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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

i3 chjloM'

JiJ^ M,)'^^:i

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

VOL. VII.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKIXSOX, E.L.S., F.G.S.

YOLTJME VII.
October, 1891, to October, 1893.

L I

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD: STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

1894.

HERTFORD :

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

' Zootoov '^t>

^c.*"* Zootoov

JUL 201942

f^^ 32^

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CONTENTS.

PAGE

1. Anniversary Address. — Francis Bacon. By the President,

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,r.R.M.S.,r.K.Met.Soc. 1

2. Bats and some other Beasts. By Geoege Rooper, F.Z.S. 37

3. Terrestrial British Quadrupeds existing in a "Wild State at

the Present Day. By T. Vaughan Robekts . . . . 41

4. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1891. By

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc 53

5. Notes on Birds ohservcd in Hertfordshire during the year

1891. By Henky Lewis 62

6. Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.

Albans, during the year 1891. By John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc 69

7. A Naturalist's Calendar for Mid-Hertfordshire. By J. J.

Willis 76

8. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-

shire during the year 1891. By Edward Mawley,
F.R.Met.Soc, FR.H.S 85

9. Coal : its Nature, Origin, Position, and Extent ; and its

Range under the South of England. By Professor

T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Plates I and II) . . 89

10. Anniversary Address. — Charles Darwin. By the President,

JoHNHoPKiNsoxN,F.L.S.,F.G.S.,F.R.M.S.,F.R.Met.Soc. 101

11. Notes on the Mycetozoa, with a List of Species from

Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. By James Saunders 137

12. Ice and its Work. By John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. . . 147

13. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the

year 1891. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.Met.Soc. (Plate III) 157

14. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year

1892. By Henry Lewis 161

15. Notes on some Hertfordshire Mammalia. By T. Vaughan

Roberts 169

VI CONTENTS.

PAGE

16. Meteorological Obs3rvations taken at the Grange, St.

Albans, during tlie year 1892. By John Hopkinson,
F.L.S., F.G.S., r.R.Met.Soc 175

17. Eeport on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-

shire during the year 1892. By Edwaed Mawley,
F.R.Met.Soc, F.E.H.S 182

18. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire. By

A. E. GiBBs, F.L.S 187

19. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the

year 1892. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S. , F.G.S.,
F.R.Met.Soc 199

20. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1892. By

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. (Plate
YIII, Frontisinece) 203

21. Observations of Temperature and Rainfall taken at

Throcking Rectory, Buntingford, 1880-1889. By the
Rev. C. WiGAN Haevet, M.A 213

22. The Climate of "Watford, deduced fi'om Meteorological

Observations taken during the ten years 1877-1886.
By John Hopkinson, F.L S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. . . 219

23. A List of Hertfordshire Hepaticae. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S. 233

Index, etc 237

Peoceedings, October, 1891, to October, 1893, pp. ix-lii.
(Plates IV-VII.)

[To be inserted, in binding, before the Transactions.]

ERRATA.

Page xxvi, line 32, for west read east ; line 33, for east read vrest.
,, 2, ,, 1 1, /or the sea rend and sea.
,, 49, ,, 2 from bottom, for nniphibius read ampJubia.
,, 67, ,, 16, and line 8 from bottom ; and p. 68, under Observer;

for Dickenson rend Dickinson.
,, 91, last line (footnote), /or occurred rertrf occur.
„ 194, line 9 from bottom, for Mehveil-du-Jour, read Merveille-

DU-JOUR.

LIST OF PLATES.

I. Map and Section showing the known and

probable Coal-measures in South Wales,
the South of England, the North of France,
and Belgium

II. Diagram to show the possible Occurrence of

Coal-measures in the Eastern Counties . .

III. Map of Hertfordshire showing its Climato-

logical Stations

YII.

YIII

Fig. 1. — Section of Chalk, Tertiaries, and
Diift, Midland Railway Cutting, North of
St. Albans. Fig. 2. — Hertfordshire Con-
glomerate, Townsend Farm, near St. Albans

Fig. 1. — "Bacon's Mount," near Pre Wood,
St. Albans. Fig. 2.— Ruins of Old Gorham-
bury House, St. Albans

Fig. 1. — Chalk -pit near Cribbs, Harefield.
Fig. 2.— Chalk-pit near the " Copper Mill,"
Harefield, showing pipes in the Chalk . .

Fig. 1 . — The River Colne at Colney Heath,
in June, 1893. Fig. 2. — Green Lane near
Colney Heath

Oak tree on Hedges Farm, near St. Albans,
struck by lightning during the storm of
28th-29th June, 1893 (noticed on pp. 210
and 212)

To face p. 89

157

XXIV

XXVI

xlvi

Frontispiece.

Plates lY, Y, YI, and YII are from photographs taken by the
Editor. Plate YIII is from a photograph taken by Mr. Gerald
Phipps, of St. Albans.

Dates of publication of the several parts contained in this volume ;

art 1.

Pages 1-36

April, 1892.

„ 2.

„ 37-68

October, 1892.

„ 3.

,, 69-100

February, 1893.

„ 4.

„ 101-136

April, 1893.

„ 5.

„ 137-168

July, 1893.

„ 6.

„ 169-200

September, 1893

„ 7.

„ 201-236

November, 1893.

„ 8.

,, ix-lii

February, 1894.

„ 9.

,, i-viii, and 237-244

April, 1894.

Dates of completion of previous volumes :

Transactions of the "Watford Natural History Society.
Vol. I. (pp. Ixiv and 248) August, 1878.

II. (pp. Ix and 260)

June, 1880.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.

Vol. I. (pp. Ixviii and 272)

II. (pp. Ixviii and 286)

III. (pp. Ixxii and 274)

IV. (pp. lii and 224)

V. (pp. xlviii and 224)

VI. (pp. Ixx and 204)

May, 1882.
May, 1884.
March, 1886.
June, 1888.
May, 1890.
July, 1892.

PROCEEDmGS

OF THE

HEKTFORDSHIKE ]>^ATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Bye MEETiyG, 22nd October, 1891, at St. Albaijs.

The study of plant -diseases and of injuries to plants, caused by
fungi and insects, being of considerable economic importance, and
attracting much attention at the present time, the President of the
Society and Mrs. Hopkinson invited the members and their friends
to a second " Evening with the Microscope"* at their residence,
The Grange, to examine plants injuriously affected and to discuss
some of the many interesting points connected with the subject.

Microscopes with which to view the minute fungi parasitic upon
the leaves, etc., of the higher plants, were brought by several
members, and many interesting objects were thus examined. These
were chiefly from Mr. Hopkinson's collection and fi'om a collection
sent by Mr. R. T. Andrews of Hertford, the former being trans-
parent, for examination by transmitted light, and the latter being
opaque, for reflected light. Unmounted leaf-fungi sent by Mr.
"NVatson "Walker were also examined microscopically.

Injuries to plants caused by insects were illustrated by a num-
ber of diagrams executed and lent for exhibition by the Misses
Ormerod. These diagrams represent the insects in their natural
size and magnified, show the nature of the injuries they cause to
our field- and garden- crops, and give the remedies for each attack.

Plants, also, injured in vaiious ways, were sent by Mr. J. "W.
Odell. These included pieces of apple-stems showing injury by
American blight or woolly aphis ; leaves and fruit of the tomato
affected with Peronospora infestans ; leaves of Chrysanthemum with
mildew ; leaves of cabbage with white rust ( Cystopus candidiis) :
leaves of Metia, a ten-estrial orchid from China, with rust ; swede
turnips diseased with "club-root" {Flasniodioj^hora hrassicce) ;
fasciated stems of Pyrethrutn idiginosum ; and three different forms
of Celosia cristata — (1) the normal form, (2) the half-fasciated
foi-m, and (3) the "cock's comb" form, a fasciated inflorescence
which florists have fixed by selecting time after time the more
fasciated forms.

* The first "Evening" was devoted to the study of the eyes of insects. See
' Transactions,' Vol. V, p. xxxx'i.

VOL. VII. — PART VIII. B

PEOCEEDINGS,

In the course of the evening Dr. A. T. Brett read a paper in
which he urged the members of the Society to take up the study of
vegetable mori:»hology, and particularly that part of it which
relates to the diseases to which plants are subject, and he showed
by examples of the losses sustained through want of knowledge,
how vitally important it was to the nation that plant-diseases
should be studied and the remedies for them made known.

After coffee, etc., had been served, some beautifully-executed
original coloured drawings of the spores of leaf-fungi, lent by Mr.
George Massee, of Kew, were examined, and books treating of the
subject of the evening's study, including the finely-illustrated
Monographs of our British Insects issued by the Ray Society, were
looked into.

About thirty members and friends were present.

Oedinart Meeting, 13th Noveitbek, 1891, at Watford.

Johj^ Hopkinson", Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. George Barker, Kettlewells, St. Albans ; Mr. A. C. G.
Cameron, Geological Survey of England, Foster Hill Road, Bedford;
Mr. G. Mainwaring Robinson, Long Heath, Watford ; Mr. Percy
Hamilton Sainsbury, Huskards, Watford ; Miss Amy Catherine
Sell, Fairfield House, Watford; Mr. Arthur Smith, Hill End,
Smallfoi'd, St. Albans ; and Mr. Percy Jenner Weir, Lattimore
Road, St. Albans, were proposed for membership of the Society.

The President said that most of the members present would
doubtless remember that at a meeting of the Society held at St.
Albans last December, the most important question affecting Hert-
fordshire which has lately arisen was brought forward, namely the
question of the water-supply of London. At that meeting a reso-
lution was passed requesting the Hertfordshire County Council to
take steps to oppose two bills then being prepared for presentation
to Parliament, which would, if they passed, very seriously affect
the interests of their county by a very much larger quantity of
water being abstracted from the catchment-basins of the Colne and
Lea for the supply of London than is even now being taken from
them. The bills were brought in and referred to a Select Com-
mittee ; their County Council, after considering the resolution of
their Society, officially presented to it, decided to oppose them ; and
the result of the opposition of the London and Hertfordshire County
Councils, and the London Water Companies, was that both bills
were thrown out. With regard to these bills, therefore, we had
nothing more to fear. Unfortunately, however, the matter was
still in abeyance. The London County Council was investigating
it, and there would very probably be some similar enquiry next
year. In the meantime the interests of this part of their county
were much more seriously affected by the steps which were being
taken by Mr. George Webster, of Harefield Grove, to abstract a

SESSION 1891-92. xi

larg:c amount of Tvater from deep ■wells in tlie Chalk in the lower
part of the valley of the Colne, below llickmansworth, privately,
for the supply of London. Mr. Webster mig-ht perhaps be quite
■within his legal rights in doing this if he could get easements into
London, as it -was stated that he had done ; but it ■would be a most
serious thing for Watford and the whole district watered by the
Colne, the Ver, the Gade, and the Chess, if this plan were to be
carried into eifect, and an enormous quantity of water were taken
for the supply of London from the reservoir of saturated chalk
from the overflow of which these I'ivers are almost entirely fed.
They would have the evils which they had already experienced to
a considerable extent, greatly increased, their wells, their water-
cress beds, and their streams running diy. He thought they might
at some future meeting have to consider how this scheme might be
effectually put a stop to, and the Society might possibly be called
upon to pass some similar resolution to that of last December.

The following paper was read : —

" Bats and some other Beasts." By George Rooper, F.Z.S.
{Transactions, Yol. YII, p. 37.)

A discussion ensued in which the President, Professor Attfield,
Dr. Brett, Mr. Rooper, Mr. Silvester, and Mr. Stradling took part.

OKDIJfAET MEETrNG, IItH DECEMBER, 1891, AT WaTFOED.

JoHX HoPKiJfsoN, Esq., r.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. George Barker, Mr. A. C. G. Cameron, Mr. G. M. Robinson,
Mr. P. H. Sainsbuiy, Miss A. C. Sell, Mr. Ai'thur Smith, and
Mr. P. Jenner Weir were elected Members of the Society.

Mr. William Fisk, L.D.S., Street Lodge, Watford, and Mr.
Felix Sumner Knyvett, Ashwellthorpe, Watford, were proposed
for membership.

The following paper was read : —

" Terrestrial British Quadrupeds existing in a Wild State at the
Present Day." By T. Vaughan Roberts. {Transactions, Vol. VII,
p. 41.)

A discussion ensued in which the President, Dr. Brett, Mr.
Rooper, and Mr. Stradling took part.

Preserved skins of several of the animals mentioned were
exhibited by the author in illustration of his paper ; and Dr. Brett
exhibited a black rat {3Ius rattus) with its young, a polecat
{Mustela putorius) killed on the estate of the Earl of Essex about
twenty-five years ago, and lent by Mrs. Hawkins of Hunton
Bridge, and several animals from the collection of the Public
Library.

Mr. Steadling exhibited a snake suffering from a malady which
he considered to be identical with or analogous to consumption
in human beings.

XU PROCEEDINGS,

OKDiNARr Meeting, 15th Janitart, 1892, at "Watford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. President, in the
Chair.

The following resolution was proposed from the Chair and
carried Jiem. con. : —

" That this meeting deeply sympathises with their Eoyal High-
nesses the Prince and Princess of Wales in the sad loss they have
sustained by the death of their eldest son, his Royal Highness the
Duke of Clarence and Avondale."

Mr. William Fisk, L.D.S., and Mr. F. Sumner Knyvett were
elected Membei's of the Society.

Miss Janet Archer, St. George's Villa, Chalk Hill, Watford, and
Mr. William Henry Lees, Sandonbury, Royston, were proposed for
membership.

The following lecture was delivered : —

" Crocodiles and Canaries." By Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S.,
F.Z.S.

Mr. Daniel Hill and Mr. T. Yaughan Roberts were elected
auditors of the accounts for 1891.

Anniversary Meeting, 19th February, 1892.
(At Watford.)

John Hopeinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

The Report of the Council for 1891, and the Treasurer's Account
of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.

The President delivered an Address on "Francis Bacon." {Trans-
actions, Vol. VII, p. 1.)

The following gentlemen were duly elected as the Officers and
Council for the ensuing year : —

President. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F.R.Met.Soc, etc.

Vice-Presidents. — Alfred T. Brett, M.D. ; the Right Honourable
the Earl of Clarendon ; Richard B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., F.R.M.S. ;
John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., Sc D., Treas.R.S., Pres.S.A., etc.;
William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S. ; C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

Treasurer. — John Weall.

B.on. Secretaries. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S.; and F. M.
Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.

Librarian. — W. R. Carter, B.A.

Curator.— K. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.

Other J/mJ^ns.— Professor John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.I.C., F.C.S. ; A. P. Blathwayt; Percival Bosanquet ; Arthur M.
Brown, M.A. ; Alfred Eteson, M.D. ; Upheld Green, F.G.S. ;
Augustus Hawks ; George Rooper, F.Z.S. ; F. W. Silvester ;
Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S. ; James Thornhill, F.L.S. ; the Rev. E.
T. Vaughan, M.A.

SESSION 1891-92. xiii

The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. F. M. Campbell
and ^Ir. George Hooper retirinj;- from the oiRce of Vice-President,
to ATr. Uptield Green retiring from the office of Librarian, and to
Dr. F. H. Berry retiring from the Council.

Report of the Council for the Year 1891.

The Council of the Hertfordshire Natural Histoiy Society, in
presenting the 17th Annual Report, has pleasure in stating that
the Society continues vigorous and prosperous, the number of
evening meetings held during the year 1891 having been quite up
to the average of former years, and on the whole very well at-
tended. The field meetings, however, owing to unfavourable
weather, have not been quite so numerously attended as usual.

Diu'ing the year twenty-two ordinary members have been elected,
four have resigned, and the Council regrets to have to record the
loss of one member by death — Sir James Longden. The number of
members at the end of the years 1890 and 1891 was as follows : —

1890. 1891.

Honorary Members 20 20

Life Members 47 48

Annual Subscribers 169 185

236 253

The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered
during the year : —

Jan. 26, at Watford.— Amongst "Wild Beasts ; by Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S.

27, at Hertford. — On the Abstraction of Water from the Chalk of

Hertfordshire ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,

F.R.Met.Soc.
Feb. 16, at Watford. — Anniversary Address : The Horse ; by the President,

the Eight Honourable the Earl of Clarendon.
March 13, at Hitchin. — Water and its Circulation above and beneath the

Surface of the Earth ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,

F.R.Met.Soc.

16, at Watford. — A Simple Method of taking Phenological Observa-

tions ; by Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S.

Notes on Birds Observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1890,

and the early part of 1891 ; by George Rooper, F.Z.S.

Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,

during the year 1890 ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.MetSoc.

Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire

during the years 1889 and 1890 ; by John Hopkinson.

23, at St. Albans. — The Application of Photography to Meteorology ;

» ^by Arthur W. Clayden, M.A., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

April 13, at Watford. — The Percolation of Rain through comparatively
Light and through comparatively Heavy Soil ; by Edward
Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S.

Report on Diseases of Plants in Hertfordshire in 1890; by

Alfred T. Brett, M.D.

Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1890; by John

Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.MetSoc.

Climatological Ob.servations taken in Hertfordshire in 1890 ; by

John Hopkinson.

20, at Watford. — Photography, Past and Present ; by William Coles.

XIV PEOCEEDINGS,

Nov. 13, at "Watford. — Bats and some other Beasts; by George Rooper,

F.Z.S.
Dec. 11, at "Watford. — Terrestrial British Quadrupeds existing in a "Wild

State at the Present Day ; by T. "Vaughan Roberts.

Several short notes on meteorology, botany, and zoology liave
also been read.

A Bye Meeting for microscopical study was held at St. Albans,
at the residence of the President — Mr. Hopkinson — on the 22nd of
October, when some remarks on the diseases of plants and injuries
caused to them by fungi, insects, etc , were made by Dr. Brett.

The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —

May 9. — Bennett's End, Hemel June 11. — Broxboume and Hertford.

Hempstead. 14. — Aldenham and Bricket "Wood.

13. — Dunstable and Totternhoe. July 11. — St. Albans.

23.— Welwj'u and Ayot. Oct. 17.— Bricket "Wood.

30. — Cassiobury Park, "Watford.

On the 2nd of May the Society visited the Museum of the Eoyal
College of Surgeons in Lincoln's Inn Fields, under the guidance of
Professor Stewart, F.R.S.

The thanks of the Society are due, for hospitality kindly afforded
at the Field Meetings, to Mr. and Mrs. Worthiugton Smith,
Dunstable ; to Mr. and Mrs. Upton Kobins, Delaport, Wheathamp-
stead ; to Mrs. James Hopkinson, Holly Bank, Watford ; and to
the President and Mrs. John Hopkinson, The Grange, St. Albans.

Three parts of Vol. YI of the present series of the Society's
'Transactions,' containing 100 pages and three plates, have been
published during the year, and the volume will be completed in
three more parts, two containing the Proceedings of the last two
sessions, and the third the title-page, contents, index, etc., to the
volume. In order to avoid unnecessaiy delay in the publication of
papers read during the present session, a new volume will be com-
menced before this one is completed.

The resolution passed by the Society at the meeting at St.
Albans in December, 1890, requesting the Hertfordshire County
Council to oppose any clauses in the London "Water Bills of 1891
which might be detrimental to the interests of the County, was
duly brought before the County Council, and a Committee was ap-
pointed by the Council to watch the progress of the bills and if
necessary to oppose them The bills were referred to a Select
Committee, and were opposed by the Hertfordshire County Council
and by other public bodies, the result being that they were thrown
out. Kecently, through the energetic endeavours of Dr. John
Evans, F.B.S., a Boyal Commission has been appointed to enquire
how far the present sources of water-supply are sufficient to meet
the increasing needs of the Metropolis, and the Commission will
soon begin its labours.

The library is in a satisfactory condition, and numerous works
have been received during the year by donation or in exchange.

SESSION 1891-92.

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XVI

PROCEEDINGS,

Additions to the Libeaey in 1891.

Presented.
Title.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Report for 1890. 8vo. London, 1891. .
British Columma. Annual Report of Minister of Mines

for 1889. 8vo. Victoria, B.C., 1890.
Bolton, Sir F. London "Water Supply. New Edition.

By P. A. Scrateliley. 8vo. London, 1888.
International Health Exhibition. Conferences. "Water

Supply and Distribution. 8to. London, 1884.
Linnean Society. Journal. Botany. Vol. xxvii, Nos.

185, 186. Vol. xxviii. No. 192. Zoology. Vol.

xxiii. No. 147. 8vo. London, 1890-91. .
Macgillivray, "W. Lives of Eminent Zoologists. 8vo.

Edinburgh, 1834.

Meriden (Connecticl't) Scientific Association. Trans-
actions for 1S90. Vol. iv. 8vo. Meriden, 1891.
MoNCKTON, C. Pure Spring "Water Supply for London.

4to. London, 1890

Phillips, Prof. J. Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of

Yorkshire. 8vo. London, 1853

ScoTT, R. H. "Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. Svo.

London, 1876.

Symons, J. G. (Ed.). Monthly Meteorological Magazine.

Vol. xxvi. Svo. London, 1891

"Water Supply of London, Newspaper Cuttings. 1891.

Donor.
The Association.
The Minister.
Mr. J. Hopkinson.
})

Mr. H. B. Croft.
Mr. J. Hopkinson.
The Association.
Mr. W. Whitaker.
Mr. J. Hopkinson.

The Editor.

(Mr. J. Hopkinson
and
Mr. W. Whitaker.

Eeceived in Exchange.

Svo.

American Monthly Microscopical Journal. Vol. xi, Nos. 1-12.
"Washington, 1890.

American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin. 1890. Svo. New
York, 1891.

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings.
Vol. vii. No. 1. Svo. Bath, 1891.

Blake, J. F. Annals of British Geology. 1890. Svo. London, 1891.

Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Abstracts and Reports, 1889, 1890. Svo. Brighton, 1889-90.

Bristol Naturalists' Society. Proceedings. Vol. vi, part 2. Svo.
Bristol, 1890.

CoNCHOLOGY, JouRNAL OF. Vol. vi, Nos. 9-12. 8vo. Leeds, 1891.

Cumberland and Westmoreland Association. Transactions for 1889-90.
Vol. XV. Svo. Carlisle, 1890.

Edinburgh. Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. vi, No. 2. Svo.
Edinburgh, 1891.

. Royal Physical Society. Proceedings for 1889-90. Svo. Edin-
burgh, 1S91.

Glasgow, Geological Society of. Transactions, 1888-90. Vol. ix. No. 1.
Svo. Glasgow, 1891.

Hampshire Field Club. Papers and Proceedings, 1S90. Svo. Southampton,
1890.

Liverpool Geological Society. Proceedings for 1890-91. Vol. vi, No. 3.
Svo. Liverpool, 1891.

Naturalists' Field Club. Proceedings for 1S8S. Svo. Liver-
pool, 1890.

SESSION 1891-92. xvii

London. Geological Society. Abstracts of tlie Proceedings. Session

1«90-91. 8vo. London, 1891.
. Geologists' Association. Proceedings. Vol. xi, Nos. 1-5. Svo.

London, 1891.

Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol. xvii,

No. 77-79. Svo. London, 1891.

The Meteorological Record. VoL x, Nos. 38-40. Svo.

London, 1891.

Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. Series 2, Vol. xi.

8vo. London, 1891.
Maxcuester Field Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Society. Proceedings
f..r 1889 and 1890. 8vo. Manchester, 1890-91.

Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxi, Nos. 1-6. Svo.

Manchester, 1891.

Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.

Series 4, Vol. iv, Nos. 1-3. Svo. Manchester, 1891.
^Midland N.aturalist. Vol. xiv. Svo. Birmingham, 1891.
Naturalist. New Series. Vol. xvi. Svo. Leeds, 1891.
New York Academy of Sciences. Transactions. Vol. ix, Nos. 6-8. Svo.

New York, 1890-91.

State Library. 72ud Annual Report, 188S-89. Svo. Albany,

1890.

State Museum. Bulletin. Legislation, 1890. Svo. New York,
. Iron Mines and Iron -ore Districts in the State of New

York. By J. C. Smock. Svo. Albanv, 1889.

. Boletiof the United' States. By C. B. Peck. lb.

Beaks of Unionidse inhabiting the Vicinity of Albany,

New York. By W. B. Marshall. Ih. 1890.

Building Stone in New York. By J. C. Smock. lb.

Rugby School N.a.tural IIistory Society. Reports for 1889 and 1S90.
Svo. Rugby, 1S90-91.

Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society. Trans-
actions for 1890. Svo. Taunton, 189 1.

United States Department of Agriculture. North American Fauna.
Nos. 3 and 4. Svo. Wa.shington, 1890.

Geological Survey. 9th Annual Report, 1SS7-88. 4to.

Washington, 1890.

. Bulletin. Nos. 51-61, 63, 64, 66. Svo. "Washington,

1890.

. Monograph. Vol. i. On Lake Buoneville. By C. H.

Gilbert. 4to. Washington, 1890.

. Mineral Resources of the United States for 1888.

lb. 1S90.
W.\rwickshire Naturalists' Field Club. 34th Annual Report and

Proceedings, for 1889. Svo. Warwick, 1891.
Wiltshire ARCH.iE()LOGicAL and Natural History Society. Magazine.

Vol. xxiv, No. 73. Svo. Devizes, 1890.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Proceedings for 1890.

Vol. xi, No. 3. Svo. Halifax, 1890.

Purchased.

Botany, Journal of. New Series. Vol. xxix. Svo. London, 1891.
Buckler, W. Larvae of the British Butterflies and Moths. Vol. iv.

(Ray Society.) Svo. London, 1891.
Entomologist. Vol. xxiv. Svo. Loudon, 1891.
Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland.

Eighth Annual Issue. Svo. London, 1891.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xv. Svo. London, 1891.

xvm

Oedinaet Meeting, 16th Makch, 1892, at Hertford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. President, in the
Chair.

Mr. Thomas Benskin, 196, High Street, Watford; Mr. John
Larkin, Delrow, Aklenham ; Mr. Albert Eiggall, 3, Albert Terrace,
Watford; Mr. A. Sainsbiiry Verey, M.B., CM., Heronsgate, Rick-
mansworth ; and the Rev. John Wardale, M.A., Datchworth
Rectory, Stevenage, were proposed for membership of the Society.

The following lecture was delivered : —

" An Hour with the Microscope at a Pond Side." By F. W.
Phillips.

The lecture was illustrated by illuminated drawings prepared by
the author.

Ordinary Meeting, 18th March, 1892, at "Watford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., E.L.S., E.G.S., etc.. President, in the
Chair.

Miss Janet Archer, Mr. Thomas Benskin, Mr. John Larkin, Mr.
W. H. Lees, Mr. Albert Riggall, Mr. A. Sainsbury Verey, M.B.,
CM , and the Rev. John Wardale, M.A., were elected Members of
the Society.

The following papers were read : —

1. " Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1891." By the
President. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 53.)

2. "Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1891." By Henry Lewis. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 62.)

Mr. RooPER said that it was genei*ally supposed that there was
only one hole in the nest of the long-tailed tit. If that were
the case the birds would be badly off for fresh air, but he had
discovered that there was a second hole in the nest, which, although
covered over, admitted of a free passage for air. Referring to
what he termed "the murder of the buzzard" in the county,
he said that if the bird were left alone it Avould breed here freely.
He remembered buzzards being quite common.

Mr. Vaitghan Roberts remarked that buzzards were not so
uncommon in this country as was generally supposed. He saw
several at Barmouth last year, and was told by a local ornithologist
that they were common there.

A discussion was commenced on a Scheme which had been pro-
posed for the Regulation of Bricket Wood Common, one of its
provisions being the sale and enclosure of considerable portions of
the Common in order to provide funds for obtaining an Act of
Parliament and for other expenses incident to the scheme. The
President opened the discussion with an explanation of the present
position and rights of the Lord of the Manor and the Copyholders ;
of the interest of the pubHc and especially of natui'alists in the

SESSION 1891-92. xix

preservation of the Common in its entirety as common land ; and of
the provisions of the proposed scheme.

Dr. Morison then read a paper prepared by Mr. F. W. Silvester,
giviiii;- an account of the steps which had already been taken in
furtherance of the scheme, and urging that we should do all we
can to preserve Bricket Wood Common just as it is, as being the
only really open (or unenclosed) space of any considerable extent
between London and St. Albans.

The discussion was continued by Mr. Rooper, Dr. Morison, and
Mr. F. Wallen, and was adjourned to the next meeting of the
Society at Watford.

Ordinary Meeting, 8ih April, 1892, at St. Albans.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

The following lecture was delivered : —

" The Natural History of the Diamond." By F. W. Eudler,
F.G.S., M.A.I., etc.. Curator of the Museum of Practical Geology.

The lecture was illustrated by diagrams, drawings on the black-
board by the lecturer, and photographs, etc., shown by the oxy-
hydrogen lantern kindly lent by Air. S. Monckton AVhite. A case
of models of celebrated diamonds, in paste, was also shown by Mr.
Eudler at the close of the lecture.

Ordinary Meeting, 6th May, 1892, at Watford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

The discussion on the Scheme for the Regulation of Bricket
Wood Common, commenced at the meeting on the 18th of March,
was continued, Mr. Wallen, Mr. Guy Ellis, Mr. F. W. Silvester,
Dr. A. T. Brett, Mr. W. Carter, Mr. John Weall, and the President
taking part in it.

The following resolutions were carried : —

1. Proposed by Dr. Brett and seconded by Mr. Carter: "That a
Committee be formed of tlie three Trustees of the Society and two
other members to be appointed by the President and Secretaries, and
that the duty of the Committee be to collect information regarding
the proposed regulation of Bricket Wood Common, and to report
to the Council, so that the Society may decide whether to take any
further action in the matter."

2. Proposed by the President and seconded by Mr. Silvester :
"That the Society, while expressing general approval of the
proposed scheme for the regulation of Bricket Wood Common,
protests against the sale and enclosure of any considerable area
of common-land, and against the building of houses thereon."

XX PROCEEDINGS,

The following papers were read : —

1 . " Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
during the year 1891." By the President. {Transactions, ^^o\.\ll,
p. 69.)

2. "A Naturalists' Calendar for Mid-Hertfordshire." By J. J.
"Willis. (Communicatedby the President.) {Transactions, No\. ^11,
p. 76.)

3. "Report on Phonological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire in 1891." By Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc., P.R.H.S.
{Transactions, Yol. YII, p. 85.)

Field Meeting, 7th May, 1892.

HARPENDEN AND EAST HYDE.

Meeting at Harpenden Station, the members, under the guidance
of Mr. James Saunders of Luton, walked into the Lea Yalley and
through the meadows by the side of the river fi-om Pickford Mill
to Cold Harbour. Turning off there up the lane to Bower Heath,
from the summit of the hill, about 430 feet above sea-level, an
extensive view was obtained, embracing Harjienden on the south,
"Wheathampstead on the south-west, and Kimpton with its church
forming a conspicuous object on the north-west. The gorse on
Bower Heath was in flower, but a large extent of it had recently
been burnt.

East Hyde Park, now the country seat of the Earl of Albemarle,
was then entered, by permission, with the special object of ex-
ploring the woods for botanical treasures. The gaitlens also were
visited. The Hertfordshire boundary was passed just before " The
Hyde" was reached, and the rest of the walk through the park was
in Bedfordshire.

After leaving the park, a few minutes walk brought the party to
East Hyde, and tea was partaken of at the village inn near the
church. Some of the members then returned to St. Albans, etc.,
from Chiltem Green Station, but the majority accompanied their
President on foot by way of Cooter's End to Harpenden, taking a
later train from there.

The most interesting plants found in flower were the toothwort
{Lathrcea squamaria), growing on the road-side hedge-bank near
the Great Northern Station, Harpenden, and the green hellebore
{Uellelorus viridis) found in the East Hyde Woods (in Herts).
Wood-anemones, wood-violets ( Viola Riviana), primroses, daffodils,
and bluebells, etc., were also in flower in these woods, cowslips in
the meadow below "The Hyde," and the cuckoo-flower ( Car^^fwrne
pratensis) by the Lea, Several species of Mycetozoa or Myxo-
gastres, curious forms of life which creep about like animals in
their youth, and settle down and produce spores in their mature
days, were seen in or on decayed wood.

SESSION 1891-92. xxi

Field Meeting, 21st May, 1892.
ALDEXHAM, WATFORD.

About a mile and a half from Watford, the road to Aldenham
crosses the lliver Colne at Eushey Mill. The "mill," however,
exists only in the name, for it was long ago dismantled, and there
is now scarcely sufficient flow of water in the river to drive a
mill-stone. At the lowest part of the valley the land is marshy,
and occasionally submerged, when pedestrians have to avail them-
selves of a raised wooden footpath by the side of the road. At the
Aldonluim end of this footpath is Eushey Mill Eridge, and here the
members, about thirty in number, assembled for a walk to Alden-
ham Church and Delrow under the guidance of Miss Ada Selby.

The route taken was across the fields and through Berry Grove
"Wood. In this wood several ferns and other plants rather rare
in our county have been found. Some years ago Miss Selby
discovered here a single plant of Cystopteris fragilis, and it is
one of the few stations in the county for Lastrea spinulosa, but
now even such comparatively common ferns as Athyrium filix-
foemina and Lastrea dilatata seem to have been eradicated. The
wood is one of the known haunts of the rather scarce Tinea Adela
virideUa, which has been taken amongst the beech trees, and
a search was made for it, but without success, nor were any other
moths seen here.

The chief object of the meeting, however, was to see Aldenham
Church and learn something of its history fi'om the Yicar, the
Rev. Kenneth F. Gibbs, who received the members at the lych-gate.

Aldenham Church is dedicated to St. John the Baptist, and is an
Early English building consisting of a chancel and nave, both with
aisles ; a north porch ; and a lofty tower with central spire and
beacon-tower at the north-east corner. Its interior has a peculiar
one-sided appearance, due to the centre of the chancel not being in
a line with the centre of the nave. It was built about the year
1250 on the site of an earlier church, was subjected to ruthless
vandalism by so-called "restoration" in 1840, but within the last
few years has been much improved, and its pristine features re-
stored as far as possible, by the present patron of the living, Mr.
Henry Hucks Gibbs, of Aldenham House.

The well-known altar-tombs of " Will. Hutchinson de Delrow in
paroch. Aldenhamiae, Armig.," and " Margerife " his wife, in the
south-east part of the churchyard, were first inspected. They are
surrounded by iron railings, and within the enclosure of four-feet
square are four sycamores which have broken into many pieces the
stone slabs and twisted about the iron railings, absorbing them into
their trunks in several places. Two of the trees are over eight
feet in circumference at three feet from the ground.

In the church the Vicar gave a history of the building, and
pointed out the interesting relics it contains. He had been told
that the foundations of the church were Saxon, but he had not
seen them. He had no doubt of there having been a church there

XXU PKOCEEDINGS,

in Saxon times, for the name Aldenham * pointed to the existence
of a Saxon settlement. The oldest part of the present building
now to be seen he believed to be a small window, the lower of two
windows at the west end of the south aisle. It was pure Norman,
and was, he supposed, about 700 years old. The most beautiful
thing in the church, perhaps, was the roof of the nave, which was
of carved and painted oak; it dated from about the year 1460.
The reredos over the altar was a fine specimen of Salviati's work.
All the screens were modem except the one in the south-chancel
aisle. This was standing in 1810 when the church was repaired,
the top of it was then taken down and thrown away, and in the
restoration of the church in 1840 the remainder was removed and
sold to a local builder. The parts had lately been collected to-
gether and the screen reinstated, the preservation of its fragments
being due to the wood having become so hard by age as to be use-
less to the carpenter. The rood-screen was approached by a
staircase outside the church, traces of which still remained, and
it was reached by crossing the south-ehancel aisle on the top of the
old screen just referred to, which was quite broad enough to walk
upon, and thence through the arch still remaining in the pier to
the screen where stood the rood or cross. The font, of Purbeck
marble, standing in the centre of the nave, and the piscina, in the
chancel, were between 600 and 700 years old, dating from the
building of the present church.

Referring, then, to the monuments, tablets, and brasses, Mr.
Gibbs pointed out, in the south-chancel aisle, two altar-tombs, on
each of which is the recumbent figure of a lady under a richly-
carved canopy. These beautiful monuments, he said, were about
500 years old {temp. Richard II) ; to whom they were erected
could only be surmised from the arms on six shields (three on each
tomb), one bearing the arms of Sir "William Crowmer, son of John
Crowmer of Aldenham, and Lord Mayor of London in 1413. In
brasses, both old and new, the church was very rich, though many
of the inscriptions on the old brasses had been torn away in
by-gone times on account of their containing prayers for the dead.

In the course of a walk round the chvirch, Mr. Gibbs remarked
upon the various stained windows, and pointed out a battle-helmet
said to have been worn by the first Lord Falkland, and the unique
parish chest. This is nine feet eight inches in length, has been
carved out of a solid piece of oak, is strengthened with thick bands
of iron which cross and re-cross each other, and has a lid opening
on seventeen massive hinges and secured by eight hasps, two large
bolts, and several locks. Cussans says that it is the finest parish
chest he ever saw.

In the vestry several old portraits and other interesting objects

* Or " Eaklenhara " as it was called when given by "Wulfsinus to the
Monastery of St. Albans. On the manor being divided between the Abbots of
St. Albans and of St. Peter's, "Westminster, "that portion which belonged to St.
Albans was laid to the Hundred of Cassio, and the other portion to Dacorum,
and so they still remain." (Cussans, 'Hist. Herts.,' "Dacorum Hundred,"
p. 239.)

SEsssoN 1891-92. xxiii

were seen. The oak vestry-table is a good specimen of cai-ved
Jacobean work, and was once the coumuiniou-tablc.

The Vicarage grounds were next visited, and here the only moth
captured during the afternoon's walk, Enpithecia vulgata (the
common pug) was taken on a wall.

The President then conveyed the thanks of the Society to the
Rev. Kenneth Gibbs, and the members left for Delrow House,
where they were very kindly received and entertained by Mr. and
Mrs. Larkin. The house, which is about half a mile from
Aldenham Church, is believed to have been built by its first
possessor, the "Will. Hutchinson" whose tomb had just been seen.
Mr. Larkin pointed out the date of its construction, 1667, on
the lead water-spouts. It has recently been much added to.

After tea had been partaken of, the conservatories were visited,
and Mr. Larkin' s very valuable collection of orchids was examined
with much interest. An hour was spent in strolling about the
extensive and picturesque grounds, which contain some fine old
trees, and then, after thanking their host and hostess, some of
the members walked to Radlett Station, and others by way of
Patchett's Green and Hearts Spring Wood to Watford.

Field MEETrNG, 28Tn May, 1892.
ST. ALBANS.

The chief object of this meeting was to enable the members
of the Society to see a section of strata between St. Albans and
Haiiienden recently exposed by the widening of a cutting on
the Midland Railway, and for this purpose permission had been
obtained from the Railway Company for the party to walk along
the line. The meeting was under the direction of the President
and Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

The members assembled at the Midland Station, St. Albans,
and, after a walk of about a mile to the north, came upon the
newly-cut face of the cutting on the eastern side of the line.
At this point, and once or twice afterwards in the course of
the walk along the cutting, which extends for about a mile
towards Harpenden, a halt was made, and Mr. Whitaker explained
the interesting features of the section exposed.

The Chalk — the lowest rock here seen — was, he said, in places
capped by a thin coating of sands belonging to the Reading Series,
and this was covered with Drift beds. The bedding of the strata
was seen to be very uneven, this being caused by the irregular
dissolution of the Chalk, which in some places had been dissolved
away to such an extent (by the percolation into it, through the
overlying beds, of water holding carbonic acid in solution) that
"pipes" were formed, and, as the Chalk was dissolved, the beds
above fell in, or gradually sank, in a very irregular manner, so
as to take, in section, the form of great waves, their hollows often
going below the deep cutting, and their crests, and even the Chalk
on which they rest, sometimes rising nearly to the top. Many

XXIV PEOCEEDINGS,

of these waves, however, were of irregular shape, being much
steeper on one side than on the other, even to verticality. The
Tertiary beds formed part of an outlier of which more would
be seen presently, and with regard to the Drift beds he could only
say that they were like beds which elsewhere had been classed
as belonging to the Glacial Drift.

The line was left at the point where it intersects Beech Bottom,
and this shady glen was traversed as far as the road known as Soot
House Lane. Here the President remarked that much less was
known about this cutting than about the railway- cutting on which
Mr. Whitaker had discoursed. It was an earthwork of early
British origin, extending here for rather more than a mile in
a nearly straight (but slightly sinuous) line, but the portion
still preserved was probably only a small part of the original
earthwork, for here and there, in the same general direction,
traces of a similar earthwork were to be seen. The earth had
been thrown up on both sides of the trench, and the Chalk had
been excavated nearly down to the present plane of permanent
saturation, so that at one time, when this plane was higher than
it is now, water must have stood permanently in the fosse. There
was now water in it only after very wet seasons, except in one
or two ponds, and these were sometimes nearly dry.*

The brickyards near Bernard's Heath were then visited, and
sections of the Tertiary outlier (Beading Beds) and overlying
Brick Earth, etc., were inspected. After crossing the heath,
which has been extensively dug for gravel, the gravel-pits on
Townsend Farm were entei'ed. These pits are of interest chiefly
as being one of the few spots where the Hertfordshire conglomerate
can be seen apparently in place. The bed was not very well
exposed, the section having been in a much better condition six
months ago ; but the conglomerate was traced for about twenty
feet in one direction and five feet in a direction perpendicular
to it. The puddingstone, Mr. Whitaker said, was made up of
flint-pebbles in a siliceous paste, the flints being a little harder
than the matrix, and that was probably the reason why the Bomano-
Britons used this material for their querns or grinding-mills. It is
known to occur in place only at two other spots in Hertfordshire,
both near lladlett Station, where its geological position is low in
the Reading Beds.

From the gravel-pits the members and their friends proceeded
by way of Bernard's Heath and St. Peter's Church to The Grange,
where they were entertained by the President and Mrs. Hopkinson.
After tea, which was partaken of in the garden, collections of
fossils were examined in the library, comprising Cretaceous and
Eocene fossils collected by Mr. Hopkinson, and fossils collected by
Dr. Morison from the Chalk Kock of the Chiltem Green cutting on
the Midland llailway, a list of which has been published in the
Society's ' Transactions' (Vol. V, p. 199).

* Mr. Samuel Sharp has endeavoured to show that it formed part of the
boundary of an ancient British town. (' Arch. Journal,' Vol. xxii, p. 299.)

Traits. Herts Xat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VII, riutc IV.

Chalk, Tektiaries, and Dkiit, Midland Railway, St. Aluans.

Hertfordshire Conglomerate near St. Albans.

SESSION 1891-92. XXV

The party included members of the Geologists' Association of
London, and numbered upwards of sixty.

Field Mreting, 25th June, 1892.
GORHAMBURY, ST. ALBANS.

The life of Francis Bacon having formed the subject of the
President's recent Anniversary A.ddrcss,* this meeting was ar-
ranged to illustrate those portions of it which relate to our great
philosopher's residence at Gorhambury, and Mr. Hopkinson acted
as Director, having obtained the permission of the Earl of Verulam
for Pre Wood and Gorhambury Park to be visited.

The members assembled on St. Michael's Bridge, and those who
first arrived visited Kingsbury, the residence of Mr. Willshin, to
see the handsomely-carved oak front door, a relic from the house
which Francis Bacon built.

St. Michael's Church was then visited, and the Vicar, the Rev.
^N". Hutchinson, pointed out some of the more interesting features
of the building, and showed the monument erected in the chancel
to Bacon's memory by his Secretary, Sir Thomas Meautys. The
Latin inscription, by Sir Henry Wotton, will be found in the
Addi'ess referred to above. It may be thus translated : —

Thus sat Francis Bacon, Baron Venilam, Viscount St. Albans ; or, by
more illustrious titles, the Light of Science, the Eloquence of the Law ; who,
after he had revealed the secrets of Nature and of Civil Life, yielded to Nature's
law that compounds must be dissolved, in the year of our Lord 1626, and in
the 66th year of his age.

In memory of this great man, Thomas Meautys, his faithful friend while he
lived, his admirer now that he is dead, has placed this monument.

Meautys was himself interred in the chancel, close to this
beautiful monument to his patron, as is shown by the remains of
an inscription on a stone near the altar-rails.

The private road to Gorhambury, once part of the high road
from London to Holyhead, was then traversed as far as the park,
from which Pre Wood was entered in order to see the reservoirs
made by Sir Mcholas Bacon to supply water to the house he built.
The site of these reservoirs, which are about an acre in extent, is
indicated on our Ordnance Maps by the word "camp," — but there
is even now some water in them, which we should be much sur-
prised to find in any camp of Early British, or Boman origin. The
water appears to have been conveyed from each reservoir, probably
by filtration through gravel, into a deep tank or well, and thence
to old Gorhambury House, distant three quarters of a mile, through a
leaden pipe, portions of which have been dug up and are preserved.
A valley intervenes, into which the pipe had been carried, and up
the opposite hill to the house, the position of which is from ten to
fifteen feet lower than the reservoirs.

In the middle of a field adjoining Pre Wood, and within sight of
the reservoirs, a nearly circular mound with several trees upon

* ' Transactions,' Vol. YII, pp. 1-36.

VOL. VII. — PART VIII.

XXVI PEOCEEDINGS,

it was pointed out. It is known as "Bacon's Mount," and it
is said that it was one of his favourite places for reading and
meditation. It appears to be a tumulus, and by its proximity
to the reservoirs may have led to the idea that they indicated
the site of a camp.

Re-entering the park, the valley was crossed nearly on the line
in which the water-pipe was carried, and the ruins of the old house
were inspected. Only portions of the walls of the back part
remain, with the entrance to the house, which was reached through
a courtyard, but the extent of the quadrangle in front can still be
traced by the different colour of the grass and a slight ridge here
and there. A little distance to the left are the remains of a statue
of Henry YIII. Were it not known that these are the ruins of a
house in which occasionally resided England's greatest philosopher,
and in which his father twice entertained Queen Elizabeth, it might
be wondered why they are so securely fenced in and so carefully
preserved, for they are of no great antiquity, being scarcely more
than three centuries old, and they possess no architectural features
worthy of note.

Just beyond these ruins, on the left, was seen Oak Wood, which
is of interest as being the wood which Bacon was advised to have
cut down in order to raise money, when he replied that " He would
not be stripped of his feathers."

After endeavouring, with no certain success, to find the site
of the house which Geoffrey de Gorham built about the year 1128,
and which was demolished before 1400, the park was left, and the
members were very kindly received and entertained at tea at
Maynes by Mr. and Mrs. Purrott.

Near the house, and running through part of the garden in one
direction and into the park in the opposite direction, is a dyke,
named on the 6-inch Ordnance Map " Devil's Ditch." It is nearly
in a line with Beech Bottom on the west and Graemes Dyke on the
east, and the Director suggested that they might all be portions
of the same earthwork, which was probably a defensive tribal
boundary (see also p. xxiv).

A few of the members then crossed the fields to the Pond-yards,
which Francis Bacon turned into " a place of pleasure," building
near them a house (" Vcrulam House") in which to live in the
summer, when the water-supply to old Gorhambury House failed,
and, on an island in the middle pond, a banqueting-house.

The site of Verulam House could not be traced, but the position
of it may be approximately determined from the following account
in Aubrey's ' Lives of Eminent Men ' : —

" From the leads [on the top of the house] was a lovely prospect to the ponds,
which were opposite to the east side of the house, and were on the other side
of the stately walke of trees that leads to Gorhambery House ; and also over that
long walke of trees whose topps afford a most pleasant variegated verdure,
resembling the works in Irish stitch. . . . P'rom hence to Gorhambery
is about a little mile, the way easily ascending, hardly as acclive as a desk : from
hence to Gorhambery in a straite line leade three parallell walkes ; in the middle-
most three coaches may passe abreast : in the wing- walkes two. They consist

Trans. Ilcrts Nat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VII, Plate V

"Bacon's Mount," near Pre Wood, St. Albans.

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EuiNs OF Old Gorhambury House, St. Albans.

SESSION 1891-92. xxvii

of severall stately trees of the like groweth and height, viz. elme, chesnut, beach,
hornbeame, Spanish ash, cervice tree, &c., whose topps doe attord from the walke
on the house the finest sliew that I have seen, and I sawe it about Michaelmas,
at which time of the yeare the colours of leaves are most varied."

This house, according to Aubrey, " did cost nine or ten thousand
the building, and was sold about 1665 or 1666 by Sir Harbottle
Grimston, liaronet ... to two carpenters for fower hundred
poundes ; of which they made eight hundred poundes."

The cottage close to the Pond-yards on the north is evidently
part of what was once a large house, possibly existing in Bacon's
time and referred to by him when he says : " In y*^ middle of the
laque where the howse now stands to make an Hand," that on
which he built his banqueting-house.

Eetuniing to Maynes, after thanking Mr. and Mrs. Purrott for
their hospitality, the party dispersed, some walking to St. Albans
past the site of Pre Mill, where the final illustration of Prancis
Bacon's connection with Gorhambury was given by the Director.

In 1556 Sir Nicholas Bacon erected here a "force" to supply
water to Gorhambury House, which he was then building. After
his death, in 1579, his widow, Lady Anne, "not finding much
need of that water," probably because the water from the Pre
"Wood reservoirs afforded a sufficient supply, removed the " force,"
and erected in its place a flour- mill. This action gave rise to a
law-suit, the lessee of "the Abbey Mylle," then a "water corn-
mill," claiming exclusive right to grind corn for "the inhabitants
of St. Albones towne." The result of this suit is vmknown, for
the only order in it on record is one dated 1 July, 1601, which
" states that on motion made that day ' by Mr. Bacon,' who in-
formed the Court that the cause was ready for hearing, it was
ordered that the same ' shall be heard in the Exchequer Chamber
next term.' " *

But the chief interest of this in connection with " Mr. Bacon"
lies in the probability that the conversion by his mother of a force
to supply water to Gorhambury House, into a flour-mill, led him
to build Verulam House, for i)r. Rawley, his chaplain, gives the
following anecdote as one of his " Additional Apophegms." f

" When Sir Nicholas Bacon the Lord Keeper lived, every room in Gorhambury
was served with a pipe of water from the ponds distant about a mile off. In the
lifetime of Mr. Anthony Bacon the water ceased. After whose death, his Lord-
ship coming to the inheritance, could not recover the water without infinite
charge. When he was Lord Chancellor he built Yerulam House, close by the
pond-yard, for a place of privacy when he was called upon to despatch any
urgent business. And being asked why he built that house there, his Lordship
answered that Since he could not carry the water to his house, he would carry his
house to the water.'"

Pre MiU was used as a flour-mill for nearly three centuries,
having been pulled down less than twenty years ago.

* W. J. Hardy, in 'Trans. St. Albans Arch. Soc.,' 1892, p. 17.
t Spedding's ' Works of Francis Bacon,' Vol. ^ii, p. 169.

XXVlll PEOCEEDINGS,

PiELD Meeting, 2nd Jthy, 1892.
ABBOT'S LANGLEY AND BEDMONT.

The members assemHed at King's Langley Station and walked
to Abbot's Langley, where they were shown over the grounds
of Langley House by Mr. and Miss Henty. The fine trees which
adorn the lawn in front of the house were inspected with much
interest. The most remarkable of these is a horse-chestnut, the
lower branches of which have bent to the ground, taken root,
and sprung up again with greatly-renewed vigour, their diameter
being increased, after rooting, two or three times. The spread
of the branches, Mr. Henty said, is foi'ty-two yards. The Rev.
Canon Gree refers to this tree in his paper on "Famous Trees
in Hertfordshire,"* and says that its interest is so great that
' ' it literally throws into the shade the cedars on the lawn, one
of which is sixteen and a half feet round." Near by a fine tulip-
tree was seen, now just coming into flower.

Just beyond Bedmont the beautif al grounds of Serge Hill were
entered, and here the members and their friends Avere very
hospitably entertained by Major Eeynolds Solly and Mrs. Solly,
and spent a considerable time in examining Mr. Solly's collection
of shells, minerals, etc., and in looking over his fine library, which
contains many rare and valuable works on Natural History and
Archaeology.

A vote of thanks having been accorded to Mr. and Mrs. Solly,
on the proposition of the President, the walk was continued across
the fields by Potter's Crouch to St. Albans. The party numbered
about twenty.

Field Meeting, 8th Octobee, 1892.
GORHAMBUEY, ST. ALBANS.

This was a special meeting arranged with the Earl of Yerulam
by the President to enable the members of the Society to see the
valuable collection of historical paintings, especially those of in-
terest in connection with the life and times of Francis Bacon, which
are preserved in Gorhambury House. To avoid too large a party
the meeting had to be restricted to memlers, about twenty of whom
availed themselves of the invitation of the Earl of Verulam. They
were received and conducted through several of the apartments by
the Earl, Lady Jane Grimston, and the Hon. William Grimston.

There are two portraits of Francis Bacon, one, representing him
with his hat on as is usual with portraits of his time, painted by
Yansomer about the year 1 620 ; the other, without the hat, usually
supposed also to be by Vansomer, but a much inferior painting, and
probably a copy of Vansomer's by another hand, made at a later
date when it was no longer the fashion to portray people vtith their
heads covered. Vansomer's painting is believed by Spedding f to be

* 'Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. II, p. 1.
t 'Letters and Life of Francis Bacon,' Vol. iii, p. iii.

SESSION 1891-92. xxix

a copy of a miniature in the possession of the Duke of Buccleugh,
said "to be by Peter Oliver, and dated 1620. It was then the
custom to have a miniature painted from life, and a life-sized copy
made of it, the first artists of the day making such copies. There
is also an excellent bust in terra-cotta, coloured, representing
Francis Bacon in his twelfth year, and believed to be by an Italian
artist. On either side are similar busts of his father and mother.

Francis Bacon was the fifth and youngest son of Sir Nicholas
Bacon, who married twice, having three sons and three daughters
by his first wife, and two sons by his second wife, who survived
him, and resided at Gorhambury until her death in 1601. His
second son, Nathaniel, had a daughter, Anne, who married first Sir
Thomas !Meautys, and next Sir Harbottle Grimston, who also had
been married before, to ^ary, daughter of Sir George Croke. From
Sir Harbottle' s daughter Mary, by his first marriage, the present
Earl of Yerulam is descended.

Sir Nathaniel Bacon was a talented artist, and two paintings
by him attracted much attention. One, a likeness of himself, is
believed to be one of the best ever painted in England by an
amateur. The other, " the Cook-maid," is also an excellent paint-
ing, and is of special interest as probably representing his step-
mother. Lady Anne, the mother of Francis, about the year 1577,
when Sir Nicholas entertained Queen Elizabeth. The Cook-maid
is represented holding a live turkey in her arms, and with a number
of dead birds on the table before her, including ducks and pigeons,
herons and bustards, yellow-hammers, bullfinches and chalfinches,
and a swan. There is a distinct likeness between the bust of Lady
Anne Bacon and the Cook -maid in this picture.

Sir Thomas Meautys and Sir Harbottle Grimston are also por-
trayed, the former by Vansomer ; and amongst other paintings of
the time of Francis Bacon may be mentioned one of Queen
Elizabeth, painted by Hilliard in 1570, and presented by the
Queen to Sir Nicholas Bacon ; and one of James the First,
painted for Sir Thomas Meautys.

A much older portrait than any of these is that of Sir Edward
Grimston, an ancestor of the Earl of Verulam, who died in 1478.
The portrait is on a panel and was painted by Petrus Christus
in 1446, at Burgundy, while Sir Edward was Ambassador at
that Court.

Other interesting relics were also shown by the Earl, including
a work-box which formerly belonged to Mary Queen of Scots,
and the famous Yerulam jug, which, with a skeleton and two
other glass vessels, was found in 1813 in a Roman stone coffin dug
up in a field on Kingsbury Farm. This coffin was for many years
lying by the road-side, and is now in St. Michael's churchyard.

On leaving the house the President conveyed the thanks of
the members present to the Earl of Verulam for his kindness
in not only allowing them to see his art-treasures, but also much
increasing their interest by his remarks on their history and
associations.

XXX PROCEEDINGS,

A few of the party then inspected the ruins of the house built
by Sir Mcholas Bacon, and endeavoured to find the site of the
still earlier house built by Eobert de Gorham, while the rest
returned direct to St. Albans.

PiELD Meeting, 13th Octobee, 1892.
BROXBOUENE AND WORMLEY.

Only once previously, five years ago to the day, has a Fungus
Foray been held in the eastern part of the county, and then in
the same neighbourhood as this. On that occasion 74 species of
fungi were found, this time the number was doubled, but this
result is chiefly owing to work done in the morning, for about
80 species were found in "VVormley Wood by a few members
who met by special arrangement before the officially-announced
foray commenced.

The meeting was under the direction of Mr. Henry Warner,
and the species of fungi collected were determined by Mr. George
Massee, of Kew, who accompanied the party.

In the afternoon the walk was from Broxboume Station by
Baas Hill and St. John's Well into Cowheath Wood and Brox-
boume Wood, returning to the station by Wormley, where Mr.
Warner entertained the party at tea.

The following list comprises 149 species (with two varieties),
of which 51 species, to which an asterisk (*) is affixed (and both
varieties), are new to the county. The rarer forms are indicated
by an obelisk (f).

Hymenomycetes.

Agaricus (Tricholoma) albo-bninneus,

Agaricus (Amanita) phalloides, Fr.

Pers.

mappa, Batsch.

mtilans, Sch(eff.

muscarius, L.

9 9

imbricatus, Fr.*

rubescens, Pers.

J J

teiTeus, Schceff.

spissus, Fr*

,, var. orirubens,

Taginatus, Bnll.

Quel.*

(Lepiota)

\ procenis, Scop.

) J

saponaceus, Fr.

rachodes, Vitt.

sulphureiis, Bull.*

J J

mastoideus, Fr*

) J

9 9

carneus, Bull.*

clypeolarius, Bull.

))

albus, Scheef.f

cristatus, Fr.

J i

J 9

nudus, Bull.

) J

carcharias, Pers.

J J

) J

melaleucus, Pers.

granulosus,i?ffYw^ .

(Clytocybe) nebiilaris, Batsch.

,, var. rul'escens,

clavipes, Fr.

B. and Br.*

) J

hirneolus, Fr.*f

amiautliinus. Scop.*

odorus, Fr.

gliodermus, Fr.*f

))

rivulosus, Pers.*

(Armillaria'

) melleus, Vahl.

))

cerussatus, Fr.

mucidiis, Fr.

pbyllophilus, Fr.

ramentaceus,

pithyophilus, Fr.

Bull.*f

J )

candicans, Fr.*

(Tricholoma) equestris, L.

gallinaceus, ficop.

) J

portentosus, Fr.*

fumosus, I'ers.

resplendens, Fr.*f

int'undibuliformis,

flavo-bninneus,i^r.

Schceff.

SESSION 1891-92.

XXXI

Agaricus (CIj"tocybe) parilis, Fr*
,, tuba, Fr.

cyathit'ormis, Fr.

bruiiialid, Fr.

nu'taclirous, Fr.*

dit(i]Mis, Fr*

lac'catus, Scop.

(Collybia) radicatus, Jiehl.

fusipes, Bull.

niacailatus, A.i^ S.

butyraceus, Bull.

couflueus, Pers.

racemosus, Firs.*

esculeutus, Jacq.

dryophilus, Bull.

ozes, /V.*t

(Myceiia) peliantliiuus, Fr.

jurus, Pers.

uteo-iilhus, Bolt.*

lacteus, Pers.

rugosus, Fr.

galericulatus, Scop.

plicosus, Fr.*

alcalinus, Fr.

metatus, Fr.

filopes, Bull.

sanguinoleutus,

A. and S.

galopus, Pers.

epiyterygius, Scop.

roridus, Fr.

tenerrimus, Berk.

corticola, Schum.

hiemalis, Osbeck.*

(Omphalia) leucophyllus, Fr.*

,, rusticus, Pers.

,, griseus, Fr.
(Pleurotus) striatidus, Fr.* t

,, liypnophilus,Pipr«.*
(Pluteus) cervinus, Schceff.
(Eatoloma) siuuatus, Fr.

,, sericeus, Bull.
(Leptonia) larapropus, Fr.

,, serrulatus, Pers.*

,, incanus, Fr.*
(Nolania) pascuus, Pers.
(Plioliota) squarrosus, Mitll.

,, spectabilis, Fr.
adiposus, Fr.
Cookei, Fr.*f
mutabilis, Schaff.
(Inocybe) pyriodorus, Pers.

,, perbrevis, J?'i?iss;«.*t
(Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr.

Agaricus (Hebeloma) ainapizaus, Fr.

,, (Flamiuula) lentus, Pers.*

,, ,, gummosus, Lasch.

,, ,, aluicobi, Fr.*

,, (Galera) bypnorum, Batsch.

,, (Psalliota) campestris, L.

,, ,, silvaticus, Schmff.

,, (Stropbaria) aerugiuosus, Curt.

,, ,, spintriger, Fr.*

,, ,, merdarius, Fr.*

,, (Hypboloma) subhiteritius, T^r.

,, ,, I'ascicularis, Buds.

,, (Panasolus) carapauulatus, Z.
Copriuus fimt'tarius, Fr.*

,, micaceus, Fr.
Cortinarius crassus, Fr.*

,, largus, Fr.*

,, glaucopus, Fr.*

,, fulgens, Fr.

,, elatior, Fr.

,, pbolideus, Fr.

,, paleaceus, Fr.

,, aeutus, Pers.
Hygropborus eburneus, Bull.

,, bypotbejus, Fr.

,, chlorophanus, Fr.
Lactarius turpis, Fr.

,, flexuosus, Fr.*

,, camphoratus, 5m/^.*
Eussula Linnaei, Fr.*

,, lilacea, Quel.*

,, vesca, Fr.*

,, citriua, Gill.*

,, fragilis, Pers.
Marasmius urens, Fr.

,, peronatus, Bolton.
Boletus duriusculus, Schulz.*

,, chrysenteron, Fr.
Polyporus fomentarius, Fr.

,, versicolor, Fr.
Fistulina bepatica, Fr.
Ilydnuiu Weissmanui, Fr.*
Corticium arachuoideum, Berk.*

,, moUe, Fr.*
Stereum birsutum, Fr.
Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr.

DiSCOMYCETES.

Peziza aurantia, GSd.

,, scutellata, L.*

,, virginea, Batsch.*
Helotium claro-flavum, Grev.*

,, aaruginosura, Fr.*\
Geoglossum viscosum, Pers.*

Mr. Warner afterwards found, and sent to Mr. Massee for
determination, two rare species, Tremellodon gelatinosum, Pers.,
and Clavaria stricta, Pers., both being new county records.

XXXU PROCEEDINGS

Ordinary Meeting, 15th j^ovember, 1892, at St. Albans.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. E. A. L. Batters, LL.B.., B.A., F.L.S., The Laurels,
Wormley ; Mr. H. Blackburn, Nascot Grange, Watford ; Mrs.
A. E. Bolton, London Road, St. Albans; Mr. C. E. Dillon, Alma
Eoad, St. Albans; Mr. Arthur E. Gillman, Springfield, Wood-
ridings, Pinner ; Mr. George Bickersteth Hudson, M.P., Watton,
Hertford; Mr. Arthur Lewis, Sparrowswick, St. Albans; Mr. W.
N. Puddicombe, M.R..C.S., London Road, St. Albans; Mr. AVilliam
Topley, r.RS., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Geological Survey of
England, 28, jermyn Street, London, S.W., and Hurstboume,
Elgin Road, Croydon; Miss Katherine Tumbull, Rose Hill, Abbot's
Langley; Mr. Frederick Wallen, 96, Gower Street, London, W.C,
and Bricket Wood, St. Albans; and Miss Jane Wiles, George
Street, St. Albans, were proposed for membership of the Society.

The following lecture was delivered : —

" Woodland Wanderers, or the Mycetozoa." By James Saunders.

An extempore lecture, the substance of which, with additions,
was afterwards written as " Xotes on the Mycetozoa, with a List
of Species from Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire." (^Transactions,
Yol. VII, p. 137).

The lecture was illustrated by photographic slides, representing
various species of Mycetozoa in different stages of growth, shown
by the oxy-hydrogen lantern kindly lent by Mr. S. Monckton
White ; and a slide with living plasmodium, which had thrown
out pseudopodia during the preceding twenty-four hours, was
also shown on the screen by the lantern-microscope. This is
believed to be the first time that living plasmodium has thus
been shown to a scientific society, and the President remarked
that the meeting would therefore probably be a historical one.

Mr. Saunders also exhibited coloured drawings of the Mycetozoa
executed by the Misses Lister.

Ordinary Meeting, 18th November, 1892, at Watford.

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. E. A. L. Batters, LL.B., B.A., F.L.S., Mr. H. Blackburn,
Mrs. A. E. Bolton, Mr. C. E. Dillon, Mr. A. R. Gillman, Mr. G.
B. Hudson, M.P., Mr. Arthur Lewis, Mr. W. N. Puddicombe,
M.R.C.S., Mr. William Topley, F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,
Miss Katherine Tumbull, Mr. Frederick Wallen, and Miss Jane
Wiles, were elected Members of the Society.

The Right Honourable George Devereux de Vere Capell, seventh
Earl of Essex, Cassiobury, Watford ; Mr. James Fisk, High Street,
St. Albans; and Mr. E. T. Wilks, F.R.G.S., Monmouth House,
High Street, Watford, were proposed for membership.

SESSION 1892-93. xxxiii

The followins: lecture was delivered : —

" Coal : its Xaturc, Ori2,-in, Position, and Extent ; and its Tlanf^e
under the South of England." By Professor T. llupcrt Jones,
E.R S., F.G.S., Honorary Member of the Society. {Transactions,
Vol. VII, p. 89.)

The lecture was illustrated by a large number of diagrams.

Ordixakt Meeting, 16th December, 1892, at Watford,

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., E.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

The Right Honourable the Earl of Essex, Mr. James Fisk, and
Mr. E. T. Wilks were elected Members of the Society.

Mrs. Kcmber, The Hansteads, Bricket Wood, St. Albans, was
proposed for membership.

The following paper was read : —

" Ice and its Work." By John Morison, M.D., F.G.S.
{Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 147.)

The President remarked how comparatively recent it was that
we had any knowledge whatever of the action of ice in this
country. Only about half a century ago, in November, 1840,
evidences of such action were first brought before the Geological
Society, by Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell ; and in 1842 Darwin
first described the effects of glaciation in North Wales. Much
more recently Professor Ramsay first showed how glaciers can
excavate lake-basins. For long it had been a puzzle how it was
possible for a lake basin to be scooped out of the solid rock, and it
could only be accounted for by the action of ice, the great weight
of ice accumulating in the steeper part of a valley pressing the ice
downwards with such force in the shallower part below, that the
stones embedded in it scooped out a deep hollow which gradually
became shallower as the pressure was relaxed, giving the form of
lake-basin which Dr. Morison had described.* He also mentioned
that Professor Prestwich, about 35 years ago, in a paper in the
' Geologist,' first noticed the occurrence of boulder-clay in Bricket
Wood, and found evidences in the gravel beneath it of the former
existence of the mammoth in the county.

Dr. Brett said that he had observed three terraces in the valley
of the Colne, and he thought that a large glacier or a succession of
glaciers might have filled this valley.

Dr. Morison said that he did not think that the valley of the
Colne was ever occupied by a glacier. No doubt the great ice-
sheet did cover the country here, but there was no evidence that
any separate glacier ever existed in this valley. Much, he added,
remained to be done in this county in recording boulders and
the nature of the rocky fragments which occur in the boulder-clay
and drifts.

* The competency of ice, or ice-embedded stones, to scoop out a lake-basin,
has recently been called in question.

XX XIV PEOCEEDINGS,

The Peestdent then announced that this was probably the last
meeting which the Society would hold in the "Watford Public
Library, which had been its head-quarters for the last eighteen
years. It was scarcely necessary to allude to the difficulty of
hearing the lectures at this and the preceding meeting owing
to the noise made by the carpentering class in the part of the room
separated from that in which they were assembled only by a
removable partition ; for after the present meeting they could not
get the promise of a room at all. The Council had therefore
entered into negociations with the Governors of the Endowed
Schools, and had arranged to transfer thither the head-quarters
of the Society at the end of the present year.

Okdinaut Meeting, 17th Janiiaet, 1893, at Watford.

JoHK HoPKiNSOif, Esq., F.L.S., E.G.S., etc.. President, in the
Chair.

Mrs. Kember was elected a Member of the Society.

Mr. E,. Casson, "Woodfoi'd Road, Watford; Mr. Percy Manning,
North End House, Watford ; and Mr. A. T. Murray, Harpley,
Stratford Road, Watford, were proposed for membership.

The President said that he was pleased to see such a large
attendance of members at the first meeting of the Society in its
new quarters, the Watford Endowed Schools ; and he announced
that the Society's bookcases, books, and other effects would be
removed on the following day to the Governors' board-room
upstairs, which would be open for the exchange of books on
the first Tuesday in each month from 7 '30 to 8 p.m., as well
as on the conclusion of the meetings of the Society, which would
usually be held on the third Tuesday.

A lecture was delivered, of which the following is an abridged
report : —

" Man and Ape." By Arthur Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

Mr. Stradling introduced his subject with an anecdote about
Dumas, the novelist. Dumas had a decided dash of black blood in
his veins, and someone once mentioned it in his presence, where-
upon he retorted : " Yes, you are quite right, my father was
a black man and my grandfather was a monkey, in fact. Sir,
my pedigree begins where yours leaves off." Without advocating
such an immediate descent of man from the monkey or ape, for
the terms were practically synonymous, he would now show some
points of affinity between them.

Structurally, he said, there is less difference between man and
the higher monkeys than there is between the latter and the
inferior species of monkeys, the gulf between the human race and
the anthropoid apes being an intellectual one only ; but the
recognition of this real organic similarity had been long delayed
and was even now admitted with reluctance. The earliest guesses
at human anatomy were derived from the study of monkeys by

SESSION 1892-93. xxxv

Galon, but man was not scientifically classed as an animal until
the middle of tlie last century, when Linnaeus assiijned him a
genus and species [Homo sapiens). The classification now generally
accepted is that of Huxley, who places man with the four highest
genera of monkeys, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang-utan, and
gibbon, which are known as the Anthropoid Apes.

Tlie difference between the old-world and the new-world
monkeys was then shown, the former being known as the Catar-
rhine, and the latter as the Platyrhine apes. Fossil Catarrhine
apes have been found in Paraguay, from which it was inferred
that there had been some southern connection between the
American continent and the old world. Nearly all the American
monkeys have prehensile tails, but not a single old-world species
has the power of grasping by the tail. Man, as might be expected,
conforms entirely to the old-world type, the Catarrhine monkeys.

In dissecting the anthropoid apes, rudiments of organs are found
which have played their part in the internal economy of their
remote ancestors, and it is the presence of such vestigial structures
in ourselves which so conclusively proves our community of
descent. Our possession, for instance, of useless rudiments of the
muscles which erect and depress the ears in other animals, can
only be explained by the theory of evolution.

Mr. Stradling then passed in review some of the chief charac-
teristics of the four kinds of anthropoid, or man-like, apes — the
gorilla and chimpanzee of Equatorial Africa, and the orang-utan
and gibbon of Eastern Asia — showing in what respect each most
nearly approaches man. In treating of the chimpanzee he said
that it has a slight nasal intonation, a distinction enjoyed by
no other animal but man ; and that it can sing, its song, though
not very musical, being as good as that of many savages. The
most interesting of the chimpanzees which have lived at the
Zoological Gardens was Sally, and he thought it was hardly
too much to say that the services rendered to zoology by her were
second only, in the present century, to those of Darwin. Sally
lived with us eight or nine years, and was about eleven years
old when she died. She seemed to get perfectly acclimatized.
Her arithmetical attainments were well known. She counted
accurately up to ten, and many savages can do no more than
reckon with their fingers, but they have a greater potential
capacity. When counting straws, Sally had an idea of multiplica-
tion which was quite her own ; if she had not enough she would
get impatient and double them over so that each straw presented
two ends, and it was noticeable that she only looked at the straws
and not at her keeper. She would take a definite number of bites
at an apple, with a large bite for the final one, so that it is certain
she made a mental note of each bite. She completely undermined
man's claim to be the only animal who can laugh, for she laughed
all over her face like a Negro child does, but not audibly, that
doubtless being an art acquired by man. She had a decided sense
of humour. He once gave her a banana, and a silvery gibbon, of

XXXVl PEOCEEDINGS,

whom she was very jealous, begged for a share. Sally took the
banana, peeled it, and ate it with great deliberation, and then
passed the skin round in front of the gibbon. He seized it and
then in a great rage flung it down, while she smiled delightedly
at him.

Some of the peculiarities possessed by man and the apes, but
by no other animals, were then enumerated. " We " only possess
thumbs, most monkeys, but not all, having four; "we" are the
only animals who have finger-nails, the nails in all animals lower
than the apes forming claws or being thickened or expanded into
hoofs. But a further important item of agreement in the structure
of our hands had just been discovered. The back of the hand
is covered with hair, a growth quite as marked in some men with
strong sinewy hands as in the orang-utan ; the first joint of
the finger is laden with hair also, and there are several short
hairs on the second joint; but on the terminal joint not even
a microscope will enable us to detect any hair, nor has there ever
been any on it. This peculiarity is strictly confined to " us," the
apes. Every other animal with a furry paw is furred right to
the tips of the fingers and toes, for this applies to both. And with
regard to the foot, he did not think that the first toe forms a
thumb in the anthropoids ; he doubted whether they had more
power of opposition with the toes than has a new-born child ;
nor did he think that their feet were more prehensile than ours
would be if we used them freely instead of shutting them up
in leather boxes.

Our teeth, also, are the same as those of the anthropoid apes,
not only in number (32) but also in kind and in arrangement ;
and the number of first teeth (milk teeth) is the same (20) and
they are shed at about the same period. The olfactory organs
are similar ; and " we " (the apes) are the only creatures with eyes
which are encased in bone and look directly forward, the eyes
in all other animals being more or less divergent. Then there
is a little bone wedged in between the two upper jaw-bones
(or maxillary bones) which in most animals remains distinct
throughout life, but in man and the apes is welded in so as to
form part of the upper jaw. Again " we five " (man, gorilla,
chimpanzee, orang-utan, and gibbon) have our right lungs quite
free, while in all other animals one lobule of this lung is wedged
in between the heart and the diaphragm.

Passing from structure to habits, Mr. Stradling mentioned that
we are naturally left-handed, as are the monkeys, but we are
educated from childhood to use the right hand more than the
left; that we have many diseases in common; that "we" are
the only animals naturally unable to swim ; the only animals afraid
of snakes ; and it had been said the only animals who readily
develop a taste for alcohol and smoke tobacco with pleasure.
Other points of agreement between us were also mentioned, such
as the ability to use tools.

With regard to the points of distinction between man and the

SESSION- 1892-93. xxxvu

ape, he said that the greatest difference is usually considered to
be in tlio brain, but that in complexity there is very little
difFcronce, the furrows and convolutions in the brain of the ape
bfing- quite as many as in that of man, but altered a little in
shape ; the difference, in size, however, is great. No monkey
habitually assumes the erect position, but there are reasons for
believing that man has not always walked erect. The rudest
savage can draw, and man only lias the power of anticipating
alternate movement.

Finally the question of "the missing link" was discussed, the
conclusion arrived at being that if such a link were discovered
it would be in the rocks of that cradle of the human race, Central
Africa.

Mr. T. Yaughan Roberts and Mr. J. T. Broad were elected
auditors of the accounts for 1892.

Annxveesary Meeting, 21st Febeuary, 1893.
(At Watford.)

John Hopkinson, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., President, in the
Chair.

The Repoi't of the Council for 1892, and the Treasurer's Account
of Income and Expenditure, were read and adopted.

Sir William Henry Flower, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., Pres.Z.S., Director of the Natural History Depart-
ment of the British Museum, Cromwell Road, South Kensington,
London, S.W., was elected an Honorary Member of the Society.

The President delivered an Addi-ess on " Charles Darwin."
{Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 101.)

The following gentlemen were duly elected as the Officers and
Council for the ensuing year : —

President— AxthxLY Stradling, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents.— ¥roie^sor John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.I.C, F.C.S. ; the Right Honourable the Earl of Clarendon;
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P S. A. ;
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc. ; William
Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S. ; C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

Treasurer. — John Weall.

Hon. Secretaries. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. ; and F. M.
Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S.

Librarian. — W. R. Carter, B.A.

Curator.— K. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.

Other Members.— K. P. Blathwayt ; A. T. Brett, M.D. ; Arthur
M. Brown, M.A. ; R. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., F.R.M.S. ; Upheld
Green, F.G.S. ; Augustus Hawks ; Daniel Hill ; T. Vaughan
Roberts ; George Rooper, F.Z S. ; John Thomhill, F.L.S. ; the
Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A. ; Percy Jenner Weir.

XXXVUl

The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. John Hopkinson
retiring from the office of President ; to Dr. Alfred T. Brett and
Mr. E. B. Croft retiring from the office of Vice-President ; and
to Mr. Percival Bosanquet, Dr. Alfred Eteson, and Mr. F. W.
Silvester retiring from the Council.

Hepokt of the Council for the Yeae 1892.

In presenting the 18th Annual Report, the Council of the Hert-
fordshire I^atural History Society has pleasure in stating that the
Society maintains its flourishing condition, and that the number of
members has increased.

During the year twenty-four ordinary members have been
elected, twelve have resigned, and the Council regrets to have
to record tbe loss by death, of one honorary member, Sir Richard
Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S., and two ordinary members, Sir Oscar
Clayton, M.D., and the Earl of Essex.

The number of members at the end of the years 1891 and 1892
was as follows : —

1891. 1892.

Honorary Members 20 19

Life Members 48 51

Annual Subscribers 185 192

253 262

By the death of Sir Richard Owen we have lost the greatest
comparative anatomist of our day. Born in 1804, and educated for
the medical profession, in 1826 the Hunterian Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons was placed under his charge, and in
1856 he was appointed Superintendent of the Department of
Natural History in the British Museum, a position he held for over
30 years. To his energy and perseverance we are chiefly indebted
for the present admirable condition and the location of our national
natural-history collections. He was elected an honorary member
of the Society in the year 1885.

Sir Oscar Clayton had a distinguished professional career. For
a considerable time he was Surgeon in Ordinary to H.R.H. the
Duke of Edinburgh. He was elected a member of the Society
in the year 1877.

The Right Honourable Arthur Algernon Capell, sixth Earl of
Essex, was one of the original members of the Society, and one of
the earliest members of the Council. He took from the first a very
great interest in the Society's work, especially in the department
of Meteorology, communicating to our ' Transactions ' the results of
his own observations at Cassiobury.* By his kind permission the
Society has held many Field Meetings in Cassiobury Park, the
gardens and private grounds adjoining his residence having on each
occasion been thrown open to our members.

* ' Trans. Watford N. H. Soc.,' Vol. I, p. 132, Vol. II, p. 89.

SESSION 1892-93. xxxix

The following papers or lectures have been read or delivered
during the year : —

Jan. 15, at "Watford. — Crocodiles and Canaries ; by Arthur Stradlin.c, F.Z.S.
Feb. 19, at Wattord. — Anniversary Address : Francis IJacon ; by the Presi-

dnit, John Ilopkinson, F.L.S.. F.G.S., F.R.Met.Hoc.
March 16, at Hertford. — An hour with the Microscope at a Pond-side ; by F.

W. Phillips.

18, at "Watford. — Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1892; by

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year 1891 ; by

Henrv Lewis.
April 8, at St. Albans.— The Natural History of the Diamond ; by F. W.

Rudler, F.G.S., M.A.I.
May 6, at "Watford.-^Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.

Albans, during the year 1891 ; by John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,

F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

A Naturalist's Calendar for Mid -Hertfordshire ; by J. J. "\\^illis.

Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire during

the year 1891 ; by Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S.
Nov. 15, at St. Albans. — Notes on the Mycetozoa, with a List of Species from
Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire ; by James Saunders.

18, at Watford. — Coal: its Nature, Origin, Position, and Extent; and

its Range under the South of England ; by Professor T. Rupert
Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Dec. 16, at "Watford. — Ice and its "Work ; by John Morison, M.D., F.G.S.

At the meetings on the 18th of March and the 6th of May a
discussion was held on the proposed scheme for the regulation of
Bricket Wood Common.

The following Field Meetings were held during the year : —

May 7. — Harpenden and East Hyde. July 2. — Abbot's Langley and Bed-

21. — Aldenbam, Watford. mont.

28.— St. Albans. Oct. 8.— Gorhambury, St. Albana.

June 25. — Gorhambury, St. Albans. 13. — Bro.xbourne and Wormley.

A visit was also made to the British Museum (Natural History)
on the 30th of April, when Mr. Stradling gave a description of the
gigantic extinct Mammalia and the Index Collection.

The thanks of the Society are due for hospitality kindly afforded
at the Field Meetings to Mr. and Mrs. Larkin, Delrow, Aldenham ;
to the President and Mrs. Ilopkinson, The Grange, St. Albans ; to
Mr. and Mrs. Purrott, Maynes, St. Albans ; to Major Reynolds
Solly and Mrs. Solly, Serge Hill, Bedmont ; and to Mr. Henry
Warner, Wormley. The Society is also indebted to the Earl of
Verulam for his kindness in showing to the members his interesting
collection of paintings and antiquities at Gorhambury in October.

The appointment of a Royal Commission on the water-supply of
the Metropolis was announced in the last annual report. The
Commission began its labours early in the year, and the following
members of our Society have given evidence before it : — Sir John
Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., Mr. Urban Smith, and our President,
Mr. Hopkinson, on behalf of the Hertfordshire County Council ;
Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., on
behalf of the London County Council; and Mr. W. Topley, F.R.S.,
on behalf of the London Water Companies. The work of the Com-

Xl PEOCEEDINGS,

mission is now drawing to a close, and its report will probably soon
be issued. In the meantime a petition against the threatened
abstraction, by the J^ew Eiver and East London Water Companies,
of increased quantities of water from the Chalk of Hertfordshire,
has been prepared by the Parliamentary Committee of the Hert-
fordshire County Council, and presented to Parliament.

The sixth volume of the present series of the Society's
' Transactions ' has been completed and the seventh has been
commenced, three parts of the former and two of the latter,
containing 1 62 pages and one plate, having been published during
the year. In the sixth volume the only papers not of local interest
are one on " Seeds and Pruits," and another on "Meteorological
Photography," the latter, however, appealing to local photographers
to take meteorological photographs in the county. The Presidential
Addresses of the Earl of Clarendon on "Field Sports," and on
"The Horse," are of local interest insomuch as they recount his
lordship's own observations and experiences in Hertfordshire. In
the meteorology and phenology of the county there are in this
volume the usual annual reports, and an analysis of " Half-a-
Century's Eainfall in Hertfordshii-e " ; and in geology there is
a paper on ' ' Geological Photography in Hertfordshire ' ' ; while
hydro -geology occupies a large portion of the volume, there being
four papers bearing on the subject — a record of water-level in the
Chalk at Odsey, near Royston ; a second instalment of " Hertford-
shire Well-sections" ; a paper of 33 pages on " Water and AYater-
supply" ; and a statement of the percolation of rain through soil at
Berkhamsted. In local botany the only paper is one on "Diseases
of Plants in Hertfordshire." In zoology the birds observed in
the county each year are reported on as usual, and the Tineina
and other Lepidoptera of Sandridge are enumerated. A paper on
"Local Scientific Investigation" embraces all these subjects and
also anthropology. There are also a few miscellaneous notes on
meteorology, botany, and zoology; and in the Proceedings are
abstracts of several papers, mostly not of local interest.

The thanks of the Society are due to Mr. H. George Fordham
for the two plates illustrating his paper on Water-level in the
Chalk ; to Mr. Hopkinson for the rainfall- station map of Hertford-
shire, and the map of the Thames Basin ; and to Mr. Upfield Green
for the plan and section of Bennet's End brickfields.

Owing to the insufiiciency of the accommodation provided for
the evening meetings at the Watford Public Library, it became
necessary at the end of the year to find more suitable head-quarters
for the Society. Under these circumstances the Governors of the
Watford Endowed Schools kindly agreed to provide the requisite
accommodation in their school-buildiugs, and the Council has every
reason to be satisfied with the provision which has been made
for the evening meetings, and also for the accommodation of the
Society's library.

SESSION 1892-93.

xli

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VOL. VII. — PART VIII.

xlii

PROCEEDINGS,

Additions to the Libeaet in 1892.

Presented.

Title.

Bacon, Francis. Sylva Sylvarum ; or, a Natural History

in Ten Centuries. 8vo. London, 1826.
. Essays ; or Counsels, Civil and Moral. Prof.

Morley's (second) edition. 8vo. London, 1884.
Brightwen, Mrs. More about Wild Nature. 8vo.

London, 1891

British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Report for 1891. 8vo. Loudon, 1892. .
Cameron, G. A. C. Kelloway Beds near Bedford. Svo.

London, 1892

De Candollb, a. p., and K. Sprengel. Elements of

the Philosophy of Plants. Svo. Edinburgh, 1821. .

Henry, James. ..Slneida. Indices. Svo. Dublin, 1892.

Linnean Society. Journal. Zoology. Vol. xx, Nos. 119,
121. Vol. xxi, No. 131. Svo. London, 1888-89. .

Napier, C. 0. G. Lakes and Rivers. 12nio. London,
1884

Photography, Pictorial Selections in. By W. G. D.
[Croydon Micros, and Nat. Hist. Club.) 8vo. Croydon.

Roberts, G. Topography and Natural History of Loft-

Vol. ii. Svo. Leeds,

house and its Neighbourhood.
1885

Rochester (U.S.) Academy of Science. Proceedings.

Vol. i. Brochure 2. Svo. Rochester (U.S.), 1891. .
Symons, J. G. (Ed.) Monthly Meteorological Magazine.

Vol. xvii. Svo. London, 1892. . . . .

Water Supply of London. Newspaper Cuttings, 1892.

Donor.
Mr. J. Hophinson.

The Authoress.

The Association.

The Author.

Mr. J. Hophinson.
f Trustees of
\ the late J. Henry.

Mr. R. B. Croft.

Mr. J. Hopkinson.

The Author.

Mr. J. Hophinson.
The Academy,

The Editor.

(Mr. J. Hophinson
and
Mr. W. Whitaker.

Hecetved in Exchange.

American Museum of Natural History. Reports. Vol. iii, No. 2. Svo.

New York, 1891.

. Annual Report of the President. lb.

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Proceedings,

Vol. xii. No. 3. Svo. Biith, 1892.
Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings for 1890-91. Vol. vii,

part 2. Svo. Birmingham, 1892.
Boston (U.S.A.) Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Vol. xxv,

parts 3, 4. 8vo. Boston, 18^/2.
Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society. Report, 8th June, 1892.

8vo. Brighton, 1892.
Bristol Naturalists' Society. Proceedings for 1891-92. New Series. Vol.

^^i, part 1. 8vo. Bristol, 1892.
Conchology, Journal of. Vol. vii, Nos. 1-4. Svo. Leeds, 1892.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club. Proceedings, 1891-

1892. Svo. London, 1892.
Ealing Natural History Association. Proceedings. Vol. xii, part 7.

Svo. Ealing, 1892.
Edinburgh Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. Aoi, part 3. Svo.

Edinburgh, 1892.
. Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, 1890-91. Svo. Edin-
burgh, 1892.

SESSION 1892-93. xliii

Essex Field Club. Essex Naturalist. Vol. vi, Nos. 4-10. 8vo. Chelms-
ford, 1892.

Gl.\sgow Natural History Society. Proceedings for 1889-90. New
Series. Vol. iii, part 2. 8vo. Glasgow, 1891.

Liverpool Geological Society. Proceediugs. Vol. vi, part 4. 8vo.
Liverpool, 1892.

LoNDOx, Geological Society of. Abstracts of the Proceedings. Session
1S9I-92. 8vo. Loudon, 1892.

. Geologists' Association. Proceedings. Vol. xii, parts 6-9. 8vo.

London, 1892.

List of ]\Iembers, 1892. lb.

. Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal. Series 2. Vol. v,

No. 31. 8vo. London, 1892.

Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal. Vol.

xvii, Nos. 80-83. Vol. xviii, No. 84. 8vo. London, 1891-92.

The Meteorological Record. Vol. xi, Nos. 41-44.

Vol. xii, Nos. 45, 46. 8vo. London, 1891-92.

Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. 2nd Series. Vol. xii.

8vo. London, 1892.

. Charter, Bye Laws, and List of Fellows, 1892. lb.

1892.

Manchester Field Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Society. Pro-
ceedings for 1891. 8vo. Manchester, 1892.

Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. vii, Nos. 1-12. 8vo.

Manchester, 1891-92.

Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xxi, parts 14-20. Vol.

xxii, parts 1, 2. 8vo. Manchester, 1892.

Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.

Series 4, Vol. v, Nos. 1, 2. 8vo. Manchester, 1892.

Middlesex (County of) Natural History and Science Society. Trans-
actions, 1889-91. 8vo. London, 1890-92.

Midland Naturalist. Vol. xv. 8vo. Birmingham, 1892.

Naturalist. New Series. Vol. xvii. 8vo. Leeds, 1892.

New York Academy of Sciences. Transactions. Vol. xi, Nos. 1-8. 8vo.
New York, 1891-92.

State Library. Bulletin. Additions, No. 1. 8vo. Albany, 1891.

. Library School, No. 1. lb.

State Museum. Memoirs. Vol. i. No. 1. 8vo. Albany, 1889.

Report No. 44, for the year 1890. 8vo. Albany, 1892.

Northamptonshire Natural History' Society and Field Club. Journal.
Nos. 30-48. 8vo. Northampton, 1887-91.

Rugby School Natural History Society. Report for 1891. 8vo. Rugby,
1892.

Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents to July,
1890. 8vo. Washington (U.S.), 1891.

Somersetshire Arch^ological and Natural History Society. Pro-
ceedings for 1891. New Series. Vol. xvii. 8vo. Taunton, 1892.

United States Fish Commission. Bulletin for 1889. Vol. ix. 4to.
Washington, 1891.

National Museum. Report for the year ending 30th June, 1889.

4to. Washington, 1891.

Purchased.

Botany, Journal of. New Series. Vol. xxv. 8vo. London, 1892.

Entomologist. Vol. xxv. 8vo. London, 1892.

Year Hook of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland.

Ninth Annual Issue. 8vo. London, 1892.
Zoologist. 3rd Series. Vol. xvi. 8vo. London, 1892.

xliy PEOCEEDINGS,

Oedinaey Meeting, 21st Maech, 1893, at "Watfoed.

Aethue Steadling, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

Mr. R. Casson, Mr. Percy Manning, and Mr. A. T. Murray were
elected Members of the Society.

Mrs. Ayi-es, High Croft, Watford; Mr. W. Wallis Baldwin,
IS'etherheys, AVatford ; Mr. C. E. Bloomer, 22 St. Albans Eoad,
Watford ; Mrs. Cobb, Garston, Watford ; Mrs. Crouch, Rosslvn,
Watford; Mrs. Edmonds, 86 High Street, Watford; Mr. Markham
Eveleg'h, Essex Road, Watford; Hiliss Jourdain, Corran, Watford;
Mr. G. P. Xeele, The Lawn, Clarendon Road, Watford ; Mr. E. P.
Rowse, Nutley, Watford; Mr. E. J. Slinn, Lang Syne, Watford;
Mr. E. P. Vaux, Densworth, Watford ; and Mr. Walter C. Wyles,
Carpenders, Watford, were proposed for membership.

The Seceetaey (Dr. Morison) read a letter he had received from
Sir William Elower thanking the Society for his election as an
Honorary Member, and adding : " Pray assure your colleagues that
I much appreciate this distinction, and I highly esteem the work
of the Society in keeping up an interest in intellectual pursuits
in the county."

The following papers were read : —

1. "Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1892." By Henry Lewis. {Transact mis, Vol. VII, p. 161.)

2. "]S"otes on some Hertfordshire Mammalia." By T. Vaughan
Roberts. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 169.)

The following paper was taken as read : —

" Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year
1891." ByJohnHopkinson, r.L.S.,E.G.S.,F.R.Met.Soc. {Trans-
actions, Vol. VII, p. 157.)

Preserved skins of the animals mentioned by Mr. Vaughan
Roberts were exhibited by him in illustration of his paper.

The Peesident exhibited two living specimens of the smooth
snake {Coronella Icevis), a very rare species, which, he said, had
only been discovered in this country about sixty or seventy years
ago, but appeared now either to be getting more common or
was more frequently recognised. Those he exhibited were not
found in Hertfordshire, but he hoped that during the coming
summer the species might be reported as occurring in the county.

Oedinaey Meeting, 18th Apeil, 1893, at Watfoed.

Aethuk Steadling, Esq., M.R.C.S., E.Z.S., President, in the
Chair.

Mrs. Ayres, Mr. W. W. Baldwin, Mr. C. E. Bloomer, Mrs.
Cobb, Mrs. Crouch, Mrs. Edmonds, Mr. M. Evelegh, Miss Jourdain,
Mr. G. P. Neele, Mr. E. P. Rowse, Mr. E. J. Slinn, Mr. E. P.
Vaux, and Mr. W. C. Wyles were elected Members of the Society.

Mr. Harold Kent, Roseberry, Watford; Mr. W. H. IS'orris,
Bengeo, Hertford ; Mr. John L. Pank, Barnet ; Mr. E. W. Reader,

SESSION 1892-93. xlv

Glenroy, "Watford ; anti Miss Swindon, The Hollies, St. Albans
Road, Watford, were proposed for membership.
The foUowiuii: papers were read : —

1. "The Climate of Watford, deduced from Meteorological
Observations taken during the ten years 1877-1886." Bv John
Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. {Transactions, Vol. VII,

2. "A Preliminary Introduction to the Investigation of Micro-
scopic Leaf-Fungi." By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., etc.

3. " Xotes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire." By A.
E. Gibbs, F.L.S. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 187.)

The following papers were taken as read : —

1. "Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St.
Albans, during the year 1892." Bv John Hopkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 175.)

2. " Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the
year 1892." By John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 199.)

3. "Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in 1892." By
John Hopkinson. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 203.)

4. "Observations of Temperature and Rainfall taken at Throcking
Rectory, Buutingford, 1880-1889." By the Rev. C. Wigan Harvey,
M.A. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 213.)

5. "Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1892." Bv Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc,
F.R.H.S. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 182.)

6. "A List of Hertfordshire Hepatic£e." By A. E. Gibbs,
F.L.S. {Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 233.)

Field Meeting, 29th Apeil, 1893.
EICKMANSWORTH AND HAREFIELD.

The Harefield Chalk -pits, to visit which was the principal object
of this meeting, are in Middlesex, but just on the Hertfordshire
border, and the greater part of the walk was in our own county.
The Directors, Mr. Upheld Green and Mr. John Hopkinson, went
over the ground in the morning, and met the party, twelve in
number, at Rickmansworth Station in the afternoon.

The route taken was on the towing-path of the canal ; past
Mr. George W^ebster's pumping- station at Springwell, where water
from the Chalk is being converted into mineral-water to send away
to London, instead of being conveyed there in pipes or conduits
as aqua pura, as he intends to do eventually ; and, leaving the
canal, to the first of the large chalk-pits cut in the face of the hill,
near Cribbs, and thence to the second of these pits, a much larger
one, near the old " Copper Mill." A fine section of the Upper
Chalk is exposed in these pits, and several " pipes " were seen.
Fossils are not numerous, but a few were found, including Echino-
derms, Inocerami, and Terebratulse.

The first pit is an old station for the moss Seligeria calcarea,

xlvi PEOCEEDINGS,

and it was found to be still growing there. On a fence near the
second pit Mr. Arthur Lewis took the moth Anticlea badiata.

Ascending the hill to Cribbs, the fields were crossed to Woodcock
Hill Kiln, where the Reading Beds and basement-bed of the
London Clay were seen. Just at the edge of the outcrop of the
Reading Beds a little pebble-gravel was seen on the Chalk, and
then another patch of it, on, and the cause of the formation of,
an isolated gorse-covered hill a little nearer Rickmansworth. The
gorse was on fire and a considerable extent of it had been destroyed.

At Rickmansworth Mr. A. E. Gibbs took the moth Habrostola
tripartita, on a fence ; and in heads of Hypericum perforatum he
found larvae of the Tinea Bepressaria liturella, one of which
he successfully reared and it emerged in July. There was a
strong wind blowing which made the day very unfavourable for
entomologists.

Field Meeting, 13th Mat, 1893.
BROCKET PAEK, WELWYN.

At Ayot Station, the place of meeting, a small party of the
members met the Director, Mr. Hopkinson, who had walked from
St. Albans in the morning, and decided, owing to the intensely
hot weather, to abandon the first part of the programme, the
examination of sections of the Reading Beds and London Clay
in Ayot brickfields, and at once proceed to Brocket Park to seek
the shade its trees afford.

Permission to visit private portions of the park having been
granted by Lord Mount Stephen, the path to the right was taken,
but a zealous keeper would not allow the party to enter the woods
here for fear of pheasants being disturbed, and it was not until
the house and gardens had been passed on the left that the first
wood was entered. Descending through this wood to the Lea,
the river was crossed by the old flint bridge, and the walk was
continued through the woods on the opposite side, and by Warren
Parm to Cromer Hyde, where tea was partaken of at the village
inn.

Most of the party then again entered the park to see the
ornamental water and waterfall near the handsome stone bridge
over the Lea, and, returning to Cromer Hyde, walked across the
fields and through Symond's Hyde Great Wood to St. Albans ;
others drove to Hatfield Station.

The only plants observed worthy of note were Euphorbia
amy ffdal aides, in Symond's Hyde Wood, and Puccinia malvacearum,
on the leaves of the mallow {Malva rotundifolia) at Cromer Hyde.

The following Lepidoptera were seen or taken by Mr. A. E.
Gibbs, chiefly in Symond's Hyde Wood : —

Ehopalocera (Butter/lies) .

Pieris brassicse. Euchloe cardnmines. Ccenonympha pamphilus.

,, rapfB. Arg-ynnis euphrosyne. Lycena icarus.

„ napi, Yanessa io. Lyriclithus malvae.

Trans. Herts Kat. Hist. Soc, Vol. VII, Plate VI.

Chalk-pit near Cribbs, Harefield.

-.V^jff^. :■ «*m^-. ..^fep.

Chalk-pit near the "Copper Mill," Harefield.

SESSION 1892-93. xlvii

Hetekocera [Moths).
BoMBYCES. Piinagra petraria. Tortrices.

Hepialus lupuliuus. Lomaspilus marg-inata. Tortrix ministraua.
P ,..u.. Eupithecia castigata. I'l.rdia tripuuctaua

Geometr.e. ^^ lanciata. -

Eumia luteolata. Melauippe moutauata.

lodis lactearia. ,, sociata.

Astheua candidata. ,, fluctuata.

Acidalia remutaria. Coremia desiguata. Adela viridella

Cabera pusaria. ,, unidentaria.

Epliippiphora Bruunichiana.

TlNE^.

The leaves of many of the trees, the Younf^ oaks more especially,
were seen to be riddled by the larvae of various species of insects,
and many larvae and several pupae were taken. In fact the woods
seemed to be teeming with life ; the insects dropping from leaf to
leaf made a perpetual noise, very much like that of a summer
shower, while the birds sang as if exuberant with joy at the
bright sunshine and the absence of rain.

A moorhen was seen on the water in Brocket Park, and a plover
near Symond's Hyde Wood. The call of the cuckoo and the song
of the nightingale were heard. A water-vole was disturbed by the
river- side in Brocket Park, and a hedge-hog was captured just
outside Symond's Hyde "Wood.

Field Meeting, 27th May, 1893.
KNEBWORTH.

At Kneb worth Station the members were met by Mr. T. B.
Blow, F.L.S., the Director of the meeting, who conducted them
to Knebworth House, the seat of the Earl of Lytton, but now in
the occupation of Mr. H. Phipps, by whose permission it was
visited.

A date carved over the doarway records that the house was
built in the year 1563, but the greater part was pulled down in
1811, and the original features of the old Elizabethan mansion
are retained only in the lodge-gate on the Hatfield Road, which
was once the entrance, having been I'emoved and re-built, stone
for stone, in its present position. The mansion is now in an
incongruous mixture of styles, bedecked with gilded minarets and
grotesf^ue animals in stucco. The fact that it was once the
residence of the first Lord Lytton, gives it an atti'action which
may well atone for its fanta.stic architecture, and it was with
much interest that the small study in which our great novelist
wrote most of his works was inspected.

After the pictures and other heirlooms had been examined, the
gi'ounds were entered, and, under the guidance of the head-gardener,
Mr. John Kipling, the gardens were inspected, including the
wilderness, which contains many plants of much interest to
botanists. Several members then walked to the lake and visited
other parts of the park. Cussans well says : * " The principal

* 'Hist. Herts,' "Broadwater Hundred," p. 114.

xlviii

beauties of Knebworth are its noble park and extensive gardens.
The Italian garden, with its terraces, statues, and brilliant par-
terres ; the hedges of box and yew trimmed and twisted into
curious devices in the Dutch garden ; the quaint conceits of the
Chinese garden ; the Fernery with its cool and shady nooks and
paths leading to the winter garden; the Maze; the Rosary; and
last, though not least, the Horace garden — each has a peculiar
grace and charm of its own." "Forty years ago," he adds (he
wrote in 1877), "that portion of the grounds which is specially
dedicated to the memory of the Venusian bard, was a dismal
swamp ; now, it would be difficult even to imagine a more charming
spot."

Other members visited the village, and had tea at one of the
lodges, rejoining the rest of the party at the station.

Mr. James Saunders reports the finding in the park of the
Mycetozoa Stemonitis fusca and Phijsarum compressum ; and Mr.
A. E. Gibbs the capture of the butterfly. Parage megara, on the
Green between the station and the park, and of the moth, Coremia
desigtiata, on a wall in the gardens of Knebworth House.

Field Meeting, 17th June, 1893.
ZOUCHES FARM, DUNSTABLE.

From Dunstable (Church Street) Station, the members, con-
ducted by Mr. James Saunders, of Luton, ascended the Downs to
Zouches Farm. Starting from Bedfordshire, the boundary between
that county and Hertfordshire was passed at the foot of the hill,
and the greater part of the walk was in our own county.

After a steep climb up the slippery turf, the summit of a knoll
was reached, whence an extensive view was obtained, the little
town of Dunstable, with its ancient Priory Church, situated near
the junction of the two Roman Roads — the Watling Street and
the Icknield Way — being just below ; while beyond was seen
Totternhoe Beacon, an outlying Lower Chalk hill of the Dunstable
Downs ; the Five Knolls and Kensworth Hill, forming portions of
the main range of the Downs on the Middle Chalk ; and an exten-
sive plain of Gault bounded by distant hills of Lower Greensand.

On arriving at Zouches Farm the members dispersed for a time,
some to search for plants, others with their collecting-nets to
capture moths and other insects, and a few to hunt for those
strange organisms which lie on the border-line of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, the Mycetozoa or Myxogastres.

Mr. A. E. Gibbs reports having taken the light emerald moth,
Metrocampa margaritaria, in the wood near the farm ; that Herhula
cespitalis, a small moth, was flying in great numbers on the Downs;
and that a Tortrix, Xanthosetia hamana, was flying abundantly
amongst the corn.

Re-assembling, tea was partaken of under the welcome shade
afPorded by some of the fine beech trees for which the Chiltem
Hills are famous, and then the members separated, some returning

SESSION 1892-93. xlix

to Dunstable, but the majority accompanying^ the Director in a
very pleasant walk across the fields by Chawl End (or Charl End)
and Dollar Earm to Luton.

Field Meeting, 22nd June, 1893.
COLXEY HEATH AND TITTENHANGER, ST. ALBANS.

Although a beautiful day for a country walk, being bright and
not too warm, very few members met at Smullford Station, many
having probably been deterred from taking part in the meeting
by the announcement in the circular that the distance to be walked
would be six miles. 'J'here was also a counter-attraction in an
excursion of the St. Albans Abbey Guild.

The route taken was across the fields by Sleepshyde and Colney
Heath, and one of the green lanes so frequent in Hertfordshire,
to Tittenhanger Farm, and thence through Tittenhanger Wood and
Park to Eowman's Green, and by woods and meadows and another
green lane to Tittenhanger Green, the Camp, and St. Albans.

Tittenhanger, variously known in former days as Tidehanger,
Tydenhangre, Tyttynhangre, Tetenhanger, etc., was a residence
of the Abbots of St. Albans at a very early period. When the
first manor-house was built is unknown, but it was re-built between
1396 and 1411, when large fish-ponds were constructed; sub-
sequently the park was stocked with deer by Abbot John de
Wheathamstede ; and in 1654 Sir Henry Blount pulled down
the old abbatial residence, and on its site erected the present
mansion from designs furnished by Inigo Jones.*

Remains of the fish-ponds, much overgrown with weeds, are still
to be seen, but they no longer fulfil the purpose for which they
were constructed. A few dips with collecting-bottle and net
showed that their most numerous occupants now are Entomostraca,
several species of Daplvnia and Cyclops being captured, while the
only fish caught were minnows of an almost microscopic size.

The park has long ceased to be a deer-park. It has some very
fine timber-trees, mostly oaks and elms ; and it is of interest in
being the first park through which the Colne flows after it becomes
a permanent river. Referring to the variation in its flow just
above here, Cussans says: " To a stranger it seems almost incom-
prehensible that at Colney Heath (two miles higher up than London
Colney), where for nine months in the year it can hardly lay claim
to the dignity of a brook, it is no uncommon occurrence for the
petulant stream suddenly to rise to a height of five or six feet.
Duiing the winter of 1878-79 it sui-passed itself. Colney Heath
was a vast lake ; the road from Tittenhanger was completely
submerged ; and to add to the difiicultics of locomotion, the sub-
stantial brick bridge, twenty feet long, and fully ten feet high
from the crown of the arch to the bed of the river, was carried
away." f

* Cussans, 'Hist. Herts,' " Cassio Hundred," p. 27. t lb., pp. 38, 39.

1 PROCEEDINGS,

On this day the river was so low that it could be stepped across
in the park a short distance below the house. It had been in this
condition for at least a month, and during the summer and autumn
it dwindled almost to nothing, ceasing perceptibly to flow. It is
doubtful whether it has ever been in this state before.

Field Meeting, 7th October, 1893.
DIGSWELL PARK AND SHERRARDS PARK WOOD, WELWYIST,

The annual Fungus Foray was announced to be held in Sherrards
Park Wood in the afternoon, the place of meeting being Ayot
Station, but, by previous arrangement, a few members of the
Society met at Welwyn Station in the morning, to walk through
Digswell Park to Sherrards. The meeting was under the direction
of Mr. Hopkinson, and the species of fungi seen in the course of
the walk were determined and recorded by Mr. George Massee,
of Kew.

The island on the River Mimram at Digswell proved very pro-
lific in fungi, especially in minute forms, furnishing nearly half
the species recorded. Here also, under logs of wood and rotten
branches of trees, the following MoUusca were collected by the
Director: —

Arion hortensis, Fer. Helix hispida, L.

Limax agrestis, L. H. serieea, Drop.

Zonites cellarius, Miill. H. rotundata, Miller.

Z. alliarius, Miill. Clausilia biplicata, Mont.

Z. nitidulus, JJrap. Zua lubrica, Miill.

The walk through Digswell Park is a beautiful one at all times
of the year. Now, the beauty of the scene was heightened by the
rich autumnal tints of the foliage, and the attention of the party
was divided between viewing the extensive sylvan prospect and
searching for fungi in the well-wooded park.

After a frugal luncheon had been partaken of at the " Eed
Lion," near Ayot Green, Sherrard's Park Wood was entered, and
before long the members were joined by others who had come to
Ayot Station for the afternoon's foray. Not nearly so many
species of fungi were found here as in Digswell Park, but the
search for them had to be given up sooner than was intended.
Early in the afternoon ominous-looking clouds had begun to
gather, and distant thunder had been heard. Eain now fell
steadily, and the shelter of the trees was sought, its temporary
cessation being taken advantage of for the return walk through
the wood, and thence by Ayot Green to the station. Later in the
evening a terrific thunder- stonn occurred.

The following is a list of the fungi recorded by Mr. Massee. It
comprises 155 species and 3 varieties, and adds 59 species and 2
varieties to our Hertfordshire list. To these new county records
an asterisk (*) is affixed; and the rare species, 15 in number, are
indicated by an obelisk (f ).

Trans. Herts Xat. Hist. Soc, Vol. I'll, Plate Vll.

The Eiver Colxe at Colney Heath, in June, 1893.

ig^^^'

t. 4^V 1

^^ t

Green lane near Colney Heath.

SESSION 1892-93.

Htmenomycetes.
Agaricus (Amanita) phalloides, Fr.

,, nuiscarius, L.

„ rubosccus, Fr.
(Lepiota) sistratus, Fr.*f
(Armillaria) mulleus, Fr
(Tricholoma) equestris, Fr.

,, rutilans, Schceff.

,, sapoiiaceus, Fr.
(Collybia) raucidus, Fr.

,, oreades, Fr*

radicatus, Eehl.
dryophilus, Bull.
tuberosus, Bull.*
acervatiis, Fr.*
luacidatus, A. ^ S.
bibulosus, Mass.*f
,, coutiuens, Fers.
(Mycena) ninosus, Fr.

,, galericulatus,<S'(;op.
„ ,, var. calopxis,

Fr.*
„ ■po\jgT!iramus,Bull.
,, parabolicus, Fr.*
„ amictus, Fr.f
,, aetites, Fr.*f
filopes, Bull.
amiiioniacus, Fr.
sanguinolentus, Fr.
hsematopiis,^. ^- S.
galopus, Fr.
puUatus, Berk et
Cke.*\
,, gypseus, Fr.*f
(Clitocybej laccatus, iScop.
fragrans, Sow.
cerussatus, Fr.
cyatbiformis, Fr.
nebularis, Batsch.
„ catiuus, Fr.*
(Omphalia) glaucopbyllus,
Lasch.*\
,, cam'paneW^ Batsch.*
(Pleurotus) ostreatus, Jacq.
„ dryiuus, Fers.*
,, iilruarius, Bull.*
(Pluteus) cerviuus, Schaff.
,, hispidulus, Fr.*
(Leptonia) lampropus, Fr.
(Clitopilus) orcella, Bull.
(Pholiota) spectabilis, Fr.
(Inocybe) rimosus, Bull.

,, asterosporus, Quel.
(Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr.
,, mesophaeus, Fr.
,, sinapizans, Fr.f
(Flammula) lentus, Fers.
,, gummosus, Lasch.
,, inoptis, Fr.
(Naucoria) seniiorbiculariSj^M^^.

J)
>>
>>
>>

»>
)>

Agaricus (Galera) tener, Schceff.

,, ,, Xxy^noruxQ., Batsch.

,, (Tubaria) furiuraceus, Fers.

,, (Crepidotus) mollis, Hchceff.
,, ,, applanatus, Vers.*

,, ,, calolepis, Fr.*f

„ (Psalliota) campestris, i.
,, „ ,, var. silvicola,

rut.

,, comptulus, Fr.*
(Stropliaria) seruginosus, C«r<.
,, melaspermus,
Bull.*
squamosus, Fr.
,, var. auranti-
acus, C/ce.*
, , semiglobatus,
Batsch.
(Hj'pboloma) sublateritius,i^r.
,, epixanthus, Fr.*
,, fascicularis, Suds.
, , hypoxanthus,
Flow.*f
,, velutinus, Fers.
,, puuctidatus,

Falchb.*f
,, Candolliaiius, Fr.
(Psilocybe) sarcocephalus,i^r.*
,, spadiceus, iSchaff.
,, ,, hebes, Fers.*

,, (Psyathira) conopUeus, Fr.
,, ,, cornigis, Fers.*

,, (Panaeolus) campanulatus, Z.
,, (Psyatberella) gracilis, Fr.
,, ,, aratus, Ber/c.*f

Coprinus comatus, Fr.

atramentarius, Fr.
fimetarius, Fr.
niveus, Fr.
,, micaceus, Fr.
,, radiatus, Fr.
,, plicatilis. Curt.
Cortinarius glaucopus, Fr.
,, elatior, Fr.
,, azureus, Fr.f
,, armillatiis, Fr.
,, hsematocbelis, Bull.*
Paxillus involutus, Batsch.
Lactarius turpis, Fr.
,, blennius, Fr.
,, cremor, jF?-.* t
Eussula nigricans, Fr.
„ adiista, Fr.
,, lepida, Fr.*
,, emetica, Fr.
,, depallens, Fr.
Cantherellus cibarius, Fr.
Nyctalis caliginosa, ir. G. Sm.*f
Marasmius amadelphus, Bull.*
,, ramealis, Bull.

PKOCEEDINGS.

Marasmius androsaceus, Z*

,, epipliyllus, Fr.
Boletus chrysenteron, Fr.
,, scaber, Fr.
,, laricinus, Berk*
,, subtomentosus, Z*
Polyporus melanopus, Fr.*
,, hispidus, Fr.*
,, betulinus, Fr.*
,, adustus, Fr.
chioneus, Fr.
squamosus, Fr.
,, annosus, Fr.
„ applanatus, JTallr.*
,, rufescens, Fr.*
,, ulmarius, Fr.*
„ abietinus, Fr.*
,, hirsutus, Fr.*
,y versicolor, Fr.
,, meduUa-panis, Fr.*
,, Taporarius, Fr.
Trametes gibbosa, Fr.*
Grandinia granulosa, Fr.*

,, crustosa, Fr.*
Raduhim orbicidare, Fr.*
Hydnum repandum, Z.
Cyphella capula, Fr.*
Corticium roseolum, Ifass.*

Corticium confluens, Fr.*

,, sambuci, Fr.

,, calceum, Fr.*
Peniopbora rosea, Mass.*
Ulocolla foliacea, Brcf.*

Gastromycetes.
Lycoperdon gemraatum, Batsch.

,, pyriforme, Schteff. .
Cyathus striatus, Hoffm.*
Scleroderma verrucosum, Pers.

„ bovista, Fr.

DiSCOMYCETES.

Helotium citrinum, Fr.

,, lenticulare, Berk.*

Peziza vesiculosa, Bull. \
,, ampliata, Pern.*
,, granulata. Bull.*

Phacidium calthae, Phil.f

Uredine.'e.
Uredo symphiti, Z).C.
Puccinia poarum, Nielsen.
,, saniculse, Giev.

Perisporiace.e.
Sphaerotheca paniiosa, Zev.*

The following mosses were collected by the Director in Digswell
Park, and have been determined by Mr. A. E. Gibbs : —

Dicranum scopariuin, Z.
Leucobryum glaucum, Z.
Tortula unguiculata. Dill.
Mnium hornum, Z.
Atrichum undulatum, Z.
Polytrichum formosum, ZTedw.

Tbuidium tamariscinum, FZedw.
Brachytbecium rutabulum, Z.
Euryncbiuin striatum, Schreb.
,, piliferum, Schreb.
Amblystegium serpens, Z.
Hypnum cupressiforme, Z.

Also the scale-moss Cephalozia licuspidata, L., and the lichens
Cladonia pyxidata. Fr., and Parmelia caperata, L.

Mr. James Saunders reports the finding of the following
Mycetozoa : — rhysarttm leticophceitm, Fr., Trichia affinis, De Eary,
Hemiarcyria clavata, Pers., and Arcyria cinerea, Bull.

I M: :;M;Y

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

-fl, of Con,,

AXNIVERSART ADDRESS.
FRANCIS BACON.

JUL 20

!-lttRAt>

By the President, John Hopkinsox, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.B.M.S.,

F.E.Met.Soc.

Delivered ai (he Annual Meeting, 12 th February, 1892, at Watford.

Ladies and Gentlemen, —

The historian of some centuries hence, in chronicling the
progress of England in science, literature, industry, and com-
merce, in national prosperity and international influence, will
probably point out two epochs in which such progress has been
most notable, each epoch marked by the reign of a Queen beloved
of her subjects and sympathising with them, in each case a reign
of long duration. The Elizabethan era is the earlier of these, the
Yietorian, the later. Which of these eras our future historian
will consider pre-eminent on the whole, we cannot yet predict, but
certain it is that the age of Elizabeth has been justly termed the
golden era of English literature, and that no other period can
boast such a galaxy of men of genius and enterprise.

For this was the age of Knox, Hooker, and Whitgift ; of
Shakespeare, Spenser, and Ben Jonson ; of Bacon, Harvey, and
Gilbert ; of Holinshed, Stowe, and Camden ; of Raleigh, Drake,
and Martin Frobisher. And the spark of genius did not alone
alight upon our own country, for in the Elizabethan age lived
Tycho Brahe, Galileo, and Kepler ; Guido and Riibens ; and
Cervantes ; while at its close France saw her greatest metaphysical
philosopher, Descartes, and Belgium her greatest portrait-painter,
Vandyke.

Of these illustrious men two mighty intellects tower far above
the rest. Shakespeare is the greatest poet. Bacon the greatest
philosopher, the world has ever seen. It would be invidious, nay,

VOL. VII. — PART I. 1

vf;/

2 J. HOPKXN'SO:^' ANNIVEESAEY ADDRESS :

impossible, to compare their meiits, l:)ut Siiatespeare took no part
in. tlie stirring events of the time, while Bacon would have been
for ever known to fame as a statesman and a lawyer if not a single
literary or philosophical work had issued from his pen. In his life,
therefore, we ought to feel the greatest interest. " One man only
set aside," Hep worth Dixon says, " our interest in Bacon's fame is
greater than in that of any Englishman who ever lived. We
cannot hide his light ; we cannot cast him out. For good, if it
be good, for evil, if it must be evil, his brain has passed into our
brain, his soul into our souls. We are part of him ; he is part of
us ; inseparable as the salt the sea. His life has become our law."

To us, and to all in Hertfordshire, the life of Francis Bacon has
a paramount interest. It must be known to all that although our
great philosopher was born in London, he spent part of his time
and wrote several of his works in our county, at Gorhambury near
St. Albans. It may be questioned whether the titles which he
doubtless chose for himself — " Verulam " when he was created a
Baron, and "St. Alban " when the higher rank of Viscount was
conferred upon him — evinced his attachment to the neighbourhood,
but there can be no doubt that this is shown in his desire to be
buried in St. Michael's Church. We know very little of his con-
nection with Gorhambury, however, beyond the bai'e facts that he
occasionally went there for a rest from the busy turmoil of London
society, which ever had an irresistible attraction for him, and that
he there spent some few of the last years of his life in ceaseless
literary labour.

It is not an easy matter to picture to ourselves the condition of
England in Bacon's time, but we cannot understand his career
unless we form some idea of it. To those in his position success in
life depended upon winning favour at the Court, and retaining it,
a more difficult matter, for although Elizabeth equally appreci-
ated bravery, learning, and accomplishments, she was imperious
and exacting, and when her favour had been won, skilful diplomacy
was required to maintain it against rivals. Thus Spenser says :

' ' Full little knowest thou, that hast not tride,
What hell it is in suing long to bide :
To lose good days, that might be better spent,
To waste long nights in pensive discontent ;
To speed to-day, to be put back to-morrow,
To feed on hope, to pine with feare and sorrow ;
To fret thy soul with crosses and with cares ;
To eate thy heart through comfortless dispaires :
To fawne, to crouche, to waite, to ride, to ronne,
To spend, to give, to want, to be undonue."

FRANCIS BACOX. 3

In the Church, as at Court, the will of Elizabeth was supromc.
She enforced implicit obedience to her behests, but although wlien
she began to reign scarce three years had elapsed since, under a
Catholic regime, Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and Cranmer had been
burnt at the stake, the bishops now, so long as they were loyal,
had nothing more to fear than deprivation of their sees.

In the administration of the law there was the same subserviency
to the crown, which became even more marked in the succeeding
reign. In all causes which affected the Court, the Sovereign inter-
vened, and the judges did not dare to resist the pressure thus
brought upon them Their stipends were inadequate to enable
them to uphold the position they were expected to take, and they
freely and openly received presents from suitors. On the conclusion
of a case the successful party was expected to make a present to
the jiidge who tried it. A wealthy suitor would naturally give
more than a poor one, so that there was at least a possibility of a
judge being biassed in favour of the rich. The delay in the law
now is nothing to what it was then, and suitors frequently made a
present to the judge in order to get their case heard. This
certainly savours sti'ongly of bribery, but the system pervaded
society to the highest in the land, for if a courtier had to ask a
favour of his sovereign, the request was almost invariably ac-
companied with a present. Elizabeth graciously, nay sometimes,
it has been said, eagerly, accepted such presents, even presents of
money. But she was not avaricious, nor was she extravagant :
such gifts were as necessary to her as to her judges.

Under the strong and careful rule of Elizabeth, England rapidly
increased in wealth and prosperity. A desire for greater comfort
and luxury sprang up ; fortified castles were converted into palaces ;
wooden hovels gave place to houses of brick and stone ; wicker
lattices to windows of glass; and, as Harrison says, " as for stooves
we have not hitherto used them greatlie, yet doo they now begin
to be made in diverse houses of the gentrie." He remarks on
" the multitude of chimnies latelie erected ; '' on " the amendment
of lodging, for," he says, "our fathers have lien full oft upon
straw pallets, and a good round log under their heads instead of a
bolster or pillow ; " on the exchange of pewter platters and tin or
even silver spoons for those of wood ; and on the great increase of
wealth amongst the farmers. In hospitality the English were
then, as always, profuse. All grades in a household usually dined
together, the dependants at a lower table in the banqueting-hall
than their masters. Venetian glass, and china dishes and plates,
were introduced, and knives and forks began to take the place of

4 J. HOPKINSON-— ANNIYEESAET ADDRESS :

fingers. Carpets were but seldom used except for covering tables,
tbe floors being strewn witb rushes. Dress was no less remarkable
for its splendour than for its variety, for, in tbe absence of a national
costume, various incongruous fashions of foreign countries were
adopted ; and the dress of the men was sometimes even richer and
more costly than that of the women.

The age of Elizabeth was pre-eminently one for country sports
and festivities : while Sunday, after the morning service which all
were obliged by law to attend, was the habitual day for merry-
making, there were several days in the year specially set apart for
pageants and festivities in which all classes heartily joined ; a
happy state of things which was destined soon to be for ever swept
away by the strict and morose yoke of puritanism.

Freedom from fear of persecution and of foreign aggression, and
a rapid growth of prosperity and of consciousness of indi^^dual
power and national greatness, with increased leisure and comfort,
put a spur to learning and the desire for knowledge, — knowledge
not only for its own sake but also as an aid to the acquisition of
wealth, power, and freedom ; and a spirit of enterprise sprung
up such as had never before been experienced in England.
Marlowe, who wrote about this time, thus expresses his ideas
of the aspirations of an Englishman on being endowed with
power to command spirits to obey his will : —
"I'll have them fly to India for gold,

Ransack the ocean for orient pearl,

And search all corners of the new-fonnd world

For pleasant fruits and princely delicates.

I'll have them read me strange philosophy.

And tell the secrets of all foreign kings.

I'll huy soldiers with the coin they bring,

And chase the Prince of Parma from the laud.

And reign sole King of all the Provinces ;

Tea, stranger engines for the brunt of war

Than was the fiery keel at Antwerp bridge

I"ll make my ser^dle spirits to invent."
Precision in the results of experimental research was then first
made possible by the construction of accurate mathematical
instruments by Gunter and Molyneux. Watches were first made
in England, letters were first sent by post, and the first English
newspaper was printed. It was ascertained that the magnetic
needle did not everywhere point due north, and we find John
Rudston, an astronomer, enquiring whether " the variation can be
in any place of the world 180 degrees, or the north point of the
needle stand directly to the south." So carelessly did men observe

FRANCIS BACON. O

the face of Xaturc that cveu Galileo maintained, as the basis of an
argument he had with Bacon, that there was high tide only once
in about twenty -four hours, instead of twice.

"Witchcraft was a capital offence, and astrology was generally
believed in. Camden, in his ' Britannia,' which he completed in
1607, discussed "under the influence of what sign and planet this
Britannia of ours lies," though he evidently did not place much
faith in the divinations of astrologers.

The Aristotelian philosophy -nas still all-powerful. Authority
was as it were on an unassailable pedestal, from which Bacon was,
destined to dethi-one it. In some countries it was dangerous to
controvert the generally-received opinions as to the construction
of the universe. Galileo was persecuted by the Inquisition for
teaching the true system of astronomy. But so it ever was and still
is to some extent : every great thinker who ventures to enunciate
views which appear to be opposed to the dogma current at the
time is virtually excommunicated, and so the progress of our
knowledge of the mysteries of ]S"ature is retarded, and some of our
most earnest seekers after truth are unjustly censured. " In
theology we balance authorities," said Kepler in 1609 ; " in science
we weigh reasons. A holy man was Lactantius, who denied that
the earth could be round. A holy man was Augustine, who,
granting the earth's rotundity, denied the antipodes. A holy
thing to me is the Inquisition, which, allowing the smallness of
the earth, denies its motion. But more holy to me is Truth ; and
hence I prove, by science, that the earth is round, is inhabited on
every side, is of small size, and in motion among the stars." These
conclusions startled the learned world, and well they might, for
they were founded on observation, not on authority. Here is a
specimen of the kind of reasoning to which men were then more
accustomed : — " The philosophers define tyme to be mensura moUU.
Before the heavens weare created there was no naturall motion, and,
by that reason, there wold be no mensura motus. That estate of
beinge which was before the creacion of the woorld was called
therefore eternitie."

The hollowness of such trains of thought as this was destined
soon to be shown by Descartes, by his discovery of the laws of
inertia and of the persistence of force, now called the conservation
of energy ; and by Bacon, who taught, with the authority of a
Lord Chancellor of England, that the way to find out the secrets
of [N^ature is to question her by experiments and to observe her
ways, it being futile to rely upon the efforts of our own imagination
or to place implicit credence on the sayings or writings of others.

6 J. HOPKINSOIf ANNIVEESAEY ADDRESS :

Similar views to these liad frequently been expressed before,
notably by Roger Bacon in England in the 13th century, and
by Leonardo da Vinci ia Italy in the 15th, but they appear to have
borne little fruit, and it seems that the greater success which
attended the teaching of Francis Bacon was mainly due to the
high position he held and the celebrity to which he attained.
That such would be the case was clearly seen by him, and to be
great for the good of mankiud was the ambition of his life.

Francis Bacon was the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon,
Queen Elizabeth's first Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, a man of
refined mind and literary and scientific tastes, and the first English
statesman of eminence who was neither a warrior nor an ecclesi-
astic. He was born on the 22nd of January, 1561 (new style), at
his father's London residence, York House, pleasantly situated in
its own grounds between the Strand, not then a street, and the
Thames, then a river of sufficient purity for the greater part of the
Metropolis to be supplied with water pumped from it by water-
wheels placed under some of the arches of old London Bi'idge.

Sir Nicholas Bacon married twice. By his first wife he had
three sons and three daughters. His second son, Nathaniel, a
talented artist, some of whose paintings are now at Gorhambury,
had a daughter Anne who married first Sir Thomas Meautys and
next Sir Harbottle Grimston, Master of the Rolls, who also had
been married before, to Mary, daughter of Sir George Croke, by
whom he had several sons and daughters, and from one of these
the present Earl of Yerulam claims descent. By his second wife
Ann, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, Sir Nicholas had two sons,
Anthony and Francis. In February, 1561, the month after the
birth of Francis, he became possessed of the Manors of " Gorham-
bury, Westwyke, and Pray," together with property in Redbourn,
and in the parishes of St. Michael, St. Peter, and St. Stephen, and
with the advowsons of the Vicarages of Redbourn and St. Michael.
If there was any house then standing at Gorhambury there is now
no trace of it. The house which Geoffrey de Gorham built about
the year 1128, and which stood about four hundred yards east of
the present building, on the brow of the hill facing towards St.
Albans, was demolished before the year 1400. But two years after
Sir Nicholas Bacon acquired the manor, he commenced to build the
house of which the ruins are still standing, south-west and within
sight of the present mansion, finishing it in 1568. In this house
he twice entertained the Queen, the second time for four days, and
her entertainment cost him for this period one-third as much as the
house cost him to build in five years. " In the orchard was a

FRANCIS BACON. 7

little bannuotting-liousc, adorned witli i>Teat curiosity, having the
liberal arts beautifully de])iotcd on its walls, over them the pictures
of such learned men as had excelled in each, and under them verses
expressive of the benefits derived from their study." [3Iontagtie.)
The very names of these arts give a curious insight into the know-
ledge of the time. They are Grammar, Arithmetic, Logic, Music,
llhetoric. Geometry, and Astrology.

Lady Ann Bacon was a woman of great piety and much learning,
being proficient in Latin, Greek, and several modem languages.
This was not so remarkable in those days as we may imagine, for
Queen Elizabeth delivered an extempore oration in Latin at Cam-
bridge University, and one in Greek at Oxford. Nevertheless it is
worth mention that Francis Bacon's father and mother were both
talented, and to his mother's abilities he doubtless owed his educa-
tion in early life. She was devoted to her sons, gave them good
advice long after they had arrived at man's estate, as loving
mothers do to this day, sent them farm and dairy produce from
Gorhambury, and sometimes when she had the means even paid
their debts, at the same time lecturing them well on their extrava-
gance. Anthony asks for a long carpet from Gorhambury. His
mother is loth to part with it ; he has had one already ; what can
he want with another ? But she sends it to him, to his house at
Twickenham ; what matters it to her ? — she can strew rushes on
the floor as of old ; and when she dies he will live at Gorhambury.

Bright, thoughtful, and rather precocious is Francis Bacon as a
child, and delicate in constitution then and throughout his life.
AVhen asked his age by the Queen, he replies: "Two years
younger than your Majesty's happy reign;" and she calls him her
young Lord Keeper. Although frequently at Court, he must have
spent many of his days of childhood " on the green slopes and in
the leafy woods of Gorhambury," fully alive to the beauties of
Nature, and having his interest in literature and science awakened
by his father's pursuits, and perhaps his curiosity aroused by the
allegorical representation of the liberal arts which adorned the
walls of the banqueting-house ; while we may be sure that his
mother instilled into him those deeply religious feelings which,
notwithstanding his failings, remained with him through life.

At the early age of twelve (in April, 1573) he goes to Cambridge
wdth his brother Anthony to study under Whitgift, and in less
than three years (at Christmas, 1575) he leaves the University
with a firm conviction of the unfruitfulness of the Aristotelian
philosophy, a profound disbelief in its infallibility, and a settled
resolve to try to discover a better method of studying nature. But

8 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVEESAEY ADDEESS :

the heavens themselves had then declared against Aristotle, a new
star as bright as the planet Jupiter having appeared and disappeared
in his region of the Unchangeable and Incorruptible, in the con-
stellation of Cassiopeia.

In another six months (27th June, 1576) the two brothers
are admitted into Gray's Inn as "Ancients," a privilege to which
they were entitled as the sons of a judge, and three months later
Prancis accompanies Sir Amias Paulet to the Court of Henri Trois.
"Whilst in France, in 1578, when in his eighteenth year, Hilliard
paints his portrait and encircles it with a Latin inscription signify-
ing "Oh that I could but paint his mind !" Early in the following
year he hears of his father's death, and leaves Paris bearing a
despatch from Sir Amias to the Queen in which he is mentioned as
" of great hope, endued with many good and singular parts." He
now finds it necessary " to study how to live instead of living only
to study," for his father had not made the provision for him which
he had intended to do. Anthony has property in Redbourn, and
Lady Ann has a life-interest in Gorhambury, where she lives,
looking after his (Anthony's) house at Redbourn, advising him as
to the letting of his farms, and sometimes interceding with him on
behalf of his tenants. She evidently interested herself in the
welfare of all around her, being always ready to give a word in
season whether of kindly sympathy or of righteous rebiike.

Francis Bacon, having now to earn his living, decides upon the
Bar, entering Gray's Inn later in this year. Here he diligently
studies the law, occasionally visiting his mother at Gorhambury.
In 1582, soon after attaining his majority, he is admitted an Utter
Barrister at Gray's Inn ; and in the following year he writes his first
philosophical essay, which he entitles ' Temporis Partus Maximus '
(The Greatest Birth of Time). A year later he drafts a deed for
his brother, ' ' Anth. Bakon, of Gorhambury, in the county of
Hartford, Esq.," the purport of which was to appoint attorneys
and give them power to raise £3000 on the security of Gorham-
bury for debts he (Anthony) was incurring during his residence
and travelling on the Continent.

Later in this year, or at the beginning of the next, when just
twenty-four, Francis Bacon writes a ' Letter of Advice to Queen
Elizabeth,' in which we see the first spark of that wealth of illus-
tration which pervades all his future writings and speeches. He
does not see how the Papists can be made absolutely content
without discontenting her Majesty's faithful subjects, and, he says,
"to fasten a reconciled love with the loosing of a certain, is to
build houses with the sale of lauds." He advises the compulsory

FRANCIS BACOX. »

education of children, " virtuously and religiously," as a more
efficient meims of reducing the number of Papists than persecuting
them, since, he says, " we find by experience that death works no
such effects, but that, like Hytli-a's heads, upon one cut off, seven
grow up, persecution being ever accounted as the badge of the
Church " Similar tolerance is to be extended to the Puritans, then
called Preachers, but here he knows that he is giving the Queen
unpalatable advice, and he qualifies it with the tact of a courtier :
" till I think that you think otherwise, I am bold to think that
the bishops in this dangerous time take a very evil and unadvised
course in driving them from their cures."

In his twenty-fourth year, before he writes this Letter, he first
takes his seat in Parliament. He sat for Melcombe then, in 1586
for Taunton, in 1589 for Liverpool, and in 1593 for Middlesex,
then as now the most wealthy and independent shire in England.
By that year, at the age of thirty-two, he has made his mark
in Parliament, for he is poor, holds no official position, and does not
own a rood of land in the county. Merit, and merit only, has
gained him this proud position. In that House "wit so radiant,
thought so fresh, and lore so prompt, have not before (and have
never since) been heard," but better far than this, he is trusted
and admired because he pleads for measures which all in their own
hearts must admit are best for the State, the Church, and the Law.
He pleads against feudal privileges and unpopular powers ; against
the destruction, then threatened, of the Church, for, he says, "it is
the eye of England ; if there be a spec or two in the eye, we
endeavour to take them off ; he would be a poor oculist who would
pull out the eye " ; and he urges the reform and simplification of
the law, telling a House full of lawyers that "laws are made to
guard the rights of the people, not to feed the lawyers," and that
they should be read by all and known to all.

Stirring times are these. The execution, in 1587, of the
unfortunate and misguided Mary Queen of Scots, for being acces-
soiy to a plot for the assassination of Elizabeth, removed the chief
source of danger to England from internal dissension, and the
defeat of the Spanish Armada in the following year dissipated
for the moment the fear of foreign aggression, and made England
" Mistress of the Seas," for the supremacy of Spain, up to that
time the greatest naval power in the world, was by this victory
broken for ever. The great question of domestic internal policy
was the management of the Church, and in 15-59 Bacon essays to
make peace between the Queen and her Parliament by drawing up
an ' Advertisement touching the Controversies of the Church of

10 J. HOPKINSOJT — ANNrVEESARY ADDRESS :

England,' in which he gives advice of value for all time. In 1592,
just three centuries ago, he writes the letter to his uncle, Lord
Burleigh, in which occurs the memorable expression : " I have taken
all knowledge to be my province."

During the Parliament of 1593, England is again threatened
with foreign invasion. The Spaniards, being victorious in France,
having penetrated even to Calais, there is no telling how soon they
may attack Dover, and while London is being decimated by the
plague, and levies are being raised in England for Henri Quatre,
King of France, money is reijuired for the sinews of war. The
Peers decide the amount — three subsidies, each of four shillings in
the pound, in three years. To dictate to the Commons the amount
they are to give is an innovation, and the tax is unpreccdentedly
heavy. Will no one contest the question, under peril of incurring
the Queen's displeasure, and perhaps of imprisonment ? For less
offence one member had been immured in the Tower and another
in the Fleet. Only one dare do it, and that one is Francis Bacon.
" To give," he says, " is the prerogative of the people — to dictate
what they shall give is not the duty of the House of Peers." A
debate ensues, the House divides, and Bacon gains his point. But
the money must be raised, so Sir Walter Ptaleigh says, and the
Commons can now grant it of their own free-will ; aiid would have
done so ; but Bacon again steps forward, says that he fears such a
heavy tax may raise discontent, and suggests that the period shall
be doubled, reducing the subsidy to two shillings in the pound
each year, and that the grant shall be declared exceptional. The
result is a compromise ; four years are allowed, and a clause is
inserted in the Bill declaring that the money " is given solely for
the war against Spain." Bacon, by his independent action, has
established for ever the exclusive right of the House of Commons
to directly tax the peojile for imperial purposes, and to define the
use to which the money raised shall be applied. The Sovereign
was not yet, however, entirely dependent upon the Commons for
supplies, having power to raise money by indirect taxation, etc.,
but no large amount could thus be obtained.

This same year begets a friendship which has, more than any-
thing else, given occasion for the formation of an unjust estimate
of Bacon's character, and a rivalry which, nearly thirty years
hence, will cause his ruin. The friend is the Earl of Essex,
grandson of a cousin of the Queen, petted and spoiled by her for
lack of a grandson of her own to pet and spoil. The rival is Sir
Edward Coke, then Speaker of the House of Commons, a clever
lawyer, but a hot-headed, blood-thirsty bully, who sees that Bacon's

FEANCIS BACOX. 11

advanoomont would likely be his own fall, and so sneers at his
phiU)sophy and disparages his law. Francis Bacon gives Essex
advice which, if he hud followed it, would have saved his head.
Essex appreciates it, but, where it seems likely to detract from his
own glory, is too headstrong to gain by it. Though petulant, he is
in his younger days generous to a fault, and he urges Bacon's claim
to place and power with such vehemence upon the Queen that she
Avill not gratify him. Though she loves to pot and spoil him at
her own sweet will, she keeps him in his place as her subject and
not her equal, and will not be dictated to by him, and so he goes
to Bacon, tells him that he has spoilt his prospects for a time, and
compensates him in some degree with the gift of a piece of land.

In the next rarliament (1597) Bacon sits for Ipswich, and makes
the session memorable by bringing in bills to arrest the decay of
tillage and stem the growing discontent of the yeomen. "The
population lives on the soil. Mining is in its cradle. . . . Manu-
factures are few and scant. ... To grow corn, to herd cattle, to
brew ale and press cider, to shear sheep, to fell and carry wood,
are the main occupations of every English shire. The farms are
small and many ; the farmers neither rich nor poor. The breeder
of kine, the grower of herbs and wheat, is a yeoman born ; not too
proud to put hand to plough, not too pinched to keep horse and
pike. . . . This sturdy class is dropping the plough for the
weaver's shuttle and the tailor's goose ; the rage for enclosing
woods and commons, for impaling parks, for changing arable land
into pasture, for turning holdings for life into tenancies at will,
having driven thousands of yeomen from fields and downs which
their fathers tilled before the Conqueror came in. Whole districts
have been cleared. Where homesteads smoked and harvests waved,
there is now, in many parts, a broad green landscape peopled by a
shepherd and his dog. Where the Maypole sprung and the village-
green crowed with frolic, are now a sheepwalk and a park of
deer." [Hej) worth Dixon.)

Bacon sees in this a danger to the crown and country, and he
di-afts two bills which provide that no more land shall be cleared
without special reason and a special licence, and that all land
turned into pasture since the Queen's accession, a period of forty
years, shall be restored to the yeomen and the plough. The
Commons pass the bills, the Lords, with the legal assistance of
Coke, oppose them ; but to no purpose. The astute lawyer, with
his thirty-one legal quibbles, is no match for the young barrister,
with his single weapon, justice, and with slight modifications the
bills become law.

12 J. HOPKINSON" — ANNrVEKSARY ADDRESS :

Early in this same year Bacon publislies the first edition of his
* Essays,' ten in number. They were reprinted in 1598, 1604, and
1606, increased to thirty-eight in 1612, and finally to fifty-eight in
1625. They are the most popular of all his works, and are replete
with original thought, apt qiiotations, and practical advice. "They
still," Prof. Eowler says, "retain their ground as classics, and,
some time or other during his life, every educated Englishman is
certain to read them." They arc undoubtedly utilitarian, as they
were meant to be, and exceptions may be taken to some passages
in them as inculcating uuAVorthy means to attain worthy ends, as
when a man is advised to have "dissimulation in seasonable use,
and a power to feign if there be no remedy;" but a higher moral
tone usually pervades them. Selfish aims and motives are strongly
deprecated, as in the following quotations (from the edition of
1625) : — " I take goodness in this sense, the affecting of the weal
of men, which is that the Grecians call Philanthropia. . . . This
of all virtues and dignities of the mind is the greatest, being the
character of the Deity, and without it man is a busy, mischievous,
wretched thing, no better than a kind of vermin." " Wisdom for
a man's self is, in many branches thereof, a depraved thing. It is
the wisdom of rats, that will be sure to leave a house somewhat
before it fall. It is the wisdom of the fox, that thrusts out the
badger, who digged and made room for him. It is the wisdom of
crocodiles, that shed tears when they would devour." "An ant is
a wise creature for itself, but it is a shrewd thing in an orchard or
garden. And certainly men that are great lovers of themselves
waste the public. Divide with reason between self-love and
society, and be so true to thyself as thou be not false to others,
specially to thy King and country. It is a poor centre of a man's
actions, himself.''''

A few passages culled almost at random, may convey a better
idea of the general character of the Essays : — " In taking revenge
a man is but even with his enemy, but in passing it over he is
superior. . . . That which is past is gone and irrevocable, and
wise men have enough to do with things present and to come."
"Virtue is like precious odours, most fragrant when they are
incensed or crushed ; for prosperity doth best discover vice, but
adversity doth best discover virtue." "A crowd is not company,
and faces are but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling
cymbal, where there is no love." " Defer not charities until death,
for certainly, if a man weigh it rightly, he that doth so is rather
liberal of another man's than of his own." Bacon delighted in
such aphorisms as these, so concise that not a word can be spared ;

FRANCIS BACOK. 13

but for pithiness tlio first essay in the first edition ("Of Studios ")
cannot bo surpassed.

The greater part of this essay has become proverbial. " Studies
serve for pastimes, for ornaments, and for abilities. . . . Craftie
men contemnc them, simple men admire them, vs^ise men use
them." " lleade not to contradict, nor to believe, but to waigh
and consider. Some bookes are to bee tasted, others to bee
swallowed, and some few to bee chewed and disgested." "Reading
maketh a full man, conference a readye man, and writing an exacte
man." "Histories make men wise, poets wittie ; the mathe-
matickes subtle, naturall phylosophie deepe ; morall grave, logicke
and rhetoricke able to contend."

Amongst the books to be " chewed and disgested," these * Essays '
will certainly always claim a prominent place.

The Irish rebellion under Tyrone next engages Bacon's atten-
tion. Shakespeare makes Richard the Second say :

' ' Now for our Irish wars !
"We must supplant these rough, rug-headed kernes,
Wliich live like venom where no venom else,
But they, have privilege to live ! "

In 1599 an army of twenty -thousand is raised to quell the
rebellion, and Essex claims to lead it. But Bacon's remedy is
the spade, not the sword. He would clear the forests, drain the
bogs, lay out new roads, build new towns and ports ; he would
have permanently resident in the country all the highest in
authority there, civil and military ; and he strenuously urges the
Earl of Essex to abandon the entei'j:)rise, on which, for his own
glory, and that only, he is intent. But to no purpose. Essex goes
and fails, disobeys his instructions, makes a traitorous truce with
the rebel chief, leaves the remnant of his army without a leader,
and, against the express command of the Queen, returns to London
with his chief officers and staff. He is taken into custody as a
traitor, but Bacon intercedes for him with the Queen and he is
liberated. In another year (Feb. , 1601), finding that he is not restored
to favour, under pretence that his life is threatened, he attempts to
raise the city against the Queen, and fails. Having played his
stake and lost, nothing can save him from the block. His prosecu-
tion is entrusted to Coke and Bacon. Coke wrangles with him on
immaterial points and leaves his junior to bidng home to him the
charge of treason. Before his death he confesses more against his
confederates than could otherwise have been proved, and four
of them, including two of his greatest friends, share his end.
With a few notable exceptions, all historians of this event have

14 J. HOPKINSON — ANNIVERSAHY ADDRESS :

said that Bacon, when called upon by Ms Queen, as her learned
counsel-extraordinary, to do his duty, should have declined, or, far
worse, should purposely not have done it to the best of his ability.
Bacon somewhere says that a man's love for his friend should be
greater than for himself, for his Sovereign greater than for his
friend, and for his country greater than for his Sovereign, and few
will disagree with him ; but nearly all maintain that when Essex
turned traitor and endeavoured to stir up civil war, Bacon, knowing
that he was powerless to save his life, should have disobeyed the
commands of his Sovereign, or, while ostensibly carrying out her
instructions, should have been guilty of duplicity. ^luch stress
has been laid upon the expressions of esteem and affection which
Bacon in his letters bestowed upon Essex while he remained a
dutiful subject of the Queen, but it should be borne in mind that
in those days such expressions were mere matters of form, almost
as meaningless as the epistolary term, " Your obedient servant,"
is now.

Lord Campbell, in his 'Lives of the Lord Chancellors,' says that
"for some time after Essex's execution Bacon was looked upon
with great aversion." About six months after it he was returned
as a member of Parliament for Ipswich, his former constituency,
and also for St. Albans ; three years after it, in the first year of the
reign of James the First, this double return was repeated. Surely
this is not the way the electors would show their disapproval of his
conduct. It is true that Essex was popular with a certain class ;
that Elizabeth considered it necessaiy to have published fuller
particiilars of his treasonable proceedings than came out at his
trial ; and that Bacon, when, on the accession of James the First,
the friends of Essex came into favour and power, had to repel the
accusations of his own enemies and explain his conduct ; but it is
no less true that Essex proved himself to be a traitor, and that
Bacon satisfied his contemporaries that he had done his best to
make Essex loyal, and, having failed, had done his duty to his
Queen and country.

Bacon was frequently suing for lucrative employments under the
crown during the reign of Elizabeth, but, though the Queen em-
ployed him and occasionally rewarded him for his services, it seems
that she either never fully forgave him for opposing her on the
question of subsidies, or that, to use her own word, he did not
" frame " sufficiently — she could not rely upon his implicit subjec-
tion to her imperious will. One of her rewards was the reversion
of the Clerkship of the Council in the Star Chamber, worth about
£1600 per annum. This, he said, was like " another man's ground

FRANCIS BACON. 15

buttiulinji" upon his house; Avliicli iniuht mend his prospect but did
not till his barn." He had it in i)rospcet only for nearly twenty
years. His uncle, Lord Burleigh, -who was the Queen's chief
adviser, never warmly espoused his suit, either, it appears probable,
deeming him a better philosopher than statesman or lawyer, or
thinking that his advancement would interfere with the advance-
ment of liis son, Loi'd Cecil, who, also, seems so have opposed his
cousin fi'om no other motive than jealousy.

James the First was known to be learned, and, on his accession
in 1603, Bacon sees a chance of obtaining royal patronage for his
long-cherished schemes for promoting the advancement of the arts
and sciences. He hurriedly completes a work ' On the Advance-
ment of LeaiTiing,' dedicates it to the King, and presents a copy of
it in MS. to him. In this work he first brings forward testimony
to the excellence of learning, and shows how it has been discredited ;
and then narrates what has been done for its advancement and
where it is defective. He classifies learning, first human and then
divine, on the basis of the three faculties, memory, imagination,
and reason, and carries ont the ramification to arts which did not
then exist. The literary merits of this work are not less than the
scientific. Dr. Abbot says that "it will always be important for
its literary value as well as for its suggestiveness and stimulating
effect upon every seeker after truth." Dean Church considers it
to be " the first great book in English prose of secular interest,"
"It is," he says, "a book which we can never open without coming
on some noble intei'pretation of the realities of nature or the mind ;
some unexpected discovery of that quick and keen eye which
arrests us by its truth ; some felicitous and unthought-of illustra-
tion ; some bright touch of his incorrigible imaginativeness, ever
ready to force itself in amid the driest details of his argument."
Of its scientific value perhaps no higher testimony can be given
than the fact that the editors of the French ' Encyclopedic ' made
it the basis of that great national work. " If we emerge from this
vast operation," wrote Diderot in the Prospectus, "we shall owe
it mainly to the chancellor Bacon, who sketched the plan of an
universal dictionary of sciences and arts at a time when there were
not, so to speak, either arts or sciences. This extraordinary genius,
when it was impossible to write a history of what men already
knew, wrote one of that which they had to learn."

Fault has been found with the classification of knowledge pro-
posed by Bacon, but it should be borne in mind that this was the
fii'st attempt of the kind ever made. No scheme of classification,
moreover, which has ever been proposed, and probably no scheme

16 J. HOPKINSON ANNITERSAEY ADDRESS :

whicli ever will be proposed, will stand tlic test of time ; for, as
knowledge increases, light is thrown on the relation to each other
of its various branches, and a single new fact may render necessary
an entire recasting of the whole superstructure. But, although
Bacon's partition of the arts and sciences has been superseded, the
' Advancement of Learning ' is still a text-book in our schools, and
more perhaps has been done during the latter half of the present
century to carry out the recommendations made in it than during
the whole of the previous two and a half centuries. The work was
jGLrst published in 1605, two years after it was written.

During the first few years of the reign of James the First, Bacon
makes frequent attempts to promote the union of the kingdoms of
England and Scotland. He believes, as he tells the King, that
"now the corner-stone is laid of the mightiest monarchy in
Europe," and he fights hard against prejudice to get it firmly
cemented. It seems strange to us that, in advocating the naturali-
sation of the Scotch, he has to argue that their immigration in
large numbers need not be apprehended ; that England, with a
population less than that of London in the present day, is not too
thickly populated ; and that increase of population would be a
source of strength rather than of weakness, for the sinews of war,
he says, are not made of gold but of men, and a surplus of popula-
tion, especially if due to the influx of sturdy northmen, will find
a vent in foreign aggression and colonisation, and so enlarge the
borders of our empire ; and he truly says that England, Scotland,
and Ireland firmly united will be such a trefoil as no other king in
Christendom can boast of or withstand.

Nor does he, while endeavouring to promote the advancement of
learning and the consolidation of the empire, neglect the welfare
of the Church, for he tenders advice to the King advocating a
conciliatory policy, — pleading not for mere countenance but for
a "law wliich may give a liberty," and maintaining that frequent
ecclesiastical reforms are needed just as much as civil reforms.
"If," he says, "it be said to me that there is a difference between
civil causes and ecclesiastical, they may as well tell me that
churches and chapels need no reparation though houses and castles
do." But James would not heed Bacon's wise counsel, failing to
perceive that the strength of the Church lay rather in the number
of her devotees than in their uniformity of practice and ceremony,
and the printed copies of Bacon's ' Considerations touching the
Pacification and Edification of the Church of England ' were called
in. The effort, hoAvever, was not entirely withoiit fruit, for in
a conference with his bishops and the Puritan preachers — the

FHANCIS BACOK. 17

cclobratod Hampton Court Conference — James conceded some points
on wlucli Bacon bad insisted, granting certain liberties wbicb the
Chui-cb has possessed ever since.

"While engaged upon these subjects — learning, the Union, and
the Church — Bacon is the most active and hardworking member of
the House of Commons, sitting, in the Parliament of 1604-5, on
twenty-nine committees, and usually if not always being chosen as
the reporter of the Commons to the Lords and the King. His
advancement now was rapid : knighted in 1603, he became
Solicitor-general in 1607, Attorney-general in 1013, Lord Keeper
in 1617, and Lord Chancellor in 1618. This was an eventful
period, the principal events being the Gunpowder Plot in 1605,
the colonisation of Virginia in 1607, the completion of the New
River to supply London with water from the valley of the Lea in
1608, the invention of the telescope by Lipperhay and the discovery
of Jupiter's satellites by Galileo in 1610, the publication of the
authorised version of the Bible in 1611, the foundation of the first
English settlement in India in 1612, the invention of logarithms
by Napier in 1614, the introduction of Episcopacy into Scotland in
1617, the commencement of the thirty-years' war in 1618, and the
discovery of the circulation of the blood by Harvey in this or the
following year.

In 1606 Bacon marries Alice Barnham, in 1607 he writes the
* Cogitata et Visa,'' in 1608 he begins the '■ JSfoviim Organum,'' and
in the same year he writes an eulogy of Queen Elizabeth (' In
felicem memoriam Elizaiethfe '), which he regarded as one of the
most precious efforts of his pen, and in 1609 he writes 'Be Sapientid
Veterum ' (The Wisdom of the Ancients). In 1610 his mother dies
and he succeeds to Gorhambury, for his brother Anthony had died
in 1601, and in 1612 he publishes the second edition of his
'Essays,' now thirty-eight in number. For the next few years
he wrote nothing of importance, except that he was engaged on
his greatest work, the ' Novum Organum.''

All this time he is struggling with his creditors, for he was
always short of money and continually borrowing, assiduously
pursuing his professional duties, taking an active part in politics,
advising the King, and mediating between him and the refractory
House of Commons. No wonder that he has been accused of
carelessness and haste in some of his conclusions ; no wonder that
he does not keep abreast with the scientific discoveries of his time.
Yet it seems strange that he should reject the Copernican system
of astronomy, believing that the Earth was the centre of the
Universe ; that he should be unaware of the astronomical work

VOL. VII. — PART I. 2

18 J. nopKiNSOisr—ANNivERSAEY address:

of Kepler ; and that he should contemn Gilbert's experiments in
maii,netism. But the Copernican system was then merely an
hypothesis by which the movements of the planets could be
exjjlained in a more simple manner than by the Ptolemaic system.
It was a necessary basis for Kepler's empirical laws of the distances
of the planets from the sun, and the times of their revolution round
it, which were known in England in the year 1610; but, although
Kepler's views strongly strengthened the hypothesis of Copernicus,
absolute proof was not forthcoming until Newton discovered the
laws of gravitation.

In 1614 Bacon is returned as a Member of Parliament for St.
Albans, Ipswich, and Cambridge, and elects to sit for his University.
In the following year he takes part in a trial which but for this
might have passed almost unnoticed — that of Peacham for treason.
The prominence given to this trial by Bacon's chief detractors,.
Campbell and Macaulay, make it necessary to refer to it here.
Peacham was rector of Hinton St. George in Somersetshire, and
was removed from the Church for grossly libelling his bishop, and
for other misdeeds. His house was searched, and in it was found a
seditious pamphlet prepared for publication, inciting to the murder
of the King, his son and heir, and his officers. When questioned
he accuses sevei'al persons in high position of treasonable know-
ledge of it, and makes it appear that a formidable conspiracy is on
foot. As he is known to be a bad character, doubts are raised as
to his truthfulness, and the Crown appoints a Commission of eight,
Bacon being one, to examine him under torture at their discretion.
Bacon, also, is directed by the King to consult the judges as to
whether they were of opinion that seditious writing legally amounted
to treason. Peacham is tried and sentenced to death, after which
he offers to tell the truth if his life is spared. His written con-
fession is in existence, and although in it he admits that his
accusation of others as his accomplices was unjust, he spins a tissue
of evident falsehoods. AYe may certainly regret that our great
philosopher should have been associated in a cruel and utterly
unphilosophical means of endeavouring to elicit truth, but for him
to have refused to act might in those times have been considered a
treasonable offence. Suffering and death were looked upon very
differently then than they are now. But a revulsion against the
use of torture was springing up, in which Bacon took a prominent
part. Of the eight who examined Peacham he is the only one who
has raised his voice against the practice, and yet he is the only one
who has been accused of inhumanity. Even the King had witnessed
torture, for he was present when Guy Eawkes was stretched.

FRANCIS BACON. 19

Again, tlioro arc precedents for private consultation with the
judfjes. For instance in 1612 an Arian preacher was tried for
heresy by a consistory of divines, and sentenced to be burnt alive ;
the judges were consulted one by one as to whether the King had
power to order the sentence to be carried out ; and, without trial in
any civil court, Bartholomew Legate perished in the flames.

A year after the trial of Peacham, Coke disobeys an order of the
King, conveyed to him by Bacon, to defer the hearing of a trial in
wliich the court is interested. Coke lays the blame on Bacon, but
Bacon shows that Coke is in the wrong, and witnesses his rival's
fall. From that moment his own fall is certain. The serpent he
has trodden upon and crushed will surely turn and make him feel
the poison of his fang; but not yet. He is rising, and rapidly,
perhaps too rapidly. Thi'ee days after this he is sworn a member
of the Privy Council, taking the place from which his rival had
been degraded ; nine months after it he becomes Lord Keeper, and
in another three months he clears off a vast accumulation of
arrears in the Court of Chancery, his rulings and decisions giving
general satisfaction. In another six months the high rank of Lord
Chancellor is conferred upon him ; and in yet another six months
(12th July, 1618) he is raised to the Peerage with the title of
Baron Verulam of Verulam. He has now more leisure, and devotes
it to his favourite studies, carrying out the desire of his life that
his greatness should redound to the benefit of mankind.

"We have seen that Bacon strenuously and repeatedly advocated
toleration when such advocacy was not likely to meet with the
approval of his Sovereign, whether Elizabeth or James. There
ought not, therefore, to have been any doubt of his sincerity, but,
as it has been questioned, it may be well to mention a few episodes
of about this time which go far to prove it.

His friend, Tobie Matthew, son of a bishop, grandson of an arch-
bishop, with all his relatives in the Church, becomes a recusant —
a Catholic — a few months after the discovery of the gunpowder
plot, when the Catholics were in especial disfavour. Bacon tries
at first to bring him back into the Church of England, but soon
sees that the change in his views has made him "a better and a
happier man." He is cast out of his father's house, and Bacon
takes him into his own ; he is cast into jail, and Bacon visits him
there, and eventually procures his release. Divergence in religious
\'iews was then considered to be an insuperable bar to friendship, but
these two men are fast friends for life.

Ten years later, Sir "William and Sir Thomas llonson are in
the Tower on suspicion. That they are CathoKcs is, to Coke, a

20 J. HOPZrNSOU" — ANNIVERSAEY ADDRESS :

sufficient reason to hang them, but as the evidence against Sir
William is very slight, he gets together a mass of secret papers
with which he hopes to incriminate him. Eacon orders him, by
command of the King, to give them up to him, and the result is
that Sir William is proved to be innocent and is at once set at
liberty. There is some evidence against Sir Thomas, but Bacon
and the Lord Chancellor (Yelverton) believe it to be inconclusive,
and advise the King to pardon him, as an act of justice, mercy,
and expediency. Their advice is taken. Sir Thomas Monson
declares his innocence, and requests that his pardon may be read
as evidence of it. His wish is gratified, and he leaves the Tower
a loyal and devoted subject of the King.

Doctor Burgess, a famous Puritan preacher, has for some time
been suspended from his ministry in the Church. His loss is sorely
felt in London ; his inspiring words and thundering denunciation
of all evil ways are much needed. Many wish to hear him again ;
amongst others the Honourable Society of Gray's Inn. It is Bacon's
first act on becoming a Privy Councillor to procure his restoration
to the Church, and this is just after he has brought about the
release of one of the Monsons and before he obtains the release of
the other. All these acts expose him to the malignity of those
in power who are intolerant and bigoted. Who can doubt his
sincerity ?

In 1620 an epoch in the history of philosophy is created, for in
this year appears Bacon's great work, the ' Novum Organum.^ He
has been working at it for "near thirty years," he says, and frag-
ments of it, each complete in itself, had appeared in various forms,
bat they were probably first put together as a connected whole
about the year 1608, for his chaplain. Dr. Rawley, says that he
has seen " at the least twelve copies . . . revised year by year, one
after another, and every year altered and amended in the frame
thereof;" and in a letter to his friend Toby Matthew, as early as
1610, Bacon himself says: "My great work goeth forward; and
after my manner I alter ever when I add ; so that nothing is
finished till all be finished."

The 'JVovum Organum,'' or ' N"ew Instrument,' was only a section
— the second — of a much larger work, the '■Magna Instauratio,'' of
which the greater part of the ' Advancement of Learning ' in its
Latin form, now called ' Partitiones Scientiarum,'' was to form the
first part. This second part. Bacon says, " sets forth the art itself
of interpreting nature and of a truer operation of the understand-
ing." But he did not consider the ' Novum Organum ' to be the
complete second part of the Great Instauration of Science, but

FfiANCIS BACON. 21

merely an introduction to, and example of, his new mctliod of
Indtu'tion, the introduction forming- the first hook, and the cxamjde,
the nature of heat, forming the greater part of the second. In tlio
first book the principles of correct induction are laid down, and the
errors to be guarded against, the false idols, are pointed out. In
concluding it he says that " if men had a just history of nature and
experience, and could bind themselves by two rules, first, to lay
aside received opinions, and secondly to restrain themselves from
seeking at once to ascend to the highest generalisations, they would
be able to interpret nature rightly." In the second book more
precise rules are given with special reference to the immediate
subject of inquiry. These rules have been much condemned, the
chief ground of condemnation being that he ignores, in formulating
them, the fact that invention and discovery as a rule require
genius, thinking that, if only his rules were followed, the secrets
of nature would be open to all investigators ; and yet we find that,
although he cannot be considered to have shown any special genius
for physical research, and, unfortunately for physical science, was
not a mathematician, in the one case in which he did apply his
own rules, he gave a definition of heat which it would be difiicult
to express with greater terseness and precision at the present day.
''Heat," he says, "is a motion, expansive, restrained, and acting
in its strife upon the smaller particles of bodies ; " and this motion
"is not sluggish, but hurried and with violence." Heat then, and
for two centuries afterwards, was thought to be material rather than
a form of energy, and was called 'caloric,' a notion which Bacon
rejected on account of its being generated by friction, and it is note-
worthy that it is by experiments on friction in recent years that the
correctness of his interpretation of the nature of heat has been proved,
and the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat has
been made. Equally happy, and equally in advance of the know-
ledge of the time, is his example of the discovery of truth from a
Solitary Instance, one class, out of twenty-seven, of his Prerogative
Instances, another being the well-known Crucial Instance. " If,"
he says, "we are enquiring into the nature of Colour, prisms,
crystals, which show colours not only in themselves but externally
on a wall, dews, etc., are Solitary Instances. For they have
nothing in common with the colours fixed in flowers, coloured
stones, metals, woods, etc., except the colour. From which we
gather that colour is nothing more than a modification of the image
of light received upon the object, resulting in the former case fi'om
the different degrees of incidence, in the latter from the various
textures and configurations of the body." The far-reaching import

22 J. HOPKINSON- — ANNIVEKSAKY ADDRESS :

of these remarkable words remained dormant until the distinction
here so clearly and correctly drawn led to Newton's discovery of
the composition of light, although he was mistaken as to its
nature, believing it to be corpuscular instead of undulatory, in
other words material rather than a mode of motion, as heat also is.
Three months after the publication of this work (in January,
1621) Bacon is created Viscount St. Alban, his eighth promotion,
" a diapason in music," he says, " a good number and accord for
the close." And the close soon came, for in another three months
the Great Seal is taken from him, he is debarred from ever again
taking any office imder the Crown, or coming within the verge of
the Court, fined £40,000, and imprisoned in the Tower. In his
essay "Of Great Place," he says: "The rising unto Place is
laborious, and by pains men come to greater pains, and it is
sometimes base, and by indignities men come to dignities. The
standing is slippery, and the regress is either a downfall, or at
least an eclipse, which is a melancholy thing." Few men have
taken greater pains to rise into " Place " than he did, and few have
had a greater or more unexpected downfall. His arch-enemy,
Coke, had been trying for years to find a weak spot in his armour,
had managed to ingratiate himself with the favourite, Buckingham,
and had found an aspiiant for the Great Seal who was willing to
pay handsomely for its possession. The weak spot was at last
found, and Bacon was shown to have partaken of the abuses of the
age, having accepted presents from suitors as his predecessors since
his father's time had done. In allowing the abuses in his Court to
continue, even for a single day, and in taking advantage of them
himself, he was undoubtedly in the wrong, but he appears to have
striven against these abuses after a time, and eventually to have
overcome them, for all the charges of accepting fees from suitors
that were brought against him relate to the first two years of his
office. His own estimate of his conduct, written in cypher and not
intended to be published, is probably correct : "I was the justest
judge that was in England these fifty years, but it was the justest
censure in Parliament that was these two hundred years." Not
a single case was brought home to him of allowing a present to
influence him in his decisions, and the charges raked up against
him were from suitors to whom his decisions had been adverse ; and
although, after his fall, as might naturally be expected, attempts
were made to obtain reversals of some of his judgments, not a
single attempt was successful. But there was one instance in
which, after giving a decision adverse to one of Buckingham's
friends, he had, at the favourite's request, a private interview with

FRANCIS BACON. 23

the parties to the suit, and prevailed upon the successful suitor to
forego interest to which he liad adjudiied him to he entitled. That
this is the solitary instance of corruption proved against him, and
was not one of bribery, goes far to show that whatever were the
intentions of the donors of the presents he received, not one was
accepted by him as a bribe, not one influenced his judgments.
The fact seems to be that the House of Commons, then in contest
with the King and under the leadership of Coke, intent upon re-
dressing abuses, had determined to make a scapegoat of the Lord
Chancellor, as the King's chief adviser, and the only charge that
could be substantiated against him was that of accepting fees. For
this Coke would have had him hanged, citing precedents, but Lord
Arundel interposed; "His offences foul; confession pitiful; life
not to be touched."

Three years later the Commons had a grievance against Bacon's
most virulent accuser next to Coke, — the Lord High Treasurer,
Lionel Cranfield, Earl of Middlesex. "He had done more than
any other man," says Gardiner, "to rescue the finances from dis-
order. He was a careful guardian of the public purse. But he
disliked war with Spain because it would be expensive," and had
done his best to avert it. The Commons wanted war with Spain,
and, being determined to get rid of him, impeached him for
corruption. He was deposed from his office and heavily fined.
He had partaken of the abuses of the time, as Bacon did, and
probably his place was wanted, as Bacon's was. In both cases
money was wanted, and it had become quite an art to raise it by
irregular means. The price of a baronetcy and of an earldom was
then well known. Sir Henry Montagu goes to Newmarket to
receive his staff of office as Lord Treasurer. " Take care, my
Lord," says Bacon, "wood is dearer at Newmarket than at any
other place in England" The staff cost him £20,000. So was it
an easy way of raising money to depose a man from office, fine him
heavily, and exact a heavy fee for the office from his successor.
Truly in those days Bacon was right in saying that in great place
"the standing is slippery." But by the favour of the King his
fine was virtually remitted. He was, moreover, released from the
Tower in two days, and the remainder of the sentence was eventually
annulled, not however without remonstrance from his successor,
who " stayed " his pardon for some days.

The next few years of his life are chiefly spent at Gorhambury.
Here his father had endeavoured to supply water to the house he
built, by making reservoirs, the remains of which may still be seen,
in Pre Wood, and conveying into them water from the higher

24 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS :

ground around. But the gathering-ground was small, and in dry
years this source of water-supply fails, and as the water will not
go to him he determines to go to the water, so just before his fall
he spends about £10,000 in building a house and laying out
gardens in the valley by the pondyards. This is the Verulam House
of which Aubrey gives an account : "the most ingeniously-contrived
little pile," he says, "that ever I saw." About half a century
later the house was sold by Sir Harbottle Grimston "to two
carpenters for four hundred " pounds, the value of the materials,
and pulled down. Its site may still be traced, but probably the
only remnant of it known to be in existence is a handsomely-
carved oak door, now the fi'ont door of Kingsbury, St. Albans.

Bacon has now the leisure he has always longed for, and he
spends his time well. In the last five years of his life, Rawley
says, "he composed the greatest part of his books and writings,
both in English and Latin, which," he continues, " I will enumerate
(as near as I can) in the just order wherein they were written
[adding, in the Latin version of his Life of Francis Bacon, 1658,
' quam prcesens ohservavi'^: — The History of the Eeign of King
Henry the Seventh ; Ahcedarium Naturce . . . ; Historia Ventorum ;
Sistoria Vitce et Mortis ; Historia Densi et Rari . . . ; Historia
Gravis et Leius . . . ; a Discourse of a War with Spain ; a Dialogue
touching an Holy "War ; the Fable of the New Atlantis ; a Preface
to a Digest of the Laws of England ; the beginning of the History
of the Reign of King Henry the Eighth ; Be Augmentis Scientiarum,
or the Advancement of Learning, put into Latin, with several
enrichments and enlargements ; Counsels Civil and Moral, or his
book of Essays, likewise enriched and enlarged [now 58 in number] ;
the Conversion of certain Psalms into English Verse ; the Transla-
tion into Latin of the History of King Henry the Seventh, of the
Counsels Civil and Moral, of the Dialogue of the Holy War, of the
Fable of the New Atlantis, for the benefit of other nations ; his
revising of his book De Sapientid Veterum ; Inqiiisitio de Ilagnete ;
Topica Inquisitionis de Luce et Lumine . • . ; lastly, Sylva Si/lvarum,
or the Natural History."

Of the ' Historie of the Haigne of King Henry the Seventh,'
published in 1622, Spedding says: "None of the histories which
had been written before conveyed any idea either of the distinctive
character of the man or the real business of his reign. Every
history which has been written since has derived all its light from
tliis, and followed its guidance in every question of importance."
The 'New Atlantis,' written in 1624, was not published until
1627, a year after his death. Of it Dr. Abbot says: "Rich,

FRANCIS BACON. 25

majestic pomp ; sage and solemn ceremonies ; a recognition of
degrees, ranks, and orders in the State as being appointed by God
and necessary for the happiness of man ; a religion that combines
the charity and breadth of the New Testament with something of
the more earthly and material thoughts and ritual of the Old ; an
exaltation of material wealth, comfort, and prosperity, as being
the natural results of a devout pursuit of Science in an orderly
and religious country — such are the salient features of this most
interesting fragment." It is credited with having suggested the
foundation and programme of the Royal Society of London.
' Certaine Psalmes in Yerse,' published in 1625, show that he
was not a poet, for there is a want of easy flow of words in his
poetry, and much of his prose is more poetically imaginative. He
could no more have written Shakespeare's ' Plays ' than Shake-
speare could have written the ' Novum Organum.''

It appears that during the last few years of his life Bacon
translated several of his works into Latin, "for the benefit of other
nations," Rawley says; but it was his idea, and an excusable one
in those days, that for a book to last for all time it must be printed
in the universal language. His Latin works are now least read,
and they have only been preserved from almost complete oblivion
by being translated into English and other modern languages.

The last of his works to be noticed is the ' Sylva Si/lranim,^
written just before his death and published by Dr. Rawley in
1627. This is a collection of what he calls " Experiments," which
relate to a great variety of subjects, physical, chemical, biological,
physiological, psychological, and medical, thrown together with
scarcely any method. But we should bear in mind that he only
intended this work to be a portion of a collection to be largely
added to from time to time by others, so that at some future period
a master mind might find a mass of material at hand from which to
build up a system of Natural History by sifting the wheat from
the chaff. In the Preface, Rawley says : " I have heard his
lordship speak complainingly, that his lordship . . . should be
forced to be a workman and a labourer, and to dig the clay and
bum the brick ; and more than that ... to gather the straw and
stubble over all the fields to burn the bricks withal." He felt that
he was not doing justice to himself in writing this book, and ex-
pressed the truth when he said to his chaplain that "if he should
have served the glory of his own name, he had better not to have
published this Natural History," but he thought that it was a
work which ought to be done, and "he knoweth that, except he
do it, nothing will be done." Nevertheless Prof. Fowler says of

26 J. HOPKINSON AJS^NIVEESART ADDRESS :

this work : " It is probably the best and most complete collection
of the kind that, up to that time, had been published." In this,
as in all his writings, there is much that was in advance of the
time. It is written in his favourite style — in Aphorisms, short
pithy sentences, each containing a truth completely worked out.
The most methodical and vahiable portion of the work is the
treatise on Sound comprised in Aphorisms 101 to 290. A few
illustrations of his prescience may be given. The humming of
bees, he says, may be " f i-om the motion of their wings, for it is
not heard but when they stir." He suggests an experiment to
ascertain whether if there be two bells in unison " the striking of
the one would move the other more than if it were of another
accord," thus anticipating our present knowledge of sympathy of
vibration. He devises an ear-trumpet "for those that are thick of
hearing." (He anticipated the invention of speaking-tubes in his
'New Atlantis.') And he compares the generation and perishing
of sounds with circular waves in water, which is the readiest way
in which we can now explain the undulatory theory of sound. He
believes in transmutation but not in annihilation, in both respects
being in opposition to the opinions of his age and in accord with
those of ours. He clearly shows, in Aphorisms 525, 526, etc.,
that he believes "the transmutation of plants one into another"
to be chiefly due to their environment, and that cultivated plants
will sooner " change into other species than those that come of
themselves ; for culture giveth but an adventitious nature, which,
is more easily put off " But though things may change, in the
universe nothing can be lost. "There is nothing more certain in
nature," he says, in Aphorism 100, "than that it is impossible
for any body to be utterly annihilated ; " and he then shows how
bodies may be preserved from putrefaction by what we now call
the antiseptic treatment, further elaborating his views in Aphorism
771, in which he says that "if you provide against three causes of
putrif action, bodies will not corrupt." The first provision is to
exclude the air; the second to place the body in a preservative
" heterogeneal," not " commaterial," medium; and the third that
the body " be not of that gross that it may corrupt within itself."
In Aphorism 341 he says: "The first means of prohibiting or
checking putrifaction is cold ; for we see that meat and (h'ink will
last longer unputrified, or unsoured, in winter than in summer ;
and we see that flowers and fruits, put in conservatories of snow,
keep fresh."

This quotation is a fit prelude to the end, for in making an
experiment to ascertain the preservative effect of snow. Bacon

FKANCIS BACOy. 27

caught the cold of which ho died. About the hist day in March,
1626, when snow is lying in shady places, he stojjs his coach
on his way to Highgate, buys a fowl, and, with his own hands, so
we are told, stuffs it with snow. This brings on a sudden chill,
and he takes refuge in Lord Arundel's house at Highgate, where,
to do him honour, the servants put him into the state bed. The
bed is damp, and in a few days, on Easter Sunday the 9th of April,
he dies of what we now call bronchitis. In his will he said :
*' For my burial, I desire it may be in St. Michael's Church, near
St. Albans : there was my mother buried, and it is the parish
church of my mansion house of Gorhambury, and it is the only
Christian church within the walls of old Yerulam. . . . For my
name and memory, I leave it to men's charitable speeches, to
foreign nations, and the next ages."

" This passage," says his biographer, Easil Montague, " not to be
seen until he was at rest from his labours, impressed me with a
feeling of his consciousness of ill usage, and a conviction that the
time would arrive when justice would be done to his memory."
To do such justice Montague faithfully strives, with the light at
his command in 1834, but he predicts that some future historian,
assisted by his labours, " with all his zeal and ten-fold his ability ;
with power equal to the work and leisure to pursue it, will dig the
statue from the rubbish which may yet deface it ; and, obliterating
one by one the paltry libels scrawled upon its base, will place it, to
the honour of true science, in a temple worthy of his greatness."
This prediction has been amply fulfilled. James Spedding devoted
thirty years to the task, and in his ' Works of Francis Bacon,' in
seven volumes, in editing which he had two coadjutors, llobert
Leslie Ellis and Douglas Denon Heath ; and his ' Letters and Life
of Francis Bacon,' also in seven volumes, he has truly raised "a
temple worthy of his greatness." Xo one who has not read the
' Letters and Life,' or at least Spedding' s shorter work, the ' Life
and Times of Francis Bacon,' is entitled at the present time to
express an opinion of Bacon's character, for the full materials from
which a correct opinion can be formed are not to be found in any
biogi'aphies but those of Spedding.

That the life of Francis Bacon was not a perfect life must be
admitted, for it was a human life with human frailties. And
whether we may call it a noble life is open to question. A noble
life is one of self-sacrifice for the good of others. The life of
David Livingstone and that of General Gordon may be cited as
well-known examples of noble lives. Bacon devoted his life, as
they did, to good and noble ends, but the one element required to

28 J. HOPKINSOISr ANNIVEESAUX ADDRESS :

make it truly noble, the element of self-sacrifice, was wanting ;
and he had one great failing, carelessness about money. To this
all his errors and misfortunes may be traced, for it fostered in him
a spirit of dependence, made him subservient to the will of others,
and led him to seek preferment with a pertinacity and obsequious-
ness which greatly mar the nobler attributes of his character.
Certainly he strove for place in order that he might have means
and leisure to pursue his studies, with the laudable intention of
devoting his time and talents to the benefit of mankind, but place
did not bring him the leisure he thought it would do, and though it
brought him means, those means were devoted to display, instead
of to the payment of his debts. As he had to borrow money in
his younger days to enable him to live in an humble way in his
chambers in Gray's Inn, it seems strange that after having been
for some years in the receipt of a princely income, twenty times as
great as then, and having enjoyed a handsome pension up to the
last, — it seems strange that he should die insolvent, and yet have
so little idea of the state of his finances as to leave in his will
a large number of legacies in money, and anticipate " a good round
surplusage" with which to endow two professorships in either of
the Universities (Oxford or Cambridge), "hoping that the stipends
.... may amount to two hundred pounds a year for either of
them." In this connection the following bequests may be men-
tioned as of interest to us : — "to the poor of St. Michael's near
St. Albans . . . fifty pounds . . . ; to the poor of the abbey church
parish in St. Albans, twenty pounds ; to the poor of St. Peter's there,
twenty pounds ; to the poor of St. Stephen's there, twenty pounds ;
to the poor of Eedborn, twenty pounds ; to the poor of Hempstead
. . . twenty pounds." He reckons Gorhambury to be worth "seven
hundred pounds per annum [equal to about £3000 in our day],
besides wooclfells, and the leases of the houses." Not long before
his death he was advised to cut down the woods around Gorham-
bury in order to raise money ; but he declined, saying : "I
will not be stripped of my feathers." The estate was conveyed
to trustees for the use of Sir Thomas Meautys, after whose
death it was purchased by Sir Harbottle Grimston, who had
married his widow, and from whom it has descended to its present
noble owner. Sir James "Walter Grimston, second Earl of Ycrulam.

A man with so little idea of his financial position as Bacon
had, so lavish in his expenditure and so extremely careless
about money matters, so constantly short of money, and in fact
nearly always iu debt, could scarcely be expected to devote
much attention to preventing the continuance of the abuses of

FEANCIS BACON. 29

his Court, the Court of Chancery, -when those ahuses brought
him in hu-ge sums of money, and we cannot wonder that he
shouhl bo utterly oblivious to the fact that he was wrong in not
at once putting a stop to such abuses. Spedding says: "Up to
the day when the charge of corruption was brought against him,
I fancy that he had thought himself, in his dealings with other
men, not only unimpeachable but exemplary : a faithful and
diligent servant ; a considerate and indulgent master ; a service-
able friend ; a sound patriot, always meditating projects for the
improvement and advancement of his country ; an enthusiast of
humanity, passionately ambitious to enlarge the powers, heal the
diseases, and purify the condition of the human race ; in debate,
fair and courteous ; in council, free, careful, candid ; anxious that
all things should be carried with due consideration for the just
interests of all parties and without just offence to any ; seeking for
himself scarcely anything except work and the wages of work
which he was well able to do and which he did well ; receiving for
himself nothing but what was freely offered, and giving more freely
than he received ; an honourable opponent, an indulgent censor,
a faithful reporter, a laborious worker, an honest and unselfish
adviser, an impartial and scrupulous judge, and filled (as himself
could best witness) with tender consideration for all sentient
creatures." All this he was, but it is probably a fairer summary
of the opinions formed of him by his friends and associates than of
his own opinion of himself, for he was not presumptuous, nor was he
self-reliant ; in fact it was a failing with him to place too much
reliance on the opinions of those around him and too little on his
own, — to yield too readily when he was in the right to the views
of those who were in the wrong. Mr. Spedding elsewhere says :
" The qualities for which he gave himself credit were only patience
and faith, and love of truth, carrying with it confidence in the
power of truth," which is very different from confidence in himself,
or in his own power of divining truth. In fact he confessed that
he had " misspent his talent in things for which he was least fit."
In this he shows the true modesty of a great mind. If he had
spent his life in seclusion, as he once contemplated, he would
probably have been no better satisfied with himself. He might
have completed his 'Great Instauration,' and then have come to
the conclusion that after all his endeavours to pro^-ide mankind
with a key with which to unlock the secrets of nature, he had
" misspent his talent " and failed.

Surely, though, his life was not a failure, for since the com-
mencement of the Christian era no one has done more than he did

30 J. HOPKINSOIf — AIOflVEESAET ADDRESS :

to benefit mankind, while many of his projects failed merely
because he could only impart knowledge, not wisdom, to those
upon whom their acceptance and execution depended. Had
Elizabeth and her successors, and the bishops they appointed,
allowed the freedom to the Church which he advised ; — had James
the Fii'st and his successors freely abandoned their rights of pre-
rogative which gave rise to abuses and grievances, and thrown
themselves on the generosity of the House of Commons for supplies,
in accordance with his wise counsel ; — no Cromwell would have
arisen, for none would have been needed, Charles the Pirst would
not have been beheaded, many an old castle and moated grange
now in ruins or totally destroyed might still have been standing,
the ruthless hand of the religious fanatic would not have been laid
upon the beautiful carved statues and delicate traceiy in wood
and stone which once adorned the interior of our Cathedrals, and
better still, we might now have had, in the Church of England,
a truly national Church, allowing the utmost freedom of belief and
divergence of ceremony not at variance with the teaching of Christ,
and consequently admitting of almost the whole of the Protestant
community being embraced within its folds.

In the law his influence is still felt and his judgments still have
weight. Lord Campbell says that his "Orders" (100 in number)
" remain a monument of his fame as a judge . . . ; are the founda-
tion of the practice of the Court of Chancery, and are still cited
as authority ; " and that in his celebrated argument in the
Exchequer Chamber, in "The Case of Perpetuities," he placed
the law of real property "on the satisfactory footing on which it
has remained in England ever since, — striking the happy medium
between mere life interests and perpetuities, and providing at once
for the stability of families, necessary in a mixed monarchy, and
for freedom of commerce in land, necessary for wealth under every
form of government whatever." He also says that in the preface
to his treatise ' Upon the Elements and Use of the Common Law '
(1596) "he inculcated the doctrine which he often repeated, and
which he acted upon notwithstanding his preference of other pur-
suits,— that there is a debt of obligation on every member of a
profession to assist in improving the science in which he has suc-
cessfully practised." There is no profession to which this doctrine
more pre-eminently applies than the medical, for the science of
medicine is essentially empirical and experimental, and can therefore
best be advanced by the publication of methods of treatment which
have proved successful, and yet how many of our most successful
physicians never give to the world the results of their experience.

: FRANCIS BACON. 3 1

But after all it is in the philosdphieal investis:;ation of IS'atnre
that the world has received the greatest benefit from Bacon's
teaching. If he has not furnished us with an infallible key with
which to unlock the secrets of the universe, he has at least shown
us the way in which we ought to proceed, the spirit in which we
ought to work, and the end at which we ought to aim. The way
to proceed is to make sure of every step, ascending cautiously from
particulars to genezwlities, and taking nothing upon trust. " He
delivered a set of cautions as to the use of the haman understand-
ing," Spedding says, "applicable to the pursuit of truth in all
departments, which have scarcely been added to or improved upon
since his time." ' The spirit which should animate us is one of
humility, charity, and reverence. "It is not too much to say,"
remarks Dean Church, " that in temper, in honesty, in labour, in
humility, in reverence, he was the most perfect example the world
had yet seen of the student of nature, the enthusiast for know-
ledge." And the end to be attained is the improvement of human
knowledge "for the glory of God and the relief of man's estate."
Our aim should thus be not only to relieve man's estate, but also to
raise a temple of knowledge "for the glory of God."

This idea was ever present in his mind. As Dean Church says :
" Both in his philosophical thoughts and in the feelings of his mind
in the various accidents and occasions of life, Bacon was a religious
man, with a serious and genuine religion. . , . The solemn
religious words in which his prefaces and general statements often
wind up with thanksgiving and hope and prayer, are no mere
words of course; they breathe the spirit of the deepest conviction."
But although a spirit of reverence pervades all his writings, he
never derives a scientific idea fi'om a theological, or a theological
from a scientific, nor does he ever attempt to dive into the mystery
of Being. " ^Ve are told," he says, "that the heavens declare the
glory of God, not that they declare the will of God." His ideas,
his methods, and his aims are as different from those of Descartes
as the life he led was different. He lived in the world and sought
worldly advancement that he might the better promote the ad-
vancement of the world. Descartes lived as it were out of the
world and despised worldly honours that he might the better with-
di'aw his thoughts from material objects and concentrate them on
his innate ideas, and almost all his errors are due to this. He
thought that he could construct a system of the universe from
his own cogitations, not realising the necessity of observation and
experiment which Bacon has insisted upon. But both philo-
sophers pursued their studies in a spirit of humility and reverence.

32 J. HOPKINSON ANNITEESAEY ADDRESS :

"Bacon," says Naville, "made the necessity of observation to rest
upon tlie Divine power, in presence of which we must humble
ourselves ; Descartes makes confidence in our reason to rest upon
the idea of the Divine goodness, to which we must trust ourselves."
Both men strongly urged the necessity of our throwing aside
all prejudice ; divesting our minds of every preconceived idea.
Bacon says: "It is humbly, with a sense of reverential fear, and
after having, in a manner, purified themselves from every pre-
conceived idea, that men must approach the grand book of creation
and unroll its pages ; regard it in long contemplation, meditate upon
it, and religiously impress themselves with it."

It seems strange that while some of Bacon's biographers, such as
Hawley, Montague, and Hep worth Dixon, extol his character and
scarcely admit that he had a fault, others, such as Campbell and
Macaulay, condemn it and scarcely credit him with a single virtue.
Of his greatness there can be no question, but was his life a good
and virtuous one for the time in which he lived ? In endeavouring
to answer this question we should take into consideration that the
standard of morality has been vastly raised during the last three
centuries, and also that it is impossible for us in this age of
freedom to fully realise the difficult position of a courtier in his
day, and especially of one with a strong sense of duty to his
Sovereign, and a deep feeling of sympathy with the people. We
probably know more about the life of Francis Bacon than we do
about the life of any other man of a bygone age, for he kept
nearly everything he wrote, — every rough di-aft of a letter, even of
those he never sent, and also the memoranda he made, sometimes
in cypher, for his own use only, — and nearly everything has been
preserved and printed, so that we can often, as it were, read his
very thoughts. But we cannot know all. For truly

" Old Time moves slowly, though he knows no stay,
And steals our voices as he creeps away,
Unseen himself, he hides from mortal view
Things that are seen, and things unseen doth shew."

"We ought therefore to form our idea of the character of a man
who lived some centuries ago rather from the opinions of his
contemporaries, especially his servants and most intimate friends,
than from our own interpretation of the fragmentary evidence
which comes down to us. It will suffice to quote a few passages
from the opinions expressed of Francis Bacon by two of his intimate
friends, Toby Matthew and Ben Jonson, and two of his servants,
his domestic apothecary, Peter Boiiner, and his chaplain, amanuensis,
and biographer, Dr. Rawley.

FEANCIS BACON. 33

Toby Matthew, in 1621, after an intimacy of about twenty years,
says : " It is not his greatness that I admire, but his virtue : it is
not the favours I have received from him (infinite though they be)
that have thus enthralled and enchained my heart, but his whole
life and character." Ben Jonson says that in the days of his
adversity he "could never condole in a word or syllable to him —
as knowing that no accident could do hann to virtue, but rather
serve to make it manifest." Peter Boiincr wishes "that a statue in
honour of him may be erected in his country, as a memorable
example to all of virtue, kindness, peacefulness, and patience."
And Dr. Rawley says that he was religious, free from malice, no
revenger of injuries, no heaver of men out of their places ; that he
was a good master to his servants, and rewarded their long atten-
dance with good places freely {i.e. gratis, as in his Latin translation,
an unusual thing in those days) ; and that " Amongst the Honour-
able Society of Gray's Inn, of which he was a member, he carried
himself with such sweetness, comity, and generosity, that he was
much revered and beloved." Lastly, his faithful secretary, Sir
Thomas Meautys, not only devoted his life to his service, but on
his death erected to his memory that beautiful monument in St.
Michael's Church which has attracted to St. Albans scientific men
from all parts of the world, who have gazed upon it with
admiration — admiration not only of its excellence as a work of
art, but also of the man whom it so faithfully portrays.

The inscription on this monument, by Sir Henry Wotton, runs
thus:

FEANCISCVS BACON BAEO DE VERULA. Si;i ALB^i VICm^s

SEV NOTIORIBVS TITVLIS.

SCIENTIARVM LVMEN. FACVNDIiE LEX.

SIC SEDEBAT:

QVI POSTQVAM OMNIA NATVEALIS SAPIENTI^

ET CIVILIS ARCANA EVOLVISSET,

NATVR^ DECRETVM EXPLEVIT.

COMPOSITA SOLVANTVR.

ANO: DNI : MDCXXVI.

-SlTATs LXVI.

Tanti Viri

Mem:

Thomas Meavtys

svperstitis cvltor

Def\'ncti Admirator

H. p.

VOL. VII. PART I.

84 J. HOPKINSON AJSTNITEESAET ADDEESS :

APPENDIX.

EXTEACTS FROM BaCOn's ' COMlilEJrrAEroS SOLTJTTJS ' EELATING TO

GOEHAMBTJEY.

Francis Bacon seems occasionally to have jotted down in a note-
book, for his own use only, memoranda relating to various matters
■which he wished to have in remembrance. Such notes as he
ceased to have further use for he struck out, copying the rest into
a new book, and destroying the old one. One of the note-books,
which he calls ' Comentarius solutus sive pandecta, sive ancilla
memoricB,'' has been preserved, probably because it contains the
heads of an enquiry concerning motion. Its contents have
been printed verlatim et literatim by Mr. Spedding, in his
* Letters and Life of Francis Bacon ' (vol. iv, pp. 39-95), from
the original MS., now in the British Museum. The following
extracts, copied on the 28th of July, 1608, from an older book,
relate to the Gorhambury estate : —

Teajstspoetata ex comentaeio veteee.

To give directions of a plott to be made to turn y® pond yard into a
place of pleasure, and to speak of them to my L. of Salsbury.

The grownd to be inclosed square w^^ a bricke wall, and frute
trees plashed upon it ; on the owt side of it to sett fayre straite
byrches on 2 sides and lyme trees on 2 sides, some x foote distante
from the wall, so that the wall may hide most of the shaft of the
tree and onely the tufts appear above.

From y^ wall to have a waulk of some 25 foote on a higher levell.

Under that waulke some 4 foote to have a fyne littell stream rune
upon gravell, and fyne peppoll to be putt into y^ bottome, of a
yard an half over, w''^ shall make the whole residue of the
grownd an Hand ; the banque to be turfed and kept cutt ; the
banq I mean of the ascent to y" upper waulk : no hedg hear but
some fyne standerds well kept.

Within that stream upon a lower levell to make another waulk of
25 foote, the border to be sett w*^^ flagges of all sortes of flower
de Luces and lylyes.

All the grownd within this waulk to be cast into a laque, w'^
a fayre raile w*^^ Images gilt rownd about it, and some low
flowres specially violetts and strawbcries along qu.

Then a fayre hedg of Tymber woorke till it towch the water, w^^
some glasses colored hear and there for the ey.

In ye Middle of the laque where the howse now stands to make an
Hand of 100 broad ; An in the Middle thereof to build a howse
for freshnes with an upper galery open upon the water, a tarace

FRANCIS BACOX. 35

above that, and a supping roome open under that ; a dynyng

roome, a bcdd chamber, a Cabauett, and a Roome for Musike,

a garden ; In this Growud to make one waulk between trees ;

The galeries to cost Northwards ; Nothing to be planted hear but

of choyse.
To sett in fitt places Hands more.

An Hand where the fayre hornbeam standes with a stand in it and
seats under Neath,

An Hand with Rock.

An Hand with a Grott.

An Hand mounted w^ii flowres in ascents.

An Hand paved and with picture.

Every of the Hands to have a fayre Image to keepe it, Tryten or
Nymph etc.

An Hand w^ii an arbor of Musk roses sett all w^^ double violetts
for sent in Autumn, some gilovers w^^ likewise dispers sent.

A fayre bridg to y^ Middle great Hand onely, y^ rest by bote.
To remember the poynt of husbandry of stubbing some wood at

Praye.
The making of the fayre waulk.
The appointing more ground to lye laye [? fallow ; or in grass :

Spedding suggests large] then doth, specially the feeld at

comyng in praesently.

SOES SITE FoETinsriE Pe^sentes.

Jul. 28, 1608.

An estimate or state of my state keall or valew in inheritance of
freehold talred in grosse as in pretio to have mony made of it.

Mi/ lyving at Gorhamhurye.

The parke landes of Gor. in occupat of R. £ s. d.

Smith, per An 67 3 0 per red.

The park land which was let to Thorn finch

and is now in the occupacion of y^ same

R. Smith 26 0 0 per test.

Great Brook feeld Cu aliis let to Wi Pinch . 18 15 0 per R

Sawyers hill let to Marson 14 0 0 per R

The Manner of Pray let to Wi. Pinch

reckonyng the pview 38 0 0 per R

Land let to the wydow Weedes .... 7 1 0 0 per R

qu. of Pinches rent for Ks Parme
Of Lawi'ence for the grownd about the howse

and the park grownd w'''^ went with Ks

farme 12 0 0 per R

J. HOPKINSOK — ANNIVEESAEY ADDEESS.

Of Shaford not reckonyng the growncl

bouglit by Marson in Hevers
Of Axtell for Drapers MecL
Of Crossby for Comforts Mead
Of Medow in myne owne bands

OfDornall

Of Large

Of tbe Customary rents .
Of tbe Mill besides tbe grist .
Of tbe parquisits of Cowrt a Mediu
Of wood sales Annuall a Mediu .
Qu of Evesides w^ it be comprii

Smitbes rent
Rem. Squin'ells Bussbes.
No profite of tbe Howse.

Suiii total. Eeventionii Annaliu . .

This at 16 years purcbaze

Tbe Howse waulkes and ponds val. at . .
Tbe Tymber upon y^ Ground val. at . .

So tbe wbole valew to be sold of my

lyving tbere

Memorand. tbe wood purcbaze of Pemberton

15 ^ p An. val ut supr^

per E,

per E

p. E

p. Ae

p. E

p Ae

319

5104

1000

1200

7304 "''

2401

ACCESSIONES SOETIS PER ApPEOBATIONEM.

Improovemen*^.
Tbe raising of tbe rates of Woodfells at pray at lest to 5^11^ i]^q j^
Tbe taking some Tymber fro Gorbamb. yf I part witb it.
Tbe stubbing pray, w^^ may raise 1000 and in Ee venue 20 p An.

more tben tbe Mediu now is.
Tbe keeping of my bowse Gor. cbargeless by some fitt person, for

tbe use of a lodging tbere.
The erect, of Shaford into a Farme after Ens leaving it.
Better improovem* of y"^ medowes in myne own hand.
Some pfite of tbe desert ground by Eoses, frute, phisike herbes etc.
To improove Pray when it falles.
Eate of tbe Miller for my grist or tbe same in kynd.
The renuing my Lease of tbe Medows from Wendy.

IT.
BATS AND SOME OTHER BEASTS.

By George Hooper, F.Z.S.

Head at Watford, \Zth Xovember, 1891.

(Abridged.)

The Bat is a very wonderful beast ; perhaps, where all are
wonderful, the most so of any in the creation, for it alone possesses
the principal attribute of birds, the power of flight. No other
beast is gifted with this power, and for its exercise the won-
derful resoui'ces of nature seem to have been brought into play
in an unprecedented manner. The wing of the bat, so-called from
its scr^-ing, and admirably serving, the purpose of a wing, is
not, properly speaking, a wing at all, to which the presence of
feathers would seem to be necessary. The bat's wing is merely
the bat's hand. The long slender fingers are elongated, and
nnited by a thin elastic substance not unlike indiarubber, which,
when the fingers are closed, folds up like the silk of an umbrella.
This membrane is exceedingly delicate, being furnished with
minute blood-vessels and a system of nerves possessing the most
exquisite power of sensation. This power is developed to an
extent of which we can form no defijiite idea. The cruel experi-
ment has been made of putting out the eyes of a bat, and turning
it loose in a room, when it was found that, though flying amongst
all sorts of obstacles, it never touched one of them, but would
avoid even a thread stretched across its path. At the top of
what should be the thumb is a small hook, used by the animal
as a means of progress when on the ground or climbing along the
walls, hollow trees, or rafters which provide it with a home.
The delicate elastic substance which constitutes the wing is
continued to the hind feet and beyond, forming a sort of tail, of
great use to the insectivorous bats in enabling them to make the
sharp turns in the air necessary to catch their prey. In the frugi-
vorous bats, of which we have none in this country, this tail is
absent, there being no use for it. The hind toes are prehensile,
enabling the creature to suspend itself from any inequality in beam
or wall, and to take its rest in its favourite attitude, hanging head
downwards.

AVe have in England some sixteen species of bats, such as the
"whiskered," " notch- eared," "horseshoe," and "lesser horse-
shoe," but three only are likely to come under our observation.
These are the great bat ( Vesperuffo noctula), the little bat ( Vesper-
ugo jiipistreUus), and the long-eared bat {Vesj)ertilio auritus). Of
these the little bat, rere-mouse, or flittermouse, as he is prettily
called, is the most common, and the most generally seen. All
hybernate, that is, retire into holes and corners, and sleep through
the cold weather. "When the swallows migrate, the bats hybernate ;

VOL. VII. PART II. 4

38 G. ROOPEK — BATS ANB SOME OTHER BEASTS.

but this species retires into winter quarters some six weeks later
tlian the others, and is moreover sometimes tempted out by a bright
winter sun to prey upon the insects, also awakened from their
winter sleep on such rare occasions as when the thermometer rises
to above 50 degrees. The great bat is very similar in appearance
and habits, though larger, its stretch of wing being 14 inches ; that
of the pipistrelle is only eight inches. The long-eared bat is dis-
tinguished by the enormous size of the ear, almost equal in extent
to that of the whole body. "Within it is a second or supplemental
ear, the use of which is not very apparent. These creatures appear
to be susceptible, to some degree, of being tamed. When kept in
confinement they exhibit a certain fondness for those who feed and
tend them, taking flies or bits of meat from the hand or lips, and
apparently distinguishing individuals. Their voracity is extreme,
a bat of this species having been known to devour two-thirds of its
own weight of solid meat in the course of one day.

The young of the bat, for a considerable time after birth, cling to
the breast of their mother, to which they adhere like limpets to a
rock, and from which not even the rapid turns in the air made by
her in pursuit of her prey dislodge them. One young one only is
generally produced at a birth, though twins are not uncommon.
The bat, probably from its uncanny appearance, has always been
the object of dislike, and sometimes of superstitious dread.

Since the disappearance of the beaver, the wolf, and the bear, the
fauna of Great Britain has not contained an animal so interesting,
so well-known, or, to my mind, so calumniated as the Fox. His
evil deeds are magnified, his good qualities, those of an untamed,
untameable, but most sagacious wild beast, ignored, and the doubt-
ful attribute of cunning alone admitted to him. I think that this
quality is credited to him principally from his cast of countenance,
the erect ears, the long snout, the obliquity of the eye, and the
general expression of the physiognomy being such as generally
indicate in their possessor the quality of cunning. But, although
evincing wonderful skill in the conception and carrying out of his
marauding exploits, I do not consider the fox to be a cunning animal,
at least, not in the worst sense of that derogatory epithet. No
animal, unhappily, is more easily trapped or poisoned than the fox.
No animal is less careful to conceal his whereabouts. His night's
excursion in search of food over, he curls himself up in his earth,
and sleeps peacefully until the welcome night, his "opening day,"
calls him forth again to pursue his natui^al instincts. If, on his
return, he finds, perhaps for the third or fourth time, the entrance
to his castle barred and closed against him, it does not seem to
occur to him that the obstacle presented to his enti'ance is the
prelude to the visit of the hounds and himtsmen next morning.
On the contrary, he accepts the situation, seeking an extempore
lodging in an adjacent brake or stump imtil aroused by the sound
of the horn and the crack of the whip in the morning. Cunning
would point to the necessity of seeking ' ' fresh woods and pastures
new," before the advent of his enemies, who have given such

G. HOOPER — BATS AND SOME OTHER BEASTS. 39

timoly notice of tlicir hostile intentions. No, the fox is not,
properly speaking, a eunniiig animal, but lie is the boldest, wildest,
fleetest, and, excepting in his disregard of the tokens of danger, the
wisest of beasts. I half think that he is aware of the approach of
danger when he finds his earth stopped, but despises it. \yho ever
knew a fox to exhibit signs of fear ? VVTien unkennelled, with
20 couple of fleet hounds close at his brush, with 100 mounted
men, half of them yelling at the top of their voices, he is neither
frightened nor flurried. He does not, like the hare or the deer,
under similar circumstances, rush headlong away. He never loses
his presence of mind for a moment, but, althoiigh awakened out of
a deep slumber, he takes in the situation at a glance, and with a
whisk of his saucy tail, makes off at an easy but rapid gallop in the
direction of his nearest stronghold. If headed, as is frequently
the case, and forced to retrace his steps, he baffles his foes by
wonderful turns and doubles, creeping perhaps through the midst
of the pack, or crouching down, allowing the eager hounds to jump
over his back. Still, he will always return to, and, if possible,
"make his point;" his "plan of campaign" was formed the instant
that he became aware of his danger, and he adheres to it per-
sistently.

Thanks to the strength and power of endurance with which they
are gifted, five out of six old foxes that are hunted escape, not
through cunning, the attribute of the timid hare, whose devices
to escape her pursuers are ten times more elaborate than those of
the fox, but by simple pluck, endurance, and sagacity. If you
eliminate the cubs, the lame, and the " chopped" foxes, not one in
six hunted foxes is fairly killed. I say "fairly," for to dig out a
fox and give him to the hounds is, to my mind, alike cruel and
unsportsmanlike. Sometimes, no doubt, poor Reynard succumbs to
his enemies. I have been in at the death of many a fox, and,
though I have done my best towards that end, I have always
regretted it. On such occasions I have never seen a sign of fear or
flurry, even when escape was apparently hopeless. Whatever the
odds against him, the fox is always prepared to take advantage of
any circumstance that may arise in his favour. I have seen one,
which, after a hard run, had taken refuge in a farm-yard, perhaps
well known to him in happier hours, the hounds all around him, slip
thi'ough them all, and, jumping to the top of a wall, and from
thence on to the backs of a flock of sheep, get clear away, the sheep,
as they rushed together, stopping the hounds. I rejoiced greatly m
the escape of that good fox. I have seen a hunted fox climb to the
roof of a high barn, and lie motionless along the ridge ; I have
known one seek refuge in a cottage clipboard ; but under no cir-
cumstances does the poor hunted beast lose heart or despair, and
if, overpowered by numbers, he succumbs, he dies like a hero,
fighting, struggling, biting to the last, but never uttering a ciy of
fear or pain. His coolness sometimes verges on impudence, and a
hunted fox has been known, during the run, to snatch up a fowl
and carry it away.

40 G. EOOPEE — BATS AKD SOME OTHER BEASTS.

The fox is essentially a carnivorous animal, though not ex-
clusively so. We all know the fable of the fox and the grapes,
and he has been known to take not only grapes, but apricots, from
the wall. All weaker animals and birds furnish him with sus-
tenance, but rats and rabbits are his favourite food. The scarcity
of the latter, and the virtual extirpation of the hare, drive him to
shifts for his dinner which he would otherwise neglect or despise.
Hence his attacks upon the poultry -yard and the pheasant-preserve,
the latter of which, at least, would be comparatively safe could he
but procure rabbits. When hard-pressed he will eat frogs, or
mice, or even beetles. He will take a duck off the water, and fish
out of it, when spawning on the shallows ; in fact, when pressed
by hunger, nothing in the eating way comes amiss to him.

The female produces from five to ten at a birth : the young ones
attain maturity, like the dog, in about a year, their strength and
sagacity increasing with age. The fox is, in fact, a typical wild
beast, with all the qualities that constitute a vrild beast. Strong,
crafty, and active, he seeks his livelihood from whatever source it
may be obtained. " The world is not his fi'iend, nor the world's
law," nor does he hold himself bound by it. Utterly untameable
through a life of captivity, chained to his kennel from his cubhood,
he retains his independent, savage nature, and though he may
sulkily submit to the caress of those who feed him, he can never
be domesticated or even tamed. On the slightest pretence he will
tear the hand that strokes him, and he neither feels nor affects
gratitude or affection towards his keeper. An innate love of blood
and slaughter leads him to kill, when he has an opportunity, far in
excess of the demands of appetite, and what he cannot eat he will
bury. In this delight in indiscriminate slaughter, as in the
other peculiarities I have mentioned, he differs from the dog, and
resembles more nearly the weasel and the wild cat.

I have not concealed the little failings of the fox, but I venture
to think that any harm the hen-wife or the game preserver may
suffer at his hands is repaid a hundred-fold by the sport he affords
— a sport with which I verily believe our national prosperity
is bound up ; and happily there are few who, for the sake of the
comparatively selfish pursuit of shooting, will by his destruction
deprive himdreds and thousands of their enjoyment. That the
number should be so limited is creditable to human nature, for no
doubt it is a trial to a non-hunting man to have a lot of pheasants,
hand-reared at considerable expense, devoured by a fox, who will,
unbidden, take up his abode in the home coverts ; and the unselfish
man, who, for his neighbours' gratification, condones the loss, and
protects the robber, is entitled to the gratitude of the whole
country, and he has it.

[As an example of an aquatic mammal, the Author described the
Whale, giving interesting information as to its habits. — Ed.]

III.

TERRESTRIAL BRITISH QUADRUPEDS EXISTING IN A WILD
STATE AT THE PRESENT DAY.

By T. Vattghan Roberts.
Bead at Watford, Wth December, 1891.

Ox all occasions when it has been my privilege to listen to the
lectures delivered before this Society, the lecturers have been
gentlemen whose acquaintance with the subjects with which they
dealt was matter of common notoriety. This is not the case in the
present instance. My only claim (if it can be deemed one) for
presuming to speak on the subject of British quadrupeds, must be
based on the circumstance that I have always been a lover of
animals, fond of reading about them, and, so far as my limited
opportunities have allowed, an observer of their habits. Under
these circumstances I have felt considerable hesitation in venturing
to intrude on your attention, but I have been assured that the
absence of scientific knowledge on my part will probably be con-
doned by at any rate some of the members of the Society. I fear
that I can tell little which will be new to the majority of our
members, or which cannot be learned from well-known books
treating of the subject.

The interest which is undoubtedly felt in our indigenous fauna
is, so far as the quach'upeds are concerned, to my mind somewhat
remarkable, and must certainly be regarded as to a large extent
sentimental. Some of our most conspicuous examples are rarely
seen by the ordinary observer. They are nocturnal in their habits,
and a man living in the country may easily spend his life without
ever coming across (say) a badger or an otter, and yet those
animals may be by no means rare in the locality in which he
resides. That an interest, however, is felt in them by very many,
and that regrets are often expressed at their possible extinction,
are facts with which we are all, I think, familiar. The feeling is
not confined to our own country. An Institution known as " The
National Zoological Park " has been established at Washington in
America, its most important object being to avert the threatened
extinction of the native American fauna, and the celebrated
Yellowstone Park in Wyoming is imder the care of the Institution.
This park, as it is tenned, is an immense tract of coimtry,
rectangular in form, and containing 3,312 square miles — over
2,000,000 acres. It is a perfect paradise for wild animals, the
area having been expressly reserved from settlement by the
Government, for their preservation. Among the animals which
find an asylum there, and which are assiduously protected, are the
elk, various kinds of deer, mountain sheep, the grizzly bear, and
(occasionally) the bison. The district abounds in rugged moun-
tain-chains unsurpassed in the United States for sublimity iuid

T. V. KOBERTS TEEEESTRIAL

grandeur. The fact that our Transatlantic cousins should take
pains to prevent the extinction of even the grizzly bear, is a
circumstance which should, I think, have some influence in
checking the too indiscriminate slaughter which prevails in our
own country. Epping Forest and Wimbledon Common are districts
on a very diminutive scale somewhat analogous to Yellowstone
Park, as in each of them all the wild denizens are carefully
protected.

Besides the interest that is now felt in natural history, popular
knowledge on the subject has, thanks in a great measure to our
admirable periodical literature, vastly increased. It would, I
imagine, be difficult now to find anyone whose knowledge resembles
that of an old Scotch judge, who had to try a case which turned
on the escape of a squirrel. " Did ye clip its wings ? " he asked of
the prosecutor. "My lord," said the astonished witness, "it is a
quadruped." " Quadruped here, quadruped there," said the judge,
" if ye had a' clippit its wings it couldna' ha' flaun away. I maun
decide agin ye."

Before proceeding to deal with British quadrupeds existing at
the present day, I may perhaps be permitted to allude veiy briefly
to those animals which, once common, have become extinct within
historic times, A most interesting paper on this subject was read
before this Society in 1879, by Mr. J. E, Harting, and it is from
that paper and from a book subsequently published by him (being
in fact an extension of the paper) that my information on the sub-
ject is derived. I am indebted to our President for my knowledge
of Mr. Harting' s work. The animals which he enumerates as
having formerly abounded in this country and as having become
extinct within historic times are : — The bear, the beaver, the rein-
deer, the wild boar, the wolf, and the wild white cattle.

Mr. Harting gives a most graphic account of the appearance of
the countiy in ancient times, when vast portions were covered by
dense forests, affording cover and shelter for animals of every de-
scription,— when the traveller was in danger from bears and packs
of wolves ever ready to attack the unwary or the solitary, if passing
near their strongholds. The time when the bear and reindeer be-
came extinct is not known, but it must have been at a very early
period. The beaver, as might naturally be supposed, lingered
much longer, and there are places both in Wales and Scotland
which to this day commemorate the fact that it once flourished in
the locality. The wild boar appears to have become extinct about
the time of Charles the Second. Wolves lingered long in Ireland
and Scotland, and the last of which any account exists appears to
have been killed in the former country about the year 1770. The
wild white cattle have long been extinct in an absolutely wild
state, but, as is well known, still exist in several parks, retaining
their special characteristics. The most celebrated are those at
Chillingham in Northumberland, the seat of the Earl of Tanker-
ville. A splendid stuffed specimen of a Chillingham bull is to be
seen in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington.

BRITISH QUAD EUP EDS. 43

The term "terrestrial" is employed to exclude the bats, whose
chief element is the air, and marine (quadrupeds like the seals,
whose chief element is the water. Terrestrial Eritish quadrupeds
existing: in a wild state at the present day, coming- under the above
detiuition, are primarily di\ided by Professor Eell into four orders,
which ai'e again subdivided into numerous families, genera, and
species. These orders ;ire : — the Insectivora, comprising five
species ; the Carnivora, which contains eight or nine species ; the
Rodentia, containing twelve species; and the lluminantia, containing
three. There are, therefore, of actually wild, strictly terrestrial,
quadrupeds in this country at the present day, about 30 species.
1 purpose to make a few remarks on each order and on some of the
animals comprised in them.

The order of the Insectivora comprises the hedgehog, the mole,
and the shrews, the most familiar of these being the hedgehog and
the mole. As the name of the order implies, the members of it
feed largely on insects.

The Hedgehog {Erinacetcs europmm) possesses a wonderful power
of defence in virtue of its tough prickly skin, which renders it a
formidable antagonist to dogs, and only very plucky ones will kill
it. It is easily tamed, and tolerably fearless. Like the rest of the
order, hedgehogs live mostly on worms and insects. They hyber-
nate and are not often seen in the daytime. Their fondness for
milk has no doubt given rise to the fable that they are in the habit
of sucking cows, and it seems probable that they may frequent
places where cows are kept in the hope of finding drops of milk
spilt about.

The Mole {Talpa europtea) is in many respects a very interesting
animal, possessing immense strength, undaunted courage, and in-
defatigable perseverance. The engineering skill evinced in the
construction of its subterraneous abode is very remarkable. It
feeds principally on earthworms and the larvae of beetles and
other insects. Many animals avail themselves of their neighbours'
labours, and the runs of the mole are used by field-mice and
shrews. In one that I examined lately I found little stores of
grain at intervals evidently garnered by mice. In the Transactions
of the Society for 1883, Dr. Brett records the finding of 30 moles
of a white or cream colour in about half an acre of a field of oats.
They are very plentiful in this neighbourhood, but one rarely
shows itself above ground voluntarily. Albino moles, caught in a
hedgerow at Ley Farm on the St. Albans lioad, have been kindly
lent to me for exhibition by Mr. Slinn.

The Shrews, except an occasional dead one in the paths, are not
very often seen. The generic name is Sorex. There are three
species, the common shrew, the lesser shrew, and the water-shrew.
The long snout of the shrews is their most characteristic feature,
distinguishing them from the mice. The water-shrew swims and
dives with great agility, and is a very pretty object when seen
hunting in a small brook or ditch. I have very rarely seen one
myself. I believe I saw two in a small brook near Croxley Mills.

44 T. V. EOBEETS — TEERESTEIAL

I watched them for a long time and have little doubt the animals
belonged to this species, but an objectionable wooden fence pre-
vented my getting near enough to be certain. Of the water-shrews
at South Kensington several are labelled as having come from
Tring.

The order of the Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, comprises the
badger, otter, weasel, stoat, polecat, marten, wild cat, and fox.

I will begin with the Badger {Meles taxus). One from Cassio-
bury has been kindly lent to me by Mr. Capell. It was shot at
Long Spring in 1878, and the occurrence was noted at the time by
Dr. Brett in the Society's proceedings. Since the extinction of the
bear, the badger has been our sole representative of the ursine or
bear family. The length of the badger (including the tail) is about
three feet, the colour grey, varying in tints in different parts,
the head elongated, the legs formed for burrowing and immensely
powerful. It is one of our most ancient inhabitants, fossil remains
proving his race to have been co-existent with that of the mam-
moths and rhinoceroses, which once wandered over our Islands.
Much misapprehension, it seems to me, exists in reference to the
badger. Mr. St. John, in his ' Wild Sports of the Highlands '
(published nearly 40 years ago), writes of him as an inhabitant of
our wilder districts, likely to be soon extirpated, and as being
nearly extinct as one of the ferce naturce of England. The author
of Murray's 'Handbook for Hampshire' (I quote from the 1858
edition) vsrites of him as rapidly disappearing from the New
Porest, and soon to become as completely extinct there as in other
parts of England ; and Professor Bell, in his ' British Quadrupeds,'
mentions comparatively few places (mainly in Oxfordshire and
Gloucestershire) as haunts of the animal. Now I have always
been in the habit of making enquiries as to the wild animals to be
found in any district I chanced to be visiting, and the conclusion I
have come to, which is fortified by the opinion of my friends Mr.
Schreiber and Mr. Cowley, who are authorities on the subject,
is that there are not many localities at all suited to their habits
where they are not to be found. It would be tedious to enumerate
the places where badgers are known to exist. Mr. Schreiber has
furnished me with a long list of counties and places where to his
knowledge they are to be met with in greater or less numbers. In
the proceedings of the Society for 1877 Dr. Brett enumerates
localities where they have been found in Hertfordshire. In 1883
he records the capture of one at Odsey, and in 1886 he gives
particulars of their occurrence in this immediate neighbourhood.
They appear to be not uncommon in the county. I think that
the chance of badgers becoming extinct is very remote, even in
cultivated and populous districts. They have much in their favour.
Their "holts" are often in old chalk -pits, in thick woods, in steep
banks, and in similar places where it would be next to impossible
to dig them out. They are comparatively harmless, and some
persons nowadays are rather pleased to have them on their estates,
and give them protection. I have no doubt Professor Bell is right

BRITISH QUADRUPEDS. 45

vrhcn he describes their numbers as tending to increase. The
badger, moreover, is an animal that has the bump of caution
largely developed, and is very difficult indeed to trap, especially
if it has once been in peril. It is omnivorous in its diet, and very
fond of wasp's nests, digging them out and devouring the larvae.
It is a remarkably clean animal, according to Mr. St. John never
allowing any dirt in its abode.

The Otter {Lutra vulyarin), which is comprised in the family of
the Mustelidce, is of a rich brown colour, and has a long and thick
tail, eminently adapted to assist him in swimming. One has been
kindly lent to me by Mr. Schreiber. It has been admirably
mounted and gives an excellent idea of the animal. The length of
the otter, including the tail, is from 3|^ to 4 feet. This is another
animal "which is far more common than is, I think, generally
supposed. In Wales and in the western counties (and of course in
the north and in Scotland) otters are very plentiful, but they are
also found in most rivers where there happens to be adequate cover.
Dr. Brett has recorded the capture of one at Munden, of exceptional
size, in 1875, (it is now in Mr. Holland-Hibbert's museum,) and he
also mentions that two were seen near Cassiobury in 1883. Mr.
Holland-Hibbert tells me that the traces of one were seen at
Munden in 1880, but that none have been seen since. I have
myself seen four or five otters bolted by terriers in the course of an
hour in one piece of marsh-land in Wales, where there were a good
many drains. Three of these were killed by the hounds. My
experience of otter-hunting is very limited ; I have a strong
objection to standing for hom's together sometimes in very cold
water to prevent the animal escaping up or down stream, which
followers of the hunt are expected to do. Apart from this, the
sight of a pack of otter hounds on a fine autumn morning hunting
in a river in some lovely spot in Devon or Wales is one of the
prettiest and most interesting sights I have ever witnessed. The
dogs used are generally fox-hounds or stag-hounds with an admix-
ture of otter-hounds, and the sight of them swimming backwards
and forwards across stream examining every root and hole, and
every bank of flags or rushes, the bright uniform of the hunt
members, the frantic excitement of the terriers, and the scenery
combined, make up a picture not easily forgotten. The actual run
is (in my small experience at all events) not unfrequently dis-
appointing. The master sometimes finds it hopeless to keep his
field in order, and the otter is too often mobbed. The strength
and fighting powers of the animal are truly marvellous. The otter
is often seen in the very middle of the pack with half a dozen
dogs all tearing at it, and the next moment it has escaped, as if by
miracle, perhaps to be caught again, perhaps not. Like the
badger, the otter is nocturnal, and rarely shows itself voluntarily by
daylight. There may be plenty on a river which you may fish
constantly, and you would be lucky if you ever saw one. I had
the pleasure of seeing one this autumn in the Exe, near Dulverton.
I watched it for some time. Its action reminded me strongly of

46 T. T. EGBERTS TEEEESTEIAL

the seals in the Zoological Gardens, being a sort of undulating
motion with a constant raising of the head to look around. Like
all the Mustelidoe, otters vary much in size. Some frequent the
sea-coast, particularly in parts of Scotland and Ireland, living in
caves, and these are often so large that they have been thought by
some to form a distinct species. This does not, however, seem to
be the case. Size in animals depends very much on food and
environment.

The marten, polecat, stoat, and weasel form a group of the
Carnivora having a strong family likeness. Like the rest of the
order they are chieiiy nocturnal in their habits, and are not often
seen by the casual observer. Now and again one notices a stoat or
weasel running across a road or playing about a heap of stones, but
not very often. Most of the stoats I have myself seen have been
on the banks of rivers, hunting among the roots of trees or among
stones, and more than once 1 have seen one swimming across a
broad stream.

The Marten {Martes foina) is the largest and perhaps the most
interesting of the group. This beautiful animal is about 27 inches
long, including the tail, and is of a brownish colour with a white
throat. According to some naturalists there are two species, the
common or stone-marten, and the pine-marten [Martes alietum).
This distinction is denied by others, who maintain that both varie-
ties (if varieties they be) belong to the same species. The marten
is remarkable for its agility, climbing trees like a squirrel, and is a
most determined antagonist when attacked by man or dog. It is
very destructive to game, and being very easily trapped has become
extremely rare. It is found in the North of England, Scotland,
Wales, and Ireland. It is said not to be quite extinct even in the
South of England. The author of ' On Surrey Hills ' says he has
good reason to believe that it could be found in a district in that
county which he very wisely does not indicate too clearly. There
is no doubt that the marten is much more given to ranging than
its congener the wild cat. One was shot in this county in 1872
within twenty miles of London, as reported in the ' Zoologist ' for
1879. In Wales, Mr. Dumville Lees, a sportsman and naturalist
whose property lies in Shropshire, on the Welsh border, tells me
it is chiefly found in the district extending from Dolgelly north-
wards by Barmouth and Pensarn, and particularly on Lord Harlech's
property near the latter locality.

The Polecat [Mustela jndorius), the next in size, is, like the
marten, very easily trapped, and, being also very destructive, meets
with no mercy in game-preserving localities. In all such places it
is practically extinct. A year or two ago I saw six dead ones in
the shop of a fishmonger at Dolgelly. He told me that he had
collected tlie skins for thirty years, and that 60 were brought
to him in the first year, the number decreasing every year. They
were caught, he said, in the traps set for rabbits. The animal is
found more commonly, I believe, than is generally supposed, in
places near the sea-shore, and in other localities where there

BRITISH QXrADKUPEDS. 47

happens to be no preserving, and I am told on excellent authority
that it is not uncommon in the Aylesbury district. In Wales and
the North of England it is generally met with in those parts where
the fields are enclosed by walls built of large loose stones. These
afford a very safe retreat for the animal. Tlie polecat, like the
stoat and weasel, has the unpleasant faculty of producing a most
atrocious odour when attacked. One of its names, foumart or
foulmart, was meant to distinguish it in this respect from the
marten or sweet mart. I was much interested in a specimen shown
to me by Mr. Cowley, which he has had for four years, and has
rendered perfectly tame, although quite an adult when caught.
He also gave me the ' Zoologist ' for August last, which contains a
most interesting paper by Mr. Harting on the animal. The stuffed
specimen exhibited, procured for me by Dr. Brett, was killed in this
immediate neighbourhood about 25 years ago.

Stoats and weasels are to be found in most localities, but
naturally most plentifully in wild, out-of-the-way places, where
game preservation does not go on. The Stoat [Mustela erminea)
is the larger animal. Both species vary in size, and some people
consider that there are two species of weasel, or at any rate
varieties, one very small which feeds almost entirely on field-
mice, and which is known in some districts as the Cain. Pro-
fessor Bell ridicules this idea, and says that the small specimens
are nothing more than exceptionally small females. The courage
of the Weasel {Mmtela vulgaris) is extraordinary. It has often
been known to attack men, sometimes in packs, when it becomes
a veiy grave affair, and sometimes singly ; even then it is not to
be despised, as the little animal is marvellously quick, and makes
straight for the throat. Like the otter, and many (may we
not say most) animals, the weasel shows great affection for its
young, and Mr. St. John writes that no one can tell the pain
he felt at allowing his dog to kill one which could have escaped
had it not been hampered by something it was carrying, and which
turned out to be its young one. He says that nothing would have
induced him to take its life had he guessed that the poor little
creature was trying to save its offspring. The colour of stoats and
weasels is a reddish brown above and white beneath, the tail of the
weasel being of the same colour as the body. This mainly dis-
tinguishes it fi'om the stoat, which has the end of the tail black.
In winter, in the north, stoats often turn white. Dr. Brett in
1882, and ^Mr. Campbell in 1890, record instances of white stoats
being found in Hertfordshire, which must be regarded as an unusual
occurrence.

The Wild Cat {^Fclis catus) is a most formidable creature. It is
an animal that varies very much in size. The usual length appears
to be, body about 2 feet, tail about ten inches, but it sometimes
attains a much larger size. The colour is a yellowish gi'ey, with a
dark stripe along the back, and numerous stripes on the sides.
The strength, ferocity, and vitality of the wild cat have often been
pointed out, and are dwelt on by Mr. St. John, who occasionally,

48 T. V. EGBERTS — TEEEESTEIAL

but rarely, came across one. Richard the First granted a charter
to the Abbot and Convent of Peterborough to hunt the wild cat in
Northamptonshire, where it seems to have lingered as long as
anywhere in England, except in the extreme north. There was no
representative of the wild cat in the Zoological Gardens when I
was last there. The animal is quite untameable and soon breaks
its heart in confinement ; at any rate when the confinement is
solitary. The last I remember, a good many years ago, was pro-
vided with a Persian wife, and had lived very much longer than
his predecessors. He had had several families and looked a degree
less unhappy than those I remember before. I was horrified to
learn from my friend Mr. Stradling that the true wild cat is
strongly suspected to be extinct in this countiy. I have been
making some enquiries and I hope they show that there is a chance
at any rate that this is not quite the case. Mr. Duncan McLaren,
a gamekeeper near Fort William, writes to me that there is no
doubt of its existence at the present time in the forests under his
charge. I am indebted to the Rev. Dr. Joass, of Golspie, for some
extremely interesting particulars of recent occurrences in Suther-
land, partly from his own experience, but principally obtained
from Mr. Inglis, the Duke of Sutherland's keeper, at Dunrobin.
The last wild cat killed in the immediate vicinity of Golspie was in
1885, but others were killed or tracked in the county in 1889 and
1890. Dr. Joass has very kindly given me the position and
distances of the various localities where these cases occurred, and a
description of their natural features. In each case the habitat
appears to be a hill or steep mountain-side covered with trees, —
ash, birch, or alder, — particularly where there are crevices or loose
rocks. In the 'Zoologist' for 1881, Mr. Harvie Brown states
that the wild cat was then to be found in suitable localities over a
large extent of the West and North of Scotland, finding its chief
sanctuary in the deer-forests. I venture to hope therefore that it
is not quite extinct.

The Fox ( Viilpes vulgaris) was so graphically described for us by
Mr. Rooper in his recent lecture on " Bats and some other Beasts,"
and he gave us such an interesting account of its habits and cha-
racteristics, that I need say nothing more on the subject.

A few words may be said as to the food of the Carnivora. Like
the bear in Hudibras they are not "nice," in the sense of being
particular in their dietary. They take what they can get. The
otter of course feeds mainly on fish, having a special predilection
for eels, and all the Mustelidte appear to be fond of a fish diet. The
polecat constantly catches eels in ditches on marsh-lands and such
like places. It is also very fond of the spawn of frogs. Rats,
mice, frogs, toads, and slugs are eaten by foxes, badgers, polecats,
etc. ; and the marten, according to Mr. St. John, is fond of fruit.
All kinds of feathered game and poultry, eggs, hares, and rabbits,
fall a prey to the Carnivora in more or less plenty. In short,
nothing seems to come amiss. A fox kept by Mr. Holland-Hibbert
in his garden, was, he tells me, extremely partial to fruit. I sus-

BRITISH QUADRUPEDS. 49

pect that all dopcnds on circumstances and environment, and that
all would at a pinch oat vegetable food if they could get nothing
better.

The Rodents, or " gnawers," as I suppose they might be termed,
comprise the sipiirrel, the dormouse, the rats, the mice, the voles,
the hare, and the rabbit.

The Squii'rel {Set urns vnli/an's) is a great ornament of our woods,
and if caught young is easily tamed. I was paying a call some
time since at a house where one was loose in a room. The little
wretch (juickly found out that I was clothed in a rough suit, into
wliich his claws would easily stick. So he began running all over
me. I did not dare to take hold of him and put him into his cage,
as squirrels' teeth are mai-vellously sharp and they have a very pretty
notion indeed of using them, so I was obliged to wait until his
mistress came and relieved me of his attentions.

The Dormouse {Mi/oxus avellanarius) is a very pretty little
creature, celebrated for its capacities for sleeping. When awake
it is active enough, and climbs with great agility among the
shrubs and bushes which it frequents. Its colour is tawny red.
Scientifically it occupies a position intermediate between the
squii-rel and the mice, having many of the characteristics of the
former.

Of Rats we have two distinct species, the black {If us rattus),
and the brown {Miis decumanus). The latter is only too well
known ; the black rat is becoming very rare indeed, and is sup-
posed to owe its extermination to its more enterprising rival. The
ears of the black rat are large and its hair is long and silky. They
used to be very numerous in Whitbread's Brewery, but I am told
by Mr. Edgar Lubbock that none are now seen there. Among
the specimens at South Kensington several are labelled as having
come from Portsmouth, and I am told that they are found on Lundy
Island. A specimen has been lent to me by Dr. Brett. Against
the brown rat every man's hand is raised, and, were it not for their
extraordinary fecundity, the animals would soon be extinct. They
find their way everywhere, especially on board ships, and are thus
frequently introduced into places where none previously existed — •
not always to the advantage of the inhabitants. They have in this
way been imported into Puffin Island, and have exterminated the
puffins. On shipboard, and often in other localities, want of water
is felt by the rats, and to acquire this they will gnaw through
thick pipes, and adopt numerous other devices, such as climbing
the rigging, to lick the raindrops off the cordage. In former days
many men gained a livelihood by catching rats in the London
sewers, and selling them at 3s. a dozen to the sporting public-
houses, where supplies were always kept (and duly advertised in
* Bell's Life ') for matches with dogs. This entertainment has
been prohibited by recent legislation.

Of the Yoles, the one most commonly seen is the water-vole, or
"water-rat, as it is often called {Arvicola amphtbius), which we meet
"with so frequently on the banks of our streams and ditches. The

50 T. V. EGBERTS — TEEEESTEIAL

voles are distinguished from rats and mice by their shorter tails
and obtuse heatls. There is a black variety of the water-vole
which is widely distributed, but I am not aware whether it has
occurred in this county. The common form is very plentiful along
the banks of the Grand Junction Canal and the River Colne. They
swim with great ease, and are very interesting animals to watch if
you can get near them. The great art in approaching all wild
animals is to do so very quietly.

The bank or red vole {Arvicola glareolus) is less common than
the next species, and is prettier, the back being a rich reddish
chestnut. It is found in this county.

The common field- vole {Arvicola agrestis), or short-tailed field-
mouse, is a remarkably prolific little animal, and were it not that
almost all the Carnivora, especially the weasel, destroy immense
numbers, and in this are ably assisted by the kestrel and the owls,
we should be overrun with them. The colour is greyish brown
above, and pale grey beneath. This species appears to vary very
much in size ; the largest individuals are about six inches in length,
excluding the tail.

There are three species of Mice — the common house-mouse, the
long-tailed field-mouse, and the harvest-mouse. Of these the most
interesting is perhaps the harvest mouse {Mm minutus). It was
first described as indigenous to this country by Gilbert White of
Selborne. It is a very pretty little creature, light orange brown
above, and white beneath. With the exception of one of the shrews
it is the smallest of British quadrupeds, six going to make up an
ounce. It is very easily tamed if caught young. The nest of the
harvest-mouse, a compact ball of grass about the size of a cricket-
ball, with no apparent opening, and so firm that it could be rolled
along a table, greatly puzzled the Selborne naturalist. The nest
he describes had eight naked little mice inside, quite filling it,
and how the mother could properly bestow her maternal atten-
tions on each of these little creatures, was a mystery.

The long-tailed field-mouse {Mus sylvaticus) is reddish brown
above, whitish beneath. It is a great pest in gardens.

Of Hares we have two species, the common hare [Lepus timidus),
and the mountain hare [Lejms variabilis) found in Scotland and in
Ireland. In Scotland this is known as the " Blue Hare." It is of
a greyish colour, turning white in winter. In spite of Mr. Rooper's
^^bete noire,'''' the "Ground Game Act," the common hare is too
well known to need description any more than the Rabbit {Lepus
cuniculus).

The last group, the Ruminantia (or cud-chewing mammals),
comprises the Deer, of which we have three species, the red deer,
the fallow deer, and the roe deer.

The Red Deer {Cervus elaphm) is the noblest example of our
indigenous wild animals. It is only now found (I believe) in a
wild state in Scotland, and in the moorlands of Devonshire and
Somersetshire. The male is termed a stag, the female a hind. A
fine stag stands four feet or more at the shoulder, and is a splendid

BRITISH QUADRUPEDS. 51

crofituro to look at. In Scotland the deer are generally shot ;
deerstalking- being one of the most aristocratic, as it is one of the
most laborious of field-sports. In Devon and Somerset they are
huntt'd. It is an exciting scene to witness a meet of the stag-
hounds on one of the breezy heights of Exmoor ; the maguiticent
scenery, combined with the glorious air, and the throng of sports-
men and sportswomen, make up a picture worth going far to see.
The last time I went to a meet was this autumn, not far from
Dulverton, and we had the rare good fortune to see in the distance
a stag in his lair. He was lying between two bushes on the steep
side of a depression known as the " Devil's Punch Bowl,'' the sides
of which were covered with heather, bracken, and shrubs. The
tufters (as the dogs are termed which find the deer before the pack
is put on the trail), were at the bottom of the valley, and it was
most interesting from the heights above to watch them gradually
work out the scent, and make their way by slow degrees up to the
stag. He did not move until they were close to him. The pack
was then sent for and put on his trail. He eventually escaped.
Once I came upon a hind in a thicket bordering a river in which I
was fishing. She was then lying down, and rose as I and my com-
panion approached. We wei'e close to her, and for a few seconds
she gazed at us with her beautiful eyes, and then bounded away.
I think I never saw a more graceful or beautiful creature. A deer
at the end of a run generally takes to the water, and stands at bay.
It is then despatched by the joint aid of the dogs and the
huntsmen. There are those who have not much relish for the
concluding ceremonies. The hounds used in Devonshire are
exactly like the ordinary fox-hounds, only rather larger.

The Rev. W. Bingiey, in his well-known work on ' British
Quadrupeds,' published about the beginning of the present century,
says that Fallow Deer [Cerims dama) are not found anywhere in
Great Britain or Ireland in a perfect state of nature, and Professor
Bell only alludes to them as half -domesticated inhabitants of parks,
chases, and preserved forests. At the beginning of the century
vast herds of fallow deer roamed the New Forest, and other woods
in Hampshire, while in Epping and Hainault Forests they were
extremely abundant. It is curious and interesting to know that
they have never absolutely died out in Epping. In 1860 but very
few specimens remained, but measures were taken at that time to
prevent their extinction, and the numbers have since considerably
increased. The breed there is quite different from those we see in.
noblemen's and gentlemen's parks. They are all of an uniform
dark brown, which appears to be black except when one is in very
close proximity. I cannot myself understand why these Epping
Forest deer should be looked upon as other than absolutely wild.
They have been there from time immemorial. The male of the
fallow deer is known as a buck, the female as a doe, and the young
as a fawn.

The Roe Deer {Capreolus ca/prcBO), a beautiful animal, smaller
than the fallow deer, is found plentifully in Scotland, and in some

T. V. KOBEKTS BEITISH QTJADEUPEDS.

of the woods in the iN'orth of England. I believe it has been
recently introduced into Epping Forest.

As regards the question of how far any of our wild quadrupeds
are in danger of extermination, my own view is that unless our
social conditions vary greatly (as they very possibly may do) there
is not at present much danger. Should hunting cease, and deer-
forests be prohibited, the fox and the red deer would, I fancy, soon
come to an end ; and probably the wild cat if still existing, and the
marten, which find their most congenial home in the districts kept
undisturbed for the deer, would quickly follow. But, as regards
any other animals, I should doubt their great decrease in numbers,
until the day arrives, which a friend of mine hopes to see, when
England shall be one vast market-garden. Personally I have no
longing for that consummation, and I console myself with the
reflection that when it does come I am not at all likely to be here
to see it.

IV.

KErORT OX TEE RAINFALL IX HERTFORDSHIRE IX 1891.

By John Hopkinsox, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, President.

Head at Watford, 18th March, 1892.

The number of our rainfall observers in the year 1891 shows a
considerable increase upon that of any previous year, and this
increase necessitates a re -arrangement of our principal table. For
some years the number of stations for which the records have been
inserted in this table has been 30 : the number to be inserted now
is 36; the number of gauges is 38; and the number of daily records
received is 25, an increase of one upon that for the previous year.

The records for Nash Mills and Gorhambury now take their
former place in the principal table, from which they had to be
omitted in last year's report ; the record for Bedford Road, Hitchin,
now first appears in it ; that for a station from which the returns
have lately been intermittent — Bushey Heath — is again included ;
and there are two stations added from which returns have not
before been received — Aldenham House, Elstree, and Hamels Park,
Buntingford.

These alterations increase the number of returns for the river-
districts of the Hiz, the Gade, the Lower Colne, and the Rib from
two to three, and for the river-district of the Ver from three to
four, and add to our table a new district, the Upper Colne, thus
reducing the number of districts without observers from five to
four : namely the Upper Ivel in the north, the Chess in the south-
west, the Brent in the south, and the Stort in the east. Of these
the Chess and the Stort are the districts in which it is most im-
portant that we should have observers.

The only other alteration is that Mr. Marlborough Pryor's gauge,
foiTuerly at Weston Manor, has been moved to Weston Park, a
distance of about half a mile.

Particulars of the 36 rainfall stations, and the monthly and total
rainfall and number of days on which at least 0*0 1 inch of rain fell,
are given in Tables I and II, pp. 55-57.

A supplementary table (Table III, p. 58) gives ten other records
of the total rainfall in the year. Two of these are the records of
the additional gauges at Rothamsted which make up our number
to 38, and eight are taken from 'British Rainfall, 1891.'

The symbols in the last column of Table I, as in previous
reports, show the method by which the height of each gauge has
been determined, /j\ signifying that a series of levels has been taken
to the gauge from the nearest bench-mark, T that the height has
been ascertained approximately from the same source, L that levels
have been taken to the gauge from some datum other than Ortlnance
mean sea-level, and B that the height has been taken by means of
the barometer.

The moan rainfall in the county in the year 1891 was 29-62
inches. This is 2 88 inches above the mean for the 10 years

VOL. VII. — PART II. 5

54 J. HOPKJJfSON — EEPOET Om THE

1880-89, and 3- 19 inches above that for the half -century 1840-89.*
The year was therefore a decidedly wet one.

February was unprecedently dry, no rain whatever being re-
corded at six stations, and at several others the amount recorded
was the result of condensed fog : the average at all stations, it will
be seen from the table, was one twenty-fifth of an inch. October,
on the other hand, was excessively wet, having had considerably
more than double the average rainfall of the fifty Octobers in
1840-89. The rainfall of the last six months of the year was more
than double that of the first six months, being 19-95 inches. This
is 5-16 inches, or 35 per cent., above the mean (14 79 ins.) for the
corresponding six months of the half -century 1840-89, and is
greater than in any year since 1880; indeed, with the exception
of the fall in that year, it is the heaviest in the corresponding
period that has been recorded since I commenced, in 1876, to give
annual reports on the rainfall in Hertfordshire, and probably since
the very wet year 1852.

Distribution of Rainfall throughout the Year. — Of the total rainfall
20|-°/q fell during the winter months (Jan., Feb., and Dec),
20| °/q during the spring (Alarch to May), 26 °/q during the
summer (June to Aug.), and 33% during the autumn (Sept. to
jS^ov. ). The fall during each quarter and each season, and the
deviation from the mean for the half-century 1840-89, was as
follows : —

Fall. Diff. Fall. Diff.

Ist quarter 377 in. —1-86 in. Winter 6-01 in. +0-01 in.

2nd ,, 5-80 -0-21 Spring 6-02 -|-0-50

3rd ,, 7-62 -fO-SO Summer 7-84 -j-0'86

4tli ,, 12-43 -f-i-96 Autumn 9-75 -fl-82

February was, as already stated, unprecedently dry, and April,
June, and September were dry months ; October was excessively
wet, and May, August, and December were wet months. The
difference in each month from the mean for the half-centuiy was : —

in. in. in. in.

Jan —0-25 April —0-71 July —005 Oct -f3-30

Feb —1-68 Mav -fMo Aug +1-56 Nov —0-28

Mar -fO-06 June —0-65 Sept —1-20 Dec -|-l-93

Thus the fall up to the end of July was more than two inches
below the mean for the period, but for the last five months in the
year more than five inches above it, an average excess of nearly an
inch per month.

The absolute maximum fall in any one day in each month, and

ins.

3— Apsley Mills 0-79

20— Therfield 1-75

8— FanhamsHall,Waret 0-50

6 -Fairhill, Berkliamsted 1-47

10 - Kensworth 1-02

1— Tring 1-36

* See ' Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. VI, p. 84.
t Also at New Barnet on the 3rd.

the station recording it,
Jan. 29 — Moor Park

was : —

ins.
0-60

Julv

Feb. 2 -Red House, Ware

Mar. 9 — Bushey Heath

April 6 — Great Gaddesden .
May 24 — Cheshunt College .
June 25 — St. Albans

0-10

.... 0-66
.... 0-74

1-88

1-04

Aug.

Sept,

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

RAINFALL IX HERTFORDSniRE IN 1891.

Table I. — Hertfordshire IIainfall Stations, 1891.

St ATI ox.

*Royst(m

*IIitchiii— The Firs

* „ Bedford Ro.id . .

* ,, High Dowu

*Tring Vicarage

*rowroast

*Berkhaiusted — Rosebank ..

* „ Fairhill

* Great Gaddesden Vicarage..
*II. Ilempsted— Apsley Mills

,, Xash Mills.

*Kensworth— The Grove ....

*Harpeiiden — Rothamsted ..

St. Albans — Gorhambury ..

* ,, The Grange ..

*Elstree — Aldenham House.

*Watford — Oaklands

Rickmansworth — Moor Park
Bushey Heath

*"Wehvyn Rectory

Hatchworth Rectory

Stevenage— "Weston Park ...
*Bennington Lodge

*Therfield Rectory

*Tlirorking Rectory... ,

*Buutiugtord — Hamels Park

*Much Hadham

Hatfield -Brocket Hall

Hertford — Bayf ordbury

Ware— Red House

* „ Fanhams Hall

*Broxbourne — Stafford HoiLse
*Cheshunt — Old Nurseries ...

,, College

♦New Barnet — Gas Works ...
Southsate — The Lawns

Obsekver.

Diameter

of
Gauge.

ight of Gauge
above

Ground.

Sea-level.

Hale Wortham

ins.
8

ft.
o

ins.
6

ft.t
269 4\

William Lucas

5
5

2
O
I

238 4\
220

422 /^

Francis Ransom

Joseph rolhud

Rev. W. Quennell ...

442 T

Hubert Tliomas

Edward Mawley

W. Bonner Hopkins...

8
5

I
I

o
o

345 L

401 /[,

550

Rev. W. T. Drake ..
J. Dickinson & Co. ...

24
12

I
o
3

o
9
9

427 T
260

237 4^

Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert . . .
The Earl of Verulam...
John Hopkinsou

6 sqr.

I
o

9
o
o

630 B
420 T

425
380 /h

Edwin Beckett

lO sqr.

5
5

Edward Harrison

Lord Eburv

2
O

6
o

273 T

340 7i\
480

Forrester Scott

Rev. Canon Wingfield
Rev. J. Wardale ....

5
5

o
I

4
o

228 T
386 T

M. R. Pryor

Rev. Dr. Parker

5
5

o
I

8
o

470 T
4oS/|\

Rev. J. G. Hale

Rev. C. W. Harvey...
E. Wallis

5
5
5

4
I
J

3
o
o

500

484 T
400

222 B

T. Woodham Mott ...

Thomas Landon

W. Clinton Baker ..

Joseph Francis

Miss Joyce Croft

8
8

I
I

o
o

250 ?
250
114T
253 T

G. J. Xewbery

5
5
5
8

I
I
I
o
o

o
o
o

9
6

118T

94
212

240 T

Paul and Son

Rev. Dr. Reynolds ...

T.H.Martin

George A. Church ..

Daily fall received for these stations, t For explanation of these symbols see p. 53.

J. HOPKINSOIir EEPOET ON THE I EAINFALL IN HEETFOEDSHIBE IN 1891.

Table II.— I^ainfaij q^ Jeetfokdshiee in 1891.

KivER District.

m J

r a

1. Khee
\ 3. Hiz
I 4. Up.Thame

6. Bulbourne

7. Gade

8. Ver

9. Up. Coke
L 10. Lo. Colne

Station.

Eoyston..

HitcMn— The Firs

,, Bedford Road
„ High Down

Tring Vicarage..

Cowroast

Berkhamsted — Rosebank
Fairhill ..

Great Gaddesden Vicarage

Hemel Hempsted — Apsley Mills
Nash Mills

Kensworth — The Grove ...,
Harpenden — Rothamsted
St. Albans — Gorhambury
,, The Grange...

Elstree — Aldenham House

"Watford — Oaklands

Rickmansworth — Moor Park
Bushey Heath

Welwyn Rectory

Datchworth Rectory

Stevenage — Weston Park
Bennington Lodge

Jan.

Therfield Rectory

Throcking Rectory

~ ' ' Hamels Park

Buntingford

Much Hadham .

Hatfield— Brocket Hall
Hertford — Bayf ordbury

Ware — Red House

, , Fanhams Hall ....

Broxboume— Stafford House

Cheshunt — Old Nurseries

,, College

NewBarnet — Gas Works

Southgate— The Lawns

Mean for the County

ins.

1-57

1-59
r6i

1-52

2-25

2-l6
2-19
2-21

2-04
2-38
I "93

2-14
2-12

2-35

2-23

2-14

2-22
262

2-34

2-55
1-88

1-99

2- 10

170
1-69
2-II

2-IO

2 -02
2-07

1-93

1-84

2-07
2-27

2-i6
1-96
2-05

2 -06

Feb.

ins.
•02

•01
•04
•03

•00

■05

•04

•02

•05
•03
•01

•03
•03
•00
•05

•10

•02
•06
■00

•01

•05

•14
•07

•02
•01
•02

•06

■03

•03
•14
•08

•06
•00
•00
•00
•05

•04

Mar.

ins,
I '63

1-48

1-65
I "40

r62

1-42
1-48
1-45

1-47
1-31
1-25

1-48
1-69
r6o
r6o

ri4

r8o

1-99

2-29
1-43

2-09
1-87

I '87
r8o
2 '05

1-84

171
1-90

1-45
170

1-96
1-91
1-63
1-45
1-97

■67

API-
ins.

■57

May.

ins.

3-OI

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Days.

ins.
2-17

ins.
2-32

ins.

3-54

ins.
I^20

ins.
5-05

ins.
175

ins.

3-II

ins.
25-94

170

•84
•98

■97

3-i8
3-iS
3'44

173

I -So
r7o

2^23
2^52
2-94

3 '40
3-42
3-66

•87
•94
77

6^28
625

6-33

2^09
2^19
227

3-56
3-67
391

27-26
28-29
28-94

192
22s
196

1-23

2^87

I^2I

1-95

5-03

1-23

8^41

2-59

4-6s

33-04

189

1-38

1-59
1-96

3-10
2^86
2-90

ro7
1-03
ri2

1-94
2^29
2-45

4'6o
4-25
4-37

I-I4
ri3

1-54

8^i8
8-04
8-37

2-45
2^42

2-58

4-53
4-20

4-31

32^02
31-52
33-28

196

204

1-96

TOO
TOO

3 '04
3-38
3-58

1-33
1-29

1-38

2^II

3-14
3-13

3-85
471
4-17

ro7
1^40
I 24

8^32
691
7-46

2^24

2^l8

233

4'4i

4^02

4-17

31-89
31-75
31-65

187
186
194

r67

I '44
•91

•87

3-24
3'34
3-55
3-57

r87
I -So
r88
2^07

2 -06
2^28

2-95

2^92

4-42
3-94
3-45
4-29

I •OS

1-30

•97

1-02

8^3i
6-66

8^20

6-35

254

2^17

2^87

2T3

4^8o
4-06
4-59
4'03

33-61
30-83
33-32
31-13

187
182

201

•84

2^46

•78

2^02

3-68

r28

6^28

2-34

3-98

27^04

184

ri4

•99
■92

3-8i
3-50
2^98

r28
1-63

I^02

3 '02
390

2-93

470
5-IO
375

I-6I
1-68
1-45

6-35
693
634

2^46
2^67
2-35

4^28
4-91
373

32-69
35-70
29-80

203
198
185

V64
I '49

4'05
3-42

1-35
1-53

1 80

2^05

3-53
3-IO

i^46
r24

5-8i
5-03

2-20
2T4

376
3-57

30-45
26-93

169
176

•86
■94

3-17
3 '40

■S3
I •OS

r27
1-95

372
3-42

1-51

I^I2

6^oo
5-31

3"22

2-34

3-59
3-66

28-39
27-23

20s

•91
•86
•90

3-53
292
2^76

2-13

1-35
1^40

3-23
2^42
2^48

4-47
3-56
3-58

1^64
III

ri8

5 "49
517
5 '04

2-23
2^12
2-36

3-38
3-63
3 "46

30-60
26^64
27-34

197
212

175

I-3I

2^78

I •SO

3-05

4-29

I-I2

5-13

2^40

3-82

29^20

177

ri2
•68
•80
■8i

3-83
3-52
2^84
2^84

1-70
I -91

1-34
I 22

1-63
1-99
2'36
2^30

3-34
3-86
3-90
4^o8

1-35
roi

•76

r82

5 "94
5-34
4-99
4-38

2^17
2 -02
^98
2^05

3-8o
3-87
397
3-09

28^64
28-20
26-46
26-21

169
194
168
181

•81
•82
•81
•76
•89

316
3-96

4"I2

3-25
3-53

3-28

r62

I -41

1-86

•62

I 32

1-45

2-73
2^48

1-53

2^8l

319

4-07

3-63
2^92

3-50
4-47

I •OS

•86

1-41

1-50
I 20

4-97
5-24
5-07
5-45
5-40

2 -08
2^00
2^03
2^04
2^09

3-60
379
3-51
3^76
3-43

28-18
28-37
27-05
27-10
29-59

210
169

153

141
205

1-07

2-45

3-94

123

6^24

2^28

3-91

29-62

187

J. HOPEXNSON EEPOET ON THE

Table III. — Sutplementaet to Tables I and II.

))
4.
8.

10.
12.

14.

18.

Station.

Authority.

Gauge.

Rain-
fall.

Days.

Dia-
meter.

Height

above

Sea.

Hitchin— The Maples...

,, Bancroft

Tring — Pendley Manor. . .
Harpenden — R othamsted

Watford— Kytes '

W. Hill

8
5

8
72x87
5
5
5

220
215

420
420

239
405

251

430

28-11
29-10

3'7i

30-49
31-86
28-87
29-82

27"34
25-67
25-13

191

196

173
200

181

150

179

L. W. Gatward...
Rev. W. Quenuell
Lawes and Gilbert

Mrs. Horsman ...

A. M. Blake

R. L. Hoare

A. E. Morse

Major L. Flower

"Wehvyn — Danesbury ...
Tewin — Marden Hill . . .
Buntingford— Hyde Hall
H odde.sdon-Feilde'sWeir

The wettest day in each month at 35 stations -vras : —
January 20th at 1 station ; 22nd at 1 ; 23rd at 1 ; 24th at 2 ; 29th at 9 :

30th

at 20 ; 23rd and 30th equal at 1.

February 2nd at 1 (0-10 in.) ; 11th at 1 (0-06 in.) ; 21st at 1 (0-04 in.
other fall exceeding 0-03 ins., and no fall at 6 stations.

March 7th at 27 ; 9th at 6 ; 10th at 1 ; loth at 1.

April 4th at 26 ; 5th at 2 ; 6th at 6 ; 21st at 1.

May 17th at 20 ; 18th at 1 ; 23rd at 1 ; 24th at 13.

Jime 2nd at 2 ; 4th at 9 ; 20th at 1 ; 22nd at 4 ; 24th at 3 ; 25th at 16.

July 1st at 1 ; 3rd at 4 ; 6th at 3 ; 7th at 2 ; 8th at 9 ; 19th at 1 ; 26th at 1 ;
27th at 1 ; 29th at 11 ; 31st at 1 ; 3rd and 26th equal at 1.

August 20th at 34 ; 27th at 1,

September 1st at 1 ; 3rd at 1 ;
21st at 2 ; 22nd at 2 ; 30th at 4
at 1.

October 5th at 1 ; 6th at 17 ; 13th at 1 ,
at 4 ; 22nd at 6 ; 2nd and 21st equal at 1.

November 10th at 28 ; 11th at 2 ; 15th at 4 ; 16th at 1.

December 1st at 25 ; 13th at 7 ; 14th at 1 ; 27th at 1 ; 1st and 13th equal at 1.

The day in each month on which a heavy faU of x'ain was most
general over the county was therefore : —

8th at 1 ; r2th at 1 ; 14th at 15 ; 19th at 6 ;
3rd and 19th equal at 1 ; 15th and 30th equal

14th at 2 ; 15th at 2 ; 19th at 1 ; 21st

Jan. 30th.
Feb. (none)
March 7th.

April 26th.
May 17th.
June 25th.

July 29th.
Aug. 20th.
Sept. 14th.

Oct. 6th.
Nov. 10th.
Dec. 1st.

The numher of wet days in the year (average of 33 gauges)
was 187, being 19 above the mean for the twenty years 1870-89.
Of the total number there were 36 (or 19°/^) in the wiater months,
46 (or 24°/o) in the spiing, 51 (or 28°/^) iu the summer, and 54
(or 29°/q) in the autumn.

The number of wet days in each month, and the deviation from
the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, was as follows : —

Jan. .

... 14 — 1 April .

... 11 —2

July .

... 18 -f4

Oct.

.... 22-1-7

Feb. .

... 2 —12 May .

... 18 -1-5

Aug. ..

... 22 -1-9

Nov.

.... 18 -f2

Mar. .

... 17 -f 4 June ..

... 11 —2

Sept. ..

... 14 4-1

Dec. .

.... 20 -t-4

BAnfFALL IX HERTFORDSniKE IN 1891.

Diufn'hufi'on of RaiufaU throufihout the County. — The mean rain-
fall in the catchmeut-basin of the Ouse was 27"61 ins., and in that
of the Thames 29-87 ins. The following table (Table IV) gives
the mean fall for each month and for the year in each of the five
river-districts represented, and in tlie county for comparison, and
also the difference in the year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.

Table IV. — Eainfall in the River Disteicts.

Months.

January ....
February ....

March ..!

April

May

June

July

August

September
October ....
November
December

Cam.

ius.
i"57

•02
1-63

■57
301

2"I7

2-32
3-54

I '20
5-05

311

Year 25-94

Diif. from 1880-89; -I-3-43

IVEL.

ius.

I '60

•03

1-51

•93

3-25

175

2-56

3-49

•86

6-28

2"I9

371

28-16

+ 2-90 [

Thame.

ins.
2*25

•00
1-62
1-23
2-87

I "21

1-95

5-03
I '23
8-41

2-59
4-65

COLNE.

3304

ms.

2 "22

•03

I '53
1-26

323
I 40
2-65

4*23
1-28

7-34
2-41
4-29

•87

[ +

2-61*]'

-1-3-06

Lea.

ms.

2-02

■05
I 82

•97
3-36
I -41
2-31

373
1-25
5-28
2-20
3-63

28-03

+2-37

County.

ins.

2 -06

•04
1-67
1-07
3-28

I 45

2-45
3 '94
1-23
6-24

2-28

3"9i

29-62

-f2-88

Cam

Rbee

.... 25-94

Thame

IVEL

Hiz

.... 28-16

^Bulbourne

... 32-27

Gade

... 31-76

Lea

COLNE

Ver

.... 32-22

Upper Colne

.... 27-04

LLower Colne

.... 32-73

The mean rainfall in each of the minor river-basins or sub-
districts, was as follows : —

ins.
Upper Thame.. 33-0-1

Mimram 28-69

Beane 27-81

Rib 28-16

Ash 29-20

Upper Lea 27-38

Lower Lea 28-06

The total yearly fall ranged from 25-94 ins. at Royston to
35-70 ins. at Moor Park, Rickmansworth ; and the total monthly
fall from no rain at six stations in February to 8-41 ins. at
Tring Vicarage in October. The greatest fall in any one day was
1-88 in. at Cheshunt College on the 24th of May.

Distribution of Rainfall in each Month. — The nomenclature used
in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the same as in
my previous reports, falls of at least \ inch being styled considerahle,
f inch very considerable, 1 inch great .^ \\ incli very great, \\ inch
heavy, If inch very heavy, and of 2 inches and upwards excessive.
This analysis only applies to the 25 stations from which I have
returns of the daily rainfall.

* Rainfall for three years of this period computed.

GO J. nOPKINSOK REPORT ON THE

January. — Rainfall a little below the average ; nearly all after
the 19th; np to that date mostly in the form of snow. On 24th
the fall was considerable at two stations, and on 30th at three.

FKBRrAiiY. — Unprecedently dry, no rain whatever falling at six
stations, and at several others the recorded fall, or most of it, really
being dew. Thus the 0"05 in. given for my own station consisted
of 0-02 in. of rain on 6th, and 0-01 in. of dew on 21st, 22nd, and
24th. The heaviest fall in any one day at any of the 25 stations
for which I have the daily record was 0'04 in. at Much Hadham
on the 2 1 st. There is no previous record of a month without rain
at any one station, the least monthly fall recorded ( and our records
extend over more than half a century) being 0 08 in. at Cassiobury
in April, 1870.

March. — Rainfall small, but about the average, this being usually
a dry month. On 7th the fall was cotiside ruble at twelve stations.
Snow fell on several days. The great blizzard which caused much
damage in the west of England was at its height in Herts on the
night of the 9th. On this night, the observers at Rothamsted say,
"there was a very drifting snowstorm, and on the 10th and 11th
there were also drifting snow-showers, and there is no doubt that
much was blown out of the gauges. From measurements in
various fields it was concluded that there were upon the whole
about five inches of snow, = 0'417 inch rain, which amount is
accordingly entered." The snow not having been measured at
Gorhambury, -i- inch has been added to the record for that station.

April. — A dry month; most of the rain fell between 3rd and
9th ; and scarcely any after 1 6th. On 4th the fall was considerable
at two stations, on 5th at one, on 6th at five, and on 2 1 st at one.

May. — Very wet, especially during the latter half of the month.
On 17th the fall was great at High Down, Hitchin (1-09 in.), rery
considerable at sixteen stations, and considerable at eight ; on 24th
it was heavy at Cheshunt College (1-88 in.) and at the Old
JSTui'series, Cheshunt (1-63 in.), very great at Welwyn (1-30 in.),
very considerable at six stations, and considerable at six.

June. — Rather dry, with rain on one day only (loth) between
5th and 22nd, except at a few stations at which 0-01 in. fell on
some one day. On 4th the fall was considerable at one station, and
on 25th it was great at The Grange, St. Albans (r04 in.), very con-
siderable at one station, and considerable at seven stations.

July. — Rainfall about the average ; nearly all fell during the
first eight and the last twelve days. On 3rd the fall was rery co7i-
siderable at one station and considerahle at one ; on 6th it was
considerable at one, on 8th at one, and on 29th at one.

August. — Very wet, especially during the latter part of the
month, rain falling eveiy day at nearly all the stations for the last
fifteen days. On 2nd the fall was considerahle at two stations. On
20th the fall was very heavy at Therfield (r75 in.), very great at
Royston (1-47 in.), the Firs, Hitchin (1-40 in.), High Down,
Hitchin (1-40 in.), Bedford Road, Hitchin (l-39in.), Tring (l-35in.),
The Grange, St. Albans (1-35 in.), Oaklands, Watford (1-33 in.),

EAINFALL IN HERTFOltDSHIKE IN 1891. Gl

Cowroast (I '27 in.), and Kcnswortli (1-27 in.), great at the Old
Js^'urserios, Clieshunt (1-24 in), lloscbank, Berkhamstt'd (1-22 in.),
Elstree (1-20 in.), Wolwyn (1-20 in.), l\iirliill, Berkliaiastcd
(1-17 in.), Broxbourne (TlSin.), Botlianistcd (THin.), Hanicls
Park (1-13 in.), Fanhams Hall, Ware (MO in.), IsX'W Barnet
(1-07 in.), Apsley Mills (1-05 in.), Much Hadham (1-04 in.), and
Throcking (r02in.), and very considerable at two stations. Great
Gaddesden and Bennington. On 27th the fall was considerable at
fourteen stations, on 28th very considerable at one station, and on
31st considerable at one. At Rosebank, Berkhamsted, on the lOtli,
O'Oo in. fell in one minute, being at the rate of three inches per hour.

Septeiiiser. — Very dry, but without any long period quite devoid
of rain. The only considerable fall was on 3rd, at New Barnet.

October. — Excessively wet, having about three times the average
fall of rain ; at most stations rain fell every day from 5th to 22nd
(18 days), and at several from 4th to 26th (23 days). On 6th the
fall was very great at Fairhill, Berkhamsted (1*47 in.), Cowroast
( 1 -42 in.), Tring (1-38 in.), Eoscbank, Berkhamsted (1-33 in.). Great
Gaddesden (1-32 in.), and Kensworth (1-26 in.), great at Rothamsted
(1-15 in.). The Grange, St. Albans (l-13in.), Apsley Mills (1-I2in ),
Bedford Road, Hitchin (1-09 in.). The Firs, Hitchin (1-08 in.), and
High Down, Hitchin (I'OOin.), very considerable at four stations,
and considerable at seven. On 7th the fall was considerable at five
stations, on 13th at seven, on 14tli at one, on 15th at two, on 16th
at one, on 18th at four, on 19th at two, and on 20th at three. On
21st the fall was very great at Great Gaddesden (1-25 in.), great at
High Down, Hitchin (1 20 in.), Fairhill, Berkhamsted (1-17 in),
Cowroast (I '10 in.), and Rosebank, Berkhamsted (1-04 in.), very
considerable at six stations, and considerable at fourteen ; and on
22nd it was very great at Tring (1-30 in.), great at Cowroast
(l-24in.), Fairhill, Berkhamsted (l-19in.), Bedford Road, Hitchin
(ri2in.), Rosebank, Berkhamsted (1*11 in.), Kensworth (riOin),
Apsley Mills (1-06 in.), (ireat Gaddesden (1-05 in). The Firs,
Hitchin (r04 in.), and High Down, Hitchin (1*04 in.), very consider-
able at five stations, and considerable at nine.

November. — Rainfall a little below the average. On 10th the
fall was ^rm^ at Kensworth (r02in. ), and Cowroast (I'OOin), very
considerable at four stations, and considerable at ten; on 11th con-
siderable at one, and on loth at three.

December. — Very wet ; rain fell nearly eveiy day at all stations
for the first fifteen and last seven days. On 1 st the fall was very
great at Tring (1-36 in.), great at Cowroast (ri6in.), Fairhill,
Berkhamsted (1-15 in.), Rosebank, Berkhamsted (I'll in.), Kens-
worth (I- 11 in.), and Great Gaddesden (l"06in.), very considerable
at thirteen stations, and considerable at six ; on l2th it was
considerable at two stations; on 13th great at Bennington (TOO in.),
very considerable at eight stations, and considerable at eleven ; and
on 27th it was great at Apsley Mills (1-20 in.).

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE
DURING THE YEAR 1891.

By Henry Lewis.
Read at Watford, IWi March, 1892.

I HAVE no addition to make to our record of Hertfordshire birds,
but that is not to be wondered at if we consider the number which
have already been recorded, namely 202 species, there having been
no increase in the number since our President added one to the list
(the sand grouse) in his Notes on Birds observed during the year
1888. Mr. Rooper, in his last report, gave an interesting account
of the rare birds observed during the severe weather of the winter
of 1890-91, thus considerably lightening my labours, but some of
these I will again refer to. Many of the records for last year are
from the Tring Reservoirs, and for all these I am indebted to the
Honourable Walter Rothschild.

The Green "Woodpecker [Gecinus viridis). — Mr. Rooper reports
ha-ving seen a green woodpecker in Cassiobury Park. I am sorry
to add that Mr. Spary has had several of these birds to mount
during the year. It is a great pity that this useful species, with
its loud laugliing call, which is to be heard in the spring, should
be destroyed. Mr. Buller also reported having received a green
woodpecker and a greater spotted woodpecker {Dendrocopus major).

The Kjxgfisher {Alcedo Ispida). — It is always a pleasure to me to
have the kingfisher reported. A bird of such lovely plumage is so
persecuted that it is surprising we have any left in the country.
Probably if it were not for the protection afforded it during
incubation by some kind persons it would become extinct, at least
in some localities. Mr. George Worby, of St. Albans, assures me
that he has seen this bird using its feet in a very industrious
manner for the purpose of scooping the earth out of a hole or
tunnel it had been excavating in the bank with its bill ; so Mr.
Rooper is no doubt correct when he states : " Its eggs are
beautifully white and transparent (he might have added ' and
round or nearly so '), laid upon a nest formed of the cast-up bones
of its prey, in a hole scooped out of the bank by the bird for that
purpose. It is commonly but erroneously believed that an old
rat-hole is appropriated for the purpose."

The Common Buzzaed (Buteo ridgaris). — Mr. Arthur Spary, one
of our local taxidermists, informs me that " a specimen of the
common buzzard was shot at Cole Green, close to the station, by
Mr. Digby in the last week of the old year " (1891).

The buzzards are very nearly allied to the eagles, forming a
connecting-link between them and the harriers and hawks. Dixon
met with the buzzard in the Xortli of Scotland, and writes :
" Far in the deepest solitudes of the deer-forests, the buzzard
ofttimes builds its nest. Its cradle is usually placed in some dense

BIRDS OBSERVED IN 1891. 63

honry pino-tree, the patriareh of the forest, and tlic one most
dilHiult ot' access. It is here, but sometimes also just on the
borderland of the forests, that the buzzard finds the solitude of his
choice, the seclusion which he loves. Nothinc; breaks the silence
here save the occasional cry of a blackcock or the lij^ht tread of
the mountain-hare as it hurries off at your approach. Tlie scenery
around is grand, befitting surroundings to such an abode. The
distant mountains come out in bold outline against the clear
morning sky ; and the sunlight glistens brightly on the red bark of
the pines around you. The nest is situated on a flat branch, some
60 feet fi-om the ground." The cry of the buzzard is supposed to
foretell rain. Clare writes, in the ' Village Minstrel ' :

" Slow o'er the wood tlie puttock sails,
Aud mournful as the storms arise,
His feeble note of sorrow wails

To the uupitying frowuiug skies." *

Dresser says: "This is now a rare bii'd in Great Britain ... It
is stated to be more numerous in North Devon than in other
counties ... It is as a rule a peaceable and quiet bird, but fights
desperately during the breeding season." Benzon says that a friend
of his saw a tough battle between two buzzards, which, after
fighting for some time in the air, came to the ground in close
combat and still continiied to fight with such ferocity that he was
able to walk up and kill them with his riding- whip. This was in
Denmark. Nilsson states that in South Sweden "numbers are
caught and used for food on their passage south through Skane."

The RouGn-LEGGED Buzzard [Buteo Imjopus). — At our last
meeting, held on the 19th of February, Lord Ebury exhibited a
beautiful specimen of the rough-legged buzzard which was captured
in a trap in Bishop's Wood, Rickmausworth, on the Moor Park
estate. The legs and toes of the common buzzard are yellow and
bare of feathers, whereas the rough-legged buzzard is feathered as
low down as the origin of the toes, the feathers on the legs, as Mr.
Stradling pointed out, taking the place of scales. Two of these
rare birds were obtained in ]S^ovember last at the Tring Reservoirs.

Dresser states : "In summer this bird inhabits jS^orthern Europe
and Asia, migrating in winter into Central and Southern Asia and
Europe ... It is a rare straggler to Great Britain, and almost
always in immature plumage. It has been killed in almost every
county, and has been known even to breed with us." Stevenson,
in his ' Birds of Norfolk,' states that their numbers vary in
different seasons, very scarce some years, great quantities in others.
In the winter of 1839-40 (November, December, and January) not
less than 47 specimens were taken near Thetford, and many others
elsewhere; few were seen afterwards till 1858, when they were
again numerous.

The Comjiox Heron (Ardea cinered). — Mr. Buller writes: "On
the 4th of April one of the finest old male herons which I have

* Puttock is the buzzard's name in the Eastern and Midland Counties.

64 H. LEWIS — NOTES ON BIKDS

ever seen was killed in tlie neighbourhood of Welwyn. I know of
one water-keeper in this county who has killed no less than 28
in eight years, and he only has about three miles of water to look
after. By the time that our grandchildren become recorders the
heron will be like the bittern, rarely seen."

The Tufted Duck (Anas fullgula). — Mr. Hooper mentioned that
a tufted duck had been killed in that " beautiful domain of
Munden." Mr. Buller has also reported that a tufted duck, male,
was killed at Kimpton Hoo, near Welwyn, on the 7th of January;
and that a pair of tufted ducks were shot at Oughton Head
Common, Hitchin, on the 13th of January.

Lord Lilf ord informs us that ' ' this duck is an autumnal or
winter visitor, and breeds in a good many of our English counties
as well as in certain localities in Scotland and Ireland. Although
frequently met with on the coast, the tufted duck decidedly
prefers fi'esh to salt water. The bird thrives and breeds in
captivity."

A singular hybrid between the pochard {Fuligida ferina) and
tufted duck (Anas fidigula) was taken in November last at the
Tring Reservoirs. Yarrell informs us that " there is in the
Belfast Museum a bird shot near Downpatrick, which is apparently
a hybrid between the tufted duck and the pochard." Tufted ducks
as well as pochards have been known to breed in captivity.
Yarrell states: "Tufted ducks bred in confinement in the ponds
at the Gardens of the Zoological Society during the summers of
1839, 40, and 41." Sclater says that "in 1849 a tufted duck
crossed with a ferriiginous duck [Fuligula nyroca) and the hybrids
thus produced continued to breed either inter se, or with one of the
parents, till 1861."

The Watee-rail (Sallus aquaticus). — Mr. Hooper has infoi-med
me that Mr. Longman, of Shendish, wrote to him that " his bailiif
had caught a curious bii'd in the yard and had sent it to be stuffed."
He (Mr. Eooper) went to see it and found that it was a water-rail.
As Yarrell states : "This bird certainly appears to be less abundant
than it really is, the habits of the bird, and the nature of the
localities which it frequents, increasing the difficulties of observa-
tion."

The Smew [Mergus alhellus). — A female smew was killed near
Welwyn early in the year and has been preserved in a very
creditable manner by Mr. G. J. Buller, of Hitchin, late of Welwyn.
Mr. Littleboy has reported the smew on two previous occasions.
He says that "a female smew was shot [at Munden] on the 26th of
December, 1846, by Mr. Nathaniel Hibbert," and also that "in
1885 a flight of nine visited the Marsworth Reservoir about the
middle of February."

The Gkey Phalarope [Phalaropus fuUcarius). — Four of these
pretty and rare visitors were procured in October at tlie Tring
Reservoirs ; and one, I am informed by Mr. F. Cane, of Luton,
was brought to him in November to be preserved, having been shot
by Mr. Piggott by the side of a small pond at Chiltern Green.

OBSERVED IN UERTS IN 1891. 65

In this binl there is a striking- difFercnce between the winter and
the suininor plumage. YarrcU says : " Tlie ftMiialos of this species
appear to assume more perfect colours in the breeding-season and
to retain them longer than the males . . . The front and sides of
the neck, the breast, and all the under surface of the body arc a
uniform reddish chestnut or bay. . . The females are the largest."
'Mv. H. Seebohm says that the bird "breeds in Iceland, Sj^itz-
bergen, and in the Taimyr peninsula," and that "at their breeding-
grounds they are described as being very tame." They show the
same coutideuce and fearlessness when with us. But Hume, who
met with them in their winter quarters on the coast of Scind,
found them to be "very wary, rising en »iasse, and skimming along
the surface of the water for a couple of hundred yards or so, as
soon as the boat approached within a hundred yards of them."
Kumlicn says that ou the Labrador coast they follow the whales,
approaching them when they blow, to catch the small marine
animals which are disturbed, and that from this they are known
amongst the whalers as the "whale bird" and "bow-head bird."

The Common Redshank {Totanus calidris). — Mr. Arthur Spary
informs me that " a redshank was picked up on the Midhmd
Railway between St. Albans and Radlett in the month of June and
brought to him to preserve." This bird has been reported on two
previous occasions, one having been shot in the Colne meadows and
two on the Tring Reservoirs.

Mr. T. Vaughan Roberts, in a letter dated the 30th of March,
writes : "While on the little island at Russell Farm, between the
back-water and the Canal, 1 saw first a kingfisher. I often see
them here. IS^ext one of my dogs flushed a water-rail which flew
into a bush close to me and I had a splendid inspection. The
red bill and the exquisite brown plumage were seen in the
sun to the best advantage. The bird never moved until I did.
We then started a wild duck. I had seen a badger caught the
previous day in Cassiobury Park, so it was ' a red-letter day ' for
a naturalist."

I will now make a few observations on some of our more familiar
birds, as it is equally interesting to study their song, habits, and
many charming ways, as it is to report a rara avis which is
generally shot or done to death as soon as it reaches us.

The Redbeeast [Erithacus ruhecula). — This bird can greatly
vary its song. It has occurred to me when listening to it that
at times the bird is a mimic, simulating the song of other
birds. I have noticed its song in summer sometimes to differ from
its well-known autumn strain which it commences some time in
August. In July the robin, Mr. Seebohm states, is never heard to
sing. This bird is one of the first to " salute the happy morn," as
well as one of the latest to retire to rest. Besides its call-note it
sometimes, with others, utters a singularly plaintive note (as if in
trouble), with which the birds occasionally answer each other.
Mr. Ashwell informs me that in the summer a robin's nest was

66 H. LEWIS — NOTES ON^ BIRDS

found in his ivy containing 12 eggs, and another close by con-
taining 4 eggs.

The Nightingale {DauUas luscinia). — This bird was first heard
on the 11th of April near Welwyn by that enthusiai>tic observer,
Mr. Buller, who writes: "I took a walk of eleven miles on purpose
to try and hear him." The late Mr. Frank Buckland wrote :
"The earliest place for nightingales is Welwyn in Hertfordshire,
where they arrive as early as the 10th of April." I have read
that the nightingale usually arrives in this country as early as
the fii'st week in April. Mr. Arthur Lewis heard the bird on the
isth, and this is about the usual date for it to be heard at St.
Albans. Should the weather prove favourable, the first month or
six weeks after their arrival is a very good time to hear their
unrivalled melody. Game-preserving doubtless favours many of
our warblers by the protection it affords them during incubation,
but Mr. Richard Jefferies states that a naturalist has recorded that
in a district he visited, the nightingales were always shot by the
keepers and their eggs smashed because the singing of these birds
at night disturbed the repose of the pheasants. It is interesting to
note that although, owing to the late spring, the buds in the hedge-
rows had hardly burst, affording little or no protection from the
bitter cold wind, the nightingale should still keep his appointed
time.

The Maetin [Chelidon urbica). — This is a most agreeable and
sociable bird. It appears to take a deep interest in its neighbours'
welfare. It will visit its neighbours' nests and they will return
the compliment. The old ones as well as the young will frequently
toy and play in front of their nest. The bii'd is fond of singing in
its nest ; although not a loud songster it has a very agreeable
soothing sound as if it were rehearsing its song in secret. It
seldom passes or flies up to the nest without saying "tweet,"
which we may translate into " sweet." The bird is equally polite
on leaving its nest. The martin is a harmless, innocent, and
useful little bird, and ought always to receive the protection it so
richly deserves ; for the number of insects destroyed by this species
alone in a single summer must be enormous.

One of the chief features of interest in the bird-life of the year
which calls for remark is the protracted stay of the swallow
[Hirimdo rustica), martin {Chelidon urbica), and swift {Ci/jjselus
apus), reports on which have reached the office of the 'Field' news-
paper from numerous parts of the country. The paper states : "As to
the cause of the protracted stay of these birds beyond the usual time
of their departure, there is abundant room for speculation. Without
knowing more of the conditions under which the birds . . . were
observed, that is to say, the state of the weather, temperature, and
direction of the wind, it is perhaps hardly wise to express any
decided opinion on the subject, but we may hazard the conjecture
that their movements were to a great extent controlled by the
mildness of the late autumn, the unusual moistness of the air, and
the prolonged existence of insect life, affording a continuous supply

OBSERVED IN HERTS IN 1891. 67

of food." The paper also says : " Sovoval observers have re-
marked upon the re-appearanee of swallows aud martins after they
were believed to have departed for the winter. Tliis re-appearauco
of the birds some time after they were supposed to have migrated
admits of various explanations. ( 1 ) They may be individuals of
late broods, which were not strong enough to accompany the
majority at the usual period of their departure. (2) They may be
birds which, reared at some distance further north, are gradually
making their way southwards, (o) They may be birds which have
already attempted to leave our shores, but being driven back by
adverse winds or unfavourable weather, have returned to their
summer (juarters." It is probable that a few of the swallows and
perhaps house-martins remain in some parts of Great Britain during
the winter months. In what state they exist, and how they
subsist, it is difficult at present to say.

The Rook {Corvus fnujileyus). — Mr. Arthur Dickenson informs
me that he has found Guinea fowls' eggs, as well as the China
ones placed in the nests, carried into the field and left there. He
credits the rooks with this piece of mischief. We can account for
the birds dropping the China eggs, finding them to be too indigest-
ablc a morsel, and, as doubt exercises a powerful influence on the
mind, they might think that there was something "uncanny"
about eggs in general after their experience with the baulkers, and
wisely determine to discard them for the future altogether from
their bill of fare. He also informs me that he has been in the field
and noticed the rooks circling around a turkey's nest, and he
concludes that they were waiting to steal the egg as soon as the bird
laid it and he should depart. I must confess that I am somewhat
incredulous about this.

The Swift {Cypselus Apus). — I once noticed a swift struggling
on the road, unable to rise. I was going to the bird's assistance,
when a carter passing by kindly picked the bird up and threw it in
the air. Gilbert Wliite remarks : " They never settle on the
ground but through accident, and when down can hardly rise on
account of the shortness of their legs and the length of their
wings." Their prolonged stay was one of the notable events of
bird-life last year. Mr. Hooper writes to me: "The actual
departure of the swifts is so rarely witnessed that I think it worth
your noting that a friend of mine. Sir T. Martin, on the 4th of
August at 10 a.m., saw a large body, perhaps one hundred, after
circling around, fly off westward. This occurred in Derbyshire."

Albinism. — Mr. Cain writes: "I stuffed a white thrush with
almost red eyes for Mr. C. Dickenson, Harpenden Iload. The
bird was caught on his grounds by his cat last summer." From
his description of the bird I have no doubt but that it was a
song-thrush aud a true albino. Mr. Cain also showed me, a short
time since, a perfectly white swallow. It had been shot by
Mr. King at Langford in August. Although the bird was not
actually killed in Hertfordshire, it is so interesting an event that it
ought to be recorded.

68 H. LEWIS — NOTES OX BIRDS.

The following observations of the arrival, etc., of our summer
migrants and other visitants have been made.

Summer Migrants.

Species. Locality. Date. Observer.

"Wheatear Near St. Albans.. April 3 A. Dickenson.

{Haxicola cenanthe)

Eedstart Welwyn ,, 28 G. J. BuUer.

{Rnticilla phmnicunis)

NiGHTi^fGALE Near Welwyu ,, 11 ,,

[Daulias iHscinia) St. Albans , 18 A.Lewis.

"Whitethroat St. Albans May 12 H.Lewis.

[Sylva cinerea)

Blackcap St. Albans ,, 17 ,,

[Sylvia atricapilla)

Chiff-Chaff St. Albans April 5 ,,

[PhyUoscopus nifus)

Willow-Wren St. Albans ,, 19 ,,

[PhyUoscopus trochilus)

Sedge- Warbler Welwra , 28 G. J. Buller.

[AcrocephalKs ph-agmitis) St- Albans May 14 H. Lewis.

Yellow Wagtail Welwyn April 18 G. J. Buller.

[Motacilla Ran)

Tree-Pipit St. Albans ,, 20 H.Lewis.

(A)ithus trivialis)

Swallow Ware ,, 16 J. W. Mason.

{Hirundo rustica) St. Albans ,, 19 H. Lewis.

Welwyn ,, 19 G. J. Buller.

(Last seen) Eickmausworth .. Oct. 9 T. Hope.

,, St. Albans ,, 15 H. Lewis.

„ Watford ,, 20 G. Kooper.

„ St. Albans Nov. 18 F. Hibbert.

Martin St. Albans April 20 H. Lewis.

[Chehdon urbica) Welwyn ,, 22 G. J. Buller.

(liast seen) St. Albans Nov. 12 H. & J. Ijewis.

Swift St. Albans April 30 H. Lewis.

[Cypselus Aptis) (Last seen) . St. Albans Sept. 5 J. Lewis.

Wryneck WelwTO April 12 G. J. Buller.

{lynx lorquUla) St. Albans ,, 16 A. Lewis.

Cuckoo WelwjTi ,, 13 G. J. Buller.

[Cnculus canorus) St. Albans ,, 20 H. Lewis.

Turtle Dove St. Albans ,, 27 A. Dickenson.

[Turtur communis)

AUTTIMN- AND ~WlNTER ViSITANTS.

Eedwing (Last seen) St. Albans April 28 A.Dickenson.

{Turdtis iliacus) (First seen) St. Albans Sept. 14 ,,

Fieldfare ,, St. Albans ,, 15 ,,

[Turdus pilaris)

I may add that the swallow was seen as late as the 12th of Decem-
ber at Findhom Bay, N.B., by Mr. H. B. Brooke; the martin
on the 3rd of December at Norwich by Mr. R. J. Colman ; and the
swift on the 13th of November at Northampton by Mr. C. Law.

I wish in conclusion to thank my correspondents most heartily
for their efficient help.

VI.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS TAKEN AT THE GRANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1891.

By John Hopkinsoi^, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, President.
Read at Watford, 6th May, 1892.

LoJTGrruDE of Station, 0° 20' 7" W. ; Latitude, 51° 45' 9" N".
Cistern of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer-screen
380 feet, and at ram-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above the ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.

The accompanying tables (pp. 70, 71) give the monthly means,
etc., of the daily observations in 1891, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons.

MEAJfS FOE THE SEASONS FEOM DeC. 1890 TO Nov. 1891.

Seasons,
1890-91.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Tension

of
Vapour.

Humi-
dity.

Rainfall.

Cloud,
0-10.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

ins.

30"226

29-911
29-937
29-888

33 '4
44-1

58-3
49-6

I2'0

14-5
14-8

I3'4

in.

•165
•231

•394
•32S

7o
89
80
80
90

ins.
2-94
6-04
9-28

9-50

38
50
52
55

7-4
7-4
7-2

In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared with the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.

Difference in 1891 from Means of 1877-86 at Watford.

Months.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Tension

of
Vapour.

Humi-
dity,

Rainfall.

Cloud,
0-10,

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days,

in.

ins.

January

+ •135

—3-4

4-2-2

— -022

+ 2

—0-36

+ 3

+0-4

February

+ •530

— 1-6

+5-3

— -025

-2-54

—13

— i-o

March

— •140

—1-8

— 3*3

— -018

— 2

—0-06

+ 7

+0-8

April

-1--II9

—2-6

—0-5

— -022

+ 3

-1-51

— 3

-I-1-2

May

—•162

—2-1

— -012

+ 7

-Hi-ib

+ 4

-1-0-9

June

+•075

-1-0-2

— 1-2

+ •027

+ 7

-0-79

7" 3

-fi-i

July

— -QIO

— 2-7

— 2-2

— -016

+ 4

+0-39

+ 4

4-0-5

August

— •106

—3-5

-3-8

— •023

+ 6

-fi-67

+ 8

-|-0-2

September

+ •056

+ I-S

-0-2

+ ■030

+ 2

-1-59

+ 2

-0-6

October ....

— •151

+ 1-2

—0-7

-1-032

+ 4

+3-29

+ 5

-0-5

November

— -052

—0-3

— 0-8

-{-•GIO

+ 5

—0-89

+1-9

December

+ •015

+2-3

+3-5

+ •014

-I-1-40

+ 3

-1-7

Year

+ -O26

— I-I

-0-3

— -002

+ 3

+0-I7

+17

+0-3

VOL, VII. — PART III.

J. HOPKINSON — METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

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(33

TAKEN AT ST, ALBANS IN 1891.

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O

J. HOPKINSON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATION'S

The mean temperature of tlie year was very low, and the mean
daily range of temperature was small. There were no high
maxima, the extreme being 79°-6, in September, but in December
the low minimum of 11°"8 was reached. The temperature was not
nearly so variable as in the previous year, every month from
January to August being cold, except June which had about a
normal temperature, while each month after August was warm,
except November which had about a normal temperature. The
mean daily range of temperature was less than the average. The
mean pressure of the atmosphere was a little above the average of
the ten years 1877-86 at Watford. The lowest pressure recorded
at 9 a.m. was 28-538 ins. on 11th November, and the highest was
30-338 ins. on 18th February, giving a range of 1-800 in. The
rainfall was a little above the average of the ten years 1877-86,
but much above the average of a long period, these years having
been unusually wet ones. February was unprecedently dry ;
October, on the other hand, was excessively wet. Rain fell on
an unusually large number of days. The air was very humid, and
the sky was cloudy. There was a greater preponderance of N. and
W. winds, and a less preponderance of easterly winds (N.E. to S.E.),
than usual.

In the winter of 1890-91 (Dec. to Feb.) the mean pressure of
the atmosphere was very high, the mean temperature was very
low, with a considerable mean daily range, and the rainfall was
very small. In the spring (March to May) the mean pressure was
nearly the average, the mean temperature was low, with a small
mean daily range, and the rainfall was rather small. In the summer
(June to Aug.) the mean pressure was about the average, the mean
temperature was low, with a small mean daily range, and the
rainfall was heavy. In the autumn (Sept. to Nov.) the mean
pressure was rather low, the mean temperature was rather high,
and the rainfall was heavy. In each season except the winter
the air was humid and rain fell on a large number of days ; in the
winter the air was rather dry and rain fell on very few days. In
the spring, summer, and autumn the sky was cloudy.

The deviations in each season from the means of our period are
as follows : —

Difference in 1890-91 from Means of 1877-86 at "Watford.

Seasons,
1890-91.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Tension

of
"Vapour.

Rainfall.

Cloud,
0-10.

Mean,

Daily
Range.

dity.

Total.

Days.

"Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

in.
+ -242

— •028
— -014

— •049

—4-5
—2-3
—1-9

+0-7

4-2-0
—1-9
—2-4
-0-5

in.
--038
— -017
— -004
+ ■025

—

7o
- I

h 3

-5
h4

ins.
-4-87
—0-41
+1-27
+0-8I

—14
+ 8
+ 9
+ 7

+7-0
+0-8
+07

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1891. 73

Notes on the Months.

January. — Yery cold, cloudy, with a rather humid atmosphere
of high pressure, aud an average raiufall (for the first three weeks
almost entirely in the form of snow) on a considerable number of
days. For the last thirteen days rain (or snow) fell every day, the
average per day being 0-14 in. The earlier part of the month was
much colder than the later part, the moan temperature from 1st to
20th being 28°-6, and from 21st to 31st 4l°-2. Coldest day 18th,
mean 22°-5 ; warmest day 29th, mean 46°-0. Min. below 32° on
21 days, below 22° on 10 (7th to 12th and 17th to 20th); max.
above 42° on 10 days.

Februakt. — Rather cold and bright, with an atmosphere of
average humidity and exceedingly high pressure, and an un-
precedently small rainfall,^ the only actual fall of rain being 002 in.
on 6th. Xo snow fell. Towards the end of the month there was
much fog, every day from 1 8th to 25th being more or less foggy,
and on each of three of these days (21st, 22nd, and 24th) 0-01 in.
of water collected in the rain gauge, the result of condensed fog.
This, being entered as rain, brings up the total fall to O'Oo in.
Coldest day 24th, mean 31°-1 ; warmest day 27th, mean 47°-9.
Min. below 32° on 15 days, below 22° on 1 day (24th) ; max.
above 42® on 22 days, above 52° on 4 (25th to 28th).

Maech. — Rather cold and cloudy, with a rather dry atmosphere
of low pressure, and an average rainfall (about one-third in the
form of snow) on a considerable number of days. Rain (or snow)
fell every day from 6th to 27th, except on 12th, 18th, and 19th.
The first week was much warmer than the rest of the month,
ha^-ing a mean temperature of 46°-7. Coldest day 10th, mean
29°-6 ; warmest day 2nd, mean 51°-8. Min. below 32° on 13 days;
max. above 42° on 25 days, above 52° on 6. There was a thunder-
storm at about 4 p.m. on 27th, on which day snow fell. The
blizzard of the 9th has been mentioned in my "Report on the
Rainfall " (p. 60).

April. — Cold and cloudy, with a rather humid atmosphere of
rather high pressure, and a very small rainfall on a rather small
number of days. Snow fell on 12th only, with hail. Coldest days
1st, mean 39°-l, and 8th, mean 39°-2 ; warmest day 31st, mean
53''-2. Min. below 42° every day but one (31st), below 32° on
one day only (1st) ; max. above 52° on 12 days.

Mat. — Cold and rather cloudy, with a humid atmosphere of low
pressure, and a hea\'y rainfall on a considerable number of days.
Rain (or snow) fell every day from 15th to 30th, except on 19th
and 23rd. Snow fell on 16th, 17th, and 18th, to a total depth
of nearly a foot (=0-88 in. of rain). Temperature was very
changeable. Coldest day 17th, mean 39°-9 ; warmest day 13th,
mean 63°-9. Min. below 42° on 15 days, below 32° on 2 (17th
and 19th) ; max. above 62° on 9 days, above 72° on 2 (12th and 13th).

June. — Of average temperature, rather bright, with a humid
atmosphere of rather high pressure, and a rather small rainfall

/4 J. HOPKOrSON JLETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

on a small number of days. No rain fell from 6th to 22nd (17 days)
except 0-07 in. on loth. Coldest day 7th, mean 49°'6 ;■ warmest
days 19th, mean 64°-4, and 25th, mean 64°-6. Min. below 52° on
18 days; max. above 62° on 25 days, above 72° on 7.

July. — Cold and cloudy, with a humid atmosphere of average
pressure, and a rather heavy rainfall on a considerable number of
days. Hain fell every day for the first eight and last six days.
On 6th 0-44 in. fell in 20 minutes, from 2.20 to 2.40 p.m., being
at the rate of l'32in. per hour. Coldest day 29th, mean 54° "2;
warmest day 17th, mean 66°* 1. Min. below 52° on 20 days; max.
above 62° on 24 days, above 72° on 3 (16th, 17th, and 25th).
There were thunderstorms on several days (6th with 0-44 in. rain,
7th with 0-27 in., and 8th with 0-48 in.).

AxjGTJsx. — Very cold and cloudy, with a humid atmosphere of
rather low pressure, and a very heavy rainfall on a large number
of days. Hain fell every day from 19th to 28th (10 days), the
average per day being upwards of a quarter of an inch. Coldest
day 30th, mean 52°-6 ; warmest day 14th, mean 64°-6. Min.
below 52° on 18 days; max. above 62° on 23 days. There were
thunderstorms during the first few days.

Septembee. — Hather warm, bright, with a rather humid atmo-
sphere of rather high pressure, and a very small rainfall on about
an average number of days. The six days 8th to 13th were very
warm, having an average temperature of 64°*8. Coldest day 24th,
mean 52°'2 ; warmest days 12th, mean 66°"2, and 13th, mean
66°0. Min. below 52° on 21 days; max. above 62° on 21 days,
above 72° on 5 (9th to 13th).

October. — Rather warm and bright, with a humid atmosphere of
very low pressure, and an excessive rainfall on a large number
of days ; in fact the wettest month since I commenced my observa-
tions at St. Albans. Rain fell every day from 5th to 22nd (18 days),
the average per day being 0-31 in. Coldest day 31st, mean 38°0;
warmest day 1st, mean 58°-0. Min. below 42° on 13 days, below
32° on 1 day (31st); max. above 52° on 25 days, above 62° on
1 day (1st). A lunar rainbow was observed on the 17th.

IS'ovEMBER. — Of average temperature, veiy cloudy, with a very
humid atmosphere of rather low pressure, and a rather small
rainfall on an average number of days. Rain fell every day from
8th to 18th (11 days), the average per day being 0"15 in. The
last nine days were very cold, having an average temperature of
36°-7. Coldest day 30th, mean 35°- 1 ; warmest day 19th, mean
50°-3. Min. below 42° on 24 days, below 32° on 7 ; max. above
52° on 6 days. There was an exceptional and veiy sudden
depression on 11th, the pressure at 9 a.m. being 28-538 ins., about
an inch lower than the pressure at 9 a.m. on 10th and at 9 a.m. on
12th, and exactly an inch lower than the mean of these. From
9 a.m. to 6 p.m. on 11th the mercury rose about half an inch, and
by 11 p.m. it had risen another quarter of an inch. At the time of
lowest pressure rain was falling heavily and a gale of wind was
blowing.

TAKEN" AT ST. ALBANS IN 1891. 75

December. — Very mild and bri^lit, with an atmosphere of average
humidity and rather high pressure^, and a heavy rainfall on a
considerable number of days. Although a warm month on the
whole, the week ending 25th in.st. was exceedingly cold, having a
mean temperature of only 23°-0 (9 a.m. 23°-5, min. 19°-0, max.
36°" 6). ilain fell every day for the first ten days, averaging
0"20 in. per day. Coldest day 24th, mean 21°-1 ; warmest day
5th, mean 50°-6. Min. below 42° on 24 days, below 32° on 12,
below 22° on 5 (20th, and 22nd to 25th), below 12° on 1 day
(24th) ; max. above 42° on 26 days, above 52° on 8. (In December,
1890, the temperature never rose to 42°.) There was a silver thaw
on Christmas Day. For nine days there had been no rain, but
much fog, and a white frost every morning. Rain commenced
to fall early on the 25th while the temperature was below 32°, and
the roads and pavements were soon covered with a sheet of ice
which only partially thawed in the afternoon and froze again
at night.

VII.

A NATURALIST'S CALENDAR FOR MID-HERTFORDSHIRE.

By J. J. Willis.
(Communicated by the President.)
B.ead at Watford, 6th May, 1892.

Hattng taken Phenological Observations during the past fourteen
years in accordance with a calendar of phenomena recommended
for observation by the Royal Meteorological Society, and the
calendar having now been reduced by Mr. E. Mawley, the
Phenological Recorder to the Society, from 79 species of plants,
11 of insects, 21 of birds, and one amphibian, to 13 species
of plants, 5 of insects, and 5 of birds, it seems desirable to bring
together, in a condensed form, the facts already ascertained.

The observations were taken at Harpenden, in Mid-Hertford-
shire, 51° 48' N. Latitude, and 0° 21' W. Longitude, and have
extended over the fourteen years 1878 to 1891 inclusive, but as
the list of phenomena to be observed was altered and extended by
the Meteorological Society between 1882 and 1883, the obser-
vations of the same species do not in every case run through the
fourteen years.

The record has therefore been divided into two equal periods of
seven years each, which in itself will, I think, be found of value ;
the earliest and the latest date and year within each of these
periods is also given.

The first column of figures in the table gives the total number
of observations made for each species of plant, insect, and bird ; the
next four columns record the earliest and latest date at which each
phenomenon was noted within the two periods of seven years each ;
the next column gives the mean dates of all the observations
obtained at Harpenden ; and the last column in the table shows
the difference by number of days between the mean dates of most
of the phenomena in Mid-Herts and in South-west Herts, the dates
for that district being those given by Mr. Hopkinson for the
neighbourhood of "Watford, as the result of his observations ex-
tending over the twelve years 1875 to 1886 inclusive.*

Referring to the data given in the table we find that in the first
seven years, 1878 to 1884, the season of 1882 was the most
forward, while that of 1879 was the most backward.

In the second seven years, 1885 to 1891, there were two seasons
giving very early dates, namely those of 1885 and 1890, while the
most backward seasons in the same period were those of 1888 and
1891.

As a rule, in the second seven years the earliest dates of
flowering of the various species of plants, and the first appearance
of the insects and migratory birds, were later than during the first

* "A Naturalist's Calendar for the South-west of Hertfordshire." — 'Trans.
Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc.,' vol. v, p. 129 (1889).

NATTJEALISt's calendar for MID-HERTS. 77

seven years, showing pretty plainly that the second period was the
colder of the two.

It is somewhat remarkable to find so great a difference in the
time of blooming of our wild flowers in Mid -Herts compared with
those of ISouth-wcst Herts, the former being almost invariably
later, althongli the general character of the soil and subsoil is very
similar. Taking the whole of the comparable observations, the
results show 49 species later in their time of blooming in Mid-
Herts than in South-west Herts, while only 14 species give an
earlier record.

It has long been observed that nature in her operations is so
uniform that the coming forth of the insects from their winter's
sleep, the return of the birds, and the periods in which certain
plants and trees unfold their leaves and flowers, afford an unerring
indication of the arrival of spring. It was even a pleasant
fancy of Linnaeus which supposed that the different hours of the
daytime could be denoted and ascertained by the opening and
closing of certain flowers — making thus a floral clock.

Harold Burch, in his ingenious dissertation on the "Foliation of
Trees," informs us that Linnteus in the most earnest manner
exhorted his countiymen to observe with all care and diligence at
what time each tree expanded its buds, and unfolded its leaves and
blossoms ; imagining not without reason that his country would
some day or other reap some new and perhaps unexpected benefit
from observations of this kind made in different localities.

How far the periodical phenomena may be a guide to the
forwardness or backwardness of the season, and as such an indica-
tion of the probable productiveness of our various food-crops, may
be gathered fi'om the following short summary of the early and
late seasons brought to view by the results quoted in the table.

1879, a Season of Late Records. — January of this year was one
of the coldest months ever recorded, the thermometer during the
whole period having been below 32° F. ; snow covered the ground,
the days were nearly sunless, and the wind N. and N.E. February
also was very cold, with a great excess of rain and a great deal
of snow. March was first warm, then cold, and on the 2 1 st very
cold with snow ; but the last few days of the month were warm.
The first quarter of the year ending March' 31st may be described
as exceedingly cold, with much rain and snow. The next three
months may be summed up in a few words, as cold, wet, and
sunless ; while Mr. Glaisher further informs us that for lowness of
temperature, the eight months beginning with K'ovember 1878,
and ending with June 1879, have only been once exceeded during
the one hundred years and upwards which have elapsed since the
first records were kept at Greenwich. July was cold, damp, and
sunless, rain falling every day during the first half of the month,
and frequently afterwards, sometimes mixed with snow.

The year was a most disastrous one for our English fanners. It
was estimated that the cereal crops of the country were not more
than half the average. It is also a fact worthy of notice, that in

J. J. WILLIS — NATimALISX S CALEKDAE

Northamptonshire on the 1st of November was seen a field of
wheat in shocks, and with a portion still remaining to be cut.
Potato disease appeared in a most virulent form.

This year the daffodil was 26 days later in blooming than in the
preceding year (1878), the willow 11 days, the snowckop 16 days,
the wych elm 27 days, and the ivy -leaved veronica 24 days later.
In fact wild flowers were particularly shy of coming into bloom.
And so bitterly cold was the beginning of May that young birds
were found frozen La their nests, and the blossoms fell from the
gooseberry bushes.

In order to convey some idea of the backwardness of the season,
I append a table of some well-known wild plants, showing the
time of flowering at Harpenden in the month of May, 1879, and
the dates in the preceding year.

Species.

1879.
May.

1878.

Difference

Days.

Pruftus spinosa (Blackthorn)

uinthriscus silvestr is (Co'w-'pa.rslej)

titellaria Rolostea (Greater Stitchwort)

Cardamine pratensis (Cuckoo-flower)

Ranunculus acris (Upright Crowfoot)

Ajuga reptans (Creeping Bugle)

Plantago lanceolafa (Eibwort- plantain)

&j//«! «M<aw« (Blue-bell)

Veronica chammdrtjs (Germander Speedwell)

Vicia sepium {BvLih-Yetch)

Geranium Robertianum (Stinking CranesbiU)

1st

4th

Sth

17th

18th

19th

26th

29th

30th

Feb. 27
Mar. 15
Mar. 27
Apl. 7
Apl. 17
May 4
Apl. 23
Apl. 18
Apl. 21
Apl. 22
May 5

• 62
47
38
27
21
13
25
31
35
37
25

Thus we have shown in this short list a mean difference of 33
days between the seasons of 1878 and 1879, and it may be stated
that seldom within the memory of the oldest person amongst us
could a season more backward be remembered.

1882, a Season of Early Records. — January was excessively warm
and dry, vegetation was very forward, and wild flowers were par-
ticularly early ; indeed from November, 1881, to the end of March,
1882, the weather may be described as ha-ving been most favoui'able
for all out-door crops; and rooks took advantage of its unusual
mildness to commence nesting several days in advance of their
usual time. April was generally warm until towards the end of
the month, with more than an average rainfall. May, except
during one week at the commencement, was a warm and "growing"
month, and the rainfall was less than the average. June was cold
and unseasonable throughout, with an excess of rain which seriously
damaged the luxuriant crops of hay. July was cold, wet, and
ungenial, and this weather, following upon a cold and wet June,
greatly interfered with the ripening of cereal crops, and caused a
prevalence of potato disease. But at harvest, taking the crops

FOR MID-HEETFOKDSnrRE. 79

all round, the season was considered to have been a bountiful one.
In fact we should have to go back more than 10 years to hnd one
equal to it in productiveness.

1885, a Season of Early Records. — January exhibited the usual
characteristics of the month, the first three weeks being frosty, and
the closing week milder ; and the mean temperature being exceed-
ingly low, vegetation was kept healthily back. February was wet
and changeable. The approach of spring was very gradual, owing
to the fine days of March being robbed of their stimulating effect
upon vegetation by the low night temperatures. April was mostly
fair, cold, and thy. This weather being followed by a cold wet
May, vegetation as a whole has seldom been more backward at the
beginning of June, many wild flowers being from 10 to 14 days
later in blooming than in 1884, and the migratory birds were
much later in arriving than usual. Thus, owing to the changeable
comUtions, the early promise was not altogether realised, and the
corn crops, while they were about an average in quantity, were
low in quality.

1888, a Season of Late Records. — Januaiy was unusually dry,
while February gave a continuance of severe weather, with
fi-c(]ucnt snow storms, the drifts in some places being several feet
in depth. In March vegetation was reported to be particularly
backward, and the sowing of all spring seeds was much delayed by
the wetness of the surface-soil, especially on heavy land. April
was a month of unsettled and inclement weather, with bleak
and withering easterly winds, which were exceedingly trying
both to animal and vegetable life. May was fairly genial, but
yielded a small rainfall ; the comparative absence of soil-moisture
was, therefore, a great drawback to vegetation, especially to
shallow-rooting plants. June was exceedingly deficient in bright
sunshine and forcing heat, with a variable but low temperature ;
the total rainfall was excessive, owing to a severe thunder-storm
on the 26th, when Z\ inches of rain were recorded at the
Rothamstcd Experimental Station. The season as a whole may be
pronounced as gloomy as it was chilly, and it would have been
surprising if oiu' phenological phenomena had been otherwise than
very late.

1890, a Season of Early Records. — January was characterised for
its mildness and uniformly high temperature, causing many out-
door flowers to produce bloom in great profusion, especially the
primrose. Daffodils and strawberries were also reported to be in
flower in adjoining districts. The hazel-nut bloom was quite a
fortnight before its average time. The usual character ascribed to
the sex;ond month of the year is " February fill-dyke," but that of
1890 was certainly an exception to the rule, the weather being
particularly dry, and vegetation was about three weeks in advance
of the usual date. March was unsettled, showery, and cold, yet a
spell of fine, warm, spring-like weather prevailed towards the end
of the month. So genial were some portions of March that a large
white cabbage-butterfly was seen on the wing, and many of our

80 J. J. WILLIS — naiitealist's calekdak

wild flowers, among whicli we may mention the wood-anemone,
lesser-celandine, coltsfoot, dog's mercury, daffodil, and sweet field-
violet, were generally observed in bloom, being quite a fortnight
in advance of their time of flowering in the two previous years.
But although the season was early, the occasional cold nights of
March sufiiced to prevent that inopportune and over-hasty develop-
ment of vegetation which comes of a continuance of very mild
weather at this period of the year.

There is an old " distich" which says :

" "When the oak's before the ash
We shall have plenty of corn to thrash ;
But when the ash buds before the oak,
Then we're sure to have a soak."

In 1890 the oaks in this neighbourhood were nearly in full leaf
before the ash-buds had barely begun to show, nevertheless June
was unsettled, showery, and cold, with a less than average amount
of bright sunshine, and July gave a considerable excess of rain,
which greatly "lodged" and damaged the cereal crops, while the
hay crops were very variable in quantity, and by no means secured
in good condition.

1891, a Season of Late Records. — Our migratory feathered friends
revealed to us pretty plainly that the spring of 1891 was a back-
ward one. The ploughing of land was delayed, and spring-work
was crowded into a brief and hurried space. The inclemency of
the weather also considerably retarded vegetation, and gave a low
yield of hay, generally in poor condition. Yet at the beginning of
July the cereal crops scarcely ever looked more promising. A
change of weather, however, for the worse, after the second week
of July, prevented satisfactory maturation of the grain, and the
final results were below those of 1890. Less wheat, barley, oats,
beans, peas, and turnips, and very considerably less hay, was re-
ported to be available in 1891 than in the prcsdous year. Against
these reductions has to be set an increased yield of hops, mangolds,
and potatoes.

FOR MID-HERTFORDSHIRE,

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viri.

REPORT OX PnEXOLOGFCAL PHEXOMEXA OBSERVED IX
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1891.

By Edward Mawley, F.R.Mct.Soc, F.E.H.S.,

Pbenological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.
Head at Watford, dth May, 1892.

TnE present Report is not nearly so interesting or valuable as it
"would have been had the number of pbenological observers been
greater. It is therefore to be hoped that when it becometj
generally known how easy the system of observation has recently
been made, the staii of observers may be considerably increased.
The localities where new observing stations are most required are
the neighbourhood of Barnet and Watford in the south, and
of Bishop Stortford, Buntiugford, Baldock, and Royston in the
north of the county. The work of observation is now rendered so
simple that no member of this Society having any knowledge at
all of our familiar wild-llowers, birds, and insects, need be afraid
of undertaking it.

Returns were received last year from the following pbenological
stations : —

Station. Height above Observer.

Sea-level.

St. Albans (The Grange) 380 feet Mrs. J. Hopkinson.

St. Albans (Malvern House) 300 ,, Miss E. V. Smith.

St. Albans (St. Peter's Street) 380 ,, Henrv Lewis.

Great Berkhanisted 400 ,, Mrs. E. Mawley.

Harpenden 370 ,, J. J. Willis.

Hertford 140 ,, W. Gravesoii.

Hitchin 230 „ J. E. Little, M.A.

The plants on the list (see Table I, p. 87) flowered as a rule at
the different stations in the following order: — 1, Hertford; 2,
Hitchin ; 3, St. Albans ; 4, Harpenden ; and 5, Berkhamsted ; or
in the order of the heights of these localities above sea level —
those growing at the lowest level being the earliest to come
into flower and those at the highest level the latest.

The Winter of 1890-91.
The weather continued very mild until the last week in
Xovember, when a severe frost all at once set in. This memorable
frost did not break up until tlie third week in January. Con-
sequently throughout these eight weeks all vegetable growths
remained entirely at a standstill. On the farms scarcely a sound
turnip or swede was anywhere to be found. In the gardens many
half-hardy shnibs, as well as all the winter vegetables, were
severely injured. It also proved a very trying time for birds,
many of which succumbed to the cold and the want of suitable
food. The remainder of the winter proved on the whole rather
mild, while the duration of bright sunshine was much in excess of

VOL VII. — PAKT III. 7

86 E. MAWLEY PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA

the average. The first plant on the list, the hazel, was from 6 to
22 days late in coming into flower. The song-thrush commenced
singing from 19 to 28 days later than the average date. The
honey-bee was also from 21 to 32 days late in visiting flowers.
Mr. Hopkinson, writing from St. Albans during February,
remarks : '' The effect of trees in conveying moisture to the
ground was at times very marked, quite a shower falling from
them, and water running off the roads into the side ditches, while
the dust was blowing on other parts of the road." As showing the
lateness of the early spring flowers, the observer at Hitchin states
that on February 28th " vegetation in the woods was very back-
ward— no primroses, no violets, no celandine."

The Spring.

So few and brief were the spells of anything like unseasonably
warm weather, that this season may be regarded as having been a
cold one throughout. As might naturally be expected under such
unfavourable conditions, all the spring wild flowers were extremely
backward in making their appearance. The date of the first
flowering of the coltsfoot was from 9 days earlier to 36 days later
than the average, the wood anemone from 5 to 13 days late, the
blackthorn from 19 to 34 days late, the garlic hedge-mustard fi'om
4 to 19 days late, the horse chestnut from 7 to 21 days late, and the
hawthorn from 3 to 19 days late. As regards our spring migrants,
the swallow was from 2 days early to 13 days late in making its
appearance, the cuckoo from 1 to 14 days late, and the nightingale
from 4 days early to 13 days late. The wasp was from 50 days
early to 12 days late. The small white butterfly was from 9 to 25
days late, the orange-tip butterfly 38 days late, and the meadow-
brown butterfly 34 days early.

The above particulars are those derived from the observations
sent in by the observers. As regards the coltsfoot, this is no doubt
the most difficult plant on the list to observe correctly, o^ving to
the small choice of plants observers often have. Considerable
differences must therefore almost every year be expected in
the dates given for it. Another year's observation will, how-
ever, show whether these differences are fairly consistent from
year to year, and this after all is more important than the
observer being able to select the particular group of plants
which best represents the climate of his locality. The fruit-trees
blossomed abundantly, and but for an unseasonably sharp frost
at Whitsuntide the blossom would for once have escaped all injury
from cold. During this spring quarter the farmers experienced
much difficulty in providing sufficient keep for their cattle and
sheep. On the other hand seldom if ever has the land, owing
to the frost and continued dry weather, been at this season in such
a splendid condition for working. At Bcrkharastcd frog spawn
was first observed on March 1st. Mr. Lewis stated that at St.
Albans nightingales were unusually abundant last year, and that
they were still in song on the 19th of June.

OBSERVED IN HERTFORDSniEE IN 1891.

Table I. — Dates of Flowering of Plants observed in 1891, with
TUE Mean Date for 1876-90.

Species.

Hazel

Coltsfoot

Wood Anemone.

Blackthorn

G. Hedge Mustard
Horse Chestnut....

Hawthorn

White Ox Eye ....

Dog Eose

Black Knapweed

Harebell

Greater Bindweed
Ivy

St. Albans.

The
Gran ire.

Feb. 9

Malvern
House.

Mar. 28

May 7

May 23

May 31

May 27

May 28

June 4

June 19

June 22

June 27

June 22

July 10

Aug. 11

Berk-

HAMSTEU.

Feb. 17
Apl. 1

May 4
May 8
May 30
June 2

June 16

July 21
Oct. 29

H\R-
PENDEN.

Hert-
ford.

Feb. 9

Feb. 1

Mar. 28

Feb. 15

Mar. 30

Mar. 22

May 4

Apl. 19

May 3

Apl. 23

May 25

May 17

May 26

May 17

June 10

June 6

June 20

June 21

July 4

July 23

Oct. 4

HiTCHIN,

Feb. 12
Mar. 1
Mar. 30
Apl. 28
Apl. 28
May 23
May 19

Me.4.n,
1876-90.

Jan. 26
Feb. 24
Mar. 17
Mar. 31
Apl. 19
May 10
May 14
May 19
June 4
Jmie 20
July 5
July 7
Sept. 25

Table II. — Earliest Dates of Observation of Birds and Insects
IN 1891, 1VITH the Mean Date for 1876-90.

Species.

Birds.
Song Thrush

Swallow

Cuckoo

Nightingale

Flycatcher

Swallow (last seen)

Insects

Honey Bee

Wasp

Small White Butterfly

Orange-Tip Butterfly

Meadow-Brown Butterfly,

St. Albans.

Berk-
hamsted.

Har-

penden.

Malvern
House.

St.Peter's

Street.

Jan.

Feb. 9

Apl. 25
Apl. 26

Apl. 19
Apl. 20
Apl. 19

Apl.
Apl.
Apl.

Apl. 18
Apl. 19
Apl. 21

Oct. 15

Oct.

The
Grange.

M alvem
House.

Feb. 16

Feb.

Feb. 27

Apl. 19

Apl.
Apl.
June

9
10

Mar. 16
Apl. 26

Apl. 15

Hitchin,

Apl. 17
Apl. 13
Apl. 11

Feb. 16

Mean,

1876-

■90.

Jan.

Apl.

Jan.

Apl.

May

88 e. matvley — phenologicax phenomena.

The Summer.

June proved on the whole a rather genial month, but during the
rest of the summer there occurred very few warm days. The fall
of rain was light in Jime, and moderate in July, but August was an
extremely wet month. Taking the whole season there was a great
deiicioucy of sunshine. The only time when vegetation made
anything like rapid progress was during the last fortnight in June.
The eifect of this growing weather on the flowering of plants will
be at once seen on reference to Table I, by noticing the departures
from the average both before and after this warm period. The
white os-eye was from 16 to 22 days late in coming into flower,
the dog rose 12 to 18 days late, the black knapweed 1 to 7 days
late, the harebell from 1 day early to 5 days late, and the gi'eater
bindweed 14 to 35 days late. The crop of hay was a very light
one, and owing to the frequent rains in July was harvested in
many places in indifferent condition.

The Autumn".

This was a moderately warm season. Throughout the first half
of September the weather remained fine, and for a few days it
was warmer than at any time during the summer months. In
October, however, there occurred scarcely a single fine day, while
the falls of rain were often singularly heavy. The ivy was from 9
to 34 days late in flowering The last swallows were seen at
Eerkhamsted on October 3rd, but a few were noticed at St. Albans
as late as October loth. The corn harvest was a very late one,
and the weather extremely impropitious for its ingathering. The
yield appears to have been about the average.

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IX.

COAL : ITS NATURE, ORIGIN, POSITION, AND EXTENT ;
AND ITS RANGE UNDER THE SOUTH OF ENGLAND.

By Professor T. RurERT Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S.

A Lecture delivered at Watford, \%th November, 1892.

PLATES I AND II.

Contexts: — \. The Aspect of a Piece of Coal. 2. The Splitting of CoaL
3. The Constituents of Coal. 4. The Varieties of Coal. 5. The Origin of Coal
and the Area of its Formation. 6. The Materials of the Coal-measures. 7. The
Extent and Position of the Coal. 8. Coal uuder the South of England.
9. Conclusion.

1 . Aspect of a Piece of Coal. — Tliere are t^yo or three common
things which may be noticed about a piece of coal which are
perhaps not very generally known. Have any of you ever tried
to take up a piece of coal without dirtying your hands ? It is ([uite
possible to do so. The next time you take the trouble to look
into the coalbox, take up a piece of coal that has no loose coal-dust
on it, and you will find that some parts are bright and clean, and
that other parts are black and dirty ; but it is dirt in the right place.

2. The Splitting of Coal. — All parts of the coal are not the same
because it has been formed by the accumulation of vegetable
material under cUtferent conditions. When looking at a piece
of coal in the fire, we observe that it splits, or shows an inclination
to split, in two directions, either along and parallel with the lines
that are black and dirty, or at right angles to them. When it
splits along those black lines, the rent follows the bedding of the
coal, that is to say, the coal splits along those planes which were
once the surface, and on which other layers were successively
formed, so that they have always remained somewhat distinct.
"When it splits in the other direction, it is along lines of cracks
caused by contraction.

3. The Constituents of Coal. — So much for the common aspect of
household coal ; but the subject leads us into several lines of
thought, only some of which can be taken up. Firstly, what is
coal in a chemical point of view ? Of what is it composed com-
pared with other things in the world ? For instance, we know
that a very large proportion of it is carbon, and we know that
it consists not merely of carbon, but also of gaseous matter, namely,
hydrogen ; hence we know that coal is hydro-carbon. But there is
a great variety of coals. Of what do the variations consist?

In coal there is much extraneous matter which does not belong
to it as coal, but is due to the method of its formation, namely,
mud and sand. Sometimes the coal-merchant will send us what is
tenned " brassy " coal. There is no brass in it, but something that
looks like brass — a compound of iron and sulphur (iron-pyrites) ;
and this causes much bursting and sparkling of the coal in the fire,
and makes the smoke sulphurous. Again, you have possibly
observed white flakes on some faces of the coal ; this is sulphate of

90 PEOF. T. KTJPEET JONES — ON COiJ,.

lime. Then again there are flakes and slabs of stone, which
is commonly called " slate," but is not slate; it is hard mud-stone
or shale, either in the coal itself, or from the strata close to it.
Coal that has much mud in it is sometimes passed off as smokeless
coal. Of course there is not so much smoke, because there is not
so much coal in it to give off smoke. There are, however, other
real smokeless coals.

When coal is burned, ashes remain — not merely cinders, which,
like coke, are mostly the carbon of partially consumed coal ; and if
the ash, whether white or red, be examined under the microscope,
some of it shows the siliceous tissue of plants, and the other part
consists of atoms of mud and sand.

Very much of the substance of some coal-beds consists of minute
spores that have been traced to the great Lycopods, Lepidodendron
and SigiUaria, which are allied to the Club-mosses, Isoetes and
Selaginella, and these spores were probably shed periodically in
enormous quantities.

Great advances have been made by Dr. "W. C. Williamson in the
knowledge of the Lycopodiaceous trees of the coal, which he shows
to have partaken of the Exogenous structure of modern trees. The
well-known ribbed and jointed Calamites of the coal, represented
in the living world by the lowly JEquisetum, supplied their stems,
leaves, and spore-cases to the material of the coal.

Sir William Dawson thinks that the tuberin of cork, of epidermis
in general, and of spore -cases in particular, is a substance so rich
in carbon that it is very near to coal, and so indestructible and
impermeable to water that it has contributed more largely than
anything else to the mineral. Prof. Prestwich refers to these, and
especially to gums and resins, as main constituents of the coal ;
and argues that, at the time of its formation, the climate was
warm and moist, with a larger percentage of carbonic acid than
exists at the present day, and a more rapid plant- growth.*

In the accumulated deposits of sandstones, shales, and clays
interstratificd with the coal-seams, the fossils are such as the local
conditions would account for. Large Coniferous trees (like the
well-known examples found in Cragleith and other quarries) must
have been floated down by the rivers from the high gi'ounds of the
neighbouring regions. The numerous fronds of Ferns in the shales
were flooded off from lower heights and flats near by, together
with trunks and fragments of the Lycopodiaceous trees. Some of
this debris sank, waterlogged, in the lagoons and shallow land-
locked sea-water ; and the resulting black, stinking, carbonaceous
mud was the burial place of Molluscs, such as Anthracosia
and Anthracomya, of numerous Fishes, often of large size, as
MegaUchthys and Bhizodus, and Batrachian or Salamandroid
animals, as Anthracosaurus and Loxomma, with Annelids, Insects,
Scorpions, Water-spiders, King-crabs, etc., often enveloped in
special nodules, and other animals [JPtipa, Dendrepeton, etc.)
entrapped in hollow trunks of trees.

* 'Geology,' vol. ii, 1888, pp. 117-120.

PROF. T. RtrPERT JONES ON COAL. 91

As -will subsequently appear, successive jungles grew and died
in their place, accumulating dead wood, leaves, and fruitage (cones
and spores), under different conditions of chemical eliange, until
beds of coals, each several feet in thickness, remained in evidence
of past centuries upon centuries.*

A Eatrachian, something like a newt, has been found in the
hollow trunks of fossil trees in jS^ova Scotia, for, in some of the coal
beds, stumps, rotted down to a certain level, are still standing,
having survived the changes of the forest, and the shale having
been formed round them. There are also some marine animals
found in the coal-measures here and there ; and these show that
sea-water came in to a certain extent.

Of course these great forests depended for their life upon the
sun ; and therein is the poetry of the matter ; for it shows that
the sun gave light and heat the same as now. Light, heat,
fragrance, and colour, all come from coal ; what more could the
sun himself do for us ? AYe have the solar rays absorbed by the
jungles of the past preserved to us in our coal-fields, and in very
many ways we use their heat, light, and colour again.

4. The Varieties of Coal. — Tables have been prepared of the
fossil fuels that Have carbon in them in greater or less proportion,
mostly combined with hydrogen and oxygen. Pure carbon is found
in the diamond, in graphite (commonly called black lead), and in
anthracite. Then comes steam-coal. And there are the following
kinds of so-called " bituminous " coal : — caking coal, coking coal,
cherry coal, splint coal, and eannel coal.

Cannel coal, or Parrot coal, has much hydrogen in it, and will
go off into gas when burned ; it is therefore very valuable for
makins: household sas. Boshead coal is of the same kind.

&^'

The following is a general classification of the coals : —

rTorbanite, cannel-coal, ] Vegetable matter much
Hiarhly Bitu- 1 ri i_ ( parrot-coal J altered.

minous

1 Gas coals \ Parrot-coal / altered.

. f 1 Tasmanite, better-bed 1 c i

^ I coal, &c. I Spore-coals.

p T)-(. \ r Caking and coking coal, ~j Laminre of charcoal

' [-Householdcoals-! cherry coal, splint V (mother - coal) and

J y coal, and other coals. J hydrocarbon.

Semi-bitumi- f Free - burning f 1. Charcoal deposited abundantly at first,
nous I steam coals \ 2. Hydrocarbon partially lost by change.

Anthracitic .. j j" ^f" .^ ^™° ^"j I Hydrocarbon nearly all lost by change.

Anthracite Smokeless coal All the hydrocarbon lost by heat under pressure.

Coke j ,-,■ VV'i'^'^ ] \ Hydrocarbon lost by heat without pressure.

Jet is fossilized wood which has undergone certain changes and
become a hydro-carbon, instead of remaining in that peculiar
combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of which wood is
composed. Peat also is decomposed woody material, and under

Prof. Jones here explained how these seams were formed, and showed
diagrams of various animals and plants wliich occurred in them.

92 PEOF. T. EUTERT JONES ON COAL.

some conditions it becomes much like coal. So also lignite, though,
retaining wood- structure, has lost much of its nitrogen and hydrogen,
and, like peat, often contains a considerable proportion of muddy
material.

5. The Origin of Coal and the Area of its Formation. — Let us think
about the way in which coal was made. Everyone knows now,
from mere school-teaching, that coal resulted from the accumula-
tion of vegetable matter ; but it is rather difficult to form a correct
notion of how and where that came about. First of all the learner
must be more or less geological, and must forget his " geography"
altogether. The old topographical conditions have little or nothing
to do with the present. Long before the materials which form the
present surface of our earth were accumulated and arranged, there
were different lands and different waters. Some of these were
wide seas bordered by low sloping lands covered with marshes,
jungles, and forests ; and the sea for the most part was shallow.

Knowing the trend and extent of the area on which coal was
formed in this part of the world, we have good indications where
it is now to be found, however deep it may have been let down
below the siirface, and however much it may have been bent,
folded, and broken by the crushings due to the contractions of the
Earth's crust.

The map (exhibited) was prepared by the late Mr. R. A. C.
Godwin-Austen to show the geography of the West-European
region at the time when the old coal was being formed (Carboni-
ferous period). It indicates a great bay or gulf in the western part
of that sea where Western Europe is now, and the borders of
which, I'eaching along through what is now the South of England,
were covered with vegetation which fonned coal.

The word jungle seems to express the condition of things
which then existed, where trees grew very closely together as
in tropical forests. From time to time they were thrown down
by whirlwinds and their own overgrowth, forming great masses of
inteiTuixed plants of all sorts and sizes. These densely wooded
and root-entangled jungles were interrupted here and there with
bogs and marshes, sea- creeks and lagoons, sluggish streams and
rushing rivers, each and all affecting either the soil, the vegetable
growths, or the ruins of the forests ; whilst successive oscillations
of the land, sometimes slow and regular, sometimes sudden and
overwhelming, brought in the sea to dominate for awhile until
sand and mud accumulated to form new areas for maritime
jungle-growths and inland forests.

The climate was warm and damp. Yegetation grew rapidly ;
the leaves, branches, and stems, also the fruits and seeds, or rather
cones and spores, fell so thickly season after season that the
material, layer upon layer, soon underwent decomposition, and
for the most part chemical recomposition. Sometimes, prob-
ably according to seasons, the fallen wood lost its hydrogen and
oxygen whilst exposed to the air, and became merely black touch-
wood or natural charcoal. At other times the Mhris of the forests

PEOF. T. EtJTERT JONES — OX COAL. 93

accumulated so fast, or was so dro-^ned in "water, that the hydrogen
and oxygen could not all es(;ipi> from the carbon, and hydro-
carbons -were formed by recombinations. Hence the presence of the
alternate planes (and edgewise of streaks) of bright and dull black
materials in common coal, f Dawson. J

Under favourable conditions, tropical and subtropical forests
(such as those of Central Africa, Erazil, and elsewhere), and
coast-swamps (Florida, Guiana, India"), would supply good and
sufficient material. ISo also would the swamps of the " Sunk
Country" of Arkansas and Loiisiana, as well as the " Great Dismal
Swamp " in A'irginia, for one set of conditions, and the mangrove
jungles in the West Indies and elsewhere for another.

6. 'The Materials of the Coal-measures. — Different vaneties of the
old coal are due to the fact that some coal contains more charcoal,
some more hydro-carbon, and some more mud than others. Hence
certain localities have given characteristics to the local coal.

In some collieries the miners are able to work at the coal under
a hard roof of shale, which is muddy material that was deposited
in the water, having been brought down from the higher ground,
and forming layers, sometimes many yards thick. This shale
contains a great many remains of plants, and sometimes of shells.

After this accumulation of shale, generally large quantities of
sand were deposited ; and this formed sandstone, very useful for
builtUug and paving. A layer of pure clay was often formed on
these sand-beds ; and this is used for making fire-bricks.

Fireclai/^ underclay, underdiff., underhed, seat-earth, seat-stone,
'bottom-stone, spavin, clunch, fake, ov pouncin, is usually a dense clay,
but sometimes sandy. It varies in colour, and is from six inches
to ten feet or more in thickness. It is penetrated in all directions
by the Stigmarian roots and rootlets of the trees [Sigillaria and
Lepidodendron) that grew on it when it was the soil of the coal-
forest, having been slowly deposited by the quiet, shallow, muddy
waters that succeeded the deposition of shale or sandstone by
waters with stronger currents ; these last terminating one of the
periocHcal disturbances to which the many stages of gradual
subsidence gave rise. Fragments of Scorpions and Eurypterids
occur plentifully in some of the "old soils" (fireclays). The
former, being land-animals, and probably adapted to a hot (or, at
least, warm) climate, are among the most interesting of the coal-
fossils.

All of the above mentioned beds, layers, or strata were repeated
thousands of times.

In Xova Scotia there are about 80 coal-seams in 14,570 feet of
shales, clays, and sandstones. In the coal-field of South Wales
there are 12,000 feet of coal-seams, shales, sand, etc., and nearly
100 seams of coal worth working.

The order and thickness of the strata belonging to the coal-field
of South Wales, as given by Sir Archibald Geikie,*" are (for
Glamorganshire) : —

* 'Textbook of Geology,' 2nd edit., 1885, p. 742.

94 PEOF. T. RUPERT JONES — ON COAL.

Upper Series : sandstones, shales, etc., with 26 coal-
seams, more than 3400 feet.

Pennant-grit : hard, thick-bedded sandstones, and 15

coal-seams .... 3246 ,,

Lower Series : shales, ironstones, and 34 coal-seams 450 to 850 ,,

Millstone -grit.

The Coal-measures are thus estimated at 7496 feet, or nearly li-
mile in thickness, besides the Millstone-grit, and the Carboniferous
or Mountain Limestone occupying a still lower position.

It may be mentioned that in the British Islands the coal may
possibly last, for public use, about 600 or 700 years, according
to the latest calculations.*'

7. Extent and Position of the Coal — All the formations I have
enumerated are more or less continuous throughout wide regions ;
not only in Western Europe, but also elsewhere over the world.
Many tracts of " coal-growths " have been of enormous extent,
but have been divided in after times by earth-movements,
throwing them into ridges and basins by anticlines, synclines, and
faults, with intervening spaces. The coal-fields of South and
North Wales, the English coal-fields of Somersetshire, Staffordshire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Denbighshire,
Northumberland, Durham, etc., the Scotch coal-fields of Edinburgh
and Glasgow, and the small Irish coal-fields in Tyrone, Leitrim,
Kilkenny, Tipperary, and Cork, are more or less disunited parts of
a great whole. So also there are detached coal-fields of Carbon-
iferous age in France, Spain, Germany, and Russia, and wide areas
in America, China, Australia, etc.

All the great geological formations contain some deposits of
vegetable matter, often in the form of useful coal ; but none equal
to that of the palaeozoic Carboniferous series, since which have been
slowly deposited the Permian, Triassic, Ehaetic, Jurassic, Cretaceous,
and Tertiaiy formations.

8. Coal under the South of England — The earth -movements,
giving rise gradually to mountain-ranges in some districts, and
here and there exposing some of the lowest stratified rocks, have
lowered others to great depths beneath the later formations,
whither they can yet be followed by the scientific research of
geologists. Thus, some of the old coal-measures of Western
Europe lie deep in the ground, as in Westphalia ; and some come
up quite near to the surface, as in Belgium and in the British area.
In fact, a great subterranean ridge of crumpled strata reaches from
east to west between those two districts, and the folds of those
contorted rocks enclose some of the old coal -bearing beds.

To realize the whole of the conditions belonging to this subject
we must (1) revert to the original formation of the coal; and then
(2) consider how it has been distributed and re-arranged.

(1) For our knowledge of what ruled the local occurrence of
coal, we owe a great debt to Mr. Pt. A. C. Godwin-Austen, who
had studied the geology of the South-western Counties with Sir

* Hull, in ' Trans. Geol. Soc. Edinburgh,' vol. vi, 1890, p. 79.

PEOF. T. ETTTERT JONES — OX COAL. 95

Henry De la Bcche. To him we are indebted for the approximate
demarcation of the bounds and niar<;ins of the Carboniferous
formations, partiouhirly ftu" the probable huid-limits and outward
extension of the Coal-measures. In his valuable memoir "On the
possible Extension of the Coal-measures," * he explained the reasons
for his indicating: on the map then communicated to the Geolo<;ical
Society, the physical configuration of North-western Europe at the
close of the Paheozoic Period, and the outline of the surfaces which
supported the coal -vegetation. He concluded to define the place
and range of this old coal-growth in what is now Western Europe
as " an internal sea, around and occasionally over large parts of
which the peculiar vegetation of the time was developed and
entombed as the area rose and sank. A region with a central
depressed area, such as Australia is supposed to present, and going
down, by means of a long series of oscillations, would ultimately
present just such an assemblage of deposits as our own Carboni-
ferous group."

A further reference to this kind of level or hollow region is as
follows: — "The large level tracts which lie west of the Blue
Mountains in Australia, into which the Lachlan, the Darling, the
Murrumbidgee, and the Darling discharge." (Godwin-Austen's
Lecture, Royal Institution of Great Britain, April 16, 1858.)

Such an area had also been indicated in 1846 by Sir H. De la
Beche in his memoir " On the Eonnation of the Rocks of South
Wales and South-western England," f where he refers to "the
great area extending from the country drained by the Volga,
eastward through eightv degrees of longitude into China, and from
which the waters find no course outwards to the main ocean or to
the seas connected with it." With a gradual depression — with
the detritus swept in by the rivers — and with a suitable flora and
climate, there might here be both extensive accumulations of
vegetable matter grown in place, as well as limited deposits of
drifted plants; under different conditions. De la Beche, more-
over, referred to the long flat coast of the eastern seaboard of
South America, with its great rivers and abundant flora, as being
analogous to some parts, at least, of the areas on which the coal-
seams were formed.

The area of coal-growth in this jS'orth- western European region
is represented on Mr. E,. A. C. Godwin- Austen's map | as a littoral
belt (varying in width as now exposed at the surface), reaching, in
an approximately semicircular or bay-like shape, fi'om the Elbe
near Magdeburg, and north of the Hartz, westward to the valley
of the Ruhr, including a southern extension to Marburg; and, taken
up again, passing from the Ruhr to Aix-la-Chapelle, and to
Namur and Charleroi ; thence by the Eranco-Belgian coal-field to

* 'Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc.,' vol. xii, 1856, pp. 38-73; see also 'Coal
Commis.sion Report,' 1871, pp. 424 and oil, with plates; aud 'Hep. Brit.
Assoc.' for 1879, p. 227, plate xiv.

t ' Mem. Geol. Survey Gt. Brit, etc.,' vol. i., p. 296.

i ' Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc.,' vol. xii, 1856, plate i.

96 PROF. T. ErPERT JONES — ON COAX.

Calais, and beneath the valley of the Thames to Bristol, the Forest
of Dean, and South Wales, south of the Old Eed area, towards
Ireland. On the eastern side of Hereford, and along the eastern
border of the old rocks of Wales, the range of the coal-growth is
shown by the coals appearing here and there along the Severn and
the Dee ; and doubtless it widened out considerably eastward
across what is now England. Continuing northward, it occupied
Northumbria, and stretched westward locally between the old
Cumbrian land and the Southern Islands ; passing around the east
end of the latter, it was strong across what is now Central Scotland,
with indications in North Ireland. Thus the coal-growth invested
the southern and western edges of Godwin- Austen's '' internal sea"
abovementioned, and extended westward by two outlets : one at
its south-west comer, by South Wales, and the other on the
north-west, by Central Scotland, each extending into the Irish area,
and thus roughly surrounding the several older Palaeozoic lands of
Wales, Ireland, Cumbria, and South Scotland.

In Professor Ramsay's account of the denuded remnants of the
Welsh coal-fields, * the stretch of coal-growth along the border of
the old Cambrian land is clearly indicated in his statement, that —
" One denuded edge of these accumulations now forms part of
the counties of Pembroke, Caermarthen, Glamorgan, and Monmouth,
and is elsewhere exhibited in the Forest of Dean, the narrow strips
of coal-measures north of May Hill in Gloucestershire, the Clee
Hills (outliers of the Forest of Wyre and Coalbrookdale), the coal-
fields south and west of Shrewsbury, and that of Oswestry,
Wrexham, and Mold. All these are but fragments of one
great original coal-field, once mantling round North Wales
and the older rocks west of the Severn and north of the Bristol
Channel."

Both north and south, however, of the old Cumbrian area are a
few seemingly isolated patches of coal ; but the Whitehaven field
is really the western portion of the North-of -England coal-growth ;
the coal of Angiesea belongs to the westward extension of the
Lancashire coal-field ; and that of Ingieton is a remnant of the
northern part of the latter towards the margin of the old Cumbrian
land.

(2) Sir Henry De la Beche, in 1846,f noted that a great sheet of
palaeozoic rocks, including the Coal-measures, extending from
Belgium to Central England, had been rolled about, undulated,
crumpled, and then partially worn away before the New Bed Sand-
stone and other Mesozoic strata were laid down upon them ; and
that these, in their turn, had been denuded so as to expose here and
there portions of the underlying Coal-measures, though near-by a
ridge of profitless Mountain Limestone or other older rock might
come to the surface.

In 1856, Mr. Godwin-Austen, following up his reasoning about
the areas of coal-growth (see above, page 95), explained that the

* 'Mem. Geol. Snrv.,' vol. i, 1846, p. 314.
t lb., pp. 213-214.

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TROF. T. RtnPERT JONES — ON COAL. 97

movements of disturbance Avliich they have undergone had tended
to preserve the great Franco-Belgian coal-band, and had rendered
it available ; and he proceeded to state that the course of tliat Ijand
of Coal-measures may be traeeai)le westward, and probably coin-
cided with, and may some day be reached along the line of, the
Valley of thi^ Thames.

Professor Prestwich in 1871 extended this inquiry;* and, having
carefully compared the coal-beds of Somerset and Belgium, de-
scribed the characters and relations of the strata in detail, and
showed that the coal might be met with at a workable distance
from the surface along a narrow, but interrupted, curved area from
Westphalia, through Belgium and France, to England ; then along
the north-eastern part of Kent (Isle of Thanet, etc.), and through
Herts, Bucks, Oxfordshire, and Grloucestershire, to the Bristol coal-
field, and on to South Wales. The coincident axis of disturbance
is south of the River Thames, in his opinion throwing off the coal-
beds on its northern Hank. (Plate I., illustrating, by a map and
section, the views of Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof. Prestwich, has
been prepared by the Editor from published data.)

In the second edition (1887) of his 'Geology of England and
Wales,' Mr. Horace B. Woodward has given, at pages 200-203, a
useful resume of what is known on this subject. (Mr. Woodward's
illustrative section is reproduced by his permission on Plate II.) A
full account of the history of the question of the underground
range of the older rocks in the South-east of England, especially as to
the possible occurrence of the Coal-measures, is published in the
' Memoirs of the Geological Survey : The Geology of London and of
Part of the Thames Valley,' vol. i, 1889, pp. 13-28, by Mr. W.
Whitaker, F.Il.S., who, having given close attention to this sub-
ject, has suggested the following localities as likely sites at which
to search for coal in the South-east of England : St. Margaret's,
Charthara, Chatham, and Shoreham (all in Kent) ; Bushey (Herts),
Loughton (Essex), and Coombs, near Stowmarket (Suifolk).f

An interesting fact relative to this matter is that in February,
1890, the engineer of a boring at the foot of Shakespeare's Cliff,
Dover, announced that at 1,204 feet below the surface there a thin
seam of coal was met with, and, at several yards lower down, coal
eight feet thick was pierced, associated wdth clays, grits, and
blackish shales. (iS'ewspapers of the time.) Dr. Blanford, in his
Anniversary Address to the Geological Society on February 21,
1890, stated that Professor Boyd Dawkins, in a letter received the
day before, had informed him that a coal-seam had really " been
reached at a depth of 1,180 feet, and that this seam is proved to be
of Carboniferous age by the plant-fossils in the associated clays. . .
The discovery is solely the result of scientific induction, and arrived
at by following the line of research first indicated, I believe, by

* ' Report Roval Commission on Coal-Supply,' 1871 ; * Anniv. Ad(lre.ss Geol.
Soc.,' 1872; 'Popular Science Review,' July, 1872; and ' Proc. Inst. Civil
Engineers,' vol. xxxvii, 1874, p. 110, etc., plates \'iii and ix.

t 'Geol. Mag.,' November, 1890, pp. 514-516.

98 PKOF. T. EtrPEET JONES ON COAX.

the late Mr. Godwin-Austen and subsequently by Professor Prest-
wich." The boring was undertaken with the advice of Professor
"W. Boyd Dawkins; and we learn, from his Reports,* that the
Coal-measures were reached at 1,113 feet below high- water mark,
and were penetrated to 1,500 feet; also that in the 387 feet of
Coal-measures six seams were met with, giving an aggregate of 10
feet of coal. The distance of the Coal-measures below high-water
mark is a near approximation to Professor Prestwich's computation
of the probable depth at which coal might be found in that part of
Kent, namely, 1,000 to 1,100 feet.f The account of the coal-
plants or other fossils from these beds has not yet been published.

On January 29th, 1892, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins communi-
cated to the Geological Society of Manchester;]: some further notes
on the Dover boring, with remarks on the probable results of this
successful search for coal. A still later account of work done
in the boring is given in the pamphlet : —

' Dover Coal-Boring ; Observations on the correlation of the
Franco-Belgian, Dover, and Somerset Coal-fields.' By Francis
Brady. June, 1892, 8vo, 14 pages, with a map and section. And a
resume of this is published, under the title of ' Le Sondage de
Bouvres,'' par M. E. Lorieux, in the ' Annales des Mines,'' ser. 9,
vol. ii, 1892, pp. 227-232.

The particulars as to the successive formations recognised, to
June 30th, 1892, are —

Feet.

Chalk-marl 174

Upper Greensand 8

Gault 1 -i 1

Lower Greensand, Wealden, and Hastings beds 241

Oolite (upper, middle, and lower) and Lias 613

Coal-measures, with 8 workable coal-seams, comprising about "1 ^-g

16 feet of bright bituminous coal J

Total depth 1930

The detailed list of strata show that the coal seams occur at —

1136' 6"

seam

1199' 6"

))

1229'

1277'

1311' 9"

))

6"
6"

1433'

seam

1456' II

2' 6"

1570'

2' 3"

1763' 9"

2' 9"

1831'

1' 8"

Along the indicated tract beneath South-eastern England, deep
borings have touched here and there cither strata lying just above
the coal, or below it ; and, as we have just seen, in one place

* 'Report of Proceed. General Meeting South Eastern Railway,' 23 July,
1891, p. 10; 'Financial News,' 24 July, 1891. See also the 'Contemporary
Review,' April, 1890 ; and his ' Lecture to the Royal Institution,' June 6, 1890.

t 'Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc.,' April, 1892.

X ' Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers,' vol. xxxvii, 1874, pp. 16 and 26 of the
separate paper.

§ Divided in the middle by 1 foot of sandstone.

11 At 1549 ft. a film of coal.

rnOF. T. RirPERT JONES — ON COAL. 99

(Dover), the Coal-measures have been found at a depth of 1,113
feet, and ten seams, varying from 12 to 33 inches in thickness,
wore pierced in the 817 feet further down (that is, to 1,9.'j0 feet),
in the suuuner of this year, further boring is expected to prove
other and thicker coals — either such as are known to occur in Frfmce,
13elgium, and Westphalia, or like the 55 seams of the Somerset
coalfield, giving 98 feet of workable coal in 8,400 feet of shales
and sandstones, etc.

Of course the quantity (that is, extent in any direction) of pro-
ductive measures preserved in the folds of the old ridge now struck
beneath Dover cannot be known without further boring and real
mining by shafts and galleries ; and the direction of its dip or
slope, whether favourable or not for working it there, has to be
ascertained before the true value of the experiment is proved.

Perhaps other trials will be made along the east-and-west folds
of the old ridge at or near the spots pointed out by Mr. "VYliitaker,
as likely for the purpose, in Kent, Herts, Bucks, Oxfordshire, and
Gloucestershire.

If coal be ultimately mined successfully in the South of England,
doubtless wealth may be given to many ; but as your President *
and others have remarked, the beauty of the comitry will be ruined.

9. Conclusion. — The formation and subsequent arrangement
of coal and the Coal-measures have been so ordered that the
blessings of civilisation have been largely enjoyed wherever
the fossil fuel at man's feet has been industriously worked by
his hands, and carefully applied to the improvement of his social
position. These labours of careful perseverance, and arts of
skilful manipulation, have given special characters to those whose
energies have been directed to coal-mining and various manu-
facturing enterprises ; and all conditions of society have been
influenced thereby.

So also the geologist, chemist, and botanist, seeking out the
composition of the various coals, their local position and extent,
their special natural history, the mode of passage from dead
plants to first-rate fuel — in fact aiming at a complete mastery
over all the intricate events and complicated results of the coal
formation — not only find a useful exercise of their cultivated
intelligence and accumulated knowledge, benefiting all by the
practical results, but they widen the mental culture of others,
and show how the study of nature is an indispensable element
in good education, and necessarily productive of lasting benefit
to society at large.

The subject of coal and the Coal-measures is abundantly
treated of in the scientific literature of this century in nearly
all parts of the world. Besides having had the advantage
of the labours of the many eminent foreign geologists who
have advanced our knowledge of the subject in one or other
of its various aspects, both by original research and by condensing
published results in treatises and manuals for students, we have
* In the ' Counties Constitutional Magazine,' December, 1889.

100 PROF. T. EXn'ERT JONES — ON COAL.

had some of the most enthusiastic students of the natural history
of the Carboniferous strata and fossils in our own countiy and
within our own times.

Nevertheless a great deal has yet to be learned about the
Natural History of the Coal-measures, the order and extent of the
special kinds of their animals and plants, the time occupied in
their formation, and the geographical and hydrographical conditions.
At all events we know that all their strata have been arranged in
order, have been buried under circumstances favourable to the
production of the various coaly fuels, and then turned up in orderly
disorder, ready to the hand of man, and well adapted for his use in
this passage-stage of his civilization and development, helping
him, when intelligent, active, careful, and persevering, to higher
ends. For we cannot doubt that all things here are arranged for
his better being, his progress towards more and more useful arts,
wider ranges of science, and fitter aptitudes of life, of which as yet
we have but little conception. We are still the early settlers in a
beautiful world, whose capabilities, imperfectly known as yet, wait
until the higher developments of Man can understand them fully,
and apply the results to the general good.

Note. — My Address to the Geological Section of the British
Association, at Cardiff, 1891, 'Report Brit. Assoc.,' 1892, pages
614-632, published also in the 'Geological Magazine' for Novem-
ber and December, 1891, treated of Coal in general, and that of
South Wales in particular ; and some portions of it have been
freely used in this Lecture.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.
CHARLES DARWIX.

By the President, John Hopkinsox, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.E.M.S ,

F.R.Met.Soc.

Delivered at the Annual Meeting , 2\st February, 1893, at Watford.

Ladies and Gentlemen, —

The history of science is a history of warfare, — of contests
between reason and prejudice. From the earliest times of which
we have any authentic record every new scientific idea has been
opposed by some pre-conceived notion, and although reason has
ever been victorious, prejudice is not yet completely vanquished.
Science, however, is not aggressive and does not marshal her
forces for direct attack ; she conquers by convincing her adversaries
of the justice of her cause and taking them into her own ranks,
rather than by storming their position and driving them from the
field of battle. The greatest of these contests in which science has
been engaged in recent years is that with which the name of
Charles Darwin will be for ever associated, — the contest between
the essentially scientific idea of progressive development by the
action of natural laws, and the absolutely unscientific notion of
distinct acts of creation by supernatural decree.

Science has been defined as "the discernment, discrimination,
and classification of facts, and the discovery of their relations or
sequence." It is not a knowledge of things, but of causes and of
natural laws. We much more often perceive things and infer
causes, than we gain a knowledge of things by inference or of
causes by perception. If, for instance, we knew nothing of the
world on which we dwell, we might look around us on an open
plain or on the sea and conclude that the horizon bounding our
view was its limit. Changing our position laterally, we should
find that it was more extensive than we first thought it to be ; but
we might still think that it was flat and had an abrupt edge, a
view which was at one time held. By travelling round it, however,
we should find it to be a globe. If we merely changed our position

VOL VII. PART IV. 8

102 J. HOPKINSON — ANNIVEESAET ADDRESS :

vertically, "we miglit come to the same conclusion, for we should
find that the higher we were, the further would the horizon recede.
This inference could not he formed without some knowledge of
geometry, or at least without bringing our reasoning powers into
use. It would therefore be a scientific inference, and we should
find it much more difficult to convince others of the correctness of
our conclusion than we should have done if we had travelled round
the earth in diiierent directions, measuring our course, and so had
perceived that its form was globular or nearly so. But we should
only have attained a knowledge of the thing, — the knowledge that
the earth is a sphere or spheroid. To complete our investigation
we must arrive at a knowledge of the cause of its sphericity, and
of the reason why it is not perfectly spherical, which can only be
done by exercising our reasoning and imaginative faculties, and in
such ways we build up science.

As the cause of any natural phenomenon can very seldom be
directly perceived, our first attempt to ascertain it, after having
fully investigated, by observation or experiment, all the facts
connected with it, is usually by forming an hypothesis ; and if our
hypothesis accounts for most of the facts, and does not appear to
be at variance with any, it becomes a theory ; if no other explana-
tion seems to be possible, it may become a scientific doctrine.

To discover a law, the exercise of our reasoning and imaginative
faculties is still more imperative, for we can never perceive a law
of nature. We may, however, as in the case of gravitation, discover
a law without knowing the cause.

That the earth is a globe was inferred by astronomers long before
it was circumnavigated. This was therefore a scientific inference.
It gave rise to the first recorded battle between reason and
prejudice, being opposed and derided on Scriptural grounds, and so
dogmatically that most of the Fathers of the Church denied the
possibility of salvation to those who believed it, and thought that
the earth might be inhabited on opposite sides.

The theory of Copernicus that the earth and planets revolve
around the sim, was ridiculed on the same grounds. It was a
scientific conception opposed to the direct evidence of our senses,
and to the literal intei-pretation of certain passages in Scripture.
Copernicus died on the very day that his great work on the
' Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies ' was published, and so
escaped persecution. The same theory was afterwards proclaimed
by Giordano Bruno, before the world was prepared to receive it,
and for this and other heresies he was imprisoned for six years and
then burned alive. The belief that the great astronomical truths

CHARLES DARWIN. ^^'^

which Galileo revealed were hostile to religion, might have brought
on him a similar fate, had he not, after imprisonment and under
threat of torture, in his seventieth year, publicly recanted before
the Inquisition, abjuring " the error and the heresy of the
movement of the earth," though convinced that it did move.
Kepler then disproved the Aristotelian doctrine of the movement
of the heavenly bodies in perfect circles, and gave to the world
the three astronomical laws which bear his name, for which he
too was persecuted and imprisoned. And yet he was so much
impressed with the sublimity of the laws which he discovered, that
he exclaimed: " I do think the thoughts of God."

Now all this is changed. Our earth is universally acknowledged
to be but one of several planets revolving in ellipses around one of
many suns. iN'ewton, by showing that every particle of matter
attracts every other particle directly as the mass and inversely as
the square of the distance, proved the general accuracy of the
propositions of Copernicus and corrected errors in his application of
them, and also assigned a physical cause to Kepler's empirical laws.

And yet not entirely changed. The battle between reason and
prejudice still continues, but it is fought on another field ; it is
fought over the grandest scientific conception of modern times, —
the conception of progressive development.

It is not many years since the belief was almost universal that
the whole visible universe was created in its present state out of
nothing in a brief period of time ; that every species of animal and
plant was independently created in its existing form ; and that
everything extraneous to our globe was created expressly for its
benefit, and everything on our globe expressly for the benefit of
man. These ideas must have been formed at a very early age,
when the earth was believed to be the centre of the universe,
immovable, and inhabited only " on the top," and when the planets
were thought to be guided in their seemingly erratic course by
angels. They accord with a literal interpretation of the biblical
account of the creation ; and they appear to pay a flattering tribute
to the dignity of man. They are deeply-rooted and prejudiced
ideas with which science finds it hard to contend. The persistence
of the belief in the immutability of species is also due in part to
the fact that it is apparently borne out by our experience. To
those who have not made a special study of any department of
botany, zoology, or palaeontology, every species seems to be distinct,
one never appearing to pass imperceptibly into another ; nor can we
detect progressive change in any living thing in its natural or wild
state, although we have modified to a considerable extent, and still

104 J. HOPKINSON — ANNIVEESAEY ADDRESS :

continue to modify, certain species, once wild, which we have
hrought under our culture or control — our cultivated plants and
domesticated animals.

When, therefore, towards the close of the last century, the
nebular hypothesis was propounded by Kant and elaborated by
Laplace, and the theory of the origin of species by evolution was
successively advocated by Buffon, Erasmus Darwin, Geoffroy St.
Hilaire, Goethe, Lamarck, and other men of less note, but little
credence was given to their views, the general belief in the
permanency and distinctiveness of species scarcely even being
shaken, for, said Prejudice in the garb of Authority, were we not
told that the sun was created to give light to the eai'th which was
at first in darkness, and that man was made out of the dust of the
ground? How then could the earth have been evolved from the
sun, or both have been formed at the same time out of a revolving
and condensing nebula ; how then could man be a modified
descendant of some lower animal ? Surely such ideas were absurd ;
those who held them, heretics !

"When Lord Rosse's telescope was directed to the nebulae, and
many of those hitherto believed to be gaseous were resolved, one
after another, into clusters of stars, the nebular hypothesis seemed
to be shaken to its foundations, for the inference was natural that
with sufficient telescopic power all the nebuloe could be resolved.
But the doctrine of evolution received only a temporary repulse,
for, upon the discovery of spectrum analysis, it became possible
to distinguish a glowing gas from an incandescent solid, and many
of the nebulae were proved to be really nebulous. The nebular
hypothesis, and with it the more general doctrine of evolution,
revived, and it is now generally accepted. Although it is still an
hypothesis, it rests upon a solid superstructure of well-ascertained
facts. The theory of natural selection bears the same relation
to organic evolution as the nebular hypothesis bears to cosmic
evolution, and together they show us how the present material
universe, and the various forms of life on our globe and perhaps
on others, may have been developed by gradual metamorphosis.

Creation is not now to us, as it was to our forefathers, a series
of independent acts, but a continuous process of development, and
we are irresistibly led, as Goethe was, to look upon "formation,
transformation," as "the Eternal Mind's eternal recreation," this
formation and transformation proceeding in accordance with natural
laws. Thus may we form an infinitely more exalted idea of the
Supreme Lawgiver than has ever before been possible. For this
grand conception of creation and its general reception in the present

CHAKLES DABWTN. 105

day, we arc indebted to Charles Robert Darwin infinitely more
than to any otlicr man. Many before liim luul advocated the
theory of the origin of species by evolution ; some had even
arrived at the conclusion that variations are perpetuated and
accumulated into specific dilferences by natural selection ; but
Darwin has brought forward a mass of evidence so overwhelming,
that however prejudiced against his theory anyone of at least
ordinary intelligence may be, after a thorough study of it the
conviction cannot be resisted that species are genetically allied, or
have been more or less gradually evolved one from another and not
separately created, the fittest only having survived and reproduced
their kind in the struggle for existence in which all living things
are perpetually engaged.

Darwin has revolutionised modern thought. Owing to him,
Evolution, by the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence,
is no longer an hypothesis but an established scientific doctrine
which has affected every science and has brought several sciences
or departments of science into existence. Essentially biological,
its influence has been felt in every one of the natural sciences, and
that the fittest only will survive has become an axiom in philology,
sociology, and all the relations of human existence. The life of
Darwin ought therefore to possess an interest to all, and although
it has no special local interest to us, there is a link between Darwin
and this Society besides fellowship in our labours in the investi-
gation of Nature : he was one of our Honorary Members.

Charles Robert Darwin was born on the 12th of February, 1809,
at The Mount, Shrewsbury. He was the second son of Dr. Robert
Waring Darwin, who for many years was the leading physician in
Shrewsbury, owing his success chiefly to his acuteness in the
diagnosis of disease, and his wonderful insight into the thoughts and
feelings of his patients.

Both Charles Darwin's grandfathers were talented men, for
Dr. Darwin was the son of Erasmus Darwin, the well-known poet
and philosopher, and one of the earliest advocates of the doctrine of
evolution, and he married the daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, the
even better-known potter and philanthi^opist, inventor of the fine
earthenware which bears his name, and founder of the village and
pottery-works of Etruria. Six children resulted from this mar-
riage, two boys and four girls, and Charles was the fifth child.

The Wedgwoods were Unitarians, and Charles Darwin, as a
little boy, went with his mother to the Unitarian Chapel in
Shrewsbury, but he was christened at St. Chad's, and brought up
as a member of the Church of England, usually attending church

106 J. HOPKINSON AJ^NITEESAET ABDEESS :

after his early boyhood. His mother died in July, 1817, when he
was but little over eight years of age, and his school days had but
just commenced, for it was in the spring of this year that he first
went to a day-school, kept by the Rev. G. Case, minister of the
Unitarian Chapel he attended. From this time his life may be
divided into four well-marked periods: — (1) at school and college,
1817-31 ; (2) at sea in his voyage round the world, 1832-36 ; (3)
in London, 1836-42 ; and (4) at Down in Kent, 1842-82.

In the ' Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,' a work in three
volumes, edited by his son Francis, is an Autobiography, written
near the close of his life for the perusal of his wife and children,
without any thought that it would ever be published. In the
following brief account of Darwin's career, free use has been made
of this Autobiography.

A naturalist from his earliest school days, Charles Darwin, like
many a schoolboy, has a strong passion for collecting, — an innate
taste, he is convinced, as neither his brother nor any of his sisters
ever had it. He collects with avidity " all sorts of things," but he
has more consideration for the feelings of animals than most
schoolboys have, taking only a single egg out of a bird's nest,
and for long never killing an insect, being content to collect only
dead ones. A keen sportsman very early in life, one thing only
interferes with his full enjoyment of sport — his tenderness of
heart. In angling with worms, he takes care to kill them with
salt and water before putting them on the hook, at the want of
some success. But he modestly attributes his humanity to the
instruction and example of his sisters, and doubts whether
humanity is an innate quality. Passionately fond of dogs, they
soon find it out, so that he is " an adept in robbing their love from
their masters." Long and solitary walks have a great attraction
for him, and he often became absorbed in thought, once, when
thus absorbed, falling off the foot-path on the old fortifications
which surround Shrewsbury.

He attends Mr. Case's school only for a year, and in 1818 goes
as a boarder to the Shrewsbury Grammar School, where he is
under the tuition of Dr. Samuel Butler, afterwards Bishop of
Lichfield. This school being strictly classical, he believes that
nothing could have been worse for the education of his mind, for
during his whole life he was " singularly incapable of mastering
any language." During his school days the only qualities which
promise well for the future are his strong and diversified tastes,
great zeal for whatever interests him, and keen pleasure in under-
standing any complex subject. The clear geometrical proofs of

CHARLES DAEWrif. 107

Euclid, which he was taught by a private tutor, give him intense
satisfaction, and with great delight he receives from, his uncle,
the father of Francis Galton, an explanation of the vernier of a
barometer. He reads various books with avidity, and is especially
fond of poetry, all pleasure in which he lost, with great regret,
later in life. He works with his brother at chemistry, and reads
several books on the subject, but, although he considers this to
have been the best part of his education at school, in showing him
" pi'actically the meaning of experimental science," he was nick-
named "Gas" by his fellow schoolboys, and publicly rebuked by
Dr. Butler for " wasting his time on such useless subjects."

In 1825, as he was thought to be doing no good at school, his
fal.her sent him to Edinburgh University to commence the study of
medicine ; but he cannot bring himself to practice dissection, and,
attending some bad operations at the Edinburgh hospital, he rushes
away before they are completed, and cannot be induced ever to
attend again. Although too tender-hearted for surgical cases,
when at home he visits poor people in Shrewsbury, and makes up
medicines for them under the advice of his father, who declares
that he will make a successful physician, maintaining that "the
chief element of success was exciting confidence," and that his
patients would have confidence in him.

At Edinburgh appears the earliest indication of Darwin's future
abilities, and especially of his keen observing faculties. When
scarcely 17 years of age, he discovers that the so-called ova of
Flustra have the power of independent movement by means of
cilia, and are in fact larvae, and also that the little globular bodies
which had been supposed to be the young of Fucus loreus are the
egg-cases of the worm-like Pontohdella muricata ; and, early in the
year 1826, he reads before the Plinian Society two short papers on
these discoveries. At Edinburgh, also, he first becomes aware that
his father will leave him "property enough to subsist on with some
comfort," which he says "was suflS.cient to check any strenuous
effort to learn medicine."

After he has spent two sessions at Edinburgh University, his
father finds that he does not like the idea of being a physician, and
proposes that he shall become a clergyman. The idea is congenial
to him, but he has at first some religious scruples. However, after
reading Pearson's 'Exposition of the Creed,' and other books on
divinity, he came to the conclusion that he could fully accept the
creed of our Church. He never formally gave up his intention to
be a clergyman of the Church of England, but, as he says, it died
a natural death during his voyage on the " Beagle."

108 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVEESART ADDRESS :

To study for the Churcli he spends three years at Cambridge,
but, " so far as the academical studies were concerned," his time is
wasted almost as much as it was during the years he spent at
Edinburgh and at school, the only part of the course of instruction
of the least use to him in the education of his mind being the
careful study of Paley's 'Evidences of Christianity,' and his 'Moral
Philosophy; ' the logic of the 'Evidences,' and of Paley's ' ISTatural
Theology,' giving him as much pleasure as did Euclid. In January,
1831, he takes his degree of B.A. of Cambridge University, passing
his examination, tenth on the list, "by answering well the exami-
nation questions in Paley, by doing Euclid well, and by not failing
miserably in Classics."

But these three years at Cambridge are very pleasant ones, " the
most joyful in my happy life," he says. In "excellent health,
and almost always in high spirits," he eagerly collects beetles;
hires the chorister boys to sing in his rooms, for he was passionately
fond of music, though strangely had no ear for it, scarcely knowing
one tune from another; reads with profound interest Humboldt's
' Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoxial Regions of the
New Continent,' and Herschell's ' Introduction to the Study of
Natural Philosophy,' books which, he says, influenced him more
than any others he ever read ; attends Professor Henslow's lectures
on botany and his delightful botanical excursions ; associates with
men of science much older than himself, such as Dr. "Whewell and
the Rev. Leonard Jenyns (now Blomefield) ; and finally commences
the study of geology, accompanying Professor Sedgwick, on leaving
Cambridge, in a geological expedition through North Wales. To
show his zeal for collecting beetles, he relates that one day, on
tearing off some old bark, he saw two rare beetles and seized one
in each hand ; then he saw a third which he could not bear to lose,
so he popped one into his mouth ; but alas ! it ejected some
intensely acrid fluid which burnt his tongue so that he was forced
to spit it out. Evidently entomology was his " first love."

His intercourse with Professor Henslow begets a warm and
lifelong friendship. He had for him the highest admiration, and
he speaks of his knowledge being great in botany, entomology,
chemistry, mineralogy, and geology ; of his being deeply religious,
strictly orthodox, free from every tinge of vanity ; and having the
highest moral qualities, an imperturbably good temper, the most
winning and courteous manners, and unbounded benevolence.

On returning home from his geological tour in North "Wales,
Charles Darwin finds a letter from Henslow informing him that
"Captain Eitz-Roy was willing to give up part of his own cabin to

CHARLES DARWIN, 109

any young man who would volunteer to go with him without pay
as Xaturalist to the Voyage of the * Beagle.' " Having read in
Humboldt's 'Travels' of the glories of Tencriffe, he had been
wishing to go to sea, and is "instantly eager to accept the offer."
His father at first objects, fearing that the voyage will unsettle
him for the Church, but gives way to the persuasion of his uncle,
Josiah Wedgwood, son of the famous potter, and after an interview
with Fitz-Iloy all is soon arranged. The chief incidents and general
results of the voyage are very pleasantly and graphically told in
the earliest and most popular of Darwin's works, ' A Naturalist's
Voyage round the World,' first published in 1839 (when he was
30 years of age) under the title of ' Journal of Researches into the
Geology and jSTatural History of the various countries visited by
H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain Fitz-Roy, E..N.,
from 1832 to 1836.'

This voyage, he says, was the most important event in his life,
determining his whole career. During his five years on the
"Beagle" he acquired a habit "of energetic industry and of
concentrated attention " to whatever he was engaged in. His love
for science " gradually preponderated over every other taste," and
he discovered that " the pleasure of observing and reasoning was a
much higher one than that of skill and sport." Three things seem
to have made a great impression upon his mind — the beauty of
tropical vegetation, the sight of a savage in his native land, and
the horrors of slavery. One thing only interfered with his
enjoyment — frequent sea-sickness. This he never got over, and it
seems to have made him dyspeptic for the rest of his life.

He thus gives the impression which the scenery of Bahia in
Brazil made upon him. "When walking quietly along the shady
pathways, and admiring each successive view, I wished to find
language to express my ideas. Epithet after epithet was found too
weak to convey to those who have not visited the intertropical
regions, the sensation of delight which the mind experiences.
. . , , The land is one great wild, untidy, luxuriant hothouse,
made by Nature for herself, but taken possession of by man, who
has studded it with gay houses and formal gardens. How great
would be the desire in every admirer of nature to behold, if such
were possible, the scenery of another planet ! Yet, to every person
in Europe, it may be truly said that at the distance of only a few
degrees from his native soil, the glories of another world are
opened to him. In my last walk I stopped again and again to
gaze on these beauties, and endeavoured to fix in my mind for
ever, an impression which at the time I knew sooner or later must

110 J. HOPKINSOIf — AlTlTiyERSAIlT ADDEESS :

fail. The form of the orange-tree, the coooa-nut, the palm, the
mango, the fern-tree, the banana, will remain clear and separate ;
but the thousand beauties which unite these into one perfect scene
must fade away ; yet they will leave, like a tale heard in child-
hood, a picture full of indistinct, but most beautiful figures."

Again, in his retrospect of the voyage, he says : "Among the
scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in
sublimity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man ;
whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are predominant,
or those of Tierra del Fuego, where Death and Decay prevail.
Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the God of
Nature ; — no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not
feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his body."

Then, turning to man in his aboriginal state, he says: "Of
individual objects, perhaps nothing is more certain to create
astonishment than the first sight of a savage in his native haunt,
— of a barbarian, — of man in his lowest and most savage state.
One's mind hurries back over past centuries, and then asks, Could
our progenitors have been men like these? — men whose very
signs and expressions are less intelligible to us than those of the
domesticated animals ; men who do not possess the instinct of those
animals, nor yet appear to boast of human reason, or at least of
arts consequent on that reason. I do not believe it is possible to
describe or paint the difference between savage and civilised man.
It is the difference between a wild and a tame animal ; and part of
the interest in beholding a savage, is the same which would load
every one to desire to see the lion in his desert, the tiger tearing
his prey in the jungle, or the rhinoceros wandering over the wild
plains of Africa."

He gives many instances of cruelty to slaves, and concludes with,
the following words: — "Those who look tenderly at the slave-
owner, and with a cold heart at the slave, never seem to put them-
selves into the position of the latter ; — what a cheerless prospect,
with not even a hope of change ! Picture to yourself the chance,
ever hanging over you, of your wife and your little children —
those objects which Nature urges even the slave to call his own —
being torn from you and sold like beasts to the first bidder ! And
these deeds are done and palliated by men who profess to love
their neighbours as themselves, who believe in God and pray that
his Will be done on earth ! It makes one's blood boil, yet heart
tremble, to think that we Englishmen and our American descend-
ants, with their boastful cry of liberty, have been and are so
guilty : but it is a consolation to reflect that we at least have

CHARLES DAR"SVT:if. Ill

made a greater sacrifice, than ever made by any nation, to expiate
our sin."

Besides his ' Journal of Researches,' the voyage of the " Beagle "
gave rise to several geological papers by him ; to three volumes
on the 'Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle,' published separately
under the titles of 'The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs,'
' Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited . . . ,'
and 'Geological Observations on South America,' all by himself;
and to five volumes on the ' Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle,'
by different naturalists, with notes by him on the habits and range
of the species described. The Invertebrata and the plants were
described by specialists in scientific publications.

The most important result of this voyage has yet to be told.
"We see in Darwin's ' Journal ' the dawn of a great discovery, for
sui'ely the recognition that few only survive in the struggle for
existence, is a necessary prelude to the conviction that the fittest
survive. " We do not always bear in mind," he says, " how
profoundly ignorant we are of the conditions of existence of every
animal ; nor do we always remember that some check is constantly
preventing the too rapid increase of every organised being left in a
state of nature. The supply of food, on the average, remains
constant ; yet the tendency in every animal to increase by propaga-
tion is geometrical. . . . Every animal in a state of nature
regularly breeds ; yet, in a species long established, any great
increase in numbers is obviously impossible, and must be checked
by some means." Again, there is no more cogent argument in
favour of evolution than is furnished by the fact that the living
and extinct species of the same continent are much more closely
related than are the living species of one continent to the extinct
species of another. " The relationship," he says, " though distant,
between the Toxodon and the Cajryhara, — the closer relationship
between the many extinct Edentata, and the living sloths, ant-
eaters, and armadillos, now so eminently characteristic of South
American zoology, — and the still closer relationship between the
fossil and living species of Ctenomys and Hydrocliosrus, are most
interesting facts. . . . This wonderful relationship in the same
continent between the dead and the living, will, I doubt not,
hereafter throw more light on the appearance of organic beings on
our earth, and their disappearance from it, than any other class of
facts."

On the 2nd of October, 1836, Darwin is again in England, and,
after spending a few months at Cambridge and elsewhere, and
taking his degree of M.A., he settles in London early in 1837,

112 J. HOPKTXSOX ANNIVEESAET ADDRESS :

and for three years (1838-41) acts as one of the Secretaries of the
Geological Society. In January, 1839, he marries his cousin,
Emma Wedgwood, grand-daughter of the founder of Etruria, and
in the same year he is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

The bustle and stir of London life are not congenial to him, and
suit his health so badly that in 1842 he resolves to live in the
country. In September of this year he buys a house at Down in
Kent, with eighteen acres of land, and there he resided for the rest
of his life, — a life henceforth entirely devoted to scientific work.
In 1846 he writes to Captain Fitz-Roy : "My life goes on like
clockwork, and I am fixed to the spot where I shall end it."

From 1837 to 1846 he is almost entirely occupied in writing the
works above mentioned relating to the voyage of the " Beagle,"
part of the year 1845 being devoted to the preparation of a
new edition of his ' Journal.' During these ten years he is also
engaged upon his greatest work, ' The Origin of Species by
Means of iS^atural Selection,' having opened his first note-book on
the subject in July, 1837. But he had not then conceived the
idea that specific differences arise by the advantage a favourable
variation possesses in the general struggle for existence, for he
says : " In October, 1838, that is fifteen months after I had begun
my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus
' On Population,' and being well prepared to appreciate the
struggle for existence which everywhere goes on, from long-
continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at
once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations
would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed.
The result of this would be the formation of new species. . . .
But at that time I overlooked one problem of great importance.
.... This problem is the tendency in organic beings descended
from the same stock to diverge in character as they become

modified The solution, as I believe, is that the modified

offspring of all dominant and increasing forms tend to become
adapted to many and highly-diversified places in the economy of
nature." Here are expressed the three leading principles of his
theory of the origin of species — the struggle for existence, the
survival of the fittest, and the adaptability of modified forms to
their environment.

In 1846 he begins to work on the Cirripedia (barnacles), and
in eight years he completes a monograph of the recent species,
published by the Hay Society, and another of the fossil species,
published by the Pala^ontographical Society.

From 1854 to 1859 he devotes nearly all his attention to

CnAELES DAKWIN. 113

the 'Origin of Species,' and in 185G lie begins to write out his
views on a scale three or four times as extensive as that which he
afterwards followed. " But," he says, " my plans were over-
thrown, for, early in the summer of 1858, Mr Wallace, who
was then in the Malay Archipelago, sent me an essay ' On the
Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original
Type ' ; and this essay contained exactly the same theory as mine."
With some men such a circumstance as this might have led to a
life-long jealousy, but not with men of such noble characters as
Darwin and Wallace; with them it led to a life-long friendship.
Darwin consults his two greatest scientific friends near at hand.
Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker, and they urge him to send
to the Linnean Society, with Wallace's essay, an extract from his
own MS. of his projected work on the ' Origin of Species,' written
twenty years before. He is at first very unwilling to consent,
thinking that Wallace might consider his action unjustifiable,
for, he says, "I did not then know how generous and noble
lie was." Wallace's essay and Darwin's extract were published
together in the ' Journal of the Linnean Society,' and attracted
but little attention at the time.

With "thirteen months and ten days' hard laboiir," Darwin
then makes an abstract of his MS., and on the same reduced
scale completes the ' Origin of Species ; ' and in November, 1859,
his greatest work appeared. " Though considerably added to and
corrected in later editions," he says in his Autobiography, " it has
remained substantially the same book."

The ' Origin of Species ' is not an easy book to read. It requires
close attention and much thought. Although crowded with facts
tending to support the argument, the presence of the thought that
some persons may not be convinced by them is too evident. With
excessive honesty Darwin brings prominently forward every con-
ceivable objection to his theory, and although he refutes each
one, the impression left on the mind of most readers must be less
clear than if the work had been written on the assumption that it
must necessarily carry conviction of the truth of the theory to
every mind. In place of a brilliant impression, however, the work
gives a deep conviction, and the more the facts and arguments are
thought over, the more certain does it appear that species are not
stable, but are modified descendants of other species, owing their
differences to slight variations which have been perpetuated, with
further modifications, by advantages thus accruing over unmodified
forms in the perpetual struggle for existence. Although this work
can never be so popular as the 'Journal of Researches,' which any

114 J. HOPKINSON — Al^'NIYEESAEY ADDRESS:

intelligent schoolboy may read with interest and pleasure, it has
been translated into every European language, and its sale in
England alone has reached nearly fifty thousand copies. It is
a work which scarcely admits of criticism, for Darwin has in it
criticised his own conclusions more rigorously than any other man
could do. This he was enabled to do by having during many
years made a note of every "published fact, new observation, or
thought " opposed to his general results.

Nevertheless his views were at first accepted by a few advanced
thinkers only, — by such men as Sir Joseph Hooker, Sir Charles
Lyell, Professor Huxley, Herbert Spencer, and Darwin's own
true knight, Alfred Russel Wallace. The necessary revolution
in scientific thought required time for its development, and until
nine years had elapsed since the publication of the ' Origin of
Species,' it could not have been asserted, as it then was by Sir
Joseph Hooker, in his presidential address to the British Associa-
tion, that Natural Selection "is an accepted doctrine with almost
every philosophical naturalist." Eourteen years later, the views
promulgated in the ' Origin of Species ' had gained so many con-
verts, that, at a meeting of the Biological Society of Washington
held as a memorial of Darwin about a month after his death,
Dr. Theodore Gill spoke of his views as being ' ' universally ac-
cepted" and "taken as the recognised platform of biologists;"
and Dr. J. W. Powell said that he had demonstrated the laws
of biologic evolution " in a manner so masterly that there lives
not in the world a working biologist, a scientific man engaged
in this field of research, who has not, directly or indirectly,
accepted his great conclusions."

During the last few months of 1859, Darwin is fully occupied in
preparing a new edition of the ' Origin,' and with an enormous
correspondence. In January, 1860, he begins to arrange his notes
for his work on the ' Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication,' published in 1868 (second edition, 1875). In
July, 1861, he commences his work on the 'Fertilisation of
Orchids,' published in 1862 (second edition, 1877), but he had
begun to study the "cross-fertilisation of flowers by the aid of
insects" in 1839. In 1868 he begins to write his 'Descent of
Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex,' published in 1871
(second edition, 1874), but he had begun to collect notes on the
subject in 1837 or 1838, as soon as he had become "convinced
that species were mutable productions." On the birth of his first
child, in December, 1839, he commences to make notes on the first
dawn of expressions, continuing to study the subject for more than

CHARLES DAEWDf. 115

thirty years, the result beiuj:;: tlie publication, in the autumn of
1872, of his boolj; on the 'Expression of the Emotions in Men
and Animals.' In the summer of 1860 he first notices that the
leaves of the sundew {Drosera) entrap insects, and for fifteen years,
whenever he has leisure, he pursues his experiments, completing
his book on 'Insectivorous Plants' in 1875. In 1865 he
commences to make experiments on cross- and self-fertilisation,
publishing his book on the ' Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation
in the Vegetable Kingdom' in 1876. In the same year his work
on ' The Ditferent Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same
Species' appears (second edition, 1880), this being a re-publication,
with additions and corrections, of several papers originally pub-
lished in the 'Journal of the Linnean Society.' In 1880 he
completes, with the assistance of his son Francis, a book on ' The
Power of Movement in Plants,' which he speaks of as " a tough
piece of work." And, finally, in 1881, he works up a short paper,
read before the Geological Society more than forty years before,
into a book on ' The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the
Action of Worms.' Any one of these works would have made
the scientific reputation of any other man.

During all this time Darwin is contributing papers to various
scientific societies and to scientific journals, and during all this
time, — at least during the last forty years of his life,— he never
knew one day of the health of ordinary men, his life being one
long struggle against the weariness and strain of sickness.

On the 13th of December, 1881, not many days after the publi-
cation of his last book, he is seized with an attack at the heart ;
towards the end of February in the following year such attacks
become frequent and more severe ; and on the 19th of April he
passed away, in the 74th year of his age, having worked up to the
last, for, only two days before his death, he recorded the progress
of an experiment in which his son Francis was engaged.

It was the wish of his family that he should be buried at Down,
but they gave way to the wish of the nation, expressed in a letter
to the Dean of Westminster signed by twenty members of
Parliament, and the funeral took place on the 26th of April in
Westminster Abbey,

The grave of Charles Darwin, the Newton of Biology, is a few
feet from that of the Newton of Astronomy, and the tablet bears
the following simple inscription : —

Charles Robert Darwiiv,

Born 12 February, 1809.

Died 19 April, 1882.

116 J. HOPKINSON AiraTVEKSAUT ADDRESS:

A greater and more endurin" monument has been raised by
Darwin to himself in his writings than any that could be raised
to him by others. "He thought," said 'The Times' on the day
of his funeral, "and his thoughts have passed into the substance
of facts of the universe. . . . The Abbey has its orators and
ministers who have convinced senates and swayed nations. Not
one of them all has wielded a power over men and their in-
telligence more complete than that which for the last twenty-
three years has emanated from a simple country house in Kent.
. . . Darwin, as he searched, imagined. Every microscopic fact
his patient eyes unearthed, his fancy caught up and set in its
proper niche in a fabric as stately and grand as ever the creative
company of Poets' Corner wove from sunbeams and rainbows."

But interment in Westminster Abbey was not destined to be the
only public honour paid to Darwin's memory. A movement for
a national memorial of him was set on foot, and over £4000 were
raised by subscription. About half the amount was expended on
a statue, executed by Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., and erected in
the great hall of the British (Natural History) Museum at South
Kensington, where it was unveiled by the Prince of "Wales on
the 9th of June, 1885 ; and the balance was entrusted to the
Eoyal Society to be invested for the promotion of biological
research.

Charles Darwin left a widow, five sons, and two daughters. His
eldest son, William Erasmus, is a banker in Southampton ; the
second, George, is Plumian Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge
University, and a Eellow of the Royal Society; the third, Francis,
has done valuable botanical work, and is also a Fellow of the
Royal Society; the fourth, Leonard, is an officer in the Royal
Engineers, and has done good work in astronomy ; and the fifth,
Horace, is a mechanician, and his talents have been successfully
devoted to the development of the Cambridge Scientific Instrument
Company.

Every book which Darwin wrote is the result of keen obser-
vation, industrious collection of facts, and deeply thoughtful
deduction, while most of his conclusions have only been arrived at
after reflecting and experimenting for many years. His life shows
what may be accomplished by iudefatigable industry and dogged
perseverance, without any remarkable original genius, unless the
power to observe accurately and take infinite pains be genius.
He was not a fluent writer, expressing his thoughts with diffi-
culty, and he had neither a quick apprehension nor a retentive
memory. But he rightly gives himself credit for " some power

CHARLES DARWIN. 1 1 7

of reasoniniz:," " a fair share of invention and of common sense
or judgmeut," superiority "to the common run of men in noticing
things which easily escape attention, and in observing them
carefully," industry " in the observation and collection of facts,"
a "steady and ardent love of natural science," and "patience
to reflect or ponder for any number of years over any unexplained
problem." Even with these qualities it is truly wonderful that
he has accomplislied so much without being able "to remember
for more than a few days a single date or a line of poetry."
He much regretted his want of mathematical knowledge, saying
that men endowed with it " seem to have an extra sense."

Although the name of Darwin will always be chiefly associated
with the theory of the origin of species by means of natural
selection, few men have done so much as he did to advance the
sciences of geology, botany, and zoology, irrespective of the light
thrown upon them by his theory.

His earliest geological researches were made during his voyage
round the world, and the principal results were published in
the three volumes of the ' Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle.'
Of the first of these volumes, ' The Structure and Distribution
of Coral Eeefs,' Sir Archibald Geikie says: "This well-known
treatise, the most original of all its author's works, has become

one of the classics of geological literature No more

admirable example of scientific method was ever given to the
"world, and even if he had written nothing else, this treatise
alone would have placed Darwin in the very front of investigators
of nature." The last work which issued from his pen, ' The
Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of AVorms,'
has doubtless had quite as powerful an influence upon geological
thought, in showing the great results which are brought about
by small causes long continued. But the chapter in the ' Origin
of Species,' on the "Imperfection of the Geological Record,"
threw quite a new light upon the "Record of the Rocks." It
is perhaps not too much to say that Darwin, in this single
chapter, revolutionised the science of geology as completely as
Lyell had done in the greatest geological work which has ever
been written — ' The Principles of Geology.' Lyell taught that
we must intei-pret the past from our knowledge of the present,
while Darwin showed how extremely fragmentary our record
of the past must necessarily be, letting a flood of light upon
some of the most perplexing problems with which geologists
and palaeontologists have to deal in applying existing agencies
to the elucidation of past changes in the history of our earth.

TOL. VII. — PART IV. 9

118 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVEESAHY ADDRESS :

What Darwin has done for geology, irrespective of his direct
contributions to the science, cannot be better expressed than in the
words of Sir Archibald Geikie, " No man of his time," he says,
" has exercised upon the science of geology a profounder influence
than has Charles Darwin. . . . When he began to direct his
attention to geological inquiry, the sway of the Cataclysmal school
of geology was still paramount. But already the Ilniformitarians
were gathering strength, and, before many years were past, had
ranged themselves under the banner of their great champion, Lyell,
Darwin, who always recognised his indebtedness to Lyell's
teaching, gave a powerful impulse to its general reception by
the way in which he gathered from all parts of the world facts in
its support. He continually sought in the phenomena of the
present time, the explanation of those of the past. Yet he was all
the while laying the foundation on which the later or Evolutional
school of geology has been built up. . . . That the Present must
be taken as a guide to the Past, has been more fearlessly asserted
than ever. And yet it has been recognised that the present differs
widely from the past, that there has been a progress everywhere,
that Evolution and not Uniformitarianism has been the law by
which geological history has been governed. For the impetus
with which these views have been advanced in every civilised
country, we look up with reverence to the loved and immortal
name of Charles Darwin."

The great progress of our knowledge of physiological and
morphological botany in recent years is almost entirely attributable
to the researches of Darwin. In showing that " the crossing of
forms only slightly differentiated favours the vigour and fertility of
their offspring," he opened up the most interesting of all botanical
investigations, the relation of insects to flowers. His works on
this subject are ' The Fertilisation of Orchids by the Agency of
Insects,' and ' The Effects of Cross- and Self -Fertilisation in the
Vegetable Kingdom.' His works on ' Insectivorous Plants,' on
' The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species,'
and on ' The Power of Movement in Plants,' in the last of which
he was assisted by his son Francis, were each of them revelations
to botanists. It is wonderful that he should have been the first, if
not actually to see, at least to realise the importance of so many
phenomena in the life of plants. In the botanical portion of his
work on ' The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
he shows that horticulturists have been unconsciously making
experiments which tend to prove the truth of his theory ever since
they first began to cultivate plants.

CHARLES DARWIN. 1 1 9

Darwin was not a systematic botanist, and does not appear to
have described a single new species of pbmt. He "looked upon
plants as liviiiff things. He did not study their forms so much as
their actions. He interrogated them to learn what they were
doing. The central truth, towards which his botanical iuvestiga-
tiotis constantly tended, was that of the universal activity of the
vegetable kingdom— that all plants move and act. He has, so to
speak, animated the vegetable world. He has shown that which-
ever kingdom of organic nature we contemplate, to live is to move.''''
(Z. F. Ward.) " He made the dry bones live," said Dr. Masters;
"he invested plants with a history, a biography, a genealogy,
which at once conferred an interest and a dignity on them.
Before, they were as the stuffed skin of a beast in the glass
case of a museum ; now they are living beings, each in their
degree affected by the same circumstances that affect ourselves,
and swayed, mutatis mutandis, by like feelings and like passions."
Yet he evinced in a very practical manner his interest in systematic
botany and his conviction of the importance of an exhaustive
synonymic list of the plants of the world, by arranging, a few
months before his death, to provide funds for the preparation and
publication of a new edition of Steudel's ' Nomenclator ? His
original idea has been somewhat modified, and, under Sir Joseph
Hooker's supervision, Mr. Daydon Jackson, who edited, for our
Society, Pryor's 'Flora of Hertfordshire,' is now carrying out the
colossal task of constructing, on the plan of Bentham and Hooker's
'■Genera Plantarum,'' a list of all known genera and species of
plants, with references.

The principal purely zoological work of Darwin is his ' Mono-
graph of the Cirripedia,' published by the Ray Society, in two
volumes of over 1000 pages and 40 plates, in 1851 and 1854.
^0 other group of organisms has had so much light thrown
upon it by any one author as the Cirripedia have had in this
profound work. The most curious of the many discoveries
which Darwin made in examining these animals is that of very
minute parasites which he determined to be " complemental
males," the name denoting that they do not pair with a female,
but with a bisexual individual. He was much struck with
the number of diverse beings comprised in some of the species,
and by the great diversity in the sexual relations in others.

In the ' Origin of Species,' the ' Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication,' and the ' Descent of Man,' are
many zoological observations of much importance, irrespective
of their bearing on the theory of natural selection ; and our

] 20 J. HOPKINSOIH" ANNIVERSAET ADDRESS :

chief knowledge of the habits of earthworms is derived from
Darwiu's work on ' The Formation of Vegetable Mould through
the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits.'

But these contributions to zoology sink into the shade imder
the brilliant light thrown upon the science by the great truth
which Darwin revealed. Mr. Romanes says : ' ' The influence
which our great naturalist has exerted upon zoology is un-
questionably greater than that which has been exerted by any
other individual. . . . No labourer in the field of science has ever
plodded more patiently through masses of small detail ; no master-
mind on the highest elevation of philosophy has ever grasped
more world-transforming truth. ... Of very few men in the
history of our race can it be said that they not only enlarged
science, but changed it, — not only added facts to the growing
structure of natural knowledge, but profoundly modified the basal
conception upon which the whole structure rested ; and of no
one can this be said with more truth than it can be said of
Darwin."

Anthropology and Psychology are scarcely within the province
of our Society, and it will therefore suffice to say that Darwin has
so completely transformed our conception of both these sciences,
the former by his ' Descent of Man,' and the latter by his
' Expression of the Emotions,' that all who write upon these
subjects after the publication of his works must perforce treat
them in a totally different manner from that in which they had
ever been treated before.

Beyond the limits of the scientific world, nine persons, perhaps,
out of every ten, only think of Darwin as the originator of the
notiou that man has been developed from the anthropoid apes, the
evolution of man, as well as of the lower animals, being due to
the development of organs by use and tlie atrophy of organs by
disuse. This is the view which Lamarck expounded half a cen-
t'lry before Darwin published his views on evolution. So far
from its being due to, or even entertained by Darwin, he nowhere
states that he believes man to be a modified ape, but that man
and the ape have had a common ancestor, a view, moreover, which
does not appear in the ' Origin of Species,' but only in his more
recent work on the ' Descent of Man,' and which may still be left
out of consideration in judging of his theory of natural selection.
Whether, also, modifications arise from the use and disuse of organs,
is a question which may be disputed without affecting the validity
of his theory. It is but one of many ways by which may be
brought about deviations capable of transmission by inheritance.

CHARLES DARAVIN. 121

Others ap:ain, but let us hope very few, look upon Dai'win as a
man who lias done his best to subvert the Cliristian reliijion and
destroy our belief in God. Xothiug could have been furtlicr from
his intention ; no such imputation more repugnant to his feelings.
Never by a single word has he attacked our faith, and although
doubts arose in his own mind as to the probability of supernatural
interference with the laws of nature, and of divine revelation
to man, he never expressed them in any of his published books
or papers, nor can the inference be justly drawn from them
that he held unorthodox views. He believed that he had dis-
covered a great truth, and he honestly gave expression to his
convictions, without any other motive than that of advancing our
knowledge of nature and enabling us to penetrate some of her
secrets. His religion did not consist in "faith in things unseen,"
or blind belief in the miraculous, but it was that " pure religion
and undefiled" which leads a man "to visit the fatherless and
widows in their affliction and to keep himself unspotted from the
world." AYTiile undoubtedly the greatest naturalist, if not the
greatest scientist who ever lived, he was one of the most humble,
kind-hearted, and lovable of men. His aflPection for his friends
was "of the warmest possible kind," and he had, "to an unusual
degree, the power of attaching his friends to him." At Down he
was most courteous to all the village people, and took an interest
in everything relating to their welfare. He helped to found a
Friendly Club, and served as treasurer for thirty years ; and for
the last thirty-six years of his life he was on the most friendly and
indeed affectionate terms with the Vicar of Down, the Rev. Brodie
Inues, who speaks of him as an active assistant in all parish
matters, and ever ready with liberal contributions. Owing to the
retired life which his ill-health necessitated, his friends were not
numerous, but all who knew him seem to have been even more
impressed with the beauty of his character than with the greatness
of his attainments, vast as they were.

Professor Huxley says that " the more one knew of him, the
more he seemed the incorporated ideal of a man of science. Acute
as were his reasoning powers, vast as was his knowledge, marvellous
as was his tenacious industry, under physical difficulties which
would have converted nine men out of ten into aimless invalids ; it
was not these qualities, great as they were, which impressed those
who were admitted to his intimacy with involuntary veneration,
but a certain intense and almost passionate honesty by which all
his thoughts and actions were irradiated, as by a central fire. . . .
He found a great truth trodden under foot, reviled by bigots, and

122 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVEESAEY ADDRESS :

ridiculed by all the world ; he lived long enough to see it, chiefly
by his own efforts, irrefx'agably established in science, inseparably
incoi^porated with the common thoughts of men "

Mr. Romanes says that " while we recognise in him perhaps the
greatest genius and the most fertile thinker, certainly the most
important generaliser and one of the few most successful observers
in the whole history of biological science, we feel that no less great,
or even greater than the wonderful intellect, was the character of

the man The genuine delight that he took in helping

everyone in their work — often at the cost of much personal trouble
to himself — in throwing out numberless suggestions for others to
profit by, and in kindling the enthusiasm of the humblest tyro in
science ; this was the outcome of a great and generous heart, quite
as much as it was due to a desire for the advancement of science.
. . . On the whole, Darwin's character was chiefly marked by a
certain grand and cheerful simplicity, strangely and beautifully
united with a deep and thoughtful wisdom, which, together with
his illimitable kindness to others and complete forgetfulness of
himself, made a combination as lovable as it was venerable."

But however beautiful the character and however admirable
the life of Darwin may have been ; however greatly he may
have added to our knowledge of all the sciences which are
concerned with the phenomena of life and mind, past and present,
with many, perhaps with most of us, his reputation is inseparably
interwoven with the theory to which his name has been given.
This theory has transformed Evolution from an hypothesis into
a doctrine. For Evolution and Darwinism are not synonymous.
Descent with modification might be imagined to take place
without a struggle for existence in which the fittest survive
by the destruction of the less fit, but without this the raising
of the type would be inexplicable. If the type were not raised,
it might still be quite true that " in the intellectual, as in the
material world," —

" All changes, nought is lost ; the forms are changed,
And that which has been is not what it was,
Yet that which has been is ; — "

And we could dispense with the theory of natural selection.
But whik' the forms change, the type is raised, and we cannot
conceive it to be thus raised by any other process than that of
natural selection. The evidences of descent with modification
may therefore be considered quite apart from the evidences of
the survival of the fittest, although without such survival we
cannot account for the evolution of the present from the past.

CHARLES DARWIN. 123

That the present lias been evolved from the past may be
shown and illustrated in various ways. The whole of living
nature may be likened to a tree. The root is as yet unknown,
but it is probably represented by some such simple form of life,
if life it be, as the Bathyhms of the ocean. The trunk soon
divides into two main branches, representing the vegetable and
the animal kingdoms, but, before it does so, forms are developed
which are iutfriiie;liate between plants and animals, or whicb at
one period of their life are animate, and at other periods possess
merely vegetative powers. Each main branch, the vegetal and
the animal, then ramifies ; the secondary branches, branchlets,
and twigs representing the sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families,
genera, species, and varieties of our natural system of classification.
This system is natural, because, and only so far as, it is founded
on genetic relationship. The closer any two organisms agree
in structure, the nearer are they genetically related. But each
sub-kingdom is formed after a type which is followed with
modifications in every one of its ramifications up to the individual.
And just as certainly as each single leaf of a tree is vitally
connected with the root, has each individual plant and animal
been developed, by a purely generative process, in the course
of incalculable ages, from some simple or undifferentiated form
of living matter. In the utmost diversity there is unity. All
living things, from the lowliest plant to the highest animal,
have similar functions, they feed, grow, and reproduce their
kind ; protoplasm is in all the physical basis of life ; and all
forms of protoplasm are built up of the same elements — carbon,
hydi'ogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. A single origin for life alone
suffices adequately to explain this agreement.

In animals, when typical structures are no longer useful, they
frequently remain, usually as rudimentary organs, the presence of
which can only be accounted for by genetic relationship and descent
with modification, for they are organs which have dwindled owing
to changed conditions rendering them useless. For instance, in
the course of adaptation of terrestrial quadrupeds to aquatic
habits, the hind-limbs dwindle. Thus, in the seals, the hind-legs,
although retaining all their typical bones, are almost rudimentary ;
and in the whales they are not apparent at all externally, and are
only represented internally by very rudimentary remnants. Again,
in the snakes there are no vestiges of fore-limbs, and only in the
python do we find vestiges of hind-limbs, as tiny rudiments under
the skin, and therefore quite useless to their possessor. These are
cases of degeneration of organs fi'om want of use, but they are

124 J. HOPKIKSOIf — ANKIVEESAJIT ADDRESS :

accompanied by elaboration of other organs which are useful, and
they do not therefore indicate degeneration of the type.

But the gradual modification of certain organs, and their special
degeneration co-existent with a general elaboration of the type, are
nowhere more distinctly seen than in the pedigree of the horse,
which has been traced backwards in time from the recent and the
slightly dissimilar fossil Equus with a single toe and two lateral
rudiments, the splint-bones, to an Eocene ancestor, about the size
of a fox, with '' four well-developed toes and a rudiment of another
on the fore-feet, and three toes behind." In America, between
the recent Equus^ which had become extinct there before that
continent was discovered by Europeans, and the Lower Eocene
Eohippus, at least five closely-related equine genera have been
discovered by Professor Marsh, each genus showing, in comparison
with the one preceding it in time, an increase in the size of the
animal, and elaboration of certain organs such as the teeth, with a
gradual development of the middle toe, and suppression of the
others one by one. Surely this is, as Professor Huxley says,
demonstrative evidence of evolution.

It may be thought that man should be excepted from the
scheme of evolution, his intellect, by giving him the power to
devise and use tools, and to form a language, having enabled him
to raise himself infinitely above any of the lower animals, and to
make himself "lord of the creation." There can be no question,
either, as to his specific distinctness, for by common consent he has
a genus to himself, and this genus. Homo, has but a single species,
though one with many varieties, some of which, were there not
connecting links, might be considered species. Yet the late Sir
Eichard Owen, than whom few men have more reluctantly accepted
the theory of descent with modification, especially as applied to
man, said, in 1857, two years before the appearance of the ' Origin
of Species:' "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the
distinction between the psychical phenomena of a Chimpanzee and
of a Boschisman or of an Aztec with aiTcsted brain growth, as
being of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between
them, or as being other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut
my eyes to the significance of that all-pervading similitude of
structure — every tooth, every bone, strictly homologous — which
makes the determination of the tlifference between Homo and
Pithecus, the anatomist's difficulty."

Professor Huxley, also, has shown that man, in the early stages
of his development, is far nearer to the apes than the apes are to
the dog ; that in limb -proportion man differs less from the gorilla

CHARLKS DARWIN. 125

than the norilla differs from tlie other apes; that in cranial capacity
rueu ditfer more from one another than they do from the apes, and
no more from the apes than the apes differ from one another ; that
the differences between the skull of man and that of the gorilla are
less than those between the skull of the gorilla and that of some
other apes ; and that the dentition of man differs less from that of
the higher apes than the dentition of the higher apes differs from
that of the lower apes. And he finally sums up the results of his
comparison with this remark : — " Thus, whatever system of organs
be studied, the comparison of their modifications in the ape series
leads to one and the same result — that the structural differences
which separate man from the goi'illa and the chimpanzee are not so
great as those which separate the gorilla from the lower apes."

If we had, in the rocks, a complete epitome of the history of our
earth and its inhabitants, no doubt the pedigree of all our plants
and animals, including that of man, might be traced as certainly as
in the case of the horse, but the strata now existing, as Darwin
has shown, are but fragments of the deposits which have been
formed, and the fossils we find in them are but hap-hazard samples
of the organisms which have been entombed. Our rocks are worn
away by the action of water, and the sediment is carried into the
sea, but only to form new rocks which are upraised and have no
sooner become dry land than they are again worn down by rain
and rivers, this process continually recurring, so that we only here
and there catch a glimpse of the past in the strata which have
escaped denudation, and in these strata we only here and there
find a fossil, or a group of fossils, which has escaped destruction
or obliteration. Nevertheless missing links are constantly being
discovered, — links between mammals and amphibians, between
birds and reptiles, between amphibians and fishes, and even
between the Vertebrata and the Invertebrata (through the
Tunicata) ; and also innumerable links between genera and
species, so that it is getting more and more difficult to define
a species, they run so imperceptibly one into another.

As Evolution is now an established doctrine, it is needless to
multiply evidences of genetic relationship : but the question is
yet to be considered as to how far Darwin's theory of natural
selection is adequate to explain how evolution has taken place.

Most of the pre-Darwinian evolutionists considered that all living
things possess an inherent faculty of progressive development, but
the acceptance of such a view as an efficient cause of progress is
almost as likely to stifle investigation as is the belief in special
creation. It will be sufficient to give a brief outline of the views

126 J. HOPKINSON ANNITEESAEY ADBEESS :

of Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, and Robert Chambers, to show what
a great advance the theory of natural selection was upon the views
which had previously been brought forward.

Erasmus Darwin, in 1794, very nearly anticipated the theory of
his illustrious grandson, adducing changes taking place during life-
time ; changes introduced by cultivation ; similarity of structure ;
acquired and inherited transformations ; " the desire of the ex-
clusive possession of the female" in order that (here giving a
consequence as a cause) "the strongest and most active animal
should propagate the species, which should thence become im-
proved;" want of food resulting in improvement from the per-
petual endeavour to obtain it ; want of security resulting in
modifications of form and structure ; etc. ; as grounds for imagining
that " in the great length of time since the earth began to exist,
.... all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living
filament, which the Great First Cause endowed with animality,
.... possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own
inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by
generation to its posterity, world without end ! "

*' Organic life beneath the shoreless waves
"Was born, and nurs'd in ocean's pearly caves;
First forms minute, unseen by spheric glass,
Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass ;
These, as successive generations bloom,
New powers acquire, and larger limbs assume ;
Whence countless groups of vegetation spring,
And breathing realms of fin and feet and wing."

Lamarck then, in 1809, framed the theory that modifications of
structure arise chiefly from the use and disuse of organs, the
tendency to such use and disuse being engendered by changes in
outer circumstances. He proposed to alter the definition of species
from that of "every collection of individuals produced by other
individuals like themselves," to that of "a collection of individuals
resembling each other, and reproducing their like by generation so
long as the surrounding conditions do not alter to such an extent
as to cause their habits, characters, and forms to vary." In
support of this definition he showed that many species, and even
genera, run so imperceptibly into one another that it is often a very
difiicult matter to frame a definition of them ; that there has been
a gradual progress in past times from the lower forms of life to the
higher, each geological formation in succession containing fossils of
higher or more complex organisation ; and that the earth is of vast
antiquity, its strata having been very slowly deposited, and changes
in its condition having been very gradually brought about ; and he

CHARLES DARWIiSr.

127

inferred that in order to acconimodate themselves to these chanjics,
phuits and animals, by not nsiiit;: organs no longer required, and by
ao(luiring and developing new organs to fulfil new functions, have
changed, little by little, their form, their organisation, and their
faculties, difference of situation and exposure thus causing them to
vary, and, under a continuance of the same difference of circum-
stances, such variations becoming essential and being transmitted,
so that at the end of many generations these altered individuals
are transfonned into a new and distinct species. This theory is a
decided advance upon that of Erasmus Darwin, for it substitiites
variations in structure, etc., such as the suppression of some
organs and the development of others, effected by the pressure
of changes in external conditions, for his view that plants and
animals have an inherent tendency to improve and take advan-
tage of such changes, but it does not explain why the variations
peipetuated are such as tend necessarily to raise the type.

Robert Chambers, in 1844, in his anonymous work entitled
' Vestiges of the jS'atural History of Creation,' brought forward
much additional evidence in favour of the transmutation of species
and their progressive development in time, and showed how
recent discoveries in embryology and palaeontology were in
harmony, — the higher animals, including man, resembling, in
the successive phases of their existence from an early embryonic
condition, lower classes in the animal kingdom, in the order in
which these classes successively appear in geological time. The
object of this work, the author stated in his subsequently-
published ' Explanations,' was " to show that the whole
revelation of the works of God presented to our senses and
reason is a system based in what we are compelled, for want
of a better term, to call law ; by which, however, is not meant
a system independent or exclusive of Deity, but one which only
proposes a certain mode of his working."

Goethe expressed himself so ambiguously about transformation
and metamorphosis, that it has been questioned whether he really
believed in evolution, or merely indulged in flights of poetical
imagination. "While he says of Nature: " She is ever shaping new
forms : what is, has never yet been ; what has been, comes not
again;" he also says: "Incessant life, development, and move-
ment are in her, hit she advances not ;'^ an expression quite at
variance with the very principle of evolution. And yet he goes
further than most evolutionists would do when he says :

"By fiery vapours rose this rock you're seeing.
In moisture came organic life to bvingy

128 J. HOPKINSON ANNIVEESAEY ADDRESS :

The attempt to account for the origin of life from an aqueous
Solution acted on by an electric current was the greatest flaw in
the work of Chambers, and he erred in many points, especially in
deriving the mammals from the birds, their pedigree being from
the fishes through the amphibians; yet he certainly prepared the
way for the reception of Darwin's theory, as Darwin himself
acknowledges, for the ' Vestiges ' had a large sale and gave rise to
a very extensive controversy. But, without the principle of natural
selection, no theory of evolution could be satisfactory.

The fundamental principles of the origin of species by means of
natural selection are thus stated by Darwin: — "As many more
individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive ; and
as, conseqiiently, there is a frequently -recurring struggle for exist-
ence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any
manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes
varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving,
and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of in-
heritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and
modified form."

These principles may perhaps be more clearly apprehended if
stated in a somewhat different manner, and slightly modified and
elaborated.

1. In every species many of the offspring do not attain
maturity, owing to all living things being perpetually engaged
in a struggle for existence.

2. Few, if any, animals or plants are exactly alike in all
respects at any stage of their existence.

3. However slightly one individual may differ from another,
if the variation gives one a better chance of living than the other,
that one will be the most likely to survive.

4. External conditions vary from time to time, the alteration
usually being gradual and progressive,

5. If in any species some of the offspring differ from the
parent in any way which makes them more suited to new
conditions than the offspring which more nearly resemble the
parent, they will have the best chance of living.

6. Any beneficial variation in the offspring will most probably
be transmitted to their offspring ; and if the external conditions
then remain the same, or if they continue to change in the same
direction, this variation will be perpetuated.

7. A new variety, better adapted for new conditions than the
normal form, may, and in the struggle for existence most probably
will, oust the normal form, which will gradually die out.

CHARLES DARWIIf. 129

Each of these propositions is indisputable and complete in itself.
Their p;eneral result is to demonstrate how beneficial variations
may be perpetuated, a modified form being thus naturally selected,
gradually acquiring and transmitting, through many generations,
characters which, by a cumulative process of variation, may
ultimately make it specifically distinct from the original form, that
form dying out, so that one species gives rise to another.

The destruction of life is immense. How few of the innumerable
spores of fungi ever even germinate ! What a small proportion
of the spawn of fishes ever attains maturity ! Of seedlings which
spring up, how few survive ! What a great destruction of insects
is wrought by birds ! Examples without end could be given of
great loss of life. Why is it that so many more individuals of
every species are generated that can possibly survive ? If each
species were independently created to fill the place prepared for
it in the world, and if no species could improve itself in its
straggle for existence, this waste of life would be wanton,
suffering and early death inexplicable.

" Are God and Nature then at strife,
That Nature lends such evil dreams ?
So careful of the type she seems,
So careless of the single life.

* So careful of the type ? ' but no.
From scarped cliff and quarried stone
She cries, ' A thousand types are gone :
I care for nothing, all shall go.' "

If the views of the special creationist were correct, Tennyson
might well ask if God and jS^ature are at strife. Nature is careless
of the single life, and careless of the type, that the type may be
raised, for if the weakly survived equally well with the strong,
there could be no progress. Here at least natural causation and
teleology are in harmony, for, " good will be the final goal of ill"
because each death " subserves another's gain."

That this ^dew of progress in the past is an earnest of progress
in the future has been well expressed by Dr. J. W. Powell,
Director of the United States Geological Survey. He says: "Had
philosophers discovered that the generations of living beings were
degenerating, they would have discovered despair. Had they dis-
covered that life moves by steps of generations in endless circles —
that what has been is, and what is shall be, and there is no
progress, the gift of science to man would have been worthless.
The revelation of science is this : Every generation in life is a step
in progress to a higher and fuller life ; science has discovered hope.

1 30 J. HOPKINSON — ANNITEESAEY ADDRESS :

Darwin demonstrated what others vaguely believed or dimly saw —
the course and methods of biologic evolution. Darwin gave hope
to philosophy. . . . By his discoveries the discoveries of all other
biologists have been correlated and woven into systematic phi-
losophy."

But progress is not universal ; lowly forms of life still exist ;
and some creatures are degenerate representatives of once higher
forms. Living things seldom voluntarily " seek fresh woods and
pastures new ; " they are driven to do so because they tend to
increase faster than their wants can be supplied. Either there is
not room for all or thei'e is not food for all. But if not for all,
there is for some, and so long as any can continue to exist without
a struggle, some will continue to exist without modification, and
the longer they do so, the more stable will their forms become,
their fixity of type being strengthened by inheritance. Then if
external conditions become simpler, degeneration may ensue owing
to the disuse of certain organs. Thus there may be two varieties
of the same species of animal existing near together at the same
time, one of which possesses the sense of sight and the other does
not. One, for instance, may live at the mouth of a cave where the
power of vision is of advantage, therefore retaining its sight ; the
other may live in the interior of the cave where sight is useless,
therefore becoming blind through the disuse of its eyes for many
generations. Again, those species which continue to live because
their weaker brethren have succumbed, and those which have been
driven away from their ancestral home, will become more vigorous,
or will acquire more adaptability to changing cii'cumstances, and
these qualities will be strengthened by heredity. Herein we see
why the rarer species are usually well differentiated, and the
commoner species are usiially prolific in varieties through which
they insensibly run one into another. The struggle for existence
being far more keen between diiferent individuals of the same
species than it is between individuals of different species, the rarer
a species is, the less has it to struggle with other individuals of its
own species, and the more stable does it become in character : the
commoner a species is, the greater is its struggle, and the more
variable and adaptive does it become.

Natural selection must, however, have variations to act upon.
It does not beget them. Variability is probably as much an innate
tendency in living things as is heredity. Each strives for mastery
over the other, and there is no more difficulty in crediting the
plastic or fonnative action of the one than that of the other.
The difiiculty really lies ia our conception of the nature of life.

CHARLES DAEWIir. 131

The simplest form of life of -which we can conceive, is a particle
of sarcode or protoplasm endowed with the power of movement,
so that it may change its form if not its place ; of assimilation, so
that it may increase in hulk ; and of fission, so that when it has
attained a certain size it may form two particles, this process of
division continuing, and thus causing the particles to increase in
number in geometrical progression. In each particle, however
minute, there must be two opposing forces, stability and mobility,
while growth, by assimilation of extraneous matter, implies change,
so that no living thing is precisely the same at any one period of
its life as it is at any other.

Stability implies heredity, while mobility implies variabiKty.
Everything that lives must move and grow and multiply itself,
and therefore change its form and dimensions and numbers, and
if the food it assimilates be not always precisely the same, it
must also change its composition or constitution. Given, there-
fore, a single particle of protoplasm, the two particles into
which it divides will probably differ from one another, by
however so little, when they divide.

Further, the molecules in every particle of protoplasm, vegetal
or animal, are as incessantly moving as are the molecules in
every particle of inert matter which is not absolutely cold, that
is, not at an absolute zero temperature. In this incessant
qiuvering or vibrating molecular motion, arises life in the one
case and warmth in the other, and therefore in the very
conception of the nature of life we cannot get rid of the idea
of alteration by internal as well as external movement. Thus
viewed, heredity is similarity resulting from stability, and
variability is dissimilarity resulting from mobility.

Variability is thus as intelligible as is heretlity, and it is
certain that variations do occur and are perpetuated. In our
domestic animals and cultivated plants, the individuals of any
variety differ more from each other than do the individuals of
any species or variety in a feral state, and therefore it would
seem that domestication and cultivation induce variability. But
Nature gives the variations, Man merely accumulates those
which are useful to himself, by propagating only from his best
plants, and only allowing his best animals to breed, or at least
not allowing his worst to do so. With regard to the extent
of variation, it may suffice to state that the domestic varieties
of the same species differ more from each other in almost any
character which man has selected and tried to perpetuate, than
do the distinct species of the same genera in a feral state.

132 J. HOPKTNSOK AJS^NIVEKSARY ADDRESS :

What Man has been doing for the last few thousand years
Nature has been doing for untold ages. But there is this
difEerence. Nature selects only the best individuals, or those
which have some advantage in the struggle for existence, or
some special adaptability to changed circumstances. Man selects
those which have characters he wishes to perpetuate, not those
which give their possessors any advantage in their life -struggle,
in fact more often those which would place them at a disadvantage
if left to themselves and allowed to revert to their feral con-
dition ; and therefore, while a variety raised by Nature will
be preserved, or further modified in the same direction, a variety
raised by Man will tend to lose the characteristics which he has
endeavoured to impress upon it. This is called reversion to the
original type, and the fact of such reversion has by some been
thought to furnish one of the chief arguments against the theory
of Darwin. It rather furnishes an argument in favour of it, for
reversion of domestic animals and cultivated plants allowed to
run wild, to a type advantageous to them in their life-struggle,
is really an example of the beneficial effects of natural selection.
Moreover, characters acquired by domestication and cultivation
which are not disadvantageous are seldom entirely lost, although
it is evident that they are not so likely to be perpetuated as are
characters acquired under natural conditions.

The struggle for existence amongst plants is chiefly against
competing plants of their own or other species, the winners in the
one case varying from the original type in some way by which
they obtain an advantage, and transmitting that variation to their
offspring, and in the other case driving out the competing species
by having greater vigour or more adaptability to any changing
circumstances. It is also a struggle against the depredations of
animals, the winners then being those which possess the best means
of defence, such as thorns or poisonous properties, or which are
the most inconspicuous. But flowers which are inconspicuous
vs^ill not attract insects, and therefore all such flowers depend, for
the continued existence of their species, upon seK-fertilisation.
All flowers which require to be cross-fertilised are conspicuous,
brightly coloured, or highly st-ented, so that insects may be at-
tracted to them. This is especially the case with orchids, in many
of which the adaptations for cross-fertilisation by the agency of
insects are exceedingly complex. Thus the development of floral
envelopes to the reproductive organs, and of the scent of flowers,
may be traced to the visits of insects, for whenever any variation
appears, if that variation increases the attraction of the flower to

CHARLES DAEWrN". 133

insects, more seeds, or more vigorous seeds, will bo perfected in
that variety, and it vrill tlius have a better chance of perpetuating
itself than will the original form.

The struggle for existence amongst animals is too obvious to
require illustration. Their increase is chiefly checked by one
species preying upon another, by disease, and by insufficiency of
food. As with plants will the healthiest best withstand the
attacks of insects, so with animals which prey upon one another
will the strongest or most wary gain the victory. In both, the
effect of the struggle must be to perpetuate and increase beneficial
modifications. In animals which have no means of defending
themselves against attack, some subtle device is necessary, and
that is generally some mode of concealment. The most efficient
way to escape notice or attack is to resemble something else
which is not subject to attack. This is the origin of mimicry,
which takes several forms. Many insects escape destruction by
resembling the flowers, leaves, twigs, or bark of the trees on
which they feed. Certain beautiful and conspicuous butterflies
have a disagreeable odour which renders them obnoxious to
birds ; others, belonging to a different genus, and having no
offensive odour, resemble these in their habits and colour, and
so escape destruction. Natural selection offers the only con-
ceivable explanation of both these forms of mimicry, the tendency
to mimicry being increased by the most mimetic individuals
having the best chance of surviving and bearing offspring which
inherit their peculiarities.

These are merely a few illustrations of the application of the
principle of natural selection to the explanation of phenomena
which without it are utterly inexplicable. But, after all, this
principle merely supplies a missing link in a chain of causation
still discontinuous, unless we accept an inherent tendency to vary
as an efficient cause of variation. It enables us to understand
how, when a beneficial variation takes place, that variation is
perpetuated, but it does not show why beneficial variations occur.
Natural selection is merely a term for the survival of the fittest
by the destruction of the unfit. It cannot produce anything,
but it is a necessary factor in evolution, for without it the less
fit would be as likely to endure as the fittest, and there would
be no progress. It embraces the theory of Lamfirck, for by natui-al
selection only can the modification of organs by use and disuse
owing to changes in environment, be preserved and accumulated
in the right direction for progress ; and it accounts for living
things fitting the conditions of their existence without being

VOL. VII. — PART IV. 10

134 J. HOrKXN"SON — AIOnVEESARY ADDEESS.

designed to fit them, for tliose which, did not fit these conditions
have perished in the struggle for existence ; but it nevertheless
requires the aid of some pre-ordained guiding or determining
principle, and that necessitates the existence of a Presiding
Intelligence. Nothing happens by chance ; everything must have
a cause ; and every cause must have a prior cause ; so we are
logically brought to see the necessary existence from eternity of a
Great First Cause, of infinite power and wisdom, who has decreed
the existence of matter and ordained the laws of force which
govern it. Even if we could ascertain the mode in which life
has been acquired by matter, and could see the quivering molecules
in the protoplasm of organised beings striving with each other,
some trying to pursue the course they have hitherto pursued, and
others trying to pursue a new course, so that we could actually
see Heredity and Variability striving for the mastery, we should
still have to account for the origin of this strife, which must have
been coeval with the origin of life, and for the determining
principle by which the progress from simplicity' to complexity is
a progress, through intellectual man, towards his conception of
the Supreme Intelligence.

Darwin, while clearly seeing that variability may arise from
the movement and activity inherent in all life, vegetal and
animal, recognises the necessity of a determining principle,
when he says : " The birth both of the species and of the
individual are equally parts of that grand sequence of events
which our minds refuse to accept as the result of blind chance."
Again, alluding to the view, now no longer held, that each
species has been independently created, he remarks: "To my
mind it accords better with what we know of the laws impressed
on matter by the Creator, that the production and extinction
of the past and jDresent inhabitants of the world should have
been due to secondary causes, like those determining the birth
and death of the individual. When I view all beings, not as
special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few
beings which lived long before the first bed of the Silurian
system was deposited, they seem to me to become ennobled. . . .
There is grandeur in this -vdew of life, with its several powers,
having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms
or into one," from which "endless forms most beautiful and
most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved."

Professor Huxley, also, in treating of the place which Man
occupies in Nature, says that "thoughtful men, once escaped
from the blinding influences of traditional prejudice, will find

CHARLES DARWIN. 135

in the lowly stock whence man has sprunf]^, the best evidence
of the splendour of his capacities ; and will discern in his long
progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of faith in his
attainment of a noble Futui'e. . . . And, after passion and
prejudice have died away, . . . our reverence for the nobility
of manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge that Man
is, in substance and in structure, one with the brutes ; for he
alone possesses the marvellous endowment of intelligible and
rational speech, whereby, in the secular period of his existence,
he has slowly accumulated and organised the experience which
is almost wholly lost with the cessation of every individual life
in other animals ; so that now he stands ... far above the
level of his humble .fellows, and transfigured from his grosser
nature by reflecting, here and there, a ray from the infinite
source of truth."

Goethe sees in Nature "the living visible garment of God," and
Tennyson thus beautifully expresses this idea, together with that
of the divine origin of the spiritual nature of man : —

*' The sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the hills, and the plains — ■
Ai-e not these, 0 Soul, the Vision of Him who reigns ?

Is not the Vision He ? tho' He be not that which He seems ?
Dreams are not true while they last, and do we not live in dreams ?

Earth, these solid stars, this weight of body and limb,
Are they not sign and symbol of thy division from Him ?

Dark is the world to thee : thyself art the reason why ;

For is He not all but thou, that hast power to feel ' I am I ? ' "

The doctrine of Evolution, as established by Darwin, has
completely broken down our conception and definition of species,
for a species is now seen to be but a variety so far removed
from its nearest allies, by the dying out of intermediate forms,
that we are enabled to frame a distinctive description of it. A
similar view of the artificial character of genera has long been
held. jS'ow, a species exists not in Nature ; we give to it a
name merely for our own convenience ; so that henceforth all
controversies as to what is and what is not a true species, are
at an end, and we have only to consider which forms are
sufficiently distinctive to bear specific names. It has broken
down our belief in the distinctiveness of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms ; it has shown us the reason why all living things,
both plants and animals, are alike " in their chemical composition,
their cellular structure, their laws of growth, and their liability
to injurious influences;" why in plants and animals "sexual
reproduction seems to be essentially similar ; " why there are

136 J. HOPEINSOIf — AJSl^IVEESAilY ADDEESS.

organisms which botanists claim to be plants, and zoologists claim
to be animals ; why we need not wonder tliat some of these
organisms at one period of their lives have the nature, movements,
and even instincts of animals, and at another period lead a purely
vegetative existence and reproduce themselves by spores ; and why
all such denizens of the debatable land are lowly in their organiza-
tion. It has shown us the meaning of the terms of relationship
used by Naturalists of the old school, unconscious of their real
value and purport, — comparative anatomy, affinity, community of
type, morphological unity, adaptive mimicry, etc. ; — and it has
explained the reason of the existence, utterly incomprehensible
before, of rudimentary and abortive organs.

It has done much more. It has taught us that all things are
working together, or striving against each other, for the general
good. It has taught us how, by famine, disease, and premature
death, the weakest succumb that the strongest may have room to
live; how by the best of each race increasing, and multiplying,
and replenishing the earth, low forms of life become high, out of
unity and simplicity arising diversity and complexity, beauty and
joy. And it teaches us still another lesson ; it teaches us that we
ought to work, each and all, for the general progress of mankind ;
that the more intellectual, the happier, and the more holy we are,
the more intellectual, the happier, and the more holy will our
descendants be ; and that it is within our power, by always
striving to subordinate the pleasures of sense to those of mind and
soul, so to influence our offspring, unconsciously by heredity as
well as consciously by example and precept, that the type of our
race may be raised, and in the course of incalculable ages Man
may advance, intellectually and spiritually, nearer and nearer to
the image of his Maker.

And when prejudice has completely succumbed to reason, the
doctrine of Evolution by Natural Selection will be taught in all
our schools as a fundamental truth of natural science, and will be
universally admitted to afford one of the most convincing proofs
of the wisdom and beneficence of God, as showing how ' ' thi'o' the
ages one increasing purpose runs," —

"That mind and soul, according well,
May make one music as before,
But vaster."

XI.
NOTES ON THE ]\[YCETOZOA, WITH A LIST OF SPECIES FROM
HERTFORDSHIRE AND BEDFORDSHIRE.

By James Saundeks.

(Communicated by A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.)

Read at St. Albans, 15th November, 1892.*

If there be any trutli in tlie assumption that all creatures which
inhabit the earth have descended from some few primordial forms of
life, it will readily be gnmted that the two great kingdoms of
animated nature may touch at numerous points; that here and
there they coalesce or diverge, and that there may be existences
which combine some of the features of both. To these we may
surely relegate the Mycetozoa. They have at least three well-
defined stages of existence : the distributive, in the form of minute
spores, myriads of which are borne as impalpable dust by the
country breezes ; the creeping stage, when, for an indefinite period,
it may be weeks or months, numbers of these spores, having thrown
off tlieir cell- coverings, coalesce, and creep about on decayed leaves
or in dead wood; and the mature stage, in which, having ceased
their wanderings, they become sessile, and produce capsules. From
this it will be seen that they exhibit the curious phenomenon of
alternation of generations ; that is, if we may assume that the
Plasmodium stage is characterised by wholesale conjugation, and
hence is "the analogue of the zygospore" (Sachs, 'Text-book of
Botany,' p. 263). Possibly this may not be regarded by some as an
instance of true alternation of generations, but it at least presents
close analogies with this phenomenon.

It is the creeping stage which has the greatest fascination for
an observer, as it is both curious and singular. It was only after
many months of patient investigation that we were rewarded by
the discovery of a Mycetozoon in this stage. The ive covers two
personalities, a juvenile enthusiast still in his teens, and the writer,
the latter often finding material assistance from the shai-p vision of
his more youtliful coadjutor. On the occasion referred to, we had
just reached the edge of an opening in a damp Hertfordshire wood;
lying near to us was a large trunk of an oak, which, having been
felled many years ago, was not only saturated with moisture, but
was thoroughly decayed. Overshadowing it were tall fronds of
bracken, and straggling sprays of bramble. Running our eyes
along its rugged bark, adorned here and there with mosses and
fungi, we were gratified to see yellow veins of a substance unlike
anything we had before seen. It covered a space over a foot in
length and several inches in breadth. It was somewhat viscid,

* The Author exliibited coloured drawings of the Mycetozoa executed by the
Misses Lister, and photographic slides shown by the oxy-hych-ogen lantern ; and
a slide with living plasmodium which had thrown out pseudopodia during the pre-
ceding tweutv-t'our hours was also shown on the screen by the lantern-microscope.
This is probably the first time that plasmodium has thus been shown to a scientific
society. — Ed.

VOL. VII. — PART V. 11

138 J. SATJNDEES — NOTES OS THE MTCETOZOA.

distributed in anastomosing veins, some minute, and others a quarter
of an inch wide, and sometimes spread out into fan-shaped figures
towards the margins of the mass. So slight was its adhesion to
the bark, that a worm was seen to crawl between the two. We
knew almost intuitively that it was what we had so long sought,
namely the plasmodium of a Mycetozoon. The term plasmodium is
that by which the creeping stage of these creatures is designated.
After carefully examining it, looking at it from every aspect,
and noting its dimensions and general appearance, we took off a
portion with plenty of the underlying decayed wood, so as to
observe it at home at our leisure. After crawling about the wood
for four or five days, the granular contents contracted into small
protuberances in the veins ; and on the following day these changed
into minute capsules, which eventually became greyish-white, and
filled with dark spores.

Having thus once found plasmodium, we had little difficulty in
finding it in other places afterwards. It is expedient, we soon
became aware, to examine the under side of fallen branches, as
it appears to avoid light.

A small specimen of an allied species to the one mentioned above,
was attached to a piece of wood that lay in contact with a larger
one, but only by a narrow stiip about a quarter of an inch wide.
The Plasmodium used this strip as a bridge, and, by a single sinuous
vein, nearly the whole of it passed over to the larger piece of wood.
After having spread out on its surface and absorbed what food was
available, it crept back again to its original position, and eventually
formed its fruit.

On another occasion a small quantity of greenish-yellow plas-
modium was found attached to the under side of a small rotten
branch. This was placed under observation for several days,
after which it mysteriously disappeared, its former position being
marked by slimy tracks. One of us thought that it was dead, but
the juvenile observer hoped that it had only crept into the wood.
This was really the case, for after a few days it came out of its
concealment, and formed a delicate group of fruits of a golden-
yellow hue. The circumstance is noteworthy, inasmuch as it
proved to be a rare species [Badhamia inatfrata) of which the plas-
modium stage had been recorded but once before.

Yet another instance of the peculiar habits of these organisms.
Two small masses of plasmodium had been under observation for
several weeks, and it was thought that they did not seem healthy,
possibly wanting a change of diet. Accordingly a fungus, one of
the polyporous group, was soaked in water, divided in halves, and
a portion placed near each. Both of the plasmodia crept from
their positions, and crawled over the respective portions of supposed
aliment. Unfortunately it was the last journey for each of them,
for either from the detrimental qualities of the fungus, or from
acarites that may have infested them, both plasmodia perished,
after two or three days of evident decadence.

Sensitive creatures are these plasmodia; requiring special en-

J. SAUNDERS — NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA. 139

vironmont to rnablo them to flourish, ^[oistiire is essential, with a
temperature not too low. Frost apparently drives them into
hitlinu;, whilst too nuicli dry heat desiccates the surface of the
matrix, and tlius compels them to seek sustenance in the moist
interior of tlie decayed vegetation. This may be rotten wood or
decaying leaves, but in any case it must be organic. None of tliem
contain chlorophyll, and hence they have not the power to assimi-
late food from the inorganic substances of the earth, or from the
impalpable gases of the air. There are cases on record in which
the sporangia, or fruiting heads, have been found on lead pipes and
old shoes, but these do not imply that they fed on such indigestible
articles, but that, having previously absorbed sufficient nutriment,
it is a matter of indifference to what materials they may creep in
order to form their capsules. The plasmodium stage is essentially
the feeding one, and during this period the protoplasmic contents
are particularly rich in formative materials. One may even suggest
that there is a distant analogy between this life-period of the
organism and the larval stage of the Lepidoptera.

The Plasmodia, having no protective cell-covering, are peculiarly
sensitive to injury by contact. They are really wall-less proto-
plasm, and hence the slightest touch from the incautious tiuger
causes local death, although the other portions may remain healthy.
The fact that their contents are not restricted by cell-walls may
account for their excessive mobility, enabling them to insinuate
themselves into the interstices of wood that may be only in an
incipient stage of decay, and also into the honeycomb-like cavities
of the fungus [Irpex) on which they often occur. Their course
over this fungus is always indicated by a marked change in it; its
normal hue is a creamy white, but, when plasmodium has passed
over it, it changes to a dirty drab, and is apparently in a moribund
condition. The discoloration of the food-plant may also be partly
due to a slimy substance which is left by the Mycetozoon as it
shifts its position, as though it threw off the waste material that
would otherwise accumulate in its own substance. This rejection
of useless contents is particularly marked in the fruiting stage.

Although so singularly sensitive to contact, the plasmodium will
endure strange vicissitudes without injury. It may be dried up
till it is apparently hard and tough, in which condition it may be
kept for an indefinite period — weeks and even months — after
which, by the application of moisture, with careful treatment, it
may be resuscitated and will become as active as ever.

During the closing part of the summer of the past year we were
desirous to obtain some plasmodium, but were unable to do so
owing to the drjmess of the season A request for some of it was
sent to an esteemed correspondent, who is a specialist in this de-
partment of science. In reply, a small portion of desiccated plas-
modium attached to a fungus was forwarded in a pill- box. This
had been di-ied artificially several weeks previously. Wishing to
see if it would revive, it was placed in a shallow glazed vessel four
or five inches wide. On the opposite side of the vessel a portion of

140 J. SArXDKES — TfOTES ON THE MTCETOZOA.

a suitable fungus was placed, and the intermediate space was filled
with fragments of decayed wood. The whole was then immersed
in water, or rather water was poured over it until the contents of
the dish were covered. It was noticed that after two or three days
the Plasmodium had imbibed sufficient moisture to enable it to
become partly detached from its position. In about a week it
threw out a vein-like process, which traversed the intervening
space over the fragments of wood, and reached the fungus on the
o]iposite side of the vessel. In a few more days the whole creature
had left its original position and had transferred itself to the fresh
food which lay within its vicinity, although several inches distant.
By what occult power it could direct its course in the desired
direction, and that after weeks of apparent suspension of anima-
tion, is beyond my comprehension.

In addition to movements of the whole mass, or certain portions
of it. in search of sustenance, which changes of position may be
noted by the naked eye, or better still with a pocket-lens, there is
also a circulation of the protoplasmic contents. It can, however,
scarcely be called circulation in the ordinary sense of the term, as
the course is not always in one direction. There is an ebb and
flow in curious rythmic cadence. Two or three branching veins
will have the central portion hiuTying forwards, it may be towards
the right of the observer, then suddenly they may be arrested in
tlieir course, and return towards the direction from which they
came. As, however, this description can only apply to the small
portion visible at one time in the field of a microscope, it would
be presumptuous to imply that this would adequately describe
the movements of the whole mass.

A brief description of the appearance of the Mycetozoa in the
fruiting stage, will be helpful to those who wish to observe them
in the field. In the immature condition they are often of a
different colour from that of the mature. Some of them ( Coma-
trichia) present the appearance of minute white beads scattered
over the surface of decayed wood or bark. In this state they show
in striking contrast to the haii'-like black stalks on which they
stand. In a day or two the heads change to a dusky brown.
Others again appear as minute black beads, glistening as though
covered with varnish. A slate-coloured genus ( Crihraria), which
eventually assumes a yellowish hue, may occasionally be found
on fallen pine-logs. In the early spring a generally- distributed
genus {Reticularia of a lovely pink, with sessile heads which are
about the size of peas, may be observed on decayed tree-stumps,
etc. These are not uncommon in Epping Forest and Wanstead
Park. Less frequent than this is a genus [Tubulina) of a scarlet
hue, which, when mature, shows as a small group of closely com-
pacted cylindrical dark brown heads. This may be sought on fallen
willow trunks, near to brooks, in moist meadows. A much more
common species ( Trickia Jackii) presents the appearance of a patch
of sessile white heads, which, when ripe, become of a bright yellow
colour. One of the most attractive {Trichia fallax), appears as

J. SAUNDERS — NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA. 141

rows or scattered heads like tiny pink beads, but these quickly
clumsic to a clayey or ochreous hue. The last mentioned species
was tirst noticed by tlie writer on a small island in a secluded park,
where many trees had fallen and had been allowed to lie un-
molested. These formed a perfect cliaos of broken branches and
prostrated trunks, over which the still-living trees cast a dense
shade, tlie whole being surrounded by a damp atmosphere which
just suited the needs of these moisture-loving creatures.

It should be mentioned that if specimens are collected in an
immature state, it is desirable to keep them under an inverted wet
glass for a few days, so that the contents of the sporangia may
become fully matured, as unless these are so, it would be difficult
or impossible to determine the species to which they belong. Many
disappointments have been experienced by collectors from not
taking these precautions.

The mature sporangia, or peridia of some authors, have usually
well-marked and permanent colours. A whole series of them,
including about one third of the known British genera, have opaque
white heads, the whiteness being due to the presence of lime, which
is deposited on the surface during the process of ripening. This
group is hence called the Calcareae. Most of these contain violet
or dark broAvn spores, and it is desirable always to examine the
colour of the spores, as this is an important point in classification.
This is easily done, either by rubbing a sporangium between the
fingers, or better still, upon a piece of white paper. It will be
seen that not only those with lime-covered heads, but also many
other species, have violet or brownish-violet spores. The genera
with these characters comprise about one half of those found in
this country.

It is desirable to see that the specimens collected really contain
spores, so that one may be spared the experience of the writer,
who on one occasion found what at first sight appeared to be an
interesting group of heads, with the resemblance of an operculum
to each. On a careful microscopic examination of the contents of
the supposed sporangia, no spores could be detected, but instead,
only a watery fluid. Upon a re-examination of the general appear-
ance of the specimen it resolved itself into a group of eggs of one
of the Lepidoptera ! As some consolation for the disappointment,
one felt that true knowledge is obtained not only by the observation
of facts, but also by the rectification of error. Our national collec-
tions also are not absolutely free from similar inaccuracies.

Amongst the genera with dark-coloured spores is a small group
which are like the reed-mace {Typha^ in miniature. These may
either be grouped, like a tiny forest, with separate stems and closely-
compacted heads {Stemonitis), each head composed of an intricate
network of most delicate threads ; or both stems and sporangia may
stand singly ( Comatrichia).

A very abundant and generally-distributed genus [Trichia) has
bright yellow spores and capillitium. This network or capillitium
was called "wool" by some of the descriptive botanists of last

142 J. SAUNDEKS NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA.

century, and when seen projecting from the ruptured capsules
it certainly has a strong resemblance to a tiny tuft of woolly fibre.
The Trichias may often be observed in compact groups of an inch
or two in diameter on rotten tree-stumps, or scattered over the
foliage of mosses and liverworts which grow in these situations.
This does not imply that the Mycetozoa have fed on the living
tissues, but that they have been nourished on the underlying
decayed vegetation, and have crept out to the surface when
ready to form their spores, so that these may be distributed by
the wind.

There is yet another genus {Arcyria) which is by no means rare,
in which both spores and capillitium vary in colour, and are either
a pale yellow, or range from a delicate flesh tint to a deep crimson.

The presence of this woolly substance is always helpful in field-
work in determining whether a specimen under observation is a
Mycetozoon or not. But if an observer be in doubt, it is always
advisable to secure an unknown form for careful examination at
home, as otherwise a rare species may be cast aside as worthless.
It should be borne in mind, however, that about one-fifth of the
known British genera have no capillitium. But even these in
some cases ( Crihraria) have a delicate framework which lines the
wall of the sporangium and gives it support. At first this external
skeleton may be mistaken for a true capillitium, and hence may
deceive the novice as to the true position in classification of the
species under consideration. Close and extended observation will,
however, soon enable the observer to distinguish between these
two organs.

The contents of the sporangia form most interesting objects for
the microscope. As they are so minute, it is necessary to use a
moderately-high power, say \ or -g^th-inch object-glass. It has
been estimated that a single head of Comatrichia tijphina * contains
a thousand million spores, in addition to those on the delicate
network of the capillitium, which forms, as it were, an intricate
framework aroimd which the spores are clustered. There are
other genera {Reticular ia^ etc.) in which a number of sporangia
coalesce so as to form a community of an inch or so in diameter,
in which the spores are so numerous that figures fail to represent
them. In many species these spores, although so minute, have
their walls ornamented. These markings are due to thickenings of
the cell-wall, and may consist of dots, warts, spines, or other
figures, and they may be either regularly or irregularly distributed
over the surface. In other species the walls of the spores are
smooth.

The hair-like threads which form the capillitium present many
peculiarities of structure. These are usually so constant, that,
next to the colour of the spores, they form the principal basis of
classification in modern systems. But even in these there are not
always hard and fast lines of demarcation, for some specimens
present combinations of character which are assumed to belong to

* See 'Midland Naturalist,' 1882.

J. SATTNDEES NOTES ON THE MTCETOZOA. 143

closely-alliccl species. These threads may be simple or branched ;
combined into a network, or have numerons free ends ; and they
may be united to the walls or to the central colnmella. Their
ornamentation is often very beantifnl and of most intricate designs.
These markings may consist of spirals, spines, or cogs, and are due
to external thickenings of the walls. In this respect they differ
from the elaters of Jungermannia), which have the spirals coiled up
in the interior of the cells.

Some few species show affinities with Mosses in the possession
of an operculum ; others approach the Fungi, through the Lyco-
perdons, in the presence of a capillitium, and the whole group
exhibits a relationship with the animal world, by the motile
amoebiform cells which precede the formation of the plasmodium.

The student of the Mycetozoa would find a peculiar fascination
in the subject as the knowledge of it increases, and, as it is com-
paratively "An Open Pield," he would find plenty of opportunity
for original research. Xor need his observations be limited to any
one period of the year, as they are to be found at almost all seasons ;
extremes of heat and cold being most detrimental to their develop-
ment. The Plasmodium has, however, the power of resisting frost.
In December, 1892, the writer collected a specimen frozen hard,
attached to a fungus. Upon moistening it and keeping it in a
warm room, it soon revived and commenced to creep about. In a
few days it formed a group of capsules. It was obtained on the
borders of Hertfordshire, in a moist wood on a hill-top with an
extensive prospect, many parts of which had been successfully
investigated for these interesting creatures. The pursuit of this
subject leads the student into some of Nature's quietest haunts,
and furnishes him with material for wide generalization, as well as
advanced microscopic investigation.

For the benefit of those who wish to study the Mycetozoa
reference is made to the following literature on the subject: —

" Myxomycetes of Great Britain," by Dr. M. C. Cooke. 1877.

"Mycetozoa," in ' Midland Naturalist,' 1882, 1887, 1888.

"Notes on Mycetozoa," by Mr. A. Lister, in ' Journ. Bot.,'
Sept. 1891.

"An Open Field,," by Mr. A. Lister, in 'Nature Notes,' Jan.
1892.

"Monograph of the Myxogastres," by Mr. G. Massee. 1892.

The Mycetozoa of Herts and Beds.

The following list is a compilation of the records of several
esteemed correspondents, as well as those of myself and my son
Edgar. All the twenty- seven forms enumerated for Heath, on
the borders of Beds, were collected by Miss L. Bassett and Miss G.
Lister, in the early part of 1892. The species marked C. C. were
collected by Mr. C. Crouch ; those initialed A. E. G. and H. E. S.
by Mr. A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., and Mr. H. E. Seebohm, respectively.
Two forms fi-om Bricket Wood, \iz., Trichia scabra and T. abrupta,

144 J. SATJNDERS NOTES ON THE IIYCETOZOA.

were collected in 1889, by Mr. Jolm Hopkinson and Mr. George
Massee, at a Field Meeting of the Society (See ' Trans. Herts Nat.
Hist. Society, Vol. V, p. xlviii). Another, viz., Stemonitis ferru-
ginea^ was collected there at a Field Meeting in 1891 (See ' Trans.,'
Yol. YI, p. Ixx.). The other records are those of myself and my
son, and have been made since 1891.

As a guarantee of accuracy in naming, it need only be said that
specimens of all the forms recorded, except those on the authority
of Mr. Massee, have been examined by Mr. A. Lister, or by his
daughter Miss G. Lister, to both of whom my grateful acknow-
ledgments are due.

In the Hertfordshire list, the localities are given under the river-
basins, as in the ' Flora of Hertfordshire ' and other botanical
records published by the Society in its ' Transactions.'

Heetfokdshire.

Ceratium hyd^ioides, A. & S. Ivel. — Hitchin ; Miss G. L.

Physarum leucophmmi, Fr. — Common.

P. nutans, Pers. [ = Tilmadoche nutans, Host.). Ivel. — Hitchin;

Miss G. L. and II. E. S. Lea. — Caddington.
P. compressum, A. & S. Ivel. — Hitchin ; stalked and plasmodio-

carp form.?i, from dirty white plasmodiuin ; H. E. S.
P. viride, Pers. {= Tilmadoche mutabilis, Rost.). Colne. — Kens-
worth.
P. diderma, Post. Colne. — Redboum.
Craterium vulgare, Ditm. Ivel. — Hitchin ; Miss G. L.
C. leucocephalum (Pers.) Post. Colne. — Kensworth.
Leocarpus fragilis (Dicks ) Post. Colne. — Kensworth.
Badhamia imnicea (Fr.) Post. Ivel. — Hitchin; Miss G. L.
B. hyalina (Pers.) Berk. Colne.— Zouche's Farm, Caddington.
B. titricularis (Bull) Berk. Colne. — Kensworth. Zouche's Farm,

Caddington.
£. inaurata, Curr. { = B. nitens, Berk.). Plasmodium pale yellow.

Colne. — Zouche's Farm, Caddington.
Didymium squamulosum (A. & S.) Fr. Ivel. — Hitchin ; S. E. S.

Colne. — Ayer's End; A. E. G.
Chondrioderma dijforme (Pers.) Post. Ivel. — Hitchin; Miss G. L,
C. radiatum (Linn.) Post. Colne. — Kensworth.
Stemonitis fusca, Poth. Colne. — Beechwood, near Flamstcad.
S. ferruginea, Ehrh. Colne. — Kensworth. Bricket Wood ; Massee,

in ' Trans. Herts. N.H S.,' Yol. YI, part 8, p. Ixx.
Comatrichia typhina (Poth.) Post. Ivel. — Hitcliin ; H. E. S.

Lea. — Mangrove, near Luton.
C. Friesiana, De Bary. Colne. — Ayer's End ; A.E. G. Pedbourn.

Lea. — Lilley.
Lamproderma irideum (Cki.) Mass. Ivel. — Hitchin; Miss G. L.
Trichia fallax, Pers. Colne. — Kensworth. Pedbourn.
T. fragilis (Sow.) Post. Colne. — Kensworth. Ayer's End ; A.

E. G. Bricket Wood.

J. SAUNDERS — NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA. 145

Trichia scahra, ) Colne. — Bricket Wood ; Hopkinson and Masses,
Rest. 'Trans. Herts N. H. S.,' Vol. V, part 8,

T. abntp fa, Cooke ) p. xlviii.

T. varia, Pers., var. ni<]ripcs. Lea. — Wlieathaiupstcad.
T. affinis, De Bary. Colne. — Kensworth. Aycr's End; A. E. G.
T. Jackii, Host. Colne. — Zouche's Farm, Caddiugton. Bricket

"Wood.
Hemiarcyria intorta, List. Ivel. — Ilitchin ; Miss G. L.
H. clavata (Pers.) Rest. Lea. — Whcathampstead.
Arcyria punicea, Pers. — Common.
A. mcarnata, Pers. Colne. — Kensworth. Harpenden.

Bedfordshiee.

Physanim leucophceum, Fr. — Common.

P. nutans, Pers. { = Tilmadoche nutans, Rost.). — Luton Hoo. Lim-

bury. Kitchen End.
P. viride, Pers, {= T. mutahilis, Rost.). — Stopsley.
P. callidris. List.— PuUox Hill; see ' Journ. Bot.,' 1891, p. 258.
P. compressum, A. »& S. — Luton Hoo.

P. diderma, Rost. — Flitwick ; see ' Joum. Bot.,' 1891, p. 260.
Craterium vulcjare, Ditm. — Heath. Stopsley.
C. leucocephalum (Pers.) Rost. — Pepperstock. Totternhoe.
Leocarpus fragilis (Dicks.) Rost. — Ampthill Heath.
Fuligo sepiica (Link) Gmel, — Kitchen End ; C. C. Luton Hoo.
Badhamia panicea (Fr.) Rost. — Luton Hoo.
P. htjalina (Pers.) Berk. — Heath. Caddington.
P. utricularis (Bull) Berk. — Heath. Caddiugton.
P. rubiginosa (Chev.) Rost. — Heath.

P. inaurata, Curr. {=P. nitens. Berk.). — Caddiugton. Stopsley.
Pidymium microcarpon (Fr.) Rost. — Kitchen End; C. C.
P. squamulosum (A. & S.) Fr. — Kitchen End; C. C. Sundon.

Luton Hoo.
P. farmaceum, Schrad. — Heath.
P. pertusum. Berk. — Clophill.

Chondrioderma diffonne (Pers.) Rost. — Heath. Luton.
C. testaceum (Schi-ad.) Rost. — First British Record, Stopsley ; E. S.,

July, 1892.
C. radiatum (Linn.) Rost.— Heath. Pullox Hill ; C. C. FHtwick.
C. Michelii (Lib.) Rtf ski.— Totternhoe.
Lepidodenna tigrinum (Schrad.) Rost. — Heath.
Spumaria alba (Bull) DC— Pullox Hill ; C. C. Totternhoe.
Stemonitis fusca, Roth. — Heath. Luton Hoo. Sundon.
S. ferruginea, Ehrh. — Chalton. Pepperstock. Kitchen End.
Comatrichia typhina (Roth.) Rost. — Heath. Luton Hoo. Stopsley.
C. Friesiana, De Baiy. — Common.
Lamproderma physaroides (A. & S.) Rost. — Heath.
L. irideum (Cki. ) Mass. — Ridgmount ; C. C. Luton.
Enerthenema papillata (Pers.) Rost. — Caddiugton. Luton Hoo.
Brefeldia maxima (Fr.) Rtf ski. — Sewell.

146 J. SATJNDEES NOTES ON THE MYCETOZOA.

Tuhulina cylindrica (Bull) DC. — Kitchen End; C. C.

Clathroptychium rugulosum (Wallr.) Rost. — Kitchen End; C. C.

Dictydium cernuum (Pers.) Nees. — Luton Hoc. Chalton.

Cribraria aurantiaca, Schrad. — Heath. Luton Hoc.

C. argiUacea, Pers. — Heath. Luton Hoo.

Reticularia lycoperdon^ Bull. — Luton Hoo.

It. Rozeana., Host. — Heath; see ' Journ. Bot.,' 1891, p. 263.

Trichia fallax, Pers. — Heath. Sundon. Luton Hoo.

T. fragilis {^ow.)'R.osi. — Heath. Luton Hoo. Caddington.

T. scahra, Post. — Sewell.

T. varia, Pers. — Common

T. contorta (Dit ) Post. — Caddington, with var. inconspicua.

T. affinis^i De Bary — Heath. Sundon.

T. Jackii, Post. — Heath. Caddington, Streatley, etc., frequent.

Prototrichia flagellifer (B. & Br.) Post. — Heath.

Hemiarcyria rubiformis (Pers.) Post. — Kitchen End ; C. C. Barton

Springs, with var. Neesiana.
a. clavata (Pers.) Post. — Luton Hoo.
Arcyria puyiicea^ Pers. — Common.
A. cinerea (Bull) Schum. — Luton Hoo. Stopsley.
A. incarnata, Pers. — Heath. Barton Springs.
A. nutans (Bull) Grev. — Caddington. Luton Hoo.
A. ferrtiginea, Sauter. — Heath.
Lycogala epidendrum (Buxb.) Er. — Kitchen End; C. C. Luton

Hoo.
PerichiBna vermicularis (Schw.) Post. — Kitchen End ; C. C. ; see

'Journ. Bot.,' 1891, p. 265.
P. depressa, Lib. — Streatley.

XII.

ICE AND ITS WORK.

By JoHx MoRisox, M.D., F.G.S.

Read at Watford, IGth December, 1892.

Abrido^ed.

'o^

Water, as wc all know, is by far the most potent geological
agent in mollifying the snrface of the earth, and the work done by
ice, which is solid water, is scarcely less important than that which
is accomplished by water in the liquid state. I will here treat of
the work of ice, and the traces or tool-marks which it has left
behind it in many parts of the world, especially in our own country
and our own county.

The sun's heat is continually drawing up vapour in vast quantities
from all the expanses of water on the earth's surface ; and the water-
surface of our globe is equal to about fths of its entire area. The
hotter the weather is, the more watery vapour is drawn into the
air, but there is always a certain amount of evaporation, however
cold the weather may be. Our atmosphere thus always contains a
greater or smaller amount of vapour of water. When the air is cooled
down below a certain point, called the dew-point, this vapour con-
denses on the minute particles of dust of which the air is full, and
forms mist or cloud. These fine watery particles either remain
suspended in the air, or, uniting together, fall to the surface as
rain, hail, or snow. In those parts of the world where the mean
annual temperature is below the freezing-point, the condensed
moisture falls chiefly as snow. This is the case in the Polar
Regions, and also on mountain summits which are elevated suffi-
ciently into the upper and colder regions of the atmosphere. In
these places the snow covers the ground and remains more or less
unmelted throughout the year. A line called the snow-line, vary-
ing in altitude in different parts of the earth's surface, may be
drawn, above which the snow remains unmelted in summer. This
line is close to the sea-level in the polar regions, and rises gradually
as we approach the equator to a height of 18,000 or 19,000 feet.
In our country it would be about 5,000 feet. When a current of
warm air laden with moisture passes over cold mountain tops, it
becomes chilled, and the vapour is condensed as I have described,
and may fall down as rain or snow. There is much greater pre-
cipitation of moisture on mountains than on plains on account of
their greater coldness, and on the loftier summits above the snow-
line this precipitation takes the fonn of snow which remains in
great part unmelted throughout the year.

Two things are necessary to produce an accumulation of per-
petual snow — (1) acertain degree of elevation above the sea-level-
varying in different latitudes, and (2) the presence of currents of
air more or less warm and laden with moisture. The snow which
falls on cold mountain tops cannot flow down as rain would.

148 DE. J. MOEISON ICE AXD ITS WOEK.

Eemaining immelted, and more and more snow continuing to fall,
there would be a constantly -increasing accumulation were it not for
the existence of glaciers or rivers of ice which drain the snow-fields
in the manner which I am about to describe. As the snow in-
creases in depth, the particles underneath are pressed down by the
weight of the mass above, the separate crystals become agglutinated
together, and the air is squeezed out. This process continues as the
pressure becomes greater and greater, till at length the heap of
snow becomes a mass of blue compact crystalline ice. As more
and more snow falls, the pressure from above continues to increase,
and, as ice though solid is to a certain extent plastic, the eft'ect of
this pressure is to squeeze it out round the edges of the snowcap,
where by the force of gravitation it is directed down into the
valleys, where it forms glaciers or rivers of ice.

These glaciers, under the influence of gra\T.tation, move slowly
down the valleys. The rate of motion is very slow, not more than
one or two feet in twenty -four hours, and it varies according to the
slope of the valley down which the flow takes place. A glacier
often extends for some considerable distance below the line of
perpetual snow before it melts, and this distance varies with the
size of the glacier, for the larger the mass of ice the greater is the
temperature required to melt it. A glacier may extend thousands
of feet below the snow-line.

The glacier throughout its course is crossed by frequent fissures
called crevasses. These crevasses begin as cracks in the ice, where,
from the nature of its bed, it is exposed to any strain or tension.
These cracks gradually widen till they may become wide yawning
chasms extending to the very bottom of the ice. The extremity or
foot of a glacier varies in position according to the snowfall and
the temperature of the air — a greater snowfall or a lower tempera-
ture sendiug the ice lower down the valley. The rocks and
precipices which surround a glacier are always splitting up under
the influence of frost, and quantities of rocky fragments and debris
are continually rolling down and accumulating on the surface of
the ice. This moraine stuff, as it is called, forms long mounds or
bands of debris fringing the sides of the glacier, in which fragments
of rock of all sizes, from mere sand and grit up to blocks many tons
in weight, are found confusedly mixed together. A considerable
part of this moraine matter slips down into the crevasses, and may
descend to the veiy bottom of the ice and move with it along
the rocky floor. These fragments of rock get fixed and frozen
into the icy mass, and are pressed against the underlying rocks
with all the weight of the ice above. Pushed along with irre-
sistible force, these stones tear fi'om the rocks over which they
pass other fragments which also in like manner become frozen into
the ice. All these rock-fragments, being firmly held in the grasp
of the ice, grind and scratch the rocky pavement over which they
are driven, while the grit and sand which result from this grinding
process smooth and polish the bed over which the glacier passes.
This accumulation of mud, sand, and stones, which a glacier pushes

T>n. J. irouTsox — ice and its work. 149

undcmcatli it over its rocky bed, is called the moraine profonde^ or
bottom moraine. From the foot or melting extremity of a glacier
a turl)id milky stream issues : the sand or mud ein])1()yed l)y the
ice in polishing its bed being carried out and suspended in the
water which flows out from underneath it. The stones employed
in grinding and scoring the rocks are themselves ground, smootlied,
and scored, and, being pushed out at the foot of the glacier, become
mingled with the great masses of debris brought down upon its
surface and discharged at its melting extremity.

The pile of loose materials formed in this manner at the end of
the glacier is called the terminal moraine, and may be of very
considerable size.

We can often verify by obsei'vation the fact of the smoothing
and scoring of the rocks over which a glacier passes. When it
shiinks away fi'om the side of its valley, as happens in summer
from the partial melting of the ice, it is often possible to get
below the ice and creep underneath it for some little distance,
when we find the rocks smoothed and polished, and showing long
grooves and ruts running parallel with the course followed by the
glacier. Every projecting mass of rock is rounded and smoothed
on the side which looks up the valley, while the other side retains
its original roughness. Smaller projections are rounded and
polished all over, and every dimple and hollow is smoothed and
dressed in a similar manner.

As the foot of a glacier is higher up the valley in summer than
in winter, in the former season we can see, on the sides and floor
of the valley below the glacier-foot, distinct and recent evidence of
the action of ice, the rocks being rounded and smoothed, scored
and striated, as I have just described.

Another very important thing to notice about glaciers is that
when a glacier diminishes in size from any cause, and shrinks away
from its bed, it may drop the blocks from the moraine upon its
surface on the sides of the valley, sometimes perched in the most
extraordinary manner, and looking as if the slightest push would
send the mover. Such stranded stones are known as perched blocks.
These blocks are often of a different material from the rocks aroimd
them, and may have been carried a long way from their origiual
source.

Glaciers may be well studied in Switzerland, and on a grander
scale in jS^orway, where in the far north they actually reach the
sea-level.

Let us now consider the condition of Greenland in the present
day, where we find a country almost entirely covered by a mantle
of perpetual ice and snow, or what in other words we may describe
as an enormous confluent glacier. Greenland is 750,000 square
miles in area, and nearly the whole of it is a frozen and lifeless
desert. The coasts are deeply indented by bays and fiords, which
when traced inland are found to terminate against glaciers. The
whole interior of the country appears to be buried under a great
depth of ice and snow, which fills up the valleys and covers over

150 DE. J. MORISON — ICE AND ITS WORK.

the hills, so that its surface, which no doubt originally was very
mountainous and rugged, forms a great plateau of ice gently sloping
up towards the centre. Those daring explorers who have pene-
trated into the interior of the country describe the scene as desolate
in the extreme. As far as the eye can reach nothing is visible save
a dreary expanse of snow. Not a single animal or plant can be
seen ; over everything broods the silence of death, a silence only
broken by the dismal howling of the icy wind, which sweeps before
it clouds of blinding snow.

Yet even here Nature is ceaselessly at work. As the snow
deepens it is pressed into ice by the weight of the snow above,
and that ice creeps outward to the coast, pressed onward by the
accumulating weight of snow, and thus, from the frozen mass
in the interior, innumerable glaciers flow down every valley and
fiord to the sea. Some of the glaciers attain an enormous size.
The great Humboldt glacier is said to be no less than 60 miles
wide, and its seaward face rises above the water to a height of 300
feet. Instead of the fiords being filled by water, in many cases
they are filled entirely by ice, which may even be pushed out some
distance into the open sea.

"When a glacier enters the sea, as ice is lighter than water, the
dense sea-water underneath the ice buoys it up, and as the glacier
is pressed out into deeper and deeper water, at last the cohesion of
the ice is overcome, and large fragments float away as icebergs.
From its origin in the central desolation of Greenland to its ter-
mination in the sea, the glacier clings pertinaciously to its bed, but
when once the water gets underneath it and buoys it up, the pres-
sure in course of time becomes so great that enormous fragments
are broken off and float away. These icebergs are carried to the
south for an immense distance by ocean-currents, surrounded by an
atmosphere of wintry fog and frost, until they finally melt. Some
of these icebergs are of vast size. One Dr. Hayes estimated to
contain 27,000 millions of cubic feet, and to weigh no less than
2,000 millions of tons.

The glaciers of Greenland are crossed by crevasses in the same
way as those in the Alps ; it is only, however, when we approach
the sea that much in the shape of moraine matter appears upon
their surface. This is due to the fact that the whole interior of
the country is so buried beneath snow and ice that there are left
above the surface, exposed to the action of frost, no bare rocky
crags from which fragments might become detached. The inland
valleys are all filled up and levelled to the tops of the hills. It is
not until the glaciers descend to near the sea-shore, where the
cliffs and mountains are more naked and exposed to the action of
the weather, that they begin to show anything like moraines on
their surface, and it is on the sea-coast that the greatest apparent
waste of rock takes place. When we remember, however, that
nearly the whole country is covered by an enormously thick sheet
of ice, which is constantly in motion, being pressed continually
onwards with resistless force towards the sea, we can hardly over-

I>K. J. MORISON — ICE ANT) ITS "WORK. 151

estimate the tremendous wear and tear to which the surface must
be subjected. All the valleys are continually bein<;- deepened ; all
the rocks arc being; smoothed, roimded, and striated ; and glacial
rubbish — sand, stones, and mud — nu;st exist in great (j^uantity under-
neath the ice ; and are constantly being pushed out under the ice
into the shallow seas, where they form a sedimentary layer on
the sea-bottom, becoming mixed more or less with sea-shells of
an Arctic type.

All around Greenland the sea during winter is covered by a
coating of ice from 10 to 20 feet thick. In the early summer,
when the ice breaks up, a narrow shelf or platform of ice adheres
to the coast. This is called the ice-foot. It breaks up and is
carried out to sea towards the end of the summer. During the
summer vast piles of rock and rubbish, derived from the waste
of the cliffs above, accumulate on the surface of the ice-foot, so that
when it finally breaks up, the quantity of rock debris borne out to
sea must be very great. Icebergs, also, often carry out to sea
large quantities of rock-fragments, and, as they melt slowly and
have been found as far south as the Azores, the Arctic debris from
Greenland must be scattered far and wide over the floor of the
iS^orth Atlantic. Could we suddenly strip Greenland of her mantle
of ice and snow, we should find all the hills and mountains rounded,
smoothed, polished, and scored up to their very summits, and all
the valleys and sheltered places would be covered by a dense clay,
full of stones like our boulder-clay.

Dr. Xansen, who travelled across Greenland in the summer of
1888, says that it is so thickly covered by the ice-accumulation
of ages, that no part of the interior is ever laid bare. He compares
the configuration of the inland ice to a shield curving upwards to
a sort of plateau reaching in places at least 10,000 feet above the
sea-level. He maintains that the configuration of the ground under-
neath must be similar to that of ^N^orway and Scotland, with the
same rugged mountain masses, high ridges, valleys, and fiords.
The immense accumulation of snow has levelled up everything ; in
places the ice must be 6,000 feet deep, and even the mountain tops
must be covered by hundreds of feet of glacier. He does not think
that the quantity of snow can vary much from year to year. The
enonnous pressure of this vast mass of ice and snow pushes out
glaciers into the sea, and causes them to send off icebergs. Even
in winter Dr. K'ansen maintains that there are running streams
of water underneath the ice, due to this pressure, which help
to prevent the growth of the mass.

But it is in the Antarctic regions that we meet with the mightiest
accumulation of ice and snow. When Captain Koss undertook
his celebrated voyage towards the South Pole, he found his progress
southwards barred by a precipitous wall of ice, which rose out of
the water for 180 feet.

For 450 miles Captain Ross sailed in front of this great ice-
cliff, and found it unbroken for all that distance by a single gap
or inlet. Only at one point was the ice -wall low enough to allow

152 DE. J. MOEISON ICE AIJ^D ITS "WORK.

its upper surface to be seen from the mast-head. This upper
surface lloss describes as a smooth plain, shining like frosted silver,
and stretching away as far as eye could reach into the illimitable
distance. This ice-cliff is doubtless the terminal front of the
immense Antarctic ice-cap which covers the South Polar Conti-
nent, and is pushed northwards over the sea-bottom in the same
manner as we have seen are the glaciers of Greenland, imtil it
reaches depths where the pressure of the water underneath it
becomes powerful enough to break off large segments from its
extremity, and so stop its further progress. These great segments
float away as icebergs, which in the Antarctic seas attain gigantic
proportions. Some of the Antarctic icebergs are no less than
2,000 feet in depth, and attain a length of several miles. The
South Polar land seems to be completely buried under an enormous
thickness of ice, the depth of which, • within the Antarctic circle,
has been estimated to be at least two miles.

There is very strong evidence to show that all our mountain-
valleys in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, were filled at a
date geologically-speaking comparatively recent, by great glaciers
similar in all particulars to those which exist at the present day in
Switzerland and Norway. Geologists also generally believe that
at a date generally estimated at from 100,000 to 200,000 years
ago, the whole country north of about the latitude of London was
covered for a lengthened period by an enormous ice-cap comparable
to that which we find in Greenland, or even to that mighty ac-
cumulation of ice which buries deep the whole Antarctic Continent.

Let us consider the evidence for the former existence of glaciers
in this country. We find moraines in all our mountain-valleys, —
mounds of rubbish running across the valleys in a more or less
perfect condition, containing scratched stones. In every long
mountain-valley we find several moraines, or their remains, marking
the terminal limits of the glacier at various stages of its existence.
We also find morainic matter on the sides of the valleys, — the
remains of the lateral moraines. On the sides of the hills enclosing
the valleys we also find abundance of true perched blocks which
have evidently been deposited there by ice ; and we find the
rocks in various places scored and striated, as well as rounded and
polished. The projecting bosses of rock are smoothed and rounded
on the side which looks up the valley, while the other side may
retain its original roughness. The floors of the valleys are covered
by a layer of tenacious clay filled with stones, which is a remnant
of the moraine profonde of the old glacier.

We find also other appearances which ice filling up the valleys
is insufiicicnt to account for. The tops of the mountains are more
or less rounded and smoothed, and we have glacial markings and
strioe at great heights. This is universal in the mountains of
Scotland, Wales, the North of England, and Ireland. We con-
clude, therefore, that all these districts were once covered by one
great ice-cap or more, which levelled up the valleys and covered
the mountain-tops in the same manner as the great ice-sheet of

mi. J. MORISON — ICE AND ITS WORK. 153

Greenland does at the present day. AVe nii};ht suppose that there
were several such ice-caps ; one for the Highlands of Scotland, one
for Northern Ennland, one for Wah's, and so on. 15ut tlicre is
other evidence to he found in the low country which proves tliat
one single great ice-sheet covered the whole country from the
Pcntland Firth in the extreme north of ScotUmd, to at least as far
south as the neighbourhood of London, and as far west as the
western coast of Irehnid. One proof of this is the occurrence all
over the lowlands of Scotland, Ireland, and the greater part of
England, of detached blocks of stone or erratic boulders which
can only have been brought where we now find them by the
agency of ice. So strange sometimes are the positions in which
they lie, and so markedly do they often differ in character fi'om the
surrounding rocks, that they have been from the earliest ages a
source of wonder and amazement. Where did they come from ?
There is often no other vestige of naked rock within sight, so they
cannot have fallen from any cliif . They cannot have been trans-
ported by rivers, as they often stand on the summits of hills.
They have not been washed up by the sea or by floods, for some of
them are of enormous size, and they often consist of rocks foreign
to the neighbourhood, the nearest similar rocks perhaps being fifty
or sixty miles away. No conceivable agency but ice, either in the
form of a moving ice-sheet, or of icebergs, could have placed them
where we now find them.

Many of these erratic boialders, as they are called, have been
found in Hertfordshire, especially in the northern part of the
county, but no doubt the greater number of those which once
existed have been broken up for road-metal long ago. A very
interesting paper on this subject was read before the Society some
years ago by Mr. H. G. Fordham, in which he describes nearly 200
boulders found in various parts of North Herts, near Ashwell,
Hitchin, Royston, Buntingford, and various other places. These
boulders are mostly sandstone and limestone of Carboniferous or
Jurassic age, but a few consist of granite, dolerite, or other igneous
rocks, and two or three of mica schist and gneiss. Mr. Vincent
Elsden, in a paper on the microscopical structure of Hertfordshire
boulders, gives his opinion that the igneous boulders, which are
mostly basic and intermediate, most likely came from the south of
Scotland, and that the granitic and gneissose rocks probably had
their origin in the Grampians. Mr. E,. T. Andrews, of Hertford,
has presented to the British Association Committee for recording
erratic blocks a list of 37 so-called boulders. Eighteen of these,
however, are of Hertfordshire conglomerate, and therefore have a
local origin ; the others, with the exception of one of Carboniferous
Limestone found at Ware, are all described as sandstone or grit.

There is a large block of sandstone standing by the side of the
road in Tpper Dagnall Street, St. Albans, about 2i feet in length
by 2 feet in breadth, and a foot to 18 inches in thickness, and having
externally a rounded concretionary appearance. Mr. Whitaker
considers this identical in character with the Sarsen stones of Wilt-

VOL. VII. — rART V.

154 DK. J. MOKISON ICE AK^D ITS WOEK.

shire. If this he the case the stone probably comes from no great
distance, and must be looked upon as the remnant of an Eocene
bed, which formerly covered this part of the country, and not as
a true erratic boulder. A boulder of about the same size, but
much more angular in form, may be seen just inside the wall of
St. Stephen's churchyard, close to St. Albans. This boulder consists
of a rather coarse sandstone probably of Carboniferous age. There
are also many masses of conglomerate scattered about the country,
some of them of very considerable size, but they must be con-
sidered as remnants of a disintegrated local bed, and not as
boulders in the true sense of the word.

Another proof of the former existence of a glacial period is
found in the Boulder-clay or Till which covers wide areas in
Scotland and the greater part of England and Ireland. This is
generally a tough, tenacious clay, occasionally, however, more or
less sandy, and full of stones varying in size from mere grit or
pebbles to blocks several feet, or, it may be, yards in diameter, which
are scattered irregularly through it. Sometimes the stones are so
numerous that hardly any clay is visible, and sometimes they are
comparatively few in number, so that the clay can be used for
brick-making. These stones are of a peculiar shape, somewhat
angular in form, but the sharp comers and edges are generally
more or less smoothed away, so as to render them sub-angular.
Many of them are perfectly smoothed and polished, and covered
with scratches or striae of varying degrees of fineness. These striae
are better seen in the hard limestones or igneous rocks than in
those of sandstone or other comparatively soft material. The
majority of the stones seem to be fi'agments of rocks in the im-
mediate neighbourhood. In Chalk districts such as this the boulder-
clay is often full of lumps of chalk ; in the neighbourhood of the
Coal Measures of pieces of coal. Mixed, however, with these local
stones are boulders of rock foreign to the neighbourhood, which
must have travelled considerable distances. In some places marine
shells, more or less fragmentary, of a northern or Arctic type, are
found in the boulder-clay. In other places bones of the mammoth,
the reindeer, and other animals are found.

Boulder-clay is not a continuous deposit, but often contains
irregular patches and layers of sand and gravel, and in some places
thin beds of peat, trunks of trees, and other remains of land-vege-
tation. If a layer of boulder-clay be removed from the underlying
rock, the latter is often seen to be smoothed, polished, and striated,
or if the rock be of a soft material it may be much broken up and
disintegrated. Boulder-clay covers a great part of the Lowlands of
Scotland and Ireland, and also extensive areas in England,
particularly in the north and east. It extends over the greater
part of the eastern division of Hertfordshire.

In this neighbourhood we find a mass of boulder-clay at Bricket
Wood, where, containing comparatively few stones, it is used for
brick-making. Here the clay is of a somewhat mottled appearance,
being very light-coloured in places owing to the large quantity of

DR. J. MOllISOX — ICE AND ITS "WORK. 155

cliiilk wliirli it contains. "We Hud in it ice-scratched flints, tlint-
pebbles, boulders of chalk, some large unworn Hints, quartzites,
sandstones, and grits, and various derived Jurassic fossils. A
mammoth's tooth was found here some years ago, and other mam-
malian remains have been discovered. A mass of boulder-clay
occurs to the east of St. Albans between Beaumont's Farm and
London Colney. From a well which was lately sunk near Tyttcn-
hanger in tliis area through the clay, I obtained lum})s of chalk
with glacial striae and also derived Jurassic fossils. Mr. Arthur
Smith, of Hill End Farm, Smallford, has obtained from this bed
various Jurassic fossils and also a vertebra of a fish. Eoulder-
clay in Hertfordshire is made up of chalk to a great extent, con-
taining lumps of chalk and chalk- flmts as well as fragments of
Jurassic rocks and Jurassic fossils. We also find in smaller
quantity portions of Carboniferous rocks, slates, and fragments
of (|uartz, quartzite, and granite.

Besides the Boulder- clay we have another glacial deposit in
various parts of the country known as Drift. This consists mainly
of gravel and sand mixed up together in varying proportions, but it
may contain seams of clay or brick-earth, as is well seen in the
pits in Miskin's brickyard near St. Albans. The drift may be
well studied in this neighbourhood in almost any gravel-pit. Drift
gravel is made up of pebbles, rolled or sub -angular, the majority
of them derived from local rocks, but containing a considerable
number composed of rocks foreign to the neighbourhood. In
Hertfordshire it consists mostly of flint-pebbles, but also contains
sub-angular and unworn flints, sometimes of considerable size. It
also contains large masses of conglomerate, the well-known Hert-
fordshire pudding-stone, which are often finely polished, especially
on their fractured surfaces. Fragments of chalk are also to be
found in it. The stones which it contains derived from rocks foreign
to the locality are mostly quartz, quartzite, sandstone, and igneous
rocks. Boulders of quartzite and sandstone of considerable size
sometimes occur in it. In some localities, as in the gravel-pit
near Welwyn Station, we find rolled Jurassic fossils — Gryplma
and Belemnites. Fragments of Arctic shells are also found in this
pit. In the neighbourhood of St. Albans, and also in other parts
of the county, fossils derived from the Chalk are not uncommon.
In Bricket Wood and in other parts of Hertfordshire the drift may be
traced underneath the boulder-clay, showing that in this case it is
of earlier age. I may mention, however, that there are other
boulder-clays not represented in this county which are lower
than the MidcUe Glacial Drift, as the drift which occurs in this
neighbourhood has been called.

The boulder-clay was probably the moraine prnfonde of an
enormous ice-cap which covered the greater part of our country
and was pushed out into the shallow seas, where Arctic shells
were mixed with it, so we may suppose that the localities
where the clay contains those shells were under water at the
time when it was deposited. When the drift on the other hand

156 DR. J. MOEISON — ICE AND ITS WOEK.

was laid clown, the greater part of our island was doubtless
submerged.

The fact that boulder-clay is found over such wide expanses of
country shows us that at one time the cold was so intense that not
only did glaciers fill our mountain-yalleys, but that a great ice-cap
was formed Avhich enveloped the whole country except the extreme
south of England. The presence of Arctic shells in the boulder-
clay in some situations shows us that the ice was pushed out for
some distance from the land into the shallow seas surrounding our
island. The presence and universality of glacial drift show us
that our country, except the highest mountain-summits, was sub-
merged beneath the waters of an icy sea, in which icebergs and
ice-rafts carried and scattered rocky delris far and wide.

XIII.

CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN IN HERTFORDSHIRE

IN THE YEAR 1891.

By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Bead at Watford, list March, 1893.

PLATE III.

Observations have been made in the year 1891 at the five stations
for which the reports for the four previous years were drawn up,
and therefore I give the same series of tables as before.

The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1891, deduced from
observations at these five stations, was 0°1 above that of the four
previous years, and l°-3 below the mean of 1882-86. The moan
daily range was 0°-4 more than in 1887-90, and 0°-4 less than in
1882-86. The extreme range was rather greater than in 1889, and
rather less than in 1890. The relative humidity was a little greater
than in the four pre\'ious years, the amount of cloud a little less,
and the rainfall considerably greater, and on a much larger number
of days. On the whole, the year 1891 may be said to have been
cold and wet, with about an average range of temperature. February
Avas unprecedcntecUy dry, and October excessively wet.

The observations are made at 9 a.m. at all the stations, the maxi-
mum temperatiire and rainfall being entered to the previous day.

ROYSTOI^.

(London Road.)
Latitude: 52° 2' 34" N. Longitude : 0° 1' 8" W. Altitude:

301 feet.
Observer: Hale fFortham, F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

Rain

Means

Extremes

Mean

Min. Max.

Range

Mill.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

32-8
39-6
40 -8

43-5

60 -2

6ii
59*9
597
50-5
42 'O

397

0
27-4

32-2

33-3
34-0
40-9

49 9
51-3
510

50-4
43-5
36-6
32-9

38-1
47 -o
48-4
529
6i-3
70-6
709
687
69 0
57-6

47 '4
46-4

107
14-8

i8"9
20 4
207
19-6
177
i8-6
14-1
IO-8
13-5

1 1 -6
2ro

21-1

27-1
29-0
40 6

437
427
40'i
27-8
24-9
13-8

497
63-4

63 '2

65 9
77-8
807
83-4
77-9
8i-i
66-2

55-9
561

J°
84

8S
73
79
80
86

85
81

81
89
86
90

5-3

4-4
5 3
6-Q

6-5
6-4
6-6
7-2
4-6
57
7-4
5-6

ins.

i'57
•02

1-63

•57
301

2-17

2-32

354
I -20

5-05
175
311

2
21
12
16
II
16
20
II
22
20
19

Year

48-4

40-3

56-5

i6-2

II-6

83-4

5-9 25-94 1S6

158

J. HOPKINSOK CLIilATOLOGICAL OBSERYATIOJTS

Latitude

BERKHAMSTED.

(Eose Bank.)
51° 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W. Altitude
400 feet.
Observer: Edward Maivley, F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

Rain

Means

Extremes

-^3

zi
P

19
2

17
14
17
12

23
15
22

17
20

Mean

Min.

Max.

Eange

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

33 -o
38-9
39-6
42-9
48-8
58-5
58-4
57-«
57-1
49 '4
41-9

397

0
27-1
30 "4
33-3
347
40-6

49-2
497
50'4
48-1
427
36-6
33-5

38-8

47-4
46-0
51-0

57 -o
67-8
67-2

65-1

661
56-2
47-2
458

II 7
17-0
127
i6-3
16-4
i8-6

17-5
147

i8-o

13-5
106

12-3

0
II-9

22-3
18-4
24-8
29 0
39-5

42-1

40-4
40-5
27-3
24-5

12-3

50-3
64-1

581
62-4

76-3
74-0

78-5

73'3
81 -2

64*3
56-2

55-2

7o
93
93
85
78
76

75
74
79
81

93
90

6-3
7-3
7-6
7-3
7-2
7-0
8-0
7 '4
5-9
6-1
9-2
6-8

ins.
2-19

•04
1-48

1-59
2-86
1-03
2-29

4-25
I-I3
8-04
2-42
4-20

Year

47-2

39 7

54-6

1 4 9.

II-9

8i-2

7-2

31-52

196

ST. ALBANS.

(The Grange.)

Latitude: 51° 45' 9" N. Longitude: 0° 20' 7" W. Altitude

380 feet.

Observer: John Hopkmso7i, F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

>->

H-l

1
0

' ^^
0
5

Rain

Means

Extremes

S
<

a
Q

Mean

Min.

Max. Eange

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept. . .

33-5
39-2
40 'O

43 3
49 4

58-8
58-2

57-4
57-6

49-5
41-9
40-0

277
31-4
34-2

35-4
41-4

50-3
507

SI-2
49-5

43-1
36-3
33-2

39-3
47-0

457
513
57'4
67-2

657
637
65-6

55-9
47-5
46-8

0
II-6
15-6
II-5
159
i6-o
16-9
150
12-5
16 I

12-8
1 1 -2
136

147
21-9
22-3
29-0

30-3
42-6

44 '5
42-4
42-2

307
27-2
II-8

50-3
65-3
58-4
61-9

74-9
740

77-9
717

79 -6
62-4

55-0
546

7o
92

89
81

79
79
80

78
83
85
91
94
90

8-0
6-6

7-1

77
73
7-4
7-0
7-1

5-8
60
8-4
5-6

ins.

2-23

•05

I -60

•87

3-57
2-07
2-92
4-29
I 02

6-35
213

4 '03

19
II

15
22
18
20

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

47 "4

40-4 54'4

14-0

II-8

796

7-0

31-13

201

TAKEN IN HERTFORDSHIRE IN 1891.

159

BEXNINGTON.

(Bcnuiugton Lodge.)

Latitude : 51° 53' 45" :N. Longitude : 0° 5' 20" W. Altitude :

407 feet.
Observer: Bev. J. D. Parker, LL.D., F.JiJfet.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

Eain

Means

Extremes

>-.

19
II
21
10

19
21

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

a 3

Jan

Feb

March ....

April

May

June

July

Auu:ust

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

33-1
39 3
39-3
42"8

487
58-6

59 -o

57-9
580

497
41 "4
40*0

0
27-8
31-5
330
34-8
40-4

49 '5
50-5
504

49 '2
429
36-4
33-8

38-4
47 'o
45 '6
50 '9
57-0

677
67-4

65-5
66-8

56-5
46-4
46" I

0
10 -6
15-5

12-6

161
166
i8-2
16-9
151
17-6
136
lo-o

12-3

15-2
20 6
20 0
30-1
29-4
40-4
42 6
41-6
429
320
24-8
177

497
64-2
56-6
62-3

76-8

777
78-6

73-8
81-4
63-8

55-1
55-8

7o
91
89
81

75
76

77
74
76

77
87
93
90

6-5
6-6

8-4
7'5
7-5
7-9
8-3
7-5
5-4
6-5
8-5
6-3

ins.

2-IO
•07

1-87

■94

3-40

1-05

1-95
3 '42

I"I2

5-31

2-34
3-66

Year

47-3

40-0

54-6

14-6

15-2

81-4

7-2

27-23

205

Latitude

NEW BARNET.

(Gas Works.)

51° 39' 5" N. Longitude : 0° 10' 15" W.

212 feet.

Observer : T. H. Martin, C.E.

Altitude

Months

Temperature of the Air

T
0

Rain

Means

Extremes

>->
cS

15
19
13

16
16

Mean

Min.

Max. Range

Min.

7-5
16-5
170

21-5

28-0
34 'O
39-5
35-0

37-0
23-0

22-0
100

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

32-8
38-3

40'2

42 '6
497
59*3
59-6
58-5
577
49 "4
41-9

37-8

26-2
28-5
327
32-4
397
48-5
487
48-9
46-8

40-3
35-2
31 0

39-3
48-1

47-8
527
597
70-1

705
68-1

687

58-4
487
44-6

131

19-6

151

20-3

20 -o

21-6
21-8

19-2
21-9
i8-i

13-5
13-6

53-0
63-6
60 5
650
78'i
78-8
82-8
76-0
So'o
66-2
58-0
57-5

7o
90
90

83
80

83
88
86

5-9
4-2

7-1

6-8

6-3
5-8
67
7-3

5-6

6-9
6-6

ins.

1-96

•00

1-45
76

3-25

•62

2-8i

3-50
1-50

5-45
2 04

376

Year : 47-3 38-2

56-4

i8-2

7-5

82-8

6-2

27-10

152

160

J. HOPKINSOU^ — CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE.

Means of Climatological Observations (with extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1891, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and JN^ew Barnet.

Months

Temperature of the Air

»— '

'^
0
0

Rain

Means

Extremes

>->

C3
16

3
17
II
18
10

17
21

14
22

19
19

187

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April ....

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

33-0

39-1
40 o

43 -o
49 "5
59-1
59-3
58-3
58-0

47-9
41-8

39 '4

27-2
30-8
33"3
34-3
40-6

49 '5
50-2

50 "4
48-8

42-5
36-2
32-9

38-8
47-3
467
51-8

58-5
68-7
68-4
66-2
67-2
56-9
47 "4
45 '9

II-6

16-5

13-4

17-5
17-9

19-2

18-2

15-8
18-4
14-4
1 1 -2
13-0

7-5
165
17-0
21-5
28-0
34 'o
39-5
35 -o
37-0
23-0
22 0

lO'O

53-0

65-3
63-2

65-9
78-1
80-7

83-4
77-9

81-4

66-2

58-0

57-5

83-4

°/
90 : 6-4

89 1 5-8
82 1 7-1

79 1 7-1

78 ; 7-0

80 I 6-9

79 i 7-3

80 1 7-3

81 1 5-4

89 1 6-0

90 1 8-1
89 6-2

ins.

2-OI

-03

I 61

■94

3-22

1-39
2-46

3 -So
I-I9
6-04

2'14

375

Year ....

47-5

397

55-3

15-6

7-5

28-58

Results of Climatological Observations, 1887-90.

Stations.

Temperature of the Air

f— 1

Rain

Means

Extremes

S
<

156
180

183
192
144

171

Mean Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Royston

48-1
47-0

47-5
47-1
47-3

40-3

397

405
40-2

38-4

55-9
54-4
54-5
54-1
56-1

15-6

147
14 0

i3"9
177

4-3

12-7

14-4

89-4
85-0
86 -o
85-1

88-5

7e
84

^•-1

ins.
20-64
24-13
25-21
23-85
23-06

Berkhamsted ....

St. Albans

Bennington

New Barnet ....

83 1 7-3
83 7-0

83 ' 7-5

84 6-3

County

47 "4 39 "8

55 -o

15-2

4-3

89-4

83 6-9

23-38

XIV.

XOTES OX BIRDS OBSERVED IX HERTFORDSHIRE DIJRIXG

THE YEAR 1892.

By Heney Lewis.

Bead at Watford, 2\st March, 1893.

Last year I was unable to make any addition to our record
of Hortfordsliire birds. On this occasion, however, I am more
fortunate, having, I believe, three birds to add to our list, thus
augmenting the number which have been observed in Hertford-
shire from 202 to 20-5 species.

We are again indebted to the Honourable Walter Rothschild for
all the interesting reports from the neighbourhood of Tring, which
include two of the additions to our list, namely, the long-tailed
duck {Harelda glacial i ft) and the pintail duck {Bafila acuta). In
a letter dated 'l8th Xovember, 1892, he says: "It may be of
interest to the readers of our Transactions if you mention the fact
that this year for the first time we have succeeded in hatching and
rearing young emus, although we have had them in Tring Park
since 1877, and they have laid regularly every year. We now
have seventeen emus in the Park." As all are well aware, the
emu {Dromceus novce-hollandiee) is a native of Australia. There
are two species of the genus. This one nearly equals the ostrich
{Struthio camelus) in size, its height being between five and six
feet. In its manners the emu bears a close resemblance to that
bird. It runs with great swiftness, and we are told that its voice
has a low booming sound. The eggs are six or seven in number,
of a dark green colour, and are much esteemed by the natives as
food. In the same letter Mr. Rothschild says: "In addition to
the male and female rough-legged buzzards killed last autumn, the
keepers caught a third alive, which I still have. He is in splendid
plumage, and a little time back killed and ate a fine female alhino
common buzzard in the same aviaiy." He further states: "We
have on our ground near Wigginton, in a covey of partridges, two
sandy yellow birds, but as yet I have not secured either of them."

I will now proceed to notice the three birds which, it appears to
me, we may add to our list.

1 . The Carolina, American Wood, or Summer Duck [Aix spo7isa).
— Mr. Charles Martin, a taxidermist, living in St. Albans, early
last year asked me if I would call and identify a singular duck
which was shot near Moor Mill by a Mr. Allen, in December, 1891.
After some little trouble I found that it was the American wood
or summer duck.

Mr. Seebohm, in his ' History of British Birds ' (vol. iii, p. 563\
states that this bird has been included in the British list; "but,"
he adds, "as it is frequently kept on ornamental waters, there is
no reason to suppose that it has ever occurred on our islands in a
wild state." Mr. W. S. M. Durban and the Rev. M. A. Mathew,

162 H. LE"niS — NOTES ON BIRDS

however, in their work on 'The Birds of Devon' (p. 221), take a
different view. They state : " This pretty American species is
frequently kept on ponds and ornamental waters, and as it breeds
freely (my specimen I take to be a bird of the year) and roams
about the country at will, it appears to us that it is as much
entitled to a place in the British list as other introduced and
naturalized species, such as the Egyptian goose, mute swan, and
pheasant. All these would soon be exterminated did they not
receive protection, and they are not reallj ferce tiaturce.'^ Audubon,
in his 'Birds of America,' says : " The summer duck confines
itself entirely to fresh water, prefening at all times the secluded
retreats of the ponds, bayous, or creeks which occur so profusely in
our woods. The flight of this species," he adds, "is remarkable
for its speed, and for the ease and elegance with which it is per-
formed." It " passes through the woods, and even among the
branches of trees, with as much facility as the passenger pigeon."
He further states : "I never knew one of these birds to form a nest
on the ground, or on the branches of a tree ; they always seem to
prefer the hollow broken portion of some large marsh, the hole of
our large woodpecker {Picus principalis), or the deserted retreat of
the fox-squirrel ; and I have frequently been surprised to see them
go in and out of a hole of any one of these, when their bodies,
while on the wing, seemed to be nearly half as large again as the
aperture within which they had deposited their eggs."

2. The Pintail Duck i^Dafila acuta). — A male bird of this species
was procured at Tring, on the 14th of February, 1892, and a
female pintail at Marsworth Reservoir, on the 3rd of October.

As I can find no mention in our ' Transactions ' of this bird
having been obtained in Hertfordshire, I regard it as a species new
to this county, and have accordingly added it to our list. I am
rather surprised that I can find no mention of this slender and
handsome duck in any of the late Mr. Littleboy's notes on birds,
for, referring to the last edition of YarrcU's ' British Birds ' (vol.
iv, pp. 380, 381), I find it stated that " it is a regular visitor to
this country, and is one of the first among those species which are
taken when the decoys begin to be worked in October. It remains
here through the winter till spring, and is obtained by wild-fowl
shooters on the coast, as well as by fenmen on the rivers and lakes
of the interior. It does not appear to linger long in the northern
portions of our islands, and cannot in fact be called abundant there ;
but along our southern shores and estuaries it is not uncommon."
"The flight of this species," he also says, "is extremely rapid."
Montague says: "The notes of the pintail are extremely soft and
inward; the courting note is always attended with a jerk of the
head; the other greatly resembles that of a young kitten."

3. The Long-tailed Dfck {Harclda glacialis). — A young long-
tailed duck was procured at Marsworth Reservoir on the 28th of
October, 1892.

I can find no mention of this duck having been recorded on any
previous occasion in our ' Transactions,' so that I have great pleasure

OBSERVED IN HERTS IN 1892. 163

in adding it to our list. It is an autumnal and winter visitor
to our shores. YarrcU (ib., vol. iv, p. 446) says that the great
diversity in the appearance of its plumage depending on sex, age,
or the season of the year, ealls for remark, also the loud musical
note of the male. Tor a description of the habits of this bird, I
cannot do better than (piote from Grey's 'Birds of the West of
Scotland,' (pp. 389, 390), extracts from letters to Mr. Grey from
Mr. Graham, who was residing in lona in the year 1851. He
says: "The cry of this bird is very remarkable, and has obtained
for it the Gaelic name of Lack Bhinn, or the musical duck, which is
most appropriate, for when the voices of a number are heard in
concert, rising and falling, borne along upon the breeze between
the rollings of the surf, the effect is musical, wild, and startling.
The united cry of a large flock sounds very like bagpipes at a
distance, but the note of a single bird when heard very near is
certainly not so agreeable. . . . They are of a very lively and
restless disposition, continually rising on the wing, flying round
and round in circles, chasing one another, hurrying along the
surface, half-flying, half-swimming, and accompanying all these
gambols with their curious cries. When the storms are at their
loudest, and the waves running mountains high, then their glee
seems to reach its highest pitch, and they appear thoroughly to
enjoy the confusion." When watching them on one of these oc-
casions, he adds : "I had to take shelter under a rock from a
dreadful blast, accompanied by very heavy snow, which in a
moment blotted out the whole landscape ; everything was en-
veloped in a shroud of mist and driving sleet ; but fi'om the midst
of the intense gloom there arose the triumphant song of these wild
creatures rising above the uproar of the elements ; and when the
mist lifted, I beheld the whole flock careering about the bay as if
mad with delight."

Miscellaneous [N'otes.

The Blackbiet) (Turdus merida). — Mr. Bolter, of Cuckman's
Farm, caught a blackbird with curiously- coloured wings in a weasel-
trap early last year. On my expressing a desire to see the bird, he
brought me the wings, which, lacking the black colouring matter
in some of the feathers, have a singular appearance.

Tue Gkasshoppee-Wajibler {LocusteUa ncevia). — Our late Presi-
dent, Mr. Hopkinson, reports having heard the grasshopper -warbler
on the 26th of April. It is seldom we obtain a close inspection of
this extremely shy bird, but last spring my son, as well as myself,
were both favoured with an inter\dew. It was early one lovely
spring morning that we heard the bird singing its reeling song,
both while it was creeping mouse-like tkrough the hedge, as well
as when perched on the top of some spray, poui-ing out a volume of
sound ; we were within a few yards of the bird, biit it appeared to
be in too excited a state to care much for our presence. Its song
may be heard in summer, especially during the evenings, but I
have never then seen the bird. Its nest is most difficult to find.

164 H. LEWIS — NOTES ON^ BIRDS

The Spotted Flycatcher {Mmcicapa grisola). — Last summer my
attention was directed by Mrs. Cliai'les Dickinson to a nest built by
a spotted flycatcher on the side of a clover rick. The eggs were
hatched and the young reared, although from the inclination of the
nest I was surprised that the bird did not displace the eggs when
leaving the nest, or that the young did not tumble out.

The Pied Fltcatcher {Iluscicapa atricapilla). — In a communica-
tion I received from Mr. A. C. G. Cameron, of Bedford, he enclosed
an inventory of Hertfordshire quadrupeds, birds, and insects, pre-
served by a Mrs. Young, of Bennington. In the list I find mention
of a pied flycatcher. Although uncommon in Hertfordshire, this
bird is a regular summer migrant, arriving in England in April and
leaving us in September. Mr. J. E. Harting informs us that he
has known several instances of the bird nesting as near London as
at Hampstead, Highgate, and Harrow. I feel persuaded I once
observed a bird of this species near St. Albans, but as I was not
quite sure and did not obtain a second view, I never recorded the
fact.

The Swallow {Ilirundo rusticd). — The following incident relating
to the nesting habits of this beautiful bird of the air, the swallow,
is well worth recording in our ' Transactions.' Through the kind-
ness of Mr. Seymour, a taxidermist of Hertford, I was shown an
old straw hat on which a pair of swallows had built their nests.
The hat was hung on a nail in an old hut which stood in a field on the
estate of Mr. E. S. Hanbury. It is probable that the birds, build-
ing a little on one side of the hat, caused it to become top-heavy,
or tilt on one side, for they fastened the hat to the hut by means of
a dab of mud (like mortar), evidently, I think, to steady it or keep
it in its place, thus showing considerable intelligence on the part of
these little mason builders. They then built another nest on the
hat which, when found, contained four eggs.

The Bullfinch [Pyrrhula europcea). — Mr. Arthur Dickinson, of
New Farm, St. Albans, states that bullfinches have been unusually
abundant in this locality during this autumn and winter, a state-
ment I can fully corroborate. This winter I observed bullfinches
pecking and possibly feeding on the poisonous berries of Solanum
dulcamara. They are fond of ripe privet berries. In confinement
the female of this species will often sing or pipe as well as the
male bird.

The Yellow-Hammee {JEmleriza citrinella), like the robin and
song thrush, and many other birds, I believe to be a "partial
migrant" in this locality. Probably some of our members may
have noticed that they appear to be much more numerous in this
neighbourhood in summer than in winter.

The Nightjar [Caprimulgus europmis). — On the 13th of July
Mr. Charles Dickinson informed me that he had a pair of nightjars
nesting in his wood. Some weeks afterwards I visited the spot
only to find that the young had flown. The bird makes no nest
whatever, but sits on two beautifully-marked eggs on the bare
ground. It rests lengthwise on a branch (or fore and aft as a

OBSERVED IN HERTS IN 1892. 165

sailor wouki say), not crosswise as other birds do. Mr. Cane, of
Luton, writes to mc : "I had a nightjar from your county with
four wini;-s])()ts, a circumstance I have never seen recorded. Al-
though 1 have received numbers of these birds in my time, I have
never seen one like it ; it is a very unusual occurrence."

The Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus) has been reported to me as having
been heard, and in one instance seen, at an unusually early date.
Mr. J. E. Harting, iu ' Our Summer Migrants' (page 219), states :
" In no instance, so far as I am aware, has the cuckoo been heard
or si'on before the 6th of April." The cuckoo was reported in the
'Field' (April 23, 1892, p. 586) to have been heard at Hatheld
on the 2nd of April, 1892. Miss Lewis assures me that both
she and a friend heard it in Hatfield Park on that day; and ]\Ir.
Ernest Gibbs informs me that the bird was heard at Harpenden
on the same day. Sergeant McKay states that it was heard at
Boxmoor on the 4th of April. Mr. Day, one of our postmen,
reports having heard the bird at St. Albans on the 5th of April,
and both Mr. Charles and Mr. Arthur Dickinson heard it at
Beech Bottom on the same day. Mr. Rooper reports having seen
a cuckoo in his garden at "Watford on the 6th of April.

The Peregrine Falcon [Falco peregrinus). — In my last paper a
common buzzard {Buteo vulgaris) was reported, second-hand, by
Mr. Arthur Sparry, as having been "shot at Cole Green . . .
by Mr. Digby." Mr. Sparry, after having seen the bird, states that
he was misinfoiTued, for it proved to be a female peregrine falcon.
I have also seen the bird, and can confirm this determination. I
must confess I am sorry to report the death of so noble a bird, with
its "Tradition of Ages;" why it should be so ruthlessly persecuted
I fail to see.

Lord Lilford remarks*: " The peregrine can and does take groiise
and partridges when she gets a fair chance and is hungry, but it
must be remembered that as a rule she captures her ' quarry ' in
the air, and that our common game-birds just mentioned are of
terrestrial habits and certainly by no means willing to take wing
■when a falcon is in sight, but do their utmost to squat close and
conceal themselves, so that they are by no means the habitual, or
even (in my opinion) a particularly favourite prey of the pere-
grine." He is convinced that pigeons, the smaller species of the
Duck family, especially teal, and wading-birds of all kinds, are the
most usual and most natural food of the falcon, and he adds, "I do
not think that the most ardent lover of the gim should grudge her
a due share of these. Several specimens of this falcon have at
different times been obtained in this county. One, a male bird I
have in my possession, was, tradition affirms, captured years since
in clap-nets by a bird-catcher named George Earr, when pouncing
down on his brace bird. Mr. Sparry informs me of several. One,
killed near Sandridge, came into the possession of a Mr. Eranklin,
of that village ; another was killed at Marshall's Wick by a keeper

* ' Coloured Figures of the Birds of the British Islands,' part xii.

166 H. LEWIS NOTES Olf BIRDS

named Pangboiirn ; and two at least were obtained by the late
Mr. Thrale of No Man's Land, besides those which Mr. Littleboy
has reported.

The Quail {Coturnix comnmnis). — Mr. Seymour informs me that
a quail was shot just before Christmas at Hertingfoi'dbury, by Mr.
Topham of that place. From the numerous accounts in the ' Field '
newspaper of this bird having been obtained in several different
counties in England during last year, it appears to have been un-
usually abundant. Although a summer visitor to this country, a
few appear to remain with us during the winter months.

The following notes on birds, culled from letters I have received
from my friend Mr. Cane, of Luton, may prove of interest, although
the birds may not all have been obtained in Hertfordshire. In a
letter dated the 25th of January, 1892, he states: "I had a land-
rail brought to me on Saturday, taken at Toddington ; there was a
slight injury to one wing, which may account for its prolonged stay
with us, the bird being a summer visitor to our shores." He further
states in the same letter: "I also had brought to me a beautiful
blackbird with an almost white head." In another letter, dated
the 26th of January, he states that a bird-catcher in the previous
week caught a pure white or Albino linnet, and that mountain
finches were abundant in his neighbourhood.

Mr. Arthur Dickinson reports having seen, in K^ovember last,
large flights of wood pigeons (^Columba 2Jnlumbus) and nine wild
geese passing over the New Farm, Harpenden.

The arrival of our summer "Migrants" in this country must
always prove an unusually interesting event to a true lover of
Nature ; especially must this be the case to an ornithologist. That
a feeling of surprise not unmingied with wonder should take pos-
session of our minds is not unnatural on finding ourselves early one
fine spring morning literally surrounded with nightingales, in an
ecstasy of song, in the old spot, where the evening before not one
was to be heard or seen, our little wandering miustrels presenting
themselves to our view, supremely happy, and, with the rivalry of
love, already answering each other in an echo of song. The males
of this species arrive several days in advance of the females ; this
is the case with the grasshopper-warbler, and the greater white-
throat ; in fact the males arrive in most instances among our
Warblers before the females, but in the case of the swallow,
Charles Dixon, in ' Idle Hours with jSTature,' says : " The old birds
are paired for life, and fly the whole distance in company. . . .
Right across the mighty continent of Africa our little party of
swallows travel, lingering here and there in their northern flight"
(p. 21). Dixon also says that the common sandpiper and the
spotted flycatcher pair before they migrate, and that the common
sandpiper "pairs for life, and returns season after season to its old
breeding haunts ; but the young birds pair before leaving their
winter quarters" (p. 61). It is marvellous how a bird so small as
the willow-wren and its congeners can sustain the protracted flights
necessary to bring them from their winter to their summer quarters.

OBSERTED IX HERTS IX 1892. 1G7

Its winter quarters arc " Xortheni Africa and Palestine," but speoi-
niens Inive l)een obtained innn Xatal and Soutb-Avost Africa.* We
8ball be able to show that, in some instances at least, some of our
little friends obtain a kindly lift on their toilsome way. In his
' Sylvan Folk,' Jolm Watson savs : " Dr. Sennep seriously asserts
that numbers of small birds annually hud tlieir way into Palestine,
licinii' borne by cranes ovcu- mountains and seas, which, without
their aid, it would be difficult to cross. Mr. J. E. Harting quotes
this statement, and adds that in tlic autumn flocks of cranes are
seen coming from the north with the first cold blast from that
quartei", flying low, and uttering peculiar cries as they circle over
the cultivated plains. Little birds of different species may be seen
flying up to them ; while the twittering of those already comfort-
ably settled upon their backs is distinctly heard Professor

Claypole. although extremely incredulous at first, had ocular demon-
stration that small birds are sometimes carried by a flock of cranes,
for he saw the former rise from among them at the cHscharge of
a flint-lock. The same gentleman is satisfied, too, that wagtails
and other small migrants cross over from Europe on their southward
migration in a similar manner." Watson also says that Heden-
burg, the Swedish traveller, "was staying at Ehodes in autumn,
and at that season the storks came in flocks over the sea. Whilst
watching these he often heard the notes of small birds ; and on
one occasion he saw several come off the storks' backs." And,
as another instance, that "Dr. Kae, the Arctic traveller, had the
as.'jertion of the Cree Indians that a small passerine bird regularly
availed itself of the migration of the Canada goose to get a lift on
its long journey, and that these little wanderers are freqizently
seen to fly off the backs of the geese, when the latter are shot, or
a gun is fired."

Summer Migrants.

Species. Locality. Date. Observer.

NiGHTi>rGALE Hitrliiii April 4 J. E. liittle.

{Baulias luscinia) St. Albans ,, 10 H. L. & J. L.t

8t. Albans ,, 17 U- IT L +

Harpenrlen ,, 22 J. J. Willis.

Whitethroat St. Albaus May 1 H. L.

{Si/lva cinered)

Blackcap St. Albans April 24 H. L.

[Sijlvia atricapiUa)

Chiff-Chaff St. Albans Mar. 30 H. L. & J. L.

[Phi/llo-scopHs rufi(s)

Willow-Warbler Oaklauds, St.

{Fhyllosropiis trochilus) Albaus April 6 H. L.

Sedge- Warbler St. Albans May 1 11. L.

[Acroreplialns phragmitis)

GR.vssHorpER-WAKBLER HarpondcR April 25 G. Cartmel.

[Locmtvlla ncevia) St. Albans ,, 26 J. Hopkiuson.

* See ' Our Summer Migrants,' by J. E. Ilartintr, pp. 2G and 27.
t Heard the curr several times, but did not see the bird or hear it sing.
+ Bird in song.

168 H. LEWIS NOTES ON BIRDS.

Species. Locality. Date. Obserter.

Tree-Pipit St. Albans April 10 H. L.

{Anthus trivialis) St. Albans ,, 21 A. Lewis.

Harpenden ,, 25 J. J. Willis.

Hitchin ,, 25 J. E. Little.

Berkhamsted Mar. 29 Mrs.E.Mawley.

Spotted Flycatcher Berkhamsted June 17 Mrs.E.Mawley.

{Muscicapa grisola)

Swallow Berkhamsted Oct. 27 Mrs.E.Mawley.

{Hirundo rustica) (last seen).. St. Albans Nov. 6 H. L.

Rickmansworth . . Oct. 26 T.Hope.

House-Martix St. Albans April 11 F. Hibbert.

{Chelidon urbica)

Swift St. Albans May

[Ci/pselus Apus) "Watford ,,

Wryneck Oaklands, St.

[lynx torquilla) Albans April

Cuckoo Hatfield ,,

[Cuculus canorus)

Harpenden ,,

Boxmoor ,,

St. Albans ,,

Watford ,,

Landrail Oaklands, St.

{Crez pratetisis) Albans May 10 H. L.

9....

H. L.

J. L.

H. L.

2....

Miss Lewis &

G. French.

A. E. Gibbs.

Sergt. McKay,

5...

. C.& A. Dickinson,

G. Eooper.

XV.

NOTES ON SOME HERTFORDSHIRE MAMMALIA.

By T. Vaughan Roberts.

Read at Watford, 2Ut March, 1893.

Mr notes on the Mammalia of Hertfoi'dshiro consist of nothing
more than short references to species in the county, and more par-
tieuhirly in this immediate neighbourhood, which have come under
my own observation. None (with the exception of the black variety
of Mas decumanus) can be considered as rare, but possibly it may
be of interest, in one or two cases, to learn the fact of their occur-
rence. I have not attempted to give a list of all the Mammalia
which have been recorded. The ' Transactions ' of the Society fur-
nish particulars of the most interesting occurrences which have been
noticed in former years, and no doubt some day a naturalist will
arise who will be able to give us something like a complete list.
The county does not afford a promising field, it is far too near
London, far too densely populated, and too much cultivated to
make it probable that any of our rarer quadrupeds (with possible
exceptions among the bats) would be likely to be met with.

All my specimens, the skins of which will be exhibited, are of
animals obtained in this locality, and those which are mounted on
cloth have been prepared for me by Mr. Bowers, of Watford, and
I tliink reflect great credit on his skill as a taxidermist.*

The first in order of the Mammalia are the bats. The one I
exhibit was knocked down by my son in his bedroom at Verulam
House. It is the long-eared bat {Plecotus auritus), a common
species, and one of the three which, as mentioned by Mr. Rooper
in his paper on ' Bats and some other Beasts,' would be likely to
be noticed. I have no doubt from enquiries I have made that the
great bat or noctule {Scotopkilus noctula), another of the species
mentioned, is found about "Watford, but I have not succeeded in
obtaining a specimen. The remaining species, the common bat or
pipistrelle {Scotopkilus pijiistrellus), referred to by him, occurs
everywhere. As stated by Mr. Rooper, the order of the Cheiro-
ptera is an extremely interesting one, but it is a veiy difficult one to
study. It is by no means easy to identify the various species, and
exceedingly difficult (at least I find it so) to obtain specimens. I
have tried in various quarters but have so far met with no success.
I should be grateful for any bats that appear to belong to any other
species than the common one, and would endeavour to get them
properly identified. I may observe that the long-eared bat is, as was
remarked by Mr. Rooper, one of the most interesting of the family.
It appears to be very easily tamed, becoming familiar with those
who feed and fondle it, almost from the first. Professor Bell

* These remarks, and otliers of a similar nature, refer to specimens exhibited
by the auth(jr at the meeting, during the reading of his paper. — Ed.

VOL. VII. — PAKT VI. 13

170 T. V. EOBEETS — HEETFOKDSHERE MAMMALIA.

describes one that used to flit about a room and would take a fly
from its mistress's lips in the gentlest manner, alighting on her
cheek. These bats are playful in confinement, and their somewhat
uncouth gambols are very amusing. They are very clean, and
spend much time in combing their hair with their claws. When
asleep the large ears are folded down so that there is no sign of
them. The species is often found in the roofs of houses, nesting
between tiles.

The hedgehog {Erinaceus eiiropmis) appears to be partial to gar-
ens in Watford. In my friend Mrs. Bishop's grounds I was shown
two nests formed for hybernating, one in a hedge partially protected
by the roots of the trees, and the other under a heap of branches
and sticks lying against an outhouse. Each nest was formed in
the same maimer, the interior full of dry leaves, and the whole
encased with grass, just like the outside of some birds' nests. A
slight hollow or depression in the ground was made in each case as
the foundation. The nest in the hedge had been disturbed, and the
occupant had left it, but we found a hedgehog in the other one,
which we took out and afterwards put back. Hedgehogs specially
affect haystacks and outhouses, where straw, turnips, and other
things are kept, and they have often made their nests inside an
outhouse in Mrs. Bishop's grounds. In the ' Zoologist ' for Septem-
ber, 1887, an account appears of hedgehogs eating swedes. This
may account for their taking up their quarters in Mrs. Bishop's
outhouse where mangolds or swedes were stored. In 1891 a female
with yoimg was found in Mr. Sumner Knyvett's walled garden
under a pile of wood formed of sawn trees. It must have entered
from the Clarendon Road.

I have seen a few specimens of the common shrew ( Sorex vulgaris)
dead on paths, but not many. I have also seen the water-shrew
{Crossopus fodiens) in a small brook on Mr. Stone's farm near Cassio
Bridge. They are interesting little creatures to watch when one
gets the chance. They swim under water with great facility. My
friend Mr. Fry tells me that he has noticed water-shrews in the
Gade in Cassiobury Park.

As mentioned in my paper on ' Terrestrial British Quadrupeds,'
badgers {Meles taxus) are not imcommon in Hertfordshire. In
December, 1891, I paid a visit to the celebrated badger earths at
Ashlyns. I was taken to see them by Mr. HoUiday, of Haresfoot.
He told me that his father, who had lived all his life in the
locality, died some years ago at the age of 93, so that he could
carry his recollection and knowledge of the earths back for a period
of about 100 years from the present time; and he knew that badgers
had inhabited the spot as far back as memories and traditions went.
The place in question is a large depression or wide pit in the chalk,
with beech trees growing in and around it. It may be natural, or
the ground may have been dug out at some distant period. The en-
trances to the main earths are situated at one side where the ground
rises. The holes run in various directions, but all terminate (it is
said) in a large chamber some distance off, excavated under the

T. V. ROBERTS — nEETFORDSnTRE MAMMALIA. 171

bcccli trees gTowing on the high ground which forms that side of
the depression. Some three or four years ago a determined attempt
was made to exterminate the badgers in order to get rid of the
mange in the foxes that used the earths. Great excavations were
made and vast quantities of chalk removed, but the attempt had to
be abandoned. I forget how many men were employed, but I
think tliey were at work for twelve days. The runs were found
in numerous directions and at considerable depths; one cutting
made by the workmen, that I went into, must have been eight or
nine feet deep, and there were runs all along the bottom. A
chamber was also found supported by a pillar left in the centre.
Foxes, badgers, and rabbits all use this great earth. Mr. HoUiday
told me that he had frequently watched both fox and badger cubs
playing together outside. We went to see another very similar but
smaller earth, also in a depression in a beech grove, with the holes
formed on the highest side and running into the chalk under the
roots of the trees. Mr. Holliday entirely confirms Mr. St. John's
statement as to the extreme cleanliness of the badger in its abode.
An inspection of these earths gave one an excellent idea of the
resources of badgers, and of the almost impossibility of destroying
them when the locality chosen for their abode happens to be one
well adapted for their habits. The extent of their runs and the
great depth at which they occurred rendered even this most vigorous
attempt futile. I hope and believe that now they will be suffered
to remain in peace, and that the prescriptive right of such ancient
inhabitants to their stronghold will be respected.

Foxes ( Canis vulpes) have, as we all know, been credited from
remote antiquity with ingenuity in the art of getting out of wells.
One was found at the bottom of a well in the ice-house at Ashlyns.
Mr. Holliday got a ladder, went down, and brought it up under
his arm. The animal appeared quite to grasp the situation, did
not attempt to bite, but merely looked up at him with its wonder-
fully bright eyes. On reaching the surface it was of course
liberated.

The extraordinary courage of the weasel [Mustela vulgaris) is
well knovsTi. Osgood, Mr. Hucks Gibbs' keeper, tells me that
when feeding his young pheasants he has actually killed with his
foot one that had come close to him through the grass after the
birds, and had seen others at the same time.

Both stoats and weasels seem to be commoner in this locality
than might be expected. Osgood tells me that he has killed as
many as fifty stoats (^Mustela erminea) in one year, a number which
strikes me as being very large in such a country as this. The
exceptionally fine specimen of a stoat exhibited I obtained from
him. It was shot near Aldenham. A comparison between this
skin and another which may be taken to represent the normal size
of a stoat will show what a singularly fine animal the Aldenham
specimen was. The keeper told me that he had no recollection of
ever having seen a larger one. Stoats, he tells me, often prodiice
ten or twelve young at a litter. He has frequently killed as many.

172 T. V. EOEEETS HEETFOEDSHIEE MAMMALIA.

On one occasion lie killed with a stick three young ones out of a
number that were on a path, and before he could fetch his gun,
which was near, the dam had carried away her dead little ones.

I exhibit from this neighbourhood a squirrel {Scinrns vulgaris),
which is I think a fine specimen. Also a dormouse {Myoxus avel-
lanarius) which was taken near Aldenham. I fancy the species is
not very abimdant in the comity. It is said in the ' Zoologist ' for
December, 1887, that donnice are veiy common in nut-rows on
Buckland Common, on the borders of Buckinghamshire, adjoining
Hertfordshire. At Haresfoot I was told that a nest had been found
many years ago, but that none had been noticed since.

Mr. Cane, the ornithologist, of Luton, in January, 1892, informed
Mr. Lewis of a black rat which had been taken near Wheathamp-
stead, and which appeared to him to be the Mtis hibernicus of
Thompson. This is a black rat with a white chest, specimens of
which have been found in Ireland, and as to which a good deal
of controversy has arisen among naturalists, some considering it a
distinct species and others only a variety. Mr. Cane compared this
specimen most carefully with the plates and descriptions in the
' Zoologist,' and could see no difference between it and those desig-
nated Mus hihernicus. I paid him a visit and took a careful note of
the various markings and peculiarities of the specimen which he
had stuffed. I sent these particulars to Mr. Oldfield Thomas, of the
British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, who is a
recognised authority on these matters. In reply he wrote: "To
the best of my belief Mus hihernicus is nothing more than a melanoid
variety of the common grey rat {Mus decumanus). Its spasmodic
occurrence wherever the latter is found is therefore only to be ex-
pected, but the Luton [Wheathampstead] case is interesting as
showing that the form does occur in England."

The water-vole (Arvicola amj)}iihia) exhibited came to its end
in a rather curious manner. It was started on the island lying
between the backwater and the canal at Russell Farm, near Wat-
ford, the island being connected with the farmyard by a plank-
bridge. The vole ran all along the bridge right into the jaws of
a cat which was waiting at the other end. AYhat induced an
animal so amphibious to cross the bridge instead of jumping into
the stream where it would have been safe it is hard to say. Here
and there on the banks of the Colne, regular runs may be noticed
leading from the water-side to trees or hedges (often at a consider-
able distance) where rat-holes are visible, and sometimes at the
entrance to these holes grain or acoms may be noticed. I have not
been able to ascertain whether these runs are made by the common
grey rat or by the water-voles. To decide the question one would
have to ferret the holes, and I have been unable to obtain per-
mission to do so in the most likely places.

The difference between the bank -vole and its congener the field-
vole (Arvicola agrestis) will be seen from the specimen. The tail
of the bank -vole, it will be observed, is longer, and the head less
blunt and vole-like, but the latter characteristic, although apparent

T, T. EOBEETS — nERTFOUDSniUE MAMMALIA. 173

iu living: spooimons, is not very obsorvablo in the mounted skins.
As ivii'iirds the tield-vole or short-tailed tiehl-inouso, as it is gener-
ally termed, I should be g;lad of a specimen measnring six inches
froTU the nose to the root of the tail. They are often found of this
size, but I have seen none hereabouts.

Last March, when I was away from home, a box arrived marked
"Live Mice." It was brought into the drawing-room, where my
wife and some other ladies were assembled at a working party. I
regret to say that so far from any rational scientific interest being
exhibited in the arrival, screams and entreaties that the box might
not be opened, were the only welcome accorded the little strangers.
They turned out to be a consignment of bank-voles {Arvicola
glareolus) from Haresfoot Farm. They were found in a nest formed
in a heap of mangolds. There were a great number of them, and
the men caught in their hands those that were sent to me. I had
a cage made for them in three compartments, one for sleeping,
another for food, and at the end a revolving wheel, on the lolan of
the ordinary dormouse-cages, but on a larger scale. It was most
interesting and amusing to note the first experiments the little
creatures made with the wheel. They quickly discovered the hole
through wliich they could get inside it, but at first were greatly
puzzled and frightened at the motion. Very speedily, however,
they discovered that they could make it revolve, and then their
delight was iinbounded. They never seemed to tire of working it
night and day ; some were always at work, and often three or four
would be in at the same time. If one approached to look at them
they might bolt out for a moment, but would immediately return.
On July 23rd I foimd two young ones, evidently just born, on the
platform under the wheel. They had slipped through the wires.
On putting them into the sleeping-place I saw another. When the
little gild who attended to them used to drive those which happened
to be outside into the sleeping-place, in order to clean out the
middle compartment, she occasionally heard sounds of fighting. On
the 26th of July, on raising the trap-door that shuts off the sleeping-
place, after the cleaning had been finished, one rushed out bleeding
in the head, and was followed by the mother with a young one in
her mouth. The wounded one I found dead the next morning.
Our idea was that it had attacked the little ones and been bitten
by the mother. On the 6th of August I opened the sleeping-com-
partment and found three little ones covered with hair and lively
enough. The young ones soon found out the revolving wheel, but
their mother apparently disapproved or considered it to be too
dangerous. It was amusing to see her follow them, seize them
in her mouth, and hustle them into their sleeping-nest. One young
one was, however, very persistent, and kept running back, but his
mother followed, and not only carried him back to the sleeping-
place, but shook him and thumped him on the floor on the way,
evidently as a means of con-ection. A second family soon appeared,
when I thought it time to get rid of them. I fed them on com,
bread, apples, carrots, gooseberries, etc., with plenty of water.

174 T. Y. EOBEETS — HEETFOEDSHIRE MAMMAUA.

They seemed in perfect health, which I attributed mainly to the
wheel, as through this they got as much exercise as they liked.

The animals I have mentioned are the only ones about which I
have any remarks to make. I shall be grateful to any members of
the Society who will kindly send me information as to any species
which either by reason of rarity or peculiarity may be thought to
possess an interest, and if the animal itself can be sent so much the
better. As regards the question of whether a specimen should be
sent alive or dead, this I must leave to the discretion of the sender,
begging only that due regard may be had to feminine suscepti-
bilities.

XVI.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEX AT THE GRANGE,
ST. ALBANS, DURING THE YEAR 1892.

By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at TFat/ord, 18th April, 1893.

Longitude of Station, 0° 20' 7" W. ; Latitude, 51° 45' 9" N.
Cistern of barometer 388 feet, ground-level at thermometer-screcu
380 feet, and at rain-gauge 379 feet, above Ordnance Datum.
Thermometers (in Stevenson screen) 4 feet, and top of rain-gauge
1 foot, above tbe ground. Observations taken at 9 a.m.

The accompanying tables (pp. 176, 177) give the monthly means,
etc., of the daily observations in 1892, and the following is the
usual summary for the seasons.

Means foe the Seasons from Dec. 1891 to Nov. 1892.

Seasons,
1891-92.

Pressure.

Tempe
Mean.

rafrure.

Daily
Range.

Tension

of
Vapour.

Humi-
dity.

Rail
Total.

ifall.
Days.

Cloud,
0-10.

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

ins.
29-892
30-034
29-993
29939

37 -o

45 '4

58-5
47-6

II-6
17-6
17-2
12-0

in.

•192

•224

•367
•297

°l
1°
90

74
89

ins.

6-53
3-57

8-55
971

56
34
39
56

6-3

5-2

7-0

In the next table the chief results, monthly and annual, are
compared vrith the means for the ten years 1877-86 at Watford.

Difference in 1892 from Means of 1877-86 at Watford.

Months.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Tension

. of
Vapour.

Humi-
dity.

Rainfall.

Cloud,
0-10.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

in.

ins.

January

— •142

—1-8

+1-5

— •017

— 1-60

+ I

—1-6

February

— -150

— 2-2

— O'l

— •028

—1-07

+ I

—0-4

March

4- -069

—47

—1-4

— •037

— 0-30

+ I

— 0-2

April

+ ■159

—0-2

+4-5

— ■035

— 8

-1-51

— 5

—2-8

May

+ 056

+17

+0-4

— -ooi

— 5

— 1-07

— 4

-0-6

June

-f-041

-1-8

+0-2

—•028

—0-32

— 0-6

July

+ ■072

—2-9

— i-i

— -050

—0-22

- 5

—0-4

August

+ -014

— o"5

-f-o-9

-•015

— I

+I-08

-- I

— 0-8

September

-J--02I

— IT

— 2-1

— -003

+ 3

-fo-82

-- I

+0-5

October

--187

-3-8

—1-4

—■039

+ I

4-1-17

-- 7

+0-1

November

-f-i68

+ 1-2

-2-3

+•025

+ 5

-0-97

+I-I

December

-f-050

—2-4

+0-1

—•022

— 1-13

- 3

—1-4

Year

+-014

—1-5

— O'l

—•021

—5-12

- 5

— 06

176

J. HOPKINSON' METEOEOLOGICAX OBSEETATIONS

.!?;

E-i'
O

CO
o

M
H

-«)

o
o

O
H

pi)

i g'si-

-^O

r-T\

r--

,_^

^ •" 3 --

o 0^

C/l

t-^

P^^K-^

.2 3

r-^

■rh

r-»

02 =4-1 O

a ^

r/o

r--

"-)

()

u-1

c o eij

•^

1-1

<» S^

•

■

•

■

H ^

O)
V

IT)

t-1

1 o

'^ NO

r^ «

I-H

Abs

hit

Ean

° Vt

■Ln

ro O

•* rr -*

„

ri- uo Tf ro ro

■4->

"5:

-C

_ r-j

•1

■* "-

ro t^

\r^

ro w

•^

t— >

ro »0 CO

•*

0 i-i

On On 00

1-0

l/^

t-» !>. t^ r~- t^

•4-)

<-]

-13

,fi

c-i

u-l *^ lO 7^

=i^

•^

'"'

u-l

I-I

•

ON DO

-II

• S

o vo

I-^ ON lO ro N

)-H

ro '^ •^

I-I

gi^fco

On u-> ro "

I-I

^i? g

° o

»-H

I-I

(—1

(S!

.'^

ON (XI

t^ ro u-i

CNl

■<

c <u

xo ro ^

'rf

W-

»o

•<i- lO lO VO NO

•<^

Ti-

Tl-

Ti-

Ul lO >0

-^ o

° b

lO NO

Tj-

'd-

U^ NO

Tt-

Tj-

ro ro 00

P«

t-~

° ON

lo Tj- r^ O

CJN

CO r}- -^^ W-) U-)

rj-

1-^

u-i CO

° '^

lo tJ- r^ 00

Vl-

-^ lO VO lO NO

IT)

Tj-

H ■ P4

u-1

lO >-

■* lO

> W P Ph

,^ ^^

•+

ro ^

■^

C7N

OF T
ATM
3PHE

gcO

t-^

■" a\

CO ro ro ro N

tq
o

1-5

t— :

-> fcO

-2

S-l

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IX 1892.

177

^ U-)

t^ iri

I-t

■^

t~. t^

1-1

P»

m N

hi4

1-4

" o

l_,

1.4

»-i

ro (T)

1-1

NO
N

M ro

rt-

I.H

<:*-

I.H

"I ro

li->

I.H

\r^

Tt-

^2;

ro 1-1

■Ln

>-*

d 5^ ,•

y> vp

1-4

1.H

Ti-

r* ^ o

«4-<

aj CO

u-> vo

iri

> cS

NH N^

1-1

1-4

1-^

1— 1

1-4

■4-4

O "

1-1

J-"

o
d

12;

J s^

O '^f

u-i

002

g§0

O N

„

J 27

vO t^

w->

iri

t-^

s^ =>

-a1

C\ OO

>-,

s a

CO o

«4-l

Eain

or
Snow.

00 00

1-4 1-4

1.^

1-1

i-i

Tt-

1-1

'^ /i

r-i

1-1

I-*

r->

r-<

.2 .

N O

•J^

t-^

•— ' ;-«

^ N

1-1

•^

1-1

"rt g

'^ 2

^5;

in vo

lJ^

w ro

_-n|-

H- 1

i-t

I-t

'cs — < ,;;

On rq

u-l

Tl-

On lO

c/o

w->

*-•

rj-

•■^

VO
N

January

February

a
a

>-5

1-5

a
fco

u
1

-4-3

S3
c

ta
S

;-4

178

J. HOPKINSON METEOEOLOGICAi OBSERVATIONS

The mean temperature of the year was very low. The mean
daily range of temperature was about the average. There were no
high maxima, the extreme being 79°-8 in June ; but in each of the
three winter months there were rather low minima, the lowest
being 16°-1 in December. The temperature was below the average
in every season, the summer being particularly cold, and the only
months in which it was above the average were May and November.
While these were comparatively much the warmest months in the
year, March and October were comparatively much the coldest,
March being l°-2 colder than February, and October being only
1°'3 warmer than November. The mean pressure of the atmosphere
was slightly above the average of that of the ten years 1877-86 at
Watford. The lowest pressure recorded at 9 a.m. was 29*136 ins.
on 18th February, and the highest was 30'601 ins. on 31st March,
giving a range of 1-465 in. The rainfall was considerably below
the average of that of the ten years 1877-86, and a little below a
long-period average, but rain fell on nearly the usual number of
days. August, September, and October were very wet months ;
January and April were very dry. The air had an average
humidity, and the sky, except in autumn, was comparatively free
from cloud. South-westerly winds were as usual much the most
frequent, but southerly winds were less frequent than usual.

In the winter of 1891-92 (Dec. to Feb.) the mean pressure of
the atmosphere was rather low, the mean temperature was low,
with a considerable mean daily range, and the rainfall was about
the average. In the spring (March to May) the mean pressure
was rather high, the mean temperature was low, with a consider-
able mean daily range, the air was dry, and the rainfall was very
small. In the summer (June to August) the mean pressure was
a little above the average, the mean temperature was very low,
with an average mean daily range, and the rainfall was about the
average. In the autumn (Sept. to Nov.) the mean pressure was
almost exactly the average, the mean temperature was low, with
a small mean daily range, the air was moist, and the rainfall was
heavy. Rain fell on many days in winter and autumn, and on but
few in spring and summer.

The difference between these seasons and the means of the
seasons for 1877-86 at Watford is shown in the following table.

Difference m 1891-92 from Means of 1877-86 at Watford.

Seasons,
1891-92.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Tension

of
Vapour.

Humi-
dity.

Rainfall.

Cloud,
0-10.

Mean.

Daily
Range.

Total.

Days.

"Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

ins.
— -092

+ ■095
+ ■042

-|--002

—II
— i-i

—17
— 13

0
+ 1-6

+ 1-2

—1-9

in.

— 'Oil

— •024
-•031
—•006

— 4

— I

+ 3

ins.
—0-28
—2-88
+0-44

-f I-02

±i

— 4

+ 8

— i-i

— 1*2
— 06

+0-5

taken at st. albans in 1892. 179

Notes on the Months.

jANrART. — Cold and bright, with an atmosphere of average
humidity and rather low pressure, and a small rainfall (about half
in the form of snow) on a considerable number of days. The ten
days 7th to 16th were very cold, having a mean temperature of
27°-7 (9 a.m. 27°-2, max. 33°-5, min. 23°-3). Coldest day 12th,
mean 22°-8 ; warmest day 30th, mean 46°-6. Min. below 32° on
20 days, below 22° on 3 (12th, 13th, and 16th); max. above 42°
on 15 days (below 32° on 14th). There was a "silver thaw" on
the 17th.

Febrtjaet. — Cold and rather cloudy, with an atmosphere of
average humidity and low pressure, and a rather small rainfall
(mostly in the form of snow) on a considerable number of days.
The four days 16th to 19th were exceedingly cold, having a mean
temperature* of 25°-6 (9 a.m. 24°-4, max. 33°-0, min. 19°-3).
Coldest day 17th, mean 23°-2 : warmest dav 7th, mean 46°-6,
Min. below 32° on 10 days, below 22° on 3 (17th, 18th, and 19th);
max. above 42° on 18 days (below 32° on 19th).

March. — Teiy cold and rather bi'ight, with an atmosphere of
normal humidity and rather high pressure, and a rather small rain-
fall (about two-fifths in the form of snow) on an average number
of days. The first half of the month was very much colder than
the last half, the mean temperature for the first fifteen days being
31°-1 (9 a.m. 30°-7, max. 36°-6, min. 25°-9), and for the last six-
teen days 41°-3 (9 a.m. 40°-5, max. 49°-7, min. 33°-8). Coldest
day 3rd, mean 28°-0 ; warmest day 18th, mean45°-8. Min. below
32° on 19 days, below 22° on 2 (9th and 10th) ; max. above 52° on
7 days (below 32° on 2nd and 4th).

April. — Of about average temperature and very bright, with a
very dry atmosphere of rather high pressure, and a small rainfall
(one fourth in the fonn of snow) on a small number of days. From
28th March to 11th April (15 days) no rain or snow fell, this being
the longest di'ought in the year. The eight days 12th to 19th were
very cold, ha^'ing a mean temperature of 37°'8 (9 a.m. 36°-8, max.
45°-5, min. 31°-1). Coldest day 14th, mean 35°'3 ; warmest day
5th, mean 55°-4. Min. below 42° on 26 days, below 32° on 7;
max. above 52° on 18 days, above 62° on 12.

Mat. — Rather warm and bright, with a very dry atmosphere of
rather high pressure, and a rather small rainfall on a small
number of days, l^o rain fell from 5th to 12th (8 days). The
first seven days were very cold, having a mean temperature of
43°-6 (9 a.m. 44°-7, max. 50°-5, min. 35°-5), and the last eight
davs were very warm, their mean temperature being 63°*4 (9 a.m.
64°-0, max. 72°-7, min. 53°-4). Coldest day 6th, mean 41°-3;
warmest day 31st, mean 69°0. Min. below 42° on 15 days, below
32° on one day (7th); max. above 52° on 26 davs, above 62° on
17, above 72° on 4 (25th, 28th, 30th, and 31st). There were
thunderstorms on 25th, with 0-51 in. of rain, and 26th, with
0-31 in.

180 J. HOPKINSON METEOEOLOGICAL OBSEEVATIONS

JxjKE. — Cold and bright, with an atmosphere of normal humidity
and pressure, and an average rainfall on the usual number of days.
There were two warm periods, 6th to 10th (5 days), mean tempera-
ture 61°-9, and 26th to 28th (3 days), mean 64°- 1. Coldest day
14th, mean 47°-3 ; warmest day lO'th, mean 67°-2. Min. below
52° on 24 days, below 42° on 8 ; max. above 62° on 20 days, above
72° on 6. There was a white frost on the morning of the 15th,
disappearing before 9 a.m., and a severe thunderstorm on the 28th,
when 0'63 in. of rain fell, and a house in St. Albans, and several
trees around, were struck by the lightning.

July. — Cold and rather bright, with an atmosphere of normal
humidity and rather high pressure, and an average rainfall on a
small number of days. From 2Uth to 30th (11 days) no rain fell.
Coldest day 19th, mean 51°-5 ; warmest day 3rd, mean 69°-2. Min.
below 52° on 25 days ; max. above 62° on 25 days, above 72° on 4
(2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 23rd).

August. — Of nearly average temperature and rather bright, with
an atmosphere of normal humidity and pressure, and a very heavy
rainfall, though on about an average number of days. Coldest day
10th, mean 54°-0 ; warmest day 17th, mean 67°'5. Min. below
52° on 16 days ; max. above 62° on 28 days, above 72° on 8 (12th,
14th, 15th, 17th, and 21st to 24th). There were thunderstorms
on 18th, with I'OO in, of rain; on 23rd, with 0*10 in. ; and on
27th, with 1-55 in.

Septembek. — Rather cold and clondy, with a humid atmosphere
of average pressure, and a heavy rainfall on the usual number of
days. The last three days were very cold, ha\dng a mean tempera-
ture of 49°-8. Coldest day 29th, mean 48°-5 ; warmest day 13th,
mean 62°-7. Min. below 42° on 4 days; max. above 62° on 16
days. There was a white frost on the morning of the 18th, dis-
appearing before 9 a.m., and thunderstorms occurred on 19th, with
0-71 in. of rain; 20th, with 0'23 in. ; and 21st, with 073 in.

October. — Yery cold, with a rather humid atmosphere of very
low pressure, and an excessively heavy rainfall on a very large num-
ber of days. Eain fell every day from 12th to 21st (10 days), and
for the last seven days in the month, the fall during tliis period
including 087 in. on 27th, 0-76 in. on 28th, and 0-86 in. on 30th.
The coldest period was from 18th to 26th (9 days), the mean
temperature being 39°-5. Min. below 42° on 25 days, below 32°
on 2 (24th and 26th) ; max. above 52° on 14 days. The first frost of
the winter was on 24th (min. 26°- 5). On this morning the mul-
berry tree in my garden was almost completely stripped of its leaves
by a single gust of wind.

November. — Rather warm and cloudy, with a very humid atmo-
sphere of unusually high pressure, and a rather small rainfall on
a considerable number of days. Coldest day 2nd, mean 34°'6 ;
warmest days 5th, mean 52°-5, 14th, mean 52°-4, and 15th, mean
52° 6. Min. below 42° on 23 days, below 32° on 4 (2nd, 3rd, 8th,
and 21st) ; max. above 52° on 7 days (2nd to 5th, and 13th to
15th). There was a dense mist on 2nd and 8th.

TAKEN AT ST. ALBANS IN 1892. 181

Decembku. — Cold and bviglit, with an atmosphere of averap;c
huniidity and rather high pressure, and a small rainfall (more than
half in the form of snow) on about the usual number of days.
No rain or snow fell from 17th to 30th (14 days). The last eight
days were very cold, having a mean temperature of 26°'0 (9 a.m.
24°-6, max. 32°-8, min. 20°-7). Coldest days 28th, mean 22°-6,
29th, mean 23°'5, and 30th, mean 24°-6 ; warmest day 15th, mean
46°-6. Min. below 32^ on 17 days, below 22° on 5; max. above
62° on one day (15th) (below 32° on 28th, 29th, and 30th).

XVII.

EEPORT ON PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA OBSERVED IN
HERTFORDSHIRE DURING THE YEAR 1892.

By Edwaud Mawley, F.E.Met.Soc, F.R.H.S.,

Phenological Recorder to the Royal Meteorological Society.

Mead at Watford, IMh April, 1893.

The localities represented in this Report are the same as in the
previous one, viz. : —

Station. Height above Observer.

bea- level.

St. Albans (Malvern House) 300 feet Miss E. F. Smith.

St. Albans (St. Peter's Street) 380 ,, Hemy Lewis.

Great Berkhamsted 400

Harpenden 370

Hertford 140

Hitchiu 230

Mrs. E. Mawley.
J. J. WUlis.
W. Graveson.
J. E. Little, M.A.

In answer to a recent appeal made to the members of the Society,
several residing in other parts of the county have very kiadly
come forward and offered their services as observers. To these
volunteers my best thanks are due, as well as to those members
previously on our staif who have been so good as to supply me
with materials for the present report. Additional observers are,
however, still required if the different districts in our county are
to be adequately represented. The desirability of numerous ob-
serving-stations will be seen on reference to Table I, where an
unfortunate gap will be noticed in the returns from Hertford in
the middle of the flowering season, and another unfortunate gap
in the Hitchin returns at the beginning of it. Now both these
stations being early ones, the mean records for the county for
the plants affected by the missing observations must necessarily
come out somewhat later than they otherwise would have done.
Had we more stations, a missing observation here and there would
of course be less seriously felt. This Table also shows how
important it is that oiir present staff of observers should send in
each year as complete returns as they possibly can.

The order in which the plants came into flower at the different
stations varies but slightly from that given in the previous
Report: — 1, Hertford; 2, Hitchin; 3, Harpenden; 4, St. Albans;
and 5, Berkhamsted; the only difference being that in 1892
Harpenden was slightly in advance of St. Albans instead of
immediately following it. So that as a rule the higher the
station above sea-level, the later have again been the dates of
flowering recorded.

The Wintee of 1891-92.

Throughout the first half of December, 1891, the weather
continued very mild, but shortly before Christmas a sharp frost
lasting about ten days set in. During this frost very little rain

E. MAWIEY PHEIfOLOGICAL PHENOMENA IN 1892.

183

Table I. — Dates of Flowering of Plants observed in 1892, with
THE Mean Date for 1876-91.

Species.

St.
Albans.

Malveru
House.

Hazel

Coltsfoot

Wood- Anemone

Blackthorn

Garlic Hedge-Mustard

Horse-Chestnut

Hawthorn

Wliite Ox-Eye

Dog-Rose

Black Knapweed

Harebell

Greater Bindweed

Ivy

Apl. 9
Apl. 24
May 26
May 17
May 19
June 10

July 15
July 15
Sept. 24

Beuk-

HAMSTEU.

Feb. 15
Mar. 13
Apl. 8
Apl. 20
Apl. 25
May 22
May 25
May 28
June 6
July 1
July 10
July 1

IIar-

PENDEN.

Jan. 31
Mar. 18
Apl. 1
Apl. 13
Apl. 24
May 16
May 22
May 25
June 1
June 16
July 4
July 8

Hert-

FOKD.

HiTCHIN.

Mean,
1876-91.

Jan. 21

Jan. 27

Feb. 9

Feb. 25

Mar. 20

Mar. 18

Apl. 10

Apl. 2

Apl. 15

Apl. 20

May 17

May 11

May 15

May 24

May 20

June 1

June 5

July 8

June 20

July 21

July 3

July 5

July 15

July 20

July 8

Sept. 18

Sept. 30

Sept. 26

Table II. — Earliest Dates of Observation of Birds and Insects
IN 1892, "WITH THE Mean Date for 1876-91.

Species.

Birds.
Song-Thrush

Swallow

Cuckoo

Nightingale

Spotted Flycatcher

Swallow (last seen)

Insects,
Honey-Bee

Wasp

Small White Butterfly

Orange-Tip Butterfly

Meadow -Brown Butterfly

St. Albans.

Malvern
House.

Apl. 24

Feb. 10

May 23

St.Peter's
Street.

Feb. 5
Apl. 21
Apl. 6
Apl. 17

Nov. 6

Berk-

HAMSTED.

Jan. 31
Mar. 29
Apl. 28
May 1
June 17
Oct. 27

Jan. 28
Apl. 6
Apl. 2
May 9
May 17

Har-

penden.

Feb. 4

Apl. 25

Apl. 20

Apl. 22

May 30

HiTCHIN

Jan. 25

Apl. 25

Apl. 24

Apl. 4

Jan. 30

Apl. 22

Apl. 8

May 13

Mean,
1876-91.

Jan. 14

Apl. 12

Apl. 13

Apl. 15

Mar. 18
Mar. 19
Apl. 2
May 21

184 E. MA.WXEY — PHENOLOGICAX PHENOMENA

fell, but in the rest of the month there was only one perfectly
dry day, while the rainfall often proved very heavy. January
was cold and dry, the sharpest frosts taking place about the
middle of the month. In February there occurred during the
end of the third week the keenest frosts of the winter — the
exposed thermometer indicating at Berkhamsted on two occasions
between 26° and 27° of frost. Rain and snow fell at frequent
intervals, but the aggregate amount entering the rain-gauge was
short of the average for the month.

The Christmas frosts came upon all vegetable growths after
a long spell of unseasonably warm weather and when the soil
had become saturated by constant rain, and consequently at a time
when delicate plants were least prepared to resist them. Had
these frosts been more severe, considerable damage must un-
doubtedly have been done. Fortunately after this time the
ground never became sufficiently warm during the rest of the
season to awake them from their winter slumbers. The usual
winter farming operations were greatly interrupted, at first by
the sodden state of the soil, and afterwards by frost.

Taking the mean date at the three stations sending in returns
for these plants, the hazel was first in flower on February 2nd or
six days later, and the coltsfoot on March 4th or eight days later
than the adopted average for the county given in the last column
of Table I. In my own garden at Berkhamsted the last rose-
bloom of the year was destroyed by frost on December 20th, or
nineteen days later than the average date of its destruction in
the previous six years. In the same garden the winter aconite
first came into blossom on January 25th, which is seventeen days
earlier than in the previous year. The mean date when the song-
thrush was first heard is eighteen days late, while the honey-bee
first appeared among flowers twenty-two days later than usual.

The Speing.

This season was chiefly remarkable for the cold, diy, and sunny
weather which prevailed during the greater part of it. March
proved particularly cold for a spring month ; while April was also
cold, but no sooner had May been entered upon than the tempera-
ture began gradually to rise, and towards its close the weather
was quite summerlike.

Notwithstanding the long continuance of bright sunshine, the
ground remained singularly cold and dry until about the middle of
May, when some welcome rains arrived, which started everything
into rapid growth. Until this period, owing to the cold weather
and the absence of rain, the growth of both field and garden crops
remained almost at a complete standstill. The pastures especially
presented a very bare appearance. The fruit and other fioweiing
trees blossomed late and very irregularly, in some places being
loaded with blossom while in others there was but a scanty show.
As in the previous spiing, farmers were sorely taxed to find
sufficient green food for their cattle and sheep. On the other hand,

OBSERVED IX HEnTFORDSHIRE IX 1892. 185

the land again worked splendidly, and consequently spring corn
and other seeds -were got in under the most favourable conditions.

The s]>ring flowers on the list were all more or less late in
making their appearance. According to the returns sent in, the
mean variations from the average were as a rule as follows : —
Wood-anemone twelve days late, blackthorn eleven days late,
garlic hedge-mustard two days late, horse-chestnut nine days late,
hawthorn five days late, and white ox-eye four days late.

The spring migrants also arrived later than usual, the swallow
being five days late, the cuckoo seven, and the nightingale four
days late.

The insects on the list were also behind their average dates, the
wasp being seventeen days late, the small white butterfly three
days, and the orange-tip butterfly ten days late.

The Summer.

The weather of the first and last ten days in June was warm
and at times even quite hot, but the remaining ten days were
all very cold. On one night (that preceding the 15th) the exposed
thermometer indicated a sharp ground-frost. This was the first
month for six months in which the rainfall had been at all above
the mean. July was cold, the mean temperature seldom rising
above the average, while the rainfall proved unseasonably heavy.
During August the days were as a rule warm, whereas the night
temperatures were often singularly low for a summer month.
The fall of rain was again heavy.

The June rains unfortunately came too late for the hay, which
proved in most cases a very scanty crop. The corn and other
farm-crops were, however, greatly benefited. The frost of June
15th proved remarkably keen for a summer month, and in most
low-lying districts gi-eatly damaged potatoes, scarlet runners, and
other tender vegetables. During July and August, considering
that these are generally the warmest months of the year, the
progress made by vegetation was slow. Bush-fruits and straw-
berries were as a rule good and plentiful. Duiing the sunny days
of August, butterflies made their appearance in unusual numbers
— notably peacocks, red admirals, and painted ladies. That erratic
butterfly, the clouded yellow, was also frequently seen. The mean
date of flowering of the dog-rose was about seasonable, but the
black knapweed, harebell, and greater bindweed came into blossom
respectively eight, six, and four days later than the average.

The Autumn.

Notwithstanding the unseasonable coldness of many of the nights,
the first autumn month was on the whole rather a warm one than
otherwise, while the rainfall was only about seasonable. October
may be described as having been cold and wet throughout. In
fact there occurred but very few days during the course of it "with-
out some rain. During J^ovember the weather continued variable,
but usually very mild, with about an average rainfall.

VOL. VII. — PART YI. 14

186

E. MAWLEY — PHENOLOGICAX PHENOMENA IN 1892.

The early part of September proved very favourable for the in-
gathering of the harvest, but towards the end of the month rain
began to fall heavily and at frequent intervals. The grain-crops
vrere as a rule light — the only one of them above average being
barley. Potatoes in most localities yielded well, while turnips and
mangolds were also good. The fruit-crops were as a rule indifferent,
and did not ripen satisfactorily owing to the coldness and dullness of
the summer and autumn months. The continuous rains in October
so saturated the ground that at the end of the season all seasonable
farm-operations were much in arrear.

The ivy, favoured doubtless by a spell of warm sunny weather
in September, came into flower two days in advance of its average
date.

XVIII.

NOTES OX LEPIDOrTERA OBSERVED IX HERTFORDSIimE.

By A. E. GiBBs, F.L.S.

Read at IVatford, I8th April, 1893.

It was only on the flay of the last meeting of oui' Society that I
accepted the post of Recorder of Lepidoptera occurring in Hertford-
shire. The short time which has ekipsed since then has given me
very little opportunity of collecting information from observers in
different parts of the county, and I am therefore placed at some
disadvantage in presenting my first report, which I hope may be
the forerunner of an annual series.

The Clouded-Yellow Butterfly (Colias edusa). — The year 1892
has been chiefly memorable entomologically for the extraordinary
abundance of the cloiided-yellow butterfly, Colias edusa, for not
since 1877, which will long be remembered as the great edusa year,
have we been favoured with such a profusion of this beautiful
insect. The fact has long been noted that in some years particular
species of insects are extremely plentiful, and then for a time
seem quite to disappear until another prolific season comes round,
"when they may again be seen everywhere.

AVe have no insect in our British fauna more uncertain in its ap-
pearance than edusa. Sometimes for years it may be sought for in
vain, and then comes a season like that of last year, when it might
be taken on almost any bright day. A writer in the ' Entomolo-
gist' (1878, p. 54), referring to the appearance of the insect in
1877, gave the dates previous to that vear in which it had been
recorded, as follows:— " 1804, 1808, 18il, 1825 (one record), 1826
(very abundant), 1831 (plentiful), 1833, 1835 i^both species [edusa
and hyale~\ common), 1836 (common), 1839 (common, many in
June), 1843 (abundant), 1844 (very common), 1845 (scarce), 1847,
1848 (one record), 1851 (one record), 1852, 1855 (common), 1856
(common), 1857 (very common, recorded to November 18th), 1858
(very common, particularly so in June, also to November 7th),
1859 (very abundant), 1861 (scarce), 1862, 1865 (common), 1867
(several), 1868 (common, but hyale much more so), 1869 (several),
1870 (scarce), 1871 (one record), 1872 (not uncommon), 1875
(very common), 1876 (common)." I have looked through the
volumes of the same magazine subsequent to that date, and find
that, with the exception of the years 1890 and 1891, the appearance
of edusa was recorded every season. In some years it was evi-
dently scarce, only a few stray captures being reported, while in
other years it was fairly common. It was most plentiful in 1879,
1883, 1884, 1885, and 1892. In the fifteen years, 1878 to 1892,
there were thus five years in which, though it may not have been
freely taken over a large area, it was not a rarity in the south of
England, while the remaining ten years are marked by the capture
of a few specimens only, and in some cases its absence from likely
localities such as the New Forest is commented on.

188 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA

Last season edusa appears to have been first seen in the '^QVi'
Porest on the 24th of May, whence it is inferred that our visitors
landed on the coast of Hampshire, and from there spread them-
selves out over the country. After this date specimens were
observed in many widely-scattered localities. They no doubt
deposited their eggs on clover and other leguminous plants, their
progeny appearing as perfect insects in August, in which month
edusa was recorded from every English county except Northum-
berland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Huntingdon, and
Rutland.* In some of these counties it was probably present but
unnoticed. It was far more plentiful, as might naturally be ex-
pected, in the south than in the north of the country, though
several individuals are recorded as having been taken in Scot-
land.

Colias edusa appears to be really a native of the lower regions of
the Swiss Alps, where it generally produces a single brood and
hybernates, as does the brimstone butterfly with us. Thence
the perfect insects are occasionally, from causes not very well
understood, driven northwards, and so reach our shores, but fail,
probably from climatic reasons, to establish themselves.

I cannot now attempt to investigate at any length the cause
of these spasmodic appearances and disappearances, and it must
suffice to say that the generally-accepted theory is that in years of
unusual abundance a migration has taken place from the Continent
about the month of May, and that the immigrants have laid eggs
from which the numerous August brood has sprung.

Miss Ormerod, in her ' Heport of Observations on Injurious
Insects' for the past year (1892, p. 31) alludes to the appearance
of edusa. Every entomologist will be pleased to hear that so
competent an authority as Miss Ormerod does not rank edusa as an
injurious insect, but she sounds a note of warning with regard to
it, pointing out that the caterpillars when under supervision have
been found to be voracious feeders on trefoil and white clover, and
"may prove to be an infestation requiring attention."

During 1877, the year in which edusa was particularly abundant,
I took a great many specimens both of it, and its congener,
C. hyale, in the neighbourhood of St. Albans. Its favourite place
of resort then was a piece of nursery-garden, and the steep banks
of the road, now the site of Mr. Sander's orchid establishment.
The pale variety of edusa (Jielice) was also taken at the same spot.
The only other information that I have been able to find with
regard to its appearance in Hertfordshire in 1877 is a note by
Mr. Arthur Cottam, which was printed in our Transactions,! and
which states that it then visited us in unusual numbers, the
localities mentioned being St. Albans, Watford, and Bushey. In
1885, when it appears to have been more plentiful than in any
other year between 1877 and 1892, I find in the 'Entomologist'
the following commuuication from Mr. G. H. Tite, Amwell House,

* 'Entomologists' Record,' vol. iv, p. 16.

t ' Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. I, p. 239.

OBSERVED IN HEETFOEDSHIRE. 189

"Ware : — " On Aiigust 4tli I captured, in tlie fruit-garden here, a
fine female specimen of C. edusay

Duriui;' tlio past siimiuer I liad not the same opportunities for
taking advantage of the presence of cdusa as I had in 1877, and
I am therefore unable to give much information from my own ob-
servations with regard to its appearance in our county. In August
I was away from England and was pleased to find it very abundant
on the Continent. I remember seeing it on a sunny day fiying by
hundreds over the clover and potato patches at the back of the
dunes, in the south-west of Belgium, between Ostend and Nieuport.
It was a sight never to be forgotten. The insects with their bright
golden wings looked like blossoms which had escaped from their
stalks and gone a-gipsying. Only one came under my notice in
St. Albans, and that was fiying at a great pace across High Street.
Miss Onnerod also records seeing one in her garden at Torrington
House, and ]\Ir. Arthur Lewis saw one at Sparrowswick. At Tring
it was abimdant. Mr. E. Hartert, curator of the Hon. Walter
Kothschild's Museum, writes : " In 1892 C. edusa was very
plentiful in August and September, but only one helice was seen
and taken by the Honourable Charles Eothschild." Mr. Frank
Latchmore reports from Hitchin : " C. edusa abundant all round.
I saw several of the pale variety (helice) which were taken here."
Mr. Henry Warner, of Wonnley, says: "We had no great quantity
of C. edusa here as we had some years ago, but I observed some
half-dozen, and only one hyale. One of my sons saw an edusa at
Hendon in June ; those observed here were in August and Septem-
ber." Mr. W. Graveson also reports the appearance of edusa at
Hertford in the autumn. Erom Ferney House, Southgate, Mr. R.
Dymond writes: " My first edusa was a male in good condition.
I put it out of some thistles on August 3rd. It flew a short
distance and then settled, when it seemed to have no disposition
to fly further, so I easily caught it in my hat. After that my
captures were two on the 4th, one on the 5th, one on the 8th,
and one on the 10th, all males, in good condition; on the 5th I
caught my first female, which was very much battered and worn.
After that I took other females in a better condition." About
the 1 5th of August Mr. Dymond left home, so that his observations,
so far as Hertfordshire is concerned, ceased. He did not take
C. helice at all, but in September he saw hyale in splendid con-
dition on the railway-embankment near Oakleigh Park Station,
but unfoi-tunatcly failed to capture it. Mr. Dymond further
reports that the males of edusa which he took at Southgate were
both smaller and lighter in colour than some which were sent to
him from Sandgate. He also informs me that a great many of
these insects were taken by the lads of the Eoys' Earm Home
at Southgate. Mr. E. R. Chambers writes to the 'Entomologist'
that one example of each sex of edusa was taken at Harpenden
on the 8th of September, and a female on the 14th. We thus
have records of C. edusa, its pale variety helice, and C. hyale,
from our county during 1892. They were all, however, seen in

190 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTESA

the autumn, and it would be interesting to know if any of the
immigrants in May and June found their way into Hertfordshire.
As Mr. Warner, jun., saw one at Hendon, very near our border-
line, it is not at all unlikely that we have been favoured with an
unrecorded visit.* It is worth noting that in 1878, the year after
the last abundant visitation, edusa was almost entirely absent from
England. Mr. Jenner Weir, of Blackheath, Mr. G. W. Oldfield,
of Guildford, and Mr. H. Keny, of Harwich, each wrote to the
' Entomologist ' f calling attention to its rarity or absence. It
remains to be seen what 1893 will bring forth.

Other Butteeflies. — The large and small white butterflies
{Pieris hrassicce and P. rapcB) are reported as having been a very
great pest at Hitchin last autumn. Mr. Harold Gatward, of that
town, has favoured me with the loan of some artistically-executed
drawings, very true to nature, of several larvae, and they include
representations of these most injurious and voracious caterpillars.
As these two species are so exceedingly well-known it is only
necessary to simply mention the fact of their unusual abundance.

Several butterflies of the genus Vanessa are recorded in the
entomological papers as having been remarkably abundant during
1892, but the only local observer who reports a similar state of
things in Hertfordshire is Mr. E.. Dymond, of Southgate. With
regard to the red admii'al butterfly he says : " Vanessa atalanta
was unusually abundant here during August and September of last
year. Along one side of the Great Northern Cemetery there is a
wall made with brick pillars and iron bars intervening. On these
pillars, between eight and nine o'clock a.m., I have often seen
about forty atalantas collected together, sometimes a dozen on each
pillar. Curiously enough they always keep to the same part of
the wall (about 100 yards). I have also seen the painted lady
( V. cardui) settling on a certain part of the road from five p.m.
till as late as eight o'clock." Both these are beautiful and abun-
dant species, and seem to prefer the haunts of men, flying about
our gardens in a fearless manner, sunning themselves and sipping
nectar from the flowers. It is a curious fact that the Vanessidse
are reported as having been exceedingly numerous in the last great
edusa year, 1877. % Mr. R. Dymond also tells me that the
Camberwell beauty, V. ant'iopa, was taken at sugar a few years
ago at Southgate. Although very rare in England, I have seen
antiopa sporting over the pastures very freely on the Continent.

The capture of the chalk-hill blue {PolyommaUis corydon) on
Broxbourne Common some time ago is recorded by Mr. H Warner.
He has never heard of another there before or since. This pretty

* On the appearance of a report of this paper in the County newspapers, Mr.
C. F. Pilbrow, of Colney Heath, St. Albaus, wrote to the ' Herts Advertiser,'
stating that on June 7th, 1892, he took two female specimens of C. cdu.sa near
Cohiey Heath, one of which hiid a hirge number of eggs on the food-plant sup-
plied to it, which, however, did not hatch, probably owing to being unf'ertized.

t 'Entomologist,' 1878. p. 269.

J ' Entomologist,' 1877, p. 188.

OBSEBVED IN HERTFORDSHIRE. 191

silvery blue insect is a butterfly which loves the chalk downs, and
is, as Mr. Xewman remarks, " generally absent wliere tliere is no
chalk." Broxbourne Common is rather an unlikely locality for
the species, being, as Mr. Warner informs me, three miles away
from the nearest chalk, and certainly a considerable distance from
any downs. This is, so far as I can ascertain, the first record for
the county, though the species must, I think, occur on the hills in
the north and west of Hertfordshire.

Hawk-Moths. — Turning now from the butterflies to the moths,
and dealing first with the Sphingid*, or hawk-moths, a group
which includes some of our largest British insects, I have to record
a note from Mr. P. Latchmore, in which he reports an unusual
abundance of the larvae of the eyed hawk-moth {Smerinthus
ocellatus) and the poplar hawk-moth [S. populi) at Hitchin. He
says that he several times found as many as twenty caterpillars
feeding on a small weeping-willow. The sallow stems were in
many places along the hedges stripped of their leaves by them.
Mr. Henry Lewis, of St. Albans, had a female eyed hawk-moth
brought to him, and it laid a number of eggs which passed into
the possession of Mr. Arthur Lewis, and from which many pupae
resulted. Mr. Arthur Lewis also reports S. poindi to have been
abundant on some willow plants in his garden at Sparrowswick.

Mr. F. Latchmore informs me that no convolvulus hawk-
moths (^Sphinx convolvuli) Avere taken at Hitchiu in 1892, though
this insect is frequently captured in the town in September and
October. It is not a common moth at St. Albans, but in September,
1887, two specimens were taken, one on a gate at the end of Cum-
berland Road, and the other in a nursery-garden close by. One is
in my collection, the other in that of Mr. Henry Lewis. I have
never seen the catei'pillar of this moth, and its habits do not appear
to be very well known. Mr. Buckler tells us that the larva when
full-fed measures four inches in length and has a diameter of five-
eighths of an inch. Like Colias edusa, this insect seems to be
particularly abundant in certain years, but no reason for this has,
so far as I am aware, been assigned. In 1846 it abounded in
England and was very generally distributed. But even in years
of unusual abundance the larva is seldom found. It appears to be
sluggish in its habits, and feeds principally on the wild convolvulus.
The unusually long proboscis of this insect is worthy of note.

Towards the end of 1891 Mr. George Buller gave me a number
of pupae of the elephant hawk -moth {Choerocampa elpenor), the
larvae of which he had taken at Welwyn. These duly emerged in
the following June. In 1888 there was brought to me a nearly
full-fed caterpillar which was found at St. Albans feeding on
fuchsia. I had no difiiculty with it, as it fed freely on fuchsia,
and in due course pupated. This is a very lovely moth, and well
repays the trouble of rearing. In Ireland the larva is called the
" murrain worm," as it is supposed to be the cause of disease in
cattle. Needless to say it is quite harmless.

Mr. J. E. K. Cutts, of Watford, informs me that a friend of his

192 A. E. GIBBS NOTES OS LEPIDOPTEEA.

took the yellow-legged clearwing {Sesia asiliformis) near Sanclridge.
This is the first record of the occurrence of this moth in our
county. Mr. H. Warner, of Wormley, says that the broad-bordered
bee clearwing-moth [S. fuciformis) is to be taken in his neighbour-
hood. It seems to be very local, and is generally found in one
particular swampy spot at the road- side, but it also frequents the
woods where the bugle is plentiful.

The Goat Moth ( Cossus ligniperda) — A. most extraordinary find
of goat-moth larvae is reported from Station Road, Hitchin, by Mr.
F. Latchmore. Over 200 were taken wandering about a small
walled garden in search of a place to "spin up." Two or three
young aspen trees in the garden were literally riddled with " goat-
holes." Mr. Latchmore was kind enough to send to me a large
batch of these larva3 which I have kept through the winter. They
have not changed to pupae, but have hybemated in sawdust, and
are just beginning to show signs of moving. The larvae of the
goat-moth are wood-feeders. The egg is laid by the parent moth
in the crevices of the bark of a number of our forest and orchard
trees, and the young grub, as soon as hatched, begins to eat its
way into the wood of the living tree, which is often, as Mr. Latch-
more says, "literally riddled with holes." It remains in the larva
state three years, during which time it can do an immense amount
of damage. It then turns to a chrysalis in one of its galleries, and
just before emergence forces itself to the entrance, whence the
moth escapes, leaving the empty pupa-shell projecting from the
tree. Several reports have been made to this Society at different
times with reference to the damage done by this insect, and I
believe that the fij'st entomological obsei'vation which was read
before us was a note by Mr. J. H. James in 1875, on the
"Destruction of an Oak-tree by the Larvae of the Goat Moth."*
Miss E. A. Ormerod, in her most useful ' Manual of Injurious
Insects,' a work which every farmer and gardener should study,
gives full directions for dealing with this insect should it become a
pest.

The Wood-Leopaed Moth [Zeuzera pyrina). — The wood-leopard
moth is another insect whose larvae feed on the living wood of
many different trees. In 1891 Mr John Hopkinson sent to me a
female found in his garden at St. Albans, and it laid a quantity of
eggs, but I was not successful in rearing them. Mr. J. E. K.
Cutts tells me that he found that a larva had attacked one of his
fruit-trees, and he was fortunate in catching the moth just as it
emerged from the pupa-case, which it left projecting from the hole
in the tree. Mr. Latchmore says that at Hitchin this insect is
very common in the perfect state, and is taken at rest in the day-
time in various parts of the town.

The Small Eggae {Er log aster lanestris). — In June Mr. Arthur
Lewis found on a slow-bush on Harpenden Common a web of the
caterpillars of the small eggar, from which he took a number

* 'Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Yol. I, p. 64.

OBSERVED IN nERTFORDSniEE. 193

of larvte wbicli he succeeded in rearing. On the 26th I searched
on the same bushes and found a few insects, some of which were
nearly full fed, while others liad not shed their last skin. Several
of these 1 preserved, but the remainder unfortunately died. How-
ever the larva? collected by Mr. Lewis changed into pupa), some of
which I am able to exhibit. The larva when full fed spins a
small oval and very compact cocoon inside which it pupates, leaving
breathing-holes which look like fine pin-pricks. Before the moth
emerges, the cocoon becomes darker at one end, and ultimately the
insect comes out through a very carefully-cut aperture. Only
three of the moths appeared this spring, and, as the pupoe seem
still to be alive and healthy, it is to be presumed that the others
will emerge next year.

The Lackey Moth {Bomhyx neiistria). — In May I found that a
small plum tree in the garden at The Hollies hud been attacked by
the lackey moth. The web of caterpillars was cut off and I took it
indoors for observation. The female lackey moth lays her eggs
in the autumn in a band round the stem or branch of the food-
plant, and, as soon as the small hairy dark- coloured grubs emerge,
they spin a web in which they live, stripping the branches of the
tree for a supply of food, and often leaving them quite bare of
leaves. These catei-pillars are rather conspicuous and handsome
creatures. The head or first segment is of a light blue tint, and
has two black eye-like spots upon it A whitish longitudinal line
runs down the centre of the back, and on either side of this are
narrow stripes of black and orange-red, and a broader one of blue.
The caterpillar is hairy, especially on the underpart of the body.
It spins in any convenient corner a cocoon which is easily dis-
tinguished by the quantity of sulphur-coloured powder which it
contains. My insects began to pupate about the second week in
June, and during July the moths emerged, but I am not able to
give the exact dates. The caterpillars of this moth do an immense
amount of mischief, and as soon as a web of them is observed on a
fruit-tree the branch should be carefully cut off, without jerking it
so as to alarm the insects, and plunged into boiling water. Miss
Ormerod tells us that in France B. neustria is such a troublesome
pest in orchards, in consequence of the ravages of the caterpillars,
if left unchecked, ruining the apple-leafage over an extent of miles
of country, that an old law made it compulsory on landed proprie-
tors to have the shoots with the webs on cut off and destroyed.

The Emperoe Moth {Saturnia pavonia). — In 1889 Mr. Arthur
Lewis released some larvae of the emperor moth in his garden at
Sparrowswick. Last autumn a fine full-grown catei'pillar was
brought to him, having been found on Bernard's Heath, which
adjoins his residence, and it may not be too much to hope that
this beautiful insect has established itself in the neighbourhood
of St. Albans. It is not a fresh introduction to our county's
fauna, for its occurrence has been previously recorded.

The Common Quaker {Tceniocanqja stabilis). — On April 6th I took

194 A. E. GIBBS — KOTES 01^' LEPIDOPTERA

a female quaker moth "at sallow" at Bricket Wood. She seemed to
be rather exhausted, and on the 9th I uncurled her proboscis
with a pin, and fed her with sugar. This revived her, and in the
night she deposited about 20U eggs on an oak twig. They were
spherical in shape but slightly flattened, and at first of a creamy
white tint ; in three days they began to turn dark in the centre
and on the rim. On the 13th she laid about 150 more on the
same twig, on the 15th about another 50 on the lid of the box,
and on the 16th about 70 more. On the 19th and 20th, for some
reason or other, the moth destroyed the batch she had laid upon
the box-lid, but in the night of April 20-21 she deposited another
40 to 50 on the side of the box. The total number laid, including
those the mother destroyed, was thus approximately 500. In
the night of April 25-26, sixteen days after the eggs were
deposited, the little larvae began to emerge, and were of a lightish
green tint with black heads. After this the other eggs hatched
at regular intervals, and the larvae, which were fed on whitethorn,
began to pupate in July, and by the middle of that month they
had all gone into the chrysalis state, in which they remained until
the spring, the first moth appearing on March 20th.

The Satellite [Scopelosoma satellitia). — A hybernated satellite,
taken at sugar on April 22nd, laid 41 eggs of a chocolate-brown
tint. These hatched on May 10th, and duly fed up and pupated.
The first imago appeared on September 9th. These caterpillars
are terribly cannibalistic in their habits, and will devour any other
larvae which come within their reach. The entomologist who is
unfortunate enough to get one of these creatures introduced into
his feeding-cage will probably find the majority of his pets
devoured in a very short time. Calymnia trapezina is another
ill-mannered larva, and will ofi^end in the same way and as badly
as satellitia. The larva of the satellite is an evil-looking creature,
almost jet black in colour. The head is brownish -black, and the
second segTuent forms a black band with two very distinct orange
stripes upon it. The velvety black of the caterpillar is varied
by three indistinct longitudinal lines, and several snow-white spots
appear in a line with the spiracles — one between the second and
third segment, another between the third and fourth, another,
sometimes extended to a line or a blotch and sometimes entirely
absent, on the fifth segment, and a fourth linear white mark on the
eleventh segment.

The Merveil-dtj-Joite {A(/riopis aprilina). — In the late spring
and early summer, when sugaring, the prettily-mottled cateii:)illars
of the meiweil-du-jour moth may be found crawling up the bark of
the oak trees to feed. Last year we took several at Bricket AVood,
but most of them died when pupating. Those who wish to rear
this moth may easily find the larvae by searching the trunks of
the oak trees carefully by the light of a lantern. They hide in
the crevices of the bark, and a glance at the cateqiillar will at
once show that its colours assimilate very nearly to those of a

OBSERVED m nERTFORDSHTRE. 195

lichen-covered tree-tnuik, tlius affording it protection from its
enemies.

The Early Thorn {Selenia hilimaria). — On the 1st of May I
took a female of the early thorn flying lazily on Bernard's
Heath. She laid about a dozen eggs in the box in which I placed
her. These hatched on the 22nd of that month, and I succeeded
in rearing them. The first perfect insect emerged from the
chrysalis on July 18th. This is a double-brooded moth, the first
brood appearing early in the spring, and the second at the end of
summer. The female I caught belonged to the spring brood, and
her progeny became the second brood of the year, with the
exception of one specimen which remained in the pupa state till
February 1st of the present year (1893), when it emerged. This
is, I think, a rather interesting fact, and I should like to know if
other observers have noticed a similar thing. It shows that the
generations of these double-brooded moths are not always alternate.
This specimen was a male, and, as with most insects which have
remained long in the chrysalis state, the markings are rather darker
and richer than on those which hatched in the autumn. I pre-
served one of this batch of larvae which I am able to show. I fed
them on plum leaves.

Other Moths. — Mr. F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., reports that on
August 21st, 1891, he found in his garden at Eose Hill, Hoddesdon,
a mature larva of the alder-moth [Acroni/cta alni) on some fresh-
turned mould under a lime tree. Mr. Cutts was also fortunate
enough to take an imago on a fence in Nascot Wood Road, Watford,
last summer. The occurrence of this rare moth is worth more
than the passing note I am able to devote to it, for I believe that
it has never previously been recorded from Hertfordshire.

Mr. E.. Dymond reports to me the capture of the speckled foot-
man [Beiopeia jjidchella) at Southgate last year. So far as I am
aware, this pretty moth, also, has never been taken before in our
county, and it is therefore another addition to our fauna.

When at Hitchin last autumn Mr. H. Gatward showed to me
a drawing of the caterpillar of the swordgrass-moth ( Calocamj)a
exoleta) and the imago which resulted from it. He has been good
enough to send the drawing to me for exhibition. The larva was
found upon lavender by Mr. F. Ransom, in his garden, and he sent
it to Mr. Gatward. It continued to feed for a week, and on
August 9th buried itself. The moth appeared on October 8th.
The usual food-plants of this moth are the devil' s-bit scabioiis, the
catch-fly, and the rest-harrow. Mr. A. F. Grifiith also reports
having taken the larva of this moth on the banks of the Midland
Railway, near Sandridge, feeding on Heracleum. To Mr. Gatward
I am also indebted for a drawing (exhibited) of the larva of the
broom-moth, feeding upon knapweed.

Mr. Latchmore informs me that the mullein-moth {Cumllia
verlasci) is very common in the larva state at Hitchin. It is
generally taken on tine mullein plants grown in gardens, where it

196 A. E. GIBBS — NOTES ON LEPIDOPTEEA

plays havoc with tlie foliage. Along the streams the water-betonj
is also infested by it. Mr. Buller in 1891 sent to me from Welwyn
half a dozen pupae of this moth enclosed in their earthen cocoons,
but only one emerged. In a note on rearing these insects Mr.
Latchmore writes : "On the water-betony they thrive splendidly,
and attain a large size. I get a plant of betony and put it in
water. This does not then require re-planting. They finish off
by eating the top shoot, after they have changed their skin for the
last time. When this is done they will invariably commit suicide
if not removed to a box of earth. I often keep larva3 in the yard
at the back of my house, and after watching them grow up let
them wander away to pupate." The same observer sent to me a
number of specimens of the five-spotted bumet-moth {Zygcena
trifolii), which, as usual, was abundant in a marshy common at
Ippollytts, and at Oughton Head, Hitchin.

Mr. Gatward, of Hitchin, took two larvte of the pebble-prominent
{Notodonta ziczac) on a weeping-willow at Hitchin, and he success-
fully reared them. Mr. Arthur Lewis took a pale prominent
{Pterosioma palpina) creeping about the branches of an oak tree
in his grounds. He also found a caterpillar of an apple green
colour, which turned out to be the large ranunculus-moth [Polia
Jlavocincta), eating the leaves of the ivy covering his house. This
larva seems to feed upon a variety of low-growing plants, such as
chickweed and groundsel. I^ewman says that the full-fed cater-
pillar rests in an almost straight position, with its head slightly
tucked in, but falls off its food-plant and forms a rather loose ring
when annoyed. Mr. Lewis has secured a nice series of specimens
of the moth from these caterpillars. One of the best captures
made by him was that of two fine specimens of the bird-wing moth
{Bipterygia scahriuscula) at sugar in the garden. The occurrence
of this rare moth is interesting as it is new to the neighbourhood,
though not to the county. I hope that during the coming summer
it may occur again. Mr. Lewis also tells me that he took that
pretty moth, the white-spotted pinion ( Calymnia diffinis) at sugar
at Sparrowswick, St. Albans. In 1891 I took a single specimen
of this at Bricket Wood, and Mr. Lewis had previously taken it at
St. Michael's, St. Albans, but it is a moth which ought to be
fairly common with us, and no doubt would not prove to be scarce
if sought for in the right places. It is recorded by other collectors.
Among other insects in Mr. Lewis's cabinet, all of which he tells
me he took at St. Michael's, are the frosted green {Asphalia ridens),
taken while flying round a lamp, the lilac beauty {PericaUia
syringaria), the straw underwing [Cerigo maturd), and the double-
lobed moth [Apamea ophiogramma), which has also been taken by
Mr. J. E. K. Cutts, of Watford.

Mr. Cutts was singularly fortunate in his captures last year.
Amongst other rare insects taken by liim was the miller (^Acronycta
leporina), a larva of which he found on a fence in Langley Iload.
He made a hole in a cork for it to pupate in, and it enlarged
the hole and used it. Neuria reticulata and Aplecta advena he took

obseuveh tx TrERTFOKnsniRE. 197

at sugar in his orchard. Mr. Cutts, in the course of a most
intorostinc; k'ttcr, says : " My orchard-trees being young, and
not hirge enough to sugar on, I tie pieces of cork bark on the
stakes, and sugar on the bark. I use treacle with a little rum
in it. 1 bred a nice series of the buff-tip m.otl\{F/ialera bncep/iala),
and also of the peacock buttei'iiy. The year before last 1 found
the larvjiD of the dot-moth (Jldtnrsfra persicaria) very abundant,
and bred a nice series, and in London I found the brindled beauty
moth (Bi'sfo?) hi rf aria) extremely abundant, and turned a few out
in my garden last autumn, and, as I found a female in the garden
this spring, they, of course, bred." Mr. Cutts also numbers
among the moths he has taken in Hertfordshire : Luperina ceftpitis,
Tmiiocampa popideti, T. miniosa, Orthosia macilenta, Cosmia pi/ra-
lina, Aplecta advena, Plusia pulchrina, Selenia lunaria, and Velurga
comitata. Some of these have also been taken by other collectors.

Sugaring. — Sugaring during the last two seasons has yielded
very good results, and the autumn of 1891 was a specially prolific
time. With the exception of one evening at Radlett, and a few
nights' work in the garden at home, the whole of my sugai'ing
has been done at Bricket Wood, in company with Mr. Arthur
Lewis, and we have nearly always kept to the same trees.

In 1891 the genus Xanthia was remarkably abundant at Bricket
Wood, and I took every species of it there. Fulvago and flavago
were, of course, the commonest ; fulvago appears to come out
a few days sooner than flavago, and to have more variety in
its markings. Of aurago I only took one specimen during two
years' work ; of citrago one at sugar at Bricket Wood, and one
at light at St. Albans ; of gilvago one dark specimen at Bricket
Wood, and two lighter ones on the street lamps in St. Albans ;
while ferruginea was fairly common. Among other autumn moths
which came freely to sugar at Bricket Wood may be mentioned :
Phlogophora meticulosa, Anchocelis rufina, A. litura, A. pistacina,
Asjfkalia dihifa, Amphipi/ra pyramidea, Uadena protea, Agriopis
ajrrilina, Scop>elosoma satellitia, Orthosia lota, 0. macilenta, Miselia
oxyacanthce, and Noctua C-nigrum.

In 1892 we began sugaring on April 11th, but it was a bright
moonlight night with a cold wind, and our venture proved a
failure, only a few hybernated specimens being seen, and though
we visited Bricket Wood several times, we did not do much good
work until towards the end of the following month. On May 30th
the first Thyatira hatis appeared. This is a common insect at
Bricket Wood, where I have seen nearly a score of specimens on
one patch of sugar. Other moths taken on this date included Cyma-
tophora or, Rmina tenehrosa, Grammesia trigrammica, Odontopera bi-
dentata, Boarmia consortaria, Xylophasia rurea, Numeria pulveraria,
Noctua plecta, and Zanclognaiha grisealis. A very fresh specimen
of Notodonta camelina was found at rest on an oak tree, and had
evidently just emerged. During the course of the summer we
took specimens of Acronycta ligustri, Aplecta herhida, Lexicania
turca, Lithosia mesomella, Cleoceris viminalis, Dianthoecia cucubali,

198 A. E. GIBBS — LEPIDOPTEEA OBSEBVED IN HEETS.

Eurymene dolohraria, and Amphydasis betidaria, the latter at rest
on a tree. Sugar at Radlett on June 8th, with a rather cold
wind blowing, yielded Thyatira batis, Mamestra anceps, Noctua
festiva^ Grammesia trigrammica (including a good dark variety),
Acronycta psi, Agrotis corticea, Miana fasciuncula^ etc. Thyatira
derasa came rather freely to sugar in the garden at The Hollies,
and at Sparrowswick, St. Albans.

Sallow-beating. — Sallow in 1892 was not very productive.
Neither at Harpenden nor Bricket Wood did anything but the
commonest species reward our exertions, though at the latter place
we took larvae of Triph^na fimhria^ Noctua brunnea, etc., from which
good specimens were bred. In past years Tceniocampa populeti^
T. gracilis, and T. mimosa have been taken at Bricket Wood.

Larv^-beating. — Larvae-beating, by which is meant shaking
the caterpillars off the trees and bushes into an umbrella or on to a
newspaper spread on the ground, has in past years yielded Mr,
Arthur Lewis, at Bricket Wood, such insects as the canary-
shouldered thorn {^Eugonia alniaria) and the sprawler (Asteroscopus
sphinx), and he and I working together last year found the larvae
of the pui'ple hairstreak butterfly {Thecla qtiercus) fairly abundant
on the young oaks. The imago of this insect can be taken in most
of our woodlands almost every season.

CoNCLirsioN-. — In conclusion, permit me to sincerely thank my
correspondents, who at very short notice have furnished me with
the data to compile my first annual entomological report. My
requests for information have been most readily responded to, and
I trust that in the present year I may be favoured with notes
from many observers. I shall be most happy to receive intima-
tions of the occurrence of rare insects, or any facts about butterflies
and moths that may be of interest. I shall also be glad to receive
from persons who pretend to no entomological knowledge, any
butterflies, moths, caterpillars, or pupae which may strike them as
being uncommon. Schoolboys who form collections of insects are
often able to secure day-flying species, which those of us who work
at night have very little chance of obtaining, and I shall be glad to
inspect the collections of such beginners, and to help them when
necessary to name their specimens.

XIX.

CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERYATIOXS TAKEN IN HERTFORDSHIRE

IN THE YEAR 1892.

By JoHx HoPKijfsox, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at Watford, I8tk April, 1893.

Observations were continued during the year 1892 at the five
stations for which the reports for the five previous years have
been drawn up, and therefore I give the usual series of tables.

The mean temperature of Hertfordshire in 1892, deduced from
observations at these five stations, was 0° 5 below that of the five
previous years, and l°-8 below the mean of 1882-86. The year
was therefore a decidedly cold one. The mean daily range was
0°-8 more than in 1887-91, and 0°-l more than in 1882-86. The
extreme range was less than in 1890, and greater than in 1891.
The ail- was a little less humid than in the five previous years, the
amount of cloud was rather less, and the rainfall rather greater,
but on a smaller number of days. The weather was very cold
from the early part of spring late into autumn, and, while dry in
spring, wet and humid in the latter part of summer and in autumn.

The observations are made at 9 a.m. at all the stations, and are
entered to the day of observation, except the maximum temperature
and the rainfall, which are entered to the previous day.

EOTSTOI^.

(London Road.)
Latitude : 52° 2' 34" N. Longitude : 0° 1' 8" W. Altitude :

301 feet.
Observer: ITale Wortham, F.R.Met.Soc.

200

J. HOPKENSON" CLIMATOLOGICAI OBSEEVATIONS

BERKHAMSTED.

(Rose Bank.)

Latitude: 51° 45' 40" N. Longitude : 0° 33' 30" W.

400 feet.

Observer: Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc.

Altitude

Months

Temperature of the Air

1— 1

0
0

Eain

Means

Extremes

"a
<

Mean

Min.

Max.

Eange

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

34-5
37-6
36-5
457
53-4
56-3
58-2
6o-o
547
45-1
43 "3
35-2

29-3
32-3
29-3

33-8
43-2
45-9
497
50-6

46-3
38-2

377
29-8

39-6
429
437
577
63-6
66-6
66-8

69-3
63-1
52*0

49 'o
405

IO-3
IO-6
144

23-9
20-4
207
17-1
187
i6-8

13-8
II-3
107

13-8
138

20-0

259
26-2

33-1
41-6
38-6
3I-I
26-1
27-0
138

52-1

52-0

587
700

79-9
79-6
79-1
80 -6
69-0
597
59-5
52-6

7o
93
89
82
67

66
72
74
75
82
90
96
93

7-0
77
7-1
47
6-3
6-2

7-8
6-9
7-0

7-3
9-0

7-8

ins.
1-07
1-56
1-26
•90

I-2I

2-93
297
4"io

2-57
3-88
2 -04
1-44

17
19
10

9
13

14
II
16

14
23
17
13

Year

467

38-8

54-6

15-8

13-8

8o-6

7-1

25-93

176

ST. ALBANS.

(The Grange.)

Latitude : 51° 45' 9" IT. Longitude : 0° 20' 7" W. Altitude

380 feet.
Observer: John Hopkinson, F.R.Met.Soc.

TAKEN IN HERTFORDSniRE IN 1892.

201

BE]S"NINGTON.

(Bt'uuiugton Lodge.)

Latitude : 51° 53' 45" N. Longitude : 0° 5' 20" \Y. Altitude

407 feet.
Observer: Rev. J. B. Parker, LL.D., F.R.Met.Soc.

Months

Temperature of the Air

3
0

Eain

Means

Extremes

-4^

S
<

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept.

34-6
37-1
36-4
46-0

53-6
56-3
577
60 4

550

447
42-8

35T

29-9
32-3
295
35-1
437
46-5
49 '4
51-2
46-9
384
37-8
30-2

39-2
42-0

43-3
56-9
63-4
66-1
66- 1

69-5
63-2

50 '9
479
39"9

9-3

13-8

21-8

197
19-6
167
i8-3
i6-3

12-5

lo-i
97

i6t
152
18-9

26'2
29-0

35-2
43 '8
42 0
36 2

29-3
27-0

19-2

52-1

53-4
58-8

70-5
79-6

797
78-5
79 '8
69 0

50 "9
47 '9
39-9

89
90
82
67
67
70

95
90

7-2
7 '9
7-5

^8
6-4
7-6
6-1

7-1

77
8-8

6-4

ins.

1-63

1 -22

•86
i-6i
2-98
309
3-6i
2-41

3-87
I '64
1-42

14
II

13
16
10

23
18

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

46-6

39 '2

540

I4"8

15-2

79-8

7-1

25-04

178

l^EW BARNET.
(Gas Works.)
Latitude : 51° 39' 5" N. Longitude : 0° 10' 15" W.

212 feet.
Observer : T. E. Martin, C.E.

Altitude

Months

Temperature of the Air

.-H
1

Rain

Means

Extremes

m
>-»

12
10

'9
II

Slean [ Min.

Max. Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Xov

Dec

34*9
38-1

36-3
45 '4
53*3
567
58-9
60-7

54'9
44-4
43-3
348

29-0
32-0
277
31-8
40-5
45-0
484
48-6

43-5
35-6
36-9

28-4

0
40-9

44*3
44 '8
59-0
66-1
68-4

695
72-4

66-3

53-1
49-8
41-2

II-9
12-3
17-1

27-2
25-6

23-4
2 10

23-8

22-8

17-5
12-9

12-8

15-0
130
150
23-0

2I-0
31-0
40-0

33 '5
25-8
22-5
24-0
no

53-0

53-2
60 5

739
83-0
84-0

8i-5
8i-5

737
60-1

59-2

54-5

la
90

87
70

77
78
71
84
83
90
90

7-3
6-2

4'2

57
6-0
6-2

5-5
5-8
6-2

5-8

ins.

-69
1-41
I-I4

-80

1-37
3 06

1-85
3-01
2-8i
3-66
211
1-49

Year 46-8

37-3

56-3

19-0

II-Q

84-0

6-0 23-40

134

VOL. VII. — PART VII.

202

J. HOPKINSOJJ' — CLI1IA.T0L0GICAL OBSEEVATIONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE.

Means of Cliraatological Observations (with extremes of tempera-
ture) in 1 892, at Royston, Berkhamsted, St. Albans, Bennington,
and New Barnet,

Months

Temperature of the Air

0
7

t-H

p— 1

Rain

Means

Extremes

-t3

15
19

II
10

9
14
12
22
16
12

Mean

Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Jan

Feb

March

April ....

May

June

July

August

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

347
37-8
36-6
46-0

537
57-0
58-6
60-7
55-2
44-9
43 '3
35 -o

29-4

32-4
29-2

34"i
43'i
46-4

497
50-8
46-4
37-9
37*9
29-6

40-0
43-2
43 '9
57-9
64 '3
67-5
67-5
70-5
64-1

51-8
48-7
40-4

IO-6
IO-8

14-7
23-8
212
21-1

17-8

197

17-7

13-9
10-8
IO-8

13-8
1 2 2
15-0
23-0

2I-0
31-0

40 'O

jj 3
25-8
22-5
24 0
no

530

54-5
6o-8
74-0
83-0
86 -o

83*4
82-0

737
6o-i

59-5
54-5

7o
90

89
84
70

74
76

75
82

6-5
7-4
6-7

4-3
60
60

71
6-2

6-8

7-8

6-4

ins.

•86
I -61
I-I9

-84
1-36
2-79

277
3-52
2-81
3-90
1-87
1-50

Year ....

47-0

38-9

55 -o

i6-i

II -Q

86-0

6-5

25-02

166

Results of Climatological Observations, 1887-91.

Stations.

Temperature of the Air

r~t

a
0

Rain

Means

Extremes

4-3

*<1

162

183

186

195

145

174

Mean Min.

Max.

Range

Min.

Max.

Royston

48-2

47'i

47-5
47-2

47-3

40-3
397
40-5
40-1

38-4

56-1
54-5
54-5
54-2
56-2

15-8
148
140
14-1
17-8

4-3
HI

II-8

14-4

7-5

89-4
85-0
86 -o
85-1

88-5

89-4

7c
84

83
84
82

6-3

7-3
7-0

7-5
6-3

ins.
21-70
25*60
26-40
24-52
23-87

24-42

Berkhamsted ....

St. Albans

Bennington

New Barnet ....

County

47*5 39-8

55-1

i5'3

4-3

83 6-9

XX.

llErORT ox THE RAIXFALL IX HERTFORDSniRE IX 1892.

By JoHi^ HoPKDfsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Read at Watford, I8th April, 1893.

There are several alterations in tlie staff of our rainfall observers
in the year 1892, but the number of records entered in our prin-
cipal table is the same as in the previous year, namely 36. The
number of daily records received and utilised in drawing up this
report is 27, an increase of tvro upon that for the previous year.

Five stations disappear from this table, Mr. Francis Ransom
having moved his gauge during the year from Bedford Road to
Bancroft, Hitehin ; the Rev. W. Qiiennell having left Ti-ing, and
the rainfall not being taken by tlie present vicar ; the records from
Aldenham House, Elstree, and Brocket Hall, Hatfield, being im-
perfect ; and no reply to my applications having been received
from the observer at Ikishey Heath. On the other hand five
stations are added, records having been received from Odsey ; The
Maples, Hitehin; Elm House, Tring; Kytes, Watford; and Harden
Hill, Hertford. Odsey is one of our former stations, now re-
instated owing to Mr. H. George Fordham's return to England.
His gauge is actually in Cambridgeshire, but it is close to the
Hertfordshire border, on the narrow neck of land which runs into
our county, so that its record is more representative of the rainfall
of the north of Herts than it is of that of the south of Cambs.

These alterations increase the number of stations in the river-
district of the Rhee from one to two, and in that of the Mimram
from two to three, remove from our table the river-district of the
Upper Colne, and reduce the number of stations in that of the
Upper Lea from four to three. An observer is much wanted in
the neighbourhood of JS^orth Mimms or elsewhere in the district of
the Upper Coliie,* and also in that of the Stort.

Particulars of the 36 rainfall stations, and the monthly and total
rainfall and number of days on which at least O'Ol inch of rain
fell, are given in Tables I and II, pp. 205-207.

A supplementaiy table (Table III, p. 204) gives seven other
records of the total rainfall in the year. One of these is the
composite record of Mr. Ransom, two are the records of additional
gauges at Rothamsted, and three are taken from ' British Rainfall,
1892.' The remaining record is that referred to in the note below.

The mean rainfall in the coiinty in the year 1892 was 24 '74
inches. This is exactlv two inches below the mean for the decade
1880-89, and 1-69 inch below that for the half-century 1840-89.1
AVhile the year was therefore a rather dry one on the average

* "While this paper has been passing throuffh the press, Mr. Arthur Smith, of
Sinallfonl, St. Albans, has consented to join the staff of our rainfall observers,
and has also obtained for me a record of the rainfall taken in 1892 at Brookmans
Park, Hatfield. Both these localities are in the Upper Cdlue district.

t See ' Trans. Herts. Xat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. YI, p. 84.

204

J. HOPKINSOIJ- — EEPOET OIT THE

throughout Hertfordshire, the defect from the mean -was greatest in
the west of the county (Colne), and there was a slight excess in
the north-east (Cam) ; the defect in the south (Thames) was much
greater than in the north (Ouse).

Table III. — Supplementary to Tables I and II.

-4-2
o

-4-3
W

4.
8.

12.

18.

Station.

Observer.

Gauge.

Rain-
fall.

Days.

Dia-
meter.

Height

above

Sea.

Hitchin

r. Ransom

J. G. Williams...
Lawes and Gilbert

_)>
A. Gorrie

ins.

5
5
8

72x87

5
8

feet.
212
500?
420
420
400?
405
90?

ins.
23-84
24-87

2379
2529
24-75
23-70
22-00

216
200

175
179

154

Triug — Pendley Manor

Harpeuden — Rothamsted

Hatfield— Br' kmans Park

Welwyn — Danesbury

Hoddesdon-Feilde'sWeir

A. M. Blake

Major L. Flower

Distribution of Rainfall throughout the Year. — Of the total rainfall
16 °/q fell during the winter months (Jan., Feb., and Dec), 14 °/g
during the spring (March to May), 36 °/q during the summer (June
to Aug.), and 34 °/q during the autumn (Sept. to Nov.). The fall
during each quarter and each season, and the deviation from the
mean for the half-century 1840-89, was as follows : —

Diff.
—1-99 in.
—2 04
+1-87
+0-47

January and April were very dry ; August and October were
very wet. The difference in each month from the mean for the
half -century was : —

Fall.

Diff.

Isb quarter

.. 3 69 ins.

— 1-94 in

2nd ,,

... 4-98

— 1-03

3rd „

... 8-77

+1-46

4th „

... 7-30

—0-18

Fall.

"Winter 4-01 ins.

Spring 3-48

Summer 8-85

Autumn 8-40

in.

Jan. ...

. —1-43

April

— 0-95

July ...

. +0-18

Oct. ...

. +0-92

Feb. ...

. —0-12

Mav

-0-70

Aug

. +1-07

Nov....

. —0-66

Mar. ...

. —0-39

June

+0-62

Sept

. +0-21

Dec. ...

. -0-44

Thus the fall was below the mean for the period in each of the
first five months, above the mean in each of the next five months,
and below the mean in the last two months ; and about three
inches below the mean during the first half of the year, and an
inch and a half above it during the second half.

The absolute maximum fall in any one day in each month, and

the station recording it was

ins.

Jan. 11— Cowroast 0-60 July

Feb. 15— Throckiug Rectory.. 0-62 Aug.

Mar. 15 — Cowroast 0-56 Sept.

April 27— Throcking Rectory.. 0-45 Oct.

May 26 -Apsley Mills M7 Nov.

June 28— High Down, Hitchin 1-27 Dec.

ins.

16-Hamels Park 2-08

27 -New Barnet 1

29— Moor Park 1

30— Bayfordbury, Hertfd 1

15 — New Barnet

1— Moor Park

84*

1-83 at Oaklands, Watford, and at Southgate, on the same day.

EAINFALL IN HERTFOaDSHIRE IN 1892. 205

Table I. — Hertfordshire Kainfall Stations, 1892.

•E

4.
6.

10.

13.

15.

17.

18.

St.\tiox.

*Rovston
Oilsey ..

*nitchm — The Firs

„ The Maples ..

* ,, High Dowu ..

Trins: — -Elm House

*Cowroast

*Berkhamsted — Rosebauk
* .. Fail-hill ..

*Great Gaddesden Vicarage
*H. Hempstead — Apslev Mill?

* ,, Nash Mills.

*Kensworth— The Grove ....
Harpenden — Eothamsted ..
St. Albaus — Gorhambury ..

* ,, The Grange ..

Watford — K}-tes

* ,, Oaklands

*Rickmansworth — Moor Park

Obsekver.

*"WelwTn Rectory

*Datch\vorth Rectory
Hertford — Marden "Hill .

*Stevenage— Weston Park ...
*Benuinirtoii House

*Therfield Rectory

*Throcking Rectory

*Buutingf ord — Hamels Park

*Much Hadham

Hertford — Bayfordbury.

*\Vare — Red House

* ,, Fanhams Hall....

*Broxbourne — Stafford House
*Cheshunt — Old Nurseries .

College

*Xew Barnet — Gas Works ,
*Southgate — The Lawns...

Hale Wortham

H. George Fordham

William Lucas .
William Hill....
Joseph Pollard ,

E. J. Le Quesne

Hubert Thomas ....
Edward Mawley ....
W. Bonner Hopkins

Rev. W. T. Drake .
J. Dickinson & Co, .

Miss S. Grace Jones
Lawes and Gilbert .
The Earl of Verulam...
John Hopkinson ...

]\Irs. Horsman ....
Edward Harrison ,
Lord Ebury

Rev. Canon Wingfield
Rev. J. Wardale ....
R. H. Hoare

Diameter Height of Gauge
of above

^^""'^- Ground. Sea-level.

M. R. Pryor

Rev. Dr. Parker

Rev. J. G. Hale

Rev. C. W. Harvey..
E. WalUs

T. Woodham Mott ..,

W. Clinton Baker ..

Joseph Francis

Miss Joyce Croft

G. J. Newbery

Paul and Son

Rev. Dr. Reynolds

T.H. Martin

Georjje A. Church

5
8

24
12

6 sqr.

5
5
5

5
5

S
5
5

5
5
5
8

o
3

3
I

ft. ins.

0 6

1 o

2 I
I I
I I

4 2
I o
I o

o
I

I
I
I

o
o

1 o

5 6

2 O

4
o

8
o

4 3
I o
I o

4
o
o

o
o
o

9
6

ft.t

269 7^

260 T

23S/i\
220 /£
422 /f\

460

345 L
401 /[\
550 T

427 /N
260

237 T

630 B
420 T
425 T

3^0 /|.

239 T

273 T
340 /l\

228 T
386 T
257 T

470 T
408 /|\

500
484 T
400 T

222 B

250
114T
253 T

118T

92 T

94
212

240 T

* Daily fall received for these stations, t For explanation of these symbols see p. 53.

206

J. HOPKINSON EEPOET ON THE

Table II. — Eaixfall is

River District.

r„

1. Rhee

}3.

Hiz

r w ,
% 4. Up. Thame

o
O

6. Bulbourne

Gade

Station.

8. Ver

10. Lo. Colne

12. Mimrara

13. Beane

14. Rib

15. Ash

17. Upper Lea

r
I

L 18. Lower Lea <^

I
I

Royston..
Oclsey

Hitchin-

-TheFirs

The Maples .
High Down.

Trinjr — Elm House

Cowroast

Berkhamsted — Rosebank
Fairhill ..

Great Gaddesden Vicarage

Hemel Hempsted — Apsley Mills..
Nash Mills ..

Kensworth — The Grove ...,

Harpeiiden — Rothamsted
St. Albans — Gorhambury

The Grange..

Watford— Xytes

,, Oaklands

Rickmansworth — Moor Park

Welwj^n Rectory

Datohworth Rectory

Hertford— Marden Hill

Stevenage — "Weston Park
Bennington House

Therfield Rectory

Throcking Rectory

Buntiugford— Hamels Park

Much Hadham

Hertford — Bayfordbury

Ware — Red House

Fauhams Hall ....

Broxbourne — Stafford House

Cheshunt — Old Nurseries

,, College

New Barnet — Gas Works

Southgate — The Lawns

Mean for the County

Jan. Feb. Mar

ins.
•86
•93

•84

•87

•93
1-28

I-I4
1-07
1-09

•96
•97
•77

1-09

•85
•89

•99

•77
•93
•91

I -08
•66

•75

1-30
•70

I-I4
•89
•64

•70

•71
•78
•76

•73
•62

•54
•69
•79

1^92
1-85

1-47
1-54
1-47

1-68

1-36
1-56
1-57

1-56
1-29
ro8

1-23
1-30
r6i
1-52

1^26
1-46
1-54

1-39
ri8
1-79

i^6o
1-63

2'l6
212
1-83

233

1-62
'•51

1-86

177
i^48
r69
1-41
1-56

1-59

EAINFAIL IN HERTFOIIDSHIKE I>r 1892.

207

iKRTFOKDSniRE IN 1892.

ins.

78
93

■59

•66
•66
•49

•14
•i8

•21
•II

•23

•72
•50

•09
•32
•82
•34

•21

•48
•40

•10
•19

■44

•94
•61

•49
•44
■11

•63

•22
•00
•31

•56
•44
•41
•37

•47

1^43

June.

July.

ins.
246
3"oo

ins.
3"6o
330

2^8l

2^87
3-23

2^74
281
3-09

r85

3-46

2-15

2-93
2^68

316

2-97
2^76

2-68

2-53
2^6o

2^75
2-91
2^54

2^75
2-49

2^02

2-54

331
2^90

2-43
2-31

2^99
2^6o
2^53

1-88
231
2^49

2^46
2^09
2^69

3^11

2^43
3-02

2^8o

2^98

2^8l

3^09

3-12

2^84
273

3^65
2^94

4^02

3-OI

2^29

2^77
2-68

2-95

2^59
r90

1-55

3^i5
2-89

2^96

3-07
316

2^03
r92

1-94
r85
I •So

£•72

2^68

ins.

3^i8
^•11

2-51
2^46
2^6o

333

3^31
4^io
4^19

4^07
3-8S
3^92

4^27
3^62
4'6o
3^70

3^69
4^43
4^49

3^28
3 "34
4^13

3^07
3^61

3^31
3^25
3 '40

2^8l

3-09
3^oo
2^99

3-22

3-34
2^76
3"oo
3-10

3-45

ins.

2-8i

2^46
2^83

2^68
2^93

2-38

2^69

2^57
2-69

2^55
2-71
2^91

2-37
2-55
3^43

2-76
2^71
3^17

2^8o
2^28

2^72

2-85
2-41

3^o3

2^8l

2^62

2-21

2^43
1^90

1-85

2-44
2^63

2-57

2^8l

^•01

2^64

ins.

3^84
3^29

3^31
3^39
3^46

3'49

3^6o
3^88
3^99

3^51
4-00

4'22

3^58
3^87
3-83
4^23

3^97
4-37
4^82

4^i8
3-52

4^02

3-41

3-87

4^20

3^97
3^90

4^20

4'05
3^90

3^89

4^09
3-98
3 "69
3^66

3^83

3-86

^•53
136

1-49
r49
1-51

1-95

2-03
2^04
2^14

1-99
2-oa
211

1-51

2-00
2^0I
2^05

r84
2^17

2-55

1-71
1-62
1^71

r7i
1-64

1-79
I "74
i^75

2^o6

1^89

1^95

■2-00

212

2^14
2^17
2^11
2-44

Dec.

ins.
•66
•44

•39
•43

•48

•18

•60
•44
•52

•48
•60
•60

•63
•59
•41
•50

•47
•71
•10

•68
■50
•35

•35
■42

■90
•73
•73

■97

•43
•44
•33

•57
•50
•41
■49
•32

Year.

Days.

r9o rS4

ins.
24-91
24-14

22^99

23-22

23^93
2371

24^18

25^93

2573

24-83
25-69
25-27

24-80

24-09
25-19
2584

23-91

26-52

28-43

24^93
21-41
25-71

25^35
25-04

28-03
25-62
26-30

25-60

23^93
22-83
22-30

24-83
24-03
23-27
23^40

24^72

24^74

161
173

164
149
160

168

176
168

159
176
164

1 48
166

179

156
179
167

171

164

157

178

173
171

139

152

168
148
156

187
149
128

134
186

164

208 J. HOPKINSON KEPOET ON THE

The wettest day in each month at 35 stations was : —

January 1st at 1 station : 4th at 1 : Tth at 3 ; 8th at 2 ; 10th at 2 ; 11th at 2 ;
14th at 1 ; 22ncl at 14 ; 26th at 1 ; 27th at 1 ; 30th at 4 ; 6th and 22nd equal
at 1 ; 7th and 22nd equal at 1 ; 1st, 8th, 10th, and 30th equal at 1.

February 14th at 3 ; 15th at 6 ; 16th at 2 ; 20th at 21 ; 21st at 1 ; 28th at 1 ;
15th and 20th equal at 1.

March 1st at 1 ; loth at 30 ; 26th at 3 ; 15th and 26th equal at 1.

April 27th at all stations.

May 25th at 31 ; 26th at 3 ; 2oth and 26th equal at 1.

Jime 22nd at 2 ; 2:ird at 4 ; 28th at 29.

July 5th at 2 ; 16th at 13 ; 19th at 19 : 16 and 19th equal at 1.

August 18th at 6 ; 27th at 29.

September 21st at 8 ; 29th at 26 ; 21st and 29th equal at 1.

October 27th at 10 ; 30th at 25.

November 15th at 33 ; 16th at 2.

December 1st at all stations.

The day in each month on which a heavy fall of rain was most
general over the county was therefore : —

Jan. 22nd April 27th July 19th Oct 30th

Feb. 20th May 25th Aug. 27th Nov. 15th

March 15th June 2Sth Sept. 29th Dec. 1st

The number of wet days in the year (average of 33 gauges) was
164, being 4 below the mean for the twenty years 1870-89. Of
the total number there were 43 (or 26 °/q) in the winter months,
32 (or 20 °/o) in the spring, 38 (or 23 °/o) ^^ the summer, and 51
(or 3 1 °/q) in the autumn.

The number of wet days in each month, and the deviation from
the mean for the 20 years 1870-89, was as follows : —

Jan. 14 —1 April 9 —4 July 10 —4 Oct. 22 +7

Feb. 18 +4 May 12 —1 Aug. 14 +1 Nov. 16 =

March 11 —2 June 14 +1 Sept. 13 = Dec. 11 —5

Distnhdion of Rainfall throughout the County. — The next table
(Table IV, p. 209) gives the mean fall for each month and for the
year in each of the five river-districts represented, and in the two
main hydro graphical divisions of the county, the catchment-basins
of the Great Ouse and the Thames, and also the difference in the
year from the mean for the decade 1880-89.

The mean rainfall in each of the minor river-basias or sub-
districts represented, was as follows : —

ins. ins.

Cam Rhee 24-53 . Mimram 24-02

IvEL Hiz „ 23-38 ( Beane 25-20

Thame Upper Thame 23-71 t ) Rib 26-65

rBulbourne _ 25-83 ^^^ { Ash 25-60

rntxTT? j Glide 25-26 f Upper Lea 23-02

^"^''^ iVer 24-91 V Lower Lea 23-87

[Lower Colne 26-29

The total yearly fall ranged from 21-41 ins. at Datchworth to
28-43 ins. at Moor Park, Rickmansworth ; and the total monthly
fall from 0 64 in. at Datchworth in April to 4-82 ins. at Moor
Park in October. The greatest fall in any one day was 2-08 ins. at
Hamels Park, Buntingford, on the 16th of July.

RAIXFALL IN nEUTFOUDSnniE IN 1892. 209

Table IV. — Rainfall in the Rfver Districts.

Months.

Cam.

IVEL.

Th.\me.

COLNE.

Lea.

OUSE.

Thames.

ins.

Jan

•90

•ss

1-28

•96

•79

•89

•88

Feb

1-88

1-49

i-bS

1-41

170

1-65

1-58

March

•94

1-05

i-ii

1-27

1-26

i-oi

r26

April

•85

•86

•82

•83

•85

•82

May

1-44

I -60

I-I4

1-35

1-47

1-53

1-41

June

273

2-97

1-85

258

2-84

2-87

2-70

July

3-45

2-88

3*46

2-67

2-53

311

2-62

August

314

2-53

3-33

4-02

3-22

277

3-56

Sept

2-64

2-Si

2-38

2-73

2-55

274

2-62

October

3-56

3-39

3-49

3-99

390

3-46

3-93

Nov

1-45

1-50

1-95

2-03

1-92

1-48

1-96

Dec

I '55

I "43

i-i8

1-59

1-54

1-48

1-55

Year

24-53

23-38

23-71

25-42

24-55

23-84

24-89

Diff.t'rom
1880-89

4- I '02

— 1-88

—4-39

-1-82

—0-84

— 2^26

Distribution of Rainfall in each Month. — The nomenclature used
in the following account of the chief falls of rain is the same as in
my previous reports, falls of at least \ inch heing styled considerable,
f inch vert/ considerable, 1 inch great, 1\ inch very great, l^ inch
heavy, If inch very heavy, and of 2 inches and upwards excessive.
This analysis only applies to the 27 stations fi'om which I have
returns of the daily rainfall.

January. — Rainfall very small, equally distributed over the
month, but for the first three weeks nearly all in the form of
snow. On 11th only was a considerable fall recorded, and then at
only one station.

February. — Rainfall a little below the average, distributed over
the month, but the heaviest falls, all in the form of snow, occur-
ring in the week ending 20th, and amounting to about half the
total fall in the month. On loth and 20th only were there
considerable falls recorded, and on each occasion at only one station.

March. — "While the rainfall was only a little less than in Feb-
ruary, it did not occur on nearly so many days, so that March
appeared to be a rather dry month. About one-third of the
amount gauged fell as snow. On 15th only was there a consider-
able fall, recorded only at four stations.

April. — A dry month. No rain (or snow) fell imtil the 12th,
from 27th March, an absolute drought of 15 days' duration. Snow,
the last of the winter, then fell daily for a few days, and rain
only at intervals afterwards. No considerable fall was recorded.

May. — A rather diy month, vrith very little rain until 25th.
On that and the following day there were thunderstorms with
heavy rain amounting to about half the total fall in the month.
On 25th the fall was considerable at seven stations, and on 26th
great at Apsley Mills (1^17 in.), and considerable at two stations.

210 J. HOPKINSON — REPORT ON THE

June. — A rather wet month, with several heavy falls of rain
during the last nine days. On 22nd the fall was very consideralle
at one station and consideralle at one ; and on 23rd very considerable
at one and consideralle at thirteen stations. On 28th it was very
great at High Down, Hitchin (1-27 in.), great at Kew Bamet
(1-20 in.), Rosehank, Berkhamsted (1-18 in.), Fairhill, Berkhamsted
(1-15 in.), Fanhams Hall, Ware (1-12 in.), and Southgate (TOB in.),
very consideralle at six stations, and consideralle at ten. This fall
was due to a thunderstorm in the night of 28th-29th, when extra-
ordinary and very destructive hailstones fell in the north-west of
Hertfordshire. Accounts of the storm, as experienced at Berkham-
sted and Kensworth, are appended to this report. Several observers
record frost on the 18th, which did much damage to vegetation.

July. — While the rainfall was rather heavy, July was not a wet
month throughout, for on the average over the county rain only
fell on two days before the 12th and on one day after the 19th,
but between the 12th and the 19th (eight days) about two inches
fell. For the eleven days after this date no rain was recorded at
any station. On 5th the fall was very considerable at two stations
and considerable at thirteen ; on 1 3th it was consideralle at one
station; on 16th it was excessive at Hamels Park (2'08 ins.), heavy
at Royston (1-58 in.), very great at Therfield (1*28 in.), very con-
sideralle at eight stations, and consideralle at six; on 17th it was
consideralle at one station; and on 19th very consideralle at thirteen
stations, and consideralle at thirteen. The fall on the 16th was
due to a thunderstorm, during which there fell, at Rosebank,
Berkhamsted, 0'4lin. of rain in 9 minutes, being at the rate
of 2 "73 ins. per hour.

August. — An excessively wet month, but with several intervals
of a few days each without rain, not quite half the days in the
month being wet. On 1 8th the fall was very great at Bennington
(1-49 in.), Throcking (1-41 in.), and Weston Park (1-32 in.); great
at Hamels Park (1-22 in.), Datchworth (1-11 in.), Iloyston
(1-09 in.), Moor Park (1-07 in.), Welwyn (1-05 in.), Oaklands,
Watford (1-04 in.), and The Grange, St. Albans (1-00 in.); very
consideralle at seven stations ; and consideralle at one station. On
19th it was consideralle at one station, and on 23rd at one. On
27th it was very heavy at New Barnet (1*84 in.), Oaklands, Watford
(1*83 in.), Southgate (1-83 in.), and Broxbourne (r75in.); heavy
at Xash Mills (1-71 in.). The Grange, St. Albans (1-55 in.), and
Apsley Mills (1'50 in.) ; very great at Cowroast (1-40 in.), Welwyn
(1-40 "in.), Fanhams Hall, Ware (1-40 in.), Fairhill, Berkhamsted
(1-39 in.), Datchworth (1-39 in.), llosebank, Berkhamsted (1-37 in.),
Red House, Ware (1*35 in.), Bennington (1-33 in.), Hamels Park
(1-33 in.). Great Gaddesden (1-31 in.), and Kensworth (1-29 in.);
great at Much Hadham (1-23 in.). Moor Park (1-21 in.), the Old
Nurseries, Cheshunt (1-20 in.), Royston (M2 in.), Therfield
(r09 in.), and Throcking (r03 in.) ; and very consideralle at three
stations. On 28th there was a very consideralle fall at one station.
The fall on the 18th was due to a thunderstorm.

EAIXFALL IX IIKKTKOUnsniKE IN 1892. 211

Skptemher. — A very similar month to July, with a rather heavy
rainfall but not vivt throuiiliout, in fact very little raiu fell before
the 19th. On that day the fall was considerable ut one station;
and on the 20th also at one. On 2ist it was c/reat at High
Down, Hitchin (1-20 in.), The Firs, Hitehin (_ri3in.), and
lloyston (1-07 in.); very considerable at six stations; and consider-
able at seventeen. On 29th it was heavi/ at IMoor Park (1-62 in.) ;
veri/ great at New Barnet (1-37 in.), and Southgate (1-26 in.);
great at Oaklands, AVatford (1-20 in.), the Old Nurseries, Cheshunt
(1-12 in.), Cowroast (1-07 in.), Eroxbourno (1-02 in), and The
Grange, St. Albans (TOO in.); very considerable at fourteen stations;
and considerable at five. The fall entered to the 19th was due
to a thunderstorm on the morning of the 20th, commencing, at
St. Albans, at about 6 a.m., and culminating at 8, when the
thunder appeared to be almost simultaneous with the lightning.

OcTOBEE,. — Excessively wet, with a greater rainfall even than
August, and, unlike that month, with but few days without
rain. At most stations rain fell every day for the ten clays 12th
to 21st, and for the last seven days, this period being by far
the wettest, having, in fact, an average month's rainfall. On
27th the fall was great at Moor Park (r07in.), jN"ash Mills
(rosin.), and Fairhill, Berkhamsted (I'OOin.), very considerable
at seven stations, and considerable at twelve ; and on 28th it was
very considerable at two stations, and considerable at nine. On 30th
it was very great at Broxbournc (r27 in.) ; great at the Old
IS'urseries, Cheshunt (1-24 in.), Much Hadham (1-16 in.), IS'ew
Barnet (1"12 in.), Eed House, Ware (MO in.), Southgate
(1-10 in.), Eoyston (108 in.), Hamels Park (105 in.), Moor
Park (rosin.), and Fanhams Hall (TOO in.); very considerable
at nine stations ; and considerable at eight.

!N^ovEMBEE. — Very wet during the fir.st half of the month and
very diy during the second half, the first sixteen days having
four or five times as much rain as the last fourteen, this latter
period determining the month to be rather dry on the whole. On
loth the fall was considerable at seven stations, and on 16th at
one station.

December — Of the same character as jSTovember, but even more
strongl)" marked, for at most stations all the rain in the month
fell during the first sixteen days, partly as snow. After the 16th
there was only a slight fall of snow at a few stations on 31st,
there being thus a drought of fourteen days' duration at all
stations, and an " absolute " drought (see p. 232) of fifteen
days at nearly all, determining the month to be dry on the
whole. On 1st only was a considerable fall recorded, and then
at only three stations.

The Thunderstorm of 2Sth-29th June, 1892. — Of this remarkable
storm, briefly referred to on p. 210, I have been favoured with
interesting accounts by !Mr. Edward Mawley, of Roscbank, Berk-
hamsted, and Miss Grace Jones, of The Grove, Kens worth.

212 J. HOPKINSON — KAINFALL IN 1892.

The advantage of the possession of self-recording instruments
is well shown by Mr. Mawley's account, which is as follows : —

" Throughout the whole of the evening and night preceding the 29th of June,
the weather was extremely unsettled, there having been thunder at 6.45 p.m. ;
thunder and lightning at 7.50 p.m. (time-interval 18 seconds); a few drops of
rain at 8.7 p.m. ; thunder and Kghtning at 9 p.m. ; a sharp shower at 10.45 p.m. ;
a very heavy shower shortly after niidniglit ; and a singularly heavy downpour of
rain between 1.24 and 1.32 a.m., folloVed by a fall of large hailstones lasting
about three minutes. During the early part of the storm the flashes of liglitning
were unusually brilliant and continuous, and between 1.32 and 1.37 a.m. were
quickly followed by loud peals of thunder. At 2.0 a.m. there occurred another
heavy downpour of rain, when the time interval between the lightning and thunder
Avas 7 sees. Three minutes later it amounted to 17 sees. Very heavy showers
also took place at 3.30 and 4 a.m.

"The most noteworthy feature of this memorable night was, however, the
severe thunderstorm which passed over here between l.'iO and 1.30 a.m. During
these ten minutes all my self-recording instruments were more or less aifected.
The barograph curve shows a sudden rise and fall of about tlu-ee-hundredths of
an inch ; the thermograph an equally sudden fall of several degrees of tempera-
ture. The anemograph curves were still more remarkable. The atmosphere,
which during the previous hour had fallen to almost a dead calm, was all at once
set moving at the rate of about ten miles an hour ; while the wind-vane made a
complete tour of the compass, starting at S.E. and veering rapidly through S.,
W., N., and E., and back to S.E., when the air again became calm. The self-
recording rain-gauge had also an extremely busy time, over half an inch of rain
being recorded by it during the eight minutes ending 1.32 a.m.

" Some of the hailstones which fell during this stonn were spherical and about
half an inch in diameter, while others were roughly triangular and about f inch
long by f inch across. The rhubarb-leaves in my garden were completely
riddled, and the foliage of roses, chrysanthemums, and other plants, was slit
and otherwise much torn and bruised. One rose-bud had a gash in it ^ inch deep.
Neither of my own greenhouses was injured, but, at Frithsden Gardens, situated
about a mile and a halt' to the north of Berkhamsted, the damage to the numerous
greenhouses was very great, about every other pane of the 16 oz. glass being
broken, and about one in every ten of the 21 oz. panes."

At Kensworth the storm was even more severe than at Berk-
hamsted, the hailstones being much larger, .and doing much more
damage than at Frithsden. Miss Jones says : —

"Thunder, not very heavy, and very vivid lightning, had been almost con-
tinuous for several houi-s, when, at 1.40 a.m., hail suddenly commenced, lasting
about nine minutes, during which time every pane of glass in greenhouses and
skylights was smashed to atoms, tiles were cracked and split off, corn crops and
fruit were severely damaged, and the ground was covered with leaves and twigs
cut olf from the trees, as it might be in October after a tremendous gale. Many
of the hailstones weighed 2\ ounces. One, which I picked up immediately after
the storm ceased, covered the palm of my hand, was half an inch thick, of solid
ice, flat, oval in shape, and serrated all round ; others were round and as large as
tennis-balls, likewise with sharp edges. Not one person in this village can
remember a similar fall of hail.

" I believe that we were almost in the centre of the storm, as little or no
damage was done within half a mile on either side. It seems to have travelled
in a straight line from Ashridge and Studham. It does not appear to have been
felt at Whipsnade or Markyate Street, and it was but little felt at Dunstable.
During the fail of hail, which alone was appalling, a peculiar sharp crackling
sound was heard, as if we were surrounded by electricity, and there was a strong
odour of sulphur. A walnut-tree within about 100 yards of my house was
struck by the lightning."

XXI.

OBSERVATTOXS OF TEMrERATURE AND RAINFALL TAKEN AT
THRUCKING RECTORY, BUNTINGFORD, 1880-1889.

By the Ret. C. Wigan Harvey, M.A.

Read at Watford, I8th April, 1893.

Tnis paper is an attempt to place before those who take an
interest in meteorological statistics, the results of observations
taken daily at 9 a.m., at Throcking Rectory, near Buntingford,
during the ten years 1880-89.

The altitude of the station is 483 feet above mean sea-level.
The thermometers, a mercury maximum and spirit minimum, are
by Xegretti and Zambra, have been verified at Kcw Observatory, and
are enclosed in a Stevenson's screen with their bulbs 4 feet above
the surface of the ground. The rain-gauge, which is of the
Snowdon pattern, is of 5 inches diameter, the top being 12 inches
above the surface of the ground. As the receiver is capable of
containing 8 inches of rain, I have never had the mortification of
recording an overflow.

The year 1884 showed the highest, and the year 1888 the lowest
mean temperature, whilst the driest years were 1884 and 1887,
and the wettest year was 1882. Although the actual rainfall in
1887 was slightly less than in 1884, the number of days on which
rain fell in 1887 exceeded the number in 1884 by twelve.

The Year. Temperature. — The mean for the 1 0 years was
47°-4, the years 1880, 2, 3, and 4 being above, and the years 1881,
5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 being below that average. The highest mean
temperature, 48°'8, occurred in 1884, and the lowest, 46°'2, in
1888. The absolute range of temperature was between 89°'6 on
July 15th, 1881, and 10°-7 on January 22nd, 1881, so that practi-
cally the range for 1881 was the range for the whole decennial
period. Rainfall. — The average annual fall was 24*52 inches, the
years 1880, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 9 having more, and the years 1884, 7,
and 8 having less than that average. The greatest yearly fall was
27"92 inches in 1882, and the smallest was 18'26 inches in 1887 ;
the fall in 1884 was 18-39 inches. The heaviest daily fall was
2"60 inches on July 12th, 1889, the result of a series of thunder-
storms. The average number of days upon which rain fell was
167 ; this number was exceeded in 1881, 3, 5, and 8. The greatest
number of days upon which rain fell was 193, in 1882, and the
least number 138, in 1884.

Winter (December, January, February). Temperature. — The
mean temperature was 37°-3, the winters of 1882, 3, 4, 5, and 7
being above, and the winters of .1880, 1, 6, 8, and 9 being below
that average. The coldest winter was 34°-9, in 1880-81, and the
warmest, 39°-8, in 1883-84. The absolute range of temperature
was between 56°-6 on January 10th, 1888, and 10°-7 on January

214 EEV. C. W. HAKVEY— TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL

22ncl, 1881. Rainfall. — The average fall was 5-14 inches, the fall
in 1881, 2, 3, 5, and 7 being greater, and the fall in 1880, 4, 6, 8,
and 9 being less than that average; 7'11 inches fell in 1882, and
only 286 inches in 1888. The average nnmber of days upon
which rain fell was 44, the years 1881, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 having
more, and the years 1880, 7, 8, and 9 having less than this average.
The greatest fall in any one day was 1-36 inch on December 17th,
1881, the only instance of a fall of at least an inch in the winter
months.

Spring (March, April, May). Tejnperature. — The mean tempera-
ture was 44°-9 ; the springs of 1880, 1, 2, and 4 being above, and
those of 1883, 5, 6, 7, and 8 being below that average, whilst that
of 1889 was exactly the average. The warmest spring was 48°- 1,
in 1882, and the coldest, 42°-2, in 1887. The absolute range of
temperature was between 79°-6 on May 26th, 1880, and 17°-6 on
March 24th, 1883. Rainfall. — The average fall was 4-92 inches,
which amount was exceeded in 1882, 5, 6, 8, and 9, the fall in

1880, 1, 3, 4, and 7 being less than the average ; 7-61 inches fell
in 1886, and only 2-29 inches in 1880. The average number of
days on which rain fell was 38, the years 1886, 7, 8, and 9
having more than this average, and the years 1880, 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5 having less. The greatest fall in one day was I'lO inch
on May 24th, 1886, and May 11th, 1889.

Summer (June, July, August). Temperature. — The mean tem-
perature was 59°-0, the years 1882, 3, 4, and 7, being above, and
the years 1880, 1, 5, 6, 8, and 9, being below this average. The
warmest summer was 61° 8, in 1887, and the coldest, 56°-9, in
1888. The absolute range of temperature was between 89°-6 on
July 15th, 1881, and 34°-6 on June 9th, 1881. Rainfall.— The
average fall was 6-37 inches, the years 1880, 1, 3, 4, 8, and 9
having a fall above, and the years 1882, 5, 6, and 7, below that
average; 8 57 inches fell in 1881, and only 2-48 inches in 1887.
The average number of days upon which rain fell was 39, the
years 1880, 1, 2, 8, and 9 having more, and the years 1883,
4, 5, 6, and 7 having less than this average. The greatest fall
in any one day was 2-60 inches on July 12th, 18H9.

Autumn (September, October, November). Temperature. — The
mean temperature was 48°-3, the years 1881, 3, 4, and 6 being
above, and the years 1880, 2, 5, 7, 8, and 9 being below tliat
average. The warmest autumn was 52°-3, in 1883, and the
coldest, 45°-4, in 1887. The absolute range of temperature was
between 84°-2 on September 4th, 1880, and 20°-4 on November
17th, 1887. Rainfall. — The average fall was 8-09 inches, the
fall in 1880, 2, 3, "and 5 being above, and in 1881, 4, 6, 8, and
9 below that average, whilst the fall of 1887 equalled the average;
11-88 inches fell in 1885, and only 4-19 inches in 1884. The
average number of days on which rain fell was 46, the years

1881, 2, 3, 5, and 7 having more, and the years 1880, 4, 6, 8,
and 9 having less than this average. The greatest fall in one day
was 1-25 inch on September 10th, 1885.

AT THROCKING, BUNTINGFOED, 1880-89.

215

Table I. — Temperature and Rainfall in eacli Year, 1880-1889.

Year.

Temperature.

Rainfall.

Accumula-

Greatest

Mean.

lligliest.

Lowest.

Total.

tion inim
1880.

in
24 hours.

Days.

in.

1880

47 7

84-2

14-5

27-41

1-22

157

1J<81

46-6

89-6

107

27-32

5473

1-36

186

1882

48-6

77-6

19-1

27-92

82-65

1-04

193

18s;i

48-5

80 -o

17-6

25-95

108-60

1-20

169

1884

48-8

86 -4

25-1

18-39

126-99

1-60

138

1885

46-6

84-3

20-3

26-22

153-21

1-25

169

1886

47 -o

84-9

15-6

25 24

178-45

ITO

166

1887

47-2

857

17-3

18-26

196-71

0-79

150

1888

46-2

86-4

15-8

22-87

219-58

075

178

1889

46-8

81-3

15 2

25-57

245-15

2 -60

165

1880-89

47-4

89-6

IO-7

24-52

245-15

2-60

167

Table II. — Mear^ and Extreme Temperature and Rainfall,

1880-1889.

Month.

Temperature.

Rainfall.

Mean.

Highest.

Lowest.

Average.

Since
Jan. 1st.

Greatest
in 24 hrs.

Days.

January

February

March

April

May

36-1

38-8

39 3
44-5
51-0

56-5
61-0

59-6
55-2
46-7
42-0
37-5

0
56-6

56-4
66-2
72-1
79-6

837
89-6

86-4
84-2
76-9

61 -2
54-9

10-7
15-8
17-6

23-1

28-7

34-6
40-6

40-9
32-9

27-3
20-4
19-1

in.

1-38

1-75

1-39

1-70

1-83
1.65
2-83
1-89

2-43
2-99
2-67
2-01

in.
138
313
4-52

6-22

8-05

9-70

12-53
14-42

16-85

19-84

22-51

24-52

in.
0-70
0-64
0-63
1-04
i-io

0-99
2-60
0-94

1-25
i-i6

0-79
1-36

13
14
II

15
12

II
15
13
13
16

17
17

June

July

August

September .

October

November..
December..

The Year's
Average.

47-4

89-6

10-7

24-52

2 -60

167

216 EKV. C. W. HAE.YEY TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL

January. Temperature. — Mean, 36°-l. Above in 1882, 3, 4,

6, and 8; below in 1880, 1, 5, 7, and 9. Warmest, 42°-8 in
1886; coldest, 28°-6 in 1881. Range between 56°-6 on January
10th, 1888, and 10°-7 on January 22nd, 1881. Rainfall. —
Average, 1-38 inch. Above in 1881, 3, 4, 5, and 6; below in
1880, 2, 7, 8, and 9. Greatest monthly fall, 2*49 inches in 1886;
smallest, 0-26 inch in 1880. Greatest daily fall, 0-70 inch on
January 18th, 1881. Average number of days on which rain
fell, 13; above in 1883, 4, 5, and 6; below in 1880, 1, 2, 7,
8, and 9.

February. Temperature. — Mean, 38-8. Above in 1880, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 7, below in 1881, 6, 8, and 9. Warmest, 48°-2 in 1887 ;
coldest, 33°-4 in 1888. Range between 56°-4 on February 12th,
1885, and 15°-8 on February 25th, 1888. Rainfall. — Average,
1-75 inch. Above in 1880, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 9 ; below in 1884, 6,

7, and 8. Greatest monthly fall, 3-55 inches in 1883; smallest,
0-24 inch in 1886. Greatest daily fall, 0-64 inch on February
14th, 1882, and February 10th, 1883. Average number of days
on which rain fell, 14. Above in 1880, 1, 3, and 5; below in
1882, 4, 6, 7, and 9 ; equal to average in 1888.

March. Temperature.— W.^.^v., 39°-3. Above in 1880, 1, 2, 4,
and 5 ; below in 1883, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Warmest, 45°-3 in 1882 ;
coldest, 34°-3 in 1883. Range between 66°-2 on March 16th, 1884,
and 17°-6 on March 24th, 1883. Rainfall. — Average, 1-39 inch.
Above in 1881, 6, 8, and 9; below in 1880, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7.
Greatest monthly fall, 3*26 inches in 1888; smallest, 0-64 inch
in 1883. Greatest daily fall, 0-63 inch on March 11th, 1888.
Average number of days on which rain fell, 11. Above in 1886,

8, and 9; below in 1880, 3, 4, and 5; equal to average in 1881,
2, and 7.

April. Temperature. — Mean, 44°-5. Above in 1880, 2, 3, 5,
and 6; below in 1881, 4, 7, 8, and 9. Warmest, 46°-8 in 1882;
coldest. 42°-4 in 1888. Range between 72°- 1 on April 20th, 1885,
and 23°- 1 on April 4th, 1881. Rainfall.— Ayerage, 1-70 inch.
Above in 1880, 2, 3, 5, and 9; below in 1881, 4, 6, 7, and 8.
Greatest monthly fall, 3-16 inches in 1882; smallest, 0-81 inch
in 1881. Greatest daily fall, 1-04 inch on April 25th, 1882.
Average number of days on which rain fell, 15. Above in 1880,
2, 4, 5, 8, and 9 ; below in 1881, 3, 6, and 7.

May. Temperature. — Mean, 51°-0. Above in 1881, 2, 4, and
9; below in 1880, 3, 5, 7, and 8; equal to average in 1886.
Warmest, 54°-6 in 1889; coldest, 47°-7 in 1885 and 7. Range
between 79°-6 on May 26th, 1880, and 28°-7 on May 4th, 1883.
Rainfall.— Axerage, 1-83 inch. Above in 1885, 6, 7, and 9;
below in 1880, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8. Greatest monthly fall, 4-63
inches in 1886; smallest, 0-39 inch in 1884. Greatest daily fall,
MO inch on May 24th, 1886, and May 11th, 1889. Average
number of days on which rain fell, 12. Above in 1885, 6, 7, and
9 ; below in 1880, 2, 3, 4, and 8 ; equal to average in 1881.

June. Temperature. — Mean, 56°-5. Above in 1882, 3, 5, 7,

AT THROCEING, BTJNXrNGFORD, 1880-89. 217

and 0; holow in 1880, 1, 4, 0, and 8. AVarmest, 58°-8 in 1887;
coldest, 51°- 1 in 1886. Range between 83°-7 on June ISth, 1887,
and 34°-6 on June 9th, 1881. Rainfall. — Avenii>-e, 1-65 inch.
Above in 1880, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, and 9 ;' below in 1884, 6, and 7.
Greatest monthly fall, 2-36 inches in 1882; smallest, 0-41 inch
in 1886. Greatest daily fall, 0-99 inch on June 7th, 1889.
Average number of days on which rain fell, 11. Above in 1880,
1, 2, and 8; below in 1883, 4, 6, 7, and 9; e(][ual to average in
1885.

July. Temperature. — Mean, 61°-0. Above in 1881, 2, 3, 6,
and 7; below in 1880, 8, and 9; equal to average in 1884 and 5.
Warmest, 63°-9 in 1887 ; coldest, 56°-7 in 1888. llange between
89°-6 on July 15th, 1881, and 40°-6 on July Uth, 1888. Rain-
fall.— Average, 2-83 inches. Above in 1880, 3, 4, 8, and 9;
below in 1881, 2, 5, 6, and 7. Greatest monthly fall, 5-23 inches
in 1880; smallest, 0-38 inch in 1885. Greatest daily fall, 2 60
inches on July 12th, 1889. Average number of days on which
rain fell, 15. Above in 1880, 2, 8, and 9; below in 1881, 4, 5,
6, and 7 ; equal to average in 1883.

August. Temperature. — Mean, 59°-6. Above in 1880, 3, 4, 6,
and 7; below in 1881, 2, 5, 8, and 9. Warmest, 63°-l in 1884;
coldest, 56°'9 in 1881. llange between 87°-7 on August 11th,
1884, and 40°-9 on August 16th, 1888. Rainfall.— Ayerage, 1-89
inch. Above in 1881, 4, and 8; below in 1880, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7,
and 9. Greatest monthly fall, 4*85 inches in 1881 ; smallest, 0 85
inch in 1887. Greatest daily fall, 0 94 inch on August 9th, 1884.
Average number of days on which rain fell, 13. Above in 1881,
8, and 9; below in 1880, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; equal to average in
1882.

September. Temperature. — Mean, 55°-2. Above in 1880, 3,
and 4; below in 1881, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Warmest, 58°-8 in
1880; coldest, 52°-9 in 1887. Range between 84°-2 on September
4th, 1880, and 32°-9 on September 26th, 1885. Rainfall —
Average, 2-43 inches. Above in 1880, 3, 5, and 7; below in
1881, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 9. Greatest monthly fall, 4-04 inches in
1883 ; smallest, M8 inch in 1886. Greatest daily fall, 1-25 inch
on September 10th, 1885. Average number of days on which rain
fell, 13. Above in 1881, 3, 5, and 7; below in 1880, 2, 4, 6, and
9 ; equal to average in 1888.

October. Temperature.— llcan, 46°-7. Above in 1882, 3, 4, 6,
and 9 ; below in 1880, 1, 5, 7, and 8. Warmest, 50°-5 in 1883;
coldest, 43-7 in 1881. Range between 76°-9 on October 4th, 1886,
and 27°-3 on October 31st, 1881. Rainfall.— Ayerage, 2-99 inches.
Above in 1880, 2, 5, 6, and 9; below in 1881, 3, 4, 7, and 8.
Greatest monthly fall, 5*49 inches in 1882; smallest, 0-81 inch
in 1888. Greatest daily fall, M6 inch on October 6th, 1880.
Average number of days on which rain fell, 16. Above in 1880,
1, 2, 5, 6, and 9; below in 1883, 4, 7, and 8.

jS'ovember. Temperature. — Mean, 42°-0. Above in 1881, 6, 8,
and 9; below in 1880, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7. Warmest, 46°-7 in

VOL. VII. — PART VII. 16

218 -REV. C. W, HAEVEY — TEMTEEATTJEE AND EATNTAXt.

1881 ; coldest, 38°-9 in 1887. Eange between 61°-2 on November
6th, 1881, and 20°-4 on November 17th, 1887. Rainfall.—
Average, 2-67 inches. Above in 1882, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 ; below in
1880, 1, 4, and 9. Greatest monthly fall, 4-03 inches in 1888;
smallest, 0-97 inch in 1889. Greatest daily fall, 0'79 inch on
November 3rd, 1887. Average number of days on which rain
fell, 17. Above in 1881, 2, 3, 7, and 8 ; below in 1880, 4, 5, 6,
and 9.

Decembee. Temperature. — Mean, 37°-5. Above in 1880, 2,
3, 4, and 8; below in 1881, 5, 6, 7, and 9. Warmest, 40°-3
in 1888 ; coldest, 34°-7 in 1886. Range between 54°-9 on
December 4th, 1888, and 19°-1 on December 11th, 1882. Rain-
fall.— Average, 2'01 inches. Above in 1880, 1, 2, 4, and 6; below
in 1883, 5, 7, 8, and 9. Greatest monthly fall, 4*01 inches in
1881 ; smallest, I'Olinch in 1883. Greatest daily fall, 1'36 inch
on December 17th, 1881. Average number of days on which rain
fell, 17. Above in 1880, 1, 2, 4, and 7 ; below in 1883, 5,
6, and 8 ; equal to average in. 1889.

ExTEEMEs. Temperature. — The maximum temperature has
exceeded 80° on forty-nine occasions, of which 8 occurred in
Jime ; 22 in July; 15 in August; and 4 in September. The
earliest was on June 2nd, and the latest on September 1 7th. The
minimum temperature has indicated at least 20° of frost on five
occasions, all of which occurred in January, 1881 ; i.e. January
22nd, 10°-7; 24th, ll°-2; 25th, ll°-7; 26th, ll°-5; 27th, ll°-9.
Rainfall. — The total fall in any one day has exceeded an inch upon
thirteen occasions ; 1 in April ; 3 in May ; 3 in July ; 3 in Septem-
ber; and 3 in October. On one of these occasions only (July 12th,
1889) did the fall exceed 2 inches.

XXII.

THE CLIMATE OF WATFORD,

DEDUCED FRO:\I METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS TAKEX

DURIXG THE TEX YEARS 1877-188G.

By JoBra HoPKUfsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Eead at IFatford, I8th April, 1893.

From meteorological observations extending over a period of ten
years it should be possible to arrive at some idea of the climate of
Watford. For all elements of climate but the rainfall it is not
likely that the mean annual value deduced from any ten years'
observations -will diifer greatly from the mean for a much longer
period, nor that the extremes will be greatly exceeded. Taking,
for example, the temperature, which is the most important element
of climate, the mean annual temperature deduced from observations
extending over any ten years probably will not differ more than
half a degree from the average for half a century, or even a
century. At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, during the half-
century 1841-90, there appears to have been only one decennial
period when this difference was exceeded, and then but slightly.
The mean annual temperature at Greenwich in our decade 1877-86
was 0°-3 below the half-centmy's average, the mean for this decade
being 49°- 16, and for the half-century 49°-46.* At Watford in
this decade it was 48°-3 (or more precisely 48°-33), and therefore
the true value for the half -century would probably be about 48°- 6,
or a little less than a degree lower than the Greenwich mean
temperature for the same period.

Again, it is a well-founded assumption that the mean of the
extremes in a long series of years gives a fairly accurate idea of
the mean temperature of a place. If I had left unthsturbed the
minimum and maximum thermometers from the beginning of 1877
to the end of 1886, from a single reading of these thermometers
the mean temperature of Watford would have been inferred to
be 49°-0, which is a little more than half a degree above its true
value for the period. On the above assumption, if 48°-3 were the
true mean for a long period, a lower minimum temperature than any
I have recorded would be more likely to occur, or to have occurred,
duiing such period, than a higher maximum. This inference also
follows if we assume that the mean temperature at Watford during
the half-century 1841-90 was 48°-6 ; and if duiing that period the
maximum attained during 1877-86 has not been exceeded, the
minimum is not likely to have fallen more than a degree lower
than the minimum I have actually recorded.

After temperature the most important element of climate is
rainfall, but the mean rainfall of any place cannot be directly
ascertained, with any probability of accuracy, from observations
extending over a shorter period of time than 40 or 50 years. It

* See ' Quart. Joura. R. Met. Soc.,' voL xvii, p. 236, and vol. xviii, p. 239.

220 J. HOPKLNSON — THE CLIMATE OF WATFOED.

can be calculated approximately, however, from the observed value
for such a period as ten years, if we know the mean rainfall over
the surrounding district, or even the mean at a single not far-
distant station, by comparing the mean for the shorter period with
that for the longer one, for we may reasonably infer that the rela-
tion subsisting in (say) ten years between the rainfall at two or
more adjacent stations, will be approximately maintained for forty
or fifty years, should no physical change affecting climate, such as
alteration of level or clearing of forests, have taken place.

After temperature and rainfall, the sequence of phenomena in
relative importance, as indicating the nature of the climate of any
place, is probably humidity, cloud, and wind. Atmospheric pres-
sure can scarcely be considered an element of climate, but in deter-
mining the character of other meteorological phenomena it is of
paramount importance, and it will therefore be discussed first.
For a similar reason — the cause preceding the effect — humidity,
cloud, and wind will be discussed before rainfall.

But before proceeding to the consideration of the general results
arrived at from the observation of these phenomena, it is necessary
to give some information as to the localities where the observations
have been made, the instruments used, and the method of observa-
tion and reduction.

The observations were commenced at Holly Bank, Watford, on
the 1st of March, 1876. At the end of September in the following
year I removed to Wansford House, "Watford, where they were
carried on from that time until the end of the year 1886, when
I removed to St. Albans. Observations have thus been taken at
Wansford House for nine years and three months. Ten years is,
however, a period to be preferred to nine, for, besides having
the advantage of being of longer duration, it is much more con-
venient to work with, and moreover it is the usual period, between
that for one year and for a quarter of a century, for which results
of meteorological observations are published. As the localities are
only about half a mile apart, the observations of as many months
at one of them as of years at the other, cannot, I think, insomuch
as the slight difference between the two situations is concerned,
materially affect the general results of the observations at Wansford
House. I have, therefore, included the records of observations for
nine months at Holly Bank with those for nine years and three
months at Wansford House. A description of each locality having
already appeared in the annual reports of my observations con-
tributed to the Society, with full particulars of the instruments
used, etc., it will suffice to give here only a brief summary of
information most of which may be found in greater detail in
previous volumes of our Transactions.* At first my observatory
was a " Second-order" Station of the Royal Meteorological Society
(obs. taken at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m.), but for the greater portion of
the time it was a Climatological Station (obs. taken at 9 a.m. only).

* 'Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. I. pp. 217-219; ib., Vol. II,
pp. 209-211 ; and 'Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Vol. Ill, pp. 181, 182.

J. norEiNsox — the ci.imatk of watford. 221

SlTTTATrON OF STATIONS.

Holly 7?ff«/-.— Lutitudc, 51° 40' 5" N. ; longitude, 0° 24' 10" W.
(of Given wk'li). Centre of Watford about a mile S.S.E. Ground-
level at thermometer-screen and rain-gauge 2(58 feet, and cistern
of barometer 272 feet, above Ordnance Datum (mean sea-level).
Ground in the immediate neiglibourhood nearly level, then rising
very slightly towards X., and falling slightly towards E. and S.E.
to the lliver Colne, distant about a mile.

Wansford House.— Latitude, 51° 35' 45" N.; longitude, 0° 23' 40"
"W. Centre of Watford about half a mile S. Ground-level at ther-
mometer-screen and rain-gauge 223 feet, and cistern of barometer
234 feet, above Ordnance Datum. Ground immediately around
slightly inclined towards E., then rising slightly towards N.W.,
and falling rather more considerably towards E. and S.E. to the
River Colne, distant about half a mile.

The subsoil is gravel on chalk, the plane of saturation in which,
except where loAvered by pumping, rises at a very slight gradient
from the river, the surface of which is, at Watforcl, 180 feet above
mean sea-level. To pen back the water for the Watford Mill,
the banks of the river have been raised ; being thus rendered very
sluggish, it has gradually silted up its bed ; and, just above
Watford, its surface is now at least a foot above the alluvial
plain through which it flows, which is consequently often flooded
after heavy rain. The town of Watford is now extending over this
low-lying land, which it would seem to be impossible effectually
to drain. All other parts of Watford and the country around it
have a very dry subsoil, the effects of heavy rain soon disappearing.

Instrfments, and Method of Observation and Reduction.

Barometer, a Eortin standard with tube half an inch in internal
diameter. Thermometers, clry-bulb, wet-bulb, Negretti maximum,
and Rutherford minimum, 4 feet above the ground in a Stevenson
screen, over grass. Rain-gauge, Snowdon pattern, 5 inches in
diameter, top of rim .1 foot above the ground (grass), capacity
of receiver 8 inches depth of rain. Wind -vane (at Wansford
House only), about 25 feet above the ground, and 105 feet
di.stant from nearest object of equal height.

Observations taken at 9 a.m.*" Readings of minimum ther-
mometer entered to day of observation, of maximum thermometer
and rain-gauge to previous day. Readings corrected for index-
errors of instruments, and barometric readings corrected to 32° in
accordance with the temperature shown by attached thermometer,
and reduced to sea-level. No corrections made for diurnal range
of pressure or temperatiire, the mean temperature adopted being
the arithmetical mean of the minimum and maximum readings.

Reductions made in part from Guyot's ' Tables, Meteorological
and Physical' (3rd Ed.), and in part from tables in the Royal
Meteorological Society's ' Instructions for the Observation of
Meteorological Phenomena,' by AV. Marriott (2nd Ed.).

* The observations taken at first at 9 p.m. also, are not here utilised.

222 j. nopkinson — the climate of watford.

General Kesults and Inferences.

As all the more important elements of the climate of Watford
are given in a tabular form, it is only necessary to state here
some of the general results which may be arrived at from an exami-
nation of the tables, and inferences which may be drawn from their
study, it being understood that the tables give the information, these
remarks being merely a running commentaiy upon them. Occasion-
ally a fact may be stated which is neither shown in the tables nor
can be deduced from them. Except for rainfall, the values given
are considered as approximately- correct elements of the climate of
"Watford, and are therefore usually expressed in the present tense.

In the division of the year into seasons, the months of March,
April, and May are considered as Spring ; June, July, and August
as Summer; Sept., Oct., and jS'ov. as Autumn; and Dec, Jan., and
Peb. as Winter.

Pressure of the Atmosphere (Tables I-III, p. 223). — The mean
pressure was practically the same during each half of the period,
being a little over 29-952 ins. in the first five years, and a little
under this in the second five years, but the difference was less
than O'OOl in. The year of lowest pressure was not the wettest,
nor was the year of highest pressure the driest in the series.

Pressure was alternately above and below the mean in each two
successive years. Commencing below the mean, it was below for
six years and above for four. The average annual deviation from
the mean was between 0'022 and 0-023 in. While the lowest and
the highest mean annual pressures deviated almost equally from
the mean for the whole period, the lowest pressure recorded
deviated 41 per cent, more from the mean than did the highest
pressure, and the mean of the lowest pressures 28 per cent, more
than the mean of the highest pressures.

The extreme range of pressure was 2-596 ins., being from
28-384 ins. on 9th December, 1886, to 30*980 ins. on 1st
March, 1882.

On the average pressure is low in spring and autumn, about
the mean for the year in summer, and high in winter ; low in
November and high in January. The season with the lowest
mean pressure was the winter of 1878-79, and that with the
highest, the winter of 1881-82 ; the month with the lowest
mean pressure was February, 1879, and that with the highest,
January, 1880.

Temperature of the Air (Tables IV-YI, p. 225).— The second
half of the period was appreciably warmer than the first half,
the mean temperature during the first five years being 47°-78,
or 0°-55 below the mean for the period (48°-33), and during
the second five years, 48°-88, or 0°-55 above the mean, the
difference therefore being 1°-1. This is entirely owing to the
low temperature of the coldest year, 1879 (45°-4), and the high
tempei'ature of the warmest year, 1884 (50°- 1). While the
extreme annual range was thus 4°-7, no other years differ from
each other in their mean temperature more than one degree,

J. nOPKINSOX — THE CLIMATE OF WATFORD.

223

Table I. — ITeaji and JExtreme Pressure in each Year, at 9 a.m.

Tear.

Mean.
Ins.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Max.

Range.
Ins.

Ins.

Date.

Ins.

Date.

1877
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86

29-906
29-934
29-960
30-004
29-959
29-932
29-961

29-995
29940
29-931

28-635
29005
28-949
28-860
28-932
28-959
28-968
28-656

28-957
28-384

Jan. 2
Oct. 26
AprU 7
Nov. 16
Dec. 20
Mar. 1
Feb. 2
Dec. 20
Jan. 11
Dec. 9

30-623

30-654
30-819
30-694
30-658
30-980
30-860
30-668
30-611
30-745

Jan. 21
Mar. 16
Dec. 23
Jan. 7
May 8
Jan. 18
Feb. 23
Oct. 5
Dec. 23
Feb. 8

1-988
1-649
1-870

1-834
1-726
2-021
1-892
2-012

1-654
2-361

Mean

29-952

28830

30-731

1-901

Table II. — Seasonal Pressure at 9 a.m.

Season.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. seasonal
pressure.

Max. seasonal
pressure.

Range.
Ins.

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

Sprins:

29-939
29-951

29937
29-984

29-813
29-S31
29845
29-772

1877
79

78
78-79

30-040
30-070
30-126
30-195

1880

85
79
81-82

0-227

0-239
0-281

0-423

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Table III. — Montlily and Annual Pressure at 9 a.m.

Month.

January ...
February...

March

April _

May

June

July

August

September
October ...
November
December

Year

Mean.

Min. monthly

Max. monthly

Ransfe.

Ins.

pressure.

Ins.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

30-029

29-678

1886

30-406

1880

0-728

29-959

29-545

30-304

0-759

29-976

29-757

30-126

0369

29-876

29-715

30-024

0309

29-965

29-792

30-102

0-310

29-969

29-824

30-051

0-127

29-952

29-802

30-188

0386

29-931

29-747

30-034

0-287

29-971

29-839

30055

0-216

29-928

29-770

30-147

0-377

29-912

29-663

30-233

0-570

29-966

29-651

30-324

0673

29-952

29-545

1879

30-406

1880

0861

224 J. HOPKINSON" — THE CLIMATE OF WATFOED.'

and the average annual deviation from the mean is 0°"75, the
temperature being below the mean for four years and above it
for six years.

The coldest year (1879) was the wettest, had the smallest mean
daily range of temperature, more than the average amount of cloud,
the smallest number of days of clear sky, and the largest number
of days of overcast sky; the warmest year (1884) was the driest,
had the largest mean daily range of temperature, less than the
average amount of cloud, nearly the largest number of days of
clear sky, and the smallest number of days of overcast sky.

The extreme range of temperature was 85°'3, the absolute
minimum being 6°'4 on 21st Januaiy, 1881, and the absolute
maximum 91°'7 on 5th July, 1881, the range thus being the
same for this year as for the whole period.

The mean daily range of temperature, 14°-4, varied from 13°1
in 1879 to 15°-2 in 1884.

Autumn is warmer than spring, by 2° -6, chiefly owing to the
colder nights in spring. On the other hand the excess of the
temperature of summer over that of winter, 21°"9, is more due
to the warm days in summer than to the cold nights in winter.
Spring is 8°'2 warmer than winter, and summer 13°'7 warmer
than spring; autumn is 11°-1 colder than summer, and winter
10°-8 colder than autumn. Thus winter passes slowly into
spring, and spring quickly into summer, while summer passes
into autumn, and autumn into winter, at a nearly equal rate.

The mean daily range of temperature is greatest in summer and
least in winter, and greater in spring than in autumn ; but the
absolute range has been greatest in autumn and least in winter,
and greater in spring than in summer. Although the nights
are as a rule colder in spring than in autumn, a colder night
has occurred in autumn than in spring. In winter the nights
are not so much colder than in spring as are the days ; in
summer they are not so much warmer than in autumn as are
the days.

January is on the average the coldest month, and July the
warmest, though only 0°-l warmer than August. The tempera-
ture increases from January to July, and decreases from July to
January as follows : —

Increase. ^ Decrease. ^

•2
■4

Jan. to J'eb. 3

Feb. to March 1

March to April 4

April to May 5

May to June 6

June to July 2

July to August
August to Sept.
Sept. to Oct.
Oct. to Nov.

01
4-4
8-1
6-2

Nov. to Dec.

4-6

Dec. to Jan.

0-7

•7

Assuming that the mean temperature of each month occurs
about the middle of the month, it would appear that the in-
crease of temperature is most rapid during the month of May,
or from the middle of April to the middle of June ; and that
the decrease is most rapid during the month of October, or
from the middle of September to the middle of November.

J. nOPKINSOX — THE CLIM.\TE OF WATFORD.

225

ABLE IV. — ir('a7i and Extreme Temperature in <

tach Tear.

Year.

Mean.

Means of

Mean
daily

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-
lute

Min.

Max.

Range.

Min.

Day.

Max.

Day.

Range.

1877

48-2

0
41 'O

0
55-4

0
14-4

0
20 •6

Mar. 1

0
80-9

July 31

0
60-3

48-5

41-5

55-5

14-0

8-8

Dec. 25

84-6

June 2rt

75-8

45'4

38-8

51 '9

13-1

7-8

Dec. 7

769

July 29

69-1

48-8

41 '6

56-0

14-4

1 1 '2

Jan. 21

86-2

Sept. 4

75 -o

48-0

407

55-3

14-6

6-4

Jan. 21

917

Ju y 5

85-3

49 "o

41-9

S6-I

14-2

15-2

Dec. 11

77-9

Aug. 12

627

48-8

41-6

56-0

14-4

20 "5

Mar. 24

8I-S

June 29

61 -o

84 : 50-I

42-5

577

15-2

237

Apl. 23

90 0

Aug. 11

66-3

48-0

40-6

55 '3

147

22-1

Jan. 21

87-5

July 25

65-4

48-5

41-2

55-9

147

137

Jan. 8

87-2

Aug. 31

735

Mean

48-3

4I-I

55-5

14-4

15-0

84-4

69-4

Table V. — Mean and Extreme Seasonal Temperature.

Season.

Mean.

Means of | ^ean

1 : daily

Min. Max. Ran^e.

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-

lute

Min.

Tear.

Max.

Year.

Range.

19-8

1886

81 -o

1884

61 -2

35-3

917

56-4

17-9

86-2

68-3

6-4

59-1

527

Spring ...
Summer
Autumn
Winter...

1
0 1

46-3

38-1

.54-5 '

60 -o

51-4

68-6

48-9

42-0

55-9

38-1

2,^^^

43'i

i6'4
1 7 "2

139
10 'O

Table YI. — Mean and Extreme Monthly and Annual Temperature.

Month.

Mean.

Means of

Mean

daily

Range.

Absolute Min. and Max.

Abso-
lute
Range.

Min.

Max.

Min.

Year.

Max.

Year.

Jan

Feb

M arch

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Xov

Dec

36-8
40-0
41-4
45-9
51-6
58-2
60-9
60 -8
56-4
48-3
42-1

37-5

32-1

34-9
34-0
377
42-5
49-1

52-3
527
48-2
41-6
36-1
32-4

41-5
45-2
48-8

54-1
60 -6
67-2

69-5
69-0

64-5
55-1
48-1

42-5

9-4
103
14-8
16-4
.i8-i
i8-i
172
i6-3
i6-3
13-5

I2"0
lOI

6-4
18-4
19-8

237
280

35-3
39 '2

37 -o
30-8

23 "O

17-9

7-8

1881
86
86
84
86
80
81
77
85
77
79
79

55-5
58-8
67-8
71-9
8ro
84-6
917
90-0
86-2
77-4

62-1

59-1

1877
78
84
85
84
78
81
84
80
86
81
82

49 •!

40-4
48-0
48-2
53-0
49 '3
51-5
53 -o
55-4
54 "4
44-2
51-3

Year

48-3

4I-I

55-5

14-4

6-4 1 1881

917

1881

85-3

226 J. HOPKINSON THE CLIMATE OF WATFORD.

In March the nights are colder than in February, and in.
July colder than in August.

The mean daily range of temperatui'e is least in December
and January, and greatest in May and June. The increase and
decrease is as follows : —

Jan. to Feb.

+ 0-9

July

to August

0-9

Feb. to March

+ 4-5

August

to Sept.

0-0

March to April

+ 1-6

Sept.

to Oct.

—2-8

April to May

+ 1-7

Oct.

to Nov.

—1-5

May to June

0-0

Nov.

to Dec.

—1-9

June to July

0-9

Dec.

to Jan.

—0-7

Thus the mean daily range increases in the early part of the
year (Jan. to May) twice as rapidly as it decreases in the rest
of the year (May to Jan.). The greatest increase (Feb. to March)
is mostly due to the cold nights of March.

Temperatures below freezing-point have occurred in every
month but the three months of summer — June, July, and
August ; only once, however, in September. The average number
of frosty nights has been as follows*: —

Jan. 15 April 4 July 0 Oct. 3

Feb. 10 May 2 August 0 Nov. 8

March 12 June 0 Sept. 0 Dec. 13

The minimum temperature of the year has occurred four times
in January, three times in December, twice in March, and once
in April ; the maximum temperature has occurred four times in
July, three times in August, twice in June, and once in Sep-
tember.

Temperature^ Humidity, and Cloud at 9 a.m. (Tables VII-IX,
p. 227). — The temperature of the air in these tables is that
shown by the dry-bulb thermometer, the temperature of evapo-
ration that shown by the wet-bulb. From these values the
temperature of the dew-point, or that at which dew would be
deposited, is calculated. The thermometric dryness is the differ-
ence between the temperature of the air and that of the dew-
point ; the relative humidity is the percentage of moisture in
the air to its complete saturation, represented as 100.

The mean temperature at 9 a.m. is on the average 0°*1 higher
than the mean of the minimum and maximum temperatures ; in
no year has the difference exceeded 0°'4.

From November to March the temperature at 9 a.m. is lower
than the mean of the minimum and maximum ; from April to
August it is higher ; and in September and October it is about
the same as this mean. The mean of the 9 a.m., the mini-
mum, and the maximum temperatures, probably gives a truer
mean for the day than does the mean of the minimum and

* This of course does not include ground-frosts. The number of nights when
the temperature of the surface of the ground, or of other objects cooled by
radiation to a temperature below that of the air, has been below freezing, would
be considerably greater. Ground-frosts have occui*red in June, and frequently in
September.

J. norKINSON — THE CLIM.^TE OF AVATFORD.

227

T.vBLE YII. — Temperature, Humidity, and Cloud, in each Year, at

9 a.m.

Temperature of

Dry-

Rela-

Short

Cloud,

Day

s of

\ ear.

T> 1

tive

Air

Evap-

Dew-

ness.

Humi-

Satu-

0-10

Clear

Over-

tion.

point.

dity.

ration.

Sky.

cast.

1 0

1877

48-6

46-0

43"i

5-5

6-4

132

48-8

42-6

43 "3

5-5

6-8

145

457

43-5

41 "O

7-2

176

487

46-3

437

5-0

«3

7-0

151

48-2

45-3

42-1

6-1

146

49-0

46-6

44 'o

5-0

6-8

152

487

46 'O

43 'o

6-8

140

50-3

47'4

44'3

6-5

124

48-0

45-2

42-1

6-6

152

4«-3

458

43 ■!

5-2

«3

169

Mean

48-4

45-8

43 -o

5-4

149

Table VIII. — Seasonal Temperature, Humidity, and Cloud, at 9 a.m.

Season.

Temperature of

Dry-
ness.

Rela-
tive

Humi-
dity.

Short

of
Satu-
ration.

Cloud,
0-10

Days of

Air.

Evap-
ora-
tion.

Dew-
point.

Clear
Sky.

Over-
cast.

Spring

Summer..
Autumn ....
Winter

467
6o-8
48-8
37-5

43 "4
56-5
46-9

36-3

397
527
44-9
347

7-0
8-1

3 9
2-8

7S
86
90

°l
10

25
14
10

6-4
6-6

6-5
7-5

15
II

32
30
38
49

Table IX. — Monthly and Annual Temperature, Humidity, and

Cloud, at 9 a.m.

Month.

Tempei-atui-e of

Dry-
ness.

Rela-
tive

Humi-
dity.

Short

of
Satu-
ration.

Cloud,
0-10

Days of

Air.

Evap- Dec-
ora- . ,
tion. point-

Clear

Sky.

Over-
cast.

Jan

Feb

]\[arch

April

May

June

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

0
36-2

39-3
40-5

46-5
53-1
59-2
61-9

61-3

56-5
48-1

417
37-0

35-1
38-1
38-3
43 "2
48-6

54-6
57-3
57-4
53-9
46-4
40-4
35-9

33-4
36-3

35-5
39-5
44-1

50-5
53-4
54-0
51-4
44-5
387
34"4

2-8
3-0

5'o
70
9-0
87
8-5
7-3

5-1
3-6
3-0
2-6

7o
90

89
82
76

73
74

77
83
87
89
90

10
II

24
28

27
26

23
17
13

II
10

7-5
7-6

6-3
6-5
6-4

6-3
6-5

6-4
6-5
6-5
7-3

4
3
6

4
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
4

15
12

9
10
10
10
II

13
14
16

Year 48-4 j 45-8 43-0 5-4

82 18

149

228 J. HOPKINSOX THE CLIMATE OF WATFOKD.

maximum alone. The mean diurnal temperature from Novem-
ber to March is therefore probably rather lower than that given
in Table VI, and from April to August rather higher.

The spring and summer half of the year is much drier than
the autumn and winter half, having on the average 12 per cent,
less relative humidity. Summer is drier than spring, by 2 per
cent. ; autumn is drier than winter, by 4 per cent. Spring,
summer, and autumn are about equally cloudy, and much less
so than winter. Summer and winter have fewer days of clear
sky than spring and autumn ; spring and summer have fewer
days of overcast sky than autumn, and autumn has much fewer
than winter.

The air is driest in May and most humid in December and
January, June and July closely following upon May in dryness,
and November and February closely following upon December
and January in dampness. Though the coldest months are the
most humid, the warmest are not the driest, for the three
summer months are more humid than May, and September is
much more humid than April. March is an exception to this
rule, being a cold and rather dry month.

December, January, and February are much more cloudy than
any other months in the year. March has the greatest number
of days of clear sky, February the least ; January has the greatest
number of days of overcast sky, May the least.

Force and Direction of the Wind at 9 a.m. (Tables X-XII,
p. 229). — The force of the wind, like the amount of cloud, is
arrived at by estimation, but while it is easy to estimate the
proportion, in tenths, of cloud to clear sky, it is not easy to
estimate the proportionate force of the wind, from calm, repre-
sented by 0, to a hurricane such as we never experience in this
country, represented by 12. The greatest force on this scale at
which I have ever estimated the wind at 9 a.m. is 7, on two
occasions ; the greatest estimated mean force in any month is
3-0 (in April, 1881); the least in any month is 1-0 (in February
and November, 1886). The mean annual force has varied from
1'6 to 2 0. The wind is strongest in spring, lightest in summer,
and rather stronger in autumn than in winter, but the mean
seasonal variation is very slight. It is strongest in April and
lightest in July.

With regard to direction, S.W. winds are much the most
prevalent, and E. winds are the least so. The wind has been
S.W. on as many as 95 days in the year, and it has been S.E,
on as few as 17 ; both these extremes were in 1877. S.W. winds
prevail most in summer, and are less prevalent in spring than in
autumn or winter ; N.E. winds prevail most in spring. There is
no great preponderance of winds from any other quarter in any
season. S.W. winds prevail most in July and August, N.E. winds
most in April and May. There are very few E. winds in February,
July, November, and December. Calms occur most often in
December ; much the least often in April and May.

J. IIorKINSOX — TIIK CLIMATE OF WATFORD.

229

Table X. — Force and Direction of the Wind in each Year, af 9 a.m.

Year.

Mean
Force,

Number of Days of

0-12.

N.E.

S.E.

S.W.

N.W.

Calm.

1877

2-0

1-6

2-0

1-6

1-8

8-5

5«

1-6

Mean

1-8

Table XT. — Seasonal Force and Direction of the Wind at 9 a.m.

Season.

^lean
Force,

Number of Days of

0-12.

N.E.

S.E. S.

S.W.

N.W.

Calm.

Sprin? . .

2-0

lo-i

20 -o

lO'O

9-6

7-8

147

6-8

IO-2

2-8

Summer

1-6

9-1

9-5

5-4

7-6

21-5

107

12-6

6-9

Autumu

1-8

9-2

12-8

7-3

7-4

177

9-6

13-1

7-2

Winter. .

7-1

IO-3

5-4

10-3

17-5

12-9

107

7-3

Table XII. — Monthly and Annual Force and Direction of the Wind

at 9 a.m.

Month.

Mean
Force,

Number of D

lys of

0-12.

N.E.

S.E.

S.W^

N.AV.

Calm.

Jan

2-0

2-8

3-2

6-1

3-1

2-4

Feb

2-2

2-9

4-3

5-4

3-9

2 7

1-8

March..

2-0

4-6

5-3

3 '4

2-0

2-3

5-2

2-5

4-1

1-6

April

2-1

2-4

7-6

4-0

4-5

3-2

1-9

2-2

•6

May

1-9

3"i

2-6

3'i

2-3

5-9

2-4

3-9

•6

June

1-6

4-2

2-2

2-4

5-5

2'0

July

1-5

2-4

I-I

3'3

2-4

Aug

1-8

3-0

2-1

2-3

1-9

«3

3 3

2-5

Sept

3-5

4-0

2 "2

3-4

2-0

2-8

3-9

2-5

Oct

1-8

3-4

2'I

5-3

3-6

2-4

Nov

1-8

3-0

4-1

I I

1-8

3-3

3-2

4-5

2-3

Dec

1-6

2-9

2-4

I '4

2-2

2-8

6-0

4-3

3-1

Tear

1-8

35-5

52 "6

27-5

34-3

33-1

71-4

40-0

46-6

24-2

230 J. HOPKixsoN — THE cli:mate of watfoed.

Rainfall (Tables XIII-XV, p. 231).— The decade 1877-86 is a
very misleading one from which to form an idea of the mean
rainfall at Watford, this period having been an exceptionally-
wet one. We have now, from the observations commenced at
Nash Mills in 1833, a record of the rainfall in Hertfordshire
for 60 years, and during the whole of that period there is only
one decade at all approaching in wetness that of 1877-86, and
that is 1876-85, the year 1876 having been wetter than 1886.
Not only is this the case, but if we extend our comparison to
the whole period for which we have records of the rainfall in
the British Isles, the 167 years from 1726 to 1892, it will be
found that there has not been any period of ten consecutive
years with a mean annual rainfall approaching within several
inches that of 1876-85 or 1877-86.*' In every year of our
decade 1877-86 but one, 1884, the rainfall was above the
average for half a century or any longer period as far back as
our records extend, and in most of the years much above it ;
in seven years out of the ten it exceeded 30 inches, and in
four of these years it exceeded 33 inches per annum.

In order, therefore, to arrive at an approximate determination
of the mean annual rainfall at Watford, it is necessaiy to com-
pare the fall during these ten years with that of a long period
at some not far-distant station having a sufficiently long record.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, is the only rainfall-station in
Hertfordshire with a record of at least half a century, and, as
it is only six miles from Watford and has about the same
rainfall, the ratio the rainfall of these ten years bears to that
of fifty years is likely to be about the same at Watford as there.

The mean annual rainfall at Nash Mills for the fifty years
1810-89, was 27-18 ins.; for the ten years 1877-86, it was
31'07ins. ; the difference, 3*89 ins., is 12-52 per cent., or, say,
121^ per cent., or one-eighth, of 31 -07 ins. The value at Watford
of 30-96 ins. for the ten years 1877-86, should therefore be
reduced by 12^ per cent, to give an approximate value for the
fifty years 1840-89. Or we may ascertain this by proportion,
thus:— 31-07: 27-18 :: 30-96: 27-08.

The mean annual rainfall at Watford, although 30-96 ins. in
1877-86, will therefore probably have been about 27 ins. in
1840-89. This is a sufficiently long period for our purpose,
but if we wished to arrive at the probable value for the last
century^ a further reduction would have to be made.

Por the half- century the approximate mean monthly and
seasonal rainfall would be as follows : —

March

April

May

ins.
1-45
2-08
2-11

ins.
June 2-50
July 2-21
Aug. 2-29

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

lUi3.

2-28
2-68
2-64

ms.
Dec. 2-30
Jan. 2-27
Feb. 2-27

Sprin?

5-64

Summer 7-00

Autumn

7-60

Winter 6*84

See Symons' ' British Eaiufall, 1891,' Frontispiece.

J. norKINSON THE CLIM.VTE OF 'WATFORD.

Table XIII. — Rainfall in each Year.

231

Year.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. monthly
fall.

Max. monthly
fall.

Max. in 24 hours.

Days of

In.

Month.

Ins.

Month.

In.

Year.

Rain.

Snow.

1877
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86

31-76
34-27
35-98
33-35
30-15
33-57
28-27

22-35
30-02
29-91

•85
I-I9

•57
•2,7
-82

1-55
I -00

•65
•32

-82

Sept.

July

Nov.

Jan.

April

Jan.

Mar.

May

July

Feb.

4-93
4-82

5-68
583
4-94
6-10
4-07

3-37
4-14

4-50

Jan.

June

Oct.

Aug.

Oct.

Feb.

Dec.

Oct.

Dec.

i-ii
1-99
1-20
1-89
1-09
-87
-78
i-io
1-58
1-65

Aug. 21
June 30
Aug. 2
Sept. 14
Dec. 17
Apl. 25
Sept. 29
June 6
Sept. 10
Dec. 26

203
190

193
162

185
199

183
152
183

187

12
26

38
12

24
10

Mean

30-96

-81

4-84

1-33

184

Table XIV. — Seasonal Rainfall.

Season.

Spring . .
Summer
Autumn
Winter. .

Mean.
Ins.

Min. seasonal
fall.

Ins.

Year.

Max. seasonal
fall.

Max. in 24
hours.

Ins.

Year.

In. I Year.

6-45
8-01

8-69

7-81

3-95

1884

10-04

1878

1-70

3-34

15-72

1-99

4-48

13-68

1-89

4-56

79-80

12-52

76-77

1-65

1878
78
80
86

Da)

s of

Rain.

Snow

Table XY. — Monthly and Annual Rainfall.

Month.

Mean.
Ins.

Min. monthly
fall.

Max. monthly
fall.

Max. in 24
hours.

Days of

In.

Year.

Ins.

Year.

In.

Year.

Rain.

Snow.

Jan

Feb

March ..

April

May

June

July ....

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

2-59
2-59
1-66

2-38
2-41
2-86

2-53
2-62
2-61
3-06
3-02
2-63

•37
-82

I -00
-82
46

1-26
•32
•50
•85
-78

•57
•80

1880
86
83
81
80
77
85
80
77
79
79
79

4-93
4-16

2-67

3-95

4-77
5-68

4-52
5-80

5-30
6-IO

429
4-50

1877
79
77
78
78
79
80
79
80
82
78
76

1-08

1?,
•79

1-70
1-04

1-99
-66
1-20
1-89
1-23

•85
1-65

1879
81
84
78
86
78
77
79
80
80
77
86

17
17
12

15
15
14
15
14
13
17
18

5
3

4
I
0
0
0
0
0
I
2
4

Year ....

30-96

•32

1885

6-IO

1882

1-99

1878

184

232 J. HOPKINSON THE CLIMATE OF "WATFORD.

The only year with a small rainfall (1884) •was much tlie
warmest'; the year with the largest rainfall (1879) was much the
coldest. (See also under " Temperature," p. 224.)

Spring is the di'iest season, autumn the wettest, and there is
rather more rain in summer than in winter, but winter has the
greatest number of wet days.

The fall of rain varies most in summer, least in spring ; the
wettest summer having had nearly five times as much rain as the
driest, but the wettest spring not three times as much as the driest.

March is much the driest month; October is the wettest, but
November is nearly as wet. While the cliiference between the
mean rainfall of March and that of October or November is nearly
an inch and a half, there is not a difference of half an inch
between the mean rainfall of any of the other months.

The least fall of rain in any season was 3"34 ins. in the summer
of 1885, the least in any month was 0*32 in. in July, 1885 ; the
greatest fall of rain in any season was 15 "72 ins. in the summer
of 1879, the greatest in any month was 6'10 ins. in October, 1882 ;
the greatest in any day (of 24 hours, ending 9 a.m. on following
day) was 1-99 in. on 30th June, 1878.

Palls of rain exceeding one inch in 24 hours have occurred on
fourteen occasions, their average being 1-37 inch.

Absolute di'oughts (periods of more than fourteen consecutive
days without rain) have occurred on ten occasions, their average
duration being seventeen days. The longest was twenty-three
days, from 8th to 30th March, 1880.

Exceftional Pheyiomena. — Phenomena of occasional occurrence
giving but little indication of climate, a few only of the most
remarkable will be here enumerated, in chronological order.

In 1878 " the Eumlice sqiiall " of 24th March was severely felt
at Watford ; one of the highest floods on record occurred on 11 th
April ; our heaviest rainfall, on 30th June, caused a very destruc-
tive flood, the east of Hertfordshire suffering most severely; and
a winter of exceptionally long duration commenced on 27th October.
In 1879 a terrific thunderstorm occurred on 2nd August, and
1-20 in. of rain fell in three hours. In 1880, in the five days 1 1th
to loth September, 4 "79 ins. of rain fell. In 1881 the mean tem-
perature of January was only 29°-2 ; there was a very heavy
snowstorm on the 1 8th of that month ; and a very destructive gale
on 14th October. In 1882 a severe gale on 29th April brought
with it sea-spray, and caused great destruction to foliage. In
1884 a series of veiy severe thunderstonns occurred in July; and
the mean temperature of August was as high as 65°'6. And in
1886 there were serious floods in May.

All these occurrences, and many others of an exceptional nature,
are noticed more or less fully in our ' Transactions,' either in my
annual reports or in special papers.

XXIII.

A LIST OF HERTFORDSHIRE HEPATIC^.

By A. E. GiBBs, F.L.S.

Head at Watford, ISth April, 1893.

The following is a short list of the Hcpatico} wliicli arc at
present known to be indigenons to onr connty. It is compiled
principally from a manuscript by the late Eev. W. H. Coleman,
wliich is now in the possession of the Society. There are also some
records by other observers. Eecords to which no observer's name
is attached are my own, and the mark ! is used to indicate that
I also have found the species growing in the locality mentioned.
All the records for which references are made to our ' Transactions '
are of species found at field meetings of the Society.

The usual and convenient plan of dividing the county into river-
districts is adhered to.

llAECHANTIACEiE.

Mar chant ia pnhjmorplia, L. Ivel. — "Court behind my house
[at Hitchin] and in the church-yard, Hitchin ; " Brown; Coleman.
CoLXE. — Side of watercourse near the Iliver Ver, Water-walk, St.
Albans, 1887; HopJcinson. On Avail near St. Peter's Church,
St. Albans. In own garden, and at Kingsbury, St. Albans ;
ITojjkinson. Lea. — Bank of canal in Panshanger Park ; north
side of Essendon Church, and on garden-pots at Baron Dims-
dale's, Essendon ; Coleman. 'Bro-K.howrne Comvion; Andrews, 1891
(' Trans. Herts Xat. Hist. Soc.,' VI, IxviiV

Conocephalus coniciis, L. Cam. — Ashwell ; H. Fordham ; Cole-
man. IvEL. — Plantation by the side of Ippollytts brook ; Broivn ;
Coleman. Lea. — Ditch-banks near Boxford Farm ; about springs
and on the banks of the Maran [Mimram] at Tewin ; Coleman ;
IVehh.

Asterella hemispharica, L. Lea. — Drover's Lane, near No Man's
Land ; Coleman ; Thrale.

Lunularia vulgaris, Mich. Ivel. — Hitchin ; Broicn ; Coleman.
Lea. — On garden-pots at Baron Dimsdale's, Essendon ; Coleman.
Wormley Bury ; Wehh.

Riccia crystallina, L. Lea. — Fields between Bengeo and Ware
West Mill; Little Berkhampstead ; Panshanger; Digswell Lodge
Farm ; near Ball's Wood ; Broxbourne Wood ; Coleman.

Ricciella fluitans, L. Lea. — Broxbourne Bury Ponds! ; Coleman.
Pond outside Wonnley West Wood on the west ; Coleman. Brox-
bourne Common, 1888; 'Trans. Herts !N'at. Hist. Soc.,' Y, xxv;
Andrews, 1891 (^ib. YI, Ixvii).

Ricciocarpiis natans, L. Ivel. — Ditch between Baldock and
Radwell ; Coleman. Lea. — Pond at Broxbourne Bury ; pond by
the west fork of Brickendon Lane ; pond between Bayford and
Little Berkhampstead ; pond in Wormley Wood ; near Black Fan
Wood ; between Brickendon Green and How Clay -pits ; Coleman.

vol. VII. PART VII. 17

234 A. E. GIBBS — nEETFOKDSHIIlE HEPATICiE.

JUNGEEMANNTACE^.

Frullania dilatata, L. Cam. — Sandon Woods ; H. Fordham ;
Coleman. Ivel. — Hitcliin ; Brown. Thame. — Tring ; Coleman.
CoLNE. — On trees, Harpeiiden Hoad, St. Albans. Beaumont's
Avenue, St. Albans, 1888; 'Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' V,
xxii. Hatcben Green. Lea. — Common near Hertford ; Wehb ;
Coleman.

F. tamarisci, L. Colne. — No Man's Land ; Coleman. Lea.
— Wormley Wood ; Sberrard's Park Wood ; Gurstead Wood ;
Coleman.

Lejeimea serpyllifolia, Dicks. LE.i. — Box Wood ; Wormley Wood ;
Bramfield Woods ; Panshanger, in a copse on tbe soutb side of the
river and left of tbe road to Cole Green ; copse soutb of tbe river
opposite Watery Hall Parm, Hertingfordbury ; Coleman.

Radula complanata. L. Ivel. — Hitcbin ; Brown ; Coleman.
Thame. — Tring ; Coleman. Colne. — St. Albans ; Braithwaite,
1884 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Ill, xlviii). Lea.— Common
near Hertford ; Coleman.

Porella platijijhjlla, Jj. Cam. — Eoyston ; H. Fordham; Coleman.
Ivel. — Wellbury near Hitcbin ; Brown ; Coleman. Colne. —
Asbridge Park; Holmes, 1885 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,'
Ill, Ixiv). Hedgerow, King Harry Lane, St. Albans. Hemel
Hempstead ; Pijfard. Hatcben Green. No Man's Land. Lea. —
Frequent at Hertford ; Coleman. In fruit in Pansbanger Park
Wehb ; Coleman.

Lepidozia reptans, L. Lea. — Sberrard's Park Wood : Digswell
Dawlcy's Wood, Tewin ; Coleman.

Odontoschisma sphagni, Dicks, Colne. — Colney Heatb ; Coleman

Cephalozia byssacea, Botb. Colne. — No Man's Land; Coleman.
Lea — Hertford Heatb; Box, Bayford, and Dawley's Woods ; Cole-
man.

C. hicuspidata, L. Ivel. — Hitch Wood; Broicn; Coleman.
St. Albans; Braithwaite, 1884 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Ill,
xlviii). Brickct Wood; Hopkinson, 1889 ('Trans. Herts Nat.
Hist. Soc.,' V, xlviii). Lea. — Hertford Heatb ; BoxAVood; Brox-
boume Wood ; Wormley Wood ; Hatfield Woodside ; Bircb Green ;
Sberrard's Park; Coleman. Broxbourne Common, 1888; 'Trans.
Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' V, xxv. Hatfield Park; IlopUnson, 1890
(' Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' YI, xxxix).

Lophocolea bidentata, L. Ivel. — Hitcb Wood, in fruit ;
Brown ; Coleman. Colne. — St. Albans ; Colney Heatb ; Coleman.
Brickct Wood!; Holmes, 1885 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,'
Ill, Ixxii) ; Hoplcinson, 1887. Pre Wood, St. Albans, 1887;
Hopldnson. Hemel Hempstead; Fijfard. Kenswortb; J. Saunders.
Lea. — Near Hertford ; Coleman. Broxbourne Common.

L. heterojihylla, Scbrad. Colne. — Tunnel Woods, Watford ;
Holmes, 1883 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' II, Ixiv). Asb-
ridge Park; Holmes, 1885 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' Ill,
Ixiv). Lea. — Broxbourne Bury Park pales ; Bayford AVood water-
course ; Coleman.

A. E. GIBBS — nEETFOEDSniRE HEPATiai;. 235

Chilosci/pJiHs pohjanthos, L. Ivel. — On tlic steep bank of a
■watercourse in a wood at Sandon ; Brown ; Coleman. Lea. — Box
Wood ; Wormley Wood ; Hoddtsdou Park Wood ; Bayford Wood
watercourse; roadside by Callis Wood ; Coleman. \i\r. jS, J/uifans.
CoLNE. — Coluey Heath; Coleman. Lea. — Eroxbourue Wood;
Coleman.

Kanfia fn'cJiomanis, L. Ivel. — Hitcb Wood ; Brown. Lea. —
Hertford Heath ; Box Wood ; W^ormley and other woods ; Hatfield
Woodsidc ; Bell Bar ; Coleman.

Trichocolca tomeniella, Ehrh. Lea. — On the banks of the
principal watercourse in AVormley Wood ; Coleman.

Blepharozia ciliaris, Nees. Lea. — On old paling in Panshangcr
Park, very scarce ; Coleman.

tScapania nnclulaf a, Dill. Ivel. — Hitch Wood; Brown; Coleman.
Thame. — Tring Heath ; Coleman. Lea. — Hertford Heath ;
Wormley Wood, in fruit ; Coleman.

S. nemorosa, L. Ivel. — Hitch Wood ; Brown ; Coleman.
CoLNE. — Bricket Wood. Lea. — Hertford Heath ; Box Wood ;
Wormley Wood ; Sherrard's Park Wood ; Coleman.

S. resupinata, Dumort. Lea. — Hertford; Coleman, in Tahula:
Synopticce Plantarum (MS.).

Biplopltyllum albicans, L. Ivel. — Hitch Wood ; Brown ; Cole-
man. CoLNE. — Bricket Wood ! ; Holmes, 1885 ('Trans. Herts Nat.
Hist. Soc.,' Ill, Ixxii); Hopkinson, 1889 (/5., V, xlviii). Lea.—
Wormley Wood ; Korthaw ; Sherrard's Park Wood ; Coleman.

Plagiochila asplenioides, L. Ivel. — Hitch Wood ; Brown ;
Coleman. Colxe. — Lane from Iladlett to Boreham Wood. Hemel
Hemp.stead ; Pijfard. Lea. — Common in woods near Hertford,
but barren ; Coleman.

Eucalyx hjalina, Lyell. Ivel. — Hitch Wood ; Brown ; Coleman.
Lea. — Sherrard's Park Wood; lane between Harmer and Burnham
Green ; Coleman.

Jungermannia crenulata, Sm. Colne. — Colney Heath ; Coleman.
Lea. — Hertford Heath ; Birch Green ; Coleman.

J. harhata, Schrcb. Lea. — Dawley's AYood, Tewin ; Coleman.

J. ventricosa, Dicks. Lea. — Hertford Heath, barren ; Coleman.

J. hicrenata, Lindenb. Lea. — Hertford Heath ; Eidgeway,
Northaw ; Bull's Green, Bramfield ; between Tewin and Burnham
Green ; Coleman. Caddington ; J. Saunders.

J. capitata, Hook. Lea. — Hertford ; Coleman, in Tah. Syn.
Plant. Dawley's Wood, Tewin ; Coleman (mixed with specimens
of Campyloptisflexuosus; ^es^e Boswell).

J. incisa, Schrad. Colne. — Colney Heath ? ; Coleman. Lea. —
Hertford Heath ; Wormley Wood ; Coleman.

J. turhinata. Had. Cam. — Royston Heath ; Ashwell ; Fordham ;
Coleman. Colne. — Ashridge Park ; Holmes, 1 885 (' Trans. Herts
Xat. Hist. Soc.,' Ill, Ixiv). Lea. — Steep chalky pasture between
Chadwell and the road fi'om Hertford to Ware ; old chalk-pit in
Panshangcr Park, near the keeper's [house] ; chalk -pit at Little
Munden ; Coleman.

236 A. E. GIBBS HEETFOEDSHIEE HEPATIC^.

Nardia scalaris, Sclirad. Colne. — Colney Heath?; Coleman.
Hedgerow, Bernard's Heath., St. Albans. Lea. — Hertford Heath ;
Coleman.

Fossomhronia jmsilla, Nees. Ivel. — Hitch Wood ; Brown ; Cole-
man. Colne. — Tunnel Woods, Watford; Solmes, 1883 ('Trans.
Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' II, Ixviii). Bricket Wood; Holmes, 1885
(/^«f?. Ill, Ixxii). Lea. — Hertford Heath ; Coleman. Box Wood ;
Wehh ; Coleman. Broxboiirne Wood ; Coleman.

PeJlia epiplujlla, L. Cam. — Ashwell ; S. Fordham. Ivel. —
Hitchin, on the banks of a pond; Brown; Coleman. Lea. — Bayford
Wood ; Box Wood ; Hoddesdon Park ; Broxbourne ; Hatfield AVood-
side ; WcM ; Coleman. Sandon ; Broivn ; Coleman.

P. calijcina, Tayl. Colne. — Tunnel Woods, Watford; Holmes,
1883 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' II. Ixviii). Lea. — Bank of
a canal cut x^arallel to the Maran [Mimram] in Panshanger Park ;
Coleman.

Aneura pinguis, L. Colne. — Tunnel Woods, Watford; Holmes,
1883 ('Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc.,' II, Ixviii). Lea.— Hertford
Heath ; bog at Little Berkhampstead ; Box Wood ; Kentish Lane
bog ; Coleman.

A. midtifida, L. Ivel. — Hitchin Common; Brown; Coleman.
CoLNE.— Tunnel Woods, Watford; Holmes, 1883 ('Trans. Herts
Nat. Hist. Soc.,' II, Ixviii). Lea. — Bogs at Little Berkhampstead
and at Hatfield Woodside ; Box Wood; Wormley Wood; Kentish
Lane bog ; Coleman.

Metzgeria furcata,\j. Ivel. — Hitchin; Broicn; Coleman. Colne.
— Bennett's End, Hemel Hempstead; J. Saunders. Lea. — In
fruit in Panshanger Park ; Coleman. Broxbonrne Common.

Sph(erocar2JUs terrestris, Sm. Lea. — Fields between Bengeo
and Ware West Mill ; field by the high road opposite Foxley's
Wood ; near Black Fan, Digswell ; Coleman.

Anthoceeotace^.
AntJioceros punctatus, L. Lea. — Field near Bickney's Farm,
between Bengeo and Ware West Mill ; Coleman.

INDEX.

Abbot's Langley visited, xxviii.
Acroin/cta, sps., iu Herts, 195-1 S8.
Additions to the Library in 1891, xvi ;

in 1892, xlii.
Address, Amiiversary, 1892, 1 ; 1893,

101.
Adela viridella at Aldenhani, xxi.
Agriopis aprilina at Bricket "Wood,

194, 197.
Agrotts corticea at Eadlett, 198.
Air, temperature of, at Watford,

1877-86, 222, 225, 227.
Aix spoiisa near St. Albans, 161.
Albinism in birds, 67.
Alcedo ispida in Herts, 62.
Aldenhani, Watford, visited, xxi ; rain-
fall at, in 1 89 1, 56.
Aldenhani Church and its history, xxi.
Amphipyra pgramidea in Herts, 197.
Aniphydasis hetuhiria in Herts, 198.
Anasfitligida iu Herts, 64.
Anchocelis, sps., at Bricket Wood, 197.
Aneura pinguis and multijida in Herts,

236.
Anniversary Meetings, reports of, in

1892, xii ; in 1893, xxx^ii ; Address,

1892, 1; 1893, 101.
Anthoceros punctafus in Herts, 236.
Anticlea badlata at Harefield, xlvi.
Apamea opliiogramina in Herts, 196.
Ape and Man, xxxiv.
Aplecta advena in Herts, 196, 197;

A. herbida in Herts, 197-
Apsley Mills, Hemel Hempstead, rain-
fall at, in 1891, 56 ; in 1892, 206.
Arojria cinerea at Digswell, iii.
Ardea nncrea at Wehvyn, 63.
Arvicola amphibia, notes on, 49, 172 ;

A. agrestis, 50, 172 ; A. glareolus,

60, 173.
Asphalia ridens at St. Albans, 196 ;

A. diluta at Bricket Wood, 197.
Asterella hemisphfcrica in Herts, 233.
Asteroscopus sphinx at Bricket Wood,

198.
Atmosphere, pressure of, at Watford,

1877-86, 222, 223.
AfBREY, J. (quoted), on Yerulam

House, xxvi.
Autumn visitants in 1891, 68.
Ayot visited, xlvi, 1.

VOL. VII. rART IX.

Bacon, Francis, 1 ; his residence at
Uorhanibury, xxv, 2 ; his times, 2 ;
birth and parentage, 6 ; childhood
and youth, 7 ; enters the bar, 8 ;
advice to Queen Elizabeth, 8 ; in
Parliament, 9; his 'Essays,' 12;
advice to, and treatment of, the Earl
of Essex, 13; his ' Advancement of
Learning,' 15 ; advice to James
the First, 16 ; rapid advancement,
17; marriage, 17; at Peacham's
trial, 18 ; created Baron Verulam,
19; his sincerity, 19; his ^ Novum
Organum,^ 20; created Viscount St.
Alban, 22 ; his fall, 22 ; retires to
Gorhambury, 23 ; his later works,
24; his ' Sijlva Sg/varum,^ 25;
death, 27; character, 27, 32; teach-
ing and influence, 30 ; monument
in St. Michael's Church, xxv, 33;
extracts from his ' Cominentarius
Sohitus ' relating to Gorhambury,
34 ; his portraits and bust at Gor-
hambury, xxviii.

Badger, haunts and habits of, 44.

Balance-sheet for 1891, xv ; 1892, xli.

Bank- vole, notes on, 50, 173.

Barnet, New, rainfall at, iu 1891, 56 ;
in 1892, 206 ; climatological observa-
tions at, in 1891, 159 ; iu 1892, 201.

Bats and some other Beasts, 37.

Bayfordbury, Hertford, rainfall at, in
1891, 56 ; iu 1892, 206.

"Beagle," voyage of, 109, 117.

Bedfordshii'e ]\Iycetozoa, list of, 145.

Bedmont visited, xxviii.

Beech Bottom, St. Albans, visited,
xxiv.

Bennington, rainfall at, in 1891, 56 ;
in 1892, 206; climatological observa-
tions at, in 1891, 159 ; in 1892,
201.

Berkharasted, rainfall at, in 1891, 56 ;
in 1892, 206 ; phenological observa-
tions at, in 1 89 1, 87 ; iu 1892, 183;
climatological observations at, in
1891, 158; in 1892, 200.

Bernard's Heath, St. Albans, visited,
xxiv.

Berry Grove Wood, Aldenham, visited,
xxi.

2.18

INDEX.

Birds observed in Herts in 189 1, 62 ;

in 1892, 161.
Biston hirtaria at Watford, 197.
Blackbird, light- coloured, 163.
Blepharozia ciliaris in Herts, 235.
Boiirmia cofisortaria in Herts, 197.
Bombyz neustria at St. Albans, 193.
Boukier-clay, 154 ; in Herts, 154.
Boulders, 153 ; in Herts, 153.
Bower Heath visited, xx.
Brett, Dr. A. T., remarks on plant-
diseases, X ; on the valley of the

Colne, xxxiii.
Bricket Wood Common regulation

scheme, discussions on, xviii, xix.
British terrestrial quadrupeds, 41.
Brocket Hall, Welwyn, rainfall at, in

1891, 56.
Brocket Park, Welwyn, visited, xlvi.
Brookmans Park, Hatfield, rainfall at,

in 1892, 204.
Broxbourne, rainfall at, in 189 1, 56;

in 1892, 206.
Broxbourne Wood visited, xxx ; fungi

of, xxx.
Bidlfinch, notes on, 164.
Buntingford, rainfall at, in 1891, 56,

58 ; in 1892, 206.
Bushey Heath, rainfall at, in 1891, 56.
Bushey Mill visited, xxi.
Bufeo vulgaris at Cole Green, 62

(determined to be Falco peregrinus,

165) ; B. lagopns in Herts, 63.
Butterflies of Symond's Hyde, xlvi.
Butterfly, clouded-yellow, appearance

of, 187; in Herts, 188; other

species, 190.
Buzzard, common, at Cole Green, 62

(determined to be the peregrine

falcon, 165); rough - legged, in

Herts, 63.
Bye-meeting at St. Albans in 1891, ix.

Calendar, naturalist's, for Mid-Herts,
76, 81.

Calocampa exoleta in Herts, 195.

Cnhjmnia diffi.n\s in Herts, 196.

Cam district, rainfall in, in 1891, 59 ;
in 1892, 209.

Campbell, Lord (quoted), on Francis
Bacon's influence in the law, 30.

Capreolus caprcea noticed, 51.

Caprimulgus europfsiis, notes on, 164.

Cassiobury Park, Watford, green wood-
pecker in, 62.

Cat, wild, notes on, 47.

Cephalozia biciispidata in Digswell
Park, Hi; in Herts, 234 ; C. byssacea
in Herts, 234.

Cerigo matura in Herts, 196.
Cervtis elaphus noticed, 50 ; C. dama,5\.
Chalk at St. Albans, xxiii ; at Hare-
field, xlv.
Chambers, R., on evolution, 127.
CheUdon urbica, notes on, 66.
Cheshunt, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in

1892, 206.
Chiluscyphns polyanthos in Herts, 235.
ChUtern Green, grey phalarope at, 64.
Chcerocampa elpenor at Welwyn, 191.
Church, Dean (quoted), on character

of Francis Bacon, 31.
Cladonia pyxidata at Digswell, lii.
Clavaria stricta at Wormley, xxxi.
Cleoceris viminalis at Bricket Wood,

197.
Climate of Watford, 219.
Climatological observations in Herts,

in 1891, 157; in 1892, 199.
Cloud at Watford, 1877-86, 226, 227.
Coal, its aspect, 89 ; splitting, 89 ;

constituents, 89; varieties, 91 ; origin

and area of formation, 92 ; associated

materials, 93 ; position and extent,

94 ; range imder the South of

England, 94; discovery at Dover, 97.
Cole Green, peregrine falcon at, 165

(reported as common buzzard, 62).
Colias edtisa, appearance of, 187; in

Herts, 188.
Colne at Colney Heath, variation in

flow of, xlix.
Colne district, rainfall in, in 1891, 59;

in 1892, 209.
Colney Heath visited, xlix.
Conocephnlus conicus in Herts, 233.
Coremia designata at Knebworth, xhiii.
Coronella Imvis exhibited, xliv.
Corvus frugilegus stealing eggs, 67.
Cosmia pyraVina in Herts, 197.
Cossus lignipcrda at Hitchin, 192.
Coturnix communis at Hertingfordburv,

166.
Council elected, 1892, xii; 1893, xxxvii ;

report of, for 1891, xiii ; for 1892,

xxxviii.
Cowroast, Tring, rainfall at, in 1 89 1,

56 ; in 1892, 206.
Cromer Hyde visited, xlvi.
Cryptogamic plants, lists of, xxx, li,

iii, 144, 233.
Cuckoo, notes on, 165.
CucuUia rerhasci in Herts, 195.
Cumins canorus, early appearance of,

in 1892, 165.
CussANS, J. E. (quoted), on Aldenham

xxii ; on Knebworth, xlvii ; on River

Colne at Colney Heath, xlix.
Cymatophora or at Bricket Wood, 197.
Cypselus apus, notes on, 67.

INDEX.

239

Bafila acuta at Tiiug and Marsworth
ileservoir, 162.

Dauesburv, Welwyn, rainfall at, in
I 89 I, 58; in 1892, 204.

Darwin, Ch.^rles, 101 ; his Lirth
and parentage, 105 ; at school, 106 ;
at Edinlmrgh University, 107 ; at
Cambridge University, 108; Voyage
on the "Beagle," 109; his 'Journal
of Eesearches,' 109; in London,
111; at Down in Kent, 112; his
monographs of the Cirripedia, 112 ;
his 'Origin of Species,' 113; his
later works, 114; his death, 115;
industry and perseverance, 116; geo-
logical researches, 117; botanical
investigations, 118; zoological work,
119 ; work in anthropology and
psychology, 120 ; character, 121 ;
influence of his theory of natural
selection upon Evolution, 122 ; ade-
quacy of his theory, 125 ; his recog-
nition of a determining principle,
134.

Darwin, Erasmus (quoted), on evolu-
tion, 126.

Darwinism and Evolution not synony-
mous, 122.

Datch worth, rainfall at, in 1891, 56 ;
in 1892, 206.

Daulias lusciiiia, arrival of, 66.

Days of rain in 1891, 58; in 1892,
208; at Watford, 1877-86, 231.

Deer, red, fallow, and roe, notes on, 50.

Iteiopeia pulchella at Southgate, 195.

Delrow, Aldenham, visited, xxiii.

Jjendrocopus major in Herts, 62.

JJeprcssaria liturella at Rickmans-
worth, xlvi.

Dianthmcia cucubali at Bricket "Wood,
197.

Digswell Park, Welwyn, visited, 1 ;
MoUusca of, 1 ; fungi of, li ; mosses
of, lii.

DiplophyUum albicans in Herts, 235.

Dipterygia scabiiiscula in Herts, 196.

Diseases of plants, ix.

Dixon, Hepworth (quoted), on
Francis Bacon, 2 ; on condition of
England in 1597, 11.

Dormouse, notes on, 49.

Drift beds, at St. Albans, xxiii ; notes
on, 155 ; in Herts, 155.

Duck, tufted, in Herts, 64 ; summer,
near Moor Mill, Colney Street,
161 ; pintail, at Tring and Mars-
worth Reservoir, 162 ; long-tailed,
at Marsworth, 162.

Dunstable visited, xlviii.

East Hyde, Luton, visited, xx.
Effgar moth at Harpenden, 192.
Elstree, rainfall at, in 1891, 56.
Emberiza citrinella a partial migrant,

164.
Emperor moth at St. Albans, 193.
England, range of Coal-measures in

the South of, 94.
Erigaster lanestris at Harpenden, 192.
Erinaceus etiropaus, notes on, 43.
Erithacus rubecola, notes on, 65.
Eucalyx hyalina in Herts, 235.
Eugu)iia alniaria at Bricket Wood, 198.
Eupethecia vulgata at Aldenham, xxiii.
Euphorbia amygdaloides at Symond'a

Hyde, xlvi.
Eurymene dolobraria at Bricket Wood,

198.
Evolution and Darwinism, 122.
Expenditure in 1891, xv; in 1892, xli.

Fairhill, Berkhamsted, rainfall at, in
1891, 56; in 1892, 206.

Falco peregrin us at Cole Green, 165.

Fanhams Hall, Ware, rainfall at, in
1891, 56; in 1892, 206.

Feilde's Weir, Hoddesdon, rainfall at,
in 1891, 58 ; in 1892, 204.

Felis catus in Britain, 47.

Field Meetings, reports of, 1892, May
7, Harpenden and East Hyde, xx ;
May 2 1 , Aldenham, Watford, xxi ;
May 28, St. Albans, xxiii ; June 25,
Gorhambury, St. Albans, xxv ; July
2, Abbott's Langley and Bedmont,
xx\iii ; Oct. 8, Gorhambury, St.
Albans, xxviii; Oct. 13, Broxbourne
and Wormley, xxx ; 1893, April 29,
Rickmansworth and Harefield, xlv ;
May 13, Brocket Park, Welwyn,
xlvi ; May 27, Knebworth, xlvii ;
June 17, Zouche's Farm, Dunstable,
xlviii; June 22, Colney Heath and
Tittenhanger, St. Albans, xlix ; Oct.
17, Digswell and Sherrards Park
Wood, Welwyn, 1.

Field-vole, notes on, 50, 172.

Flower, Sir W., elected an honorary
member, xxxvii ; letter from, xliv.

Flycatcher, notes on, 164.

Fossombronia pusilla in Herts, 236.

Fox, traits and exploits of, 38.

Frullania dilatata and tamarisci in
Herts, 234.

Fungi of Broxbourne and Wormley,
xxx; of Digswell Park and Sherrards
Park Wood, li.

240

INDEX.

Gaddesden, Great, rainfall at, in 1891,
56 ; ill 1892. 206.

Gecinus viridis in Herts, 62.

Geikie, Sir A. (quoted), on Charles
Darwin, 117, 118.

Geology of St. Albans, xxiii ; of Rick-
mansworth and Harefield, xlv ; of
Dunstable, xlviii.

GiBBS, A. E. : Notes on Lepidoptera
observed in Hertfordshire, xlv,
187-198 ; A List of Hertfordshire
Hepaticffi, xlv, 233-236.

GiBBS, Rev. K. F., remarks on Alden-
ham Church, xxi.

Glacial drift at St. Albans, xxiv.

Glaciers, described, 148 ; of Green-
land, 149 ; their former existence
in Britain, 152 ; in Herts, 153.

Goat-moth at Hitchin, 192.

Goethe (quoted), on evolution, 104,
127.

Gorhambury, St. Albans, visited, xxv,
xxviii ; Francis Bacon's residence at,
xxv, 2 ; portraits at, xxviii ; rainfall
at, in 1891, 66; in 1892, 206.

Grammesia trigrammica in Herts, 197,
198.

Grasshopper-warbler at St. Albans,
163.

Great Gaddesden, see Gaddesden.

Greenland, glaciers of, 149.

Hahrostola tripartita at Rickmans-

worth, xlvi.
JJndena protea at Bricket Wood, 197.
Hadham, Much, rainfall at, in 1891,

56; in 1892, 206.
Hailstorm, destructive, 28th-29th June,

1892, 210, 212.
Hamels Park, Buntingford, rainfall at,

in 1891. 56; in 1892, 206.
Hardy, W. J. (quoted), on Pre Mill,

xxvii.
Hare, common and mountain, notes

on, 50.
Harefield chalk-pits visited, xlv.
Harelda glacialis at Marsworth, 162.
Harpenden visited, xx ; rainfall at, in

1891, 56, 58; in 1892, 204, 206;

naturalist's calendar for, 76, 81 ;

phenological observations at, in

1891, 87; in 1892, 183.
Harvest-mouse, notes on, 50.
Harvey, Rev. C. W. : Observatious

of Temperature and Rainfall taken

at Throcking Rectory, Bimtiugford,

1880-18S9, xlv, 213-218.

Hatfield, rainfall at, in 1891, 56 ; in

1892, 204.

Hawk-moths in Herts, 191.

Head-quarters of the Society, removal
of, xxxiv, xl.

Hedgehog, notes on, 43.

Helleborus viridis at East Hyde, xx.

Hemel Hempstead, rainfall at, in 189 1,
56 ; in 1892, 206.

Uemiarcyria clavata at Digswell, lii.

Hepaticse of Herts, 233.

Herbula cespitalis on Dunstable Downs,
xlviii.

Heron at "Welwyn, 63.

Hertford, ordinary meeting at, in 1892,
xviii ; rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in
1892, 206 ; phenological observations
at, in 1891, 87; in 1892, 123.

Hertfordshire, rainfall in, in 1891,
53 ; in 1892, 203 ; birds observed in,
in 1891,62; in 1892, 161; meteoro-
logical observatious in, in 1891, 69 ;
in 1892, 175 ; phenological observa-
tions in, in 1891, 85 ; in 1892, 182:
Mycetozoa of, 144 : boulders in,
153; boulder -clay of, 154; drift of,
155 ; climatological observations in,
in 1891, 157; in 1892, 199; Mam-
malia of, 169; Lepidoptera observed
in, 187 ; Hepaticae of, 233.

High Down, Hitchin, rainfall at, in
1891, 56 ; in 1892, 206.

Hirundo rustica building on a hat, 164.

Hitchin, rainfall at, in 1891, 56, 58 ;

in 1892, 204, 206; tufted duck shot

near, 64 ; phenological observations

at, in 1891, 87; in 1892, 183.

Hoddesdou, rainfall at, in 1891, 58 ;

in 1892, 204.
HoPKiNsoN, J. : Anniversary Address,

1892 (Francis Bacon), xii, 1-36;

1893 (Charles Darwin), xxxvii, 101-
136 ; Report on the Rainfall in
Hertfordshire in 1891, xviii, 53-61;
... in 1892, xlv, 20.3-212 ;
Meteorological Observations taken
at The Grange, St. Albans, during
the year 1891, xx, 69-75; . . .
dm-ing the year 1892, xlv, 175-181 ;
Climatological Observations taken in
Hertfordshire in the year 1891, xliv,
157-160; ... in the year 1892,
xlv, 199-202 ; The CKmate of Wat-
ford, deduced from Meteorological
Observatious taken during the tea
years 1877-1886, xlv, 219-232; A
Prehminary Introduction to the
Investigation of Microscopic Leaf-
Fungi (title only), xlv ; reception of
members by, at The Grange, St.
Albans, in 1891, ix; in 1892, xxiv;

INDEX.

241

remarks on water-supply of London,
X ; on Bricket 'Wood regulation
scheme, xviii ; on Beech Bottom,
xxiv ; on the aeologieal work of ice,
xxxiii; on the removal of tlie Society's
head-quarters, xxxiv ; Mollusca col-
lected by, 1 ; mosses, etc., collected
by. Hi.

Huniiihty at "Watford, 1877-86, 226,
227.

Huxley, T. H. (quoted), on Charles
Darwin, 121 ; on difference between
man and ape, 12o.

Ice and its work, 147.

Income and expenditure in 1891, xv ;

in 1892, xli.
Injuries to plants, ix.
Ivel district, rainfall in, in 1891, 59 ;

in 1892, 209.

Jones, Prof. T. R. : Coal: its Nature,
Origin, Position, and Extent ; and
its Range under the South of
England, xxxiii, 89-100.

Juuijermannia creuulata, barbnta,
ventricosa, bicrenata, capit.nta,
incisa, and turbinata, in Herts,
235.

Kantia trichomanis in Herts, 235.
Kensworth, rainfall at, in 1891,56;

in 1892, 206.
Kepler (quoted), on theology and

science, 5.
Kimpton Hoo, tufted duck at, 6-i.
Kingfisher in Herts, 62.
Kingsbury, St. Albans, visited, xiv.
Knebworlh visited, xlvii.
Kjies, Watford, rainfall at, in 1 891,

58 ; in 1892, 206.

Lackey-moth at St. Albans, 193.
Lamarck (quoted), on evolution, 126.
Langley House, Abbot's Langley,

remarkable horse-chestnut at, xxviii.
Larkin, Mr. and Mrs., reception of

members by, at Delrow, Aldenham,

xxiii.
LarviE -beating in Herts, 198.
Latliraa squamana near Harpenden,

XX.

Lea district, rainfall in, in 1891, 59;
in 1892, 209.

Lejeunca ncrpyUifolia in Herts, 234.
Lepidoptera of Symond's Hyde Wood,

xlvi ; observed" in Herts, 187.
Lt'piduzia rcpfans in Herts, 234.
Lt'piis ii»ndt(s, variabilis, and cunieulus,

notes on, 50.
Leucania turca at Bricket Wood, 197.
Lewis, H. : Notes on Birds observed

in Hertfordshire during the year

1891, xviii, 62-68; . . . dui-ing

the year 1892, xliv, 161-168.
Library, additions to, in 1891, xvi ;

in 1892, xlii.
Lithosia mesomella at Bricket Wood,

197.
Locustella nesvia, notes on, 163.
Loudon Clay at Woodcock Hill, xlvi.
London, water-supply of, x, xiv, xxxix.
Lophocolea bidentata and heterophylla

in Herts, 234.
Lunularia vulgaris in Herts, 233.
Lxpcrina ccspitis in Herts, 197.
Lutra vulgaris, notes on, 45.

Mamestra persicarim in Herts, 197;

M. anceps at Radlett, 198.
Mammalia of Herts, 169.
Man and Ape, xxxiv.
Manhantia poli/morpha in Herts, 233.
Marden Hill, Hertford, rainfall at, in

1891, 58 ; in 1892, 206.
Marlowe (quoted), on aspirations of

an Englishman, 4.
Marsworth Reservoir, pintail-duck and

long-tailed duck at, 162.
Marten, notes oti, 46.
Martts foiiia, notes on, 46.
Martin, notes on, 66.
Massee, G., lists of fungi determined

by, XXX, li.
Masters, Dr. (quoted), on Charles

Darwin, 119.
Mawley, E. : Report on Phenological

Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1 89 1 , xx, 85-

88 ; . . . during the year 1892, xiv,

182-186.
Mayiies, St. Albans, visited, xxvi.
Meles taxus, notes on, 44.
Mergiis albellus near Welwyn, 64.
Merveille-du-Jour moth at Bricket

Wood, 194.
Meteorological observations taken at

The Grange, St. Albans, in 1891,

69 ; in 1892, 175.
Metrocampa margaritaria at Zouches

Farm, xlviii.
Metzgeria furcata in Herts, 236.
Miania fasciuncula at Radlett, 198.

242

INDEX.

Mice, notes on, 50.

Mid-Herts naturalist's calendar, 76.

Migrants, summer, in 1891, 68; in

1892, 167; notes on arrival of , 166.
Miselia oxyacanthce at Bricket Wood,

197.
Mole, notes on, 43.
Mollusca found at Digs well, 1.
Moor Mill, Colney Street, summer

duck shot near, 161.
Moor Park, Eickmansworth, rainfall

at, in 1891, 56 ; in 1892, 206.
MoRisox, Dr. J. : Ice and its Work,

xxxiii, 147-156.
Mosses found in Digswell Park, lii.
Moths of Symond's Hyde Wood, xlvii.
Much Hadham, see Hadham.
Munden Park, Watford, tufted duck

killed in, 64.
Mus rattiis and decumanus, notes on,

49 ; M. minutus and sylvaticus, 50.
Muscicapa grisola and atricapilla, notes

on, 164.
Mustela putorius, notes on, 46 ; M.

erminea and vulgaris, 47.
Mycetozoa, xx, xxxii, lii ; notes on,

137 ; list of Herts species, 144 ; list

of Beds species, 145.
Myoxus avellanarius, notes on, 49.

Nardia scalaris in Herts, 236.

Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, rainfall

at, in 1891, 56 ; in 1892, 206.
Natm-al selection explained, 128.
Naturalist's calendar for Mid-Herts,

76.
Naville (quoted), on Bacon and

Descartes, 32.
Nebular hypothesis, 104.
Neuria reticulata in Herts, 196.
New Barnet, see Barnet.
Nightingale, notes on, 66.
Nightjar, notes on, 164.
Noctua, sps., in Herts, 197, 198.
Notodonta ziczac at Hitchin, 196 ; N.

camelina at Biicket Wood, 197.
Numeria pulwraria at Bricket Wood,

197.

Oaklands, Watford, rainfall at, in

1891, 56; in 1892, 206.
Observations, meteorological, at St.

Albans, in 1891, 69; in 1892, 175;

phenological, in Herts, in 1891, 85 ;

in 1892, 182 ; climatological, in

Herts, in 1891, 157; in 1892, 199.
Odontopera bidentata at Bricket W^ood,

197.

Odontoschisma sphagni in Herts, 234.
Odsey, rainfall at, in 1892, 206.
Ordinary meetings, reports of, 1891,

x-xi ; 1892, xii, xviii-xx, xxxii-

xxxiv ; 1893, xxxiv-xxxvii, xliv-xlv.
' Origin of Species,' 113.
Orthosia lota and macilenta in Herts,

197.
Otter, notes on, 45.
Oughton Head Common, Hitchin,

tutted duck at, 64.
Owen, Sir R., obituary notice of,

xxxviii ; (quoted) on similitude of

Homo and Fithecus, 124.

Papers, list of, read in 1891, xiii ; in

1892, xxxix.
Parage meymra at Knebworth, xlviii.
Farmelia capcrata, Digswell, lii.
Fellia epiphylla and caiycina in Herts,

236.
Felurga comitata in Herts, 197.
PencUey Manor, Tring, rainfall at, in

1891, 58 ; in 1892, 204.
Peregrine falcon at Cole Green, 165.
Fericallia syringaria in Herts, 196.
Phalarope, grey, in Herts, 64.
Fhalaropus fulicarius in Herts, 64.
Fhalera bucephala in Herts, 197.
Phenological phenomena observed in

Herts in 1891, 85; in 1892, 182.
Phillips, F. W. : An Hour with the

Microscope at a Pond-side (title

only), xviii.
Fhlogophora meticulosa at Bricket

Wood, 197.
Fhysarum compressum at Knebworth,

xlviii ; F. leucopliceum at Digswell,

lii.
Fieris brassic(B and rapm abundant at

Hitchin, 190.
Flagiochila asplenioides in Herts, 235.
Plant-diseases and injuries to plants, ix.
Plants, cryptogamic, lists of, xxx, li, lii,

144, 233.
Plasmodium of Mycetozoa, xxxii, 138.
Flusia pulchtina in Herts, 197.
Polecat, notes on, 46.
Folia Jlaviocincta at St. Albans, 196.
Polyommatiis corydon on Broxbourne

Common, 190.
Pond-yards, St. Albans, visited, xxvi.
Forella platyphylla in Herts, 234.
Pre Mill, St. Albans, site of, xxvii.
Pre Wood, St. Albans, visited, xxv.
President's Address, 19th Feb. 1892,

1 ; 2ist Feb. 1893, 101.
Pressure of the atmosphere at Watford,

1877-86, 222, 223.

INDEX.

243

Pucciiica malvacearitm at Cromer Hyde,

xh-i.
PvKROTT, Mr. and Mrs., reception of

members by, at Maynes, St. Albans,

XX vi.
Tt/rrhula europcea, notes on, 164.

Quadnipeds, British terrestrial, 41.
Quail shot at Ilertiuji^fordhnry. 166.
Quaker-moth at Bricket Wood, 193.

Eabbit noticed, 50.

Radida complanata in Herts, 234.

Rainfall in Herts in 189 1, 53; in 1892,

203; at Throckinff, 18S0-89, 216;

at Watford, 1S77-86, 230, 231.
Rallus aqiiaficKs at Sheudish, 64.
Rat, black and bro«Ti, notes on, 49.
Reading Beds at St. Albans, xxiii ; at

Woodcock Hill, xlvi.
Redbreast, notes on, 65.
Red House, Ware, rainfall at, in 1 891,

56; in 1892, 206.
Redshank in Herts, 65.
Report of the Council for 1891, xiii ;

for 1892, xxxviii; on the rainfall in

Herts in 1891, 53; in 1892, 203;

on phenological phenomena in Herts

in 1891, 85 ; in 1892, 182.
Reservoirs, remains of, in Pre Wood,

St. Albans, xxv.
Biccia crystalUna in Herts, 233.
Ricciella Jluitans in Herts, 233.
Bicciocarpus natans in Herts, 233.
Eickmansworth visited, xlv ; rainfall

at, in 1891, 56 ; in 1892, 206 ;

rough-legged buzzard at, 63.
Roberts, T. V. : Terrestrial British

Quadrupeds existing in a Wild State

at the Present Day, xi, 41-52 ; Notes

ou some Hertfordshire Mammalia,

xliv, 169-174 ; remarks on buzzards,

xviii.
Romanes, G. J. (quoted), on Charles

Darwin, 120, 122.
Rook, stealing eggs, 67.
Roofer, G. : Bats and some other

Beasts, xi, 37-40 ; remarks on birds,

xviii.
Rothamsted, Harpenden, rainfall at,

in 1 89 1, 56, 58 ; in 1892, 204, 206.
Royston, rainfall at, in 1891, 56 ; in

1892. 206 ; climatological observa-
tions at, in 1891, 157 ; in 1892, 199.
RuDLER, F. W. : The Natural History

of the Diamond (title only), xix.
Rusina tenebrosa at Bricket Wood, 197.

St. All)an3, bye-meeting at, in 1891,
ix ; ordinary meetings at, in 1892,
xix, xxxii ; field meetings at, in
1892, xxiii, xxv, xxviii ; geology of,
xxiii; rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in
1892, 206 ; meteorological observa-
tions at, in 1 89 1, 69 ; in 1892, 175 ;
phenol ogical observations at, in 1891,
87 ; in 1892, 183 ; climatological
observations at, in 1891, 158 ; in
1892, 200.

St. Michael's Church, St. Albans,
visited, xxv ; monument to Francis
Bacon in, xxv, 33.

Sallow-beating in Herts, 198.

Satellite -moth in Herts, 194.

Saturnia piivonia at St. Albans, 193.

Saundeks, J. : Notes on the Myce-
tozoa, with a List of Species from
Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire,
xxxii, 137-146; Mycetozoa found
by, lii.

Seapania undulnta, nemorosa, and re-
supinnta in Herts, 235.

Science defined, 101.

Sciurus vulgaris notes on, 49.

Scopelosoma satellitia in Herts, 194,
197.

Selenia bilunaria in Herts, 195 ; S.
lunar ia in Herts, 197.

Seligeria calcarea at Harefield, xlv.

Serge Hill, Bedmont, visited, xxviii.

Sheudish, water-rail caught at, 64.

Sherrards Park Wood, Welwyn, visited,
1 ; fungi of, li.

Shrews, notes on, 43.

Silvester, F. W., on Bricket Wood
regiilation scheme, xix.

Smerinthus oceUatus and populi at
Hitchin, 191.

Smew killed near Welwyn, 64.

Snakes exhibited, xi, xliv.

Snow-line, height of, 147-

Solly, Mr. and Mrs., reception of
members by, at Serge Hill, Bed-
mont, xxviii.

Southgate, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in
1892, 206.

Spedding, J., his biographies of
Francis Bacon, 27 ; (quoted) on the
character of Francis Bacon, 29.

Sp/iirrociirpus tcrrestris in Herts, 236.

Sphingidffi in Herts, 191.

Sphinx convolvtdi at St. Albans, 191.

Squirrel, notes on, 49.

Stemoniti.i fusca at Knebworth, xlviii.

Stevenage, rainfall at, in 1891, 56;
in 1892, 206.

Stoat, notes on, 47.

244

INDEX.

Stradling, a. : Crocodiles and
Canaries (title only), xii; Man and
Ape, xxxiv-xxxvii ; snakes exhibited
by, xi, xliv.

Sugaring at Brick et "Wood, 197.

Summer migrants in 1891, 68; in
1892, 167; notes on their arrival,
166.

Swallow, notes on, 66.

Symonds Hyde Great "Wood visited,
xlvi ; Lepidoptera of, xlvi.

Tceniocampa, sps., in Herts, 197, 198.
Talpa europaa, notes on, 43.
Temperature of the air at Throcking,
1880-89, 215 ; at Watford, 1877-
86, 222, 225, 227.
Tennyson quoted, 129, 135, 136.
Terrestrial British quadrupeds, 41.
Tertiaries at St. Albans, xxiv.
Thame district, rainfall in, in 1891,

59; in 1892, 209.
Thecla quercus at Brioket Wood, 198.
Therfield, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in

1892, 206.

Throckins-, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; m

1892, 206 ; temperature and rainfall

at, 1880-89, 213.

Thunderstorm in June, 1892, 210, 212.

Thyatira batis and derasa in Herts,

197, 198.
Tittenhanger visited, xlix.
Totanus calidris in Herts, 65.
Tremellodon gelatmosum at Wormley,

xxxi.
Trichia affinis at Digswell, lii.
Tricholea tomentella in Herts, 235.
Tring, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in

1892, 206 ; pintail duck at, 162.
Tring Reservoirs, grey phalaropeat,64.
Triphcena fimbria at Bricket Wood,

198.
Titrdus merula, light-coloured, 163.

Vanessa atalanta, cardui, and antiopa
at Southgate, 190.

Verulam, Earl of, reception of mem-
bers by, at Gorhambury, St. Albans,

xxviii.
Verulam House, St. Albans, site of,

xxvi.
Viola Riviana at East Hyde, xx.

Visitants, autumn and winter, iniSgi,

68.
Voles, notes on, 49.
Voyage of the " Beagle," 109, 117.

Ward, L. F. (quoted), on Charles

Darwin, 119.
Ware, rainfall at, in 1891, 56; in

1892, 2U6.
Warner, H., reception of members

by, at Wormley, xxx.
Water-rail at Shendish, 64.
Water-supply of London, x, xiv, xxxix.
Water-A'ole, notes on, 49, 172.
Watford, ordinary meetings at, in 189 1,
x-xi ; in 1892, xii, xviii-xx, xxxii-
xxxiv; in 1893, xxxiv-xxxvii, xliv-
xlv; rainfall at, in 1891, 56, 58 ;
in 1892, 204, 206 ; climate of, 219.
Weasel, notes on, 47-
Welw)Ti, rainfall at, in 1891, 56, 58;
in 1892, 204, 206; heron, tufted
duck, and smew killed near, 64.
Weston Park, Stevenage, rainfall at,

in 1891, 56; in 1892, 206.
Wettest days in 1891,08; in 1892,208.
Whitaker, W., remarks on geology

of St. Albans, xxiii.
Willis, J. J. : A Naturalist's Calendar

for Mid-Hertfordshire, xx, 76-84.
Wind, force and direction of , at Watford,

1877-86, 228, 229.
Winter visitants in 1891, 68.
Woodcock Hill Kiln visited, xlvi.
Wood-leopard moth in Herts, 192.
Woodpecker, green and greater spotted,

in Herts, 62.
Wormley Wood visited, xxx ; fungi of,
xxx.

Xanfhia, sps., at Bricket Wood, 197.
Xanthosetia hamana at Zouches Farm,

Duustable, xlviii.
Xylophasia rurea at Bricket Wood, 197.

Yellow-hammer, a partial migrant, 164.

Zandognatha grisealis at Bricket Wood,

197.
Zeugera pijrinaixx'H.Gxi?,, \'d1.

Zouches Farm, Dunstable,visited, xlviii.

APPENDIX.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

HERTFOUDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
AND FIELD CLUB.

Apeil, 1894.

VOL. VII. — PART IX. 19

PAST PEESIDENTS.

1875-77. SIE JOHX EVAI^S, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas.RS., V.P.S.A.

1877-79. ALFEED T. BRETT, M.D.

1879-81. J. GWYN JEEFRETS, LL.D., E.R.S., E.L.S., E.G.S.

1881-83. GEORGE ROOFER, F.Z.S.

1883-85. RIGHT HON. THE EARL COWPER, K.G.

1885-87. PROF. JOHN ATTFIELD, M.A., Ph.D.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.

1877-89. F. MAULE CAMPBELL, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.

1889-91. RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CLARENDON.

1891-93. JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

TEUSTEES.

ALFRED T. BRETT, M.D.

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

W. LEPARD SMITH.

,^ ' Zoology •'*>

tiUL 20 1942

<■ f B R *

r^JdJ;^

HONOEARY MEMBERS.

Elected

1875 Allman, George James, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., r.R.S.E.,
F.L.S., M.R.I.A., Emeritus Professor of Natural
History, University of Edinburgh, Ardmore, Park-
sto7ie, Dorset ; and Athenceum Club, London, S. W.

1883 Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.R.S., E.S.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Professor of Botany in the University of
Cambridge, 5, Brookside, Cambridge.

1883 Brown, Isaac, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.Soc., Brantholme, Kendal,
Westmoreland.

1882 Cooke, M. C, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., Rerharmm, Royal
Gardens, Kew \ and 146, Junction Road, London, N.

1879 Etheridge, Robert, F.R.8., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., British
Museum [Natural Histortj), South Keyisington ; and
14, Carlyle Square, Chelsea, London, S.W.

1893 Flower, Sir William Henry, K.C B., LL D., F.R.S.,
F.R.C.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pres.Z.S., Director of the
Natural History Depai'tment of the British Museum,
Cromwell Road, South Kensington, S. W. ; and 26,
Stanhoije Gardens, London, S. W.

1890 Geikie, Sir Archibald, D.Sc, LL D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Surveys
of the United Kingdom, 28, Jermyn Street, London,
S.W.

1875 Glaisher, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc,
Superintendent of the Magnetic and Meteorological
Department, Royal Observatory, Greenwich ; and
■^ 1, Ddrtmouth Place, Blackheath. <.

1879 Harting, James Edmund, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Mem. Brit. Orn.
Union, Linnean Society, Burlington JLouse, London, W,

1877 Henslow, Rev. George, M.A., F.L.S,, F.G.S., F.R.H.S.,
Professor of Botany, Queen's College, London, Bray-
ton House, Ealing.

4 LIST OF MEMBERS.

1875 Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, ll.N., K.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,
D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab.), F.KS., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., etc., The Camp, Sunningdale, Berks.

1883 Huxley, Kt. Hon. Thomas Henry, P.C., D.C.L. (Oxon.),
LL.D. (Edin.), M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.Z.S., etc., Dean of the Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, S. W. ; and Hodeslea, Easthourne.

1886 Jackson, Benjamin Daydon, Sec.L.S., Clevedon, Cautley
Avenue, Clapham Common, London, S. W.

1883 Jones, Thomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., ex-Professor of
Geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst,
1 0, Uverdale Road, King^s Road, Chelsea, London, S. W.

1875 Lubbock, Rt. Hon. Sir John, Bart., P.C, M.P., D.C.L.,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., High Elms,
Farnhorough, Kent; and 15, Lombard Street, London,
JE.C.

1881 Ormerod, Eleanor A., F.R.Met.Soc, F.E.S., Torrington
House, St. Albans.

1880 Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. , F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Sec. Z.S., 3, Hanover Square, London, W.

1885 Seebohm, Henry, F.L.S., F Z.S., 22, Courtfield Gardens,
Cromwell Road, Londoyi, S. W.

1876 Symons, George James, F.R.S,, Sec.R.Met.Soc, 62, Camden

Square, London, N. W.

1876 AVhitaker, William, B.A. (Lond.), F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc.
Inst.C.E., Geological Survey of England, 33, East
Park Terrace, Southampton ; and 28, Jermyn Street,
London, S. W.

COEEESPONDIXa MEMBEK.

1894 Saunders, James, 47, Rathgar Road, Luton.

ORDIi^AEY MEMBERS.

An asterisk before a name indicates a Life Member.

Elected

1890 Acworth, Mrs., The Hook, Northaw, Patterns Bar.
1887 Andre, E.., Melrose, Biishey Grove, Watford.
1879 Andrews, E,. Thornton, Castle Street, Hertford.

1892 Arclier, Miss Janet, St. George's Villa, Chalk Hill, Watford.

1890 Ashdown, C. H., F.R.G.S., Belmont, St. Albans.
1883 *Attenborough, Mrs., Hay don Hill, Bushey, Watford.

1877 *Attfield, John, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C., Pro-

fessor of Practical Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain, Ashlands, Watford; and
17, Bloomsbury Square, London, W.C.
1879 Austin, Yernon, Blairgowrie, Bengeo, Hertford.

1893 Ayres, Mrs., High Croft, Watford.

1893 Baldwin, W. Wallis, Netherheys, Watford.

1879 *Barclay, Robert, Higji Leigh, Hoddesdon.

1891 Barclay, Robert P., High Leigh, Hoddesdon.

1891 Barker, George, Kettlewells, St. Albans.

1878 Barraud, Allan, Bushey Heath, Watford.

1889 Bates, H. LesKe, L.R.C.P. (Lond.), Thome House, St. Albans.

1892 Batters, E. A. L., LL.B., B.A., F.L.S., The Laurels,

Wormley.
1887 Beck, Ernest, Hoddesdon.
1877 Benskin, Mrs. Joseph, Chalk Hill, Watford.
1892 Benskin, Thomas, 196, High Street, Watford.

1880 Berkeley, B. Comyns, Collett Hall, Ware.

1 883 *Berry, F. Haycraft, M.D. (Lond.), Wansford House, Watford.
1883 *Bickersteth, John P., Grove Mdl House, Watford.

6 LIST OF MEMBERS.

1880 Bishop, Mrs., The Plaits, Watford.

1892 Blackburn, H., Nascot Grange, Watford.
1885 Blatliwayt, A. P., Frogmore, Watford.

1893 Bloomer, C. E., 22, St. Alban's Road, Watford.
1892 Bolton, Mrs. A. E., 1, London Road, St. Albans.
1887 Bosanquet, Percival, Ponfeld, Little Berkhamsted.
1875 *Brett, Alfred T., M.D., Watford House, Watford.
1887 Brown, Arthur M., M.A., Beech Grove, Tring.
1891 Brunton, Sydney, Frogmore House, St. Allans.

1885 Burchell-Herne, Eev. H. F. H., Bushey Grange, Watford.

1884 Burr, E. T., Oakley Lodge, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1881 *Bushby, Lady Frances, Wormley Bury, Hoddesdon.
1880 Butcher, H. 0. F., High Street, Ware.

1889 *Butler, Charles, Warren Wood, Hatfield.

1879 Buxton, Alfred Fowell, 5, Hyde Park Street, London, W.

1894 Buxton, Dudley, M.D., Bushey Cottage, Bushey Heath,

Watford.

1885 Buxton, John Henry, Hunsdon Bury, Ware.
1879 Buxton, Thomas Fowell, ^astteye Par^', Ware.

1879

1875
1883
1875
1876
1879
1886
1891
1893
1875
1877

1894
1893
1886
1879

1894
1876

1878
1893
1894

Campbell, Frank Maule, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.M.S., F.E.S.,
Hoj^'. Sec, Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

Capell, Hon. Arthur, Cassiohury Park, Watford.

Capell, Hon. Colonel, Ladyh Close, Watford.
*Carew, Mrs., Carpenders Park, Watford.
*Carew, Robert Marcus, Carpenders Park, Watford.
*'Carlile, James W., Ashendene, Hertford.

Carter, W. B., B.A., Libkakian, Bushey Hall Road, Watford.

Case, Henry, M.B.C.S., Leavesden Asylum, Watford.

Casson, E.., Woodford Road, Watford.

Chater, Edward M., St. Allan's Road, Watford.

Clarendon, Right Honourable the Earl of. Grove Park,
Watford ; and 1 1 , Berkeley Square, London, W.

Clarke, Adams, M.D., Bushey, Watford.

Cobb, Mrs., Garston, Watford.

Coles, "William, 60, Queen's Road, Watford.
*Cowper, Eight Honourable the Earl, E.G., Panshanger,
Hertford; 5, St. James' Square, London, S.W.; and
Athenceum Club, S. W.

Cox, Alfred E., 78, Queen's Road, Watford.
*Croft, Richard Benyon, R.N., Fanhams Hall, Ware.
*Croft, Mrs., Fanhams Hall, Ware.

Crouch, Mrs., Rossi yn, Watford.

Curry, Charles Albert, Woodoaks, Rickmansworth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 7

1891 Daltiy, B. H. R., 24, Queen's Road, Hertford.
1888 Daw, S. J., J^lmhurst, Langleij Park, JFatford.

1885 Dcunison, T. A,, Airedale House, Queen's Road, Watford.

1892 Dillon, C. E., Lismore Cottage, Bushey, Watford.

1890 Downer, Frederick, Eigh Street, Watford.
1894 Dudgeon, Arthur, Northhank, Watford.

1885 Durraut, John Hartley, E.E.S., Entomological Secretary to
Lord Walsiugham, Merton Hall, Thetford.

1893 Duvall, John William, The Grange, Ware.

1893 Edmunds, Mrs., 86, High Street, Watford.

1883 Ekins, Arthur Ernest, E.C.S., Market Cross, St. Albans.

1892 Essex, Right Honourable the Earl of, Cassiobury Park,

Watford.
1875 *Evans, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.E.S.,
V.P.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., etc., Nash Mills, Kernel
Hempstead.

1891 Evans, Lewis, F.S.A., Belsivains, Hemel Hempstead.

1893 Evelegh, Markham, ^sse.^ ^o«^, Watford.

1878 Ewing, Rev. J. A., M.A., Westmill Rectory, Buntingford.

1888 Farries, Thomas, 30, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1892 risk, James, High Street, St. Albans.
1892 Fisk, William J., Street Lodge, Watford.

1875 *Fordham, H. George, F.G.S., Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock.
1875 Fry, Clarence E., Elmcote, Watford.

1879 *Gibbs, Arthur E., F.L.S., F.E.S., Cueatob,, Avenue House,

St. Albatis.

1891 Gibbs, Richard, The Hollies, St. Albans.

1875 Gibbs, Surgeon-Major J. G., Riggendale Road, Streatham,
London, S. W.

1879 Gilbert, Sir Joseph Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

F.C.S., F.R.Met.Soc, Harpenden.

1892 Gillman, Arthur R., Spriyigfield, Woodridings, Pinner.

1894 Goodwin, J., Langley Park House, Watford.
1875 Green, George, Field House, Watford.

1885 Green, Uijfield, F.G.S., Liebenheim, Watford.

1886 Griffith, Acton F., Elmsfield, Hertford.

1880 Giimthorpe, Right Honourable Baron, LL.D., Q.C,

F.R.A.S., Batch Wood, St. Albans; and 33, Queen

Anne Street, London, W.
1875 Groome, John Edward, King's Langley.
1891 Gruggen, W., L.R.C.P.E., 11, Montpellier Road, Ealing.

8 LIST OF MEMBEES.

1875 *Halsey, Thomas F., M.P., Gaddesden Place, Bemel Kemp-
steady and 73, Eaton Place, London, 8.W.

1889 Harford, W. M., Manor Some, Bushey, Watford.
1875 Harrison, Edward, Uj)per Nascot, Watford.

1880 Harvey, Rev. C. Wigan, M.A., Throching Rectory,

Bimtingford.

1890 Headley, F. W., M.A., Raileyhury College, Hertford.
1879 Heard, H. C, Hailey Hall, Hertford.

1887 Henty, Robert, Langley Home, Ahhofs Langley.
1885 Hill, Daniel, Herga, St. Andreivs, Watford.

1881 Hill, William, F.G.S., The Maples, Hitchin.

1889 Hine, Harry, Holywell Hill, St. Albans.
1872 Hoare, Richard, Marden Hill, Tewin, Hertford.

1885 Hoddinot, E. H., \% , Nassington Road, Hampstead, London,

N.W.
1875 Holland, Stephen Taprell, Otterspool, Aldenham, Watford.
1875 Holland-Hibbert, Hon. A. H., Munden Home, Watford.
1894 Hope, Thomas, St. Ronans, Watford.
1875 Hopkinson, Mrs. James, Holly Bank, Watford.
1875 *Hopkinson, John, F.L.S. F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc,

Hon. Sec. and Editor, The Grange, St. Albans; and

Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, London, W.
1875 *Hopkinson, Mrs. John, The Grange, St. Albans.
1883 *Hovell, T. Mark, F.R.C.S. (Edin.), Boreham Holt,

Elstree ; and 3, Mansfield Street, Cavendish Square,

London, W.

1892 *Hudson, George Bickersteth, M.P., Watton, Hertford.
1885 Hughes, T. McKenny, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.,

Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge,
Trinity College, Cambridge.
1887 Hunt, J. A., Hoddesdon.

1875 James, J. Henry, Kingsioood, Leavesden, Watford.

1894 Janes, Clement, Hunter'' s Farm, Leavesden, Watford.

1877 Je&ns, Mrs., Eastleigh, Essex Road, Watford.

1890 Jones, Charles E., Russell Farm, Watford.
1894 Jones, Picton, Conishead, Watford.

1893 Jourdain, Miss, Corran, Watford.

1879 Keyser, Charles Edward, F.S.A., Merry Hill House, Bushey,

Watford ; and 47, Wilton Crescent, London, S. W.
1893 Kember, Mrs., Luton Road, Harpenden.
1893 Kent, Harold, Roseberry, Watford.
1892 Knyvett, Felix Sumner, Ashwellthorpe, Watford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

1893 Lake, Miss, TVellfords, Bricket Road, St. Albans.

1876 ^Lambert, Colonel Goori!:c, F.S.A., Coventry Street, Hay-
market, London, W.

1892 Larkin, John, Delrow, Aldenham, Watford.

1889 Lawrancc, Yoncrablc Archdeacon, M.A., The Rectory,

St. Albans.

1892 Lees, William Henry, Sandonbury, Royston.

1892 Lewis, Arthur, Sparroivsivick, St. Albans.

1880 Lewis, Henry, Worley Road, St. Albans.

1883 Lloyd, Frederick George, Oakwood, Bexley, Kent.

1890 *'Longman, A. H., Shendish, Hemel Hempstead.

1891 *Lowe, Frederick, Fidham, Tring.

1889 *Loyd, E. H., Langleybury, Watford.
1891 *Lubbock, Henry, Newberries, Radlett.
1876 *Lucas, Francis, Hitchin.

1876 *Lucas, 'SMlliam, The Firs, Hitchin.

1876 McFarlane, W. McMurray, Loudwater, Richnansivorth.

1875 McGill, H. J., Aldenham, Watford.

1888 Maclean, Allen, L.R.C.S., Harpenden Hall, Harpenden.

1894 Mahon, F. C, Wolfeville, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1893 'M.annmg, Vexcj, JVorth Fnd House, Watford.

1876 Manser, Edward, Zea Side, Hertford.

1881 ^Marshall, Rev. C. J., M.A., Shilling sto7ie Rectory, Dorset.
1875 ^Marshall, Frank E., M.A., Harroiv.

1890 Mawley, Edward, F.R.Met.Soc, F.E.H.S., Rosebank,

Berkhamsted.

1885 Moore, Walter E., Westfield, St. Andrews, Watford.

1882 Morison, John, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albans.
1893 Murray, A. T., Harpley, Stratford Road, Watford.

1893 !N^eele, G. P., The Lawn, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1889 Keish, J. Watson, Highfield, Watford.

1889 Mcholl, Digby S. AY., F.L.S., F.G.S., The Ham, Cow-
bridge, Glamorganshire.

1883 Kicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., K.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, The Grange, Totteridge.

1875 ^N^oakes, Simpson, Bushey Heath, Watford.

1886 jS^oel, E. F., Manor House, Stanmore.

1889 jS'orman, Edward H., Moor Place, Much Hadham.

1893 Norris, W. H., Bengeo, Hertford.

1894 Oddie, E. G., Oxford Lodge, Watford.

1889 *Ormerod, Miss Georgiana E., Torrington House, St. Albans.
1894 Osborne, Mrs., Widcombe Lodge, Watford.

10 LIST OF MEMBEES.

1893 Pank, John Lovell, Barnet.

1889 *Pauton, J. A., Cecil Lodge, Ahbofs Langley.

1885 ^'Parker, Eev. J. D., LL.D, F.R.Met.Soc, Bennington

Souse, Stevenage.
1885 Peacock, T. J., Queen Street, Watford.
1879 Pliillips, Frederick W., Manor House, Hitchin.

1876 *Pollard, Joseph, High Down, Hitchin.
1879 Price, George, High Street, Ware.

1887 '¥vocieY,~Rtixo\^, Hunton Bridge, Watford.

1881 *Pryor, Marlborough R., M.A., P.Z.S., Weston Manor,
Stevenage.

1892 Puddicombe, W. JST., IM.E.C.S., London Road, St. Albans.

1881 *Eaiisom, Francis, Bedford Road, Hitchin.

1877 ^Eansom, William, F.S.A., F.L.S., Fairfield, Hitchin.

1893 Eeader, F. W., Glenroy, Watford.

1892 *Eiggal, James K., 3, Albert Terrace, Watford.

1887 Eoberts, T. Vaughan, Verulam House, Watford.
1891 Eobins, G. Upton, Belaport, Wheathamstead.

1884 Eobins, Mrs., The Elms, Watford.
1879 Eobinson, Isaac, Beninghoe, Hertford.

1875 Eooper, George, F.Z.S., Nascot House, Watford.

1878 Eoss, Captain George Ernest A., F.G.S., F.E.G.S., 8,

Collingham Gardens, Cromwell Road, London, S. W.

1888 '^Eothschild, Honourable Walter, Tring Park, Tring.

1893 Eowse, E. P., Nutley, Watford.

1894 Eudyard, H, Ashton, M.D., St. Alban's Road, Watford.

1891 Sainsbury, Percy Hamilton, J?ws^-«r(?s, Watford.

1879 *Salisbury, Most N'oble the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.E.S.,

Hatfield House, Hatfield ; and 20, Arli7igto7i Street,
Loyidon, S. W.
1891 Salter, Stephen, Hills Court, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1885 Schreiber, W. F. D., Balton House, Watford.

1893 Scott, Duncan, M.D., Station Road, Watford.

1894 Sedgwick, Eupert, 44, High Street, Watford.
1883 *Seebohm, Frederick, The Hermitage, Hitchin.
1878 Selby, Miss, Battlers Green, Radlett.

1891 Sell, Miss A. C, Fairfield House, Watford.

1880 Shelly, Charles Edward, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), M.E.C.S.,

Fore Street, Hertford.
1883 Sherry, Henry S., Bynmore, Watford.

1889 Sibbald, J. G. E., 3, Townshend Villas, Richmond, Surrey.
1875 Silvester, Frank W., Hedges, St. Albans.

LIST OF MEMBEES. I I

1803 Slinn, E. J., Langsyne, Watford.

1891 ISlocombe, Edward, Oxhey IFarren, Watford.

1879 Smith, Abel, M. P., Woodhall Park, Watton, Hertford; and

35, Chesham Place, Zondon, S. W.
1881 Smith, Abel H., M.P., Watton, Hertford.

1891 Smith, Arthur, Sniallford, St. Albans.
1875 Smith, Josepli G., Hamper Mills, Watford.

1880 *Smith, Robert, Goldings, Hertford.

1879 Smith, Urban A., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Beacon House, St.

Albans.
1875 *Smith, W. Lopard, The Riffel, Clarendon Road, Watford.

1880 *Smith-Bosanquet, Horace J., F.R.Gr.S., Broxbourne Bury,

Hoddesdon.
1890 *Solly, H. Reynolds, Serge Hill, Bedmont.

1889 Spackman, J. Woolsey, Chislehurst.

1894 Spencer, S. H., Junr., 45, Gladstone Road, Watford.
1875 Stone, William T., Oxhey Lane, Watford.
1883 StracUing, Arthur, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., President, Flores,
Watford.

1893 Swindon, Miss, The Hollies, St. Albayi's Road, Watford.

1890 Syme, "W. H., Ottawa House, Queen'' s Road, Watford.

1875 Thairlwall, F. J., 12, Up2}er Park Road, London, N.W.

1887 Thornhill, James, F.L.S., Oxford House, St. Albans.

1892 Topley, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.,

Geological Survey of England, 28, Jermyn Street,
London, S.W.; and 13, Havelock Road, Croydon.

1886 Tuck, Horace J., St. Leonard'' s, Bengeo, Hertford.

1878 *Tuke, James Hack, Hitchin.

1894 Turner, Thomas, Oakleigh, Watford.

1890 Van Raiilte, Charles, Aldenham Abbey, Watford.

1878 Yaughan, Rev. Edward T., M.A., Langleybury Vicarage,

Watford.

1893 Vaux, E. P., Densworth, Watford.

1892 Yerey, A. Sainsbury, Heronsgate, Richnansworth.
1875 Yerini, William, Watford.

1879 Yerulam, Right Honourable the Earl of, F.R.G.S., Gorham-

bury, St. Albans.
1886 YiUiers, T. J., Watford.

1879 Wailes, G. Herbert, Rounton, Watford.

1888 Walker, A. S., Bonningtons, Stratford Road, Watford.
1875 Walker, J. Watson, Cefn Llys, Stanley Road, Watford.

I 2 LIST OF MEMBERS.

1893 Wallen, Frederick, Brichet Wood, St. Albans; and 96,

Goiver Street, London, W. C.
1892 *Wardale, Eev. John, M.A., Datehworth Rectory, Stevenage.
1881 "Warner, Henry, Wormley, Hoddesdon.
1881 Weall, John, Teeasukee, Rutland Lodge, and 38, LLigh

Street, Watford.

1894 Wehrschmidt, Daniel A., Cleveland, Bushey, Watford.

1891 "Weir, Percy Jenner, 7, Bucklershury, London, E.C.

1894 Wells, T. P. Grosart, L.R.C.P. (Edin.), St. Peter's Street,
St. Allans.

1880 "White, S. Monckton, Elmsleigh, St. Albans.

1881 *Wigram, Miss E,, Moor Place, Much Radham.

1892 Wiles, Miss Jane, George Street, St. Albans.
1894 Williams, W. H., Alexandra Road, Watford.

1892 Wilks, E. T., E.R.G.S., Monmouth House, High Street,

Watford.
1894 Wilson, Rev. Arthur, M.A., Leavesden Vicarage, Watford.
1875 *Wilson, Miss Mary, i\^2<^^f'/(^, Watford.

1882 *Woods, Thomas Hoade, Durrants. Watford.

1893 Wyles, Walter C, Carpenders, Watford.

1888 Young, Walter P., F.R.M.S., Hertford House, Albert Road,
Battersea Park, London, S. W.

TOrOGEAPniCAL INDEX TO THE MEMBEES.

An asterisk after a name indicates an Honorary Member ; an obelisk, a

Corresponding Member.

ENGLAND.

Bedfordshire.
Luton — Saunders, J.f

Berkshire.
Sunning dale — Hooker, Sir J. D.*

Cahbridgeshire.

Camlridge — Babington, Prof. C.

Cambridge — Hughes, Prof. T.
McK.

Dorsetshire,
Parhstone — Allman, Prof. G. J.* | ShiUingstone — Marsliall,E,ev.C.J.

Hampshire.
Southampton — Whitaker, W."^*

Hertfordshire.

Abhofs Langley — Henty, E,.

Panton, J. A.

Barnet — Pank, J. L.
Bedmont — Solly, H. E,.
Berkhamsted — Mawley, E.
Buntingford {Throcking) —

Harvey,Eey.C.W.
( Westmill) — Ewing, Rev.

J. A.
Elstree—KoxeW, T. M.
Harpenden — Gilbert, Sir J. H.

Kember, Mrs.

Maclean, A.

Hatfield — Butler, C.

Salisbury, Marquis of

Hemel Hempstead — Evans, Sir J.

Evans, L.

Halsey, T. F.

Longman, A. H.

Hertford — Andrews, R. T.

Carlile, J. W.

Cowper, Earl

Daltry, B. H. R.

Griffith, A. F.

Heard, H. C.

Manser, E.

Robinson, I.

Shelly, Dr. C. E.

Smith, R.

{Bengeo) — Austin, V.

Norris, W. H.

Tuck, H. J.

{Haileijbury) — Headley, F.

{Tetoin) — Hoare, R.

( 7r«!^^o«)— Hudson, G. B.

Smith, A.

Smith, A. H.

TOPOGEAPHICAX INDEX

mtcJim— mil, w.

Lucas, F.

Lucas, W.

Phillips, F. W.

Pollard, J.

Ransom, F.

Ransom, W.

Seebohm, F.

Tuke, J. H.

Hoddesdon —Barclay, R.

Barclay, R. P.

Beck, E.

Bushby, Ladv F.

Campbell, F/M.

Hunt, J. A.

Smith-Bosanquet, H. J.

AVarner, H.

Kingh Langley — Groome, J. E.
Little Berkhamsted — Bosanquet,

P.
Much Uadham — Norman, E. H.

Wigram, Miss E.

Odsey — Fordham, H. G.
Fottefs Bar [Northaw) —

Ackworth, Mrs.
Radlett — Lubbock, H.

Selby, Miss

Michmansworth — Curry, C. A.

McFarlane, W. McM.

[IIero7isgate) — Verey, A. S.

Royston — Lees, W. H.

St. Albans — Ashdown, C. H.

Barker, G.

Bates, H. L.

Bolton, Mrs. A. C.

Brunton, S.

Ekins, A. E.

Fisk, J.

Gibbs, A. E.

Gibbs, R.

Grimthorpe, Baron

Hine, H.

Hopkinson, J.

Hopkinson, Mrs.

Lake, Miss

Lawrance, Archdeacon

Lewis, A.

Lewis, H.

Morison, Dr. J.

Ormerod, Miss

St. Albans — Ovmerod, Miss E.

Phillips, Mrs.

Puddicombe, "W. N.

Silvester, F. W.

Smith, TJ. A.

Thornhill, J.

Verulam, Earl of

Wells, T. P. G.

White, S. M.

Wiles, Miss J.

{Bricket Wood)—^sl\en,

{Small/or d) — Smith, A.

Stevenage [Betminqton) — Parker,

Rev. J. D.
{Datchivorth) — Wardale,

Rev. J.

( Weston)— ^Tjor, M. R.

Totteridge — Nicholson, Sir C.
Tring — Brown, A. M.

Lowe, F.

Rothschild, Hon. W.

Ware — Berkeley, B. C.

Butcher, H. 0. F.

Buxton, J. H.

Buxton, T. F.

Croft, R. B.

Croft, Mrs.

Duvall, J. W.

Price, G.

Watford — Andre, R.

Archer, Miss J.

Attfield, Prof. J.

Ayres, Mrs.

Baldwin, W. W,

Benskin, Mrs. J.

Benskin, T.

Berry, Dr. F. H.

Bickersteth, J. P.

Bishop, Mrs.

Blackburn, H.

Blathwayt, A. P.

Bloomer, C. E.

Brett. Dr. A. T.

Burchell-Herne, Rev. H.

F. H.

Burr, E. T.

Capell, Hon. A.

Capell, Hon. Colonel

TO THE MEMBERS.

Watford — Carcw, Mrs.

Carew, R. M.

Carter, W. R.

Caspou, 11.

Chat or, E. M.

Clarendon, Earl of

Coles, W.

Cox, A. E.

Crouch, Mrs.

Daw, S. J.

Dennison, T. A.

Downer, F.

Dudgeon, A.

Duvall, J. W.

Edmunds, Mrs.

Essex, Earl of

Evelegh, M.

Farries. T.

Fisk, W. J.

Fry, C. E.

• Goodwin, J.

Green, G.

Green, TJ.

Harrison, E.

Hill, D.

Holland-Hibbert,Hon.A.H.

Hope, T.

Hopkinson, Mrs.

Jeans, Mrs.

Jones, C. E.

Jones, P.

Jourdain, Miss

Kent, H.

Knyvett, F. S.

Lord, E. H.

Mahon, F. C.

Manning, P.

Moore, W. E.

Murray, A. T.

Neele, G. P.

Neish, J. W.

Oddie, E. G.

Osborne, Mrs.

Peacock, T. J.

Reader, F. W.

Eisgall, J. K.

Roberts, T. V.

Robins, Mrs.

Rooper, G.

Rowse, E. P.

7n?(^/-^— Rudyard, Dr. H. A.

Suinsbury, P. H.

Salter, S.

Schreiber, W. F. D.

Scott, Dr. D.

Sedgwick, R.

Sell, Miss A. C.

Sherry, H. S.

Slinn, ¥j. J.

Slocombe, E.

Smith, J. G.

Smith, W. L.

Spencer, S. H., Jun.

Stone, W. T.

Stradling, A.

Swindon, Miss

Syme, W. H.

Turner, T.

Vaughan, Rev. E. T.

Vaux, E. P.

Verini, W.

Villiers, T. J.

AVailes, G. H.

Walker, A. S.

Walker, J. W.

Wcall, J.

Wilks, E. T.

Williams, W. H.

Wilson, Miss M.

Woods, T. H.

Wyles, W. C.

(^^f/ew^flw)— Holland, S.T.

Larkin, J.

McGill, H. J.

Van Raalte, C.

{Bushey) — Attenborough,

Mrs.

Barraud, A.

Euxton, Dr. D.

Clarke, Dr. A.

Dillon, C. E.

Harford, W. M.

Keyser, C. E.

Noakes, S.

Wehrschmidt, D. A.

{Garsfon) — Cobb, Mrs.

{Hunton Bridge) — Procter,

[Leavesden) — Case, H.

James, J. H.

TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Watford [Leavesden) — Janes, C.
Wilson, Eev. A.

Wheathamsted — Robins, G. TJ.
Wormley — Batters, E. A. L.

Kent.

Bexley—'Llojdi, P. Gr.
Blaclcheath — Glaisher, J.^
Chislehurst — Spackman, J. "W.

Middlesex

Croydon — Topley, "W.
Farnborough — Lubbock, Sir J.

Ealing — Gruggen, W.

Henslow, Rev. Prof. G.*

Harrow — Marshall, F. E.
London — Attfield, Prof. J.

Buxton, A. r.

Clarendon, Earl of

Cooke, Dr. M. C*

Cowper, Earl

Etberidge, E..*

Flower, Sir W.*

Geikie, Sir A.*

Grimthorpe, Baron

Halsey, T. F.

Harting, J. E*

HodcHnot, E. H.

Hopkinson, J.

Hovell, T. M.

Huxley, Et. Hon. T. H.*

London — Jones, Prof. T. E.*

Keyser, C. E.

Lambert, G.

Lubbock, Sir J.*

Eoss, Captain G. E. A.

Salisbury, Marquis of

Sclater, Dr. P. L.*

Seebohm, H.*

Smith, A.

Symons, G. J.*

Thairlwall, F. J.

Topley, W.

Wallen, F.

Weir, P. J.

Whitaker, W.*

Pinner — Gillman, A.
Stanmore — Noel, E. F.

X^^_Cooke, Dr. M. C*
London— Gihhs, J. G.
Jackson, B. D.*

Noefole:.
Thetford — Durrant, J. H.

SUERET.

London — Young, W. P.
Richmond — Sibbald, J. G. E.

Sussex.
Eastbourne — Huxley, Et. Hon. T. H.*

Westmoreland.
Kendal — Brown, I.^'

WALES.

Glamoeganshtre.
Coivbridge—^ickoW, D. S. W.

END OF TOL. YII.

STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, HERTFORD.

^ oc. 7

APRIL] Price Is. [1892.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFORDSHIRE

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AND

FIELD CLUB

EDITED BY JOHN SOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VIL PART 1.

contents: p^(;k

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1892.
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32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price \s.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JoHjf HoPKiNsoN, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. Gd. Supplement (8 pp.) 3rf.

LONDON :
GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

GOTJn^OIUj.

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

Alfred T. Brett, M.D.

The Right Hon. the £arl of Clakendon.

E. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., Pres. S.A.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John "Weall, Watford.

J^onoitaijy ^ecj|etai|ie8 :

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albans.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S. , F.Z.S., etc., Rose Hill, Sodclesdon.

Libi|ai|iau: QJuiiatoii:

W. R. Carter, | A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S.,

The Limes, Watford. \ The RoUies, St. Albans.

Prof. Attfieid,M.A.,Ph.D., F.R.S.
A. P. Blathwatt.
Percival Bosanquet.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
A. Eteson, M.D

Upfield Green, F.G.S.

Augustus Hawks.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

F. W. Silvester.

Arthur Stradling, C.M.Z.S.

J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Yaughan, M.A.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology.— R. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., Fanliams Hall, Ware.

^Mammalia.— T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
AvES.— Henry Lewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia AND Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, C.M.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology -I Coleoptera.— Arthur Cottam, F.R.A.S., Eldereroft, Watford.

Lepidoptera. — J. Hartley Durraut, F.E.S., Merton Hall, Thetford.
Arachnida.— F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
MoLLUscA.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
''Rotifera and Protozoa.— F.W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
^Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Sell)y, Battler's Green.
I Musci, Hepatic^, Characee, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,
Botany J F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.

i Fungi.— M. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146. Junction Road, London, N.
I Desmidee and Diatomacee.— Francis Rausoiu, Hitchin.
^Diseases of Plants.— A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology.— John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
1'henology.— Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Banhet[s:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

e c

v^,

OCTOBER] Price Is. [1892.

TRxVNSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AXB

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN ROPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 2

coif TENTS : PAOK

•_'. But^ aud some other Beasts. By George Rooper, F.Z.S 37

;5. Terrestrial British Quadrupeds existing- in a Wild State at the Present Dav.

By T. Yaughan Eoberts '.... 41

4. Report on the Rainfall in Ilertfordsliire in 1891. Bv John Hopkiuson, F.L.S.,

F.G.S. , F.R.Met.Soe., President ^ 53

■i. Xotes on Birds obsen'ed in Hertfordshire during the year 1891. By Henry

Lewis (J'2

LOXDOX:
GURXEY & JACKSOX, Successors to VAX VOORST, PATERXOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1892.

4^w

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorologj-,
Geology, Eotauy, Zoology, and Pro-historic Archsjology of the County of Hertford.

2. The publication of the results of such investigation made by its Members.

3. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on Natural History,
Microscopy, and Thotography. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
JVatiu-al History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discoiu-agemeut of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the Watford Public Library. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which arc
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of which is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Public Library at
least once a mouth during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, Ware, and other places. Field
meetings are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay au Entrance Fee of lO.s., and an Annual Subscription of lO.s..
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £b. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Library, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Libriirian, W. E. Carter, Eushey Hall Eoad, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,

AYatford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant Secretary, H. J. Wardale, 3, Adela Terrace,
Watford. They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on aj^plicatiou to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries

JOrm MORISON, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Eose Hill, Hoddesdon.

rUBLICATIOXS OF TEE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDOX JACKSOX, Sec.L.S.

With au Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOTIX irOPKIXSOX, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14.s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

YoL. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10s. Cf?.

In Parts:— 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (33G pages). Price 10s. 6f/.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. %d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. eacl:.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price lis.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 6, 7, S, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. II. 1882-84. (seepages). Price 11. «. erf.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is, Qd. each; o, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price lis. 6rf.

In Parts :— 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. %d. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. eacli.

YoL. lY. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. Y. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YII. Part 1, price Is.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHX IIOPKIXSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. Qd. Supplement (8 pp.) M.

LOXDOX :

GURXEY & JACKSOX, Successors to YAX YOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEX AUSTIX & SOXS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

G o xj nsr o I Hj-

JOHN HOPKINSOX, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

"^ioe-itfijesidents:

Alfred T. Brett, M.D.

The Right Hox. the Earl op Clarendon.

R. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., Y.P.S.A.

A7ILL1AM Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John "Weall, Watford.

Honoiiaijy ^ecijetaijies:

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Alhaiis.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc., Rose Hill, Iloddesdon.

Libifaijian: (j;ui|atoi|:

W. R. Carter, B.A., | A. E. Girbs, F.L.S. ,

Busheij Hall Road, Watford. \ The Hollies, St. Albans.

IDtheii ftsJcmberiS:

Prof. Attfield,M.A.,Ph.D.,F.R.S. Augustus Hawks.

A. P. Blathwayt. George Roofer, F.Z.S.

1'eucival Bosanquet. F. W. Silvester.

Arthur M. Brown, M.A. Arthur Strauling, C.M.Z.S.

A. Eteson, M.D. 1 J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Uffield Green, F.G.S. Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Arch.ilology.— R. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., Fanhams Hall, Ware.

^Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
Aves. — Henry Lewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradlin<r, C.M.Z.S., Watford.
Coleoptera. — Arthur Cottani, F.R.A.S., Eldercroft, Watford.
Lepidoptera. — J. Hartley Durrant, F.E.S., Mertou Hall, 'I'hetford.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdou.
MoLLUscA. — John Hopkiiison, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
"RoTiFERA and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
/•I'hanerogamia and Filices. — Aliss Selby, Battler's Green.
Musci. Hepatic^, Charace,i3, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,
p ) F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.

i-OTAM. -, Fujjgi _;vi_ Q Cooke, LL.D., 146. Junction Road, London, X.
Desmide.'e and Diatomace.-e. — Francis Ransom, Hitcbiu.
-Diseases of Plants.— A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Bcrkhamsted.

Zoology.

Bankei|s:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

^^; ^^

FEBRUARY] Price Is. [1893.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AKD

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 3.

CONTENTS : TAUK

6. MeteoroIo!?ical Observations taken at The Graua-e, St. Albans, dnrius' the vear

1891. "By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,"F.Il.Met.Soc., Tresideut ..'. (J9

7. A Naturalist's Calendar for Mid-IIei-tfordshire. B)' J. J. "Willis 7(i

8. Report on rhenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire during the vear

1891. By Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc., F.R.H.S " 8^3

9. Coal : its Xature, Origin, Position, and Extent ; and its Eansre under the South

of England. By Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S." Plates I. and II. 89

LONDOX :
GURXEY & JACKSOX, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PUINTERS, FORE STREET.

1893.

HERTFOEDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Pre-historic Archfeology of the County of Hertford.

2. The publication of the results of such investigation made by its Members.

3. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on Natural History,
Microscopy, and Photography. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discom-ngement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the "Watford Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which are
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of which is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the "Watford Public Library at
least once a month during the "Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
lield occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, Ware, and other places. Field
meetings are held dm-ing the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10*.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Library, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, AV. K. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Eoad, "W^atford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John "Weall, 38, High Street,
"\Yaitord.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant Secretary, H.J. "Wardale, 3, Adela Terrace,
"Watford. They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISON, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Eose Hill, Hoddesdon.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10*. M.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. Qd.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price 10s. M.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. &d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. &d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Qd. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price lis. 6rf.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. &d. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

A'oL. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. Parts 1-3. Price Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By n. GEORGE FORDIIAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, -with Coloured Map. Price Is.

"Water and "Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. 6<f. Supplement (8 pp.) Zd.

LONDON:

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row,

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

O O TJ IN" G I Hj.

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

1i^ice-3?i|esiclents:

Alfred T. Brett, M.D.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Clauendon.

R. B. Croft, E.N., F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John Weall, Watford.
J^onotjaiiy ^ecrietaijies:

John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S. , Victoria Street, St. Albans.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc., Hose Hill, Hocldesdon.

Libt|ai|ian: ^uj|atoi|:

W. R. Carter, B.A., I A. E. Gibes, F.L.S.,

JBushey Hall Road, Watford. | The Hollies, St. Albans.

Prof. Attfiei:d,M. A.,Ph.D., F.R.S
A. P. Blathwayt.

PeKCIVAL BoSANaUET.

Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
A. Eteson, M.D

®thet| ft^embei|s:

Augustus Hawks.
George Roofer, F.Z.S.
F. W. Silvester.
Arthur Stradltng, C.M.Z.S.
J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

XlrFiELD Green, F.G.S. Rev. E. T. Yauohan, M.A.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology. — R. B. Croft, R.N., F.L.S., Fauhams Hall, Ware.

^Mammalia. — T. Vaiighau Roberts, Verulara House, Watford.
AvES. — Henry I.ewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradlinsj, C.M.Z.S., Watford.
y J Coleoptera. — Arthur Cottam, F.R.A.S., Eldercroft, Watford.

zoology, i Lepidoptera.-J. Hartley Durrant, FES., Merton Hall, Thetford.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca.— John Hopkiiison, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
^Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
/'Phanerogamia and FiLiCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
I Musci, Hepatic^, Charace.t^. and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,
p J F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.

Jjotany. < Fungi.— l\r. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146, Junction Road, London, N.
I Desmide.e and D1.A.T0MACEE. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
V.D1SEASES of Plants.— a. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

IKanher^s :
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

XJ <^.7

APRIL] Price Is. [1893.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERTFOEDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 4.

CONTENTS : PACK

10. Anniversary Address — Charles Darwin. By the President, John

Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc 101

LONDOX :
GUEXEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PUINTERS, FORE STREET

1893.

Ulf

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Eotany, Zoology, and Pre-historic ArchiBology of the County of Hertford.

2. The publication of the results of such investigation made by its Members.

3. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on jSatural History,
Microscopy, and Photography. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discoiu:agement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the Watford Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which are
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of Avhich is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Public Library at
least once a month dui'ing the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, Ware, and other places. Field
meetings are held during the Spring and Summer iu various parts of the County.

Membei'S pay an Entrance Fee of 10«., and an Annual Subscription of lOs.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Library, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, W. R. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Road, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant Secretary, H. J. Wardale, 3, Adela Ten-ace,
Watford. They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISON, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HEETFORD SHIRE.

By the late A. 11. rilYOll, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL BISTORT, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii cind 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10s. 6<f.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. &d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price 10s. M.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price Us.

In Parts : — l, 2, 3, and 5, Is. &d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Qd. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price lis. 6</.

In Parts :— 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. Parts 1-3. Price Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDIIAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

"Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S. , etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. 6rf. Supplement (8 pp.) Zd.

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

I'ljesidentt

ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., C.M.Z.S.

"^ice-Jpijesideuts :

Prof. John Attfieid, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

The Right Hon. the £arl of Clakendon.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B , D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John "Weall, Watford.

J^onoiiaiiy ^eci|eta»|ie8 :

John Mokison, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albans.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S. , F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Rose Sill, Soddesdon.

3^ibi|ar;ian :

W. R. Carter, B.A.,

Bushey Sail Road, Watford.

^uiiatoij:

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S.,

The Sollies, St. Albans,

A. P. Blathwayt.
Alfred T. Brett, M.D.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A
R. B. Croft, R.N.
Upfield Green, F.G.S.
Augustus Hawks.

Daniel Hill.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

Percy Jenner "NYeir.

Zoology.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology. — R. B. Croft, R.N., Fanhams Hall, Ware.

/'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.
AvES. — Heury Lewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradling, C.M.Z.S., Watford.
Lepidoptera. — J. Hartley Durrant, F.E.S., Merton Hall, Thetford.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hodde.sdon.
Mollusca. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
P'hanerogamia and FiLiCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
Musci. Hepatic^, Characee, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,

F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.
Fungi. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146. Junction Road, London, N.
Desmidee and DiATOMACEiE. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
^Diseases of Plants. — A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

Banheifs:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

^^^ V

JULY.] Price Is. [1893.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HERITOEDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB.

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 5.

CONTENTS : PAGE

11. Notes ou the Mycetozoa, with a List of Species from Hertfordshire and

Bedfordshire. By .James Saunders 137

12. Ice and its Work. By John M orison, M.D., F.G.S 147

13. Climatologieal Observati(ms taken in Hertfordshire in the year 1891. Bv

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Plate III '.. lo7

1-t. Notes on Birds observed in Hei-tfordshire during the year 1892. By Henry

Lewis 161

lo:n^dox :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTEUS, FORE STREET.

1893.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Pre-historic Archeology of the County of Hertford.
2. The publication of the results of such investigation made by its Members.
.'■>. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on Natural History,
Microscopy, and Photography. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
IXatural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the Watford Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which are
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of which is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the Coimty, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, Ware, and other places. Field
meetings are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of lOs., and an Annual Subscription of IDs.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, W. 11. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Road, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Watford.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISOX, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Rose Hill, Hoddesdou.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. PllYOE, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

Willi an lutroduction ou the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY

By JOHN HOBKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14.9.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10s. Gd.

In Parts:— 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. Qd.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price IDs. dd.

In Parts:— 1, •_>, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6/. each ; 3, 7, and S, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. Qd. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. 11. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. 6(('.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Q>d. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. III. 18S4-86. (358 pages). Price lis. 6^.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Qd. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. eacli.

Vol. VII. Parts 1-5. Price Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By II. GEORGE FORDIIAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Colom-ed Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN IIOPKINSOX, F.L.S. , F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. Qd. Supplement (8 pp.) '6d.

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Successor.s to VAN VOORST, Pateii.nosteu Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

J[ERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

O O TJ InT O I L.

3?i|e$ident:
ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., C.M.Z.S.

Prof. John Attfieid, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Clauendon.

Sir .John Evans, K.C.B , D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D , Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

John Uopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John Weall, IFatfnrd.
Jilonoijaiiy ^ect|etai|ie8:

John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albans.
F. IMaule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Rose Hill, Hoddcsdon.

W. R. Carter, B.A.,

Busheij Hall Road, Watford.

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S. ,

The Hollies, St. Albans.

i^theii Pt^embeijs:

A. P. Bl.^thwayt.
Alfred T. Brett, M.D.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
R. B. Croft, R.N.
Upfield Green, F.G.S.
Augustus Hawks.

Daniel Hill.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Rooper, F.Z.S.

J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

Percy Jenner Weir.

Zoology'.

Botany'.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Arch^eology. — R. B. Croft, R.N., Fiinhams Hall, Ware.

'Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roberts, Verulam House, Watford.

Ayes. — Heiiry Lewis, St. Albaus.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradlius:, C.M.Z.S., Watford.

Lepidoptera. — A. E. Gibbs, F.Ii.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.

Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

Mollusca. — John Hopkiiison, F.L.S , The Grange, St. Albans.

RoTiFERA and Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
''Phanerogamia and Filices. — Mi.ss Selby, Battler's Green.

Musci, Hepatic.^;, Charace-T;:, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,
F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.

Fungi. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146, Junction Road, London, N.

Desmide.e and Dlatomace-te. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.

-Diseases of Plants.— A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc., Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

BanlHei|s:

LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

SEPTEMBER.] Price Is. [1893.

TllANSACTJONS

OF TUK

HEETFOEDSHIRK

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLUB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSOiY, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 6.

CONTENTS : PAo E

lo. Xotes on some Hertfordsliire Mammalia. By T. Vaw<;han Roberts 169

16. ]Meteorolooical Observations taken at The Graufje, St. Albans, durinn^ the

year 1892. Ey John Ilopkiusou, F.L.S., F.G.S. , F.E.Met.Soe. ' 17o

17. Report on Pheuolot;ieal Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire duriui"- the

year 1892. ByEdward Mawley, F.R.Met Soc, F.R.H.S ^ 182

IS. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S. 1.87
19. Climatological Observations taken iu Hertfordshire in the year 1892. JIv
John IIoi)kiuson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc. (To be ooueluded in
]'art 7.) 199

LONDON :
GURXEY & .JACKSON, Successors to VAX VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW

HERTFORD :
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, FUINTERS, FORE STREET.

1893.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Pre-historic Archseology of the County of Hertford.

2. The publication of the results of such investigntion made by its Members.

3. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on ]\atural History,
Microscopy, and Photograpliy. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discom-agement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
chai'acteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the AVatfoid Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which are
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of Avhiuh is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first P'lora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the AVatford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, Ware, and other places. Field
meetings are held during the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of lOs., and an Annual Subscription of lO.s.,
for which they may, if preferred, compnund by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librnrian, W. 11. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Eoad, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Cnrator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Waiford.

Forms of proposal for ^[embership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISON, M.D.,F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Rose Hill, Hoddesdou.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

Uy the late A. E. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSOX, Sec.L.S.

With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUiWTY,

By JOHN IIOrKIXSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo , pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price lis.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10«. 6d.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. 6d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price 10s. 6d.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price lis.

In Parts :— 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. 6d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

YoL. II. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. 6d.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Gd. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price lis. 6</.

In Parts : — I, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. lY. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. Parts 1-5. Price Is. eacli.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By II. GEORGE FORDIIAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water-Supply.

By JOHX HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.

36 pages, -with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. 6d. Supplement (8 pp.) 3d.

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

G o xj :sr o 1 1...

Ifijesident:
ARTHUR STRADLIXG, M.R.C.S., C.M.Z.S.

")^jce-:t?i|esidents :

Prof. John Attfieid, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Clauendon.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B , D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D , Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John "Weall, Watford.
^jjonoiiaiiy ^ecretatjies:

John Mouison, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albaus.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

Libr|ai|ian: (|!u»|atoi:[:

W. R. Carter, B.A.,

Bushey Hall Road, Watford.

A. E. Gibes, F.L.S. ,

The Hollies, St. Albans,

®thei| ft!}cmbei|s:

A. P. Blathwayt.
Alfred T. Brett, M.D.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
R. B. Croft, R.N.
Upfield Gkeen, F.G.S.
Augustus Hawks.

Daniel Hill.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Rooper. F.Z.S.

J. Thoknhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

Percy Jenner Weir.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology.— R. B. Croft, R.N., Fanhams Hall, Ware.

r Mammalia. — T. Yaugliau Roberts, A''erulam House, Watford.
AvES. — Henry I-ewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Artbiir Stradlina:, C.M.Z.S.. Watford.
Zoology. J Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.
Arachnida.— F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
Mollusca.— Jolin Hopkiiisoii, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Rotifera and Protozoa. — F W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
'^I'hanerogamia and Filices. — ^liss Selby, Battler's Green.
Musci. Hep.^ticje, Charace.*:. and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,

F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.
Fungi. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D , 146. Junction Road, London, N.
Desmide-e and Diatomace.t];. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
^Diseases of Plants. —A. T. Brett, M.D , Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

Banher^s:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

A^<ZyC . /

NOVEMBER] Price Is. [1893.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

HEETFORDSHIEE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD OLUB

EDITED BY JOHN EOPKINSON, F.Z.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 7.

CONTENTS : PAGE

19. Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the year 1892. By

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. (Continued from
Parte.) 201

20. Report on the Eainfall in Hertfordshire in 1892. By John Hopkinson,.

F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc '. 203

21. Observations of Temperature and Eainfall taken at Throcking Eectory,

Buntingford, 1880-89. By the Rev. C. W. Harvey, M.A 213

22. The Climate of Watford, deduced from Meteorological Observations taken

during the ten years 1877-86. By John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.Met.Soc 219

23. A List of Hertfordshire Hepaticoc. By A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S 233

LOI^DON :
GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD :

STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET

1893.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Pre-historic Archaeology of the County of Hertford.

2. The publication of the results of such investigation made by its Members.

3. The dissemination amongst its Members of information on Natural History,
Microscopy, and Photography. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Society are at the Watford Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which are
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of which is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10s.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, W. E. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Road, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Watford.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of tlie Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISON, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., etc., Eose HiU, Hoddesdon.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCTETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. I'llYOE, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

With an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOBKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post Svo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14s.

Transactions of tlie Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages). Price 10«. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. Qd.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price IDs. 6d.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6rf. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, is. &d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. 6^.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, is. Qd. each ; 5, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price lis. M.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. 6^. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. Parts 1-7. Price Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. Qd. Supplement (8 pp.) Zd.

LONDON:

GURNET & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Row

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

IIKRTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

ooxjisroiL.

ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., C.M.Z.S.

Prof. John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

The Right Hon. the Earl of Clarendon.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

William Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

John Weall, Watford.

IJonoijaiiy ^ecjjetarjies:

John Mouison, M.D., F.G.S. , Victoria Street, St. Albans.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Bose Hill, Eoddesdon.

;i^ibi:(ai|ian j

W. R. Carter, B.A.,

Bushey Hall Road, Watford.

^unatoti :

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Hill Street, St. Albans.

lDthei| ^^embeijs:

A. P. Blathwayt.
Alfred T. Brett, M.D.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
R. B. Croft, R.N.
IJpFiELD Green, F.G.S.
Augustus Hawks.

Daniel Hill.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Roofer, F.Z.S.

J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

Percy Jenner Weir.

Zoology.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology. — R. B. Croft, R.N., Fanhams Hall, Ware.

^Mammalia. — T. Vaughan Roherts, Verulam House, Watford.
AvES. — Henry Lewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia. — Arthur Stradlino:, C.M.Z.S.. Watford.
- Lepidoptera. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
MoLLuscA. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Rotifera AND Protozoa. — F. W. Phillips, Manor House, Hitehin.
'Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.
Musci, Hepaticje, Charace.ii:, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,

F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans.
Fungi. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146. Junction Road, London, N.
Desmidee and Diatomace.'e.— Francis Ransom, Hitehin.
^Diseases of Plants. — A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
-John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology. — John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

Geology.

Banbe»is:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

AJ e^c-. /

FEBRUARY.] Price Is 6d. [1894.

TliANSACTIONS

OF TTIH

HERTFOEDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND

FIELD CLXJB

EDITED BY JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 8.

CONTENTS : PACK

Proceedings, Session 1891-2 ix

Eeport of the Council for the j-ear 1891 siii

Balance Sheet for the year 1891 xv

Additions to the Library in 1891 xvi

Reports of the Field ^Meetiuffs in 1891. (Illustrated) xx

rrocecdinns, Session 1892-93 xxxii

ifan and Ape. By Artlnu- Stradliuj^, F.Z.S xxxiv

Report of the Council for the year 1892 xxxviii

Balance Sheet for the year 1892 xli

Additions to the Library in 1892 xlii

Reports of the Field Meetings in 1892. (Illustrated) xlv

LOXDOX :
GURNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAX YOOEST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

HERTFORD:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PUINTERS, FORE STREET.

1894.

HEETFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Eotany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norinan Archiieology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the Coimty (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discouragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of -which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

The head-quarters of the Societj' are at the Watford Endowed Schools. Here
the Society has a Library of over 1200 volumes of Scientific Works, which arc
lent free to Members ; and also a Museum, the chief feature of which is the
Herbarium of the authors of the first Flora of the County, Messrs. Coleman
and Webb.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a month during the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held dming the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10s.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, W. E. Carter, B.A., Bushey Hall Eoad, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., The Hollies, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, Mr. Bennett, Watford Endowed Schools.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries

JOHN MORISON, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.

F. M. CAMBBELL, F.L.S., etc.. Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

rUBLICATIONS OF TKE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. R. TRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, See.L.S.

With au Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HORKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14*.

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society

Vol. I. 187.5-78. (328 pages). Price 10s. Qd.

In Parts: — 1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. <c>d.

YoL. II. 1878-80. (336 pages). Price 10s. Qd.

In Parts: — 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. Q>d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society

YoL. I. 1880-82. (352 pages). Price Us.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. Gd. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. II. 1882-84. (366 pages). Price lis. M.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. Gd. each ; o, 7, 8, and 9, is. each.

YoL. III. 1884-86. (358 pages). Price Us. 6rf.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. Gd. each; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

YoL. lY. 1886-88. (29G pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. V. 1888-90. (288 pages). Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

YoL. YII. Parts 1-7. Price Is. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, Avith Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water-Supply.

By JOHN nOPKINSON, F.L.8., F.G.S., etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. Gd. Supplement (8 pp.) M.

LONDON :

GURNET & JACKSON, Svccessoks to YAN YOORST, Paternoster Row.

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

O O TJ 3sr O I L.

ARTHUR STKADLING, M.E.C.S., F.Z.S.

"i^ice-ltfiicsi dents;

Pkof. John Attfieid, M.A., Ph.D., F.E.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.

The Right Hox. the Earl of Clarendon.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B , B.C.L., LL.U., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., V.P.S.A.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.R.Met.Soc.

WiLLTAM Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

C. E. Shelly, M.A., M.D.

^iieasuijen:

John Weall, IFatford.

JiJonoijaiiy ^ect|ctaiii88 :

John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., Victoria Street, St. Albms.
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.

Libi|a»|ian j

W. R. Carter, B.A.,

Bushey Hall Road, Watford.

A. E. GiBBS, F.L.S. , F.E.S.,

Avenue House,, St. Albans,

l?)the»i ft^lembeiis;

A. P. Blathwayt.
Alfred T. Brett, M.D.
Arthur M. Brown, M.A.
R. B. Croft, R.N.
Upfield Green, F.G.S.
Augustus Hawks.

Daniel Hill.

T. Vaughan Roberts.

George Rooper, F.Z.S.

J. Thornhill, F.L.S.

Rev. E. T. Vaughan, M.A.

Percy Jenner Weir.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Arch.«:ology.— R. B. Croft, R.N., Fanbams Hall, "Ware.

'Mammalia. — T. Vaughau Roberts, Verulam House, "Watford.
Aves. — Henry Lewis, St. Albaiis.

Reptilia AND Amphibia.— Artbur Stradlino:, F.Z.S., Watford.
Zoology. \ Lepidoptera. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Tbe Hollies, St. Albans.
Arachnida.— F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
MoLLuscA.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
RoTiFERA and Protozoa.— F. "W. PhiUips, Manor House, Hitchin.
TPhanerogamia and FiLiCES. — Miss Selby, Battler's Green.

Musci. Hepatic.i3, Charace.I':, and Lichenes. — A. E. Gibbs,
I F.L.S., The HuUies, St. Albans.
Fungi. — M. C. Cooke, LL.D., 146, Junction Road, London, N.
r)EsMiDE.i<; AND DiATOMACE.Ti. — Fraucis Ransom, Hitchin.
-Diseases of Plants.— A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
Geology. — John Morison, M.D., F.G.S. , St. Albans.

Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S,, The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany'.

Banheijs:

LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, WATFORD.

APRIL.] Price Is. 6d. [1894.

TRANSACTIONS

OF TUE

HERTFOEDSHIRE

NATURAL HISTOPtY SOCIETY

AXD

FIELD CLXJB.

EDITED BY JOHN EOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S.

VOL. VII. PART 9.

CONTENTS :

Oak Tree on Hedges Farm, near St. Albans, struck by Ligbtniug,

29tli June, 1893 Frontispiece

PACK

Title Page, Table of Contents, etc i

Index 237

List of Members i

Topographical Index to the Members 13

(Kules, revised 23rd January, 1894. Issued to Members only.)

LONDON :
GUKNEY & JACKSON, Successors to VAN VOOEST, PATEENOSTEE EOW.

HEETFOED:
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, FORE STREET.

1894.

1^/r

HERTFOEDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND FIELD CLUB.

The objects of the Society are: — 1. The investigation of the Meteorology,
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology, Pre-Norman Archaeology, and Topography
of the County of Hertford. 2. The publication of the results of such investi-
gation made by its Members. 3. The dissemination amongst its Members of
information on Physics and Biology. 4. The formation of a Library of works on
Natural History, and of a Museum illustrative of the Geology, Botany, and
Zoology of the County (the Vertebrata excepted). 5. The discoiiragement of
the practice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are
characteristic, and of exterminating rare birds, fish, and other animals.

Evening meetings of the Society are held at the Watford Endowed Schools at
least once a mouth duriag the Winter and Spring. Evening meetings are also
held occasionally at St. Albans, Hertford, and other places. Field meetings
are held dm'ing the Spring and Summer in various parts of the County.

Members pay an Entrance Fee of 10s., and an Annual Subscription of 10*.,
for which they may, if preferred, compound by a payment of £5. Ladies are
eligible for election.

Donations to the Society, and letters relating thereto, should be addressed
to the Librarian, W. R. Carter, B.A., Endowed Schools, Watford; and to the
Museum, to the Curator, A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans. Sub-
scriptions, etc., are payable to the Treasurer, John Weall, 38, High Street,
Watford.

Members may obtain any of the publications of the Society, postage free, by
remitting the price to the Assistant, Mr. Bennett, Endowed Schools, Watford.
They may also be obtained through any bookseller.

Forms of proposal for Membership, and any further information, may be
obtained on application to either of the Honorary Secretaries —

JOHN HOPKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., etc.. The Grange, St. Albans.
F. M. CAMPBELL, F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc., Eose HUl, Hoddesdon.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

A FLORA OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

By the late A. E. PRYOR, B.A., F.L.S.

Edited by B. DAYDON JACKSON, Sec.L.S.

"Witli an Introduction on the

GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, BOTANICAL HISTORY, etc., of the COUNTY,

By JOHN HOrKINSON, F.L.S., F.G.S., and the EDITOR.

Post 8vo., pp. Iviii and 588, with three Maps. Price 14».

Transactions of the Watford Natural History Society.

Vol. I. 1875-78. (328 pages.) Price 10s. 6d.

In Parts: -1-6, and 8-10, Is. each; 7, Is. 6d.

Vol. II. 1878-80. (336 pages.) Price Ivs. 6d.

In Parts: — I, 2, 4, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each ; 3, 7, and 8, Is. each.

Transactions ot tlie Hertford^ iiire Nal^xal History Society.

Vol. I. 1880-82. (352 pages.) Price lis.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, and 5, Is. 6d. each ; 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. II. 1882-84. (366 pages.) Price lis. 6d.

In Parts: — 1-4, and 6, Is. 6d. each; 5, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. III. 1884-86. (358 pages.) Price lis. 6d.

In Parts : — 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, Is. 6d. each ; 4, 7, 8, and 9, Is. each.

Vol. IV. 1886-88. (296 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. V. 1888-90. (288 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VI. 1890-92. (290 pages.) Price 9s. In 9 Parts, Is. each.

Vol. VII. 1892-94. (312 pages.) Price 10s.

In Parts: — 1-7, Is. each; 8 and 9, Is. 6d. each.

The Meteorite of the 20th of November, 1887.

By H. GEORGE FORDHAM, F.G.S.
32 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Water and Water- Supply.

By JOHN HOPKIXSON, F.L.S., F.G.S. , etc.
36 pages, with Coloured Map. Price Is.

Catalogue of the Library.

60 pages (with Supplement). Price Is. 6d. Sui)plement (8 pp.) 3d.

LONDON :

GURNEY & JACKSON, Successoks to VAN VOORST, Paternoster Ro\\ .

HERTFORD : STEPHEN AUSTIN & SONS.

HERTFORDSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

o o TJ nsr o I !_..

!tfi|esident:
ARTHUR STRADLING, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

"l^ice-^fiiesidents:

Prof. John Attfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.I.C.
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas. R.S., Y.P.S.A.

Upfield Green, F.G.S.
John Morison, M.D., D.P.H., F.G.S.

John Weall, Watford.

3^onot|ai|y $eci|etai|ie8 :

John Hopkixson, F.L.S , F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc, The Grange, St. Albans
F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S. , F.R.M.S., Rose Eill, Moddesdon.

^ it^ibrjaiiiaii :

AY. R. Carter, B.A.,

Busheij Sail Road, Watford.

^uijatori:

A. E. GiRBS, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

Avenue House,, Ht. Albans.

A. P. Blathwayt.

Alfred T. Brett, M.D.

R. B. Croft, R.N.

Daniel Hill.

Henry Lewis.

AVilliam Ransom, F.S.A., F.L.S.

T. A''aitghan Roberts.
George Rooper, F.Z.S.
Stephen Salter.
F. AA^. Silvester.
Henry AVarner.

Zoology.

RECORDERS.
Pre-historic Archeology.— R. B. Croft, R.N., Fanharas Hall, AYare.

'Mammalia. — T. A^aughan Roberts, Yerulam House, AYatford.
AvES.— Henry Lewis, St. Albans.

Reptilia and Amphibia.— Arthur Stradling, F.Z.S., AYatford.
Lepidoptera.— A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House, St. Albans.
Arachnida. — F. M. Campbell, F.L.S., Rose Hill, Hoddesdon.
AIoLLuscA. — John Hopkiuson, F.L.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Rotifera and Protozoa. — F. AY. Phillips, Manor House, Hitchin.
/^Phanerogamia and Filtces. — Aliss Selby, Battler's Green.

Musci AND Hepaticje. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S., Avenue House,
J St. Albans.

I Fungi. — James Saunders, Luton.

I DESMIDE.E AND DiATOMACEiE. — Francis Ransom, Hitchin.
^DisE.iSES OF Plants. —A. T. Brett, M.D., Watford House.
—John Morison, M.D., F.G.S., St. Albans.
Meteorology.— John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Phenology. — Edward Mawley, F.R.Met.Soc, Rosebank, Berkhamsted.

Botany.

Geology.

itSankeiis:
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK, A\^ATFORD.

3 2044 106 261 076

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