worse, how can it make a man's life worse?
But neither through ignorance, nor having the knowl-
edge but not the power to guard against or correct
these things, is it possible that the nature of the uni-
verse has overlooked them ; nor is it possible that it
has made so great a mistake, either through want of
power or want of skill, that good and evil should hap-
pen indiscriminately to the good and the bad. But
death certainly, and life, honor and dishonor, pain and
pleasure, — all these things equally happen to good
men and bad, being things which make us neither bet-
ter nor worse. Therefore they are neither good nor
evil.
12. How quickly all things disappear, — in the uni-
verse the bodies themselves, but in time the remem-
brance of them. What is the nature of all sensible
things, and particularly those which attract with the
bait of pleasure or terrify by pain, or are noised
abroad by vapory fame ; how worthless, and contemp-
tible, and sordid, and perishable, and dead they are, — •
all this it is the part of the intellectual faculty to ob-
ser\'e. To observe too who these are whose opinions
and voices give reputation ; what death is, and the
fact that, if a man looks at it in itself, and by the
abstractive power of reflection resolves into their parts
all the things which present themselves to the imagi-
nation in it, he will then consider it to be nothing else
Book II.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. IGI
than an operation of nature ; and if any one is afraid
of an operation of nature, he is a child. This, how-
ever, is not only an operation of nature, but it is also
a thing which conduces to the purposes of nature.
To observe too how man comes near to the Deity, and
by what part of him, and when this part of man is so
disposed! (vi. 28).
13. Nothing is more wretched than a man who
traverses everything in a round, and pries into the
things beneath the earth, as the poet ^ says, and seeks
by conjecture what is in the minds of his neighbors,
without perceiving that it is sufficient to attend to the
daemon within him, and to reverence it sincerely.
And reverence of the daemon consists in keeping it
pure from passion and thoughtlessness, and dissatis-
faction with what comes from gods and men. For the
things from the gods merit veneration for their excel-
lence ; and the things from men should be dear to us
by reason of kinship ; and sometimes even, in a
manner, they move our pity by reason of men's igno-
ance of good and bad ; this defect being not less
than that which deprives us of the power of distin-
guishing things that are white and black.
14. Though thou shoul4est be going to live three
thousand years, and as many times ten thousand years,
still remember that no man loses any other life than
this which he now lives, nor lives any other than this
1 Pindar, in the Theaetetus of Plato. See xi. i.
102 THOUGHTS. [Book II.
which he now loses. The longest and shortest are
thus brought to the same. For the present is the
same to all, though that which perishes is not the
same ; t ^ and so that which is lost appears to be a
mere moment. For a man cannot lose either the
past or the future : for what a man has not, how can
any one take this from him ? These two things then
thou must bear in mind ; the one, that all things from
eternity are of like forms and come round in a circle,
and that it makes no difference whether a man shall
see the same things during a hundred years, or two
hundred, or an infinite time ; and the second, that
the longest liver and he who will die soonest lose just
the same. For the present is the only thing of which
a man can be deprived, if it is true that this is the
only thing which he has, and that a man cannot lose a
thing if he has it not.
15. Remember that all is opinion. For what was
said by the Cynic Monimus is manifest : and manifest
too is the use of what was said, if a man receives what
may be got out of it as far as it is true.
16. The soul of man does violence to itself, first
of all, when it becomes an abscess, and, as it were,
a tumor on the universe, so far as it can. For to be
vexed at anything which happens is a separation
of ourselves from nature, in some part of which the
natures of all other things are contained. In the next
1 See Gataker's *iote.
Book II.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. IO3
place, the soul does violence to itself when it turns
away from any man, or even moves towards him with
the intention of injuring, such as are the souls of those
who are angry. In the third place, the soul does vio-
lence to itself when it is overpowered by pleasure or
by pain. Fourthly, when it plays a part, and does or
says anything insincerely and untruly. Fifthly, when
it allows any act of its own and any movement to be
without an aim, and does anything thoughtlessly and
without considering what it is, it being right that even
the smallest things be done with reference to an end ;
and the end of rational animals is to follow the reason
and the law of the most ancient city and polity.
17. Of human life the time is a point, and the sub-
stance is in a flux, and the perception dull, and the
composition of the whole body subject to putrefaction,
and the soul a whirl, and fortune hard to divine, and
fame a thing devoid of judgment. And, to say all in
a word, everything which belongs to the body is a
stream, and what belongs to the soul is a dream and
vapor, and life is a warfare and a stranger's sojourn,
and after-fame is oblivion. What then is that which
is able to conduct a man? One thing, and only one,
philosophy. But this consists in keeping the daemon
within a man free from violence and unharmed, supe-
rior to pains and pleasures, doing nothing without a
purpose, nor yet falsely and with hypocrisy, not feeling
the need of another man's doing or not doing any-
104 THOUGHTS. [Book II.
thing; and besides, accepting all that happens, and
all that is allotted, as coming from thence, wherever it
is, from whence he himself came ; and, finally, waiting
for death with a cheerful mind, as being nothing else
than a dissolution of the elements of which every
living being is compounded. But if there is no harm
to the elements themselves in each continually chang-
ing into another, why should a man have any appre-
hension about the change and dissolution of all the
elements? For it is according to nature, and nothing
is evil which is according to nature.
This in Carnuntum.^
1 Carnuntum was a town of Pannonia, on the south side of
the Danube, about thirty miles east of Vindobona (Vienna).
Orosius (vii. 15) and Eutropius (viii. 13) say that Antoninus
remained three years at Carnuntum during his war with the
Marcomanni.
Book III.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I05
III.
T^ ^E ought to consider not only that our Hfe is
daily wasting away and a smaller part of it
is left, but another thing also must be taken into the
account, that if a man should live longer, it is quite
uncertain whether the understanding will still con-
tinue sufficient for the comprehension of things, and
retain the power of contemplation which strives to
acquire the knowledge of the divine and the human.
For if he shall begin to fall into dotage, perspiration
and nutrition and imagination and appetite, and what-
ever else there is of the kind, will not fail ; but the
power of making use of ourselves, and filling up the
measure of our duty, and clearly separating all appear-
ances, and considering whether a man should now
depart from life, and whatever else of the kind abso-
lutely requires a disciplined reason, — all this is al-
ready extinguished. We must make haste, then, not
only because we are daily nearer to death, but also
because the conception of things and the understand-
ing of them cease first.
2. We ought to observe also that even the things
which follow after the things which are produced
I06 THOUGHTS. [Book III.
according to nature contain something pleasing and
attractive. For instance, when bread is baked some
parts are spHt at the surface, and these parts which
thus open, and have a certain fashion contrary to the
purpose of the baker's art, are beautiful in a manner,
and in a peculiar way excite a desire for eating. And
again, figs, when they are quite ripe, gape open ; and
in the ripe olives the very circumstance of their being
near to rottenness adds a peculiar beauty to the fruit.
And the ears of corn bending down, and the lion's
eyebrows, and the foam which flows from the mouth
of wild boars, and many other things, — though they
are far from being beautiful if a man should examine
them severally, — still, because they are consequent
upon the things which are formed by nature, help to
adorn them, and they please the mind ; so that if a
man should have a feeling and deeper insight with
respect to the things which are produced in the uni-
verse, there is hardly one of those which follow by
way of consequence which will not seem to him to
be in a manner disposed so as to give pleasure. And
so he will see even the real gaping jaws of wild beasts
with no less pleasure than those which painters and
sculptors show by imitation ; and in an old woman
and an old man he will be able to see a certain
maturity and comeHness ; and the attractive loveli-
ness of young persons he will be able to look on with
chaste eyes ; and many such things will present them-
BooKlII.j MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 10/
selves, not pleasing to every man, but to him only
who has become truly familiar with Nature and her
works.
3. Hippocrates, after curing many diseases, himself
fell sick and died. The Chaldaei foretold the deaths
of many, and then fate caught them too. Alexander
and Pompeius and Caius Caesar, after so often com-
pletely destroying whole cities, and in battle cutting
to pieces many ten thousands of cavalry and infantry,
themselves too at last departed from life. Hera-
clitus, after so many speculations on the conflagration
of the universe, was filled with water internally and
died smeared all over with mud. And lice destroyed
Democritus ; and other lice killed Socrates. What
means all this? Thou hast embarked, thou hast
made the voyage, thou art come to shore ; get out.
If indeed to another life, there is no want of gods,
not even there ; but if to a state without sensation,
thou wilt cease to be held by pains and pleasures,
and to be a slave to the vessel, which is as much
inferior as that which serves it is superior :f for the
one is intelligence and deity ; the other is earth and
corruption.
4. Do not waste the remainder of thy life in
thoughts about others, when thou dost not refer thy
thoughts to some object of common utility. For thou
losest the opportunity of doing something else when
thou hast such thoughts as these, — What is such a
I08 THOUGHTS. [Book III.
person doing, and why, and what is he saying, and
what is he thinking of, and what is he contriving,
and whatever else of the kind makes us wander away
from the observation of our own ruling power. We
ought then to check in the series of our thoughts
everything that is without a purpose and useless, but
most of all the over-curious feeling and the malig-
nant ; and a man should use himself to think of those
things only about which if one should suddenly ask.
What hast thou now in thy thoughts? with perfect
openness thou mightest immediately answer, This or
That ; so that from thy words it should be plain that
everything in thee is simple and benevolent, and such
as befits a social animal, and one that cares not for
thoughts about pleasure or sensual enjoyments at all,
nor has any rivalry or envy and suspicion, or any-
thing else for which thou wouldst blush if thou
shouldst say that thou hadst it in thy mind. For the
man who is such, and no longer delays being among
the number of the best, is like a priest and minister
of the gods, using too the [deity] which is planted
within him, which makes the man uncontaminated
by • pleasure, unharmed by any pain, untouched by
any insult, feeling no wrong, a fighter in the noblest
fight, one who cannot be overpowered by any passion,
dyed deep with justice, accepting with all his soul
everything which happens and is assigned to him as
his portion; and not often, nor yet without great
Book TIL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. lOQ
necessity and for the general interest, imagining what
another says, or does, or thinks. For it is only what
belongs to himself that he makes the matter for his
activity; and he constantly thinks of that which is
allotted to himself out of the sum total of things, and
he makes his own acts fair, and he is persuaded that
his own portion is good. For the lot which is as-
signed to each man is carried along with him and
carries him along with it.| And he remembers also
that every rational animal is his kinsman, and that
to care for all men is according to man's nature ;
and a man should hold on to the opinion not of all,
but of those only who confessedly live according to
nature. But as to those who live not so, he always
bears in mind what kind of men they are both at
home and from home, both by night and by day, and
what they are, and w^ith what men they live an im-
pure life. Accordingly, he does not value at all the
praise which comes from such men, since they are
not even satisfied with themselves.
5. Labor not unwillingly, nor without regard to
the common interest, nor without due consideration,
nor with distraction ; nor let studied ornament set off
thy thoughts, and be not either a man of many words,
or busy about too many things. And further, let the
deity which is in thee be the guardian of a living
being, manly and of ripe age, and engaged in matter
political, and a Roman, and a ruler, who has taken
no THOUGHTS. [Book III.
his post like a man waiting for the signal which sum-
mons him from life, and ready to go, having need
neither of oath nor of any man's testimony. Be
cheerful also, and seek not external help nor the
tranquillity which others give. A man then must
stand erect, not be kept erect by others.
6. If thou findest in human life anything better
than justice, truth, temperance, fortitude, and, in a
word, anything better than thy own mind's self-satis-
faction in the things which it enables thee to do
according to right reason, and in the condition that
is assigned to thee without thy own choice ; if, I say,
thou seest anything better than this, turn to it with
all thy soul, and enjoy that which thou hast found to
be the best. But if nothing appears to be better
than the Deity which is planted in thee, which has
subjected to itself all thy appetites, and carefully
examines all the impressions, and, as Socrates said,
has detached itself from the persuasions of sense, and
has submitted itself to the gods, and cares for man-
kind ; if thou findest everything else smaller and of
less value than this, give place to nothing else, for
if thou dost once diverge and incline to it, thou wilt
no longer without distraction be able to give the
preference to that good thing which is thy proper
possession and thy own ; for it is not right that any-
thing of any other kind, such as praise from the
many, or power, or enjoyment of pleasure, should
Book III.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. Ill
come into competition with that which is rationally
and politically [or, practically] good. All these
things, even though they may seem to adapt them-
selves [to the better things] in a small degree, obtain
the superiority all at once, and carry us away. But
do thou, I say, simply and freely choose the better,
and hold to it. — But that which is useful is the
better. — Well, then, if it is useful to thee as a rational
being, keep to it ; but if it is only useful to thee as
an animal, say so, and maintain thy judgment with-
out arrogance : only take care that thou makest the
inquiry by a sure method.
7. Never value anything as profitable to thyself
which shall compel thee to break thy promise, to lose
thy self-respect, to hate any man, to suspect, to curse,
to act the hypocrite, to desire anything which needs
walls and curtains : for he who has preferred to
everything else his own intelligence and daemon and
the worship of its excellence, acts no tragic part, does
not groan, will not need either solitude or much com-
pany ; and, what is chief of all, he will live without
either pursuing or flying from [death] ; ^ but whether
for a longer or a shorter time he shall have the soul
enclosed in the body, he cares not at all : for even if
he must depart immediately, he will go as readily as
if he were going to do anything else which can be
done with decency and order; taking care of this
1 Comp. IX. 3.
112 THOUGHTS. [Book III.
only all through life, that his thoughts turn not away
from anything which belongs to an intelligent animal
and a member of a civil community.
8. In the mind of one who is chastened and puri-
fied thou wilt find no corrupt matter, nor impurity,
nor any sore skinned over. Nor is his life incom-
plete when fate overtakes him, as one may say of an
actor who leaves the stage before ending and finishing
the play. Besides, there is in him nothing servile,
nor affected, nor too closely bound [to other things],
nor yet detached^ [from other things], nothing wor-
thy of blame, nothing which seeks a hiding-place.
9. Reverence the faculty which produces opinion.
On this faculty it entirely depends whether there shall
exist in thy ruling part any opinion inconsistent with
nature and the constitution of the rational animal.
And this faculty promises freedom from hasty judg-
ment, and friendship towards men, and obedience to
the gods.
10. Throwing away then all things, hold to these
only which are few ; and besides, bear in mind that
every man lives only this present time, which is an
indivisible point, and that all the rest of his life is
either past or it is uncertain. Short then is the time
which every man lives, and small the nook of the
earth where he lives ; and short too the longest post-
humous fame, and even this only continued by a suc-
1 VIII. 34.
Book III.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. II3
cession of poor human beings, who will very soon die,
and who know not even themselves, much less him
who died long ago.
II. To the aids which have been mentioned let this
one still be added : Make for thyself a definition or
description of the thing which is presented to thee, so
as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its
substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and
tell thyself its proper name, and the names of the
things of which it has been compounded, and into
which it will be resolved. For nothing is so produc-
tive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine
methodically and truly every object which is pre-
sented to thee in life, and always to look at things so
as to see at the same time what kind of universe this
is, and what kind of use everything performs in it,
and what value everything has with reference to the
whole, and what with reference to man, who is a
citizen of the highest city, of which all other cities are
like families ; what each thing is, and of what it is
composed, and how long it is the nature of this thing
to endure which now makes an impression on me,
and what virtue I have need of with respect to it,
such as gentleness, manliness, truth, fidelity, sim-
plicity, contentment, and the rest. Wherefore, on
every occasion a man should say : This comes from
god ; and this is according to the apportionment t
and spinning of the thread of destiny, and such-like
8
114 THOUGHTS. [Book III.
coincidence and chance ; and this is from one of the
same stock, and a kinsman and partner, one who
knows not, however, what is according to his nature.
But I know ; for this reason I behave towards him
according to the natural law of fellowship with
benevolence and justice. At the same time, however,
in things indifferent ^ I attempt to ascertain the value
of each.
12. If thou workest at that which is before thee,
following right reason seriously, vigorously, calmly,
without allowing anything else to distract thee, but
keeping thy divine part pure, as if thou shouldst be
bound to give it back immediately; if thou boldest
to this, expecting nothing, fearing nothing, but satis-
fied with thy present activity according to nature,
and with heroic truth in every word and sound which
thou utterest, thou wilt live happy. And there is no
man who is able to prevent this.
13. As physicians have always their instruments
and knives ready for cases which suddenly require
their skill, so do thou have principles ready for the
understanding of things divine and human, and for
doing everything, even the smallest, with a recol-
lection of the bond which unites the divine and
human to one another. For neither wilt thou do
anything well which pertains to man without at the
1 Est dt horiim quae media appellamus grande discrimen. —
Seneca, Ep. 82.
Book III.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. II5
same time having a reference to things divine ; nor
the contrary.
14. No longer wander at hazard; for neither wilt
thou read thy own memoirs/ nor the acts of the
ancient Romans and Hellenes, and the selections
from books which thou wast reserving for thy old
age.^ Hasten then to the end which thou hast be-
fore thee, and, throwing away idle hopes, come to
thy own aid, if thou carest at all for thyself, while
it is in thy power.
15. They know not how many things are signified
by the words stealing, sowing, buying, keeping quiet,
seeing what ought to be done ; for this is not effected
by the eyes, but by another kind of vision.
16. Body, soul, intelligence : to the body belong
sensations, to the soul appetites, to the intelligence
principles. To receive the impressions of forms by
means of appearances belongs even to animals ; to
be pulled by the strings^ of desire belongs both to
wild beasts and to men who have made themselves
into women, and to a Phalaris and a Nero : and to
have the intelligence that guides to the things which
1 viro/xui'jfiaTa : or memoranda, notes, and the like. See i. 17.
2 Compare Fronto, ii. 9 ; a letter of Marcus to Fronto, who
was then consul : " Feci tamen mihi per hos dies excerpta ex
libris sexaginta in quinque tomis." But he says some of them
were small books.
^ Compare Plato, De Legibus, l. p. 644, otl radra ret wdOr)
etc. ; and Antoninus, ii. 2 ; vii. 3 ; xii. 19.
Il6 THOUGHTS. [Book III.
appear suitable belongs also to those who do not be-
lieve in the gods, and who betray their country, and
do their impure deeds when they have shut the doors.
If then everything else is common to all that I have
mentioned, there remains that which is peculiar to
the good man, to be pleased and content with what
happens, and with the thread which is spun for him ;
and not to defile the divinity which is planted in his
breast, nor disturb it by a crov\d of images, but to
preserve it tranquil, following it obediently as a god,
neither saying anything contrary to the truth, nor
doing anything contrary to justice. And if all men
refuse to believe that he lives a simple, modest, and
contented life, he is neither angry with any of them,
nor does he deviate from the way which leads to the
end of life, to which a man ought to come pure, tran-
quil, ready to depart, and without any compulsion
perfectly reconciled to his lot.
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. II7
IV.
npHAT which rules within, when it is according to
nature, is so affected with respect to the events
which happen, that it ahvays easily adapts itself to that
which is possible and is presented to it. For it re-
quires no definite material, but it moves towards its
purpose,^ under certain conditions, however; and it
makes a material for itself out of that which opposes
it, as fire lays hold of what falls into it, by which a
small light would have been extinguished : but when
the fire is strong, it soon appropriates to itself the
matter which is heaped on it, and consumes it, and
rises higher by means of this very material.
2. Let no act be done without a purpose, nor other-
wise than according to the perfect principles of art.
3. Men seek retreats for themselves, houses in the
country, sea-shores, and mountains ; and thou too art
wont to desire such things very much. But this is al-
together a mark of the most common sort of men, for
it is in thy power whenever thou shalt choose to retire
into thyself. For nowhere either with more quiet or
1 Trpos Ttt 7)yov/j.€ua, literally " towards that which leads."
The exact translation is doubtful. See Gataker's note.
Il8 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
more freedom from trouble does a man retire than into
his own soul, particularly when he has within him such
thoughts that by looking into them he is immediately
in perfect tranquillity ; and I affirm that tranquillity
is nothing else than the good ordering of the mind.
Constantly then give to thyself this retreat, and renew
thyself; and let thy principles be brief and fundamen-
tal, which, as soon as thou shalt recur to them, will be
sufficient to cleanse the soul completely, and to send
thee back free from all discontent with the things to
which thou returnest. For with what art thou discon-
tented? With the badness of men? Recall to thy
mind this conclusion, that rational animals exist for
one another, and that to endure is a part of justice,
and that men do wrong involuntarily; and consider
how many already, after mutual enmity, suspicion,
hatred, and fighting, have been stretched dead, re-
duced to ashes ; and be quiet at last. — But perhaps
thou art dissatisfied with that which is assigned to thee
out of the universe. — Recall to thy recollection this
alternative ; either there is providence or atoms [for-
tuitous concurrence of things ] ; or remember the ar-
guments by which it has been proved that the world
is a kind of poUtical community [and be quiet at
last] . — But perhaps corporeal things will still fasten
upon thee. — Consider then further that the mind
mingles not with the breath, whether moving gendy
or violently, when it has once drawn itself apart and
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. II9
discovered its own power, and think also of all that
thou hast heard and assented to about pain and pleas-
ure [and be quiet at last] . — But perhaps the desire
of the thing called fame will torment thee. — See how
soon everything is forgotten, and look at the chaos
of infinite time on each side of [the present], and
the emptiness of applause, and the changeableness
and want of judgment in those who pretend to give
praise, and the narrowness of the space within which
it is circumscribed [and be quiet at last]. For
the whole earth is a point, and how small a nook
in it is this thy dwelling, and how few are there in
it, and what kind of people are they who will praise
thee.
This then remains : Remember to retire into this
little territory of thy own,i and above all do not dis-
tract or strain thyself, but be free, and look at things
as a man, as a human being, as a citizen, as a mortal.
But among the things readiest to thy hand to which
thou shalt turn, let there be these, which are two.
One is that things do not touch the soul, for they are
external and remain immovable ; but our perturbations
come only from the opinion which is within. The
other is that all these things, which thou seest, change
immediately and will no longer be ; and constantly
bear in mind how many of these changes thou hast
1 Tecum habita, noris quam sit tibi curta supellex. — Per-
sins, IV. 52.
I20 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
already witnessed. The universe is transformation :
life is opinion.
4. If our intellectual part is common, the reason
also, in respect of which we are rational beings, is com-
mon : if this is so, common also is the reason which
commands us what to do, and what not to do ; if this
is so, there is a common law also ; if this is so, we are
fellow- citizens ; if this is so, we are members of some
political community ; if this is so, the world is in a man-
ner a state.-^ For of what other common political com-
munity will any one say that the whole human race are
members? And from thence, from this common
political community comes also our very intellectual
faculty and reasoning faculty and our capacity for law ;
or whence do they come ? For as my earthly part is
a portion given to me from certain earth, and that
which is watery from another element, and that which
is hot and fiery from some peculiar source (for nothing
comes out of that which is nothing, as nothing also
returns to non-existence), so also the intellectual part
comes from some source.
5. Death is such as generation is, a mysteiy of na-
ture ; composition out of the same elements, and a
decomposition into the same ; and altogether not a
thing of which any man should be ashamed, for it is
not contrary to [the nature of] a reasonable animal,
and not contrary to the reason of our constitution.
1 Compare Cicero De Legibus, i. 7.
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 12 1
6. It is natural that these things should be done by
such persons, it is a matter of necessity ; and if a man
will not have it so, he will not allow the fig-tree to have
juice. But by all means bear this in mind, that within
a very short time both thou and he will be dead ; and
soon not even your names will be left behind.
7. Take away thy opinion, and then there is taken
away the complaint, " I have been harmed." Take
away the complaint, " I have been harmed," and the
harm is taken away.
8. That which does not make a man worse than he
was, also does not make his life worse, nor does it
harm him either from without or from within.
9. The nature of that which is [universally] useful
has been compelled to do this.
10. Consider that everything which happens, hap-
pens jusdy, and if thou observest carefully, thou wilt
find it to be so. I do not say only with respect to the
continuity of the series of things, but with respect to
what is just, and as if it were done by one who assigns
to each thing its value. Observe then as thou hast be-
gun ; and whatever thou doest, do it in conjunction
with this, the being good, and in the sense in which a
man is properly understood to be good. Keep to this
in every action.
1 1 . Do not have such an opinion of things as he
has who does thee wrong, or such as he wishes thee to
have, but look at them as they are in truth.
122 THOUGHTS. ' [Book IV.
12. A man should always have these two rules in
readiness ; the one to do only whatever the reason of
the ruling and legislating faculty may suggest for the
use of men ; the other, to change thy opinion, if there
is any one at hand who sets thee right and moves thee
from any opinion. But this change of opinion must
proceed only from a certain persuasion, as of what is
just or of common advantage, and the like, not be-
cause it appears pleasant or brings reputation.
13. Hast thou reason? I have. — Why then dost
not thou use it ? For if this does its own work, what
else dost thou wish?
14. Thou hast existed as a part. Thou shalt disap-
pear in that which produced thee ; but rather thou
shalt be received back into its seminal principle by
transmutation.
15. Many grains of frankincense on the same altar :
one falls before, another falls after ; but it makes no
difference.
16. Within ten days thou wilt seem a god to those
to w^hom thou art now a beast and an ape, if thou
wilt return to thy principles and the worship of
reason.
17. Do not act as if thou wert going to live ten
thousand years. Death hangs over thee. While thou
livest, while it is in thy power, be good.
18. How much trouble' he avoids who does not
look to see what his neighbor says or does or thinks.
Book IV.] MARCUS 'AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 23
but only to what he does himself, that it may be just
and pure ; or, as Agathon | says, look not round at
the depraved morals of others, but run straight along
the line without deviating from it.
19. He who has a vehement desire for posthumous
fame does not consider that every one of those who
remember him will himself also die very soon ; then
again also they who have succeeded them, until the
whole remembrance shall have been extinguished as
it is transmitted through men who foolishly admire
and perish. But suppose that those who will remem-
ber are even immortal, and that the remembrance will
be immortal, what then is this to thee ? And I say not
what is it to the dead, but what is it to the living.
What is praise, except t indeed so far as it has f a cer-
tain utility? For thou now rejectest unseasonably the
gift of nature, clinging to something else . . . f.
20. Everything which is in any way beautiful is
beautiful in itself, and terminates in itself, not having
praise as part of itself. Neither worse then nor better
is a thing made by being praised. I affirm this also
of the things which are called beautiful by the vulgar,
for example, material things and works of art. That
which is really beautiful has no need of anything;
not more than law, not more than truth, not more
than benevolence or modesty. Which of these things
is beautiful because it is praised, or spoiled by being
blamed? Is such a thing as an emerald made worse
124 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
than it was, if it is not praised ? or gold, ivory, purple,
a lyre, a little knife, a flower, a shrub?
2 1. If souls continue to exist, how does the air
contain them from eternity? — But how does the
earth contain the bodies of those who have been
buried from time so remote? For as here the muta-
tion of these bodies after a certain continuance, what-
ever it may be, and their dissolution make room for
other dead bodies, so the souls which are removed
into the air after subsisting for some time are trans-
muted and diffused, and assume a fiery nature by
being received into the seminal intelligence of the
universe, and in this way make room for the fresh
souls which come to dwell there. And this is the
answer which a man might give on the hypothesis
of souls continuing to exist. But we must not only
think of the number of bodies which are thus buried,
but also of the number of animals which are daily
eaten by us and the other animals. For what a num-
ber is consumed, and thus in a manner buried in
the bodies of those who feed on them ! And never-
theless this earth receives them by reason of the
changes [of these bodies] into blood, and the trans-
formations into the aerial or the fiery element.
What is the investigation into the truth in this
matter? The division into that which is material
and that which is the cause of form [the formal].
(VII. 29.)
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 125
22. Do not be whirled about, but in every move-
ment have respect to justice, and on the occasion of
every impression maintain the faculty of comprehen-
sion [or understanding] .
23. Everything harmonizes with me, which is har-
monious to thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is
too early nor too late, which is in due time for thee.
Everything is fruit to me which thy seasons bring, O
Nature : from thee are all things, in thee are all things,
to thee all things return. The poet says, Dear city of
Cecrops ; and wilt not thou say, Dear city of Zeus ?
24. Occupy thyself with few things, says the phi-
losopher, if thou wouldst be tranquil. — But consider
if it would not be better to say, Do what is neces-
sary, and whatever the reason of the animal which
is naturally social requires, and as it requires. For
this brings not only the tranquillity which comes
from doing well, but also that which comes from
doing few things. For the greatest part of what we
say and do being unnecessary, if a man takes this
away, he will have more leisure and less uneasiness.
Accordingly, on every occasion a man should ask
himself. Is this one of the unnecessary things? Now
a man should take away not only unnecessary acts,
but also unnecessary thoughts, for thus superfluous
acts will not follow after.
25. Try how the life of the good man suits thee,
the hfe of him who is satisfied with his portion out
126 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
of the whole, and satisfied with his own just acts
and benevolent disposition.
26. Hast thou seen those things? Look also at
these. Do not disturb thyself. Make thyself all
simpHcity. Does any one do wrong? It is to him-
self that he does the wrong. Has anything happened
to thee ? Well ; out of the universe from the begin-
ning everything which happens has been apportioned
and spun out to thee. In a word, thy life is short.
Thou must turn to profit the present by the aid of
reason and justice. Be sober in thy relaxation.
27. Either it is a well-arranged universe^ or a
chaos huddled together, but still a universe. But
can a certain order subsist in thee, and disorder in
the All? And this too when all things are so sepa-
rated and diffused and sympathetic.
28. A black character, a womanish character, a
stubborn character, bestial, childish, animal, stupid,
counterfeit, scurrilous, fraudulent, tyrannical.
29. If he is a stranger to the universe who does
not know what is in it, no less is he a stranger who
does not know what is going on in it. He is a run-
away, who flies from social reason ; he is blind, who
shuts the eyes of the understanding ; he is poor, who
has need of another, and has not from himself all
1 Antoninus here uses the 'word Koa/jLos both in the sense of
the Universe and of Order ; and it is difficult to express his
meaning.
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 12/
things which are useful for hfe. He is an abscess
on the universe who withdraws and separates him-
self from the reason of our common nature through
being displeased with the things which happen, for
the same nature produces this, and has produced
thee too : he is a piece rent asunder from the state,
who tears his own soul from that of reasonable ani-
mals, which is one.
30. The one is a philosopher without a tunic,
and the other without a book : here is another half
naked : Bread I have not, he says, and I abide by
reason — and I do not get the means of living out
of my learning,! and I abide [by my reason] .
31. Love the art, poor as it may be, which thou
hast learned, and be content with it ; and pass
through the rest of life like one who has intrusted
to the gods with his whole soul all that he has,
making thyself neither the tyrant nor the slave of
any man.
32. Consider, for example, the times of Vespasian.
Thou wilt see all these things, people marrying,
bringing up children, sick, dying, warring, feasting,
trafficking, cultivating the ground, flattering, obsti-
nately arrogant, suspecting, plotting, wishing for some
to die, grumbling about the present, loving, heaping
up treasure, desiring consulship, kingly power. Well,
then, that life of these people no longer exists at all.
Again, remove to the times of Trajan. Again, all is
128 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
the same. Their life too is gone. In Hke manner
view also the other epochs of time and of whole
nations, and see how many after great efforts soon
fell and were resolved into the elements. But chiefly
thou shouldst think of those whom thou hast thy-
self known distracting themselves about idle things,
neglecting to do what was in accordance with their
proper constitution, and to hold firmly to this and
to be content with it. And herein it is necessary to
remember that the attention given to everything has
its proper value and proportion. For thus thou wilt
not be dissatisfied, if thou apphest thyself to smaller
matters no further than is fit.
33. The words which were formerly familiar are
now antiquated : so also the names of those who
were famed of old, are now in a manner antiquated,
Camillus, Caeso, Volesus, Leonnatus, and a little after
also Scipio and Cato, then Augustus, then also Ha-
drianus and Antoninus. For all things soon pass
away and become a mere tale, and complete oblivion
soon buries them. And I say this of those who have
shone in a wondrous way. For the rest, as soon as
they have breathed out their breath, they are gone,
and no man speaks of them. And, to conclude the
matter, what is even an eternal remembrance? A
mere nothing. What then is that about which we
ought to employ our serious pains? This one
thing, thoughts just, and acts social, and words
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 29
which never lie, and a disposition which gladly ac-
cepts all that happens, as necessary, as usual, as flow-
ing from a principle and source of the same kind.
34. Willingly give thyself up to Clotho [one of the
fates], allowing her to spin thy thread t into whatever
things she pleases.
35. Everything is only for a day, both that which
remembers and that which is remembered.
36. Observe constantly that all things take place by
change, and accustom thyself to consider that the na-
ture of the universe loves nothing so much as to
change the things which are and to make new things
like them. For everything that exists is in a manner
the seed of that which will be. But thou art thinking
only of seeds which are cast into the earth or into a
womb : but this is a very vulgar notion.
37. Thou wilt soon die, and thou art not yet simple,
nor free from perturbations, nor without suspicion of
being hurt by external things, nor kindly disposed
towards all ; nor dost thou yet place wisdom only in
acting justly.
38. Examine men's ruling principles, even those of
the wise, what kind of things they avoid, and what
kind they pursue.
39. What is evil to thee does not subsist in the rul-
ing principle of another ; nor yet in any turning and
mutation of thy corporeal covering. Where is it then ?
It is in that part of thee in which subsists the power
9
I30 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
of forming opinions about evils. Let this power then
not form [such] opinions, and all is well. And if that
which is nearest to it, the poor body, is cut, burnt,
filled with matter and rottenness, nevertheless let the
part which forms opinions about these things be quiet j
that is, let it judge that nothing is either bad or good
which can happen equally to the bad man and the
good. For that which happens equally to him who
lives contrary to nature and to him who lives accord-
ing to nature, is neither according to nature nor con-
trary to nature.
40. Constandy regard the universe as one living
being, having one substance and one soul ; and ob-
serve how all things have reference to one perception,
the perception of this one living being ; and how all
things act with one movement ; and how all things
are the co-operating causes of all things which exist ;
observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and
the contexture of the web.
41. Thou art a little soul bearing about a corpse, as
Epictetus used to say (i. c. 19).
42. It is no evil for things to undergo change, and
no good for things to subsist in consequence of
change.
43. Time is like a river made up of the events
which happen, and a violent stream ; for as soon as a
thing has been seen, it is carried away, and another
comes in its place, and this will be carried away too.
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I31
44. Everything which happens is as famiUar and
well known as the rose in spring and the fruit in sum-
mer; for such is disease, and death, and calumny,
and treachery, and whatever else delights fools or
vexes them.
45. In the series of things, those which follow are
always aptly fitted to those which have gone before :
for this series is not like a mere enumeration of dis-
jointed things, which has only a necessary sequence,
but it is a rational connection : and as all existing
things are arranged together harmoniously, so the
things which come into existence exhibit no mere suc-
cession, but a certain wonderful relationship (vi. ;^S ;
VII. 9 ; VII. 75, note).
46. Always remember the saying of Heraclitus, that
the death of earth is to become water, and the death
of water is to become air, and the death of air is to
become fire, and reversely. And think too of him
who forgets whither the way leads, and that men quar-
rel with that with which they are most constantly in
communion, the reason which governs the universe ;
and the things which they daily meet with seem to
them strange : and consider that we ought not to act
and speak as if we were asleep, for even in sleep we
seem to act and speak ; and that t we ought not, like
children who learn from their parents, simply to act
and speak as we have been taught.f
47. If any god told thee that thou shalt die to-mor-
132 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
row, or certainly on the day after to-morrow, thou
wouldst not care much whether it was on the third
day or on the morrow, unless thou wast in the highest
degree mean-spirited ; for how small is the differ-
ence. So think it no great thing to die after as many
years as thou canst name rather than to-morrow.
48. Think continually how many physicians are dead
after often contracting their eyebrows over the sick ;
and how many astrologers after predicting with great
pretensions the deaths of others ; and how many phi-
losophers after endless discourses on death or immor-
tality ; how many heroes after killing thousands ; and
how many tyrants who have used their power over
men's lives with terrible insolence, as if they were im-
mortal; and how many cities are entirely dead, so
to speak, Helice ^ and Pompeii and Herculanum, and
others innumerable. Add to the reckoning all whom
thou hast known, one after another. One man after
burying another has been laid out dead, and another
buries him ; and all this in a short time. To con-
clude, always observe how ephemeral and worthless
human things are, and what was yesterday a little mu-
cus, to-morrow will be a mummy or ashes. Pass then
thro^igh this little space of time conformably to nature,
and end thy journey in content, just as an olive falls
1 Ovid, Met. xv. 293 : — ,
*' Si quaeras Helicen et Burin Achaidas urbes,
Invenies sub aquis. "
Book IV.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 33
off when it is ripe, blessing nature who produced it,
and thanking the tree on which it grew.
49. Be hke the promontory against which the waves
continually break, but it stands firm and tames the
fury of the water around it.
Unhappy am I because this has happened to me?
Not so, but happy am I, though this has happened to
me, because I continue free from pain, neither crushed
by the present nor fearing the future. For such a
thing as this might have happened to every man ; but
every man would not have continued free from pain
on such an occasion. Why then is that rather a mis-
fortune than this a good fortune ? And dost thou in
all cases call that a man's misfortune which is not a
deviation from man's nature? And does a thing seem
to thee to be a deviation from man's nature, when it is
not contrary to the will of man's nature ? Well, thou
knowest the will of nature. Will then this which has
happened prevent thee from being just, magnanimous,
temperate, prudent, secure against inconsiderate opin-
ions and falsehood ; w^ill it prevent thee from having
modesty, freedom, and everything else, by the pres-
ence of which man's nature obtains all that is its own?
Remember too on every occasion which leads thee to
vexation to apply this principle : not that this is a mis-
fortune, but that to bear it nobly is good fortune.
50. It is a vulgar, but still a useful help towards
contempt of death, to pass in review those who have
134 THOUGHTS. [Book IV.
tenaciously stuck to life. What more then have they
gained than those who have died early? Certainly
they lie in their tombs somewhere at last, Cadicianus,
Fabius, Julianus, Lepidus, or any one else like them,
who have carried out many to be buried, and then
were carried out themselves. Altogether the interval
is small [between birth and death] ; and consider
with how much trouble, and in company with what
sort of people, and in what a feeble body this interval
is laboriously passed. Do not then consider life a
thing of any value. t For look to the immensity of
time behind thee, and to the time which is before thee,
another boundless space. In this infinity then what is
the difference between him who lives three days and
him who lives three generations ? ^
51. Always run to the short way ; and the short
way is the natural : accordingly say and do everything
in conformity with the soundest reason. For such a
purpose frees a man from trouble, j and warfare, and
all artifice and ostentatious display.
1 An allusion to Homer's Nestor, who was living at the war
of Troy among the third generation, like old Parr with his hun-
dred and fifty-two years, and some others in modern times who •
have beaten Parr by twenty or thirty years if it is true ; and yet
they died at last. The word is rpLyeprjuiov in Antoninus. Nestor
is named rpiyepoov by some writers ; but here perhaps there is an
allusion to Homer's Teprji>ioi in-wora 'Nearup.
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I35
T N the morning when thou risest unwillingly, let this
thought be present, — I am rising to the work of
a human being. Why then am I dissatisfied if I am
going to do the things for which I exist and for which
I was brought into the world? Or have I been made
for this, to lie in the bed-clothes and keep myself
warm ? — But this is more pleasant. — Dost thou exist
then to take thy pleasure, and not at all for action or
exertion? Dost thou not see the little plants, the
little birds, the ants, the spiders, the bees working
together to put in order their several parts of the
universe? And art thou unwilling to do the work of
a human being, and dost thou not make haste to do
that which is according to thy nature ? — But it is
necessary to take rest also. — It is necessary. How-
ever, Nature has fixed bounds to this too : she has
fixed bounds to eating and drinking, and yet thou
goest beyond these bounds, beyond what is sufficient ;
yet in thy acts it is not so, but thou stoppest short of
what thou canst do. So thou lovest not thyself, for if
thou didst, thou wouldst love thy nature and her will.
But those who love their several arts exhaust them-
136 THOUGHTS. [BookV.
selves in working at them unwashed and without food ;
but thou valuest thy own nature less than the turner
values the turning art, or the dancer the dancing art,
or the lover of money values his money, or the vain-
glorious man his little glory. And such men, when
they have a violent affection to a thing, choose neither
to eat nor to sleep rather than to perfect the things
which they care for. But are the acts which concern
society more vile in thy eyes and less worthy of thy
labor ?
2. How easy it is to repel and to wipe away every
impression which is troublesome or unsuitable, and
immediately to be in all tranquillity.
3. Judge every word and deed which are according
to nature to be fit for thee ; and be not diverted by
the blame which follows from any people nor by
their words, but if a thing is good to be done or
said, do not consider it unworthy of thee. For those
persons have their peculiar leading principle and fol-
low their peculiar movement ; which things do not
thou regard, but go straight on, following thy own
nature and the common nature ; and the way of both
is one.
4. I go through the things which happen according
to nature until I shall fall and rest, breathing out my
breath into that element out of which I daily draw
it in, and falling upon that earth out of which my
father collected the seed, and my mother the blood.
Book v.] MARCUS AURELTUS ANTONINUS. 1 3/
and my nurse the milk ; out of which during so
many years I have been suppHed with food and
drink ; which bears me when I tread on it and abuse
it for so many purposes.
5. Thou sayest, Men cannot admire the sharpness
of thy wits. — Be it so : but there are many other
things of which thou canst not say, I am not formed
for them by nature. Show those quahties then which
are altogether in thy power, sincerity, gravity, endu-
rance of labor, aversion to pleasure, contentment
with thy portion and with few things, benevolence,
frankness, no love of superfluity, freedom from trifling,
magnanimity. Dost thou not see how many quali-
ties thou art immediately able to exhibit, in which
there is no excuse of natural incapacity and unfitness,
and yet thou still remainest voluntarily below the
mark? or art thou compefled through being defec-
tively furnished by nature to murmur, and to be
stingy, afnd to flatter, and to find fault with thy poor
body, and to try to please men, and to make great
display, and to be so restless in thy mind ? No, by
the gods ; but thou mightest have been delivered
from these things long ago. Only if in truth thou
canst be charged with being rather slow and dull
of comprehension, thou must exert thyself about this
also, not neglecting it nor yet taking pleasure in thy
dulness.
6. One man, when he has done a service to
138 THOUGHTS. [BookV.
another, is ready to set it down to his account as
a favor conferred. Another is not ready to do this,
but still in his own mind he thinks of the man as his
debtor, and he knows what he has done. A third
in a manner does not even know what he has done,
but he is like a vine which has produced grapes, and
seeks for nothing more after it has once produced
its proper fruit. As a horse when he has run, a dog
when he has tracked the game, a bee when it has
made the honey, so a man when he has done a good
act, does not call out for others to come and see,
but he goes on to another act, as a vine goes on to
produce again the grapes in season. — Must a man
then be one of these, who in a manner act thus
without observing it ? — Yes. — But this very thing
is necessary, the observation of what a man is doing :
for, it may be said, it is characteristic of the social
animal to perceive that he is working in a social
manner, and indeed to wish that his social partner
also should perceive it. — It is true what thou sayest,
but thou dost not rightly understand what is now
said : and for this reason thou wilt become one of
those of whom I spoke before, for even they are mis-
led by a certain show of reason. But if thou wilt
choose to understand the meaning of what is said,
do not fear that for this reason thou wilt omit any
social act.
7. A prayer of the Athenians : Rain, rain, O dear
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 39
Zeus, down on the ploughed fields of the Athenians
and on the plains. — In truth we ought not to pray
at all, or we ought to pray in this simple and noble
fashion.
8. Just as we must understand when it is said.
That Aesculapius prescribed to this man horse-exer-
cise, or bathing in cold water, or going without shoes,
so we must understand it when it is said, That the
nature of the universe prescribed to this man disease,
or mutilation, or loss, or anything else of the kind.
For in the first case Prescribed means something
like this : he prescribed this for this man as a thing
adapted to procure health ; and in the second case
it means. That which happens^ to [or suits] every
man is fixed in a manner for him suitably to his
destiny. For this is what we mean when we say
that things are suitable to us, as the workmen say of
squared stones in walls or the pyramids, that they are
suitable, when they fit them to one another in some
kind of connection. For there is altogether one fit-
ness [harmony]. And as the universe is made up
out of all* bodies to be such a body as it is, so out
of all existing causes necessity [destiny] is made up
to be such a cause as it is. And even those who
are completely ignorant understand what I mean ;
for they say, It [necessity, destiny] brought this to
1 In this section there is a play on the meaning of avjj.-
140 THOUGHTS. [Book V.
such a person. — This then was brought and this was
prescribed to him. Let us then receive these things,
as well as those which Aesculapius prescribes. Many
as a matter of course even among his prescriptions
are disagreeable, but we accept them in the hope
of health. Let the perfecting and accomplishment
of the things which the common nature judges to be
good, be judged by thee to be of the same kind as
thy health. And so accept everything which hap-
pens, even if it seem disagreeable, because it leads
to this, to the health of the universe and to the pros-
perity and felicity of Zeus [the universe]. For he
would not have brought on any man what he has
brought, if it were not useful for the whole. Neither
does the nature of anything, whatever it may be, cause
anything which is not suitable to that which is directed
by it. For two reasons then it is right to be content
with that which happens to thee ; the one, because
it was done for thee and prescribed for thee, and
in a manner had reference to thee, originally from
the most ancient causes spun with thy destiny; and
the other, because even that which comes severally
to every man is to the power which administers the
universe a cause of felicity and perfection, nay even
of its very continuance. For the integrity of the
whole is mutilated, if thou cuttest off anything what-
ever from the conjunction and the continuity either
of the parts or of the causes. And thou dost cut
Book V.J MARCUS AURELIUS AXTOXINX'S. 141
off, as far as it is in thy power, when thou art dissat-
isfied, and in a manner triest to put anything out of
the way.
9. Be not disgusted, nor discouraged, nor dissatis-
fied, if thou dost not succeed in doing ever}thing
according to right principles, but when thou hast
failed, return back again, and be content if the
greater part of what thou doest is consistent with
man's nature, and love this to which thou retumest ;
and do not return to philosophy as if she were a
master, but act like those who have sore eyes and
apply a bit of sponge and egg, or as another applies
a plaster, or drenching \sith water. For thus thou
wilt not fail tot obey reason, and thou wilt repose
in it. And remember that philosophy requires only
the things which thy nature requires; but thou
wouldst have something else which is not according
to nature. — It may be objected. Why, what is more
agreeable than this [which I am doing] ? — But is
not this the very reason why pleasure deceives us?
And consider if magnanimity, freedom, simplicity,
equanimity, piety, are not more agreeable. For what
is more agreeable than wisdom itself, when thou
thinkest of the security and the happy course of all
things which depend on the faculty of understanding
and knowledge?
10. Things are in such a kind of envelopment
that they have seemed to philosophers, not a few
142 THOUGHTS. [Book V.
nor those common philosophers, altogether unintel-
ligible ; nay even to the Stoics themselves they seem
difficult to understand. iVnd all our assent is change-
able ; for where is the man who never changes ?
Carry thy thoughts then to the objects themselves,
and consider how short-lived they are and worthless,
and that they may be in the possession of a filthy
wretch or a whore or a robber. Then turn to the
morals of those who live with thee, and it is hardly
possible to endure even the most agreeable of them,
to say nothing of a man being hardly able to endure
himself. In such darkness then and dirt, and in so
constant a flux both of substance and of time, and
of motion and of things moved, what there is worth
being highly prized, or even an object of serious
pursuit, I cannot imagine. But on the contrary it
is a man's duty to comfort himself, and to wait for
the natural dissolution, and not to be vexed at the
delay, but to rest in these principles only : the one,
that nothing will happen to me which is not conform-
able to the nature of the universe ; and the other,
that it is in my power never to act contrary to my
god and daemon : for there is no man who will
compel me to this.
1 1 . About what am I now employing my own soul ?
On every occasion I must ask myself this question,
and inquire, What have I now in this part of me which
they call the ruling principle ? and whose soul have I
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I43
now, — that of a child, or of a young man, or of a fee-
ble woman, or of a tyrant, or of a domestic animal, or
of a wild beast ?
12. What kind of things those are which appear
good to the many, we may learn even from this. For
if any man should conceive certain things as being
really good, such as prudence, temperance, justice,
fortitude, he would not after having first conceived
these endure to listen to anything t which should not
be in harmony with what is really good.f But if a
man has first conceived as good the things which
appear to the many to be good, he will listen and
readily receive as very applicable that which was said
by the comic writer, f Thus even the many perceive
the difference. t For were it not so, this saying would
not offend and would not be rejected [in the first
case], while we receive it when it is said of wealth,
and of the means which further luxury and fame, as
said fitly and wittily. Go on then and ask if we
should value and think those things to be good, to
which after their first conception in the mind the
words of the comic writer might be aptly applied, —
that he who has them, through pure abundance has
not a place to ease himself in.
13. I am composed of the formal and the mate-
rial; and neither of them will perish into non-exist-
ence, as neither of them came into existence out of
non-existence. Every part of me then will be re-
144 THOUGHTS. [BookV.
duced by change into some part of the universe, and
that again will change into another part of the uni-
verse, and so on forever. And by consequence of
such a change I too exist, and those who begot me,
and so on forever in the other direction. For noth-
ing hinders us from saying so, even if the universe
is adminstered according to definite periods [of
revolution] .
14. Reason and the reasoning art [philosophy] are
powers which are sufficient for themselves and for
their own works. They move then from a first prin-
ciple which is their own, and they make their way to
the end which is proposed to them ; and this is the
reason why such acts are named Catorth6seis or right
acts, which word signifies that they proceed by the
right road.
15. None of these things ought to be called a
man's, which do not belong to a man, as man. They
are not required of a man, nor does man's nature
promise them, nor are they the means of man's
nature attaining its end. Neither then does the end
of man lie in these things, nor yet that which aids to
the accomplishment of this end, and that which aids
towards this end is that which is good. Besides, if
any of these things did belong to man, it would not
be right for a man to despise them and to set himself
against them ; nor would a man be worthy of praise
who showed that he did not want these things, nor
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 145
would he who stinted himself in any of them be good,
if indeed these things were good. But now the more
of these things a man deprives himself of, or of other
things like them, or even when he is deprived of any
of them, the more patiently he endures the loss, just
in the same degree he is a better man.
16. Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also
will be the character of thy mind ; for the soul is
dyed by the thoughts. Dye it then with a continuous
series of such thoughts as these : for instance, that
where a man can live, there he can also live well.
But he must live in a palace ; well then, he can also
live well in a palace. And again, consider that for
whatever purpose each thing has been constituted,
for this it has been constituted, and towards this it is
carried ; and its end is in that towards which it is
carried ; and where the end is, there also is the
advantage and the good of each thing. Now the
good for the reasonable animal is society ; for that we
are made for society has been shown above.-^ Is it
not plain that the inferior exist for the sake of the
superior? But the things which have life are superior
to those which have not life, and of those which have
hfe the superior are those which have reason.
17. To seek what is impossible is madness : and it
is impossible that the bad should not do something of
this kind.
10
146 THOUGHTS. [Book V.
18. Nothing happens to any man which he is not
formed by nature to bear. The same things happen
to another, and either because he does not see that
they have happened, or because he would show a
great spirit, he is firm and remains unharmed. It is
a shame then that ignorance and conceit should be
stronger than wisdom.
19. Things themselves touch not the soul, not in
the least degree ; nor have they admission to the soul,
nor can they turn or move the soul : but the soul
turns and moves itself alone, and whatever judgments
it may think proper to make, such it makes for itself
the things which present themselves to it.
20. In one respect man is the nearest thing to me,
so far as I must do good to men and endure them.
But so far as some men make themselves obstacles to
my proper acts, man becomes to me one of the things
which are indifferent, no less than the sun or wind or
a wild beast. Now it is true that these may impede
my action, but they are no impediments to my affects
and disposition, which have the power of acting con-
ditionally and changing : for the mind converts and
changes every hindrance to its activity into an aid ;
and so that which is a hindrance is made a further-
ance to an act ; and that which is an obstacle on the
road helps us on this roM.
2 1 . Reverence that which is best in the universe ;
and this is that which makes use of all things and
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 47
directs all things. And in like manner also reverence
that which is best in thyself; and this is of the same
kind as that. For in thyself also, that which makes
use of everything else is this, and thy life is directed
by this.
22. That which does no harm to the state, does no
harm to the citizen. In the case of every appearance
of harm apply this rule : if the state is not harmed by
this, neither am I harmed. But if the state is harmed,
thou must not be angry with him who does harm to
the state. Show him where his error is.
23. Often think of the rapidity with which things
pass by and disappear, both the things which are and
the things which are produced. For substance is like
a river in a continual flow, and the activities of things
are in constant change, and the causes work in infinite
varieties; and there is hardly anything which stands
still. And consider this which is near to thee, this
boundless abyss of the past and of the future in which
all things disappear. How then is he not a fool who
is puffed up with such things or plagued about them
and makes himself miserable ? for they vex him only
for a time, and a short time.
24. Think of the universal substance, of which thou
hast a very small portion ; and of universal time, of
which a short and indivisible interval has been as-
signed to thee ; and of that which is fixed by destiny,
and how small a part of it thou art.
148 THOUGHTS. [Book V.
25. Does another do me wrong? Let him look to
it. He has his own disposition, his own activity. I
now have what the universal nature wills me to have ;
and I do what my nature now wills me to do.
26. Let the part of thy soul which leads and gov-
erns be undisturbed by the movements in the flesh,
whether of pleasure or of pain ; and let it not unite
with them, but let it circumscribe itself and limit those
afl'ects to their parts. But when these affects rise up
to the mind by virtue of that other sympathy that
naturally exists in a body which is all one, then thou
must not strive to resist the sensation, for it is natural :
but let not the ruling part of itself add to the sensa-
tion the opinion that it is either good or bad.
27. Live with the gods. And he does live with
the gods who constantly shows to them that his own
soul is satisfied with that which is assigned to him,
and that it does all that the daemon wishes, which
Zeus hath given to every man for his guardian and
guide, a portion of himself. And this is every man's
understanding and reason.
28. Art thou angry with him whose armpits stink?
art thou angry with him whose mouth smells foul ?
What good will this anger do thee ? He has such a
mouth, he has such armpits : it is necessary that such
an emanation must come from such things ; but the
man has reason, it will be said, and he is able, if he
takes pains, to discover wherein he offends ; I wish
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 49
thee well of thy discovery. Well then, and thou hast
reason : by thy rational faculty stir up his rational fac-
ulty; show him his error, admonish him. For if
he Hstens, thou wilt cure him, and there is no need of
anger. [ t Neither tragic actor nor whore, j]^
29. As thou intendest to live when thou art gone
out, ... so it is in thy power to live here. But if
men do not permit thee, then get away out of life, yet
so as if thou wert suffering no harm. The house is
smoky, and I quit it.^ Why dost thou think that this
is any trouble? But so long as nothing of the kind
drives me out, I remain, am free, and no man shall
hinder me from doing what I choose ; and I choose
to do what is according to the nature of the rational
and social animal.
30. The intelligence of the universe is social. Ac-
cordingly it has made the inferior things for the sake
of the superior, and it has fitted the superior to one
another. Thou seest how it has subordinated, co-ordi-
nated, and assigned to everything its proper portion,
and has brought together into concord with one an-
other the things which are the best.
^ This is imperfect or corrupt, or both. There is also some-
thing wrong or incomplete in the beginning of S 29, where
he says ws e^eXdwv ^fjv dLauofj, which Gataker translates "as if
thou wast about to quit life ;" but we cannot translate e^eXOu^u
in that way. Other translations are not much more satisfactory.
I have translated it literally and left it imperfect.
2 Epictetus, I. 25. 18.
150 THOUGHTS. [BookV.
31. How hast thou behaved hitherto to the gods,
thy parents, brethren, children, teachers, to those who
looked after thy infancy, to thy friends, kinsfolk, to thy
slaves ? Consider if thou hast hitherto behaved to all
in such a way that this may be said of thee, —
" Never has wronged a man in deed or word."
And call to recollection both how many things thou
hast passed through, and how many things thou hast
been able to endure and that the history of thy hfe is
now complete and thy service is ended ; and how
many beautiful things thou hast seen ; and how many
pleasures and pains thou hast despised ; and how
many things called honorable thou hast spurned ; and
to how many ill-minded folks thou hast shown a kind
disposition.
32. Why do unskilled and ignorant souls disturb
him who has skill and knowledge? What soul then
has skill and knowledge? That which knows begin-
ning and end, and knows the reason which pervades
all substance, and through all time by fixed periods
[revolutions] administers the universe.
33. Soon, very soon, thou wilt be ashes, or a skele-
ton, and either a name or not even a name ; but name
is sound and echo. And the things which are much
valued in life are empty and rotten and trifling, and
[like] little dogs biting one another, and little children
quarrelling, laughing, and then straightway weeping.
Book v.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 151
But fidelity and modesty and justice and truth are
fled
Up to Olympus from the wide-spread earth.
Hesiod, IVor/cs, etc. v. 197.
What then is there which still detains thee here, if the
objects of sense are easily changed and never stand still,
and the organs of perception are dull and easily receive
false impressions, and the poor soul itself is an exha-
lation from blood? But to have good repute amid
such a world as this is an empty thing. Why then
dost thou not wait in tranquilHty for thy end, whether
it is extinction or removal to another state? And
until that time comes, what is sufficient? Why, what
else than to venerate the gods and bless them, and to
do good to men, and to practise tolerance and self-
restraint ; ^ but as to everything which is beyond the
hmits of the poor flesh and breath, to remember that
this is neither thine nor in thy power.
34. Thou canst pass thy life in an equable flow of
happiness, if thou canst go by the right way, and
think and act in the right way. These two things are
common both to the soul of God and to the soul of
man, and to the soul of every rational being : not to be
hindered by another ; and to hold good to consist in
1 This is the Stoic precept av'exov koX d7re%ov. The first part
teaches us to be content with men and things as they are. The
second part teaches us the virtue of self-restraint, or the gov-
ernment of our passions.
152 THOUGHTS. [Book V.
the disposition to justice and tlie practice of it, and
in this to let thy desire find its termination.
35. If this is neither my own badness, nor an effect
of my own badness, and the common weal is not in-
jured, why am I troubled about it, and what is the
harm to the common weal?
36. Do not be carried along inconsiderately by the
appearance of things, but give help [to all] according
to thy ability and their fitness ; and if they should
have sustained loss in matters which are indifferent, do
not imagine this to be a damage ; for it is a bad habit.
But as the old man, when he went away, asked back
his foster-child's top, remembering that it was a top,
so do thou in this case also.
When thou art calling out on the Rostra, hast thou
forgotten, man, what these things are ? — Yes ; but
they are objects of great concern to these people —
wilt thou too then be made a fool for these things?
I was once a fortunate man, but I lost it, I know not
how. — But fortunate means that a man has assigned
to himself a good fortune : and a good fortune is good
disposition of the soul, good emotions, good actions.^
1 This section is unintelligible. Many of the words may be
corrupt, and the general purport of the section cannot be dis-
covered. Perhaps several things have been improperly joined
in one section. I have translated it nearly literally. Different
translators give the section, a different turn, and the critics
have tried to mend what thev cannot understand.
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 53
VI.
'T^HE substance of the universe is obedient and
compliant ; and the reason which governs it
has in itself no cause for doing evil, for it has no malice,
nor does it do evil to anything, nor is anything harmed
by it. But all things are made and perfected accord-
ing to this reason.
2. Let it make no difference to thee whether thou
art cold or warm, if thou art doing thy duty ; and
whether thou art drowsy or satisfied with sleep ; and
whether ill-spoken of or praised ; and whether dying
or doing something else. For it is one of the acts of
life, this act by which we die : it is sufficient then in
this act also to do well what we have in hand (vi. 22,
28).
3. Look within. Let neither the peculiar quality of
anything nor its value escape thee.
4. All existing things soon change, and they will
either be reduced to vapor, if indeed all substance is
one, or they will be dispersed.
5. The reason which governs knows what its own
disposition is, and what it does, and on what material
it works.
154 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
6. The best way of avenging thyself is not to be-
come Uke [the wrong-doer].
7. Take pleasure in one thing and rest in it, in
passing from one social act to another social act,
thinking of God.
8. The ruling principle is that which rouses and
turns itself, and while it makes itself such as it is and
such as it wills to be, it also makes everything which
happens appear to itself to be such as it wills.
9. In conformity to the nature of the universe every
single thing is accomplished ; for certainly it is not in
conformity to any other nature that each thing is ac-
complished, either a nature which externally compre-
hends this, or a nature which is comprehended within
this nature, or a nature external and independent of
this (XI. I ; VI. 40; VIII. 50).
10. The universe is either a confusion, and a
mutual involution of things, and a dispersion, or it
is unity and order and providence. If then it is the
former, why do I desire to tarry in a fortuitous com-
bination of things and such a disorder? and why do
I care about anything else than how I shall at last
become earth ? and why am I disturbed, for the dis-
persion of my elements will happen whatever I do?
But if the other supposition is true, I venerate, and
I am firm, and I trust in him who governs (iv. 27).
11. When thou hast been compelled by circum-
stances to be disturbed in a manner, quickly return
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 55
to thyself, and do not continue out of tune longer
than the compulsion lasts ; for thou wilt have more
mastery over the harmony by continually recurring
to it.
12. If thou hadst a step-mother and a mother at
the same time, thou wouldst be dutiful to thy step-
mother, but still thou wouldst constantly return to
thy mother. Let the court and philosophy now be
to thee step-mother and mother : return to philoso-
phy frequently and repose in her, through whom what
thou meetest with in the court appears to thee tol-
erable, and thou appearest tolerable in the court.
13. When we have meat before us and such eat-
ables, we receive the impression that this is the
dead body of a fish, and this is the dead body of a
bird or of a pig; and again, that this Falernian is
only a little grape-juice, and this purple robe some
sheep's wool dyed with the blood of a shell-fish :
such then are these impressions, and they reach the
things themselves and penetrate them, and so we
see what kind of things they are. Just in the same
way ought we to act all through life, and where there
are things which appear most worthy of our appro-
bation, we ought to lay them bare and look at their
worthlessness and strip them of all the words by
which they are exalted. For outward show is a won-
derful perverter of the reason, and when thou art
most sure that thou art employed about things worth
156 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
thy pains, it is then that it cheats thee most. Con-
sider then what Crates says of Xenocrates himself.
14. Most of the things which the multitude admire
are referred to objects of the most general kind, those
which are held together by cohesion or natural organi-
zation, such as stones, wood, fig-trees, vines, olives.
But those which are admired by men, who are a little
more reasonable, are referred to the things which are
held together by a living principle, as flocks, herds.
Those which are admired by men who are still more
instructed are the things which are held together by
a rational soul, not however a universal soul, but
rational so far as it is a soul skilled in some art, or
expert in some other way, or simply rational so far
as it possesses a number of slaves. But he who
values a rational soul, a soul universal and fitted for
poHtical Hfe, regards nothing else except this; and
above all things he keeps his soul in a condition
and in an activity conformable to reason and social
life, and he co-operates to this end with those who
are of the same kind as himself
15. Some things are hurrying into existence, and
others are hurrying out of it ; and of that which is
coming into existence part is already extinguished.
Motions and changes are continually renewing the
world, just as the uninterrupted course of time is
always renewing the infinite duration of ages. In
this flowing stream then, on which there is no abiding.
BookVL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I57
what is there of the things which hurry by on which
a man would set a high price? It would be just as
if a man should fall in love with one of the sparrows
which fly by, but it has already passed out of sight.
Something of this kind is the very life of every man,
like the exhalation of the blood and the respiration
of the air. For such as it is to have once drawn in
the air and to have given it back, which we do every
moment, just the same is it with the whole respira-
tory power, which thou didst receive at thy birth
yesterday and the day before, to give it back to the
element from which thou didst first draw it.
16. Neither is transpiration, as in plants, a thing
to be valued, nor respiration, as in domesticated
animals and wild beasts, nor the receiving of- impres-
sions by the appearances of things, nor being moved
by desires as puppets by strings, nor assembling in
herds, nor being nourished by food ; for this is just
like the act of separating and parting with the useless
part of our food. What then is worth being valued ?
To be received with clapping of hands? No. Nei-
ther must we value the clapping of tongues ; for the
praise which comes from the many is a clapping of
tongues. Suppose then that thou hast given up this
worthless thing called fame, what remains that is
worth valuing ? This, in my opinion : to move thy-
self and to restrain thyself in conformity to thy proper
constitution, to which end both all employments and
158 THOUGHTS. [BookVT.
arts lead. For every art aims at this, that the thing
which has been made should be adapted to the work
for which it has been made ; and both the vine-
planter who looks after the vine, and the horse-
breaker, and he who trains the dog, seek this end.
But the education and the teaching of youth aim at
something. In this then is the value of the education
and the teaching. And if this is well, thou wilt not
seek anything else. Wilt thou not cease to value
many other things too? Then thou wilt be neither
free, nor sufficient for thy own happiness, nor without
passion. For of necessity thou must be envious,
jealous, and suspicious of those who can take away
those things, and plot against those who have that
which is valued by thee. Of necessity a man must
be altogether in a state of perturbation who wants
any of these things ; and besides, he must often find
fault with the gods. But to reverence and honor thy
own mind will make thee content with thyself, and
in harmony with society, and in agreement with the
gods, that is, praising all that they give and have
ordered.
17. Above, below, all around are the movements of
the elements. But the motion of virtue is in none of
these : it is something more divine, and advancing by
a way hardly observed, it goes happily on its road.
18. How strangely men act ! They will not praise
those who are living at the same time and living with
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I 59
themselves ; but to be themselves praised by posterity,
by those whom they have never seen or ever will see,
this they set much value on. But this is very much
the same as if thou shouldst be grieved because those
who have lived before thee did not praise thee.
19. If a thing is difficult to be accomplished by
thyself, do not think that it is impossible for man :
but if anything is possible for man and conformable
to his nature, think that this can be attained by thy-
self too.
20. In the gymnastic exercises suppose that a
man has torn thee with his nails, and by dashing
against thy head has inflicted a wound. Well, we
neither show any signs of vexation, nor are we of-
fended, nor do we suspect him afterwards as a
treacherous fellow; and yet we are on our guard
against him, not however as an enemy, nor yet with
suspicion, but we quietly get out of his way. Some-
thing like this let thy behavior be in all the other
parts of life ; let us overlook many things in those
who are like antagonists in the gymnasium. For it
is in our power, as I said, to get out of the way,
and to have no suspicion nor hatred.
21. If any man is able to convince me and show
me that I do not think or act right, I will gladly
change ; for I seek the truth, by which no man was
ever injured. But he is injured who abides in his
error and ignorance.
l60 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
2 2. I do my duty : other things trouble me not;
for they are either things without Ufe, or things with-
out reason, or things that have rambled and know
not the way.
23. As to the animals which have no reason, and
generally all things and objects, do thou, since thou
hast reason and they have none, make use of them
with a generous and liberal spirit. But tow^ards hu-
man beings, as they have reason, behave in a social
spirit. And on all occasions call on the gods, and
do not perplex thyself about the length of time in
which thou shalt do this ; for even three hours so
spent are sufficient.
24. Alexander the Macedonian and his groom by
death were brought to the same state ; for either
they were received among the same seminal prin-
ciples of the universe, or they were alike dispersed
among the atoms.
25. Consider how many things in the same indi-
visible time take place in each of us, — things which
concern the body and things which concern the soul :
and so thou wilt not wonder if many more things,
or rather all things which come into existence in
that which is the one and all, which we call Cosmos,
exist in it at the same time.
26. If any man should propose to thee the ques-
tion, how the name Antoninus is written, wouldst
thou with a straining of the voice utter each letter?
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. l6l
What then if they grow angry, wilt thou be angry
too? Wilt thou not go on with composure and
number every letter? Just so then in this hfe also
remember that every duty is made up of certain
parts. These it is thy duty to observe, and without
being disturbed or showing anger towards those who
are angry with thee to go on thy way and finish that
which is set before thee.
27. How cruel it is not to allow men to strive after
the things which appear to them to be suitable to
their nature and profitable ! And yet in a manner
thou dost not allow them to do this, when thou art
vexed because they do wrong. For they are cer-
tainly moved towards things because they suppose
them to be suitable to their nature and profitable to
them. — But it is not so. — Teach them then, and
show them without being angry.
28. Death is a cessation of the impressions through
the senses, and of the pulling of the strings which
move the appetites, and of the discursive movements
of the thoughts, and of the service to the flesh
(II. 12).
29. It is a shame for the soul to be first to give
way in this life, when thy body does not give way.
30. Take care that thou art not made into a
Caesar, that thou art not dyed with this dye ; for such
things happen. Keep thyself then simple, good, pure,
serious, free from affectation, a friend of justice, a
l62 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
worshipper of the gods, kind, affectionate, strenuous
in all proper acts. Strive to continue to be such as
philosophy wished to make thee. Reverence the
gods, and help men. Short is life. There is only
one fruit of this terrene life, — a pious disposition and
social acts. Do everything as a disciple of Anto-
ninus. Remember his constancy in every act which
was conformable to reason, and his evenness in all
things, and his piety, and the serenity of his counte-
nance, and his sweetness, and his disregard of empty
fame, and his efforts to understand things ; and how
he would never let anything pass without having first
most carefully examined it and clearly understood
it ; and how he bore with those who blamed him
unjustly without blaming them in return ; how he
did nothing in a hurry ; and how he listened not to
calumnies, and how exact an examiner of manners
and actions he was ; and not given to reproach peo-
ple, nor timid, nor suspicious, nor a sophist ; and
with how little he was satisfied, such as lodging, bed,
dress, food, servants ; and how laborious and pa-
tient ; and how he was able on account of his sparing
diet to hold out to the evening, not even requiring
to relieve himself by any evacuations except at the
usual hour; and his firmness and uniformity in his
friendships ; and how he tolerated freedom of speech
in those who opposed his opinions ; and the pleasure
that he had when any man showed him anything
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 63
better ; and how religious he was without superstition.
Imitate all this, that thou mayest have as good a con-
science, when thy last hour comes, as he had (i. 16).
31. Return to thy sober senses and call thyself
back ; and when thou hast roused thyself from sleep
and hast perceived that they were only dreams which
troubled thee, now in thy waking hours look at these
[the things about thee] as thou didst look at those
[the dreams].
32. I consist of a httle body and a soul. Now
to this little body all things are indifferent, for it is
not able to perceive differences. But to the under-
standing those things only are indifferent which are
not the works of its own activity. But whatever
things are the works of its own activity, all these
are in its power. And of these however only those
which are done with reference to the present ; for
as to the future and the past activities of the mind,
even these are for the present indifferent.
^^. Neither the labor which the hand does nor
that of the foot is contrary to nature, so long as the
foot does the foot's work and the hand the hand's.
So then neither to a man as a man is his labor con-
trary to nature, so long as it does the things of a
man. But if the labor is not contrary to his nature,
neither is it an evil to him.
34. How many pleasures have been enjoyed by
robbers, patricides, tyrants.
1 64 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
35. Dost thou not see how the handicraftsmen
accommodate themselves up to a certain point to
those who are not skilled in their craft, — neverthe-
less they cling to the reason [the principles] of
their art, and do not endure to depart from it? Is
it not strange if the architect and the physician shall
have more respect to the reason [the principles] of
their own arts than man to his own reason, which is
common to him and the gods?
36. Asia, Europe, are corners of the universe ; all
the sea a drop in the universe ; Athos a little clod
of the universe : all the present time is a point in
eternity. All things are little, changeable, perishable.
All things come from thence, from that universal
ruling power either directly proceeding or by way of
sequence. And accordingly the Uon's gaping jaws,
and that which is poisonous, and every harmful thing,
as a thorn, as mud, are after- products of the grand
and beautiful. Do not then imagine that they are
of another kind from that which thou dost venerate,
but form a just opinion of the source of all (vii. 75).
37. He who has seen present things has seen all,
both everything which has taken place from all eter-
nity and everything which will be for time without
end ; for all things are of one kin and of one form.
^S. Frequently consider the connection of all
things in the universe and their relation to one
another. For in a manner all things are impli-
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. l6$
cated with one another, and all in this way are
friendly to one another ; for one thing comes in
order after another, and this is by virtue of the f
active movement and mutual conspiration and the
unity of the substance (ix. i).
39. Adapt thyself to the things with which thy
lot has been cast : and the men among whom thou
hast received thy portion, love them, but do it truly
[sincerely] .
40. Every instrument, tool, vessel, if it does that
for which it has been made, is well, and yet he who
made it is not there. But in the things which are
held together by nature there is within, and there
abides in, them the power which made them ; where-
fore the more is it fit to reverence this power, and
to think, that, if thou dost live and act according to
its will, everything in thee is in conformity to intelli-
gence. And thus also in the universe the things which
belong to it are in conformity to intelligence.
41. Whatever of the things which are not within
thy power thou shalt suppose to be good for thee
or evil, it must of necessity be that, if such a bad
thing befall thee, or the loss of such a good thing,
thou wilt not blame the gods, and hate men too,
those who are the cause of the misfortune or the
loss, or those who are suspected of being likely to
be the cause ; and indeed we do much injustice
because we make a difference between these things
l66 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
[because we do not regard these things as indif-
ferent f].^ But if we judge only those things which
are in our power to be good or bad, there remains
no reason either for finding fault with God or standing
in a hostile attitude to man.^
42. We are all working together to one end, some
with knowledge and design, and others without know-
ing what they do ; as men also when they are asleep,
of whom it is Heraclitus, I think, who says that they
are laborers and co-operators in the things which
take place in the universe. But men co-operate after
different fashions : and even those co-operate abun-
dantly, who find fault with what happens and those
who try to oppose it and to hinder it ; for the uni-
verse had need even of such men as these. It
remains then for thee to understand among what
kind of workmen thou placest thyself; for he who
rules all things will certainly make a right use of
thee, and he will receive thee among some part
of the co-operators and of those whose labors con-
duce to one end. But be not thou such a part as
the mean and ridiculous verse in the play, which
Chrysippus speaks of.^
1 Gataker translates this "because we strive to get these
things," comparing the use of dtacpepeadai in V. i, and X. 27,
and IX. 38, where it appears that his reference should be XI. 10.
He may be right in his interpretation, but I doubt.
2 Cicero, De Natura Deorum. iii. 32.
2 Plutarch, adversus Stoicos, c. 14.
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 6/
43. Does the sun undertake to do the work of the
rain, or Aesculapius the work of the Fruit-bearer [the
earth] ? And how is it with respect to each of the
stars, are they not different and yet they work together
to the same end?
44. If the gods have determined about me and
about the things which must happen to me, they have
determined well, for it is not easy even to imagine a
deity without forethought ; and as to doing me harm,
why should they have any desire towards that? for
what advantage would result to them from this or to
the whole, which is the special object of their provi-
dence? But if they have not determined about me
individually, they have certainly determined about the
whole at least, and the things which happen by way of
sequence in this general arrangement I ought to accept
with pleasure and to be content with them. But if
they determine about nothing, — which it is wicked to
believe, or if we do believe it, let us neither sacrifice
nor pray nor swear by them, nor do anything else which
we do as if the gods were present and lived with us, —
but if however the gods determine about none of the
things which concern us, I am able to determine
about myself, and I can inquire about that which is
useful ; and that is useful to every man which is con-
formable to his own constitution and nature. But my
nature is rational and social ; and my city and country,
so far as I am Antoninus, is Rome, but so far as I am
1 68 THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
a man, it is the world. The things then which are
useful to these cities are alone useful to me.
45. Whatever happens to every man, this is for the
interest of the universal : this might be sufficient.
But further thou wilt observe this also as a general
truth, if thou dost observe, that whatever is profitable
to any man is profitable also to other men. But let
the word profitable be taken here in the common
sense as said of things of the middle kind [neither
good nor bad].
46. As it happens to thee in the amphitheatre and
such places, that the continual sight of the same things,
and the uniformity make the spectacle wearisome, so
it is in the whole of life ; for all things above, below,
are the same and from the same. How long then?
47. Think continually that all kinds of men and
of all kinds of pursuits and of all nations are dead, so
that thy thoughts come down even to Phihstion and
Phoebus and Origanion. Now turn thy thoughts to
the other kinds [of men]. To that place then we
must remove, where there are so many great orators,
and so many noble philosophers, Heraclitus, Pythago-
ras, Socrates ; so many heroes of former days, and so
many generals after them, and tyrants ; besides these,
Eudoxus, Hipparchus, Archimedes, and other men of
acute natural talents, great minds, lovers of labor,
versatile, confident, mockers even of the perishable
and ephemeral life of man, as Menippus and such as
BookVL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 169
are like him. As to all these consider that they have
long been in the dust. What harm then is this to
them ; and what to those whose names are altogether
unknown? One thing here is worth a great deal, to
pass thy life in truth and justice, with a benevolent
disposition even to liars and unjust men.
48. When thou wishest to delight thyself, think of
the virtues of those who live with thee ; for instance,
the activity of one, and the modesty of another, and
the liberality of a third, and some other good quality
of a fourth. For nothing delights so much as the
examples of the virtues, when they are exhibited in
the morals of those who live with us and present
themselves in abundance, as far as is possible. Where-
fore we must keep them before us.
49. Thou art not dissatisfied, I suppose, because
thou weighest only so many litrae and not three hun-
dred. Be not dissatisfied then that thou must live only
so many years and not more ; for as thou art satisfied
with the amount of substance which has been assigned
to thee, so be content with the time.
50. Let us try to persuade them [men]. But act
even against their will, when the principles of justice
lead that way. If however any man by using force
stands in thy way, betake thyself to contentment and
tranquillity, and at the same time employ the hindrance
towards the exercise of some other virtue ; and re-
member that thy attempt was with a reservation
I/O THOUGHTS. [Book VI.
[conditionally], that thou didst not desire to do im-
possibilities. What then didst thou desire ? — Some
such effort as this. — But thou attainest thy object,
if the things to which thou wast moved are [not]
accomplished, t
51. He who loves fame considers another man's
activity to be his own good ; and he who loves pleas-
ure, his own sensations ; but he who has understanding
considers his own acts to be his own good.
52. It is in our power to have no opinion about
a thing, and not to be disturbed in our soul ; for
things themselves have no natural power to form our
judgments.
53. Accustom thyself to attend carefully to what is
said by another, and as much as it is possible, be in
the speaker's mind.
54. That which is not good for the swarm, neither
is it good for the bee.
55. If sailors abused the helmsman, or the sick the
doctor, would they listen to anybody else ; or how
could the helmsman secure the safety of those in the
ship, or the doctor the health of those whom he
attends ?
56. How many together with whom I came into the
world are already gone out of it.
57. To the jaundiced honey tastes bitter, and to
those bitten by mad dogs water causes fear ; and to
little children the ball is a fine thing. Why then am
Book VI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I/I
I angry ? Dost thou think that a false opinion has less
power than the bile in the jaandiced or the poison in
him who is bitten by a mad dog?
58. No man will hinder thee from living according
to the reason of thy own nature : nothing will hap-
pen to thee contrary to the reason of the universal
nature.
59. What kind of people are those whom men wish
to please, and for what objects, and by what kind of
acts? How soon will time cover all things, and how
many it has covered already.
172 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
VII.
TX 7HAT is badness? It is that which thou hast
often seen. And on the occasion of every-
thing which happens keep this in mind, that it is that
which thou hast often seen. Everywhere up and down
thou wilt find the same things, with which the old his-
tories are filled, those of the middle ages and those of
our own day ; with which cities and houses are filled
now. There is nothing new : all things are both
familiar and short-lived.
2. How can our principles become dead, unless the
impressions [thoughts] which correspond to them are
extinguished? But it is in thy power continuously
to fan these thoughts into a flame. I can have that
opinion about anything which I ought to have. If
I can, why am I disturbed? The things which are
external to my mind have no relation at all to my
mind. — Let this be the state of thy affects, and thou
standest erect. To recover thy life is in thy power.
Look at things again as thou didst use to look at
them ; for in this consists the recovery of thy life.
3. The idle business of show, plays on the stage,
flocks of sheep, herds, exercises with spears, a bone
BookVIL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 173
cast to little dogs, a bit of bread into fishponds,
laborings of ants and burden-carrying, runnings about
of frightened little mice, puppets pulled by strings
— [all alike] . It is thy duty then in the midst of
such things to show good humor and not a proud
air j to understand however that every man is worth
just so much as the things are worth about which he
busies himself.
4. In discourse thou must attend to what is said,
and in every movement thou must observe what is
doing. And in the one thou shouldst see immedi-
ately to what end it refers, but in the other watch
carefully what is the thing signified.
5. Is my understanding sufficient for this or not?
If it is sufficient, I use it for the work as an instru-
ment given by the universal nature. But if it is not
sufficient, then either I retire from the work and give
way to him who is able to do it better, unless there be
some reason why I ought not to do so ; or I do it as
well as I can, taking to help me the man who with the
aid of my ruling principle can do what is now fit and
useful for the general good. For whatsoever either by
myself or with another I can do, ought to be directed
to this only, to that which is useful and well suited to
society.
6. How many after being celebrated by fame have
been given up to oblivion ; and how many who have
celebrated the fame of others have long been dead.
1/4 THOUGHTS. LBookVII.
7. Be not ashamed to be helped ; for it is thy busi-
ness to do thy duty Hke a soldier in the assault on a
town. How then, if being lame thou canst not mount
up on the battlements alone, but with the help of an-
other it is possible ?
8. Let not future things disturb thee, for thou wilt
come to them, if it shall be necessary, having with
thee the same reason which now thou usest for present
things.
9. All things are implicated with one another, and
the bond is holy ; and there is hardly anything uncon-
nected with any other thing. For things have been
co-ordinated, and they combine to form the same
universe [order]. For there is one universe made up
of all things, and one god who pervades all things,
and one substance,^ and one law, [one] common
reason in all intelligent animals, and one truth; if
indeed there is also one perfection for all animals
which are of the same stock and participate in the
same reason.
10. Everything material soon disappears in the sub-
stance of the whole ; and everything formal [causal]
is very soon taken back into the universal reason ;
and the memory of everything is very soon over-
whelmed in time.
1 1 . To the rational animal the same act is accord-
ing to nature and according to reason.
1 " One substance," p. 42, note i.
BookVII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, 1 75
12. Be thou erect, or be made erect (in. 5).
13. Just as it is with the members in those bodies
which are united in one, so it is with rational beings
which exist separate, for they have been constituted
for one co-operation. And the perception of this will
be more apparent to thee if thou often sayest to thy-
self that I am a member [/xeXo?] of the system of
rational beings. But if [using the letter ;-] thou
sayest that thou art a part [/xepo?], thou dost not yet
love men from thy heart ; beneficence does not yet
dehght thee for its own sake ; ^ thou still doest it
barely as a thing of propriety, and not yet as doing
good to thyself. •
14. Let there fall externally what will on the parts
which can feel the effects of this fall. For those parts
which have felt will complain, if they choose. But I,
unless I think that what has happened is an evil, am
not injured. And it is in my power not to think so.
15. Whatever any one does or says, I must be
good ; just as if the gold, or the emerald, or the purple
were always saying this. Whatever any one does or
says, I must be emerald and keep my color.
16. The ruling faculty does not disturb itself; I
mean, does not frigliten itself or cause itself pain.t
But if any one else can frighten or pain it, let him do
so. For the faculty itself will not by its own opinion
1 I have used Gataker's conjecture KaraXrjKTiKQs instead of
the common reading A'ara\7?7rTiKws : compare iv. 20; ix. 42.
176 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
turn itself into such ways. Let the body itself take
care, if it can, that it suffer nothing, and let it speak,
if it suffers. But the soul itself, that which is subject
to fear, to pain, which has completely the power of
forming an opinion about these things, will suffer
nothing, for it will never deviate t into such a judg-
ment. The leading principle in itself wants nothing,
unless it makes a want for itself; and therefore it is
both free from perturbation and unimpeded, if it does
not disturb and impede itself.
17. Eudaemonia [happiness] is a good daemon, or
a good thing. What then art thou doing here, O
imagination? Go away, I entreat thee by the gods, as
thou didst come, for I want thee not. But thou art
come according to thy old fashion. I am not angry
with thee : only go away.
18. Is any man afraid of change? Why, what can
take place without change? What then is more
pleasing or more suitable to the universal nature?
And canst thou take a bath unless the wood under-
goes a change? and canst thou be nourished, unless
the food undergoes a change? And can anything
else that is useful be accomplished without change?
Dost thou not see then that for thyself also to change
is just the same, and equally necessary for the univer-
sal nature ?
19. Through the universal substance as through a
furious torrent all bodies are carried, being by their
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 77
nature united with and co-operating with the whole,
as the parts of our body with one another. How
many a Chrysippus, how many a Socrates, how many
an Epictetus has time already swallowed up ! And
let the same thought occur to thee with reference to
every man and thing (v. 23 ; vi. 15).
20. One thing only troubles me, lest I should do
something which the constitution of man does not
allow, or in the way which it does not allow, or what
it does not allow now.
2 1 . Near is thy forgetfulness of all things ; and
near the forgetfulness of thee by all".
22. It is pecuhar to man to love even those who
do wrong. And this happens, if when they do wrong
it occurs to thee that they are kinsmen, and that they
do wrong through ignorance and unintentionally, and
that soon both of you will die ; and above all, that
the wrong-doer has done thee no harm, for he has
not made thy ruling faculty worse than it was before.
23. The universal nature out of the universal sub-
stance, as if it were wax, now moulds a horse, and
when it has broken this up, it uses the material for a
tree, then for a man, then for something else ; and
each of these things subsists for a very short time.
But it is no hardship for the vessel to be broken up,
just as there was none in its being fastened together
(VIII. 50).
24. A scowling look is altogether unnatural ; when
178 THOUGHTS. [BookVJI.
it is often assumed/ the result is that all comeliness
dies away, and at last is so completely extinguished
that it cannot be again lighted up at all. Try to
conclude from this very fact that it is contrary to
reason. For if even the perception of doing wrong
shall depart, what reason is there for living any
longer ?
25. Nature which governs the whole will soon
change all things which thou seest, and out of their
substance will make other things, and again other
things from the substance of them, in order that
the world may be ever new (xii. 23).
26. When a man has done thee any wrong, im-
mediately consider with what opinion about good
or evil he has done wrong. For when thou hast
seen this, thou wilt pity him, and wilt neither won-
der nor be angry. For either thou thyself thinkest
the same thing to be good that he does or another
thing of the same kind. It is thy duty then to par-
don him. But if thou dost not think such things
to be good or evil, thou wilt more readily be well
disposed to him who is in error.
27. Think not so much of what thou hast not
as of what thou hast : but of the things which thou
hast select the best, and then reflect how eagerly
they would have been sought, if thou hadst them
not. At the same time, however, take care that
1 This is corrupt.
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 79
thou dost not through being so pleased with them
accustom thyself to overvalue them, so as to be
disturbed if ever thou shouldst not have them.
28. Retire into thyself. The rational principle
which rules has this nature, that it is content with
itself when it does what is just, and so secures
tranquillity.
29. Wipe out the imagination. Stop the pulling
of the strings. Confine thyself to the present. Un-
derstand well what happens either to thee or to
another. Divide and distribute every object into
the causal [formal] and the material. Think of thy
last hour. Let the wrong which is done by a man
stay there where the wrong was done (viii. 29).
30. Direct thy attention to what is said. Let thy
understanding enter into the things that are doing
and the things which do them (vii. 4).
31. Adorn thyself with simplicity and modesty, and
with indifference towards the things which lie be-
tween virtue and vice. Love mankind. Follow God.
The poet says that law rules all — j And it is enough
to remember that law rules allf ^
32. About death : whether it is a dispersion, or
a resolution into atoms, or annihilation, it is either
extinction or change.
^$. About pain : the pain which is intolerable
carries us off; but that which lasts a long time is
^ The end of this section is unintelligible.
l80 THOUGHTS. [BookVH.
tolerable ; and the mind maintains its own tran-
quillity by retiring into itself,! and the ruling fac-
ulty is not made worse. But the parts which are
harmed by pain, let them, if they can, give their opin-
ion about it.
34. About fame : look at the minds [of those who
seek fame], observe what they are, and what kind
of things they avoid, and what kind of things they
pursue. And consider that as the heaps of sand
piled on one another hide the former sands, so in
life the events w^hich go before are soon covered
by those which come after.
35. From Plato : ^ The man who has an elevated
mind and takes a view of all time and of all sub-
stance, dost thou suppose it possible for him to
think that human life is anything great? It is not
possible, he said. — Such a man then will think that
death also is no evil. — Certainly not.
36. From Antisthenes : It is royal to do good and
to be abused.
37. It is a base thing for the countenance to be
obedient and to regulate and compose itself as the
mind commands, and for the mind not to be regu
lated and composed by itself.
38., It is not right to vex ourselves at things,
For they care nought about it.^
1 Plato, Pol. VI. 4S6.
2 From the Bellerophon of Euripides.
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. l8l
39. To the immortal gods and us give joy.
40. Life must be reaped like the ripe ears of corn.
One man is born ; another dies.^
41. If gods care not for me and for my children,
There is a reason for it.
42. For the good is with me, and the just.^
43. No joining others in their wailing, no violent
emotion.
44. From Plato : ^ But I would make this man
a sufficient answer, which is this : Thou sayest not
well, if thou thinkest that a man who is good for
anything at all ought to compute the hazard of life
or death, and should not rather look to this only in
aU that he does, whether he is doing what is just or
unjust, and the works of a good or a bad man.
45. ^For thus it is, men of Athens, in truth : wher-
ever a man has placed himself thinking it the best
place for him, or has been placed by a commander,
there in my opinion he ought to stay and to abide
the hazard, taking nothing into the reckoning, either
death or anything else, before the baseness [of de-
serting his post].
1 From the Hypsipyle of Euripides. Cicero (Tuscul. iir.
25) has translated six lines from Euripides, and among them
are these two lines, —
" Reddenda terrae est terra : turn vita omnibus
Metenda ut fruges : Sic jubet necessitas."
2 See Aristophanes, Acharnenses, v. 661.
^ From the Apologia, c. 16.
1 82 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
46. But, my good friend, reflect whether that
which is noble and good is not something different
from saving and being saved ; for f as to a man
hving such or such a time, at least one who is really
a man, consider if this is not a thing to be dismissed
from the thoughts : f and there must be no love of
life : but as to these matters a man must intrust them
to the Deity and believe what the women say, that
no man can escape his destiny, the next inquiry being
how he may best live the time that he has to live.i
47. Look round at the courses of the stars, as
if thou wert going along with them ; and constantly
consider the changes of the elements into one an-
other, for such thoughts purge away the filth of the
terrene Hfe.
48. This is a fine saying of Plato : ^ That he who
is discoursing about men should look also at earthly
things as if he viewed them from some higher place ;
should look at them in their assemblies, armies, agri-
cultural labors, marriages, treaties, births, deaths, noise
of the courts of justice, desert places, various nations of
barbarians, feasts, lamentations, markets, a mixture of
all things and an orderly combination of contraries.
1 Plato, Gorgias, c. 68 {512). In this passage the text of
Antoninus has eareov, which is perhaps right ; but there is a
difficulty in the words [xr] yap toOto jueu, to ^iji^ birocrovdr] xpoJ^ov
rivye ws d\r]Ouis dvdpa eareov €(ttI, /cat ov, &.C. The conjecture
evKTeov for eareov does not mend the matter.
2 It is said that this is not in the extant writings of Plato.
BookVIL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 83
49. Consider the past, — such great changes of po-
litical supremacies ; thou mayest foresee also the
things which will be. For they will certainly be of
like form, and it is not possible that they should
deviate from the order of the things which take place
now ; accordingly to have contemplated human life for
forty years is the same as to have contemplated it for
ten thousand years. For what more wilt thou see ?
50. That which has grown from the earth to the
earth,
But that which has sprung from heavenly seed,
Back to the heavenly realms returns.^
This is either a dissolution of the mutual involu-
tion of the atoms, or a similar dispersion of the
unsentient elements.
51. With food and drinks and cunning magic arts
Turning the channel's course to 'scape from
death.2
The breeze which heaven has sent
We must endure, and toil without complaining.
52. Another may be more expert in casting his
opponent ; but he is not more social, nor more
modest, nor better disciplined to meet all that hap-
pens, nor more considerate with respect to the faults
of his neighbors.
1 From the Chrysippus of Euripides.
2 The first two lines are from the Supplices of Euripides,
V. 1 1 10.
1 84 THOUGHTS. [Book VIL
53. Where any work can be done conformably to
the reason which is common to gods and men, there
we have nothing to fear ; for where we are able to get
profit by means of the activity which is successful and
proceeds according to our constitution, there no harm
is to be suspected.
54. Everywhere and at all times it is in thy
power piously to acquiesce in thy present condi-
tion, and to behave justly to those who are about
thee, and to exert thy skill upon thy present thoughts,
that nothing shall steal into them without being well
examined.
55. Do not look around thee to discover other
men's ruling principles, but look straight to this, to
what nature leads thee, both the universal nature
through the things which happen to thee, and thy own
nature through the acts which must be done by thee.
But every being ought to do that which is according
to its constitution ; and all other things have been
constituted for the sake of rational beings, just as
among irrational things the inferior for the sake of
the superior, but the rational for the sake of one
another.
The prime principle then in man's constitution is
the social. And the second is not to yield to the per-
suasions of the body, — for it is the peculiar office of
the rational and intelligent motion to circumscribe itself,
and never to be overpowered either by the motion of
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 85
the senses or of the appetites, for both are animal ;
but the intelhgent motion claims superiority, and does
not permit itself to be overpowered by the others.
And with good reason, for it is formed by nature to
use all of them. The third thing in the rational
constitution is freedom from error and from de-
ception. Let then the ruling principle holding fast
to these things go straight on, and it has what is its
own.
56. Consider thyself to be dead, and to have com-
pleted thy life up to the present time ; and live ac-
cording to nature the remainder which is allowed
thee.
57. Love that only which happens to thee and is
spun with the thread of thy destiny. For what is
more suitable?
58. In everything which happens keep before thy
eyes those to whom the same things happened, and
how they were vexed, and treated them as strange
things, and found fault with them : and now where are
they? Nowhere. Why then dost thou too choose to
act in the same way ; and why dost thou not leave
these agitations which are foreign to nature to those
who cause them and those who are moved by them ;
and why art thou not altogether intent upon the right
way of making use of the things which happen to
thee? For then thou wilt use them well, and they will
be a material for thee [to work on] . Only attend to
1 86 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
thyself, and resolve to be a good man in every act which
thou doest : and remember . . .^
59. Look within. Within is the fountain of good,
and it will ever bubble up, if thou wilt ever dig.
60. The body ought to be compact, and to show
no irregularity either in motion or attitude. For what
the mind shows in the face by maintaining in it the
expression of intelligence and propriety, that ought to
be required also in the whole body. But all these
things should be observed without affectation.
61. The art of Ufe is more like the wrestler's art
than the dancer's, in respect of this, that it should
stand ready and firm to meet onse'ts which are sudden
and unexpected.
62. Constantly observe who those are whose appro-
bation thou wishest to have, and what ruling princi-
ples they possess. For then thou wilt neither blame
those who offend involuntarily, nor wilt thou want their
approbation, if thou lookest to the sources of their
opinions and appetites.
63. Every soul, the philosopher says, is involuntarily
deprived of truth ; consequently in the same way it is
deprived of justice and temperance and benevolence
and everything of the kind. It is most necessary to
1 This section is obscure, and the conclusion is so corrupt
that it is impossible to give any probable meaning to it. It is
better to leave it as it is than to patch it up, as some critics and
translators have done.
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 1 8/
bear this constantly in mind, for thus thou wilt be
more gentle towards all.
64. In every pain let this thought be present, that
there is no dishonor in it, nor does it make the govern-
ing intelligence worse, for it does not damage the
intelligence either so far as the intelligence is rational ^
or so far as it is social. Indeed in the case of most
pains let this remark of Epicurus aid thee, that pain is
neither intolerable nor everlasting, if thou bearest in
mind that it has its limits, and if thou addest nothing
to it in imagination : and remember this too, that we
do not perceive that many things which are disagree-
able to us are the same as pain, such as excessive drow-
siness, and the being scorched by heat, and the having
no appetite. When then thou art discontented about
any of these things, say to thyself that thou art yield-
ing to pain.
65. Take care not to feel towards the inhuman as
they feel towards men.^
66. How do we know if Telauges was not superior
in character to Socrates? For it is not enough that
Socrates died a more noble death, and disputed more
skilfully with the sophists, and passed the night in the
1 The text has vXiktj, which it has been proposed to alter to
XoyLKT], and this change is necessary. We shall then have in
this section XoyiK-f] and kolvcovikt) associated, as we have in s. 68
XoyLKT] and ttoXltlkt), and in s. 72.
2 I have followed Gataker's conjecture oi airdvdpojToi instead
of the MSS. reading ol ou'dpuiroL.
l88 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
cold with more endurance, and that when he was bid
to arrest Leon ^ of Salamis, he considered it more no-
ble to refuse, and that he walked in a swaggering way
in the streets ^ — though as to this fact one may have
great doubts if it was true. But we ought to inquire
what kind of a soul it was that Socrates possessed, and
if he was able to be content with being just towards
men and pious towards the gods, neither idly vexed on
account of men's villany, nor yet making himself a
slave to any man's ignorance, nor receiving as strange
anything that fell to his share out of the universal, nor
enduring it as intolerable, nor allowing his understand-
ing to sympathize with the affects of the miserable
flesh.
67. Nature has not so mingled f [the intelligence]
with the composition of the body, as not to have
allowed thee the power of circumscribing thyself and
of bringing under subjection to thyself all that is thy
own ; for it is very possible to be a divine man and to
be recognized as such by no one. Always bear this
in mind ; and another thing too, that very little indeed
is necessary for living a happy life. And because
thou hast despaired of becoming a dialectician and
skilled in the knowledge of nature, do not for this rea-
1 Leon of Salamis. See Plato, Epist. 7 ; Apolog. c. 20 :
Epictetus, IV. I, 160; IV. 7,30.
2 Aristophan. Nub. i()2. oti ^pet^dvei. r iv ralai.v 68ols /cat
Tcb 6<pda\fiil3 Tapa^dWeL.
BooKVir.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 189
son renounce the hope of being both free and modest,
and social and obedient to God.
68. It is in thy power to Hve free from all compul-
sion in the greatest tranquillity of mind, even if all the
world cry out against thee as much as they choose,
and even if wild beasts tear in pieces the members of
this kneaded matter which has grown around thee.
For what hinders the mind in the midst of all this
from maintaining itself in tranquillity and in a just
judgment of all surrounding things and in a ready use
of the objects which are presented to it, so that the
judgment may say to the thing which falls under its
observation: This thou art in substance [reality],
though in men's opinion thou mayest appear to be of
a different kind ; and the use shall say to that which
falls under the hand : Thou art the thing that I was
seeking ; for to me that which presents itself is always
a material for virtue both rational and political, and in
a word, for the exercise of art, which belongs to man
or God. For everything which happens has a rela-
tionship either to God or man, and is neither new
nor difficult to handle, but usual and apt matter to
work on.
69. The perfection of moral character consists in
this, in passing every day as the last, and in being
neither violently excited nor torpid nor playing the
hypocrite.
70. The gods who are immortal are not vexed be-
190 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
cause during so long a time they must tolerate contin-
ually men such as they are and so many of them bad ;
and besides this, they also take care of them in all
ways. But thou, who art destined to end so soon, art
thou wearied of enduring the bad, and this too when
thou art one of them?
71. It is a ridiculous thing for a man not to
fly from his own badness, which is indeed pos-
sible, but to fly from other men's badness, which is
impossible.
72. Whatever the rational and political [social]
faculty finds to be neither intelligent nor social, it
properly judges to be inferior to itself.
73. When thou hast done a good act and another
has received it, why dost thou still look for a third
thing besides these, as fools do, either to have the
reputation of having done a good act or to obtain
a return?
74. No man is tired of receiving what is useful.
But it is useful to act according to nature. Do not
then be tired of receiving what is useful by doing
it to others.
75. The nature of the All moved to make the uni-
verse. But now either everything that takes place
comes by way of consequence or [continuity] ; or
even the chief things towards which the ruling power
of the universe directs its own movement are gov-
erned by no rational principle. If this is remem-
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 191
bered, it will make thee more tranquil in many
things (vi. 44 ; ix. 28).^
1 It is not easy to understand this section. It has been
suggested that there is some error in ^ aXoyicrra, &c. Some
of the translators have made nothing of the passage, and they
have somewhat perverted the words. The first proposition
is, that the universe was made by some sufficient power. A
beginning of the universe is assumed, and a power which
framed an order. The next question is, How are things pro-
duced now ? Or, in other words, by what power do forms
appear in continuous succession ? The answer, according to
Antoninus, may be this: It is by virtue of the original con-
stitution of things that all change and succession have been
effected and are effected. And this is intelligible in a sense,
if we admit that the universe is always one and the same, a
continuity of identity; as much one and the same, as man
is one and the same, — which he believes himself to be, though
he also believes and cannot help believing that both in his
body and in his thoughts there is change and succession.
There is no real discontinuity then in the universe ; and if
we say that there was an order framed in the beginning and
that the things which are now produced are a consequence
of a previous arrangement, we speak of things as we are
compelled to view them, as forming a series or succession ;
just as we speak of the changes in our own bodies and the
sequence of our own thoughts. But as there are no intervals,
not even intervals infinitely small, between any two supposed
states of any one thing, so there are no intervals, not even
infinitely small, between what we call one thing and any other
thing which we speak of as immediately preceding or fol-
lowing it. What we call time is an idea derived from our
notion of a succession of things or events, an idea which is
a part of our constitution, but not an idea which we can sup-
pose to belong to an infinite intelligence and power. The
conclusion then is certain that the present and the past, the
production of present things and the supposed original order,
ig2 THOUGHTS. [Book VII.
out of which we say that present things now come, are one;
and the present productive power and the so-called past ar-
rangement are only different names for one thing. I suppose
then that Antoninus wrote here as people sometimes talk
now, and that his real meaning is not exactly expressed by his
words. There are certainly other passages from which I think
that we may collect that he had notions of production some-
thing like what I have expressed.
We now come to the alternative : '* or even the chief
things . . . principle." I do not exactly know what he means
by TO, KvpidjraTa, " the chief," or " the most excellent," or
whatever it is. But as he speaks elsewhere of inferior and
superior things, and of the inferior being for the use of the
superior, and of rational beings being the highest, he may
here mean rational beings. He also in this alternative as-
sumes a governing power of the universe, and that it acts by
directing its power towards these chief objects, or making its
special, proper motion towards them. And here he uses the
noun (opfiT)) "movement," which contains the same notion as
the verb (Chp/xTjae) " moved," which he used at the beginning
of the paragraph, when he was speaking of the making of the
universe. If we do not accept the first hypothesis, he says,
we must take the conclusion of the second, that the "chief
things towards which the ruling power of the universe directs
its own movement are governed by no rational principle." The
meaning then is, if there is a meaning in it, that though there
is a governing power which strives to give effect to its efforts,
we must conclude that there is no rational direction of any-
thing, if the power which first made the universe does not in
some way govern it still. Besides, if we assume that anything
is now produced or now exists without the action of the
supreme intelligence, and yet that this intelligence makes an
effort to act, we obtain a conclusion which cannot be recon-
ciled with the nature of a supreme power, whose existence
Antoninus always assumes. The tranquillity that a man may
gain from these reflections must result from his rejecting the
second hypothesis, and accepting the first, — whatever may be
Book VII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTOxMNUS. I93
the exact sense in which the emperor understood the first.
Or, as he says elsewhere, if there is no Providence which
governs the world, man has at least the power of governing
himself according to the constitution of his nature ; and so he
may be tranquil, if he does the best that he can.
If there is no error in the passage, it is worth the labor to
discover the writer's exact meaning — for I think that he had
a meaning, though people may not agree what it was. (Com-
pare IX. 28.) If I have rightly explained the emperor's
meaning in this and other passages, he has touched the solu-
tion of a great question.
13
94 THOUGHTS. [BooKVlIl.
VIII.
T^HIS reflection also tends to the removal of the
desire of empty fame, that it is no longer in
thy power to have lived the whole of thy life, or at
least thy life from thy youth upwards, like a philoso-
pher; but both to many others and to thyself it is
plain that thou art far from philosophy. Thou hast
fallen into disorder then, so that it is no longer easy
for thee to get the reputation of a philosopher ; and
thy plan of life also opposes it. If then thou hast
truly seen where the matter lies, throw away the
thought, How thou shalt seem [to others], and be
content if thou shalt live the rest of thy life in such
wise as thy nature wills. Observe then what it wills,
and let nothing else distract thee ; for thou hast had
experience of many wanderings without having found
happiness anywhere, — not in syllogisms, nor in wealth,
nor in reputation, nor in enjoyment, nor anywhere.
Where is it then? In doing what man's nature re-
quires. How then shall a man do this? If he has
principles from which come his affects and his acts.
What principles? Those which relate to good and
bad : the belief that there is nothing good for man
Book VIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. I95
which does not make him just, temperate, manly,
free ; and that there is nothing bad which does not
do the contrary to what has been mentioned.
2. On the occasion of every act ask thyself, How
is this with respect to me? Shall I repent of it?
A little time and I am dead, and all is gone. What
more do I seek, if what I am now doing is the work
of an intelligent living being, and a social being, and
one who is under the same law with God?
3. Alexander and Caius^ and Pompeius, what are
they in comparison with Diogenes and Heraclitus
and Socrates ? For they were acquainted with things,
and their causes [forms], and their matter, and the
ruling principles of these men were the same [or
conformable to their pursuits]. But as to the others,
how many things had they to care for, and to how
many things were they slaves !
4. [Consider] that men will do the same things
nevertheless, even though thou shouldst burst.
5. This is the chief thing : Be not perturbed, for all
things are according to the nature of the universal ;
and in a little time thou wilt be nobody and nowhere,
like Hadrianus and Augustus. In the next place, hav-
ing fixed thy eyes steadily on thy business look at it,
and at the same time remembering that it is thy duty
to be a good man, and what man's nature demands,
1 Caius is C. Julius Caesar, the dictator; and Pompeius is
Cn. Pompeius, named Magnus.
196 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
do that without turning aside ; and speak as it seems
to thee most just, only let it be with a good disposition
and with modesty and without hypocrisy.
6. The nature of the universal has this work to do, —
to remove to that place the things which are in this,
to change them, to take them away hence, and to
carry them there. All things are change, yet we need
not fear anything new. All things are familiar [to us] ;
but the distribution of them still remains the same.
7. Every nature is contented with itself when it
goes on its way well ; and a rational nature goes on
its way well when in its thoughts it assents to nothing
false or uncertain, and when it directs its movements
to social acts only, and when it confines its desires
and aversions to the things which are in its power, and
when it is satisfied with everything that is assigned to
it by the common nature. For of this common nature
every particular nature is a part, as the nature of the
leaf is a part of the nature of the plant ; except that
in the plant the nature of the leaf is part of a nature
which has not perception or reason, and is subject to
be impeded ; but the nature of man is part of a nature
which is not subject to impediments, and is intelligent
and just, since it gives to everything in equal portions
and according to its worth, times, substance, cause
[form], activity, and , incident. But examine, not to
discover that any one thing compared with any other
single thing is equal in all respects, but by taking all
EookVIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 197
the parts together of one thing and comparing them
with all the parts together of another.
8. Thou hast not leisure [or ability] to read. But
thou hast leisure [or ability] to check arrogance : thou
hast leisure to be superior to pleasure and pain : thou
hast leisure to be superior to love of fame, and not to
be vexed at stupid and ungrateful people, nay even to
care for them.
9. Let no man any longer hear thee finding fault
with the court hfe or with thy own (v. 16).
10. Repentance is a kind of self- reproof for having
neglected something useful ; but that which is good
must be something useful, and the perfect good man
should look after it. But no such man would ever
repent of having refused any sensual pleasure. Pleas-
ure then is neither good nor useful.
1 1 . This thing, what is it in itself, in its own consti-
tution? What is its substance and material? And
what its causal nature [or form] ? And what is it do-
ing in the world ? And how long does it subsist ?
12. When thou risest from sleep with reluctance,
remember that it is according to thy constitution and
according to human nature to perform social acts, but
sleeping is common also to irrational animals. But
that which is according to each individual's nature is
also more peculiarly its own, and more suitable to its
nature, and indeed also more agreeable (v. i).
13. Constantly, and, if it be possible, on the occa-
198 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
sion of every impression on the soul, apply to it the
principles of Physic, of Ethic, and of Dialectic.
14. Whatever man thou meetest with, immediately
say to thyself : What opinions has this man about good
and bad? For if with respect to pleasure and pain
and the causes of each, and with respect to fame and
ignominy, death and life, he has such and such opin-
ions, it will seem nothing wonderful or strange to me
if he does such and such things ; and I shall bear in
mind that he is compelled to do so.^
15. Remember that as it is a shame to be surprised
if the fig-tree produces figs, so it is to be surprised if
the world produces such and such things of which it
is productive ; and for the physician and the helms-
man it is a shame to be surprised if a man has a fever,
or if the wind is unfavorable.
16. Remember that to change thy opinion and to
follow him who corrects thy error is as consistent with
freedom as it is to persist in thy error. For it is thy
own, the activity which is exerted according to thy
own movement and judgment, and indeed according
to thy own understanding too.
17. If a thing is in thy own power, why dost thou do
it? but if it is in the power of another, whom dost
thou blame, — the atoms [chance] or the gods ? Both
are foolish. Thou mus,t blame nobody. For if thou
1 Antoninus v. 16. Thucydides, in, 10; ev ydp t<2 StaXXdcr-
(TovTi. rrjs yvuifi-qs Kal ai diatpopal tQv 'ipywv KadiaravTai.
BookVIII.1 MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 199
canst, correct [that which is the cause] ; but if thou
canst not do this, correct at least the thing itself; but
if thou canst not do even this, of what use is it to thee
to find fault? for nothing should be done without a
purpose.
18. That which has died falls not out of the universe.
If it stays here, it also changes here, and is dissolved
into its proper parts, which are elements of the uni-
verse and of thyself. And these too change, and
they murmur not.
19. Everything exists for some end, — a horse, a vine.
Why dost thou wonder? Even the sun will say, I am
for some purpose, and the rest of the gods will say
the same. For what purpose then art thou, — to enjoy
pleasure ? See if common sense allows this.
20. Nature has had regard in everything no less to
the end than to the beginning and the continuance,
just like the man who throws up a ball. What good is
it then for the ball to be thrown up, or harm for it to
come down, or even to have fallen ? and what good is
it to the bubble while it holds together, or what harm
when it is burst? The same may be said of a light
also.
21. Turn it [the body] inside out, and see what
kind of thing it is ; and when it has grown old, what
kind of thing it becomes, and when it is diseased.
Short lived are both the praiser and the praised,
and the rememberer and the remembered : and all
200 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
this in a nook of this part of the world ; and not even
here do all agree, no, not any one with himself: and
the whole earth too is a point.
2 2. Attend to the matter which is before thee,
whether it is an opinion or an act or a word.
Thou sufferest this justly : for thou choosest rather
to become good to-morrow than to be good to-day.
23. Am I doing anything? I do it with reference
to the good of mankind. Does anything happen to
me? I receive it and refer it to the gods, and the
source of all things, from which all that happens is
derived.
24. Such as bathinj^ appears to thee, — oil, sweat,
dirt, filthy water, all thjngs disgusting, — so is every
part of life and everything.
25. Lucilla saw Verus die, and then Lucilla died.
Secunda saw Maximus die, and then Secunda died.
Epitynchanus saw Diotimus die, and then Epityncha-
nus died. Antoninus saw Faustina die, and then
Antoninus died. Such is everything. Celer saw
Hadrianus die, and then Celer died. And those
sharp-witted men, either seers or men inflated with
pride, where are they, — for instance the sharp-witted
men, Charax and Demetrius the Platonist and Eudae-
mon, and any one else like them? All ephemeral,
dead long ago. Some indeed have not been remem-
bered even for a short time, and others have become
the heroes of fables, and again others have disappeared
Book VIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 201
even from fables. Remember this then, that this httle
compound, thyself, must either be dissolved, or thy
poor breath must be extinguished, or be removed and
placed elsewhere.
26. It is satisfaction to a man to do the proper
works of a man. Now it is a proper work of a man
to be benevolent to his own kind, to despise the move-
ments of the senses, to form a just judgment of plausi-
ble appearances, and to take a survey of the nature of
the universe and of the things which happen in it.
27. There are three relations [between thee and
other things] : the one to the body ^ which surrounds
thee ; the second to the divine cause from which all
things come to all ; and the third to those who live
with thee.
28. Pain is either an evil to the body — then let
the body say what it thinks of it — or to the soul;
but it is in the power of the soul to maintain its own
serenity and tranquillity, and not to think that pain
is an evil. For every judgment and movement and
desire and aversion is within, and no evil ascends so
high.
29. Wipe out thy imaginations by often saying to
thyself: Now it is in my power to let no badness be
1 The text has aiTiov, which in Antoninus means "form,"
" formal." Accordingly Schultz recommends either Valkenaer's
emendation d77eto;', " body," or Cora'is' auiidnov. Compare
XII. 13; X. 38.
202 THOUGHTS. [Book Vlll.
in this soul, nor desire, nor any perturbation at all ;
but looking at all things I see what is their nature,
and I use each according to its value. — Remember
this power which thou hast from nature.
30. Speak both in the senate and to every man,
whoever he may be, appropriately, not with any affec-
tation : use plain discourse.
31. Augustus' court, wife, daughter, descendants,
ancestors, sister, Agrippa, kinsmen, intimates, friends,
Areius,^ Maecenas, physicians, and sacrificing priests,
— the whole court is dead. Then turn to the rest, not
considering the death of a single man [but of a
whole race], as of the Pompeii; and that which is
inscribed on the tombs, — The last of his race. Then
consider what trouble those before them have had
that they might leave a successor; and then, that
of necessity some one must be the last. Again, here
consider the death of a whole race.
32. It is thy duty to order thy life well in every
single act ; and if every act does its duty as far as
is possible, be content ; and no one is able to hinder
thee so that each act shall not do its duty. — But
something external will stand in the way. — Nothing
will stand in the way of thy acting justly and soberly
and considerately. — But perhaps some other active
1 Areius ("Apeios) was a philosopher, who was intimate with
Augustus; Sueton. Augustus, C. 89; Plutarch, Antoninus, 80 ;
Dion Cassius, 51, c. 16.
Book VIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 203
power will be hindered. — Well, but by acquiescing
in the hindrance and by being content to transfer
thy efforts to that w^hich is allowed, another oppor-
tunity of action is immediately put before thee in
place of that which was hindered, and one which
will adapt itself to this ordering of which we are
speaking.
^^. Receive [wealth or prosperity] without arro-
gance ; and be ready to let it go.
34. If thou didst ever see a hand cut off, or a foot,
or a head, lying anywhere apart from the rest of the
body, such does a man make himself, as far as he
can, who is not content with what happens, and
separates himself from others, or does anything un-
social. Suppose that thou hast detached thyself from
the natural unity, — for thou wast made by nature
a part, but now thou hast cut thyself off, — yet here
there is this beautiful provision, that it is in thy
power again to unite thyself. God has allowed this
to no other part, after it has been separated and cut
asunder, to come together again. But consider the
kindness by which he has distinguished man, for he
has put it in his power not to be separated at all
from the universal; and when he has been sepa-
rated, he has allowed him to return and to be united
and to resume his place as a part.
35. As the nature of the universal has given to
every rational being all the other powers that it has,t
204 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
SO we have received from it this power also. For as
the universal nature converts and fixes in its pre-
destined place everything which stands in the way
and opposes it, and makes such things a part of
itself, so also the rational animal is able to make
every hindrance its own material, and to use it for
such purposes as it may have designed.^
36. Do not disturb thyself by thinking of the whole
of thy life. Let not thy thoughts at once embrace
all the various troubles which thou mayest expect to
befall thee : but on every occasion ask thyself, What
is there in this which is intolerable and past bearing?
for thou ^.' ilt be ashamed to confess. In the next
place remember that neither the future nor the past
pains thee, but only the present. But this is reduced
to a very little, if thou only circumscribest it, and
chidest thy mind if it is unable to hold out against
even this.
37. Does Panthea or Pergamus now sit by the
tomb of Verus?^ Does Chaurias or Diotimus sit by
the tomb of Hadrianus? That would be ridiculous.
Well, suppose they did sit there, would the dead
be conscious of it? and if the dead were conscious,
1 The text is corrupt at the beginning of the paragraph, but
the meaning will appear if the second XoyiKdv is changed into
o\u}v'. though this change alone will not establish the gram-
matical completeness of the text.
2 <« Verus " is a conjecture of Saumaise, and perhaps the
true reading.
BookVIH.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 205
would they be pleased? and if they were pleased,
would that make them immortal? Was it not in
the order of destiny that these persons too should
first become old women and old men and then die?
What then would those do after these were dead?
All this is foul smell and blood in a bag.
^8. If thou canst see sharp, look and judge wisely,!
says the philosopher.
39. In the constitution of the rational animal I
see no virtue which is opposed to justice ; but I see
a virtue which is opposed to love of pleasure, and
that is temperance.
40. If thou takest away thy opinion about that
which appears to give thee pain, thou thyself standest
in perfect security. — Who is this self? — The reason.
— But I am not reason. — Be it so. Let then the
reason itself not trouble itself. But if any other part
of thee suffers, let it have its own opinion about
itself (vii. 16).
41. Hindrance to the perceptions of sense is an
evil to the animal nature. Hindrance to the move-
ments [desires] is equally an evil to the animal
nature. And something else also is equally an im-
pediment and an evil to the constitution of plants.
So then that which is a hindrance to the intelligence
is an evil to the intelligent nature. Apply all these
things then to thyself. Does pain or sensuous pleas-
ure affect thee? The senses will look to that. Has
206 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
any obstacle opposed thee in thy efforts towards an
object? If mdeed thou wast making this effort abso-
lutely [unconditionally, or without any reservation],
certainly this obstacle is an evil to thee considered
as a rational animal. But if thou takest [into con-
sideration] the usual course of things, thou hast not
yet been injured nor even impeded. The things
however which are proper to the understanding no
other man is used to impede, for neither fire, nor
iron, nor tyrant, nor abuse, touches it in any way.
When it has been made a sphere, it continues a
sphere (xi. .12).
42. It is not fit that I should give myself pain,
for I have never intentionally given pain even to
another.
43. Different things delight different people ; but
it is my delight to. keep the ruling faculty sound
without turning away either from any man or from
any of the things which happen to men, but looking
at and receiving all with welcome eyes and using
everything according to its value.
44. See that thou secure this present time to thy-
self: for those who rather pursue posthumous fame
do not consider that the men of after time will be
exactly such as these whom they cannot bear now ;
and both are mortal. And what is it in any way to
thee if these men of after time utter this or that sound,
or have this or that opinion about thee ?
BookVIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 20/
45. Take me and cast me where thou wilt; for
there I shall keep my divine part tranquil, that is,
content, if it can feel and act conformably to its
proper constitution. Is this [change of place] suf-
ficient reason why my soul should be unhappy and
worse than it was, depressed, expanded, shrinking,
affrighted? and what wilt thou find which is suf-
ficient reason for this ? ^
46. Nothing can happen to any man which is not a
human accident, nor to an ox which is not according
to the nature of an ox, nor to a vine which is not ac-
cording to the nature of a vine, nor to a stone which
is not proper to a stone. If then there happens to
each thing both what is usual and natural, why shouldst
thou complain ? For the common nature brings noth-
ing which may not be borne by thee.
47. If thou art pained by any external thing, it is
not this thing that disturbs thee, but thy own judgment
about it. And it is in thy power to wipe out this
judgment now. But if anything in thy own disposition
gives thee pain, who hinders thee from correcting thy
opinion? And even if thou art pained because thou
art not doing some particular thing which seems to
thee to be right, why dost thou not rather act than
1 dpeyofievT] in this passage seems to have a passive sense.
It is difficult to find an apt expression for it and some of the
other words. A comparison with XI. 12, will help to explain
the meaning.
208 THOUGHTS. [Book Vlll.
complain ? — But some insuperable obstacle is in the
way ? — Do not be grieved then, for the cause of its
not being done depends not on thee. — But it is not
worth while to live, if this cannot be done. — Take thy
departure then from life contentedly, just as he dies
who is in full activity, and well pleased too with the
things which are obstacles.
48. Remember that the ruling faculty is invincible,
when self-collected it is satisfied with itself, if it does
nothing which it does not choose to do, even if it re-
sist from mere obstinacy. What then will it be when
it forms a judgment about anything aided by reason
and deliberately? Therefore the mind which is free
from passions is a citadel, for man has nothing more
secure to which he can fly for refuge and for the future
be inexpugnable. He then who has not seen this is
an ignorant man ; but he who has seen it and does
not fly to this refuge is unhappy.
49. Say nothing more to thyself than what the first
appearances report. Suppose that it has been reported
to thee that a certain person speaks ill of thee. This
has been reported ; but that thou hast been injured,
that has not been reported. I see that my child is
sick. I do see ; but that he is in danger, I do not see.
Thus then always abide by the first appearances, and
add nothing thyself from within, and then nothing
happens to thee. Or rather add something like a man
who knows everything that happens in the world.
BookVIIL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 209
50. A cucumber is bitter — Throw it away. — There
are briers in the road — Turn aside from them. — This
is enough. Do not add, And why were such things
made in the world ? For thou wilt be ridiculed by a
man who is acquainted with nature, as thou wouldst be
ridiculed by a carpenter and shoemaker if thou didst
find fault because thou seest in their workshop shav-
ings and cuttings from the things which they make.
And yet they have places into which they can throw
these shavings and cuttings, and the universal nature has
no external space ; but the wondrous part of her art is
that though she has circumscribed herself, everything
within her which appears to decay and to grow old
and to be useless she changes into herself, and again
makes other new things from these very same, so that
she requires neither substance from without nor wants
a place into which she may cast that which decays.
She is content then with her own space, and her own
matter, and her own art.
51. Neither in thy actions be sluggish nor in thy
conversation without method, nor wandering in thy
thoughts, nor let there be in thy soul inward conten-
tion nor external effusion, nor in life be so busy as
to have no leisure.
Suppose that men kill thee, cut thee in pieces, curse
thee. What then can these things do to prevent thy
mind from remaining pure, wise, sober, just? For in-
stance, if a man should stand by a limpid pure spring,
14
2IO THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
and curse it, the spring never ceases sending up pota-
ble water ; and if he should cast clay into it or filth, it
will speedily disperse them and wash them out, and
will not be at all polluted. How then shalt thou pos-
sess a perpetual fountain [and not a mere well] ? By
forming f thyself hourly to freedom conjoined with
contentment, simplicity, and modesty.
52. He who does not know what the world is, does
not know where he is. And he who does not know
for what purpose the world exists, does not know who
he is, nor what the world is. But he who has failed in
any one of these things could not even say for what
purpose he exists himself. What then dost thou think
of him who [avoids or] seeks the praise of those who
applaud, of men who know not either where they are
or who they are?
53. Dost thou wish to be praised by a man who
curses himself thrice every hour ? wouldst thou wish to
please a man who does not please himself? Does a
man. please himself who repents of nearly everything
that he does?
54. No longer let thy breathing only act in concert
with the air which surrounds thee, but let thy intelli-
gence also now be in harmony with the intelligence
which embraces all things. For the intelligent power is
no less diffused in all parts and pervades all things for
him who is willing to draw it to him than the aerial
power for him who is able to respire it.
Book VIII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 211
55. Generally, wickedness does no harm at all to the
universe ; and particularly the wickedness [of one man]
does no harm to another. It is only harmful to him
who has it in his power to be released from it as soon
as he shall choose.
56. To my own free will the free will of my neigh-
bor is just as indifferent as his poor breath and flesh.
For though we are made especially for the sake of one
another, still the ruling power of each of us has its own
office, for otherwise my neighbor's wickedness would
be my harm, which God has not willed in order that
my unhappiness may not depend on another.
57. The sun appears to be poured down, and in all
directions indeed it is diffused, yet it is not effused.
For this diffusion is extension : Accordingly its rays
are called Extensions [aKxti/e?] because they are ex-
tended [aTTo Tov iKTavea-Oai]} But one may judge
what kind of a thing a ray is, if he looks at the sun's
light passing through a narrow opening into a darkened
room, for it is extended in a right line, and as it were
is divided when it meets with any solid body which
stands in the way and intercepts the air beyond ; but
there the light remains fixed and does not ghde or fall
off. Such then ought to be the outpouring and dif-
fusion of the understanding, and it should in no way
be an effusion, but an extension, and it should make
no violent or impetuous collision with the obstacles
1 A piece of bad etymology.
212 THOUGHTS. [Book VIII.
which are in its way ; nor yet fall down, but be fixed,
and enlighten that which receives it. For a body
will deprive itself of the illumination, if it does not
admit it.
58. He who fears death either fears the loss of sen-
sation or a different kind of sensation. But if thou
shalt have no sensation, neither wilt thou feel any
harm ; and if thou shalt acquire another kind of sensa-
tion, thou wilt be a different kind of living being and
thou wilt not cease to live.
59. Men exist for the sake of one another. Teach
them then or bear with them.
60. In one way an arrow moves, in another way the
mind. The mind indeed, both when it exercises cau-
tion and when it is employed about inquiry, moves
straight onward not the less, and to its object.
61. Enter into every man's ruling faculty; and also
let every other man enter into thine.^
-i Compare Epictetus, in. 9, 12.
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 213
IX.
T T E who acts unjustly acts impiously. For since
the universal nature has made rational ani-
mals for the sake of one another to help one another
according to their deserts, but in no way to injure
one another, he who transgresses her will is clearly
guilty of impiety towards the highest divinity. And
he too who lies is guilty of impiety to the same di-
vinity ; for the universal nature is the nature of things
that are ; and things that are have a relation to all
things that come into existence.^ And further, this
1 " As there is not any action or natural event, which we
are acquainted with, so single and unconnected as not to have
a respect to some other actions and events, so possibly each
of them, when it has not an immediate, may yet have a remote,
natural relation to other actions and events, much beyond the
compass of this present world." Again : " Things seemingly
the most insignificant imaginable are perpetually observed to
be necessary conditions to other things of the greatest impor-
tance ; so that any one thing whatever may, for aught we
know to the contrary, be a necessary condition to any other."
— Butler's Analogy, Chap. 7. See all the chapter. Some
critics take ra virdpxovTa in this passage of Antoninus to be
the same as rh 8vTa: but if that were so, he might have said
irpbs &\\r}\a instead of irpds to. inrdpxouTa. Perhaps the mean-
ing of Trpos TO, virapxovTa may be "to all prior things." If so,
the translation is still correct. See vi. 38.
214 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
universal nature is named truth, and is the prime
cause of all things that are true. He then who lies
intentionally is guilty of impiety inasmuch as he acts
unjustly by deceiving; and he also who Hes un-
intentionally, inasmuch as he is at variance with
the universal nature, and inasmuch as he disturbs
the order by fighting against the nature of the
world ; for he fights against it, who is moved of
himself to that which is contrary to truth, for he
had received powers from nature through the ne-
glect of which he is not able now to distinguish
falsehood from truth. And indeed he who pursues
pleasure as good, and avoids pain as evil, is guilty
of impiety. For of necessity such a man must often
find fault with the universal nature, alleging that it
assigns things to the bad and the good contrary
to their deserts, because frequently the bad are in
the enjoyment of pleasure and possess the things
which procure pleasure, but the good have pain for
their share and the things which cause pain. And
further, he who is afraid of pain will sometimes also
be afraid of some of the things which will happen
in the world, and even this is impiety. And he
who pursues pleasure will not abstain from injustice,
and this is plainly impiety. Now with respect to the
things towards which the universal nature is equally
affected, — for it would not have made both, unless
it was equally affected towards both, — towards these
[Book IX. MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 215
they who wish to follow nature should be of the
same mind with it, and equally affected. With re-
spect to pain, then, and pleasure, or death and life,
or honor and dishonor, which the universal nature
employs equally, whoever is not equally affected is
manifestly acting impiously. And I say that the
universal nature employs them equally, instead of
saying that they happen alike to those who are pro-
duced in continuous series and to those who come
after them by virtue of a certain original movement
of Providence, according to which it moved from a
certain beginning to this ordering of things, having
conceived certain principles of the things which were
to be, and having determined powers productive of
beings and of changes and of such like successions
(VII. 75)-
2. It would be a man's happiest lot to depart
from mankind without having had any taste of ly-
ing and hypocrisy and luxury and pride. However,
to breathe out one's life when a man has had
enough of these things is the next best voyage, as
the saying is. Hast thou determined to abide with
vice, and has not experience yet induced thee to
fly from this pestilence? For the destruction of the
understanding is a pestilence, much more indeed
than any such corruption and change of this at-
mosphere which surrounds us. For this corruption
is a pestilence of animals so far as they are animals ;
2l6 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
but the other is a pestilence of men so far as they
are men.
3. Do not despise death, but be well content with
it, since this too is one of those things which nature
wills. For such as it is to be young and to grow old,
and to increase and to reach maturity, and to have
teeth and beard and gray hairs, and to beget and
to be pregnant and to bring forth, and all the other
natural operations which the seasons of thy life bring,
such also is dissolution. This, then, is consistent
with the character of a reflecting man, — to be neither
careless nor impatient nor contemptuous with respect
to death, but to wait for it as one of the operations
of nature. As thou now waitest for the time when
the child shall come out of thy wife's womb, so be
ready for the time when thy soul shall fall out of this
envelope.^ But if thou requirest also a vulgar kind
of comfort which shall reach thy heart, thou wilt be
made best reconciled to death by observing the ob-
jects from which thou art going to be removed, and
the morals of those with whom thy soul will no longer
be mingled. For it is no way right to be offended
with men, but it is thy duty to care for them and
to bear with them gently ; and yet to remember that
thy departure will not be from men who have the
same principles as thyself. For this is the only thing,
if there be any, which could draw us the contrary
1 Note I of the Philosophy, p. 76.
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 217
way and attach us to life, — to be permitted to live
with those who have the same principles as ourselves.
But now thou seest how great is the trouble arising
from the discordance of those who live together, so
that thou mayst say, Come quick, O death, lest per-
chance I, too, should forget myself.
4. He who does wrong does wrong against himself.
He who acts unjustly acts unjustly to himself, because
he makes himself bad.
5. He often acts unjustly who does not do a cer-
tain thing ; not only he who does a certain thing.
6. Thy present opinion founded on understanding,
and thy present conduct directed to social good, and
thy present disposition of contentment with every-
thing which happens t — that is enough.
7. Wipe out imagination : check desire : extin-
guish appetite : keep the ruling faculty in its own
power.
8. Among the animals which have not reason one
Hfe is distributed ; but among reasonable animals
one intelligent soul is distributed : just as there is
one earth of all things which are of an earthy nature,
and we see by one light, and breathe one air, all of
us that have the faculty of vision and all that have
life.
9. All things which participate in anything which
is common to them all move towards that which is
of the same kind with themselves. Everything which
2l8 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
is earthy turns towards the earth, everything which is
Hquid flows together, and everything which is of an
aerial kind does the same, so that they require some-
thing to keep them asunder, and the apphcation of
force. Fire indeed moves upwards on account of
the elemental fire, but it is so ready to be kindled
together with all the fire which is here, that even
every substance which is somewhat dry is easily
ignited, because there is less mingled with it of that
which is a hindrance to ignition. Accordingly, then,
everything also which participates in the common
intelligent nature moves in like manner towards that
which is of the same kind with itself, or moves even
more. For so much as it is superior in comparison
with all other things, in the same degree also is it
more ready to mingle with and to be fused with
that which is akin to it. Accordingly among animals
devoid of reason we find swarms of bees, and herds
of cattle, and the nurture of young birds, and in a
manner, loves ; for even in animals there are souls,
and that power which brings them together is seen
to exert itself in the superior degree, and in such
a way as never has been observed in plants nor in
stones nor in trees. But in rational animals there
are political communities and friendships, and families
and meetings of people ; and in wars, treaties, and
armistices. But in the things which are still superior,
even though they are separated from one another,
Book IX.J MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 2ig
unity in a manner exists, as in the stars. Thus the
ascent to the higher degree is able to produce a sym-
pathy even in things which are separated. See, then,
what now takes place ; for only intelligent animals
have now forgotten this mutual desire and inclination,
and in them alone the property of flowing together
is not seen. But still, though men strive to avoid
[this union], they are caught and held by it, for their
nature is too strong for them ; and thou wilt see
what I say, if thou only observest. Sooner, then,
will one find anything earthy which comes in contact
with no earthy thing, than a man altogether sepa-
rated from other men.
10. Both man and God and the universe produce
fruit ; at the proper seasons each produces it. But
and if usage has especially fixed these terms to the
vine and like things, this is nothing. Reason produces
fruit both for all and for itself, and there are pro-
duced from it other things of the same kind as reason
itself.
1 1 . If thou art able, correct by teaching those who
do wrong ; but if thou canst not, remember that in-
dulgence is given to thee for this purpose. And the
gods, too, are indulgent to such persons ; and for some
purposes they even help them to get health, wealth,
reputation ; so kind they are. And it is in thy power
also ; or say, who hinders thee ?
12. Labor not as one who is wretched, nor yet as
220 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
one who would be pitied or admired : but direct thy
will to one thing only, — to put thyself in motion and
to check thyself, as the social reason requires.
13. To-day I have got out of all trouble, or rather
I have cast out all trouble, for it was not outside, but
within and in my opinions.
14. All things are the same, familiar in experience,
and ephemeral in time, and worthless in the matter.
Everything now is just as it was in the time of those
whom we have buried.
15. Things stand outside of us, themselves by them-
selves, neither knowing aught of themselves, nor ex-
pressing any judgment. What is it, then, which does
judge about them ? The ruling faculty.
16. Not in passivity but in activity he the evil and
the good of the rational social animal, just as his vir-
tue and his vice lie not in passivity but in activity.-^
1 7. For the stone which has been thrown up it is
no evil to come down, nor indeed any good to have
been carried up (viii. 20).
18. Penetrate inwards into men's leading principles,
and thou wilt see what judges thou art afraid of, and
what kind of judges they are of themselves.
19. All things are changing: and thou thyself art
in continuous mutation and in a manner in continuous
destruction, and the whole universe too.
1 Virtutis omnis laus in actione consistit. — Cicero, De Oif.
I. 6.
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 221
20. It is thy duty to leave another man's wrongful
act there where it is (vii. 29; ix. ;^S).
21. Termination of activity, cessation from move-
ment and opinion, and in a sense their death, is no evil.
Turn thy thoughts now to the consideration of thy life,
thy life as a child, as a youth, thy manhood, thy old
age, for in these also every change was a death. Is
this anything to fear ? Turn thy thoughts now to thy
life under thy grandfather, then to thy life under thy
mother, then to thy life under thy father ; and as thou
findest many other differences and changes and ter-
minations, ask thyself, Is this anything to fear? In
like manner, then, neither are the termination and ces-
sation and change of thy whole life a thing to be
riraid of.
22. Hasten [to examine] thy own ruling faculty and
that of the universe and that of thy neighbor : thy
own that thou mayst make it just : and that of the
universe, that thou mayst remember of what thou art
a part ; and that of thy neighbor, that thou mayst know
whether he has acted ignorantly or with knowledge,
and that thou mayst also consider that his ruling fac-
ulty is akin to thine.
23. As thou thyself art a component part of a social
system, so let every act of thine be a component part
of social life. Whatever act of thine then has no ref-
erence either immediately or remotely to a social end,
this tears asunder thy life, and does not allow it to be
222 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
one, and it is of the nature of a mutiny, just as when
in a popular assembly a man acting by himself stands
apart from the general agreement.
24. Quarrels of little children and their sports, and
poor spirits carrying about dead bodies [such is every-
thing] ; and so what is exhibited in the representation
of the mansions of the dead ^ strikes our eyes more
clearly.
25. Examine into the quality of the form of an ob-
ject, and detach it altogether from its material part,
and then contemplate it; then determine the time,
the longest which a thing of this peculiar form is
naturally made to endure.
26. Thou hast endured infinite troubles through not
being contented with thy ruling faculty when it does
the things which it is constituted by nature to do.
But enough f [of this] .
27. When another blames thee or hates thee, or
when men say about thee anything injurious, approach
their poor souls, penetrate within, and see what kind of
men they are. Thou wilt discover that there is no rea-
son to take any trouble that these men may have this
or that opinion about thee. However, thou must be
well disposed towards them, for by nature they are
1 TO Trjs "NeKvias may be, as Gataker conjectures, a dramatic
representation of the state of the dead. Schultz supposes that
it maybe also a reference to the 'NeKvia of the Odyssey (lib.
XI.).
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 223
friends. And the gods too aid them in all ways, by
dreams, by signs, towards the attainment of those
things on which they set a value. f
28. The periodic movements of the universe are
the same, up and down from age to age. And either
the universal intelligence puts itself in motion for
every separate effect, and if this is so, be thou con-
tent with that which is the result of its activity ; or
it puts itself in motion once, and everything else
comes by way of sequence ^ in a manner ; or indi-
visible elements are the origin of all things. — In a
word, if there is a god, all is well ; and if chance
rules, do not thou also be governed by it (vi. 44 ;
vii. 75)-
Soon will the earth cover us all : then the earth, too,
will change, and the things also which result from
change will continue to change forever, and these
again forever. For if a man reflects on the changes
and transformations which follow one another like
wave after wave and their rapidity, he will despise
everything which is perishable (xii. 21).
29. The universal cause is like a winter torrent : it
carries everything along with it. But how worthless
are all these poor people who are engaged in matters
political, and, as they suppose, are playing the philoso-
1 The words which immediately follow rar iiraKoXovOriaiv are
corrupt. But the meaning is hardly doubtful. (Compare Vii.
75)
224 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
pher ! All drivellers. Well then, man : do what na-
ture now requires. Set thyself in motion, if it is in
thy power, and do not look about thee to see if any
one will observe it ; nor yet expect Plato's Republic : ^
but be content if the smallest thing goes on well, and
consider such an event to be no small matter. For
who can change men's opinions? and without a
change of opinions what else is there than the slavery
of men who groan while they pretend to obey?
Come now and tell me of Alexander and Philippus
and Demetrius of Phalerum. They themselves shall
judge whether they discovered what the common na-
ture required, and trained themselves accordingly.
But if they acted like tragedy heroes, no one has con-
demned me to imitate them. Simple and modest is
the work of philosophy. Draw me not aside to inso-
lence and pride.
30. Look down from above on the countless herds
of men and their countless solemnities, and the in-
finitely varied voyagings in storms and calms, and the
differences among those who are born, who live to-
gether, and die. And consider, too, the life lived
by others in olden time, and the life of those who
will live after thee, and the life now lived among
barbarous nations, and how many know not even
1 Those who wish to know what Plato's Republic is, may
now study it in the accurate translation of Davies and
Vaughan.
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 225
thy name, and how many will soon forget it, and
how they who perhaps now are praising thee will
very soon blame thee, and that neither a posthu-
mous name is of any value, nor reputation, nor any-
thing else.
31. Let there be freedom from perturbations with
respect to the things which come from the external
cause ; and let there be justice in the things done
by virtue of the internal cause, that is, let there be
movement and action terminating in this, in social
acts, for this is according to thy nature.
32. Thou canst remove out of the way many
useless things among those which disturb thee, for
they lie entirely in thy opinion ; and thou wilt then
gain for thyself ample space by comprehending the
whole universe in thy mind, and by contemplating
the eternity of time, and observing the rapid change
of every several thing, how short is the time from
birth to dissolution, and the illimitable time before
birth as well as the equally boundless time after
dissolution !
;^^. All that thou seest will quickly perish, and
those who have been spectators of its dissolution
will very soon perish too. And he who dies at the
extremest old age will be brought into the same
condition with him who died prematurely.
34. What are these men's leading principles, and
about what kind of things are they busy, and for
15
226 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
what kind of reasons do they love and honor? Im-
agine that thou seest their poor souls laid bare. When
they think that they do harm by their blame or good
by their praise, what an idea !
35. Loss is nothing else than change. But the
universal nature delights in change, and in obedience
to her all things are now done well, and from eternity
have been done in like form, and will be such to
time without end. What, then, dost thou say, — that
all things have been and all things always will be
bad, and that no power has ever been found in so
many gods to rectify these things, but the world
has been condemned to be bound in never ceasing
evil (TV. 45, VII. 18) ?
36. The rottenness of the matter which is the
foundation of everything ! water, dust, bones, filth :
or again, marble rocks, the callosities of the earth ;
and gold and silver, the sediments ; and garments,
only bits of hair ; and purple dye, blood ; and every-
thing else is of the same kind. And that which is
of the nature of breath is also another thing of the
same kind, changing from this to that.
37. Enough of this wretched life and murmuring
and apish tricks. Why art thou disturbed? What
is there new in this? What unsettles thee? Is it
the form of the thing? Look at it. Or is it the
matter? Look at it. But besides these there is
nothing. Towards the gods then, now become at
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 22/
last more simple and better. It is the same whether
we examine these things for a hundred years or three.
^8. If any man has done wrong, the harm is his
own. But perhaps he has not done wrong.
39. Either all things proceed from one intelhgent
source and come together as in one body, and the
part ought not to find fault with what is done for
the benefit of the whole ; or there are only atoms,
and nothing else than mixture and dispersion. Why,
then, art thou disturbed ? Say to the ruling faculty,
Art thou dead, art thou corrupted, art thou playing
the hypocrite, art thou become a beast, dost thou
herd and feed with the rest ? ^
40. Either the gods have no power or they have
power. If, then, they have no power, why dost thou
pray to them? But if they have power, why dost
thou not pray for them to give thee the faculty of
not fearing any of the things which thou fearest, or
of not desiring any of the things which thou desirest,
or not being pained at anything, rather than pray
that any of these things should not happen or happen ?
for certainly if they can co-operate with men, they can
co-operate for these purposes. But perhaps thou wilt
say the gods have placed them in thy power. Well,
^ There is some corruption at the end of this section ; but
I think that the translation expresses the emperor's meaning.
Whether intelligence rules all things or chance rules, a man
must not be disturbed. He must use the power that he has,
and be tranquil.
228 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
then, is it not better to use what is in thy power hke
a free man than to desire in a slavish and abject way
what is not in thy power? And who has told thee
that the gods do not aid us even in the things which
are in our power? Begin, then, to pray for such
things, and thou wilt see. One man prays thus :
How shall I be able to lie with that woman? Do
thou pray thus : How shall I not desire to lie with
her? Another prays thus: How shall I be released
from this ? Another prays : How shall I not desire
to be released ? Another thus : How shall I not
lose my little son ? Thou thus : How shall I not be
afraid to lose him? In fine, turn thy prayers this
way, and see what comes.
41. Epicurus says, In my sickness my conversa-
tion was not about my bodily sufferings, nor, says he,
did I talk on such subjects to those who visited me ;
but I continued to discourse on the nature of things
as before, keeping to this main point, how the mind,
while participating in such movements as go on in
the poor flesh, shall be free from perturbations and
maintain its proper good. Nor did I, he says, give
the physicians an opportunity of putting on solemn
looks, as if they were doing something great, but
my life went on well and happily. Do, then, the
same that he did both in sickness, if thou art sick,
and in any other circumstances ; for never to desert
philosophy in any events that may befall us, nor to
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 229
hold trifling talk either with an ignorant man or with
one unacquainted with nature, is a principle of all
schools of philosophy ; but to be intent only on that
which thou art now doing and on the instrument by
which thou doest it.
42. When thou art offended with any man's shame-
less conduct, immediately ask thyself, Is it possible,
then, that shameless men should not be in the world?
It is not possible. Do not, then, require what is
impossible. For this man also is one of those shame-
less men who must of necessity be in the world.
Let the same considerations be present to thy mind
in the case of the knave, and the faithless man, and
of every man who does wrong in any way. For at
the same time that thou dost remind thyself that it
is impossible that such kind of men should not exist,
thou wilt become more kindly disposed towards every
one individually. It is useful to perceive this, too,
immediately when the occasion arises, what virtue
nature has given to man to oppose to every wrongful
act. For she has given to man, as an antidote
against the stupid man, mildness, and against another
kind of man some other power. And in all cases it
is possible for thee to correct by teaching the man
who is gone astray; for every man who errs misses
his object and is gone astray. Besides, wherein hast
thou been injured ? For thou wilt find that no one
among those against whom thou art irritated has
230 THOUGHTS. [Book IX.
done anything by which thy mind could be made
worse ; but that which is evil to thee and harmful
has its foundation only in the mind. And what
harm is done or what is there strange, if the man
who has not been instructed does the acts of an
uninstructed man? Consider w^hether thou shouldst
not rather blame thyself, because thou didst not
expect such a man to err in such a way. For thou
hadst means given thee by thy reason to suppose
that it was likely that he would commit this error,
and yet thou hast forgotten and art amazed that he
has erred. But most of all when thou blamest a
man as faithless or ungrateful, turn to thyself. For
the fault is manifestly thy own, whether thou didst
trust that a man who had such a disposition would
keep his promise, or when conferring thy kindness
thou didst not confer it absolutely, nor yet in such
way as to have received from thy very act all the
profit. For what more dost thou want when thou
hast done a man a service? art thou not content
that thou hast done something conformable to thy
nature, and dost thou seek to be paid for it? just
as if the eye demanded a recompense for seeing, or
the feet for walking. For as these members are formed
for a particular purpose, and by working according to
their several constitutions obtain what is their own ; 1
i 'ATre'xei to tdiov. This sense of direxeiv occurs in XI. I,
and IV. 49; also in St, Matthew, VI. 2, direxovcn rbv fxiadov, and
in Epictetus.
Book IX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 23 1
SO also as man is formed by nature to acts of be-
nevolence, when he has done anything benevolent
or in any other way conducive to the common inter-
est, he has acted conformably to his constitution, and
he gets what is his own.
232 THOUGHTS. lBook X.
X.
T X 7ILT thou, then, my soul, never be good and
simple and one and naked, more manifest
than the body which surrounds thee? Wilt thou
never enjoy an affectionate and contented disposition ?
Wilt thou never be full and without a want of any kind,
longing for nothing more, nor desiring anything, either
animate or inanimate, for the enjoyment of pleasures?
nor yet desiring time wherein thou shalt have longer
enjoyment, or place, or pleasant climate, or society of
men with whom thou mayst live in harmony? but wilt
thou be satisfied with thy present condition, and
pleased with all that is about thee, and wilt thou con-
vince thyself that thou hast everything, and that it
comes from the gods, that everything is well for thee,
and will be well whatever shall please them, and what-
ever they shall give for the conservation of the perfect
living being,^ the good and just and beautiful, which
generates and holds together all things, and contains
and embraces all things which are dissolved for the
production of other like things? Wilt thou never be
1 That is, God (iv. 40), as he is defined by Zeno. But the
confusion between gods and God is strange
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 233
such that thou shalt so dwell m community with gods
and men as neither to find fault with them at all, nor
to be condemned by them?
2. Observe what thy nature requires, so far as thou
art governed by nature only : then do it and accept it,
if thy nature, so far as thou art a living being, shall
not be made w^orse by it. And next thou must ob-
serve what thy nature requires so far as thou art a liv-
ing being. And all this thou mayst allow thyself, if
thy nature, so far as thou art a rational animal, shall
not be made worse by it. But the rational animal is
consequently also a political [social] animal. Use
these rules, then, and trouble thyself about nothing
else.
3. Everything which happens either happens in
such wise as thou art formed by nature to bear it, or
as thou art not formed by nature to bear it. If, then,
it happens to thee in such way as thou art formed by
nature to bear it, do not complain, but bear it as thou
art formed by nature to bear it. But if it happens
in such wise as thou art not formed by nature to bear
it, do not complain, for it will perish after it has
consumed thee. Remember, however, that thou art
formed by nature to bear everything, with respect to
which it depends on thy own opinion to make it en-
durable and tolerable, by thinking that it is either thy
interest or thy duty to do this.
4. If a man is mistaken, instruct him kindly and
234 THOUGHTS. [Book X.
show him his error. But if thou art not able, blame
thyself, or blame not even thyself.
5. Whatever may happen to thee, it was prepared
for thee from all eternity; and the implication of
causes was from eternity spinning the thread of thy
being, and of that which is incident to it (111. 1 1 ;
IV. 26).
6. Whether the universe is [a concourse of] atoms,
or nature [is a system], let this first be established,
that I am a part of the whole which is governed by na-
ture ; next, I am in a manner intimately related to the
parts which are of the same kind with myself. For
remembering this, inasmuch as I am a part, I shall be
discontented with none of the things which are assigned
to me out of the whole ; for nothing is injurious to the
part if it is for the advantage of the whole. For the
whole contains nothing which is not for its advantage ;
and all natures indeed have this common principle,
but the nature of the universe has this principle be-
sides, that it cannot be compelled even by any exter-
nal cause to generate anything harmful to itself. By
remembering, then, that I am a part of such a whole,
I shall be content with everything that happens.
And inasmuch as I am in a manner intimately related
to the parts which are of the same kind with myself, I
shall do nothing unsocial, but I shall rather direct my-
self to the things which are of the same kind with
myself, and I shall turn all my efforts to the common
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 235
interest, and divert them from the contrary. Now, if
these things are done so, Hfe must flow on happily,
just as thou mayst observe that the hfe of a citizen is
happy, who continues a course of action which is ad-
vantageous to his fellow- citizens, and is content with
whatever the state may assign to him.
7. The parts of the whole, everything, I mean,
which is naturally comprehended in the universe, must
of necessity perish ; but let this be understood in this
sense, that they must undergo change. But if this is
naturally both an evil and a necessity for the parts, the
whole would not continue to exist in a good condition,
the parts being subject to change and constituted so
as to perish in various ways. For whether did Nature
herself design to do evil to the things which are parts
of herself, and to make them subject to evil and of
necessity fall into evil, or have such results happened
without her knowing it? Both these suppositions, in-
deed, are incredible. But if a man should even drop
the term Nature [as an efficient power], and should
speak of these things as natural, even then it would
be ridiculous to affirm at the same time that the parts
of the whole are in their nature subject to change, and
at the same time to be surprised or vexed as if some-
thing were happening contrary to nature, particularly as
the dissolution of things is into those things of which
each thing is composed. For there is either a disper-
sion of the elements out of which everything has been
236 THOUGHTS. [BookX.
compounded, or a change from the soUd to the earthy
and from the airy to the aerial, so that these parts are
taken back into the universal reason, whether this at
certain periods is consumed by fire or renewed by
eternal changes. And do not imagine that the solid
and the airy part belong to thee from the time of gen-
eration. For all this received its accretion only yes-
terday and the day before, as one may say, from the
food and the air which is inspired. This, then, which
has received [the accretion], changes, not that which
thy mother brought forth. But suppose that this
[which thy mother brought forth] implicates thee
very much with that other part, which has the peculiar
quality [of change] , this is nothing in fact in the way
of objection to what is said.-^
8. When thou hast assumed these names, good,
modest, true, rational, a man of equanimity, and
magnanimous, take care that thou dost not change
these names ; and if thou shouldst lose them, quickly
return to them. And remember that the term Ra-
tional was intended to signify a discriminating attention
1 The end of this section is perhaps corrupt. The meaning
is very obscure. I have given that meaning which appears to
be consistent with the whole argument. The emperor here
maintains that the essential part of man is unchangeable, and
that the other parts, if they change or perish, do not affect
that which really constitutes the man. See the Philosophy of
Antoninus, p. 56, note 2. Schultz supposed " thy mother " to
mean nature, 17 cpvais. But I doubt about that.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 23/
to every several thing, and freedom from negligence ;
and that Equanimity is the voluntary acceptance of
the things which are assigned to thee by the common
nature ; and that Magnanimity is the elevation of the
intelligent part above the pleasurable or painful sensa-
tions of the flesh, and above that poor thing called
fame, and death, and all such things. If, then, thou
maintainest thyself in the possession of these names,
without desiring to be called by these names by others,
thou wilt be another person and wilt enter on another
life. For to continue to be such as thou hast hitherto
been, and to be torn in pieces and defiled in such a
life, is the character of a very stupid man and one over-
fond of his life, and like those half-devoured fighters
with wild beasts, who though covered with wounds
and gore, still intreat to be kept to the following day,
though they will be exposed in the same state to the
same claws and bites. ^ Therefore fix thyself in the
possession of these few names : and if thou art able
to abide in them, abide as if thou wast removed to
certain islands of the Happy.^ But if thou shalt per-
1 See Seneca, Epp. 70, on these exhibitions which amused the
people of those days. These fighters were the Bestiarri, some
of whom may have been criminals ; but even if they were, the
exhibition was equally characteristic of the depraved habits of
the spectators.
2 The islands of the Happy, or the Fortunatae Insulae, are
spoken of by the Greek and Roman writers. They were the
abode of Heroes, like Achilles and Diomedes, as we see in the
238 THOUGHTS. LBookX
ceive that thou fallest out of them and dost not main-
tain thy hold, go courageously into some nook where
thou shalt maintain them, or even depart at once from
life, not in passion, but with simplicity and freedom
and modesty, after doing this one [laudable] thing at
least in thy life, to have gone out of it thus. In order,
however, to the remembrance of these names, it will
greatly help thee if thou rememberest the gods, and
that they wish not to be flattered, but wish all reasona-
ble beings to be made like themselves ; and if thou
rememberest that what does the work of a fig-tree
is a fig-tree, and that what does the work of a dog is a
dog, and that what does the work of a bee is a bee,
and that what does the work of a man is a man.
Scollon of Harmodius and Aristogiton. Sertorius heard of the
islands at Cadiz from some sailors who had been there, and
he had a wish to go and live in them and rest from his troubles
(Plutarch, Sertorius, c. 8). In the Odyssey, Proteus told Mene-
laus that he should not die in Argos, but be removed to a place at
the boundary of the earth where Rhadamanthus dwelt (Odys-
sey, IV. 565): —
" For there in sooth man's life is easiest :
Nor snow nor raging storm nor rain is there,
But ever gently breathing gales of Zephyr
Oceanus sends up to gladden man."
It is certain that the writer of the Odyssey only follows some
old legend, without having any knowledge of any place which
corresponds to his description. The two islands which Serto-
rius heard of may be Madeira and the adjacent island. Com-
pare Pindar, Ol. il. 129.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 239
9. Mimi/ war, astonishment, torpor, slavery, will
daily wipe out those holy principles of thine, f How
many things without studyhig nature dost thou imag-
ine, and how many dost thou neglect ? ^ But it is thy
duty so to look on and so to do everything, that at the
same time the power of dealing with circumstances is
perfected, and the contemplative faculty is exercised,
and the confidence which comes from the knowledge
of each several thing is maintained without showing it,
but yet not concealed. For when wilt thou enjoy sim-
plicity, when gravity, and when the knowledge of every
several thing, both what it is in substance, and what
place it has in the universe, and how long it is formed
to exist, and of what things it is compounded, and to
whom it can belong, and who are able both to give it
and take it away?
10. A spider is proud when it has caught a fly, and
another when he has caught a poor hare, and another
when he has taken a little fish in a net, and another
when he has taken wild boars, and another when he
has taken bears, and another when he has taken Sar-
matians. Are not these robbers, if thou examinest
their opinions?^
1 Corais conjectured /uuaos " hatred " in place of Mimi, Ro-
man plays in which action and gesticulation were all or nearly
all.
2 This is corrupt. See the edition of Schultz.
3 Marcus means to say that conquerors are robbers He
himself warred against Sarmatians, and was a robber, as he
240 THOUGHTS. [Book X.
1 1 . Acquire the contemplative way of seeing how
all things change into one another, and constantly
attend to it, and exercise thyself about this part [of
philosophy] . For nothing is so much adapted to pro-
duce magnanimity. Such a man has put off the
body, and as he sees that he must, no one knows
how soon, go away from among men and leave every-
thing here, he gives himself up entirely to just doing
in all his actions, and in everything else that happens
he resigns himself to the universal nature. But as to
what any man shall say or thinic about him or do
against him, he never even thinks of it, being himself
contented with these two things, — with acting justly
in what he now does, and being satisfied with what
is now assigned to him ; and he lays aside all distract-
ing and busy pursuits, and desires nothing else than to
accomplish the straight course through the law,^ and
by accomplishing the straight course to follow God.
12. What need is there of suspicious fear, since it
is in thy power to inquire what ought to be done?
And if thou seest clear, go by this way content, with-
out turning back : but if thou dost not see clear, stop
and take the best advisers. But if any other things
oppose thee, go on according to thy powers with due
says, like the rest But compare the life of Avidius Cassius,
c. 4, by Vulcatius
1 By the law, he means the divine law, obedience to the will
of God.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 241
consideration, keeping to that which appears to be
just. For it is best to reach this object, and if thou
dost fail, let thy failure be in attempting this. He
who follows reason in all things is both tranquil and
active at the same time, and also cheerful and
collected.
13. Inquire of thyself as soon as thou wakest from
sleep whether it will make any difference to thee if
another does what is just and right. It will make no
difference (vi. 32 ; viii. 55).
Thou hast not forgotten, I suppose, that those who
assume arrogant airs in bestowing their praise or blame
on others are such as they are at bed and at board,
and thou hast not forgotten what they do, and what
they avoid, and what they pursue, and how they steal
and how they rob, not with hands and feet, but with
their most valuable part, by means of which there is
produced, when a man chooses, fidelity, modesty,
truth, law, a good daemon [happiness] (vii. 17)?
14. To her who gives and takes back all, to nature,
the man who is instructed and modest says, Give what
thou wilt ; take back what thou wilt. And he says this
not proudly, but obediently, and well pleased with
her.
15. Short is the little which remains to thee of hfe.
Live as on a mountain. For it makes no difference
whether a man lives there or here, if he lives every-
where in the world as in a state [political community].
16
242 THOUGHTS. [Book X.
Let men see, let them know a real man who lives ac-
cording to nature. If they cannot endure him, let
them kill him. For that is better than to live thus
[as men do].
1 6. No longer talk at all about the kind of man that
a good man ought to be, but be such.
1 7. Constantly contemplate the whole of time and
the whole of substance, and consider that all individual
things as to substance are a grain of a fig, and as to
time the turning of a gimlet.
18. Look at everything that exists, and observe that
it is already in dissolution and in change, and as it
were putrefaction or dispersion, or that everything is
so constituted by nature as to die.
19. Consider what men are when they are eating,
sleeping, generating, easing themselves, and so forth.
Then what kind of men they are when they are im-
perious t and arrogant, or angry and scolding from
their elevated place. But a short time ago to how
many they were slaves and for what things ; and
after a little time consider in what a condition they
will be.
20. That is for the good of each thing, which the
universal nature brings to each. And it is for its good
at the time when nature brings it.
21. "The earth loves the shower;" and "the
solemn ether loves ; " and the universe loves to make
whatever is about to be. I say then to the universe,
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 243
that I love as thou lovest. And is not this too said, that
" this or that loves [is wont] to be produced? " ^
22. Either thou livest here and hast already accus-
tomed thyself to it, or thou art going away, and this
was thy own will ; or thou art dying and hast dis-
charged thy duty. But besides these things there is
nothing. Be of good cheer, then.
23. Let this always be plain to thee, that this piece
of land is like any other; and that all things here
are the same with things on the top of a mountain,
or on the sea-shore, or wherever thou choosest to be.
For thou wilt find just what Plato says. Dwelling with-
in the walls of a city as in a shepherd's fold on a
mountain. [The three last words are omitted in the
translation.] 2
24. What is my ruling faculty now to me? and of
what nature am I now making it ? and for what pur-
1 These words are from Euripides. They are cited by Aris-
totle, Ethic. Nicom. viii. i. Athenaeus (xiii. 296) and Sto-
baeus quote seven complete lines beginning Ipa /xev S/n^pov ya?a.
There is a similar fragment of Aeschylus, Danaides, also quoted
by Athenaeus.
It was the fashion of the Stoics to work on the meanings of
words. So Antoninus here takes the verb (piXel, " loves," which
has also the sense of " is wont," " uses," and the like. He finds
in the common language of mankind a philosophical truth, and
most great truths are expressed in the common language of life ;
some understand them, but most people utter them without
knowing how much they mean.
'■^ Plato, Theaet, 174 D. E. But compare the original with the
use that Antoninus has made of it.
244 THOUGHTS. LBook X.
pose am I now using it? is it void of understand-
ing? is it loosed and rent asunder from social life? is
it melted into and mixed with the poor flesh so as to
move together with it?
25. He who flies from his master is a runaway ; but
the law is master, and he who breaks the law is a run-
away. And he also who is grieved or angry or afraid, f
is dissatisfied because something has been or is or shall
be of the things which are appointed by him who rules
all things, and he is Law and assigns to every man
what is fit. He then who fears or is grieved or is
angry is a runaway.^
26. A man deposits seed in a womb and goes away,
and then another cause takes it, and labors on it and
makes a child. What a thing from such a material !
Again, the child passes food down through the throat,
and then another cause takes it and makes perception
and motion, and in fine, life and strength and other
things ; how many and how strange ! Observe then
the things which are produced in such a hidden way,
and see the power just as we see the power which car-
ries things downwards and upwards, not with the eyes,
but still no less plainly (vii. 75).
27. Constantly consider how all things such as they
now are, in time past also were ; and consider that
^ Antoninus is here playing on the etymology, of vofios, law,
assignment, that which assigns {ve/xei) to every man his
portion.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 245
they will be the same again. And place before thy
eyes entire dramas and stages of the same form, what-
ever thou hast learned from thy experience or from
older history ; for example, the whole court of Hadri-
anus, and the whole court of Antoninus, and the whole
court of Philippus, Alexander, Croesus ; for all those
were such dramas as we see now, only with different
actors.
28. Imagine every man who is grieved at anything
or discontented to be like a pig which is sacrificed and
kicks and screams.
Like this pig also is he who on his bed in silence
laments the bonds in which we are held. And con-
sider that only to the rational animal is it given to
follow voluntarily what happens ; but simply to follow
is a necessity imposed on all.
29. Severally on the occasion of everything that
thou doest, pause and ask thyself if death is a dread-
ful thing because it deprives thee of this.
30. When thou art offended at any man's fault,
forthwith turn to thyself and reflect in what like man-
ner thou dost err thyself; for example, in thinking
that money is a good thing, or pleasure, or a bit of
reputation, and the like. For by attending to this thou
wilt quickly forget thy anger, if this consideration also
is added, that the man is compelled : for what else
could he do? or, if thou art able, take away from him
the compulsion.
246 THOUGHTS. [BookX.
31. When thou hast seen Satyron^ the Socratic,-|-
think of either Eutyches or Hymen, and when thou
hast seen Euphrates, think of Eutychion or Silvanus,
and when thou hast seen Alciphron think of Tropaeo-
phorus, and when thou hast seen Xenophon, think of
Crito ^ or Severus, and when thou hast looked on thy-
self, think of any other Caesar, and in the case of every
one do in like manner. Then let this thought be
in thy mind, Where then are those men? Nowhere,
or nobody knows where. For thus continuously thou
wilt look at human things as smoke and nothing at all ;
especially if thou reflectest at the same time that what
has once changed will never exist again in the infinite
duration of time. But thou, in what a brief space of
time is thy existence ? And why art thou not content
to pass through this short time in an orderly way?
What matter and opportunity [for thy activity] art
thou avoiding? For what else are all these things,
except exercises for the reason, when it has viewed
carefully and by examination into their nature the
things which happen in life ? Persevere then until thou
1 Nothing is known of Satyron or Satyrion ; nor, I believe, of
Eutyches or Hymen, Euphrates is honorably mentioned by
Epictetus (ill. 15, 8; iv. 8, 17). Pliny (Epp, i. 10) speaks
very highly of him. He obtained the permission of the Em-
peror Hadrian to drink poison, because he was old and in bad
health (Dion Cassius, 69, c. 8).
2 Crito is the friend of Socrates ; and he was, it appears, also
a friend of Xenophon. When the emperor says ''seen" {Iddbv),
he does not mean with the eyes.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 247
shalt have made these things thy own, as the stomach
which is strengthened makes all things its own, as the
blazing fire makes flame and brightness out of every-
thing that is thrown into it.
32. Let it not be in any man's power to say truly
of thee that thou art not simple or that thou art not
good ; but let him be a liar whoever shall think any-
thing of this kind about thee ; and this is altogether
in thy power. For who is he that shall hinder thee
from being good and simple ? Do thou only deter-
mine to live no longer unless thou shalt be such.
For neither does reason allow [thee to live], if thou
art not such.^
^^. What is that which as to this material [our
life] can be done or said in the way most conform-
able to reason? For whatever this may be, it is in
thy power to do it or to say it, and do not make
excuses that thou art hindered. Thou wilt not cease
to lament till thy mind is in such a condition that,
what luxury is to those who enjoy pleasure, such
shall be to thee, in the matter which is subjected
and presented to thee, the doing of the things which
are conformable to man's constitution ; for a man
ought to consider as an enjoyment everything which
it is in his power to do according to his own nature.
And it is in his power everywhere. Now, it is not
given to a cylinder to move everywhere by its own
1 Compare Epictetus, i. 29, 28.
248 THOUGHTS. [Book X.
motion, nor yet to water nor to fire, nor to anything
else which is governed by nature or an irrational
soul, for the things which check them and stand in
the way are many. But intelHgence and reason are
able to go through everything that opposes them,
and in such manner as they are formed by nature
and as they choose. Place before thy eyes this
facility with which the reason will be carried through
all things, as fire upwards, as a stone downwards, as
a cylinder down an inclined surface, and seek for
nothing further. For all other obstacles either affect
the body only, which is a dead thing ; or, except
through opinion and the yielding of the reason itself,
they do not crush nor do any harm of any kind ; for
if they did, he who felt it would immediately become
bad. Now, in the case of all things which have a
certain constitution, whatever harm may happen to
any of them, that which is so affected becomes con-
sequently worse ; but in the like case, a man becomes
both better, if one may say so, and more worthy of
praise by making a right use of these accidents. And
finally remember that nothing harms him who is
really a citizen, which does not harm the state ; nor
yet does anything harm the state, which does not
harm law [order] ; and of these things which are
called misfortunes not one harms law. What then
does not harm law does not harm either state or
citizen.
BookX.] MARCUS AURELTUS ANTONINUS. 249
34. To him who is penetrated by true principles
even the briefest precept is sufficient, and any com-
mon precept, to remind him that he should be free
from grief and fear. For example, —
" Leaves, some the wind scatters on the ground —
So is the race of men." '
Leaves, also, are thy children ; and leaves, too, are
they who cry out as if they were worthy of credit
and bestow their praise, or on the contrary curse,
or secretly blame and sneer; and leaves, in like
manner, are those who shall receive and transmit a
man's fame to after-times. For all such things as
these " are produced in the season of spring," as the
poet says ; then the wind casts them down ; then the
forest produces other leaves in their places. But a
brief existence is common to all things, and yet thou
avoidest and pursuest all things as if they would be
eternal A little time, and thou shalt close thy eyes ;
and him who has attended thee to thy grave another
soon will lament.
35. The healthy eye ought to see all visible things
and not to say, I wish for green things ; for this is
the condition of a diseased eye. And the healthy
hearing and smelling ought to be ready to perceive
all that can be heard and smelled. And the healthy
stomach ought to be with respect to all food just
as the mill with respect to all things which it is
1 Homer, II. vi. 146.
250 THOUGHTS. [BookX.
formed to grind. And accordingly the healthy un-
derstanding ought to be prepared for everything which
happens ; but that which says, Let my dear children
live, and let all men praise whatever I may do, is an
eye which seeks for green things, or teeth which seek
for soft things.
36. There is no man so fortunate that there shall
not be by him when he is dying some who are pleased
with what is going to happen.^ Suppose that he was
a good and wise man, will there not be at last some
one to say to himself, Let us at last breathe freely,
being reheved from this schoolmaster? It is true
that he was harsh to none of us, but I perceived
that he tacitly condemns us. — This is what is said
of a good man. But in our own case how many
other things are there for which there are many who
wish to get rid of us. Thou wilt consider this, then,
when thou art dying, and thou wilt depart more con-
tentedly by reflecting thus : I am going away from
such a life, in which even my associates in behalf of
whom I have striven so much, prayed, and cared,
themselves wish me to depart, hoping perchance to
get some little advantage by it. Why then should a
man cling to a longer stay here? Do not however
for this reason go away less kindly disposed to them,
1 He says KaKov, but as he affirms in other places that death
is no evil, he must mean what others may call an evil, and he
means only " what is going to happen."
Book X.J MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 25 1
but preserving thy own character, and friendly and
benevolent and mild, and on the other hand not as
if thou wast torn away; but as when a man dies a
quiet death, the poor soul is easily separated from
the body, such also ought thy departure from men
to be, for nature united thee to them and associated
thee. But does she now dissolve the union? Well,
I am separated as from kinsmen, not however dragged
resisting, but without compulsion ; for this, too, is
one of the things according to nature.
37. Accustom thyself as much as possible on the
occasion of anything being done by any person to
inquire with thyself, For what object is this man
doing this? But begin with thyself, and examine
thyself first.
38. Remember that this which pulls the strings
is the thing which is hidden within : this is the
power of persuasion, this is life, this, if one may
so say, is man. In contemplating thyself never in-
clude the vessel which surrounds thee and these
instruments which are attached about it. For they
are like to an axe, differing only in this, that they
grow to the body. For indeed there is no more
use in these parts without the cause which moves
and checks them than in the weaver's shuttle, and
the writer's pen, and the driver's whip.^
1 See the Philosophy of Antoninus, p. 56, n 2.
252 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
XL
npHESE are the properties of the rational soul : it
sees itself, analyzes itself, and makes itself such
as it chooses ; the fruit which it bears itself enjoys, —
for the fruits of plants and that in animals which corre-
sponds to fruits others enjoy, — it obtains its own end,
wherever the Hmit of life may be fixed. Not as in a
dance and in a play and in such like things, where the
whole action is incomplete if anything cuts it short ;
but in every part, and wherever it may be stopped, it
makes what has been set before it full and complete,
so that it can say, I have what is my own. And fur-
ther it traverses the whole universe, and the surround-
ing vacuum, and surveys its form, and it extends itself
into the infinity of time, and embraces and compre-
iends the ^ periodical renovation of all things, and it
comprehends that those who come after us will see
nothing new, nor have those before us seen anything
more, but in a manner he who is forty years old, if he
has any understanding at all, has seen by virtue of the
uniformity that prevails all things which have been
and all that will be. This too is a 'property of the
1 T-qu wepiodtKrjv iraXtyyeveaiav. See V. 13, 32 ; X. 7.
Book XL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 253
rational soul, love of one's neighbor, and truth and
modesty, and to value nothing more than itself, which
is also the property of Law.^ Thus then right reason
differs not at all from the reason of justice.
2. Thou wilt set little value on pleasing song and
dancing and the pancratium, if thou wilt distribute the
melody of the voice into its several sounds, and ask
thyself as to each, if thou art mastered by this; for
thou wilt be prevented by shame from confessing it :
and in the matter of dancing, if at each movement
and attitude thou wilt do the same ; and the like also
in the matter of the pancratium. In all things, then,
except virtue and the acts of virtue, remember to ap-
ply thyself to their several parts, and by this division
to come to value them little : and apply this rule also
to thy whole life.
3. What a soul that is which is ready, if at any mo-
ment it must be separated from the body, and ready
either to be extinguished or dispersed or continue to
exist ; but so that this readiness comes from a man's
own judgment, not from mere obstinacy, as with the
Christians,^ but considerately and with dignity and in
a way to persuade another, without tragic show.
4. Have I done something for the general interest ?
1 Law is the order by which all things are governed.
2 See the Life of Antoninus. This is the only passage in
which the emperor speaks of the Christians. Epictetus (iv.
7, 6) names them Galilaei.
254 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
Well then I have had my reward. Let this always be
present to thy mind, and never stop [doing such
good].
5 . What is thy art ? To be good. And how is this
accomplished well except by general principles, some
about the nature of the universe, and others about the
proper constitution of man?
6. At first tragedies were brought on the stage as
means of reminding men of the things which happen
to them, and that it is according to nature for things
to happen so, and that, if you are delighted with what
is shown on the stage, you should not be troubled with
that which takes place on the larger stage. For you
see that these things must be accomplished thus, and
that even they bear them who cry out,^ " O Cithae-
ron." And, indeed, some things are said well by
the dramatic writers, of which kind is the following
especially : —
"Me and my children if the gods neglect,
This has its reason too." ^
And again, —
" We must not chafe and fret at that which happens."
And, —
" Life's harvest reap like the wheat's fruitful ear."
And other thinsrs of the same kind.
'O^
^ Sophocles, Oedipus Rex-
2 See VII. 41, 38, 40.
Book XI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 255
After tragedy the old comedy was introduced, which
had a magisterial freedom of speech, and by its very
plainness of speaking was useful in reminding men
to beware of insolence ; and for this purpose too
Diogenes used to take from these writers.
But as to the middle comedy, which came next, ob-
serve what it was, and again, for what object the new
comedy was introduced, which gradually sank down
into a mere mimic artifice. That some good things
are said even by these writers, everybody knows : but
the whole plan of such poetry and dramaturgy, to what
end does it look?
7. How plain does it appear that there is not an-
other condition of life so well suited for philosophizing
as this in which thou now happenest to be.
8. A branch cut off from the adjacent branch must
of necessity be cut off from the whole tree also. So
too a man when he is separated from another man has
fallen off from the whole social community. Now as
to a branch, another cuts it off ; but a man by his own
act separates himself from his neighbor when he hates
him and turns away from him, and he does not know
that he has at the same time cut himself off from the
whole social system. Yet he has this privilege cer-
tainly from Zeus, who framed society, for it is in our
power to grow again to that which is near to us, and
again to become a part which helps to make up the
whole. However, if it often happens, this kind of sepa-
256 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
ration, it makes it difficult for that which detaches itself
to be brought to unity and to be restored to its former
condition. Finally, the branch, which from the first
grew together with the tree, and has continued to have
one life with it, is not like that which after being cut
off is then ingrafted, for this is something like what
the gardeners mean when they say that it grows with
the rest of the tree, but t that it has not the same
mind with it.
9. As those who try to stand in thy way when thou
art proceeding according to right reason will not be
able to turn thee aside from thy proper action, so
neither let them drive thee from thy benevolent feel-
ings towards them, but be on thy guard equally in
both matters, not only in the matter of steady judg-
ment and action, but also in the matter of gendeness
to those who try to hinder or otherwise trouble thee.
For this also is a weakness, to be vexed at them, as
well as to be diverted from thy course of action and to
give way through fear ; for both are equally deserters
from their post, — the man who does it through fear,
and the man who is alienated from him who is by na-
ture a kinsman and a friend.
10. There is no nature which is inferior to art, for
the arts imitate the natures of things. But if this is
so, that nature which is the most perfect and the most
comprehensive of all natures, cannot fall short of the
skill of art. Now all arts do the inferior things for
Book XL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 257
the sake of the superior ; therefore the universal na-
ture does so too. And, indeed, hence is the origin
of justice, and in justice the other virtues have their
foundation : for justice will not be observed, if we
either care for middle things [things indifferent], or
are easily deceived and careless and changeable (v.
16. 30; VII. 55).
1 1 . If the things do not come to thee, the pursuits
and avoidances of which disturb thee, still in a manner
thou goest to them. Let then thy judgment about
them be at rest, and they will remain quiet, and thou
wilt not be seen either pursuing or avoiding.
12. The spherical form of the soul maintains its
figure when it is neither extended towards any object,
nor contracted inwards, nor dispersed nor sinks down,
but is illuminated by light, by which it sees the truth,
— the truth of all things and the truth that is in itself
(VIII. 41. 45; XII. 3).
13. Suppose any man shall despise me. Let him
look to that himself. But I will look to this, that I be
not discovered doing or saying anything deserving of
contempt. Shall any man hate me? Let him look
to it. But I will be mild and benevolent towards
every man, and ready to show even him his mistake,
not reproachfully, nor yet as making a display of my
endurance, but nobly and honestly, like the great
Phocion, unless indeed he only assumed it. For the
interior [parts] ought to be such, and a man ought to
17
258 THOUGHTS. [Book XL
be seen by the gods neither dissatisfied with anything
nor complaining. For what evil is it to thee, if thou
art now doing what is agreeable to thy own nature,
and art satisfied with that which at this moment is
suitable to the nature of the universe, since thou art a
human being placed at thy post in order that what is
for the common advantage may be done in some way ?
14. Men despise one another and flatter one an-
other ; and men wish to raise themselves above one
another, and crouch before one another.
15. How unsound and insincere is he who says,
I have determined to deal with thee in a fair way ! —
What art thou doing, man? There is no occasion to
give this notice. It will soon show itself by acts.
The voice ought to be plainly written on the fore-
head. Such as a man's character is, f he immedi-
ately shows it in his eyes, just as he who is beloved
forthwith reads everything in the eyes of lovers. The
man who is honest and good ought to be exactly
like a man who smells strong, so that the bystander
as soon as he comes near him must smell whether
he choose or not. But the affectation of simplicity
is like a crooked stick.^ Nothing is more disgrace-
ful than a wolfish friendship [false friendship] . Avoid
1 Instead of aKaXfiyj Saumaise reads (XKa/x^rj. There is a
Greek proverb, CKafi^bu ^v\ov ovdeiror' dpdov: "You cannot
make a crooked stick straight."
The wolfish friendship is an allusion to the fable of the
sheep and the wolves.
Book XL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 259
this most of all. The good and simple and benevo-
lent show all these things in the eyes, and there is
no mistaking.
16. As to living in the best way, this power is in
the soul, if it be indifferent to things which are in-
different. And it will be indifferent, if it looks on
each of these things separately and all together, and
if it remembers that not one of them produces in
us an opinion about itself, nor comes to us ; but
these things remain immovable, and it is we our-
selves who produce the judgments about them, and,
as we may say, write them in ourselves, it being in
our power not to write them, and it being in our
power, if perchance these judgments have impercep-
tibly got admission to our minds, to wipe them out ;
and if we remember also that such attention will
only be for a short time, and then life will be at an
end. Besides, what trouble is there at all in doing
this? For if these things are according to nature,
rejoice in them and they will be easy to thee : but
if contrary to nature, seek what is conformable to
thy own nature, and strive towards this, even if it
bring no reputation ; for every man is allowed to
seek his own good.
17. Consider whence each thing is come, and of
what it consists,! and into what it changes, and what
kind of a thing it will be when it has changed, and
that it will sustain no harm.
260 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
1 8. [If any have offended against thee, consider
first] : What is my relation to men, and that we are
made for one another; and in another respect I
was made to be set over them, as a ram over the
flock or a bull over the herd. But examine the
matter from first principles, from this : If all things
are not mere atoms, it is nature which orders all
things : if this is so, the inferior things exist for the
sake of the superior, and these for the sake of one
another (ii. i ; ix. 39 ; v. 16 ; iii. 4).
Second, consider what kind of men they are at
table, in bed, and so forth : and particularly, under
what compulsions in respect of opinions they are ;
and as to their acts, consider with what pride they
do what they do (viii. 14; ix. 34).
Third, that if men do rightly what they do, we
ought not to be displeased : but if they do not right,
it is plain that they do so involuntarily and in igno-
rance. For as every soul is unwillingly deprived of
the truth, so also is it unwillingly deprived of the
power of behaving to each man according to his
deserts. Accordingly men are pained when they are
called unjust, ungrateful, and greedy, and in a word
wrong-doers to their neighbors (vii. 62, 6;^ ; 11. i ;
VII. 26 j VIII. 29).
Fourth, consider that thou also doest many things
wrong, and that thou art a man like others ; and
even if thou dost abstain from certain faults, still
Book XI.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 26 1
thou hast the disposition to commit them, though
either through cowardice, or concern about reputa-
tion, or some such mean motive, thou dost abstain
from such faults (i. 17).
Fifth, consider that thou dost not even understand
whether men are doing wrong or not, for many things
are done with a certain reference to circumstances.
And in short, a man must learn a great deal to enable
him to pass a correct judgment on another man's
acts (ix. 38 ; IV. 51).
Sixth, consider when thou art much vexed or
grieved, that man's life is only a moment, and after
a short time we are all laid out dead (vii. 58; iv.
48).
Seventh, that it is not men's acts which disturb
us, for those acts have their foundation in men's
ruling principles, but it is our own opinions which
disturb us. Take away these opinions then, and
resolve to dismiss thy judgment about an act as if
it were something grievous, and thy anger is gone.
How then shall I take away these opinions? By
reflecting that no wrongful act of another brings
shame on thee : for unless that w^hich is shameful
is alone bad, thou also must of necessity do many
things wrong, and become a robber and everything
else (v. 25 ; vii. 16).
Eighth, consider how much more pain is brought
on us by the anger and vexation caused by such
262 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
acts than by the acts themselves, at which we are
angry and vexed (iv. 39. 49; vii. 24).
Ninth, consider that a good disposition is invin-
cible if it be genuine, and not an affected smile and
acting a part. For what will the most violent man
do to thee, if thou continuest to be of a kind dispo-
sition towards him, and if, as opportunity offers, thou
gently admonishest him and calmly correctest his
errors at the very time when he is trying to do thee
harm, saying. Not so, my child : we are constituted
by nature for something else : I shall certainly not
be injured, but thou art injuring thyself, my child. —
And show him with gentle tact and by general prin-
ciples that this is so, and that even bees do not do
as he does, nor any animals which are formed by
nature to be gregarious. And thou must do this
neither with any double meaning nor in the way of
reproach, but affectionately and without any rancor
in thy soul; and not as if thou wert lecturing him,
nor yet that any bystander may admire, but either
when he is alone, and if others are present . . . ^
Remember these nine rules, as if thou hadst re-
ceived them as a gift from the Muses, and begin at
last to be a man while thou livest. But thou must
equally avoid flattering men and being vexed at them,
for both are unsocial and lead to harm. And let
this truth be present to thee in the excitement of
1 It appears that there is a defect in the text here.
Book XL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 263
anger, that to be moved by passion is not manly,
but that mildness and gentleness, as they are more
agreeable to human nature, so also are they more
manly; and he who possesses these qualities pos-
sesses strength, nerves, and courage, and not the
man who is subject to fits of passion and discontent.
For in the same degree in which a man's mind is
nearer to freedom from all passion, in the same de-
gree also is it nearer to strength : and as the sense
of pain is a characteristic of weakness, so also is
anger. For he who yields to pain and he who yields
to anger, both are wounded and both submit.
But if thou wilt, receive also a tenth present from
the leader of the [Muses, Apollo], and it is this, —
that to expect bad men not to do wrong is madness,
for he who expects this desires an impossibility. But
to allow men to behave so to others, and to expect
them not to do thee any wrong, is irrational and
tyrannical.
19. There are four principal aberrations of the su-
perior faculty against which thou shouldst be constantly
on thy guard, and when thou hast detected them, thou
shouldst wipe them out and say on each occasion thus :
This thought is not necessary : this tends to destroy
social union : this which thou art going to say comes
not from the real thoughts ; for thou shouldst consider
it among the most absurd of things for a man not to
speak from his real thoughts. But the fourth is when
264 THOUGHTS. [Book XL
thou shalt reproach thyself for anything, for this is an
evidence of the diviner part within thee being over-
powered and yielding to the less honorable and to the
perishable part, the body, and to its gross pleasures
(IV. 24 ; II. 16).
20. Thy aerial part and all the fiery parts which are
mingled in thee, though by nature they have an upward
tendency, still in obedience to the disposition of the
universe they are overpowered here in the compound
mass [the body]. And also the whole of the earthy
part in thee and the watery, though their tendency is
downward, still are raised up and occupy a position
which is not their natural one. In this manner then
the elemental parts obey the universal ; for when they
have been fixed in any place, perforce they remain
there until again the universal shall sound the signal
for dissolution. It is not then strange that thy intelli-
gent part only should be disobedient and discontented
with its own place? And yet no force is imposed on
it, but only those things which are conformable to its
nature : still it does not submit, but is carried in the
opposite direction. For the movement towards injus-
tice and intemperance and to anger and grief and
fear is nothing else than the act of one who deviates
from nature. And also when the ruling faculty is dis-
contented with anything that happens, then too it
deserts its post : for it is constituted for piety and
reverence towards the gods no less than for justice.
BooKXr.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 265
For these qualities also are comprehended under the
generic term of contentment with the constitution of
things, and indeed they are prior ^ to acts of justice.
21. He who has not one and always the same ob-
ject in life, cannot be one and the same all through
his life. But what I have said is not enough, unless
this also is added, what this object ought to be. For
as there is not the same opinion about all the things
which in some way or other are considered by the ma-
jority to be good, but only about some certain things,
that is, things which concern the common interest, so
also ought we to propose to ourselves an object which
shall be of a common kind [social] and political. For
1 The word irpea^vrepa, which is here translated "prior,"
may also mean "superior; " but Antoninus seems to say that
piety and reverence of the gods precede all virtues, and that
other virtues are derived from them, even justice, which in an-
other passage (xi. 10) he makes the foundation of all virtues.
The ancient notion of justice is that of giving to every one his
due. It is not a legal definition, as some have supposed, but a
moral rule which law cannot in all cases enforce. Besides, law
has its own rules, which are sometimes moral and sometimes
immoral ; but it enforces them all simply because they are gen-
eral rules, and if it did not or could not enforce them, so far
Law would not be Law. Justice, or the doing what is just, im-
plies a universal rule and obedience to it ; and as we all live
under universal Law, which commands both our body and our
intelligence, and is the law of our nature, that is, the law of the
whole constitution of man, we must endeavor to discover what
this supreme Law is. It is the will of the power that rules all.
By acting in obedience to this will, we do justice, and by conse-
quence everything else that we ought to do.
266 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
he who directs all his own efforts to this object, will
make all his acts alike, and thus will always be the
same.
2 2. Think of the country mouse and of the town
mouse, and of the alarm and trepidation of the town
mouse.^
23. Socrates used to call the opinions of the many
by the name of Lamiae, — bugbears to frighten
children.
24. The Lacedaemonians at their pubUc spectacles
used to set seats in the shade for strangers, but them-
selves sat down anywhere.
25. Socrates excused himself to Perdiccas^ for not
going to him, saying, It is because I would not perish
by the worst of all ends ; that is, I would not receive a
favor and then be unable to return it.
26. In the writings of the [Ephesians] ^ there was
this precept, constantly to think of some one of the
men of former times who practised virtue.
27. The Pythagoreans bid us in the morning look
to the heavens that we may be reminded of those
bodies which continually do the same things and in
the same manner perform their work, and also be
1 The story is told by Horace in his Satires (11. 6), and by
others since, but not better.
2 Perhaps the emperor made a mistake here, for other writers
say that it was Archelaus, the son of Perdiccas, who invited
Socrates to Macedonia.
3 Gataker suggested 'ETiKOvpeicov for 'E(p€ai(x}u.
Book XL] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 26/
reminded of their purity and nudity. For there is no
veil over a star.
28. Consider what a man Socrates was when he
dressed himself in a skin, after Xanthippe had taken
his cloak and gone out, and what Socrates said to his
friends who were ashamed of him and drew back from
him when they saw him dressed thus.
29. Neither in writing nor in reading wilt thou be
able to lay down rules for others before thou shalt have
first learned to obey rules thyself. Much more is this
so in life.
30. A slave thou art ; free speech is not for thee.
31. And my heart laughed within.
Odyssey, IX. 413.
32. And virtue they will curse, speaking harsh words.
Hesiod, Works and Days, 184.
2,1. To look for the fig in winter is a madman's act :
such is he who looks for his child when it is no longer
allowed (Epictetus, iii. 24, 87).
34. When a man kisses his child, said Epictetus,
he should whisper to himself, '' To-morrow perchance
thou wilt die." — But those are words of bad omen. —
"No word is a word of bad omen," said Epictetus,
" which expresses any work of nature ; or if it is so,
it is also a word of bad omen to speak of the ears of
corn being reaped " (Epictetus, iii. 24, Z"^).
35. The unripe grape, the ripe bunch, the dried
grape all are changes, not into nothing, but into
something which exists not yet (Epictetus, in. 24).
268 THOUGHTS. [Book XI.
^6. No man can rob us of our free will (Epictetus,
III. 22, 105).
37. Epictetus also said, a man must discover an art
[or rules] with respect to giving his assent; and in
respect to his movements he must be careful that they
be made with regard to circumstances, that they be
consistent with social interests, that they have regard
to the value of the object ; and as to sensual desire,
he should altogether keep away from it; and as to
avoidance [aversion], he should not show it with
respect to any of the things which are not in our
power.
^8. The dispute then, he said, is not about any
common matter, but about being mad or not.
39. Socrates used to say. What do you want,
souls of rational men or irrational ? — Souls of rational
men. — Of what rational men, sound or unsound ? —
Sound. — Why then do you not seek for them? — Be-
cause we have them. — Why then do you fight and
quarrel ?
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 269
XII.
A LL those things at which thou wishest to arrive
by a circuitous road thou canst have now, if
thou dost not refuse them to thyself. And this
means, if thou wilt take no notice of all the past,
and trust the future to providence, and direct the
present only conformably to piety and justice. Con-
formably to piety, that thou mayst be content with
the lot which is assigned to thee, for nature designed
it for thee and thee for it. Conformably to justice,
that thou mayst always speak the truth freely and
without disguise, and do the things which are agree-
able to law and according to the worth of each. And
let neither another man's wickedness hinder thee, nor
opinion nor voice, nor yet the sensations of the poor
flesh which has grown about thee ; for the passive
part will look to this. If, then, whatever the time
may be when thou shalt be near to thy departure,
neglecting everything else thou shalt respect only thy
ruling faculty and the divinity within thee, and if
thou shalt be afraid not because thou must some
time cease to live, but if thou shalt fear never to
have begun to live according to nature, — then thou
2/0 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
wilt be a man worthy of the universe which has
produced thee, and thou wilt cease to be a stranger
in thy native land, and to wonder at things which
happen daily as if they were something unexpected,
and to be dependent on this or that.
2. God sees the minds [ruling principles] of all
men bared of the material vesture and rind and
impurities. For with his intellectual part alone he
touches the intelligence only which has flowed and
been derived from himself into these bodies. And
if thou also usest thyself to do this, thou wilt rid
thyself of thy much trouble. For he who regards
not the poor flesh which envelops him, surely will not
trouble himself by looking after raiment and dwelling
and fame and such like externals and show.
3. The things are three of which thou art com-
posed : a httle body, a little breath [life], intelligence.
Of these the first two are thine, so far as it is thy
duty to take care of them ; but the third alone is
properly thine. Therefore if thou shalt separate from
thyself, that is, from thy understanding, whatever
others do or say, and whatever thou hast done or
said thyself, and whatever future things trouble thee
because they may happen, and whatever in the body
which envelops thee or in the breath [life], which
is by nature associated with the body, is attached
to thee independent of thy will, and whatever the
external circumfluent vortex whirls round, so that the
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, 2/1
intellectual power exempt from the things of fate can
live pure and free by itself, doing what is just and
accepting what happens and saying the truth : if thou
wilt separate, I say, from this ruling faculty the things
which are attached to it by the impressions of sense,
and the things of time to come and of time that is
past, and wilt make thyself like Empedocles' sphere,
"All round and in its joyous rest reposing ; " ^
and if thou shalt strive to live only what is really
thy Ufe, that is, the present, — then ,thou wilt be
able to pass that portion of life which remains for
thee up to the time of thy death free from pertur-
bations, nobly, and obedient to thy own daemon [to
the god that is within thee] (ii. 13, 17; iii. 5, 6 ;
XI. 12).
4. I have often wondered how it is that every man
loves himself more than all the rest of men, but yet
sets less value on his own opinion of himself than on
the opinion of others. If then a god or a wise teacher
should present himself to a man and bid him to think
of nothing and to design nothing which he would
not express as soon as he conceived it, he could not
endure it even for a single day.^ So much more
1 The verse of Empedocles is corrupt in Antoninus. It has
been restored by Peyron from a Turin manuscript, thus : —
2(^a?pos KVKXoTepTjS [xovLrj TrepLyrjSi'C yaioiv.
2 III. 4.
2/2 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
respect have we to what our neighbors shall think of
us than to what we shall think of ourselves.
5. How can it be that the gods, after having ar-
ranged all things well and benevolently for mankind,
have overlooked this alone, that some men, and very
good men, and men who, as we may say, have had
most communion with the divinity, and through pious
acts and religious observances have been most inti-
mate with the divinity, when they have once died
should never exist again, but should be completely
extinguished ?
But if this is so, be assured that if it ought to have
been otherwise, the gods would have done it. For
if it were just, it would also be possible ; and if it
were according to nature, nature would have had it
so. But because it is not so, if in fact it is not so,
be thou convinced that it ought not to have been
so : for thou seest even of thyself that in this in-
quiry thou art disputing with the Deity; and we
should not thus dispute with the gods, unless they
were most excellent and most just; but if this is
so, they would not have allowed anything in the
ordering of the universe to be neglected unjustly and
irrationally.
6. Practise thyself even in the things which thou
despairest of accomplishing. For even the left
hand, which is ineffectual for all other things for
want of practice, holds the bridle more vigorously
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 2/3
than the right hand ; for it has been practised m
this.
7. Consider in what condition both in body and
soul a man should be when he is overtaken by death ;
and consider the shortness of life, the boundless abyss
of time past and future, the feebleness of all matter.
8. Contemplate the formative principles [forms]
of things bare of their coverings ; the purposes of
actions ; consider what pain is, what pleasure is, and
death, and fame ; who is to himself the cause of his
uneasiness; how no man is hindered by another;
that everything is opinion.
9. In the application of thy principles thou must
be like the pancratiast, not like the gladiator; for
the gladiator lets fall the sword which he uses and
is killed ; but the other always has his hand, and
needs to do nothing else than use it.
10. See what things are in themselves, dividing
them into matter, form, and purpose.
1 1 . What a power man has to do nothing except
what God will approve, and to accept all that God
may give him.
12. With respect to that which happens conform-
ably to nature, we ought to blame neither gods, for
they do nothing wrong either voluntarily or involun-
tarily, nor men, for they do nothing wrong except
involuntarily. Consequently we should blame nobody
(II. II, 12, 13 ; VII. 62 ; 18 VIII. 17).
18
274 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
13. How ridiculous and what a stranger he is who
is surprised at anything which happens in Hfe.
14. Either there is a fatal necessity and invincible
order, or a kind providence, or a confusion without
a purpose and without a director (iv. 27). If then
there is an invincible necessity, why dost thou resist ?
But if there is a providence which allows itself to be
propitiated, make thyself worthy of the help of the
divinity. But if there is a confusion without a gov-
ernor, be content that in such a tempest thou hast
in thyself a certain ruHng intelligence. And even if
the tempest carry thee away, let it carry away the
poor flesh, the poor breath, everything else ; for the
intelligence at least it will not carry away.
15. Does the light of the lamp shine without losing
its splendor until it is extinguished ; and shall the
truth which is in thee and justice and temperance
be extinguished [before thy death] ?
16. When a man has presented the appearance of
having done wrong [say], How then do I know if
this is a wrongful act? And even if he has done
wrong, how do I know that he has not condemned
himself? And so this is like tearing his own face.
Consider that he who would not have the bad man
do wrong, is like the man who would not have the
fig-tree to bear juice in the figs, and infants to cry,
and the horse to neigh, and whatever else must of
necessity be. For what must a man do who has
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 275
such a character? If then thou art irritable,! cure
this man's disposition.^
17. If it is not right, do not do it : if it is not true,
do not say it. [For let thy efforts be — ] ^
18. In everything always observe what the thing is
which produces for thee an appearance, and resolve
it by dividing it into the formal, the material, the
purpose, and the time within which it must end.
19. Perceive at last that thou hast in thee some-
thing better and more divine than the things which
cause the various affects, and as it were pull thee by
the strings. What is there now in my mind, — is it
fear, or suspicion, or desire, or anything of the kind
(V. II)?
20. First, do nothing inconsiderately, nor without
a purpose. Second, make thy acts refer to nothing
else than to a social end.
21. Consider that before long thou wilt be no-
body and nowhere, nor will any of the things exist
which thou now seest, nor any of those who are
now living. For all things are formed by nature to
change and be turned and to perish, in order that
other things in continuous succession may exist
(IX. 28).
1 The interpreters translate yopyos by the words "acer,
validusque," and "skilful." But in Epictetus (ii. 16, 20; III.
12, 10) yopyos means " vehement," " prone to anger," " irri-
table."
2 There is something wrong here, or incomplete.
2/6 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
2 2. Consider that everything is opinion, and opin-
ion is in thy power. Take away then, when thou
choosest, thy opinion, and like a mariner who has
doubled the promontory, thou wilt find calm, every-
thing stable, and a waveless bay.
23. Any one activity, whatever it may be, when
it has ceased at its proper time, suffers no evil be-
cause it has ceased ; nor he who has done this act,
does he suffer any evil for this reason, that the act
has ceased. In like manner then the whole which
consists of all the acts, which is our life, if it cease
at its proper time, suffers no evil for this reason,
that it has ceased ; nor he who has terminated this
series at the proper time, has he been ill dealt with.
But the proper time and the limit nature fixes,
sometimes as in old age the peculiar nature of man,
but always the universal nature, by the change of
whose parts the whole universe continues ever young
and perfect.^ And everything which is useful to the
universal is always good and in season. There-
fore the termination of life for every man is no
evil, because neither is it shameful, since it is
both independent of the will and not opposed to
the general interest, but it is good, since it is
seasonable, and profitable to and congruent with
the universal. For thus too he is moved by the
Deity who is moved in the same manner with the
1 VII. 25.
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 277
Deity, and moved towards the same things in his
mind.
24. These three principles thou must have in readi-
ness : In the things which thou doest do nothing
either inconsiderately or otherwise than as justice
herself would act ; but with respect to what may
happen to thee from without, consider that it hap-
pens either by chance or according to providence,
and thou must neither blame chance nor accuse provi-
dence. Second, consider what every being is from
the seed to the time of its receiving a soul, and from
the reception of a soul to the giving back of the
same, and of what things every being is compounded,
and into what things it is resolved. Third, if thou
shouldst suddenly be raised up above the earth, and
shouldst look down on human things, and observe
the variety of them how great it is, and at the same
time also shouldst see at a glance how great is the
number of beings who dwell all around in the air
and the ether, consider that as often as thou shouldst
be raised up, thou wouldst see the same things, same-
ness of form and shortness of duration. Are these
things to be proud of ?
25. Cast away opinion: thou art saved. Who
then hinders thee from casting it away?
26. When thou art troubled about anything, thou
hast forgotten this, that all things happen according
to the universal nature ; and forgotten this, that a
2/8 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
man's wrongful act is nothing to thee ; and further
thou hast forgotten this, that everything which hap-
pens, always happened so and will happen so, and
now happens so everywhere ; forgotten this too, how
close is the kinship between a man and the whole
human race, for it is a community, not of a Httle
blood or seed, but of intelligence. And thou hast
forgotten this too, that every man's intelligence is a
god and is an efflux of the Deity ; ^ and forgotten
this, that nothing is a man's own, but that his child
and his body and his very soul came from the Deity ;
forgotten this, that everything is opinion ; and lastly
thou hast forgotten that every man lives the present
time only, and loses only this.
27. Constantly bring to thy recollection those who
have complained greatly about anything, those who
have been most conspicuous by the greatest fame
or misfortunes or enmities or fortunes of any kind ;
then think where are they all now? Smoke and ash
and a tale, or not even a tale. And let there be
present to thy mind also everything of this sort, how
Fabius Catullinus lived in the country, and Lucius
Lupus in his gardens, and Stertinius at Baiae, and
Tiberius at Capreae, and Velius Rufus [or Rufus at
VeliaJ ; and in fine think of the eager pursuit of
anything conjoined with pride ; ^ and how worthless
1 See Epictetus, ir. 8, 9, etc.
2 ^er' olrj<X€us. Otrjat^ koX Tv<pos, Epict. I. 8, 6.
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 2/9
everything is after which men violently strain; and
how much more philosophical it is for a man in the
opportunities presented to him to show himself just,
temperate, obedient to the gods, and to do this with
all simplicity : for the pride which is proud of its
want of pride is the most intolerable of all.
28. To those who ask. Where hast thou seen the
gods, or how dost thou comprehend that they exist
and so worshippest them, I answer, in the first place,
they may be seen even with the eyes ; ^ in the second
1 " Seen even with the eyes." It is supposed that this may
be explained by the Stoic doctrine, that the universe is a god
or living being (iv. 40), and that the celestial bodies are gods
(viii. 19). But the emperor may mean that we know that the
gods exist, as he afterwards states it, because we see what they
do ; as we know that man has intellectual powers, because we
see what he does, and in no other way do we know it. This
passage then will agree with the passage in the Epistle to the
Romans (i. v. 20), and with the Epistle to the Colossians (i. v.
15), in which Jesus Christ is named "the image of the invisi-
ble god ; " and with the passage in the Gospel of St. John
(xiv. V. 9.)
Gataker, whose notes are a wonderful collection of learning,
and all of it sound and good, quotes a passage of Calvin which
is founded on St. Paul's language (Rom. I. v. 20) : " God by
creating the universe [or world, mundum], being himself in-
visible, has presented himself to our eyes conspicuously in a
certain visible form." He also quotes Seneca (De Benef. iv.
c. 8) : " Quocunque te flexeris, ibi ilium videbis occurrentem
tibi : nihil ab illo vacat, opus suum ipse implet." Compare
also Cicero, De Senectute (c. 22), Xenophon's Cyropaedia
(viii. 7), and Mem. iv. 3 ; also Epictetus, i. 6, de Providentia.
I think that my interpretation of Antoninus is right.
280 THOUGHTS. [BookXII.
place, neither have I seen even my own soul, and yet
I honor it. Thus then with respect to the gods, from
what I constantly experience of their power, from
this I comprehend that they exist, and I venerate
them.
29. The safety of hfe is this, to examine everything
all through, what it is itself, that is its material, what
the formal part ; with all thy soul to do justice and
to say the truth. What remains, except to enjoy life
by joining one good thing to another so as not to
leave even the smallest intervals between?
30. There is one light of the sun, though it is in-
terrupted by walls, mountains, and other things infi-
nite. There is one common substance,^ though it
is distributed among countless bodies which have
their several qualities. There is one soul, though it
is distributed among infinite natures and individual
circumscriptions [or individuals]. There is one in-
telligent soul, though it seems to be divided. Now
in the things which have been mentioned, all the
other parts, such as those which are air and matter,
are without sensation and have no fellowship : and
yet even these parts the intelligent principle holds
together and the gravitation towards the same. But
intellect in a peculiar manner tends to that which is
of the same kin, and combines with it, and the feeling
for communion is not interrupted.
1 IV. 40.
Book XII.] MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 281
31. What dost thou wish, — to continue to exist?
Well, dost thou wish to have sensation, movement,
growth, and then again to cease to grow, to use thy
speech, to think? What is there of all these things
which seems to thee worth desiring? But if it is easy
to set little value on all these things, turn to that which
remains, which is to follow reason and God. But it
is inconsistent with honoring reason and God to be
troubled because by death a man will be deprived
of the other things.
32. How small a part of the boundless and unfath-
omable time is assigned to every man, for it is very
soon swallowed up in the eternal ! And how small a
part of the whole substance ; and how small a part of
the universal soul ; and on what a small clod of the
whole earth thou creepest ! Reflecting on all this, con-
sider nothing to be great, except to act as thy nature
leads thee, and to endure that which the common
nature brings.
33. How does the ruling faculty make use of itself?
for all lies in this. But everything else, whether it is
in the power of thy will or not, is only lifeless ashes
and smoke.
34. This reflection is most adapted to move us to
contempt of death, that even those who think pleasure
to be a good and pain an evil still have despised it.
35. The man to whom that only is good which
comes in due season, and to whom it is the same thing
282 THOUGHTS. [Book XII.
whether he has done more or fewer acts conformable
to right reason, and to whom it makes no difference
whether he contemplates the world for a longer or a
shorter time, — for this man neither is death a terrible
thing (ill. 7 ; vi. 23; x. 20; xii. 23).
36. Man, thou hast been a citizen in this great state
[the world] ; ^ what difference does it make to thee
whether for five years [or three] ? for that which is
conformable to the laws is just for all. Where is the
hardship then, if no tyrant nor yet an unjust judge
sends thee away from the state, but nature, who brought
thee into it? the same as if a praetor who has em-
ployed an actor dismisses him from the stage. ■" — " But
I have not finished the five acts, but only three of
them." — Thou sayest well, but in life the three acts
are the whole drama; for what shall be a complete
drama is determined by him who was once the cause
of its composition, and now of its dissolution : but
thou art the cause of neither. Depart then satisfied,
for he also who releases thee is satisfied.
1 II. 16; III. II ; IV. 29.
2 III. 8; XI. I.
INDEXES.
INDEX OF TERMS.
ddtdcpopa (indifferentia, Cicero, Seneca, Epp. 82) ; things indiffer-
ent, neither good nor bad ; the same as fxeaa.
aldxpos (turpis, Cic), ugly ; morally ugly,
aiTia, cause.
aiTiCHdes, ultiov, to, the formal or formative principle, the cause.
aKotvibvTjTos, unsocial.
dvacpopd, reference, relation to a purpose.
dvvire^aipiTws, unconditionally.
diroppoia, efflux.
dirpoalpera, rd, the things which are not in our will or power.
dpxVy a f^ist principle.
drofioi (corpora individua, Cic), atoms.
avrdpKcia est quae parvo contenta omne id respuit quod abundat
(Cic.) ; contentment.
airdpKTis, sufficient in itself ; contented.
d(popfJi.ai, means, principles. The word has also other significa-
tions in Epictetus. Index ed. Schweig.
yiyvo/xeva, rd, things which are produced, come into existence.
baip.wv, god, god in man, man's intelligent principle.
diddeais, disposition, affection of the mind.
diaipeo-Ls, division of things into their parts, dissection, resolution,
analysis.
BiaXeKTLKTi, ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (Cic. ).
5id\v(ns, dissolution, the opposite of <rvyKpL<ni.
didvoia, understanding ; sometimes, the mind generally, the whole
intellectual power.
doyp-ara (decreta, Cic), principles.
dwap-ts poepd, intellectual faculty.
286 INDEX.
e-yKpareia, temperance, self-restraint.
€l5os in divisione formae sunt, quas Graeci etdrj vocant ; nostri,
si qui haiec forte tractant, species appellant (Cic). But elSoj
is used by Epictetus and Antoninus less exactly and as a general
term, like genus. Index Epict. ed. Schweig. — 'fis 5^ ye al
irpCyraL ovaiai irpbs ra aXXa exovaiv, ovto) Kal to el8os irpbs t6
yhos "xet* viroKeLrai yap to etSos rc^ yeuet,. (Aristot. Cat. c. 5.)
eip.apiJ.evri (fatalis necessitas, fatum, Cic), destiny, necessity.
eKK\i<Teis, aversions, avoidance, the turning away from things ;
the opposite of ope^eis.
tfi'^vxa, rd, things which have life.
ivepyeia, action, activity.
evvoia, evvoiaL, notio, notiones (Cic), or "notitiae rerum ;" no-
tions of things. (Notionem appello quam Graeci turn evvoiav,
turn TrpdXrjxI/iv, Cic).
ev(x}(TLS, rjy the unity.
eiriaTpocp-q, attention to an object
ev6vp.ia, animi tranquillitas (Cic).
ev/xeves, to, evp-eveia, benevolence ; ev/xevr/i sometimes means
well-contented.
eijvoia, benevolence.
e^ovaia, power, faculty.
eiraK6\o6d7)(XLv, /card, by way of sequence.
riyep.oviKov, to, the ruling faculty or part ; principatus (Cic. ).
6eo}pr}p.aTa, percepta (Cic), things perceived, general principles.
Kad-qKetv, to, duty, " officium."
/caXos, beautiful.
Kard\T}\pLs, comprehension ; cognitio, perceptio, comprehensio
(Cic).
KaracTKev/j, constitution.
KaTopdibdeis, KaTopdcbp.aTa ; recta, recte facta (Cic. ) ; right acts,
those acts to which we proceed by the right or straight road.
Koa/Jios, order, world, universe.
Koapios, 6 8\os, the universe, that which is the One and the All
(VI. 25).
KplpLa, a judgment.
Kvpievov, Tb hdov, that which rules within (iv. i), the same as rb
INDEX. 287
Tjye/xoutKoy. Diogenes Laertius, vir., Zeno. yjye/jLonKov de
dual TO KuptdbraTov rrjs \pvxv^'
XoyiKOL, rd, the things which have reason.
XoycKos, rational.
\6yo?, reason.
\byos crirepfxaTLKos, seminal principle.
lx4(Ta, rd, things indifferent, viewed with respect to virtue.
voepos, intellectual.
vo/xos, law.
vovs, intelligence, understanding.
otr](ns, arrogance, pride. It sometimes neans in Antoninus the
same as rvcpos ; but it also means " opinicn."
OLKOvofiia (dispositio, ordo, Cic, ) has sometimes the peculiar sense
of artifice, or doing something with an apparent purpose differ-
ent from the real purpose.
6\ov, TO, the universe, the whole : i] tQjv o\wv (p^ais.
8i>Ta, Td.j things which exist ; existence, being.
ope^is, desire of a thing, which is opposed to eKKXiai^, aversion.
op/j-ri, movement towards an object, appetite ; appetitio, naturalis
appetitus, appetitus animi (Cic).
odaia, substance (vi. 49). Modern writers sometimes incorrectly
translate it " essentia." It is often used by Epictetus in the
same sense as vXrj. Aristotle (Cat. c. 5) defines ovcria, and it
is properly translated "substantia" (ed. Jul. Pacius). Por-
phyrins (Tsag. c. 2) : i] ovaia dpuTdTO) odaa tQ) fX7)dev elvai wpo
avTTJs yiuos f]u TO yeviKdoraTov.
TrapaKoXovdrjTiKY] dvvafjLts, i], the power which enables us to observe
and understand.
Tretcris, passivity, opposed to ivipyeca : also, affect.
irepia-Tdaeis, circumstances, the things which surround us ;
troubles, difficulties.
TreTrpcofi^uT], ■r), destiny.
Tpoaipeais, purpose, free will (Aristot. Rhet. i. 13).
irpoatpeTd, Td, things which are within our will or power.
irpoaLpeTLKov, to, free will.
trpodea-L'i, a purpose, proposition.
irpovoi.a (providentia, Cic), providence.
288 INDEX.
CTKoiros, object, purpose.
CTTOLxe'tov, element.
o-vyKaTadeais (assensio, approbatio, Cic), assent ; cvyKaTaOicreLi
(probationes, Gellius, XIX. i).
avyKplixara, things compounded (ll. 3).
(r&YKpiats, the act of combining elements out of which a body is
produced, combination.
(TiJudeaLS, ordering, arrangement (compositio).
<Ti(TTT]fxa, system, a thing compounded of parts which have a cer-
tain relation to one another.
f/\?7, matter, material.
iXiKov, TO, the material principle.
vire^alpeais, exception, reservation ; fxed' vire^aipeaecjs, con-
ditionally.
VTTodeais, material to work on ; thing to employ the reason on ;
proposition, thing assumed as matter for argument and to lead
to conclusions. (Quaestionum duo sunt genera ; alteram infini-
tum, definitum alteram. Definitum est, quod virodeaiv Graeci,
nos causam : infinitum, quod decxLv illi appellant, nos proposi'
turn possumus nominare. Cic. See Aristot. Anal. Post, i. c. 2).
iTTOKei/xeva, rd, things present or existing, Vi. 4 ; or things which
are a basis or foundation.
viro\rj\pLS, opinion.
{nrbcTTacns, basis, substance, being, foundation (x. 5). Epictetus
has t6 viroaTaTLKov kol omiCobe^. (Justinus ad Diogn. c. 2.)
{}(f)i(rTaa9ai, to subsist, to be.
(paPTacriai (visus, Cic.) ; appearances, thoughts, impressions (visa
animi, Gellius, XIX. i) : (jyavTaala earl T^nrwcris iu xpvxfh
ipavTaa/jLa, seems to be used by Antoninus in the same sense as
(pavTaaia. Epictetus uses only ^avracria.
<f)avTa(yT6v, that which produces a (pavraaia : (pavraarbv rb
TeTrairjKos rrjv Kpauraaiav aicrdrjTov.
<})v<jLs, nature.
(pvais, 7} Twv oXdjp, the nature of the universe.
i^vxv, soul, life, living principle.
^pvxv XoyiKT), voepd, a rational' soul, an intelligent soul.
GENERAL INDEX.
*^* The paragraphs (par.) and lines (1.) are those of the sections.
Active, man is by nature, ix. i6.
Advice from the good to be taken, vi. 21 ; viir. 16.
Affectation, vii. 60 ; viii. 30 ; xi. 18 (par. 9), 19.
Anger discouraged, VI. 26, 27 ; Xl. 18.
Anger, offences of, ii. 10.
Anger, uselessness of, v. 28 ; viii. 4,
Appearances not to be regarded, v. 36 ; vi. 3, 13.
Astonishment should not be felt at anything that happens,
VIII. 15; XII. I (sub fine), 13.
Attainment, what is within everyone's, vii. 67 ; vili. 8.
Attention to what is said or done, vi. 53; vil. 4, 30; Vlll. 22.
Bad, the, 11. r.
Beautiful, the, 11. i.
Causal. See Formal.
Change keeps the world ever new, vil. 25 ; viii. 50 (1. 13) ;
XII. 23 (1. 10).
Change, law of, iv. 3 (sub f.), 36, v. 13, 23; vi. 4, 15, 36;
VII. 18; VIII. 6; IX. 19, 28 (par. 2), 35; x. 7, 18; xii. 21.
Change, no evil in, IV. 42.
Christians, the, xi. 3.
Circle, things come round in a, 11. 14.
19
290 INDEX.
Comedy, new, xi. 6.
Comedy, old, xi. 6.
Complaining, uselessness of, Vlll. 17, 50.
Connection. See Universe.
Conquerors are robbers, x. 10.
Contentment. See Resignation.
Co-operation. See Mankind and Universe.
Daemon, the, 11. 13, 17 ; iii. 6 (1. 8), 7, 16 (1. 14) ; v. 10 (sub f.)
27; XII. 3 (subf.).
Death, 11, 11, 12, 17 ; iii. 3, 7 ; iv. 5 ; v. 33 ; vi. 2, 24, 28 ; vir.
32; VIII. 20, 58; IX. 3, 21 ; X. 36; XII. 23, 34, 35.
Death inevitable, in. 3 ; iv. 3 (1. 19), 6, 32, 48, 50 ; ^.ZZ\ vi- 47 ;
VIII. 25, 31.
Desire, offences of, 11. 10.
Destiny, III. 11 (1. 19); iv. 26; v. 8 (1.8, etc.), 24; vii. 57;
• X. 5.
Discontent. See Resignation.
Doubts discussed, vi. 10 ; vii. 75 ; ix. 28, 39 ; xii. 5, 14.
Duty, all-importance of, vi. 2, 22 ; x. 22.
Earth, insignificance of the, iii. 10; iv. 3 (par. 2, sub f.) ; vi.
36; VIII. 21 ; XII. 32.
Earthly things, transitory nature of, il. 12, 17 ; iv. 32, 33, 35,
48; V. 23; VI. 15, 36; VII. 21, 34; VIII. 21,25; X. 18, 31;
XII. 27.
Earthly things, worthlessness of, 11. 12 ; v. 10, 33 ; vi. 15; vii.
3 ; IX. 24, 36 ; XI. 2 ; XII. 27.
Equanimity, x. 8.
Example, we should not follow bad, vi. 6; vii. 65.
Existence, meanness of, viii. 24.
Existence, the object of, v. i ; viii. 19,
External things cannot really harm a man, or affect the soul,
II. II (1. 12) ; IV. 3 (sub i.), 8, 39, 49 (par. 2) ; v. 35; vii.
64 ; VIII. I (sub f.), 32, 51 (par. 2) ; ix. 31 ; x. 33.
INDEX. 291
Failure, x. 12.
Fame, worthlessness of, III. lo; iv. 3 (1. 34), 19, 33 (1, 10) ; v.
33 ; VI. 16, 18 ; VII. 34 ; VIII. l, 44 ; ix. 30.
Fear, what we ought to, Xil. i (1. 18).
Fellowship. See Mankind.
Few things necessary for a virtuous and happy life, ii. 5 ; in.
id; VII. 67 ; X. 8 (1. 22).
Flattery, Xi. 18 (par. 10).
Formal, the, and the material, iv. 21 (par. 2) ; v. 13 ; vii. 10,
29 ; VIII. II ; IX. 25 ; xii. 8, 10, 18.
Future, we should not be anxious about the vii. 8 ; viii. 36;
XII. I.
Gods, perfect justice of the, xii. 5 (par. 2).
Gods, the, vi. 44 ; xii. 28.
Gods, the, cannot be evil, 11. 11 ; vi. 44.
Good, the, 11. i.
Habit of thought, V. 16.
Happiness, what is true, v. 9 (sub f.), 34 ; vill. i ; x. 33.
Help to be accepted from others, vii. 7.
Heroism, true, XI. 18 (par. 10).
Ignorance. See Wrong-doing.
Independence. See Self-reliance.
Indifferent things, ii. 11 (sub f.) ; IV. 39; VI. 32; ix. i
(I.30).
Individual, the. See Interests.
Infinity. See Time.
Ingratitude. See Mankind.
Injustice, ix. i.
Intelligent soul, rational beings participate in the same, iv. 40 ;
IX. 8, 9 ; X. I (1. 15) ; xii. 26, 30.
Interests of the whole and the individual identical, iv. 23 ; v. 8
(1. 29) ; VI. 45, 54; X. 6, 20, 33 (sub f.) ; xii. 23 (1. 12).
292 INDEX.
Justice, V. 34 ; x. 11 ; xi. 10.
Justice and reason identical, xi. i (sub f.).
Justice prevails everywhere, iv. 10.
Leisure, we have ought to have some, viii. 51.
Life, a good, everywhere possible, v. 16.
Life can only be lived once, 11. 14; x. 31 (1. 11).
Life, shortness of, 11. 4, 17 ; in. 10, 14 ; iv. 17, 48 (sub f.), 50 ;
VI. 15.36, 56; X. 31, 34.
Life to be made a proper use of, without delay, 11. 4 ; iii. i, 14 ;
IV. 17, 37 ; vii. 56 ; VIII. 22 ; x. 31 (1. 14) ; xii. i (1. 18).
Life, whether long or short, matters not, vi. 49; ix. 33 ; xii. 36.
Magnanimity, x. 8.
Mankind, co-operation and fellowship of, one with another, 11.
I (1. II), 16 ; III. 4 (sub f.), II (sub f.) ; iv. 4, 33 (sub f.) ;
V. 16 (1. II), 20; VI. 7, 14 (subf.), 23,39; VII. 5, 13, 22, 55;
VIII. 12, 26, 34, 43, 59; IX. I, 9 (sub f.), 23, 31, 42 (sub f ) ;
x. 36 (1. 16) ; XI. 8, 21 ; Xii. 20.
Mankind, folly and baseness of, v. 10 (1. 9) ; ix. 2,3 (1. 13), 29;
X. 15, 19.
' Mankind, ingratitude of, x. 36.
Material, the. See Formal.
Nature, after products of, ill. 2 ; VI. 36.
Nature, bounds fixed by, v. i.
Nature, man formed by, to bear all that happens to him, v. 18 ;
VIII. 46.
Nature, nothing evil, which is according to, ii. 17 (sub f.) ;
VI. ZZ-
Nature of the universe. See Universe, nothing that happens is
contrary to the nature of the.
Nature, perfect beauty of, in. 2 ; vi. 36.
Nature, we should live according to, iv. 48 (sub f.), 51 ; v. 3,
25; VI. 16 (1. 12) ; vii. 15, 55; VIII. I, 54; X. T,2>-
New, nothing, under the sun, n. 14 (1. 11) ; iv. 44; VI. -};], 46;
VII. I, 49; VIII. 6; IX. 14; X. 27; XI. I.
INDEX. 293
Object, we should always act with a view to some, ir. 7, 16
(1. 12) ; III. 4 ; IV. 2; viir. 17 ; x. 37 ; xi. 21 ; xir. 20.
Obsolete, all things become, iv. 23'
Omissions, sins of, ix. 5.
Opinion, iv. 3 (sub f.), 7, 12, 39; vr. 52, 57 ; vii. 2, 14, 16, 26,
68; VIII. 14, 29, 40, 47, 49 ; IX. 13, 29 (1. 9), 32, 42 (1. 21) ;
X. 3; XI. 16, 18; XII. 22, 25.
Others' conduct not to be inquired into, in. 4 ; iv. 18 ;
V. 25.
Others, opinion of, to be disregarded, viii. i (1. 9) ; x. 8 (1. 12),
11; XI. 13; XII. 4.
Others, we should be lenient towards, 11. 13 (sub f.) ; in. 11
(sub f.) ; IV. 3 (1. 16) ; v. ^^3 (1. 17) ; vi. 20, 27 ; vii. 26, 62,
63, 70 ; IX. II, 27 ; X. 4 ; XI. 9, 13, 18 ; xii. 16.
Others, we should examine the ruling principles of, iv. ^8 ; ix.
18, 22, 27, 34.
Ourselves often to blame, for expecting men to act contrary to
their nature, IX. 42 (1. 25).
Ourselves, reformation should begin with, xi. 29,
Ourselves, we should judge, x. 30; xi. 18 (par. 4).
Pain, VII. 23, 64 ; viii. 28.
Perfection not to be expected in this world, ix. 29 (1. 7).
Perseverance, v. 9 ; x. 12.
Persuasion, to be used, vi. 50.
Perturbation, vi. 16 (sub f.) ; vii. 58 ; ix. 31.
Pessimism, ix. 35.
Philosophy, v. 9; vi. 12 ; ix. 41 (1. 12).
Pleasure, he who pursues, is guilty of impiety, IX. i (1. 19).
Pleasures are enjoyed by the bad, vi. 34; ix. i (1. 23).
Power, things in our own, v. 5, 10 (sub f.) ; vi. 32, 41, 52, 58 ;
VII. 2, 14, 54, 68; X. 32, 33.
Power, things not in our own, v. 33 (sub f.) ; vi. 41.
Practice is good, even in things which we despair of accom-
plishing, XII. 6.
Praise, worthlessness of, III. 4 (sub f.) ; iv. 20 ; vi. 16, 59; vii.
62; viii. 52, 53; IX. 34.
294 INDEX.
Prayer, the right sort of, v. 7 ; ix. 40.
Present time the only thing a man really possesses, li. 14; iir.
10 ; VIII. 44 ; XII. 3 (sub f.).
Procrastination. See Life to be made a proper use of, etc.
Puppet pulled by strings of desire, il. 2; in. 16; vi. 16,28;
VII. 3, 29; XII. 19.
Rational soul. See Ruling part.
Rational soul, spherical form of the, viil. 41 (sub f.) ; xi. 12;
XII. 3 (and see Ruling part).
Reason, all-prevailing, v. 32 ; vi. i, 40.
Reason and nature identical, vii. 11.
Reason, the, can adapt everything that happens to its own use,
v. 20 ; VI. 8 ; VII. 68 (1. 13) ; viii. 35; x. 31 (sub f.).
Reason, we should live according to. See Nature.
Repentance does not follow renouncement of pleasure, viii. 10.
Resignation and contentment, ill. 4 (1. 27, etc.), 16 (1. 10, etc.) ;
IV. 23, 31, y^ (sub f.), 34 ; V. 8, 2>Z (1- 16) ; vi. 16 (sub f.),
44, 49 ; VII. 27, 57 ; IX. 37 ; X. I, II, 14, 25, 28, 35.
Revenge, best kind of, vi. 6.
Rising from bed, v. i ; viil. 12.
Ruling part, the, li. 2 ; IV. I ; v. ii, 19, 21, 26; VI. 14, 35 ; vii.
16, 55 (par. 2) ; viil. 45, 48, 56, 57, 60, 61 ; IX. 15, 26; X. 24,
33 (1. 16), 38 ; XI. I, 19, 20 ; XII. 3, 14.
Self-reliance and steadfastness of soul,iii. 5 (sub f.), 12 ; iv. 11,
29 (1- 5). 49 (par. i) ; v. 3, 34 (1. 5) ; vi. 44 (1. 15) ; vii. 12,
15 ; IX, 28 (1. 8), 29 (sub f.) ; xii. 14.
Self-restraint, v. 33 (sub f.).
Self, we should retire into, iv. 3 (I. 4 and par. 2) ; vii. 28, 2>Z>
59; VIII. 48.
Senses, movements of the, to be disregarded, v. 31 (1. 10) ;
VII. 55 (par. 2); VIII. 26, 39; X. 8 (1. 9); xi. 19; xii. i
(1. II).
Sickness, behavior in, ix. 41.
Social. See Mankind.
INDEX. 295
Steadfastness of soul. See Self-reliance.
Substance, the universal, iv. 40; v. 24 ; vii. 19, 23; xii. 30.
Suicide, v. 29 ; viir. 47 (sub f.) ; x. 8 (1. 27).
Time compared to a river, iv. 43.
Time, infinity of, iv. 3 (1. 35), 50 (sub f.) ; v. 24 ; ix, 32; xii.
7, 32-
Tragedy, xi. 6.
Tranquillity of soul, iv. 3 ; VI. 11 ; vii. 68 ; Viii. 28.
Ugly, the, Ti. 1.
Unintelligible things, v. 10.
Universe, harmony of the, IV. 27, 45 ; v. 8 (1. 14).
Universe, intimate connection and co-operation of all things in
the, one with another, i[. 3, 9; iv. 29; v. 8, 30; vi. 38, 42,
43 ; VII. 9, 19, 68 (sub f.) ; VIII. 7; ix. i ; x. i.
Universe, nothing that dies falls out of the, viii. 18, 50 (1. 9) ;
X. 7 (1. 18). ^
Universe, nothing that happens is contrary to the nature of the,
V, 8, 10 (sub f.) ; VI. 9, 58 ; VIII. 5 ; Xll. 26.
Unnecessary things, v. 15.
Unnecessary thoughts, words, and actions, ill. 4 ; iv. 24.
Vain professions, x. 16; XI. 15.
Virtue, vi. 17.
Virtue its own reward, v. 6 ; vii. 73; ix. 42 (1. 36) ; xi. 4.
Virtue, omnipotence of, iv. 16.
Virtue, pleasure in contemplating, vi. 48.
Whole, integrity of the, to be preserved, v. 8 (sub f.).
Whole, the. See Interests.
Wickedness has always existed, vii. i.
Wickedness must exist in the world, viii. 15, 50; ix. 42; xi.
18 (par. 11) ; xii. 16.
Worst evil, the, ix. 2 (1. 7).
296 INDEX.
Worth and importance, things of real, iv. 33 (sub f.) ; v. 10
(1. 16) ; VI. 16, 30 (1. 7), 47 (sub f.) ; vii. 20, 44, 46, 58, 66;
VIII. 2, 3, 5; IX. 6, 12; X. 8 (1. 22), II ; XII. I, 27, 31, ^^.
Wrong-doing cannot really harm anyone, vii. 22; viii. 55; ix.
42 (1. 19) ; X. 13 (par. i) ; xi. 18 (par. 7).
Wrong-doing injures the wrong-doer, iv. 26; ix. 4, 38; xi. 18
(par. 3).
Wrong-doing owing to ignorance, li. i, 13; vi. 27; Vil. 22, 26,
62, 63; XI. 18; XII. 12.
Wrong-doing to be left where it is, vii. 29 ; ix. 20.
THE END.